Encyclopaedia Britannica [20, 14 ed.]

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THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

‘FOURTEENTH EDITION

ENCYCLOPAD BRITANNIC FIRST

EDITION

SECOND THIRD

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH

EDITION

1768 1777 1788 1801

FIFTH

EDITION

1815

SIXTH

EDITION

1823

SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH

EDITION EDITION

EDITION

TENTH

EDITION

ELEVENTH TWELFTH

EDITION EDITION

THIRTEENTH

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

EDITION

1830 1853 1875 1902 1910 1922 1926

1929,1932

KOS

a

A

aoe

LEKT

~

7

PAN

S7,

A

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4e

THE ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH EDITION ANEW SURVEY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

A

:

VOLUME 20

SARSAPARILLA TO SORCERY

THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. INC. NEW YORK

COPYRIGHT IN ALL COUNTRIES TO

THE

BERNE

SUBSCRIBING CONVENTION

BY THE

ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

1929, 1930, 1932

BY THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

Note: Pages v, 270, 271, 566, 567, 570, 571, 706 and 707 were missing from the original digital version of this volume. Replacements were inserted from the 1929 edition.

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME XX WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM.

} School and Curriculum (i11

A. A. C.

A. A. CocK,

A.Be.

AtrGtTST!N ll!·.R!\ARD. Professor of Geography .urd uf Coluruutron ol the l'coplcb of Xorth Afrrc..r, .tt the ·Senegal "xlrbonne, Panb. Author of /.'Ard11pd de fa .Vmtr•••lle Ca!Mmr�T ('cowu.;:. D.LITT, F IL\ Lrbr.trr.m, Bodlt·r.w l.ibr.try, ( hlord tUII

Aun.Rr En\\,\RD Ih·\lrllRH:-o, llo'li.LL.D. 1\ll•mhcr of tlu• Rm ,, ( Comrnt,toron on \\ he.Jt "upphc, ,lJld I l. I· H.\ l'rofW nf lVIt•rton ( 'ollcgc l)'l:forrl Auth•>rol Plaf,.,flr• .lfuu•w•lll111Vot/,, 1 ('""''ll f'tll•l•'ll'. etc

I

I clio\\

orr ncrh·

I

I

, (Senes.

1 Socrates J

•

I Servetus, Michael fin ) Socinus (inf}(/rt)

A.Go.

R£\', ,\n XANl>hN. GoRuo\, �1.·\. Ldt(' I ecturcr on l..'hmch lltstor) 111 th(' 1. 1\1\t'r">rty of :\l,lllcht,.,tu

A.H.S.

RE\'. ARCHlHAW liF:\RY �HC'l>, 1) LHr' LL J)' l) n I l'mfp,.,.,. of ,\,..,l'riolo�', ( hfnnl ll!ll\'l'r,rt\, l Sennacherib; J.cllow of IJuccn'!> CollegSis;

Cretan

Smyrna

(in part).

Davin Hannay.

;

D. M. B.

Formerly British Vice Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, Sluys (Slois), Battle of. 1217-10688; Life of Don Emilio Castelar. Dororay M. Broome, M.A., P.D. i :

D. M. S. W.

Davip See

Formerly Jones Fellow in the University of Manchester,

SEARES eo

ees

oe

Seals (im part).

.

ee

Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, London. Author of many Bae on Vertebrate Palaeontology and connected subjects in Proceedings of the Zoological Society and Journal of Anatomy; etc.

D. M. W.

° Skeleton (in part).

SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.LE.

Director of the Foreign Department of The Times, 1891-9.

D. R.-M.

i

Author of Russia.

Davip Ranpatt-Maclver, M.A., D.Sc., F.S.A. Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Mediaeval Rhodesia; ete.

DRacuTin Susoric, Pa.D.

D. Su.

D. WARD CUTLER,

a oe Sicily (in part).

pm

Reader in Serbo-Croatian Language and Literature, University of London,

D. W. C.

a

Shuvalov, Peter Andreivich.

eront Language and

Literature (i part).

M.A.

“1

7s

Head of General Microbiology Department, Rothamsted Experimental Station. {Soil (tm part). CAPTAIN Epwarp ALTHaM, C.B., R.N. Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Services Institution, since 1927. eo te Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expedition, 1918-9. Secretary and Editor of Sea P P;

E. A.

the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution. 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Editor of the Naval section, | Sea

Power;

Ship (i part).

EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D. English Historian, Author of History of the Norman Conguest. See the biographical

Sicily (in part).

article: FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS.

E. A. Jonzs, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.Hist.S.

Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver Ei Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England; Ilustrated Catalogue

of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate.

E. B. B.

E. B. Barney, M.C., B.A. District Geologist, H.M. Geological Survey, Scotland. an the Schasts of the Scottish Highlands; etc.

E. B. O.

Author of Recumbent Folds

E. B. OSBORN.

Literary Editor of The Morning Post, London.

E. C. B.

`

é

Author of The New Elizabethans; at Short Story (in part).

Servit

Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath, 1906-22.

ee

Epmunp Crospy Quicern, M.A. Late Fellow of and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in Celtic at} Scottish Literature (in part): Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. yd

Ed. M.

EpuarD Meyer, D.Lirt.

Professor of Ancient History in the.University of Berlin.

Alterthums, etc.

E. E. K.

Satrap; `

Author of Geschichte des Shapur: o

E. E. KELLETT.

2

A

Editor of The Indian Daily Telegraph, The Rangoon Times.

of The Singapore Free Press.

_ Evowa F. Srreive, M.S.

E. F. Si.

Associate Botanist, Seed” Laboratory,. Bureau of Plant Industry, United Department of Agriculture. 3

E. F. WARNER, B.S.

i

j

t

“i

S L

*

On the staff

pm

Sonnet..,..

*

k

ern India.

>

- eT

Y Smerdis., ‘i

Author of Suggestions, Literary Essays; The A bpreciation of Literature. , à Pia Epwarp E. Lone, C.B.E. R A Formerly Director of Eastern Propaganda. Officer in Charge, Eastern Section, News| Department, Foreign Office, 1918-21, The Times, London, Correspondent in North-

E. E. L.

t

teu

Dy

‘

31

f SF

ww

ak

Semarang (Residency); >Semarang (Town); 0

l

Solar and Alor Islands.

:

States}Seed Testing (in part),

EE

| |Shooting (in part). Publisher, Field and Stream, New York, | , ' ee E. Grapys CLARKE: sà Oe Ae | 20 soot“Esot $4 yy Principal of the National Training School of Cookery and other branches of domestic +Sauce. training.

E. G, C.

-E HL, CARTER, M.A. `

E. H. Ca. ven, I

-Scotland (in part).

Rr. Rev. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, 0.8.B., D.Lirt.

E. C. Q.

E. H. P,

Goldsmiths’ Work (in

part).

Scholar of Education,

Fas

E. H. POWELL.

Jesus College, Cambridge, and Chief Examiner in History, Board of School and Curriculum (in London. part).

Of Seats, Roebuck and Company, Chicago.

Sears, Roebuck and

} Company

\ 4

INITIALS E. J. F.

E. J. K. E. J. McN.

E. J. R.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

E. J. ForspyKE, M.A., F.S.A.

Deputy Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. Sometime Editor of the Journal of Hellenic Studies. Student of the British School of Archaeology at Athens and Secretary of the British School at Rome.

1X

i

‘the? part}.

eS

t)

a (in

Ey Jacques Kann, A.B., B.ARCEH. Architect. Vice President, Architectural League of New York. Designer of numerous

, , -Shop Front Design (in part).

office buildings. E. J. McNamara, M.A., LL.D. Principal, High School of Commerce, New York. Author of Methods of Teaching

Shorthand.

Shorthand; Secretarial Training; Rational Dictation.

Sir EpwarbD JouNn RusseEtt, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Director of Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire. Author of The Fertility of the Soil; Soil Conditions and Plant Growth; Farm Soil and its Improvement; Plant Nutrition and Crop Production; etc.

(goil (in part)

:

E. K. C.

SIR EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS, K.B.E., C.B., E.B.A., Hoxn.D.LırrT. SY . Formerly Second Secretary, Board of Education. Author of The Mediaeval Stage; |Shakespeare, William (in Shakespeare: A Survey. Editor of The Red Letter Shakespeare; Donne’s Poems;( part).

E. L.

P. R. Etsa Lewxowrrscy, Pu.D., B.Sc.Hons., A.R.C.S.

E. McC.

EDWARD caer ee

Vaughan’s Poems; etc.

.

} Soap (in port).

:

E. N.

Member of National Sculpture Society, National Academy of Design, National Institute of Arts and Letters. Director, Department of Sculpture, Beaux-Arts ‚Institute of Design, New York, E. NORMAND.

E. Pa.

ERIc PARKER.

E. P. Cu.

ELLwoop P, CUBBERLEY,

E. R. B.

Bow

Trade Department, Società Anonima “Ansaldo.” Shooting Editor of The Field since 1911.

. Sculpture (in pari). .

‘

?Società Anonima

| Shooting (im part).

P CAUER

Author of History of Education; Public School Administration. on.

Fellow of

OB PiKo

New

College,

Oxford.

PaT, eo Lecturer on

Hellenistic

i

History and Literature

at King’s College, London. Author of Later Greek Religion; A History of Egypt under

dae

eeu

Pu.D., LL.D.

Dean of School of Education, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Palo Alto, cast.Sena Poseer P

“Ansaldo. 3

3

:

Author of Elements of Shooting; etc.

«

m

ORES,

.

.

Seleucid Dynasty (én part).

the Ptolemaic Dynasty, etc.

E. Ro.

E. S. R.

E. V. S.

Shechem; Shiloh;

EDWARD ROBERTSON, M.A. Professor of Semitic Languages, University College of North Wales.

Sidon;

Sodom and Gomorrah.

EDWARD STANLEY ROSCOE.

Barrister-at-Law. Official Law Reporter in Admiralty Court, 1883. Admiralty Sea Laws (in part). Registrar, 1904. Assessor to North Sea enquiry, 1905. Author of Admiralty Law and Practice; The Measure of Damages in Actions of Martiime Collision; etc. 5 E. V. SHEPARD, S.B. Skat (in part). r President, Shepard’s Studio, Inc., New York.

E. W. G. M.

E. W. G. MASTERMAN.

E. Y.

ErneEST Young, B.Sc., F.R.G.S. Assistant Secretary for Higher Education, Middlesex Education Committee.

}Sepulchr e, The Holy.

Hon. Secretary, Palestine Exploration Fund, London. meriy Inspector of Anglo-Vernacular Siam; A Peep at Siam.

Schools, Siam.

For- Siam (in pari). Author of From Russia to

F. A. B.

FRANCIS ARTHUR BATHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

F. A. E.C.

} F. A. E. Crew, M.D., Pa.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Professor of Animal. Genetics and Director of the Animal Breeding Research De- Selection (in part);

Keeper of Geology, British Museum, 1924-8. Rolleston Prizeman for research in \ooo trchin s biology, Oxford, 1892. Author of “Echinoderma” in Lankester’s Treatise on Zoology; Friassic Echinoderms of Bakony; etc.

partment, University of Edinburgh.

Co-editor of the British Journal of Experi-

F. A. L. E. Bra.

i

ee

i

mental Biology.

Solid State, Theory of.

FREDERICK ALEXANDER LINDEMANN, PH.D., F.R.S. i Professor of Experimental Philosophy, Oxford, and Felfow of Wadham Çollege.

FREDERICK BRADBURY, F.S.A.

Freeman of the Company of Cutlers in Sheffield. Author of History of Old Sheffield Plate; Antique Silver made in Sheffield; etc.

F. C. Bo.

FRANK C. BOWEN.

>,

Editor of Merchant Ships of the World.

Author of The Golden Age of Sail; The Sea:

its History and Romance.

F. E. M.

F. G. M. B. F. G. P.

(P, E. Matrmews, PH.D., F

J.C.

t

l

Sex (in part).

l

“

Sheffield Plate.

| (im part); Shipping Lines and Groups (in part); "3 Shipping Routes.

:

Formerly Professor of Chemistry at the Royal India Engineering College, Cooper’s | gives, Hill. Consultant Garden, London.

to Messrs.

Johnson

and Matthey

Freprrick Grorce Mrzson Beck, M.A.

Research

Chemists,

e

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

FREDERICK GyMER Parsons, F-R.C.S., F.S.A.

‘

f

ee

e

Hatton '

a

;Saxons. Scalp; %

Professor of Anatomy, University of London. President, Anatomical: Society of Skeleton (in part); Great Britain and*Ireland.. ‘Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas's Hospital. and Skin and Exoskel etene the London School of, Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Sk Pinan | j Royal College of Surgeons. r

TnI

5

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

F. H.

FRED HORNER.

F. H. Br.

neering; Machinery, FRANK HERBERT Brown, C.LE. , Member of the staff of The Times (London) for Indian and Eastern Affairs. London carrespondent of Fhe Times of India. Formerly Editor of The Indian Daily Telegraph.

F.I. C.

FRANK IRVING COOPER.

F. J. M.

F. J. MILLER.

F. J. N.

FREDERICK J. NORTH.

F. K. B.

F. K. Brown, A.B.

F. L. D.

FreD L. DENDY, A.B.

F. L. L.

F. LL. G.

Consulting Engineer.

f

.

i ee Sastri, V. S. Srinivasa. ,

municipal planning, schoalhouses; ete.

, Scientifi c Management Author of American and European Machinery Abroad. Formerly President, American} bad) Society Mechanical Engineers, Editor, American Machinist. : l

Ski (in part); Snow Shoes (in part).

Author of Through the Mill; Through the School; The Playtime Guide Book; etc. i

i (în

}Slate.

Keeper of the Department of Geology, National Museum of Wales, Cardiff.

f

Editorial Staff, New York, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Formerly Professor of Public Speaking and Director of Dramatics at Davidson College, Davidson, North Carolina.

Schools of Art (in part). em Lp

Lapy Lucarp, D.B.E,

Late Head of Colonial Department of The Times, London; has undertaken special commissions for The Temes to South Africa, Australia and Canada. Author of A Tropical Dependency,

FRANcris LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., Pa.D., F.S.A., F.B.A.

Professor of, and Reader in, Egyptology, Oxford University.

F. M. STENTON.

F. N. M.

COLONEL FREDERIC NatuscH Mavuopg, C.B.

Sokoto (in pari). A

Scarab (in part).

Editor of the Archae-

F. L. Pattee, M.A., Lrev.D. Professor of American Literature, Rollins College, Winter Park, Fla.

F. M. 5.

w ——

Author of }Short Story (in part).

,

Professor of History, University of Reading. Editor of the History (Mediaeval) section, I4th Edition, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

pSeljtiks (in part).

,

Author of Cavalry, its Past and Future; Evolution af Sirategy (Translated into German); |Sedan (in part); ae pe the World's Life; Campaign of Leipzig; of Jena; of Ulm; and many other { Seven Years’ War (in part).

technical

essays.

F. R.C,

FRANK RICHARDSON Cana, F.R.G:S.

E. R.T.

REV. FREDERICK RoBERT TENNANT, D.D., B.Sc.

F. S. B.

Concept of Sin; Sources of the Doctrine of the Fall and Original Sin; ete. F. S. Boas, M.A., Hon. LL.D.

a ee ; (in part);

Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-5. Staff of Thé Times, London, since 1916. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; The Great War in Europe; the Peace Settlement.

Lecturer. į Theology and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

; D Si 1crra Leone; Sokoto (in part);

Somaliland (in pari),

Author of The

‘Sin.

Divisional Inspector of English Language and Literature to the London County Council, Fellow and Professor of the Royal Society of Literature. Vice-President

School and Curriculum (in part).

of the English Assaciation.

SIR TARE Neral

ae

resident of the

F. Wh.

i

,

The Foundation of Euglish Literature.

F. Wa.

Machines;

President, Frank Irving Cooper Corporation, Architects, Boston, Mass. Writer on SchoolArchitecture (in pari).

ological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. F. L. Pa.

(Sawing

Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement; Bnei- Saai Driving.

Silk Association of Great Britain and Ireland,

1910-7.

Chairman |

m.

:

;

of British Silk Research Association, 1920-7. Chairman of Silk Agee Com- f Silk and Sericulture (in part). mittee, Imperial Institute, 1917-27. President of the Textile Institute, 1918-20.

Mary EvEtyn, M.C.A.

}Sausages (én part).

Food and cookery expert and consultant. v F. siePopor

thnologist with

.

.

Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York.

:

Ethnologist in charge of Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian. Institution, Scalping.

G. An.

1910-8. Founder and Ex-president of American Anthropological Association.

G. ANREP, M.A.

|

E

Lecturer on Physiology in the University of Cambridge.

G. A. P. G. A. R. C,

GEORGE A. PFEIFFER.

Professor of Mathematics, Columbia University; New York. GEOFFREY A. R. CALLENDER, M.A., F.S.A. oi

Sleep.

r

Solids, Geometric. *

Secretary to the Society for Nautical Research and Professor at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

G. B. S.

=

s

pSeven Years’ War (i Aart).

GEORGE BERNARD SHAW. Novelist, Dramatist and Writer on social questions. Nobel Prizewinner for Literature |Socialism: Principles and 1925. Authar of Socialism aud Superior Brains; The I ntellagent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism; ete. . S 2

~ Guy Corwin Rosson, M.A, Assistant Keeper in the Department of Zoology, British Museum.

Qutlook.

scallop; Scaphopoda; Slug; Snail.

. Grorcr CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lirt.D., F.RS.L. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

Author of Portrait Mintatures; Life of Richard

Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; ete.

Engravers.

Editor of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and

Smart

John 3

è

INITIALS G. D. H. C.

AND

NAMES

GEORGE Doucias Howarp Corr, M.A. University Reader in Economies, Oxford.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

xi

Author of The World of Labour; Self- -Socialism.

Government in Industry; Guild Socialism Restated; Social Theory; etc.

G. G. Ch.

STORET

ee TEON

M

pon LL.D., F.R.S.E.

ecturer in Geography, University of Edinburgh, 1908-21; Reader, 1921-3. Secretary, Royal Scottish Geographical Society, 1910-25. Author of Handbook of Commercial Geography; etc.

Grorcr Grecory Suirs, M.A., Hon.LL.D. Professor of English Literature at Queen's University, Belfast.

Author of Scottish

lara. sy Sicily (in part).

, , ; Scottish Literature (in part).

Literature; Character and Influence; etc.

REv. GEorRGE HERBERT Box, M.A., Hon.D.D. Rector of Sutton, Beds, Hon. Canon of St. Albans.

Davidson Professor of Old |Scribes;

Testament Studies in the University of London. Professor of Hebrew Testament Exegesis, King’s College, London, 1918-26.

and Old | Shekinah.

GEORGE H., PARKER.

Professor of Zoology and Director of Zoological Laboratory, Harvard University. Author of Biology and Soctal Preblems; The Elementary Nervous System; Smell, Taste and Allied Senses.

G. H. W.

GEORGE H. WARBURTON.

G. Ja.

GEORGE JACK. Architect and woodcarver.

G. Mo.

GAETANO Mosca. Professor of Constitutional Law, University of Rome. GEorGE O’BRIEN, D.Litt., F.R.H1st.S.. M.R.I.A.

G. O'B.

G. O. C. P. G. P. K.

Editor of the Sixth Edition of Oils, Fats and Waxes, by E. Lewkowitsch and chief chemist of the Lewkowitsch Laboratories.

Professor of National Economics of Ireland, University College, Dublin.

GEOFFREY SHAW.

G. T. M.

Author of pShannon.

The Economic History of Ireland; etc. Captain G. O. C. PROBERT, R.A. Sights (in part). Research Department, Woolwich. ` GEORGE Purre Krarr, A.M., PuE.D. Professor of English, Columbia University, New York. Author of Modern Bnglish;-Slang(in part). The Knowledge of English; The English Language in America; etc.

G. Sh.

G. T. F.

Professor of Municipal and Sanitary Engineering, Manchester College of Technology.

Inspector of Music and Training Colleges, Board of Education, London.

Inspector of Schools, London County Council. Formerly Honorary General Secretary of the English Association. Member of the Departmental Committee on English Studies. Member of Cambridge Advisory Committee on Religious Instruction.

H. A. R. H. Br.

Sewer Construction.

School and Curriculum (in mand Aam

part).

School Libraries (in part).

GrorcE TopHaM Forrest, F.R.S.E., F.R.LB.A., F.GS.

Superintending Architect of Metropolitan Buildings and Architect to the London County Council since 1919. County Education Architect for Northumberland, 1905-14, and for Essex, 1914-9. Author of The Consiruciton and Control of Buildings and the Development of Urban Areas in the United States of America; etc.

School Architecture (in part). —nr

GILBERT T. Morcay, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S.

Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science for Scandium; Ireland, and Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Author Selenium. Britannica.

G. W. Ri.

ii |Semitic Languages. fee. Disposal;

GEORGE Sampson, Hon.M.A.

of Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Contributor to Thorpe’s Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. Editor of the Chemistry section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia

G. W. R.

Technique (in

ne ai Sicily (in part).

G. S. Co.

G. Sn.

,

rSoap (in part).

oe part).

G. R. DRIVER. ' Reader in Comparative Semitic Philology, University of Oxford. G. 8. Coreman, D.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., M.R.San.I.

G. R. D.

Smell and Taste.

'

\

Major GEORGE WILLIAM REDWAY. Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg, a Study in War. G. W. Ricnarps, A.M., D.D., Lirt.D., D.TH. President, The Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church in the United States, Lancaster, Pa. Author of Historical and Doctrinal Studies on the Hetdelberg Catechism; Christian Ways of Salvation; etc.

HORACE ARTHUR Ross, I.C.S. District and Sessions Judge, Punjab, 1996-17. Henry Braprey, M.A., Pu.D., F.B.A. Joint Editor of The New English Dictionary (Oxford). Goths; The Making of English; etc.

H. Bru.

HENRY BRUÈRE, P.B.

H. C.

Hucu CuisHoim, M.A.

H. Ch.

H. CHAMBERS, M.B.E.

ed Seven Days’ Battle; Shenandoah Valley (in part). Shakers.

Sikhs. be tes

Author of The Story of the pSlang (in part).

7

First Vice-President and Treasurer, Bowery Savings Bank, New York. Author of Savings Banks (in part). New City Government; Applied Budgeting; etc.

;

Editor of the r1th and 12th Editions of The Encyclopedia Britannica. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London. |

}Sherbrooke, Robert Lowe.

|Seed Trade (in part):

oe

INITIALS

XU

H. CL

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sre Hucu Crrrrorp, G.B.E., G.C.M.G., F.R.GS.

H. C. L.

E

. : inisiry oof ofo Ministry al of JournJournal itor of London. Editor Fisheries, London. 1 re and d Fish of Agricultu inistry eA, Plants Seed Testing (in part). Garden; and Farm the of Weeds Common of Author Fisheries. and A oreoiliure Poisonous to Livestock; Poisonous Plants in the Farm.

H. F. Pr.

HENRY F. PRINGLE, A.B.

H.G. R.

H. G. RICHARDSON, M.A., B.Sc. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. H. G. THORNTON. Head of the Bacteriology Department, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

}Smith, Alfred Emanuel.

Author of Alfred E. Smith; etc.

H. G.T.

Illustrate the History of Greek Philosophy from Thales to Aristotle.

Satin;

Pee a

H, Niszet, F.T.I.

H. N.

Shreitung:

Author of Grammar of Textile Design.

Textile Technologist and Consultant.

H. R. A.

LIEUTENANT COLONEL, Tre Hon. H. R. ATKINSON,

H. Re.

the Small Arms School, Hythe, Kent. Mıss H. REYNARD, M.A. Homework and Social Science Department, King’s College, London. Harry REGINALD Hottanp Hatt, M.A., D.Lirr., F.B.A., F.S.A.

Instructor at the Artillery College, Woolwich.

H. R. H.

Formerly Experimental

Silk Fabrics, Artificial.

Officer at

H. R. Mci.

H. Rob.

HowarD ROBERTSON, F.R.I.B.A.

H. SL W.

C.

Assistant Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries, London. HENRI SPECIAEL. Managing Director, Société Internationale d'Energie Hydroélectrique.

H. W. GRIFFIN.

°

9 ocv

>

`

War Losses of. A rly Ministry of Shippin and Admir-Shi Superintending Clerk, Board of Trade (forme pping; j iii

alty). First General Secretary, National Maritime Board.

I. A. R.

sington. IRMA RICHTER. Artist and writer,

Ig. M.

IGNAZIO MORMINO.

J. A.

Sır Jonn ANDERSON, P.C., G.C.B.

J. À. E.

Siz (James) ALFRED Ewine, K.C.B., LL.D., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.

J.A. V.B. J. B. S. H.

ergie Hydroélectrique.

Lecturer in Architecture, Columbia University. Member of the firm of Helmle and Social Architecture (in pari). Corbett, New York. Architect of Bush Terminal Office Building (New York), Bush Ue—’

H. W. PARKER, B.A.

J. A.S. W.

Smith, John.

Harvey Witey Cornett, F.R.I.B.A., F.A.LA.

H. W. P”

J. A. Mo.

Scarab (in part).

Seals (in part), -2 5 4 S ociété Internationale d’En-

H. S. KINGSFORD, M.A.

House (London); ete,

H. W.G.

Development of.

SocialArchitecture (in Bart).

Partner of Easton and Robertson, Architects, London.

`

Small Arms, The

chool and Curriculum (in part).

Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities in the British Museum. Henry Reap McIztwatine, A.B., Pu.D. Librarian, Virginia State University. Author of Struggle of Protestant Dissenters $ for Religious Toleration in Virginia; etc.

H. S.K.

Sheep Shearing Machines (in part). 2 -Soil “in part).

\ Author of Texts to ~Sophists.

Henry Jackson, O.M., Lrrt.D., F.B.A. Late Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge.

H. Jn.

H.

_. Singapore.

Malay States and] Governor of the Straits Settlements. High Commissioner for the1925-7. Author of Governor of Ceylon, British Agent for Borneo since 1927. am of a Further India and many other works. Joint Author with Sir Frank Swettenh Dictionary of the Malay Language.

South

Assistant in the Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum,

Director of the Banco di Sicilia.

Ken-

Sea Serpent;

Snakes.

Seurat, Georges;

l i

l

à

Permanent Under-Secretary of State, Home Office, since 1922. Secretary to Ministry of Shipping, 1917-9.

Solario, Andrea da. aa

}Sicily, Bank of.

pShipping, Ministry of.

Principal and Vice-Chancellor of Edinburgh University. President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Director of British Naval Education, 1903-16. Hon. Fellow pSiemens, Sir William. of King’s College, Cambridge. Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge, 1890-1903. Author of hermodynamics for Engineers. James A. More. |Sheep (in part). Lecturer in Agriculture and Rural Economy, University of Edinburgh.

James Az: $,.Watson, M.C. _

Sibthorpian Professor of Rural Economy, University of Oxford. Formerly Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy, University of Edinburgh. Co-author of Farm Etwe Stock of Great Britain; A griculture—The Science and Practice of British Farming.

J. A. V. BUTLER, M.Sc.

Lecturer in Chemistry, University of Edinburgh. Joun Burpon SANDERSON HALDANE, M.A. Sir ‘William Dunn Reader in Biochemistry, Cambridge University, since 1922, Head of Genetical Department, John Innes Horticultural Institution, since 1927. Author „of -numerous scientific papers on natural selection; etc., in Journal of Physiology;

Sheep (in part). i

Solutions.

eSelection (7 part).

3

J. C. B.

Journal of Genetics; Proceedings-of the Cambridge Philosophical ‘Society. -.. SQUADRON LEADER J. C. BROOKE, R.A.F. n°

Attached British Naval Mission, Ministry of Marine, Athens.-

"oe

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

Mrs. SHEILA RADICE. Assistant Editor, The Times (London) Educational Supplement, since 1919.

S. Rad.

Author

xv

pSchool and the Home,

of The New Children; The Book of Shapes; Part Author Home and School. ST. JOHN ERVINE. Dramatist, Novelist. Dramatic Critic, The Observer (London) and Literary Critic,}Shaw, George Bernard. The Daily ‘Express.

St. J. E.

Tuomas Asusy, D.Lirr., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hon. A.R.LB.A.

Segesta;

Formerly Director of the British School at Rome. Author of The Roman Campagna | Setia; in Classical Times; Roman Architecture; revised a completed for press a TOpo- Sicily (in part); graphical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late J.B. Plattner). Siena (in part).

T.A.5.

T. A. STEPHENSON, D.Sc.

T. Bu.

TRAVERS BUXTON, M.A.

}Slavery Convention.

T. Ci 1:

THOMAS CHARLES LETHBRIDGE.

pen

}Scyphozoa.

Senior Assistant in the Department of Zoology, University College, London, Hon. Secretary, Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society, London.

Hionorary Excavator, Cambridge Antiquarian Society.

ee

Civilization

(èn part).

REV. THEODORE EVELYN REEcE Puiuires, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.MET.Soc.

T. E. R. P.

Secretary, Royal Astronomical Society, 1919-26, and President, 1927 and 1928. Director of the Jupiter Section of the British Astronomical Association. Rector of Headley. Joint editor of The Splendour of the Heavens. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. Sixtus V, Formerly Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. Gaai

T. F.C. T. F. H.

TALBOT F. HAMLIN, B.A., B.ARCH.

T.G. G. H.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL T. G. G. Heywoop.

Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. Chairman, City Plan Committee of the Merchants’ Association, New York, Author of The Enjoyment of Architecture; The American Spirit in Architecture.

Serbian Campaigns.

General Staff Officer, British Territorial Army, Air Defence Formations.

T. Hs.

TsEMON Hsv.

T.K. R.

Srp Tuomas Kirke Ross, D.Sc., A.R.S.M.

T.L. H.

Sır Tuomas LitrLeE Heat, K.C.B., K.C.V.O., Sc.D., F.R.S.

eae Ga part);

e p)

| Societies of Art (in part). Silver: Metallurgy, Mining

Chemist and Assayer at the Mint, 1902-26. President, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 1915-6. Author of The M etallurgy of Gold; The Precious Metals.

Assistant Secretary to the T reasury, 19077—13. Hon. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of The Thirteen Books of Euclid’s Elements; A History of Greek Mathematics; etc.

T. Rd.

T. REED. Inspector of Handicrafts, Board of Education.

: and Production. Serenus.

School and Curriculum (in part).

ey i

Sır Travers Twiss, Q.C.

English Jurist and Barrister-at-Law. Late Professor of Political Economy and Civil Sea Laws (in part). Law, Oxford University, and of International Law, London University. Author of Í The Nations in Peace; The Law of Nations in War.

Í Shipping: Merchant Ships Se Shipping Board, and President, United States Shipping Mite the oe (in iGro e Groups mes and CE Board Merchant Fleet Corporation, Washington.

VICTOR BRANFORD, M.A.

Chairman of Council (British) Sociological Society. Member of Board of Sociological Studies, University of London. Associate of the Institut Internationale de Sociologie.

V. GorDON CHILDE, B.Litt., F.R.A.I., F.S.A. Professor of Prehistoric Archaeology, Edinburgh.

Sociology.

; oye s Author of The Dawn of Buropeon|Sethi, in part);

a Drae. Civilisation; The Aryans; etc. Mrs. V. M. CAMBRIDGE. President of the Middlesex Ladies’ Athletic Club; Honorary Editor of The British Ski (in pari. Olympic Journal.

V. ZC.

VINCENT ZACHARY Corr, M.A., M.D., M.S., F.R.C.S

W. A. Ben.

WILSON ALWYN BENTLEY.

Faculty of Surgery, St. Mary’ s Hospital Medical al London. fessor, Royal College of Surgeons, 1916, age eh4925 and 1927.

Meteorologist, Photomicrographer. Author of many subjects of snow, rain, dew, frost and clouds.

WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.

Lecky Professor of Modern History, Dublin University.

ab,

gt

W. Da.

W. D. MC. W.E. Ck

relating to the

pSnow.

}

. bridge Modern History; etc. Ww. B. BRIERLEY, D.Sc. `

P Mycology Deana ordshire, . W. C. B. TUNSTALL, M.A.

A Civilian Lecturer, Royal Naval College,

„uW. DALTON,

|

Harpenden, Hert-

“Late ae of: Bridge reget or Brae 5 y W. D. M’Cor Editorial."Sat, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Beane WARREN E. Cox. Art Editor, r4th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica.

PO

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uestion,

The (in part) »

-Soil (in part). 9

reeni Bridge. -

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Contributor to The Cam-

Institute of Plant Paso:

,

Smith College.

President, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. Autuor of Essentials of Poetry; etc.

W. A. P.

wc. B.T.

Shock and Collapse.

' WILLIAM ALLAN NeErmson, PH.D., LL.D., D.LITT.

W. A N.

W. B. B.

monographs

Hunterian Pro-

De,

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(in $ art). lSkat

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}Seven Years’ War (in part)

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Scotland (în part).

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Teshaigie (in

XVIII

AND

INITIALS

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS i

W. ELĮmER EKBILAW, A.M., P.D.

}.

W. Fd.

WALTER ARMITAGE JUSTICE Forp, B.A.

}

W. E.B.

. . Wirrram H. Burnwam, A.B., PH.D., LL.D. SchooBy or and Physical Professor Emeritus of Education and School Hygiene, Clark University, Worcester, |

W. H. H.

Srr Wittram Henry Hapow, C.B.E., Hon.D.Mus., Lrtt.D., F.R.S.L., F.R.C.M. Vice-Chancellor, University of Sheffield. Member of Council, Royal College of Music.

Sierra Nevada Mountains.,

Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

Mass.

:

Author of The Normal Mind; Great Teachers and Mental Health,

Editor of Oxford History of Music; Author of Studies in Modern Music; etc.

Warm

wW. J. B.

Srr Witi1aM Joun Berry, K.C.B.

W.L. W.

Schubert, Franz Peter.

e

.

}

Hopson, A.B., LL.B.

W. Ho.

W. L. F.

.

Song (iu part).

Professor of Singing at the Royal College of Music and University of Reading.

r

Social Service (in part).

Executive Director, "Welfare Council of New York City, New York.

he

Se

pShipbuilding.

Director of Warship Production, Director of Naval Construction, Admiralty. 1917-23. Vice-President of Institution of Naval Architects. WALTER Lynwoop Fremine, A.M., Pa.D. Dean, College of Arts and Sciences, and Professor of History, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn. Author of Reconstruction of the Seceded States; etc. Rev. W. L. Warptre, M.A., D.D. Lecturer in Biblical Criticism and Exegesis of the Old Testament, Manchester University. Principal of Hartley College, Manchester.

; Secession.

aul: Sol : oromon.

W.M.

WILiram MILLER, M.A., F.R.Hisrt.S.

W. M. F.P.

Sır WiriraĮm M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., Lrrt.D., Pu.D., LU.D., F.R.S.

W. M.G.

W. M. Groac, K.C., B.A., LL.D.

}

W. M.R.

WILLAm MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

m elley, Percy Bysshe (in

W. M. Ra,

Hon. LL.D. in the National University of Greece. Hon. Student of the British Archaeological School at Athens. Correspondent of The Morning Post (London) in Athens and Rome. Author of A History of the Greek People, r821-1921; etc.

Skanderbeg.

Sequence Dating.

Edwards Professor of Egyptology, University College, London. Founder of the British School of Archaeology in Egypt. Excavator of Giza, Naucratis, Am and Daphnae. See the biographical article: PETRIE, Sir WILLIAM MATIHEW FLINDERS.

Scots Law.

Professor of Law, University of Glasgow.

English Author and Critic. One of the Founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Author of Lives of Famous Poets and Memoirs of D. G. Ressettt. Sır WILLIAM MITCHELL Ramsay, LL.D., Litt.D., D.D., Hon.D.C.L. Professor of Humanity, Aberdeen University, 1886-1911; of Classical Art, Oxford

University, 1885. Levering Lecturer, Johns Hopkins University, 1894, Rede Lecturer, Cambridge, 1906, Romanes Lecturer, Oxford, 1913.

part)$). Smyrna (in part)

W. O. E. O.

W. O. E. OESTERLEY, M.A., D.D.

W. P.P.

W. P. Pycrart. , Assistant-Keeper in charge of Ostealogical Collections, Museum of Natural History, pSong of Birds.

Professor, Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, King’s College, London University.

South Kensington. Author of History of Birds; A Story of Bird Life; etc.

i

W.S. A.

Statistics; See the

Chief Ship Surveyor at Lloyds Register of Shipping.

biographical article:

| Sibylline Oracles (in pari).

Shipbuilding: Mercantile; Shipbuilding: World’s

Sır WESTCOTT STILE ABELL, K.B.E. Naval Engineer.

i

ABELL, SIR WESTCOTT STILE.

W. S. De.

W. S. Denau, D.Sc., F.I.C

W. Sha.

W. SHAKESPEARE, F.R.A.M. Professor of Singing at Royal Academy of Music and Queen's College, London.

Director of Research of the British Silk Research Laboratory, London University.

—

Shipping : Registration,

Classification and State Regulation; Shipping: Tonnage Terms. ne and Sericulture (in

a Silk Manufacture (in part).

-Singing.

Author of the Art of Singing; etc.

W. S. L.-B.

WALTER SYDNEY LAZARUS-BARLOW, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.

W. Sto.

Major W. STORMONT. > s o n Manager, Campagnia Italiana Turismo (Italian State Railways, Official Agency and

Sitmar Line; -Societa Triestina de

W.T. C.

Wittram THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. Keeper of Department of Zoology, British Museum of “Crustacea” in Lankester’s Treatise on Zoolagy.

Shrimp.

W. v. Bud.

WOLFGANG VON BUDDENBROCK-HETTERSDORF.

l

Member of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health; formerly Professor of Experimental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. Editor of the Medicine Section, 14th edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Steamship Lines).

|

Professor of Zoology, University of Kiel.

Museum, Kiel.

W. Wal.

WiLlIAM WALLACE.

WwW. W.C.

W. W. CHARTERS, A.B., LL.D., Px.D.

|

(Natural History).

‘Author

Sensi pasi

Navigazione Cosulich.

Sight, Sense of;

Director of the Zoological Institute ond}Sel

and Taste

Sensesof.

.

i

Late Fellow and Librarian of Merton College and White’s Professor of Moral pai. }Schopenhauer, Arthur (in osophy, Oxford. Author of The Logic of Hegel, Life of Arthur Schopenhauer; etc, .. Êart):

University. Author of Methods of Teaching; Curriculum Construction; etc.

Y.K.

Youncurrt KANG, B.S., Ep.M.

X.

Initial used for anonymous contributors.

Instructor, Comparative Literature, New York University.

and Curricul

School

Director, Bureau of Educational Research, and Professor of Education, Ohio State l

eae

(iu part). ae

aren

i

iSocieties of Art (in part).

THE

ENCYCLOPA DIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

EDITION

VOLUME 20 SARSAPARILLA TO SORCERY ARSAPARILLA,

a popular drug, pre-

family adhered to the church of Rome, was selected to assist in

pared from the fibrous roots of several spe-

this reorganization. When the king brought over a few Irish soldiers to coerce the English, Sarsfield came in command of them. As the king was deserted by his army there was no serious fighting, but Sarsfield had a brush with some of the Scottish soldiers in the service of the prince of Orange at Wincanton. When King James fled to France, Sarsfield accompanied him. In 1689 he returned to Ireland with the king. During the earlier part of the war he did good service by securing Connaught, and was promoted to brigadier, and then major-general. After the battle of the Boyne (July 1, 1690), and during the siege of

cies of the genus Slax, indigenous to Central America from the southern and western coasts of Mexico to Peru.

Only

two species have been identified with certainty. These are Smilax officinalis and S. médica, which yield respectively the soz s called “Jamaica” and the Mexican varieties. They are large perennial dioecious climbers growing from short thick underground stems, from which rise numerous semi-woody flexuous angular stems, bearing large alternate stalked long- Limerick, Sarsfield came prominently forward. His capture of a persistent and prominently net-veined leaves, from the base of convoy of military stores at one of the two places called Ballyneety between Limerick and Tipperary, delayed the siege of the which spring the tendrils which support the plant. When boiled in water the root affords a dark extractive matter; town till the winter rains forced the English to retire. This doiling alcohol extracts a neutral substance in the form af crystal- achievement made him the popular hero of the war with the Irish. line prisms, which crystallize in scales from boiling water. This When the cause of King James was ruined in Ireland, Sarsfield body, which is named parillin, is allied to the saponin of quillaia arranged the capitulation of Limerick and sailed to France on Dec. bark, from which it differs in not exciting sneezing. Sarsaparilla '22, IQI. He received a commission as lieutenant-general has a popular reputation as an “alterative,” but is professionally (maréchal de camp) from King Louis XIV. and fought with distinction in Flanders till he was mortally wounded at the battle regarded as inert and useless. The varieties of sarsaparilla met with in commerce are the fol- of Landen (Aug. 19, 1693). He died at Huy two or three days lowing: Jamaica, Lima, Honduras, Guatemala, Guyaquil and after the battle. In 169z he had been created earl of Lucan by Mexican. Of these, differing in their character, the first-named King James. He married Lady Honora de Burgh, by whom he yields the largest amount of extract, viz. from 33 to 44%; it is had one son James, who died childless in 1718. see J. Todhunter, Life of Patrick Sarsfield (1895). the only kind admitted into the British pharmacopoeia.’ On the Continent, especially in Italy, the varieties having a white starchy SARTHE, a department of France, formed in 1790 out of bark, like those of Honduras and Guatemala, are preferred. the eastern part of Maine, and portions of Anjou and of Perche. SARSFIELD, PATRICK ( P1693), titular earl of Pop. (1926) 387,482. Area 2,410 sq.m. It is bounded north by Lucan, Irish Jacobite and soldier, belonged to an Anglo-Norman the department of Orne, north-east by Eure-et-Loir, east by family long settled in Ireland. He was born at Lucan, but the Loir-et-Cher, south by Indre-et-Loire and Maine-et-Loire and date is unknown. His father Patrick Sarsfield married Anne, west by Mayenne. The department includes the greater part of daughter of Rory (Roger) O’Moore, who organized the Irish the basin of the Sarthe, which drains the large bay in the southern rebellion of 1641. Patrick, who was a younger son, entered flank of the hills of Normandy, and the city of Le Mans is at the Dongan’s regiment of foot on Feb. 9, 1678. During the last years focus of this bay, where the Sarthe from the north-west joins of Charles IT. he served in the English regiments which were at- the Huisne from the north-east. It is floored largely by Jurassic tached to the army of Louis XIV. of France. The accession and Cretaceous rocks succeeding one another eastward, with the of King James II. led to his return home. Armorican Palaeozoics on its western border. South-east of the He took part in the suppression of the Western rebellion at the Huisne the Eocene deposits stand out, forming a relatively poor battle of Sedgemoor on July 6, 1685. In the following year he territory. The Loir flows through the southern edge of the dewas’ promoted to a colonelcy. King James had adopted the partment to join the Sarthe in Maine-et-Loire; along its chalky dangerous policy of remodelling the Irish army so as to turn it banks caves have been hollowed out which, like those along from-a Protestant to.a Roman Catholic force; and Sarsfield, whose the Cher and the Loire, serve as dwelling-housesiand stores. The »

#1

SARTS— SASKATCHEWAN

2

mean annual temperature is 51° to 52° F. The rainfall is between 25 and 26 in.

,

The department is mainly agricultural. There are three distinct districts:—the corn lands to the north of the Sarthe and the Huisne; the region of barren land and moor, partly planted with pine, between those two streams and the Loir; and the winegrowing country to the south of the Loir. Sarthe produces much barley and hemp. The raising of cattle and of horses, notably those of the Perche breed, prospers, and fowls and geese are fattened in large numbers for the Paris market. Apples are largely grown for cider. The chief forests are those of Bercé in the south and Perseigne in the north; the fields in the department are divided by hedges planted with trees. Coal, marble and freestone are among the mineral products. The staple industry is the weaving of hemp and flax, and cotton and wool-weaving are also carried on. Paper is made in several localities. Ironfoundries, copper and bell foundries, factories for provisionpreserving, marble-works at Sablé, potteries, tile-works, glassworks and stained-glass manufactories, currieries, machine factories, wire-gauze factories, flour-mills are also important. The

department is served by the Ouest-Etat, the Orléans and the State railways, and the Sarthe and Loir provide about too m. of waterway, though the latter river carries little traffic. The department forms the diocese of Le Mans and part of the ecclesiastical province of Tours, has its court of appeal at Angers, and its académie (educational division) at Caen, and forms part of the territory of the IV. army corps, with its headquarters at Le Mans. The arrondissements are named from Le Mans, the chief town, La Fléche and Mamers. There are 33 cantons and 386 communes. The chief towns are Le Mans, La Flèche, La Ferté Bernard, Solesmes (g.q.v.), and Sablé.

SARTS.

The Sarts are an Iranian Turkish tribe, numbering

about 2,000,000, who live in Ferghana and Syr Daria territories. They are highly organized, living in permanent villages, with a developed Sufi system of education. They practise a system of agriculture, using irrigation canals, and growing fruit and cotton. They are also accomplished traders. In religion they are Sunnites, many of them belonging to the Sufi order. They have mixed:con-

siderably with the Tadjiks, the remnant of the old non-Turkic

population, and physically are largely of the Alpine:type. In culture they differ widely from most of the tribes speaking cognate languages. (L. H. D. B.) SARWAT PASHA, ABDEL KHALEK (1873-1928), Egyptian statesman, was educated in Cairo, and became secretary to the Legal Control Commission. In 1905 he became vice-

president of the native. courts of Kena Province, and judge in the Cairo ‘children’s: correctional court. In 1907 he was appointed governor of Assiut Province and in 1908 procureur-general of the native courts, a- post which had for many years been filled by ‘ European officials. In 1914 he was appointed minister of justice in Rushdi Pasha’s cabinet, formed after the declaration of a British protectorate. He resigned with Rushdi in 1919. In 1921 he joined Adly Pasha’s cabinet as minister of the interior, and acted as prime minister during the latter’s absence in London during the negotiations with Lord Curzon. The declaration of 1922, recognizing the independence of Egypt as a sovereign State, which, with the help of Lord Allenby, he was instrumental in obtaining, was a great success for him, and on March 21, 1922 he became prime minister. He resigned in Nov. 1922, because King Fuad claimed a greater degree of power, than Sarwat Pasha could reconcile with the terms of the Constitution, 7 As Government candidate for the presidency of the Chamber in March 1925, he was: defeated, and only took office again in June 1926, as minister for foreign affairs in Adly Pasha’s cabinet. On the fall of Adly Pasha in April 1927, Sarwat Pasha, an independent like Adiy, formed a new ministry. He came into conflict from time

him a majority of the Wafdist chamber of Deputies. He accompanied King Fuad to England on his visit to Europe in 1927, but his visit was interrupted by the death of Zaghlul Pasha, which

obliged him to return to Egypt. For the history of the Anglo-Egyptian negotiations of 1927-28 see Ecypt, History. The negotiations, which Sarwat continued again in London and concluded in Cairo resulted in the proposal of a treaty of alliance. This was rejected by the Waid leaders, whom Sarwat consulted, and he then resigned (March, 1928). The king entrusted the formation of a new cabinet to Nahas Pasha, Zaghlul’s successor in the leadership of the Wafd party. Sarwat Pasha died in Paris on Sept. 22, 1928.

SARZANA, a town and episcopal see of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, 9 m. E. of Spezia, on the railway to Pisa, at the point where the railway to Parma diverges to the north, 59 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921) 11,236 (town); 13,153 (commune). The handsome cathedral of white marble in the Gothic style, dating from 1204, was completed in 1471. It has a fine tath cent. crucifix and other works of art. The old citadel, built by the Pisans in 1263 was re-erected by Lorenzo de’ Medici in 1488. The castle of Sarzanello was built by Castruccio Castracani (d. 1328), whose tomb by the Pisan Giovanni di Balduccio is in S. Francesco. Glass bottles and bricks are made here. Sarzana was the birthplace of Pope Nicholas V. Its position at the entrance to the valley of the Magra (anc. Macra), the boundary hetween Etruria and Liguria in Roman times, gave it military importance in the middle ages. It arose as the successor of the ancient Luna, 3 m. S.E.; the first mention of it is found in 983, and in 1202 the episcopal see was transferred hither.

SASANA VAMSA, a‘history’ of the Buddhist order in Burma, which was composed, in that country, by Pafifia-simi in

1861. It is written in Pali prose; and is based on earlierAdécut

ments, in Pali or Burmese, still extant, but not yetwedited” The earlier part of the work deals with the history of Buddhism out!

side of Burma.’ This is based on the Mahavamsa (g.v.) and other well-known Ceylon works; and has no independent value. | hè

latter part of the work, about three-fifths of the whole, deals witk Buddhism in Burma, and contains information not obtainable elsewhere. It was edited for the Pali Text Society in 1897 by Dr. Mabel Bode.

' SASARAM, a town of British India, in the Shahabad district of Behar and Orissa, with a station on the East Indian railway. Pop. (1921), 22,308. It is famous as containing the tomb of the emperor Sher Shah (1540-1545). The tomb, which is the finest example of Pathan architecture in India, with a dome ror ft. high, stands on an island in the middle of an artificial lake. The town also contains the tomb of Sher Shah’s father, another fine specimen of Pathan art; a building called the Kila, or fort, said to have been his palace; and the grave and unfinished tomb of Sher Shah’s son, the emperor Salim Shah. Outside is the ruined tomb of Alawal Khan, the reputed architect of Sher Shah’s and his father’s tomb. A rock edict of Asoka is inscribed on the Chandan Pir Shahid hill, close to the town.

SASKATCHEWAN.

‘The middie member

of the three

Prairie Provinces of Canada, lies between 60° N. and 49° N. and 110° W. and 102° W. Physiographically it is divisible into two main areas by a line from about 53° 30° N. on the eastern border

(just south of Cumberland Lake) to 56° 30’ N. (just south of Buffalo Lake), on the west, że., a line running somewhat to the

south of the course:-of the Churchill River ‘within the Province. The area to the north of this line comprising about: one-third: of

the Province is a lowland—mostly: over 1,000 ft. but under 1/200 ft.—developed upon Pre-Cambrian Rocks, with'’a narrow border

of Palaeozoic ‘sedimentaries along’ its southern margin.

The

Pre-Cambrian, że., Laurentian’ Shield area is a hummocky wilderness of rock, lake, forest and swamp, with drainage to the to time with his Wafdist supporters, and within a month of his Mackenzie system in L. Athabasca to the north, and to the appointment had to face the serious Anglo-Egyptian crisis result- Hudson Bay system via the Churchill River, to the south. This ing in the despatch of three British battleships to Egypt. (See northern area has a wealth of timber, pulp wood, water power Eeyrt: History.) It is sufficient evidence of Sarwat Pasha’s tact and probably metallic’ minerals at present untouched. Surface, and ability that in his statement on his correspondence with Lord and to some extent, climatic conditions, are such as to preclude Licyd and the conclusion of the dispute he was able to carry with any immediate likelihood of farming development, and north of

SASKATCHEWAN—SASSARI

3

the Churchill River—if we except a limited quantity of mer-

population in Saskatchewan increased 4399%%—representing one chantable timber in the valley of the Clearwater and about the of the greatest rushes for farm lands in the history of the world. shores of L. Athabasca—even the forests have at present little The Provincial Government is vested in a Lieutenant-Governor value except as a game and fur-bearing animal reserve. South and a Legislative Assembly of 63 members elected for five years. of the Churchill River to the latitude of Prince Albert, there is Women are enfranchised and eligible for election to the Legislaon the Saskatchewan a commercial forest belt which, because ture. Regina is the seat of Government. The Province is repreof muskeg and fires, contains little saw timber, but is about 25% sented by six Senators and twenty-one members of Parliament in covered with potential pulp wood. This commercial timber belt the Dominion Government. Population and Racial Origin, 1926.—British, 416,721; overlaps the southern physiographic division which differs from the northern, (i.) in being higher (1,700 ft—2,000 ft, in the north German, 96,498; Scandinavian, 63,370; Ukrainian, 51,474; French, to over 3,000 ft. in the extreme south-west); (ii.) in being de- 47,030; Russian, 36.208; others, 109,437; total, 820,738; in 1931 veloped on little disturbed sedimentaries of Cretaceous age, with the population was 921,785. (See also CANADA.) some plateau-like tertiary residuals; (iii.) in the tabular nature SASKATCHEWAN (“Rapid River”), a river of, Alberta of its major land forms. and Saskatchewan provinces, Canada. Two large streams known The rise from the northern limits of this Cretaceous tableland as the North and South Saskatchewan unite near Prince Albert, is not quite gradual to the south-west, but is interrupted by ex- and thence flow east into Lake Winnipeg. The North Saskatchtensive plateau masses rising some s5c00 ft—800 ft. above the ewan rises in the Rocky Mountains in 52° 07’ N. and 117° 06’ W., general levels. Such are Moose Mts., Beaver Hills and Bear and flows east, receiving several important tributaries, including Hills. An irregular but generally perceptible low scarp facing the Clearwater, Brazeau and Battle. The South Saskatchewan is north-east runs from Estevan on the United States border to formed by the union of the Bow and the Belly, the former and about Battleford—a continuation of the Missouri coteau of the larger of which rises in western Alberta in one of the highest disUnited States. South-west of this line the plateau is higher—a tricts of the Rockies. Flowing east it receives the waters of the part of the so-called third prairie steppe—and in the extreme Red Deer, and farther on turns abruptly north to its junction with south is itself overtopped by Cypress Hills and Wood Mts., scrub- the other branch. The length of the united Saskatchewan is covered plateau-like masses developed on tertiary sedimentaries. about 300 m. It is little used now for navigation. Apart from these last and a belt of grove country in the north, SASKATOON, second largest city of the Province of Sasthe land south of the north Saskatchewan river is unforested. katchewan, Canada, is situated on the bank of the South SasThe larger rivers, e.g., the north and south Saskatchewan, flow in katchewan river, 160 m. N.W. of Regina and 466 m. W. of trench-like courses and glaciation has left its trace in innumerable Winnipeg. From a population of 113 in r9oo it increased to 25,739 lakes, abandoned coulées, and a general mantle of drift which in 1921 and 43,291 ın 1931. It is an important railway centre for thins out on the higher plateau, the Canadian Pacific and Canadian National railways and the Precipitation over most of the Province is between 13 in.—18 in. mid-western headquarters of the latter line. Its central geographiand over 60% occurs in the growing season (May—September). cal position in the province gives it freight control of about In the south-west of the Province—between the south Saskatche- 47,000 sq.m. of distributing territory. It is the seat of the wan and the Cypress Hills—precipitation is, relative to evapora- University of Saskatchewan (1,330 regular students in 1927), of tion, too low for effective farming. Here and on the Wood and the provincial agricultural school and experiment farm, and of a Cypress Hill areas, open land is best used for ranching. However, newly built provincial normal school. There are 12 large public the larger part of the prairie area has proved abundantly suitable schools (attendance 8,645 in 1926), 17 churches, 5 banks, a court for wheat farming, while mixed farming and dairy farming are house, customs house, Dominion land office, land title office and developing in the northern parts of the prairie and in the grove 2 hospitals. The city owns electric light and power, street railway, belt. Saskatchewan leads the Prairie Provinces in agricultural water and sewerage systems. The assessed value of taxable propproduction, including dairy farming, which has now assumed a erty in 1926 was $28,327,600. The city is the second largest very great importance. In the prairie belt the summers are a manufacturing city in the province with 47 establishments in 1925 little hotter than in south-east England, but drier and much producing goods valued at $7,184,543.. The chief industries were brighter. The winters are intensely cold, but dry, bright and in- the manufacturing of flour, breakfast foods, tractors, garments, vigorating. Rapid variations in temperature are frequent, espe- beer, bricks and cement blocks. There are also a number of cially in winter. The snow cover is very light. |.. large wholesale houses, the Dominion interior elevator (capacity, Lignite is mined (472,000 tons in 1925) near Estevan in‘5. 3,500,000 bu.), and two daily and one weekly newspapers. Saskatchewan. The Province has 1,087,756 h.p. water power (unSASSAFRAS (Sassafras variifoliwm), a North American tree developed) chiefly on the Lower Churchill, Saskatchewan, Rein- of the laurel family (Lauraceae), called also ague-tree, with deer and Black rivers, all in the Northern unpopulated part of atomatic bark and foliage. It is native to sandy soils from Maine the Province and too remote for immediate development. to Ontario and Iowa and south to Florida and Texas. While usually In the settled prairie portion of the Province there is now a a small tree, it sometimes attains a height of 80 ft. or more. It fairly dense network of railway. has furrowed bark, bright green twigs and entire, mitten-shaped or three-lobed: leaves, the three forms often on the same twig. Statistics of Principal Crops The yellow flowers, borne in small clusters, are followed by dark blue berries. The toot, especially its bark, is used in household medicine; it yields oil of sassafras, used in pernuriety: (See OREGON MYRTLE; SPICE-BUSH.)

SASSANID or SassaNIAN Dynasty (or SASANIAN), ae rul-

10,189 a 4,676

Wheat

Oats

Rye . ' Flaxseed

13,496

|218a

12,979 | 208,966

399 118

ing dynasty of the neo-Persian empire founded by Ardashir I: m A.D. 226 and destroyed by the Arabs in 637. The dynasty is named after Sasan, an ancestor of Ardashir I. See Persra: CALIPHATE,

SASSARI, a town and'archiepiscopal see of Sardinia, capital

of the province of Sassari, situated in the N.W. corner of the island, 124'm. by rail S.E. of Porto Torres on the north coast, ` Livestock Statistics, 192 5 and 214 m. N.W. of Alghero on the west coast, 762 ft. above Horses I„109,5516. Milch Cows. 438, r Other, cattle.721, 880. Sheep sea-level. Pop.’ (1921) 36,807: (town); 42,946 (commune). The: 161,831. Swine, 597,660, town has a modern aspect, with. spacious ‘streets. and.: squares: . Alistory, ‘Administration, EosT r905) the. Doininton ,S. Maria di Betlemme'bas.a good*facade-and Romanesque portal Government created out of the North West: Territories the of“the end :of the:x3th century. The museum in the university: Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. In the decade 1911-21 -has an interesting collection. ofantiquitiés ‘from ‘all: parts::of the eyed

gF

or

SRR

ge

ot ’

SASSINA—SATIN

4

island, and belonging to the prehistoric, Phoenician and Roman | A settlement was reached and with the hearty approval of periods. Sassari is connected by rail by a branch (284 m. E.S.E. Gandhi, Sastri accepted early in 1927 appointment as the first to Chilivani) with the main line from Cagliari to Golfo degli agent-general to the Government of India in South Africa.

Aranci, and with Porto Torres and Alghero. Eleven m. to the east is the Trinità di Saccargia (12th cent.) with a lofty campanile, one of the finest Pisan churches in the island, The name, in the form Thatari, first occurs in the rath century

A.D. when a church of S. Nicola is mentioned. The town was in existence in 1217, when a body of Corsicans, driven out of their island by the cruelties of a Visconti of Pisa, took refuge there, and gave their name to a part of it. In 1288, four years after the defeat of Meloria, Pisa ceded Sassari to Genoa; but Sassari enjoyed internal autonomy, and in 1316 published its statutes (still extant), which are perhaps in part the reproduction of earlier ones. In 1323, however, Sassari submitted to the Aragonese king. The episcopal see was transferred here from Porto Torres in 1441. It was sacked by the French in 1527. See P, Satta-Branca, Jl Comune di Sassari nei secoli XII. e XIV. (Rome, 1885).

SASSINA (mod. Sarsina), an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, on the left bank of the river Sapis (Savio), 16 m. S. of Caesena (Cesena). In 266 B.C. both consuls celebrated a triumph over the Sassinates, and in the enumeration of the Italian allies ọf the Romans in 225 B.C. the Umbri and Sassinates are mentioned, on an equal footing, as providing 20,000 men between them. The poet Plautus was a native of Sassina (b. 254 B.c.). An episcopal see was founded here in the 3rd century A.D. and still exists. The

present town has 1,751 inhabitants (commune, 4,431). SASSOON, SIR ALBERT ABDULLAH DAVID, Barr, cr. 1890 (1818-1896), British Indian philanthropist and merchant, was bornat Baghdad on July 25, 1818, a member of a Jewish family settled there since the beginning of the 16th century, and previously in Spain. His father, a leading Baghdad merchant, was ‘driven by repeated Anti-Semitic outbreaks to remove from Baghdad to Bushire, Persia, and, in 1832, he settled in Bombay where he founded a large banking and mercantile business. Albert Sassoon was educated in India, and on the death of his father became head of the firm. He was a great benefactor to the city of Bombay, among his gifts being the Sassoon dock, completed in 1875. He died at Brighton, England, on Oct. 24, 1896.

SASTRI, V. S. SRINIVASA

(1869-

_+), Indian states-

man, was born of poor Brahmin parents at Valangiman, near Kumbakonam, Madras, on Sept. 22, 1869. He started life as a schoolmaster, but, deeply impressed by the rules of the Servants of India Society which G. K. Gokhale founded in 1905, on a basis of self-sacrifice, purity and poverty, he was admitted to membership early in 1907. On Gokhale’s nomination, made before his death in 1915, Sastri succeeded to the presidentship. Elected to the viceregal legislative council in 1916, he soon came to the front as the greatest Indian orator of his day. He gave discriminating support to the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, being a member of the Moderate deputation to England in rg9rg and serving on Lord Southborough’s Franchise committee; he was elected a member of the new Council of State when the reforms took effect. In 192r he served on the Indian Railway committee; represented India at the Imperial Conference in London, at the League of Nations Assembly at Geneva, and at the Washington Conference on the reduction of naval armaments. The same year he was called to the privy council, being the third Indian to receive this distinction, and was made a freeman of the City of London. In

1922 he was deputed to Australia, New Zealand and Canada to

confer with the respective governments as practical interpretation of the resolution Conference on the rights of citizenship Indians, and he achieved definite results.

to the best methods of of the 192z Imperial of lawfully domiciled He was chairman of a

deputation of non-official members of the Indian legislature to London in 1923 to support representations made by the Indians

of Kenya on their disabilities, and certain disappointments led him some way in the direction of aloofness; but in 1926

he accepted an invitation of the Government of India to be a member of the Indian delegation to South Africa for a round table conference with the Union Government.

He showed great judgment and skill in promoting good will and concord during the two years to which he limited his acceptance. (F. H. BR)

SATARA, a town and district of British India, in the Central

division of Bombay, ro m. from Satara Road station on the Madras and Southern Mahratta railway. The name is derived from the “seventeen” walls, towers and gates which the fort was supposed to possess. The town is 2,320 ft. above sea-level, near the confluence of the rivers Kistna and Vena, 56 m. 8. of Poona. Pop. (1921) 22,454. The DISTRICT OF SATARA has an area of 4,916 sq.m. It contains two hill systems, the Sahyadri, or main range of the Western Ghats, and the Mahadeo range and its offshoots. The former runs through the district from north to south, and the latter from east to south-east. The Mahadeo hills are bold, presenting bare scarps of black rock. There are two river systems—the Bhima system in a small part of the north and north-east, and the Kistna system. throughout the rest of the district. The hill forests have a large store of timber and firewood. The soil is a black loamy clay containing carbonate of lime, which is very fertile when well watered. Satara contains some important irrigation works, including the Kistna canal. In some of the western parts of the district the average annual rainfall exceeds 200 in.; but on the eastern side water is scanty. The population in 1921 was 1,026,259. The principal crops are millet, pulse, oil-seeds and sugar-cane. The only manufactures are cotton cloth, blankets and brass-ware. The district is traversed from north to south by the Madras and Southern Mahratta railway, passing 10 m. from Satara town. The Satara agency comprises the two feudatory

states of Phaltan and Aundh (g.v.).

On the overthrow of the Jadhav dynasty in 13r2 the district passed to the Mohammedan power, which was consolidated in the reign of the Bahmani kings. On the decline of the Bahmanis towards the end of the rsth century the Bijapur kings finally

asserted themselves, and under these kings the Mahrattas arose and laid the foundation of an independent kingdom with Satara as its capital, The Peshwas, who removed the capital to Poona and degraded the raja, got the ascendancy in the 18th century, but after the war of 1817 the British restored the raja, and assigned to him the principality of Satara, with an area much larger than the present district. In consequence of political intrigues he was deposed in 1839, and his brother, who took his place, died without male heirs in 1848, when the state was resumed by the British government.

SATEEN,

a term of modern usage derived from “satin”

(qg.v.). The term “sateen” is employed more especially to distinguish cotton textures that are based on the satin weave principle of fabric structure from those of the true “satin” fabrics produced from pure silk. SATELLITE, in astronomy, a small opaque body revolving around a planet, as the moon around the earth (see PLANET and the articles on individual planets). In the theory of cubic curves, Arthur Cayley defined the satellite of a given line to be the line joining the three points in which tangents at the intersections of the given (primary) line and curve again meet the curve.

SATIE, ERIK LESLIE

(1866—1925), French composer,

was born at Honfleur on May 17, 1866 (his mother being an Englishwoman), and studied at the Paris conservatoire. His early works proclaimed a persistent determination to be original, and were followed by a series of equally eccentric pianoforte pieces. He exercised influence, none the less, upon many of his younger French contemporaries of the “advanced” school, who hailed him as a prophet. But the public at large saw in him something of the farceur, and his interesting attempts to be daring did not seem to be accompanied by any commensurate genuine talent. See A. Coeuroy, La Musique francaise moderne (Paris, 1922).

SATIN. p @ term strictly denoting a true silk texture developed with a perfectly even, smooth and glossy or lustrous surface on which either warp or weft threads preponderate and

SATIN-SPAR—SATIRE thus entirely obscure the other series of threads. The principle of fabric structure observed in the construction of satin fabrics is that known as the “satin” weave, which constitutes one of the simplest elementary weaves in which the intersections of the warp and weft threads are so evenly and perfectly distributed that there are no pronounced textural features discernible in the fabric, as the threads, either of warp or of weft only, are displayed on

the surface with the least possible amount of deflection by their interlacement with the threads of the other system. A true silk satin fabric may be produced either with a warp surface or a weft surface of pure silk, with the reverse side of cotton or other textile material. In either case, the silk requires to he of the best quality and perfectly even. The term “satio,” however, is now applied as a general description for many fabrics (other than those composed of pure silk}, constructed on the principle of the satin weaves. For example, cotton fabrics constructed on the satin-weave basis are described as “satin” or “sateen” according to whether they are developed with a warp surface or a weft surface, respectively. It is also applied indiscriminately to many other varieties of fabrics having a smooth and lustrous finish. (For Satinet see

SATEEN.) SATIN-SPAR,

(H. N.) a name given to certain fibrous minerals

which exhibit, especially when polished, a soft satiny or silky lustre, and are therefore sometimes used as ornamental stones. Such fibrous minerals occur usually in the form of veins or bands, having the fibres disposed transversely. The most common kind

of satin-spar is a white finely-fibrous gypsum not infrequently found in the Keuper marls of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire, and used for heads, etc. Other kinds of satin-spar consist of calcium carbonate, in the form of either aragonite or calcite, these being distinguished from the fibrous gypsum by greater hardness and effervescence with acids and from each other by specific gravity and optical characters. The satin-spar of Alston, Cumber-

5

satiric spirit with exalted poetry, and their union was consummated in the comedies of Aristophanes. A rude form of satire had existed in Italy from an early date in the shape of the Fescennine verses, the rough and licentious pleasantry of the vintage and harvest. As in Greece, these eventually were developed into a rude drama. Verse, “like to the Fescennine verses in point of style and manner,’ was added to accompany the mimetic action, and these probably improvised compositions were entitled Saturae, a term denoting miscellany, and derived from the satura lanx, “a charger filled with the firstfruits of the year’s produce.” The Roman people thus had originated the name of satire, and, in so far as the Fescennine drama consisted of raillery and ridicule, possessed the thing also; but it had not yet assumed a literary form among them. The real inventor of Roman satire is Gaius Lucilius (148-103 B.c.). The fragments of Lucilius preserved are scanty, but the verdict of Horace, Cicero and Quintilian demonstrates that he was a considerable poet. It is needless to dwell on compositions so universally known as the Satires of

Lucilius’s successor Horace, in whose hands this class of composition received a new development, becoming genial, playful and persuasive. The didactic element preponderates still more in the philosephical satires of Persius. Yet another form of satire, the rhetorical, was carried to the utmost limits of excellence by Juvenal, the first example of a great tragic satirist. Nearly at the same time Martial, improving on earlier Roman models now last, gave that satirical turn to the epigram which it only exceptionally possessed in Greece, but has ever since retained. About the same time another variety of satire came into vogue, destined to become the most important of any. The Milesian tale, a form of entertainment probably of Eastern origin, grew in the hands of Petronius and Apuleius into the satirical romance, immensely widen-

ing the satirist’s field and exempting him from the restraints of metre. Petronius’s “Supper of Trimalchio” is the revelation of a Jand, is a finely-fibrous calcite occurring in veins in a black shale new vein, never fully worked till our days. As the novel arose upon the ruins of the epic, so dialogue sprang up upon the wreck of of the Carboniferous series. SATIN-WOOD, a beautiful light-coloured hard wood, having comedy. In Lucian comedy appears adapted to suit the exigencies a rich, silky lustre, sometimes finely mottled or grained, the pro- of an age in which a living drama had become impossible’ With duce of a moaderate-sized tree, Chloroxylon Swietenia (family him antique satire expires as a distinct branch of literature. In the Byzantine empire, indeed, the link of continuity is Meliaceae), native of India and Ceylon. A similar wood, known under the same name, is obtained in the West Indies, the tree unbroken, and such raillery of abuses as is possible under a desbeing probably a species of Xanthoxylum (family Rutaceae). potism finds vent in pale copies of Lucian. The first really imSatin-wood was in request for rich furniture about the end of the portant satire, however, of the middle ages, is a product of western 18th century, the fashion then being to ornament panels of it Europe, recurring to the primitive form of fable, upon which, with painted medallions and floral scrolls and borders. It is used nevertheless, it constitutes a decided advance. Reynard the Fox (see FABLE), a genuine expression of the shrewd and homely for inlaying and small veneers. SATIRE, in its literary aspect, may be defined as the ex- Teutonic mind, is a landmark in literature. It gave the beast-epic pression in adequate terms of the sense of amusement or disgust a development of which the ancients had not dreamed. About the excited by the ridiculous or unseemly, provided that humour is a same time, probably, the popular instinct, perhaps deriving a distinctly recognizable element, and that the utterance is invested ‘hint from; Rabbinical literature, fashioned Morolf, the prototype with literary form. Without humour, satire is invective; without of Sancho Panza, the mcarnation of sublunar mother-wit conliterary form, it is mere clownish jeering. The first exercise of trasted with the starry wisdom of Solomon; and the TH Eulensatire no doubt consisted in gibing at personal defects. To dignify spiegel is a kmdred Teutonic creation, but later and less significant. satire by rendering it the instrument of morality or the associate Piers Ploughman, the next great work of the class, adapts the of poetry was a development implying considerable advance in apocalyptic machinery of monastic and anchoritic vision to the the literary art. In the accounts that have come down to us of purposes of satire, The clergy were scourged with their own rod the writings of Archilochus, the first great master of satire, we by a poet and a Puritan too earnest to be urbane. The Renaisseem to trace the elevation of the instrument of private animosity sance, restoring the knowledge of classic models, enlarged the to an element in public life. Simonides of Amorgus and Hipponax armoury of the satirist. Partly, perhaps, because Erasmus was no were distinguished like Archilachus for the bitterness of their poet, the Lucianic dialogue was the form in the ascendant of his attacks on individuals, with which the former combined a strong age. Erasmus not merely employed it against superstition and igethical feeling and the latter a bright active fancy. The-.loss of norance with infinite and irresistible pleasantry, but fired by his their writings, which would have thrown great light on the politics example a bolder writer, untrammelled by the dignity of an arbiter as well as.the manners of Greece, is to be lamented. With Hip- in the republic of letters. The ridicule of Ulric von Hutten’s Episponax the direct line of Greek satire is interrupted; but two new talae obscurorum virorum is annihilating, and the art of putting forms of literary: composition, capable of being the vehicles of the ridicule into the mouth of the victim, is perhaps the most satire, almost simultaneously appear. Although the original in- deadly shaft in the quiver of sarcasm. It was afterwards used tention of fable does not seem to have been satirical its adap- with even more pointed wit though with less exuberance of tahility ‘to satiric purposes was soon discovered. A far: more im- humour by Pascal. Sir Thomas More cannot be accounted a satirportant step was the elevation of the rude fun of rustic merry. ist, but his idea of an imaginary conimonwealth embodied the makings to a literary status by the evolution of the drama from germ of much subsequent satire. the Bacchie festival. The means had now been found of allying the . In the succeeding period politics take the place of literature and

6

SATISFACTION—SATRAP

religion, producing in France the Satyre Ménippée, elsewhere the ' represent perhaps the highest moral level yet attained by satire. satirical romance as represented by the Argenis of Barclay. which Mallock, in his New Republic, made the most of personal mimicry, may be defined as the adaptation of the style of Petronius to State | the lowest form of satire; Samuel Butler (Erewhon) holds an inaffairs. In Spain, where no freedom of criticism existed, the satiric |verting mirror to the world’s face with imperturbable gravity; the spirit took refuge in the novela picaresca, the prototype of Le | humour of Bernard Shaw has always an essential character of Sage and the ancestor of Fielding; Quevedo revived the mediaeval | satixe—the sharpest social lash. One remarkable feature of the device of the vision as the vehicle of reproof; and Cervantes’s im- | modern age is the union of caricature (q.v.) with literature.

mortal work might be classed as a satire were it not so much

(R. G.; X.)

SATISFACTION, reparation for an injury or offence; paymore. About the same time we notice the appearance of direct imitation of the Roman satirists in English literature in the writ- ment, pecuniary or otherwise, of a debt or obligation; particularly, ings of Donne, Hall and Marston. The prodigious development of in law, an equitable doctrine of much importance. In English the drama at this time absorbed much talent that would otherwise |law, as between strangers, it was laid down in Talbot v. Duke of have been devoted to satire proper. Most of the great dramatists | Shrewsbury, 1714, Pr. Ch. 394, that where a debtor bequeaths to of the 17th century were more or less satirists, Moliére perhaps | his creditor a legacy as great as, or greater than the debt, the the most consummate that ever existed; but, with an occasional | legacy shall be deemed a satisfaction of the debt. If the debt exception like Les Précieuses ridicules, the range of their works | was incurred after the execution of the will, there is no satisfacis too wide to admit of their being regarded as satires. The next | tion, nor is there where the will giving the legacy contains a great example of unadulterated satire is Butler’s Hudibras. Dig- direction to pay debts. As between parent and child, the doctrine nified political satire, bordering on invective, was carried to per- operates (a) in the satisfaction of legacies by portions, and (b) fection in Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel. In France Boileau of portions by legacies. In the case of (a), it has been laid down. was long held to have attained the ue plus ultra of the Horatian that where a parent, or one acting żin loco parentis, gives a style in satire and of the mock-heroic, but Pope was soon to show legacy to a child, without stating the purpose for which he gives that further progress was possible in both. The polish, point and it, it will be understood as a portion; and if the father afterwards concentration of Pope remain unsurpassed, as do the amenity of advance a portion on the marriage, or preferment in life, of that Addison and the daring yet severely logical imagination of Swift; child, though of less amount, it is a satisfaction of the whole, or while the History of John Bull places their friend Arbuthnot in in part. This application of the doctrine is based on the maxim that “equality is equity,” as is also the rule (b) that where a the first rank of political satirists. The 18th century was, indeed, the age of satire. Serious poetry legacy bequeathed by a parent, or one in loco parentis, is as great had for the time worn itself out; the most original geniuses of the as, or greater than, a portion or provision previously secured to age are decidedly prosaic, and Pope, though a true poet, is less of a the child, a presumption arises that the legacy was intended by poet than Dryden. In process of time imaginative power revives, the parent as a complete satisfaction. In the United States some but meanwhile Fielding and Smollett have fitted the novel to be jurisdictions refuse to presume that a gift to a creditor is: inthe vehicle of satire and much beside, and the literary stage has tended as a satisfaction of a debt. The testator’s intention that for a time been almost wholly engrossed by a colossal satirist, a the bequest shall operate as a satisfaction of the debt must appear man who has dared the universal application of Shaftesbury’s upon ‘the face of the will. A few States have abolished the docmaxim that ridicule is the test of truth. The world had never trine of satisfaction by statute. (See ACCORD AND SATISFACTION; before seen a satirist on the scale of Voltaire, nor had satire ever Lecacy. For the theological meaning see ATONEMENT.) played such a part as a, factor in impending change. As a master of SATPURA, a system of hills in the centre of India. Beginsarcastic mockery he is unsurpassed; his manner is entirely his ning at the lofty plateau of Amarkantak, the range extends westown; and he is one of the most intensely national of writers, not- ward almost to the west coast. From Amarkantak an outer ridge withstanding his vast obligations to English humorists, statesmen runs south-west for about 100 m. to the Saletekri hills in Balaghat and philosophers. English humour also played an important part in district. As it proceeds westward the range narrows from a broad the literary regeneration of Germany, where Lessing, imbued with tableland to two parallel ridges enclosing the valley of the Tapti, Popé but not mastered by him, showed how powerful an auxiliary as far as the famous hill-fortress of Asirgarh. Beyond this point satire can be to criticism. Another great German writer, Wieland, the Khandesh hills, which separate the valley of the Narbada from owes little to the English, but adapts Lucian and Petronius to the that of the Tapti, complete the chain as far as the Western Ghats. r8th century with playful if somewhat mannered grace. Goethe The mean elevation is about 2,500 ft.; but the plateaux of Amarand Schiller, Scott and Wordsworth, are now at hand, and as kantak and Chauradadar in the east of Mandla district rise to imagination gains ground satire declines. Byron, who in the 18th nearly 3,500 ft., and many of the peaks and some of the tablecentury would have been the greatest of satirists, is hurried by the: lands exceed tbis altitude. Just east of Asirgarh there is a break spirit of his age into passion and description, bequeathing, how- in the range, through which passes the railway from Bombay to ever, 2 splendid proof of the possibility of allying satire with Jubbulpore, the elevation at this point being about 1,240 ft. The sublimity in his Vision of Judgment. Two great satiric figures re- length of the system is about 600 m. main—one representative of his nation, the other most difficult to SATRAE, in ancient geography, a Thracian people, inhabitclass. In all the characteristics of his genius Thackeray is ing part of Mount Pangaeus between the.rivers Nestus (Mesta) thoroughly English; his satire is a thoroughly British article, a and Strymon (Struma). According to Herodotus (vii. rr0-112), little solid, a litthe wanting in finish, but honest, weighty and dur- they were independent in his time, and had never been conquered able. But Heine hardly belongs to any nation or country, time or within the memory of man. They dwelt on lofty mountains, place. In him the satiric spirit, long confined to established liter- and on the highest of these was an oracle of Dionysus, whose ary forms, seems to obtain unrestrained freedom. utterances were delivered by a priestess. They were the chief In no age was the spirit of satire so generally diffused as in the workers of the gold and silver mines in the district. Herodotus is rgth century, but many of.its eminent. writers, while bordering ‘on the only ancient writer who mentions the Satrae, and Tomaschek the domains of satire, escape the definition of satirist. The. term regatds the name not as that of a people but of the warlike cannot be properly applied to Dickens, the keen observer of the nobility among the Fhracian Dii and Bessi. J. E. Harrison and oddities of human life; or to George Eliot, the critic of its.empti- others identify them with the Satyri (Satyrs), the attendants ness when not inspired by a worthy. purpose; ior to Balzac, the, and companions of Dionysus, and also with the Centaurs. painter of French society; or to Trollope, the, mirror, of::the See J. E. Harrison, Pralegomena to the Study of Greek Religion middle classes of England. If Sartor .Resaréus could: be-regarded: (1903), p. 379; W. Tomaschek, Die alten Thraker (1893). as a satire, Carlyle would rank among: the first’ of satirists; but SATRAP, in ancient history, the name given by the Persians the satire, though very obvious, rather accompanies, than inspires to the governors. of the provinces; Pers, Khshatrapadvan, i.e.; the composition. The number of minor satirists of, merit; om the “protector (superintendent) of. the country (or district), Heb. other hand, is legion. James Russell Lowell’s Biglow Papers sakhshadrapan, Gr. efarrpdays (insc. of Miletus, Sitzungsber. =

SALTRICUM—SATURN

7

Berl. Ak., 1909, 112), éġarrparetwv (insc. of Mylasa, Ditten-| was connected with the winter sowing, which in modern Iialy lasts berger, Sylloge, 3rd ed., 167) é&arpdmys (insc. of Mylasa, Lebas, iii, 388, Theopomp, p. 111), shortened into carpamys. By the earlier Greek authors (Herodotus, Thucydides, and often in Xenophon) it is rendered by #rapyxos “lieutenant, governor,” in the documents from Babylonia and Egypt and in Ezra and Nehemiah by pakha, “governor”; and the satrap Mazaeus of Cilicia and Syria in the time of Darius III. and Alexander (Arrian, iii. 8) calls himself on his coins ‘““Mazdai, who is [placed] over the country beyond the Euphrates and Cilicia.” Cyrus the Great divided his empire into provinces; a definitive organization was given by Darius, who established twenty great satrapies and fixed their

tribute (Herodot. administration of the local officials supreme judge of

iii. 89, sqq.). The satrap was the head of the his province; he collected the taxes, controlled and .the subject tribes and cities, and was the the province to whose “chair” (Nehem. iii. 7),

every civil and criminal case could be brought. He was responsible for the safety of the roads (cf. Xenophon, Anab., i. 9. 13), and had to put down brigands and rebels. He was assisted by a council of Persians, to which also provincials were admitted; and was controlled by a royal secretary and by emissaries of the king (esp. the “eye of the king”). The regular army of his province and the fortresses were independent of him and commanded by royal officers; but he was allowed to have troops in his own serv-

ice (in later times mostly Greek mercenaries). The great provinces were divided into many smaller districts, the governors of which are also called satraps and hyparchs. The distribution of the great satrapies was changed occasionally, and often two of them were given to the same man. When the empire decayed, the satraps often enjoyed practical independence, especially as it became customary to appoint them also as generals-in-chief of their army district, contrary to the original rule. Hence rebellions of catraps became frequent from the middle of the 5th century; under

Artaxerxes II. occasionally the greater part of Asia Minor and Syria were in open rebellion. The last great rebellions were put down by Artaxerxes III. The satrapic administration was retained by Alexander and his successors, especially in the Seleucid empire, where the satrap generally is designated as strategus; but their provinces were much smaller than under the Persians. See further Persia: Ancient History, from the Achaemenid period onwards, and works there quoted. (Ep. M.)

SATRICUM

(mod. Conca), an ancient town of Latium, sit-

` uated on a low hill surrounded by cliffs, some 30 m. to the S.E. of Rome, in a low-lying region to the south of the Alban bills, to the north-west of the Pomptine marshes. It was accessible direct from Rome by a road running more or less parallel to the

Via Appia, to the south-west of it. It was a member of the Latin league of 499 B.c. and became Volscian in 488.

in various districts from October to January. Be that as it may, in historical times it was a most lively popular festival, probably modelled on the Greek Kronia (see Cronus). All business, public and private, was at a standstill; schools were closed, executions and military operations did not take place, slaves were temporarily free, feasting with and even waited on by their masters, and saying what they chose. All and sundry were greeted with to Saturnalia, and presents were freely exchanged, the traditional ones being wax candles and little clay dolls. Concerning these, the antiquaries had a quaint story that an old prophecy bade the earliest inhabitants of Latium send ¢@ra to Saturn and heads te Pluto; that they interpreted this as meaning human sacrifices, but that Hercules (g.v.) advised them to use lights (the word Q£ means “light” or “man” according to accentuation) and not human “heads” (Macrob., op. cit., i. 7, 31). Gambling with dice, generally forbidden, was allowed, a custom which is exactly paralleled from Nepal (Oldfield, Sketches from Nepal, ii. p. 353 et seg.). Saturnus himself was untied, presumably to come out and join in the fun.

Saturni dies (Saturday) occurs frst in Tibullus, I., 3, 18, see Colson, The Week, pp. 15, 16, 35. See W. Warde Fowler, Roman Festivals; G. Wissowa, Religion u. Kultus (2nd ed. 1912), p. 204 et seg., and in Roscher’s Lexikon (s.v.).

SATURN (}) is the sixth major planet in order of distance from the sun, and is the most remote planet that was known before the discovery of Uranus in 1781. Its mean distance from the sun is about 885,900,000 m. and its periodic time about 295 years. Its synodic period, or the interval between oppositions, is 378 days. To the’naked eye, Saturn, when in opposition, always appears as a star brighter than the first magnitude, but in conse-

quence of the changing phases of its rings it varies greatly in brightness, viz., between 0-9 and 4-4, its light being more than trebled when the rings are open to their greatest extent. Considerable modifications, however, arise from the rather large eccentricity (0-056) of its orbit. As regards colour, the planet shines with a warm, yellowish light not unlike that of Arcturus, The Globe.—In telescopic appearance the globe of Saturn exhibits strong resemblances to Jupiter. It is even more flattened at the poles, its polar and equatorial diameters being respectively about 67,000 and 75,000 m.; it is less bright near the margin than at the centre of the disc; and its surface is marked by dusky belts with light intermediate zones, but whereas these cloudlike bands are very conspicuous on Jupiter, they are usually feeble and, illdefined—partly in consequence of the planet’s greater distance— in the case of Saturn. The volume of Saturn is about 750 times that of the earth, but the periodic times of its satellites show that it exceeds the earth

SATUN or Seru, a small Siamese State in the Malay penin-

sula. Area 1,000 sq.m.; pop. 25,000. The principal production is

pepper.

(See also MALAY STATES: Siamese.)

SATURN,

SATURNUS,

SAETURNUS,

a Roman god

of sowing, or of seed-corn (Satus), identified with Cronos (g.v.), for reasons no longer apparent. His cult was so over-laid with Greek features that almost nothing is known of its original form. His cult-partner was the very obscure goddess Lua (lues, plague or destruction); she was amongst other things a fire-goddess

in whose honour spoils were sometimes burned (see Rose in Class. Rev., xxxvi., p. 1§ et seg.). But, since for some reason Ops, the cult-partner of Consus (g.v.) became identified with Rhea, FROM STEWART, “ASTRONOMY” (GINN & CO.) Saturn is often associated with her. PHASES OF SATURN’S RINGS ‘His temple stood at the foot of the clivus Capitolinus’ leading from the Forum, where the ruins of a’ late restoration of it are only about ‘95 times in mass. Its mean density, therefore, is but still visible. It contained the Republican treasury (aerarium O13 of that of the earth, or over o-7 times that of water. ` Saturni). The statue had woollen bands around its feet, probably *+ Rotation.—Owing to the difficulty of detecting ‘individual to' keep it from rurining ‘away (so at Sparta the statue of Enyalius' features of a sufficiently definite nature, the rotation of the planét the’ war-god was fettered, and there are plenty of savage parallels), has been observed only on comparatively rare occasions, The ' see Macrob. Saturn, i. 8, 5; this too is Greek, for cult-statues are first determination was made in’1794 by the elder Herschel, who not native Roman. Also the worship | was Graeco ritu, ie., with dexived.a rotation period of toh. 16m. In Dec, 18764 bright spot _ thé: head:uhcoveréd, riot wrapped in thé toga as was the Roran appeared near the equator which was observed by Asaph Hall,‘ at custom. His great festival was the: Saturnalia, originally Dec. ‘19, | Washington, for more than 4 month, andwhich showed a rotation but gradually extended to seven days.’-We' may ‘conjecture that it ïr roh. t4 m. 24s. In 1893 and 1894.4. S, Williams deduced from -

RI

SATURN

8 observations

of dark spots in the northern hemisphere mean | happens (as it does either once or three times during each passage

rotation periods of 10 h. 14 m. 45 s. and to h. 15 m. fo s. respectively, and in the same two years periods of 10 h. 12 m. 52 s. and 10 h. 12 m. 36s. from a number of white equatorial spots. A further series of spots appeared in the planet’s north temperate regions in 1903, and from the recorded observations of these objects Denning found a mean period of about 10 h. 38 m. It seems certain, therefore, that, as in the case of Jupiter, there are variations in the motions of the spots from year to year, and also that the rotation period is shorter near the equator than in higher latitudes.

of the ring plane across the earth’s orbit) the ring—owing to its thinness—disappears from view even in powerful instruments. At intermediate positions, viz., when the planet is in Taurus and Gemini and in Sagittarius, it appears opened out at an angle of 27°, and is then seen to project slightly beyond the polar diameter of the planet’s globe. The next important telescopic discovery as regards Saturn was the detection by G. D. Cassini, in 1675, of a black line or gap

Saturn is not a solid surface, but a layer of cloudlike or vaporous matter; the mean density of the globe is, indeed, less than that of any other major planet, and it is further to be noted that considerations based on the large ellipticity of the disc, which is greater than would be assumed by such a globe of anything like uniform density rotating with the angular velocity of Saturn, indicate that the larger part of the planet’s mass must be strongly concentrated towards the centre. The radiometric observations of Coblentz and Lampland suggest a surface temperature which, though considerably higher than can be accounted for by solar radiation, is a good deal lower than was formerly supposed to characterize the greater planets of the outer group. Conclusions based on such measurements, however, appear by themselves to be somewhat unreliable in consequence of the absorption of certain long-wave radiations by the earth’s atmosphere, but a comparatively low temperature 1s supported by the theoretical work of Jeffreys. For further references to this interesting problem, and the observational evidences of considerable energy presented by the surface features of the great planets, see the articles PLANET and JUPITER.

portion of the latter is the most brilliant part of the whole system. Within the second ring is yet another feature of great interest, viz., a third ring, commonly known as the Crape ring, of which the brightness is so feeble that it long escaped detection. It was first recorded by Galle, at Berlin, in 1838, but its existence

Physical Condition.—It is further clear that what we see of

There are several strong bands in the spectrum of Saturn, due to absorption in the planet’s atmosphere. They are identical with those shown by the spectra of Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune, though of greater intensity than in the spectrum of the former and of less intensity than in those of the two last-mentioned planets. Their origin is still unknown. The Rings.—But Saturn’s most remarkable featuré, and that which renders it unique, so far as our knowledge goes, is the magnificent system of rings by which it is surrounded. That Saturn differs in appearance from other bodies was seen at once by Galileo when he turned his little telescope towards it in 1610, but his instrument was not sufficiently powerful to show clearly what it was that he saw. He noticed that the planet had a small attendant on each side, and accordingly represented it as a triple body. But during the next few years the appendages dwindled and finally disappeared, greatly to his perplexity and chagrin, as he feared he must have been misled by some kind of illusion. When they subsequently reappeared they continued to present a difficult problem to the telescopic observers of the day—sometimes seeming like arms stretching out on each side of the central body, and sometimes like curved handles—and a number of curious drawings have come down to us which show how puzzled the observers were, but how near some of them came to the solution of the mystery. The true explanation was ultimately arrived at by Huyghens in 1655, but, wishing for further time to make sure of his solution and yet secure himself against the possible loss of priority in the discovery, he published the follow-

dividing the ring into two concentric rings. This is generally known as “Cassini’s division.” The ring exterior to this division

is narrower and less bright than the inner ring, while the outer

was strangely forgotten till it was independently rediscovered, in

1850, by G. P. Bond at Harvard and W. R. Dawes in England. It can be readily traced with a comparatively small telescope as a dusky band where it crosses the planet’s globe, but is not so easily seen in the portions projected against the dark sky. The three rings are often denoted by the letters A, B and C. From time to time other divisions besides that of Cassini have been reported, but they seem to have been merely partial and temporary, except that known as “Encke’s division,” in ring A, which is, perhaps, permanent, though probably not really a complete division. It usually appears as a pencil-like shading rather than a sharp black line, and sometimes merely as the boundary of the darker outer portion of the ring. The figures given by different authorities for the dimensions of the ring system differ somewhat, but the following are approximately correct: Exterior diameter in

miles

Breadth of ring in miles

170,000 145,000 II3,000

10,000 16,000 II,Q00

The breadth of the Cassini division is probably rather over 2,000 miles, The thickness of the rings is apparently between 20 and 40 m. only. It is noteworthy that all three are at least partly transparent; Saturn itself can be distinctly seen through the Crape ting, and on some recent photographs it also shows through the outer ring. Moreover, on Feb. 9, 1917, M. A. Ainslie, at Blackheath, and J. Knight, at Rye, observed that a seventh magnitude star (B.D. + 21° 1714), remained visible during its occultation by the outer ring, though Ainslie considered that it lost something like three-fourths of its light; it appeared to travel some distance along the Cassini division but did not pass behind ring B; and on March 14, 1920, during the occultation of Lalande 20,654 (Mag. 7-3), the star remained conspicuously visible in a 6-in. refractor at W. Reid’s observatory, Rondebosch, South Africa, even when behind the brightest part of ring B, and despite the fact that, in consequence of the obliqueness of the line of sight, its light had to traverse a distance through the ring equal to eight times its real thickness. The translucency of the ring system is also shown by the fact that it can be faintly seen against the sky as a narrow line of light on the occasions—sometimes extending over several weeks near nnonnnnnnn oooo pp q rr s ttttt uuuuu; which, when properly ar- the time of disappearance—when the plane of the rings passes ranged, form the sentence:—‘‘Annulo cingitur, tenui, plano, between’ the sun and the earth. On this line of light two connusquam cohaerente, ad eclipticam inclinato” (It is girdled by a densations are seen on each side of the planet, corresponding in thin flat ring, nowhere touching, inclined to the ecliptic). These position with the Cassini division and the Crape ring. They are last few words explain the various appearances which so sorely* apparently caused by the larger amount of sunlight transmitted puzzled the earlier observers with their imperfect instruments. at those places where the ring material is absent or relatively thin. The plane of the ring is inclined about 27° to the planet’s orbit, The ring, as, a whole, however, is sufficiently dense to cast a and about 28° fo the ecliptic, and keeps parallel to itself through- strong shadow, which is seen at such times as a narrow black out the planet’s revolution. There are accordingly two opposite band across the planet’s equatorial regions.

portions of the orbit, viz., near longitudes 172° and 352°, where Saturn is in Leo and Aquarius respectively, at which the ring can be presented edgewise to the earth, and when this event

The physical constitution of the rings is unlike that of any other object in the solar system.

They are not formed of a con-

tinuous mass of solid or liquid matter, but of discrete particles

SATURNIAN

METRE—SATURNINUS

9

of always appearof unknown minuteness, probably widely separated in proportion | celestial mechanics. Iapetus has the peculiarity east of the planet ; the to than west the to seen when brighter ing continuous appear to as close so yet volumes, individual to their like our moon, this when viewed from the earth. This constitution was first divined this is explained by the supposition that, by J. Cassini early in the 18th century. But, although the im- satellite always presents the same face to the central body. Phoebe, the outermost satellite, is more than three and onepossibility that a continuous ring could surround a planet withtimes as remote from Saturn as Iapetus, and the circumbalf been out falling upon it was shown by Laplace, and must have In studying photographs evident to all investigators in celestial mechanics, Cassini’s ex- stances of its discovery are interesting. planation was forgotten until 1857. In that year James Clerk of the neighbourhood of Saturn taken at Arequipa Observatory, plates a very faint star Maxwell, in an essay which was the first to gain the newly- Peru, Pickering found on each of three that these founded Adams prize of the University of Cambridge, made an which was missing on the other two. He concluded exhaustive mathematical investigation of the satellite constitu- were the images of a satellite moving around the planet, which tion, showing that it alone could fulfil the conditions of stability. was then entering the Milky Way, where minute stars were so the discovery. When Although this demonstration placed the subject beyond doubt, numerous that it was not easy to confirm no difficulty was Way Milky the from emerge to began Saturn ObAllegheny the at Keeler, it was of great interest when J. E. proving that it was a ninth servatory, proved this constitution by spectroscopic observation found in relocating the object and found to be retrograde or in in 1895. He found, by measuring the velocity of. different parts satellite, Its motion, however, was satellites. This difference other the of that to direction contrary a outer its from pass we of the ring to or from the earth, that, as according to the knowledge of to its inner regions, the velocity of revolution around the planet of motion in a single system was, increases, each concentric portion having the speed belonging to that time, a unique phenomenon, for although the satellite of a satellite revolving in a circular orbit at the same distance from Neptune and those of Uranus were known to have retrograde of those planets hitherto the planet. The relative velocities of different parts of the motions, they are the only satellites and ninth satellites eighth the recently more But discovered. a in lines the of slope the by shown system are beautifully these, like that of of motion the and found, been have Jupiter of spectrogram of Saturn made by V., M. Slipher of the Lowell (T. E. R. P.) Phoebe, is retrograde. Observatory. SATURNIAN METRE [Lat., Saturnius, see SATURN], a Satellites—Saturn is attended, so far as at present known, by nine satellites. A tenth (Themis) was announced by W. H. native Italian metre, used in some of the oldest known Latin Pickering in 1905, but its actual existence has not been satisfac- compositions. It was in later times wholly displaced by Greek metres, and but few specimens survive. These are (1) inscriptorily confirmed. tions, notably some of the epitaphs of the Scipios, (2) fragDetails of the satellites are given in the following table: Distance in

Name

Mimas Enceladus

Tethys Dione . Rhea . Titan . Hyperion Iapetus Phoebe

i .

Enr

(1=37:500 m.) 3°1

3°9

4'0 6:3 8:7 20°2 24°58 58-9 2I4°2

. Te d o I I ‘2 4 IS 2I 79 550

Inclination, of orbit to

Eccentricity

Stellar mag. at mean

Discoverer

oe

44-7

O-0190

I2'I

W. Herschel

| 1780, Sept. 17

44°7 26 213 44°7 26 i194 41:9 26 I24 T'I 26 22:7 o'o 26 6-6 18-1 16 79 rob | 1747

Q:0000 00020 0*0009 00289 O*1043 0:0284 o'1659

10°5 IO 10-0 8-3 I3'0 ror torz-g I4°5

G. D. Cassini G. D. Cassini G. D. Cassini Huyghens Bond |G. D. Cassini W. H. Pickering

| 1684, March | 1684, March | 1672, Dec. 1655, March 1848, Sept. 16 | 1671, Oct.

Saturn’s orbit

h 22-6

8-9

o 26 26

44°7

O-000T

opposition

r1°6

W. Herschel

y

1789, Aug. 28

1898, Aug.

The diameters assigned by observers to the smaller and fainter ments of Livius Andronicus’s translation of the Odyssey, and of other satellites are necessarily very uncertain, but that of Titan is of Naevius’s Bellum Punicum, with a very few remnants probably not far from 3,000 miles. The diameter of Phoebe is, authors. The following are specimens of this verse: | Dabunt malum Metelli/ Naevio poetae perhaps, only about 150 miles. The five inner satellites seem to form a class by themselves.

Quamde mare saevom/ vis et quoi sunt magnae.

The scansion is very doubtful; on the whole it is more likely that it is accentual! than that it is quantitative. Some account equator. Thus, so far as the position of the planes of rotation and of it will be found in Lindsay, Early Latin Verse, P. 9. Nothing resembling the Saturnian exists in English; the exrevolution are concerned, the system keeps together as if it were various the of attraction given by Macaulay (“The queen was in the parlour eating ample mutual the rigid. This results from bodies. A remarkable feature of this inner system is the near bread and honey”) is not in the least like it. SATURNINUS, LUCIUS APPULEIUS, Roman poliapproach to commensurability in the periods of revolution, The period of Tethys is very nearly double that of Mimas, and the tician. Quaestor in 104 B.c., he superintended the importation of period of Dione about double that of Enceladus, The result of corn at Ostia, but was removed by the Senate, apparently without this near approach to commensurability is a wide libration in the any charge against him being made, and so went over to the populongitudes of the satellites, having periods very long compared lar party. Tribune in 103, he made an arrangement with Marius for the allotment of 100 dugera of land to each of Marius’ veterans. with the times of revolution. of feature special some has satellites outer four It was probably at this time also that he introduced his law on Each of the interest. ‘Titan is much the brightest of all; Hyperion is so small maiestas (treason), which seems to have been designed to inas to be visible only in a powerful telescope, and has a quite crease the power of the tribunes. In ror he was tried for violating eccentric orbit; its time of revolution is almost commensurable the law of nations in connection with the embassy of Mithridates. with that of Titan, the ratio of the periods being 3 to 4, with the The envoys had arrived with large sums of money to bribe the result that the major axis of the orbit of Hyperion has a retro- Senate, and Saturninus exposed the affair and insulted the amgrade motion of 18° 40’ annually, of such a character that the bassadors. He escaped by appealing to the people. He further conjunction of the two satellites always occurs near the apocentre 1On this theory, in its most probable form, the line has 3-+-2 accents, of the orbit, when the distance of the orbit from that of Titan is and usually consists of 7+6 syllables, as “quéius forma virtutei

Their orbits are nearly circular and their planes coincide exactly or very nearly with that of the ring system and the planet's

the greatest.

of ; parisuma fuit.” This is among the most’ interesting phenomena

SATYRS—SAUGOR

Io

cultivated popularity by supporting the claims to citizenship of! be butter, oils, clarified fat, a blend of lard and butter, or margar-

a freedman, Equitius, who posed as a son of Tiberius Gracchus' ine, or dripping. The fat is first melted and sufficient flour is (g.v.). Saturninus allied himself with C. Servilius Glaucia, and the stirred into it to absorb it; equal quantities of fat and flour are two of them acted as Marius’ political agents after his return usual, Liquids for white sauces may be water, milk and water, from the war with the Cimbri. By bribery and murder Marius milk, white stock, milk and stock. Cream may be added if was elected consul for the sixth time in 100, Glaucia praetor and liked, also beaten eggs and any flavouring such as sherry, vanilla, Saturninus tribune again. Saturninus then brought forward an ex- vinegar, lemon juice. Brown stock, water, or stock and water, are tension of the African agrarian scheme, which included the dis- the liquids used for brown and fawn sauces. Lumpy sauces are tribution of the land north of the Po, taken from the Cimbri, caused by insufficient stirring which causes unequal bursting and among Marius’ veterans, and the foundation of a number of new thickening of the starch grains in the flour. Sauces must boil for citizen colonies, to which Italians were to be admitted, a feature 8 to to minutes. Espagnole, Béchamel and Velouté are white which caused a good deal of opposition. A further clause pro- sauces used as a foundation in many variations. Cold Sauces.—(z) The Mayonnaise Class. A simple mayonvided that every Senator should swear to observe it within five days of its becoming law. Metellus Numidicus, Saturninus’ chief naise is made from raw yolk of egg, salad oil, tarragon and white enemy, alone refused, and went into exile. The law was passed wine vinegars, mustard, pepper and salt. One yolk of egg will eventually after considerable disorder. At last Saturninus and blend with as much as 4$pt. oil if the oil is stirred in very gradually, Glaucia found themselves in danger of being disowned by Marius, drop by drop, to the yolk: the vinegar can be added from time to and their only hope of safety lay in retaining office. In the elec- time as the mixture gets thick and the quantity can be left to the tions at the end of roo Saturninus was again elected tribune, and taste of the cook. A good mayonnaise should not taste too acid or Glaucia stood for the consulship. During the voting their par- too oily. Additions of chopped capers or gherkins to this make tisans beat C. Memmius, the senatorial candidate, to death. The Tartare sauce. 2. Chaudfroid Sauces, for coating meat, poultry, fish. These Senate declared them public enemies, and called on Marius to take up arms against them. Saturninus was defeated in a battle may be brown, fawn, white, red, green, the foundations being a in the forum, and took refuge in the Capitol (Dec. 10). Forced good brown or white sauce, tomato sauce, cucumber sauce. To to surrender, he and Glaucia and their followers were imprisoned these sauces are added aspic jelly, gelatine and a little cream. Miscellaneous Sauces.—(a) those made from purées, some in the Curia Hostilia, and some of the opposite party tore off of which are thickened with cornflour, ż.e. tomato, cucumber, spinthe roof and stoned them to death. BIBLIoGRAPHY.—Appian, Bell. civ. i. 28-33; Diod. Sic. xxxvi. r2; ach, apple, celery, (b) custard sauces made from eggs and milk a

Plutarch, Marius, 28-30; Livy, Epit. 69; Florus iii. 16; Vell. Pat. ii. 125 Auctor ad Herennium i. 2x; Aurelius Victor, De viris illustribus, 733 Orosius v. 17; Cicero, Pro Balbo, 21, 48 Brutus, 62, De oratore, -di. 49, De haruspicum responsis, 19, Pro Sestio, 47, Pro Rabirio,

passim; Mommsen,

Hist. of Rome

(Eng. trans.), bk. iv. ch. 6; G.

Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, ii. ch. 10; E. Klebs in PaulyWissowa’s Realencyclopddie, ii. r (1896); see further RoME: History.

SATYRS, in Greek mythology, spirits half-man, half-beast. They are not mentioned in Homer; in a fragment of Hesiod they are called brothers of the mountain nymphs and Curetes, an idle and worthless race. They were a roguish but faint-hearted folk, lovers of music, wine and women, dancing with the nymphs or pursuing them, and striking terror into men. They had a special form of dance called Sikinnis. In early Attic art they were represented as grotesque men with horses’ tails; later they approached the type of Pan (q.v.). A famous statue, supposed to be a copy of a work of Praxiteles, represents a graceful satyr leaning against, a tree with a flute in his hand. In Attica there was a species of drama known as the satyric; it treated its themes in a halfcomic manner and the chorus was composed of satyrs. Sophocles’s Ichneutai and. Euripides’s Cyclops are the only extant examples. In Italy, the satyrs are often identified with the fauni (see FAUNUS). In the Authorized Version of Isa. xiil. 21; xxxiv. rq the word ee satyr” is used to render the Hebrew sé‘irim, “hairy ones.” A kind of demon or supernatural being known to Hebrew folk-lore as inhabiting waste places is meant; a practice of sacrificing to

the sé‘ivim is alluded to in Lev. xvii. 7, where the English

version has “devils.” They correspond to the “shaggy demon of the mountain-pass” (azabb al-‘akaba) of old Arab superstition. See also Strenus. For similar modern Greek beliefs, see Lawson, Modern Greek Folk-lore, p. 190.

SAUCE, a flavouring or seasoning for food, usually in a liquid or semi-liquid state, either served separately or mixed with the dish. The preparation of suitable sauces is one of the essentials of good cookery. The word comes through the Fr, from the Lat. salsa, salted or pickled food (salire, to season or sprinkle with sal, salt). The colloquial use of “saucy,’ ” impertinent, “cheeky” js an obvious transference from the tartness or pungency of a saùce. Hot Sauces.—These may be divided into White and Brown, and from them many hundreds of sauces are made. Variations from a plain white sauce are egg sauce, onion sauce, anchovy sauce, parsley sauce, caper sauce, oyster sauce, celery sauce, etc.

A blending of fat and flour, known in the culinary world as a roux, is the foundation of nearly every sauce. The fats used may 3

and flavoured with vanilla, lemon or wine, że., sherry sauce, (c)

those made from syrups, ż.e., jam, lemon, marmalade, (d) mint; horseradish, (E. G. C.) SAUGERTIES, a village of Ulster county, New York, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Hudson river, at the mouth of the Esopus, roo m. N. of New York city, near the base of the Catskill mountains. It is on Federal highway ọ W. and is served by the West Shore railroad and river steamers. Pop. 1930, 4,060 Federal census. It is in the midst of picturesque scenery and there are many summer homes along the Hudson and elsewhere in the vicinity. The village of Woodstock (incorporated 1787) with its colony of artists and summer art school is ro m. W., and’ 4 m. 8. of Woodstock is the Ashokan reservoir. Saugerties has several paper and paper-products mills, limestone and bluestone quarries, brickyards and other’ industries. The village was settled about 1710 by Germans, and several houses date from the 18th century. It was incorporated in 1831.

SAUGOR or SAGAR, so named after its beautiful lake, a

town and district of British India in the Jubbulpur division of the Central Provinces. The town, in a picturesque situation on a spur of the Vindhyan hills about 1,700 feet above sea level, has a station of the Indian Midland section of the G.I.P. Railway. Popula-

tion (1921) 39,319. It has ceased to be’a growing place, though it is still fourth in importance in the province. The town is handsomely built and the cantonment well wooded. It has no factories and its old industries, which included the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments, are not very flourishing. There is an old Mahratta fort, now used as a police school, which was held for several months by the Europeans in the Mutiny until relieved by Sir Hugh Rose. The district of Saugor has an area of 3,962 square miles. It is an extensive, and in parts fairly level, plain, broken in places by low stony hills of Vindhyan sandstone. It is traversed by numerous streams, of which the Sunar, Beas, Dhasan and Bina are the

principal, flowing in a central direction and being affluents of the Ganges. In the southern and central parts the soil is black, formed by decaying trap. In the north and east it is reddish-brown alluvium.

The population in 192% was 528,380,-or some 60,000 less

than in 1891, but it is likely.to: recover if: seasons are good. The district contains’ five small: towns and-1,830 villages.’ The chief land-holding classes are Brahmins, Dangis,.. Lodhis ‘and Bundela Rajputs. Mohammedans-are‘only 5% of the population, Government forests cover 750 sq.m. but are not.of great value. There is good iron ore in the Shahgarh tract smelted in small

SAUGUS—SAULT furnaces and some fine sandstone quarries.

SAUGUS,

a town of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,

adjoining Lynn on the west.

It is served by the Boston and

Maine railroad. Pop. (1920) 10 874 (23% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal census 14,700. Saugus is now primarily a residential town, but in early times it was important industrially. It was one of the first New England towns to engage in the manufacture of shoes and woollen goods, and was the site of the first iron works, where the die for the Pine-Tree shilling was cast. Settlement dates from 1629. The town was incorporated in 1815.

SAUJBULAQ

(sowj-boo-lahk’), chief town of that part of

the Persian province of Azerbaijan south of Lake Urmia. Ethnographically, the district forms part of Persian Kurdistan. The town stands in a remarkably fertile valley, in 36° 45’ N., and 45° 47 E., at an elevation of 4,272 ft. The population, till the

outbreak of the World War, was about 7,000, chiefly of settled Kurds of the Mukri tribe of which it may be regarded as the local capital. The town is connected with Tabriz by a road passable for motors, via Urmia, Khoi and Julfa. There are many more localities named Saujbulaq (Turkish, meaning “cold stream,” or “cold spring”) in Persia, the most notable, after the above-mentioned Kurdish city, being a district of the province of Tehran, with many villages.

SAUK and FOX.

These two closely related Algonkin tribes

were encountered west of Lake Michigan by the French in the second half of the 17th century. The Sauk (or Sac) had been driven there from Michigan by Iroquoian and Algonkin foes not long before; the Fox, probably somewhat earlier. The friendship of the French for these foes rendered the Fox, and finally the Sauk, enemies of the French. They were the only Algonkin so to align themselves; and in the end withdrew from Wisconsin to Iowa, where they found shelter in territory of the Siouan tribe of that name. This change removed them from the timber to the prairies, and their culture began to be characteristic of the open spaces. They remained restless and aggressive, and in 1832, with the Kickapoo, engaged in the Black Hawk war. The two tribes probably never numbered much more than 3,000 each, and were often considerably reduced by warfare. A total of 1,000 remain on reservations in Iowa, Kansas and Oklahoma.

SAUL, son of Kish, a Benjamite, was the first king of Israel. He began to reign c. 1025 B.c. The traditions as to his history are closely interwoven with those concerning Samuel and David. Various views may be taken of these records, among the most dramatic in sacred literature but, by scholars, it is generally recognized that the stories of x Samuel preserve two different traditions about the rise of the monarchy in Israel. In each there is an account of Saul’s election; each relates that he was anointed by Samuel and records his rejection. It iş probable that two distinct continuous histories have been combined in the existing text of Samuel. According to the later of the two traditions the elders of Israel, seeing that the sons of Samuel, who are destined to succeed him, are corrupt, demand that he shall make them a king “to judge them like all the nations.” Samuel is displeased, but Yahweh reluctantly—for such a request was a grave affront to the deity, the true king of Israel—bids him concede the demand. The seer points out to the people that a king will oppress them,

but fails to dissuade them (1 Samuel viii.). He summons a solemn assembly at Mizpah, and, once more reminding them

of their

folly, chooses Saul, by lot under Yahweh’s direction (x. 17-24). In an elaborate sermon people that their action seated | himself upon the bids Samuel anoint David

(xii.), he succeeds. in convincing the has been sinful. And hardly has Saul throne when Yahweh rejects him, and to succeed him in due time (xvi. 1-13).

SAINTE

MARIE

It

Philistines (xiii.). According to this tradition Saul is a God-given saviour, like the heroes in Judges, who rescues his people from the grievous domination of the Philistines. An appropriate introduction to this narrative is missing from 1 Samuel, but the introduction to the story of Jephthah (Judges x. 6-16)—to which what follows is certainly not the obvious sequel—would very well fit it. The suggestion has therefore been made that possibly according to an old tradition Saul was the immediate successor of Jephthah

(cf. Cambridge Ancient History, vol. ti. p. 371 seq.). Though the reign of Saul was marked by considerable successes he was‘hampered by friction within as well as by foes without. Comparatively early his relations with Samuel seem to have become strained, and his declining years were embittered by the growing importance of his rival, David. Finally he fell a victim to his ancient enemies, the Philistines, who inflicted a heavy defeat on Israel in the battle of Mount Gilboa, where his sons were slain, and he himself perished. Here, again, we have two distinct accounts. According to one, being “greatly distressed by reason of the archers,” he implored his armour-bearer to kill him, that he might not be slain by uncircumcised Philistines, and when his armour-bearer refused fell upon his own sword (1 Samuel xxxi. 1—7). The other story (2 Samuel i. 1-10), represents him as making a similar request to an Amalekite camp-follower, who, unlike the armour-bearer, complies. It is possible that this is a fiction on the part of the Amalekite, though the context hardly suggests such a view. According to one estimate of the documents, the character of Saul was depreciated by Judaean historians anxious to exalt David and by anti-monarchists whose ideal was Samuel. Others have found in the narrative an ethical significance of perpetual value. However, Saul played a considerable part in the freeing of Israel from the. Philistine yoke. Though his reign ended in the gloom of tragedy he achieved notable successes on the battlefield, and was a greater king than the existing narratives would lead us to suppose. This is borne out by the ascription to him of

important victories (cf. 1 Samuel xiv. 42-51) and even more by the ancient lament from the “book of Jashar” (2 Samuel i. 19-27), which paints the fallen king as “mighty,” a warrior whose “sword returned not empty,” “swifter than an eagle,” “stronger than a lion,” who brought good spoil to his people, and whose death was to the Philistines a source of exultation. That he maintained his position despite the popularity of David, and that his kingdom endured for a time after his death even with a weakling like his son Ishbosheth as its nominal head, point in the same direction. In short, we may discern in the Scriptural narratives the figure of a brave, impulsive, superstitious man, whose contribution towards the building up of the kingdom has been underestimated. (W. L. W.)

SAULT SAINTE MARIE (s60-sant-ma-ré’), a city of Michigan, U.S.A., at the east end of the Upper Peninsula, on St. Mary’s river, the outlet from Lake Superior into Lake Huron; a port of entry and the county seat of Chippewa county. It is on Federal highway 2 and is the northern terminus of the Dixie highway; and is served by the Canadian Pacific, the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic and the Soo Line railways, and lake steamers. A railway bridge and ferries connect it with the Canadian town of the same name in Ontario on the north side of the river. The population was 12,096 in 1920 (32% foreign-born

white, chiefly from Canada) and was 13,755 in 1930 by Federal census. The river here drops (“leaps”) 20 ft. in less than a mile, which explains the name given to the falls by the early French missionaries. The two canals, with their five great locks (four on the American side, one on the Canadian), are the greatest ship highway in the world. An average of 100 ships a day pass

See SAMUEL. ‘The earlier tradition, which is distinctly. more primitive in, its through during the navigation season of eight months, and the religious ideas, contributes other sidelights on the matter. total traffic in 1928 amounted to 86,992,927 tons, valued at $i,Samyel, to whom Saul comes seeking the seer’s help in the finding 183,123, 800, The Davis and the Sabin locks (1,350 ft. long and of § some, lost, asses, is previously warned by Yahweh that the.sup- 80 ft. wide) are the longest in the world. Two large hydro-electric pliant,is ‘the divinely chosen saviour who is to deliver Israel from plants generate current from the falls, The city is the centre of Philistine | oppression. With whole-hearted, enthusiasm Samuel a summer-resort region abounding in ‘beautiful scenery, good anoints Saul to be “prince over Yahweh’s inheritance” (ix.-x. 1).. fishing and hunting, with a climate especially favourable to, cases Saul and his, son Jonathan achieve ‘notable yictories over the | of hay fever. It has a, considerable lake traffic (760,926 fons in

I2

SAUMAREZ—

SAUSAGES

1925), chiefly in coal and limestone; is a shipping point for farm, | side of French Protestantism (Cameron, Amyraut, etc.). In forest and dairy products by rail; and has various manufacturing | 1623 the fortifications were dismantled; and the revocation of industries, with an output in 1927 valued at $8,950,416. Since the edict of Nantes reduced the population by more than one half. In June 1793, the town was occupied by the Vendéens, 1917 it has had a commission-manager form of government. Sault Sainte Marie is the oldest settlement in Michigan. The against whom it soon afterwards became a base of operations place was a favourite fishing-ground of the Chippewa Indians. It for the republican army. Saumur stands on the left bank of the Loire, which here rewas visited in succession by Etienne Brule (some time between Irr and 1623), Jean Nicollet (1634), Jogues and Rambault, ceives the Thouet, and on an island in the river. A large metal who gave it its mame (1641), Radisson and Groseilliers (1658), bridge connects the Tours-Angers railway with that of Montreuiland in 1668 Father Marquette founded a mission here. In 1671 Bellay, by which Saumur communicates with Poitiers and Niort. the governor-general of New France called a great council of the Two stone bridges (764 and gos ft. long) unite the town on the Indians at this spot, and in the name of the king of France took island with the two banks of the river. The church of St. Pierre, formal possession of all the country south to the Gulf of Mexico of the 12th century, has a 17th-century facade and a Renaissance and west to the Pacific. The British flag flew over the American nave; and Notre-Dame of Nantilly has a remarkable facade, a sault from 1762 until June 15, 1820, when Governor Lewis Cass doorway and choir of the rath century, and a nave of the rth. raised the Stars and Stripes. The first Ft. Brady was built in 1822 St. Jean is a r2th-century building in the purest Gothic style of and was occupied until 1893, when the post was rebuilt on its Anjou. St. Nicolas-du-Chardonnet, 12th century Gothic, has a present site. The village was incorporated in 1879 and was fine modern spire. The Adtel de ville is a 16th century building chartered as.a city in 1887. St. Mary’s river was navigated by the and the town has many houses of the rsth, 16th and 17th cencanoes and bateaux of the Indians and early voyageurs, who made turies, notably that known as the Maison de Ja Reine Cécile (15th century), built by René, duke of Anjou. The castle was built a portage around the falls. The North West Fur company built a lock on the Canadian side of the river in 1797-98. The between the r1th century and the 13th, and remodelled in the state lock and canal (later widened and deepened by the Federal 16th. There is also an interesting almshouse, with its chambers government) were opened in 1855. The Weitzel lock (515 ft. in part dug out in the rock. The famous cavalry school of long) was completed in 1881; the Canadian (goo ft.) in 1895; Saumur was founded in 1768 and was used for the special training the Poe (800 ft.) in 1896; the Davis in 1914; and the Sabin in of young officers appointed to cavalry regiments on leaving the 1919. Previously to 1929 the maximum traffic passing “the Soo” cadet school of St. Cyr. Saumur is the seat of a sub-prefect, and of a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of commerce, and a in a year waS 91,888,219 net tons in 1916. : SAUMAREZ, JAMES SAUMAREZ [or Sausmarez], horticultural garden, with a school of vines. Saumur prepares BARON DE (1757-1836), English admiral, was born at St. Peter and carries on a large trade in the sparkling white wines made Port, Guernsey, on March 11, 1757. He entered the navy in the neighbourhood, as well as in brandy, and it manufactures as midshipman at the age of thirteen. For his bravery at the attack enamels and rosaries and carries on liqueur-distilling. SAUNDERSON or Sanverson, NICHOLAS (1682— of Charleston in 1776, on board the “Bristol” he was raised to the rank of lieutenant, and he was promoted commander for his gal- 1739), English mathematician, was born at Thurlstone, Yorklant services off the Dogger Bank, Aug. 5, 1781, when he was shire, in Jan. 1682, When about a year old he lost his sight through wounded. In command of the “Russell” (70), he contributed to smallpox; but this. did not prevent him from acquiring a knowlRodney’s victory over De Grasse (April 12, 1782). For the edge of Latin and Greek, and studying mathematics. In 1707 capture of “La Réunion,” a French frigate, in 1793, he was he began lecturing at Cambridge on the principles of the Newknighted, He took part in the defeat of the French fleet off Lorient, tonian philosophy, and in Nov. 1711 he succeeded William Whis(June 22), distinguished himself in the battle of Cape St. Vincent ton, the Lucasian professor of mathematics in Cambridge. He was in Feb, 1797, and was present at the blockade of Cadiz (Feb. 1797— admitted F.R.S. in 1736 and died on April 19, 1739. Saunderson devised a calculating machine or abacus, by which he April 1798), and at the battle of the Nile, where he was wounded. On his return from Egypt he received the command of the could perform arithmetical and algebraical operations by the sense of touch; this method is sometimes termed his palpable arithmetic, “Caesar” (84), with orders to watch the French fleet off Brest an account of which is given in his elaborate Elements of Algebra during the winters of 1799 and 1800. Between July 6 and 12, (2 vols., Cambridge, 1740). 1801, he routed a superior combined force of French and Spanish SAUROPSIDA, a term introduced by T. H. Huxley to desigships at Algeciras. On the outbreak of the war with Russia in nate a province of the Vertebrata formed by the union of the Aves 1809 he was given command of the Baltic fleet. He held it during with the Reptilia. Ichthyopsida, including the Pisces and Amthe wars preceding the fall of Napoleon, and his tact was con- phibia, was used by Huxley as an antithesis. Both terms and the spicuously shown towards the government of Sweden at the crisis idea which underlay them are obsolete. of the invasion of Russia. At the peace of 1814 he attained the SAUSAGES are mentioned by Athenaeus in the Deipnosorank of admiral; Charles XITI. (Bernadotte) bestowed on him the piists, A.D. 228, the oldest cookery book that has come down to us; grand cross of the military order of the Sword. He was raised to he says “Epicharmus mentions sausages, calling them oryae, a the peerage in 1831, and died at Guernsey on Oct. 9, 1836. name by which he even entitles one of his plays, the Orya”; this See Memoirs of Admiral Lord de Saumarez, by Sir John Ross (2 was written about 500 B.C. Again: “Aristophanes says in the vols., 1838). Clouds (423 B.c.): ‘Let them make sausages of me and serve me SAUMUR, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse- up to the students.’” Charles Lamb in the Essays of Elia (1823) ment in the department of Maine-et-Loire, 28 m. S.E. of Angers mentions them “as the savouriest part, you may believe, of the on the railway to Tours. Pop. (1926) 13,776. The Saumur entertamment” given “at the annual feast of chimney-sweepers caves along the Loire and on both sides of the valley of the ... held in Smithfield, upon the yearly return of the fair of St. Thouet must have been occupied at a very remote period. The Bartholomew”; and Professor George Saintsbury in 1922 laments Tour du Tronc ¢9th century), the old stronghold of Saumur, the disappearance of ‘that most admirable variety the Oxford served as a place of refuge for the inhabitants of the surrounding Sausage” and the decadence of others. district during foreign invasions (whence perhaps the name Technically a sausage is a mixture of meat minced, seasoned, Saumur, from Salons Murus) and became the nucleus of a mon- and stuffed into casings which originally consisted of the intesastery built by monks from St. Florent le Vieil. On the same tines of hog, sheep or cattle, those of sheep being the most delisite rose the castle of Saumur two hundred years later, The ‘town cate or tender; they are properly cleansed, soaked in lime water fell into the hands of Foulques Nerra, duke of Anjou, in r025, or lye, then washed again, and salted or soaked in brine, by and passed in the 13th century into the possession of the kings specialized firms of cleaners who carry on the business in the of France. After the Reformation the town became the metropolis vicinity of the abattoirs. Home-produced supplies of casings do of Protestantism in France and the seat of a theological seminary not, however, form more than ro per cent of total supplies of which, as opposed to that of Sedan, represented the more liberal Great Britain, the bulk being received from the United States.

=e

SAUSSURE Manufactured casings are sold by the bundle of roo yards, home- l produced supplies fetching from 7/6d. to 10/— per bundle. As a result of research in the manufacture of synthetic sausage skins, which was begun in rg16, the American Chemical Society in 1928 announced the invention of a sausage casing made from cellulose, which may be manufactured in any size, is more quickly filled, and has none of the imperfections that are said to spoil the animal casings. Dr. Tibbles in “Foods, their origin, composition and manufacture” (1912), remarks, “It is said that horse-flesh is sometimes used in the manufacture of German sausages,” and adds that it is difficult to detect the various kinds of flesh except by microscopical and chemical examinations, as the muscular fibres are much alike. Bread and other materials are also used, and in the Report on the Pork and Bacon Trades in England and Wales issued by the British Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries early in 1928 the suggestion is put forward that “from the point of view of the consumer, it is a disadvantage not to know the composition of the food which he buys. Trade organizations might, therefore, consider whether it would not be in their interests to adopt grade specifications for pork sausages according to the proportions of pork and other materials which they contain.” There are considerably over one hundred varieties, some of which are further varied in different districts. Some Well-known Varieties.—Boudins or boudins noir or black puddings as they are called in England, are made in some parts of Scotland of hog’s blood, shredded suet, dried oatmeal and minced onions with plenty of pepper and salt; as Hudibras says: “Fat Black Puddings—proper food For warriors who delight in blood,” but their seasoning varies in different localities. In England for example caraway and coriander are used in Cheshire, but the Shropshire variety has none of the former and very little of the latter; in Staffordshire the seasoning consists of equal quantities of salt, pepper, marjoram, and pimento with twice as much thyme; in Yorkshire twice as much marjoram and thyme as pepper and salt, also a little savoury and lemon thyme may be used; whilst the Stretford variety is highly seasoned with equal proportions of salt, pepper, marjoram mint and thyme. In France beetroot leaves and garlic are sometimes used; in Spain fennel may be added; in Germany thyme and marjoram. In some parts of France it is the custom to eat black puddings on Christmas Eve after returning from midnight mass. They are always boiled directly they are made and are then kept in a cool place; when served they may be either boiled up again or grilled. In Flanders they are accompanied by a dish of baked apples. In addition to Scottish black puddings there are Scottish white

puddings made of good beef-suet minced and mixed with a third of its weight in highly toasted oatmeal, seasoned with salt and pepper stuffed into skins and boiled. Liver puddings are made in

the same way with the addition of one-fourth the quantity of parboiled liver grated, and some shredded onions. The French Boudins Blancs are most superior. They are made of the white parts of raw chicken finely minced, yolk of eggs, onions, breadcrumbs, salt and spices mixed with cream or milk, stuffed into skins and boiled in milk and water; when served they are grilled. Other French boudins are made of game, fish, etc. Sausages are technically described as “dry” or “fresh and wet”; they may be made of raw or cooked material, and the “dry” varie-

ties may be boiled, smoked, pickled or air-dried.

13

to turn sour. They have become increasingly popular. Bockwiirst is a small sausage at one time served with Bock beer. The Spanish Chorizos is similar to the Frankfurt but very highly seasoned and air-dried. Polony is a corruption of Bologna whose sausages it resembles. Sheffield is more celebrated for them than any other town in England. Saveloys (Fr. andouilles) are short thick sausages originally made from pigs’ brains and called “cervelas” of which word saveloy is a corruption; they are now made of cooked pork highly seasoned, stuffed into red skins and sold ready to eat; some varieties are smoked. Oxford sausages, “much herbed, skinless, are moulded into sausage shape only just before cooking.” Hamburg is not only famous for its sausages but has also a special reputation for casings. “The running intestine is used for Bolognas, the middle for ham and chicken sausage and for Leberwiirst or liver sausage and the larger for the full-sized German sausage. For sausage poisoning see BOTULISM. (E. WEL) The United States.—Sausage making is an important part of the meat industry in the United States. Figures published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Bureau of Animal Industry indicate that during the Government fiscal year ending June 30, 1928, the amount of sausage chopped in establishments operating under Federal inspection amounted to 779,983,976 Ib. This total compares with 679,314,965 lb. for 1923, 624,826,613 lb. for 1918 and 531,626,284 Ib. for 1913, definite indication that the sausage industry in the United States is showing substantial growth. In addition to the quantities of sausage made in establishments operating under-Federal inspection, large quantities are made by concerns doing an intrastate business, the maintenance of Federal inspection in such establishments not being required. More than roo varieties of sausage are made and sold in the United States. These may be divided into two main classes, “domestic” and “dry.” Domestic sausage includes such wellknown varieties as pork sausage, frankfurters, Bologna, head cheese, liver sausage, blood sausage, blood and tongue sausage and luncheon specialities. Dry sausage includes cervelat, salami, frisses, Genoa, peperoni, mortadella, capicolli, farmer, Holsteiner, Goteborg and chorizos. (R. H. Gt.) SAUSSURE, HORACE BENEDICT DE (1740-1799), Swiss physicist and Alpine traveller, was born at Geneva on Feb. 17, 1740. From 1762 to 1786 he was professor of philosophy at the academy of Geneva, He became F.R.S. in 1768, and in 1772 founded the Société pour l’Avancemeni des Arts at Geneva. His health began to fail in 1791, but he was able to complete his great work in 1796. He died on Jan. 22, 1799. His early devotion to botanical studies led him to undertake journeys among the Alps, and from 1773 onwards he devoted his attention to the geology and physics of that great chain. He applied chemistry and physics to his studies of the geology and meteorology of the district. He examined the strata, nature of the rocks, the fossils and minerals. De Saussure designed a number of new instruments, notably his hair hygrometer with which he examined atmospheric conditions; he also made observations on the temperature of the earth and of deep water. These observations he published in Essai sur Phygometrie (1783). Among his most famous ascents were Mont Blanc (1787), Col du Géant (1788), Crammont (1784, 1788), St. Theodule pass to Zermatt (1789) Klein Matterhorn (1792). The descriptions of seven of his Alpine journeys were published as Voyages dans les Alpes (4 quarto vols. 1779-96 and 8

Italy and Germany vie with each other in the varieties they produce. Salami, a popular Italian, Hungarian and German sausage, is generally made of pork, beef, bacon, highly seasoned, coloured with red wine, and finally pickled and dried; Bologna, octavo vols. 1780-96). The non-scientific portions of the work a large sausage made of finely chopped bacon, veal and pork, is were first published in 1834, and have often been republished, sold ready to, serve without further preparation; and Mortadella under the title of Partie pittoresque des ouvrages de M. de made at Florence and Bologna from the flesh of pigs which feed Saussure. See Lives by J. Senebier (Geneva, 1801), by Cuvier in the Biogon the chestnuts and acorns in the surrounding forests, and seasoned with wine, garlic and spices, are all popular as hors d’oeuvre. raphie universelle, and by Candolle in Décade philosophique, No. xv. (trans. in the Philosophical Magazine, iv. p. 96) ; articles by E. Naville Frankfurt and Vienna sausages are about the length of a finger in the Bibliothéque universelle (March, April, May 1883), and chaps. and are composed of raw lean pork and beef, well smoked; they v-viil. a Ch. Durier’s Le Mont-Blanc (various editions between 1877 should be eaten hot; if kept too long they get dry and are liable and 1897).

14

SAUTERNES—SAVANNAH

SAUTERNES

are white wines made in the vineyards of | fluence of Thomson's Seasons, part of which had already appeared.

Barsac, | Savage tried without success to obtain patronage from Walpole, and hoped in vain to be made poet-laureate. In 1732 Queen the Sauternes district, the soil and subsoil are entirely different Caroline settled on him a pension of £50 a year. Meanwhile he from the soil and subsoil of the Graves district, which it adjoins. had quarrelled with Lord Tyrconnel, and at the queen’s death Entirely different species of grapes are grown in the Sauternes dis- was reduced to absolute poverty. Pope had been the most faithtrict, species particularly well suited to the soil which produces a ful of his friends, and had made him a small regular allowance. naturally sweet wine of unsurpassed excellence. The sweetness of With others he now raised money to send him out of reach of Sauternes is the sweetness of the grape which is retained without his creditors. Savage went to Swansea, but he resented bitterly the fermentation having been checked by added brandy, as is the the conditions imposed by his patrons, and removed to Bristol, where he was imprisoned for debt. All his friends had ceased case with sweet “fortified”? wines. The finest estate of the Sauternes district, the one which pro- to help him except Pope, and in 1743 he, too, wrote to break off duces by far the finest Sauternes wine and usually also a far greater the connection. Savage died in prison Aug. I, 1743. See Johnson’s Life of Savage, and Notes and Queries as already quantity than any other, is Chateau Yquem. The wines of Yquem quoted. He is the subject of a novel, Richard Savage (1842), by possess both freshness and richness, a combination which is as Charles Whitehead, illustrated by John Leech. Richard Savage, a admirable in a wine as it is rare; they have body, bouquet, breed, play in four acts by J. M. Barrie and H. B. Marriott-Watson, was and, when of a good vintage, they will not only last but improve presented at an afternoon performance at the Criterion theatre, for a considerable time. The other Sauternes vineyards which London, in x89x. The dramatists took considerable liberties with the produce the finest wines are those of the following chateaux: La facts of Savage’s career. See also S. V. Makower, Richard Savage, a Mystery in Biography (1909). Tour Blanche, Peyraguey, Vigneau, Rabaut, in the parish of BomSAVAGE ISLAND (NIUE): see Pactric ISLANDS. mes: Suduiraut and Rieussec in the parish of Preignac; Coutet SAVANNA or SAVANNAH, originally a meadow land or and Climens in the parish of Barsac; Guiraud and Filhot, in the large, grassy, treeless tract, but now also including level areas with parish of Sauternes. Although part of the Sauternes district, the parish of Barsac tall grasses and isolated clumps of trees, as in Nigeria, where the produces wines which are quite distinctive, possessing a character- more appropriate name would be park savanna. It has also been istic bouquet, and not being quite so sweet as the majority of commonly applied to the grassy plains south of the centre of North Sauternes wines, but distinctly richer than Graves. (See WINE.) America, and is here the equivalent of prairie (g.v.). Sauternes

and of the adjoining parishes

Preignac and Fargues in France.

of Bommes,

In all these parishes, which form

BIBLIOGRAPHY. —ÀAndré L. Simon: Wine and Spirits (1919); The Blood of the Grape (1920); Wine and the Wine Trade (1921); The Supply, the Care, and the Sale of Wine (1923). Ed. Feret: Bordeaux et ses uins classés par ordre de mérite (Bordeaux, 1908). F. Malvezin: Bordeaux: histoire de la vigne et du vin en Aquitaine depuis les origines jusqu’a nos jours (1919). “Wine Trade Record”; Clarets and Sauternes (1920). H. Warner Allen: The Wines of dene ee

SAVAGE, RICHARD

(d. 1743), English poet, was born

about 1697, probably of humble parentage. A romantic account of his origin and early life, for which he at any rate supplied the material, appeared in Curll’s Poetical Register in 1719. On this and other information provided by Savage, Samuel Johnson founded his Life of Savage, one of the most elaborate of the Lives. It was printed anonymously in 1744, and has made the poet the object of an interest which would be hardly justified by his writings. In 1698 Charles Gerrard, 2nd earl of Macclesfield, obtained a divorce from his wife, Anna, daughter of Sir Richard Mason, who shortly afterwards married Colonel Henry Brett. Lady Macclesfield had two children by Richard Savage, 4th earl Rivers, the second of whom was born at Fox Court, Holborn, on the 16th of January 1697, and christened two days later at St. Andrews, ‘Holborn, as Richard Smith. Six months later the child

was placed with Anne Portlock in Covent Garden; nothing more

SAVANNAH,

a city of south-eastern Georgia, U.S.A., on

the Savannah river, 18 m. from the Atlantic ocean; a port of entry and the county seat of Chatham county. It is on Federal highways 17 and 80; has a municipal airport; and is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Central of Georgia, the Savannah

and Atlanta, the Seaboard Air Line and the Southern railways, and by steamship lines. operating to both American

coasts and to

foreign ports. Pop. 83,252 in 1920 (47% negroes); and 85,024 in

1930. . The city occupies 7-4 sq.m. on a plateau 42 ft. above the river. It. has retained and extended the original ground plan (designed by Oglethorpe) of broad, straight streets, interspersed at frequent and regular intervals with grassy squares and parks, which now cover altogether 898 acres. Many dwellings of colonial architecture and buildings of historic interest still remain; there are numerous statues and monuments to local and national heroes; and charm is added by thousands of shade trees and many. sub-tropical plants. A granite seat marks the spot where Oglethorpe first pitched his tent. Gen. Nathanael Greene its buried, under a monument erected to his memory in 1829. Christ church, now occupying its third building (erected 1838), was organized by George Whitefield in 1740, and Ms third rector was John Wesley, who established here the.first Protestant Sunday-school in America.

The First African Baptist church dates its history from 1788. ‘Ten is positively known of him. In 1738 Richard Savage claimed to be this child. His state- miles south of Savannah is Bethesda, the oldest orphan asylum in ments were suspicious, and Mrs. Brett always maintained that he the United States, founded by Whitefield in 1740. “The Hermitwas an impostor. The matter was thoroughly investigated for age,” 5 m. N., is a 500 ac. plantation on the river, settled in 1783, the first time by W. Moy Thomas, who published the results with many of the slave huts and other ante-bellum buildings of his researches in Notes and Queries (second series, vol. still standing. “Wormsloe,” at the south end of Isle of Hope, vi., 1858). Savage, impostor or not, blackmailed Mrs, Brett is occupied by lineal descendants of Capt. Noble Jones, to whom and her family with some success, for after the publication of it was originally granted by George II. At “Mulberry Grove,” The Bastard (2728) her nephew, John Brownlow, Viscount the estate given by Congress to Gen, Greene, Eli Whitney invented Tyrconnel, purchased his silence by taking him into his house and the cotton gin while he was a guest there in 1793. Bonaventure allowing him a pension of £200 a year. Savage wrote two success- cemetery, with its winding avenues of live-oaks draped with Spanful plays: Love in a Veil (1718), adapted from the Spanish, and ish moss, is one of the country’s most beautiful burial-grounds. Sir Thomas Overbury (1724). His Miscellaneous Poems were Savannah has the oldest theatre in the United States still in published by subscription in 1726. In 1727 he was arrested for active use (established 1818), the oldest golf club (z811), and the murder of James Sinclair in a drunken quarrel, and only the oldest brick house in the State. The city itself is a favourite escaped the death penalty by the intercession of Frances, countess winter resort for many Northerners, and there are many bathing beaches, fishing grounds and other pleasure resorts near by, of Hertford (d, 1754). Savage was at his best as a satirist, and in The Author to be Let including Tybee island (5 sq.m.) at the mouth of the Savannah he published a quantity of scandal about his fellow-scribblers. river, Montgomery; Thunderbolt and Isle of Hope (where there Proud as he was, he was servile. enough to supply Pope with is a diamond-back terrapin farm). The United States Department petty gossip about, the authors attacked in the Dunciad. His of Agriculture has an experimental bamboo farm 12 m. from the ie most considerable poem, The Wanderer (1729), shows the in- city.

SAVANTWADI— SAVERNE

5

Savannah is one of the leading South Atlantic ports. Its water- After the battle Savary agairi took a message to Alexander, which borne commerce in 1927 amounted to $517,497,220, of which induced him to treat for an armistice. In the campaign of 1806 $115,128,264 represented foreign trade, largely exports of raw Savary showed signal daring in the pursuit of the Prussians after cotton and naval stores. In 1927 the output of ror manufacturing the battle of Jena. Early in the next year he received command establishments situated within the city was valued at $13,573,168. of a corps, and gained a success at Ostrolenka (Feb. 16, 1807). Its cotton warehouses can store 1,000,000 bales, and the two fuelAfter the treaty of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) Savary proceeded to oil storage plants have a capacity of 16,000,000 gallons. Chief St. Petersburg as the French ambassador, but was soon replaced among the manufactures are fertilizers, rosin and turpentine, cot- by General Caulaincourt (q.v.), another accessory to the executon-seed products and sugar. Bank debits exceed $1,000,000,000 tion of the duc d’Enghien. But Napoleon needed him in Madrid, annually. The assessed valuation of the city’s taxable property With the title of duke of Rovigo, Savary set out for Spain. With for 1927 was $77,879,118. Murat Savary made skilful use of the schisms in the Spanish royal The first European settlement in Georgia was made at Savannah family (March-April 1808), and persuaded Charles IV., who in Feb. 1733, by James Edward Oglethorpe. Charles and John had recently abdicated under duresse, and his son Ferdinand VII., Wesley arrived in 1735, and George Whitefield was here in 1738 the de facto king of Spain, to refer their claims to Napoleon. and 1740-42. Until its capture by the British in 1778, Savannah Savary induced Ferdinand to cross the Pyrenees and proceed to was the seat of government of Georgia. The first legislature met Bayonne—a step which cost him his crown and his liberty until here on Jan. r, 1755; the first Provincial Congress on Jan. 18, 1814. In September 1808 Savary accompanied the emperor to 1775 and a second on July 4, soon after which the royal Govern- the famous interview at Erfurt with the emperor Alexander. On ment collapsed and the city was administered by a Council of the disgrace of Fouché (g.v.) in the spring of 1810, Savary resafety. Loyalist sentiment was strong, and many families were ceived his appointment, the ministry of police. This office now divided among themselves. From Oct. 1776 to Feb. 1777, the became a veritable inquisition. Savary was among the last to convention which framed the first State Constitution of Georgia desert the emperor at the time of his abdication (April 11, 1814) was in session in Savannah, and the first State legislature as- and among the first to welcome his return in 1815, when he became sembled here in May 1778, but on Dec. g, the British captured inspector-general of gendarmerie and a peer of France. After the city, and the seat of government was then transferred to Waterloo he accompanied the emperor to Rochefort and sailed Augusta. In May 1782 the British evacuated, after a short with him to Plymouth on H.M.S. “Bellerophon.” He was not siege by Gen. Anthony Wayne, and Savannah was again the allowed to accompany him to St. Helena, but underwent several capital for a few months. It was chartered as a city in 178ọ, months’ “internment” at: Malta. Finally he was allowed to return and soon became a commercial rival of Charleston. In 1819 the to France and regained civic rights; later he settled, at Rome. first steamship to cross the Atlantic (the “Savannah,” built by The July revolution (1830) brought him into favour and in 1831 Savannah capital in the North) sailed from Savannah to Liver- he received the command of the French army in Algeria. Illpool in 25 days. The convention which adopted Georgia’s Ordi- health compelled him to return to France, and he died at Paris nance of Secession met here in 1861. The port was blockaded in June 1833. by the Federal Government early in the war, and on Dec. 12, See Mémoires du duc de Rovigo (4 vols., London, 1828; English 1862, Ft. Pulaski, commanding the channel at the mouth of the edition also in 4 vols., London, 1828); a new French edition annoriver, was forced to capitulate. Savannah was the objective of tated by D. Lacroix (5 vols., Paris, 1900) ; Extrait des mémoires de M. le duc de Rovigo concernant le catastrophe de M. le duc d’Enghien Sherman’s “march to the sea,” and surrendered to him on Dec. (London, 1823); Le Duc de Rovigo jugé par lui-méme et par ses con21, 1864. temporains, by L. F. E.... (Paris, 1823); and A. F. N. Macquart,

SAVANTWADI, a native state of Bombay, India. Area, 926 sq.m. Pop. (1921) 206,440. The surface is broken and rugged, interspersed with densely-wooded hills; in the valleys are gardens and groves of cocoa-nut and betel-nut palms. Savantwadi

has no considerable rivers; the chief streams are the Karli on the north and the Terakhol on the south. The climate is humid and relaxing, with an average annual rainfall of rso in. The chief, whose title is sar desaz, is a Mahratta of the Bhonsla family, who traces back his descent to the 16th century. The town

of SAVANTWADI is picturesquely situated on the bank of a large

Réfutation de lécrit de M. le duc de Rovigo (1823).

SAVE or SAVA, a river of Yugoslavia and an affluent of the Danube. It runs almost parallel with the Drave, both having about the same length. The Save rises in the Triglav group in Carniola from two sources, the Wurzener Save and the Wocheiner Save, which join at Radmannsdorf. It then flows through Carniola and Croatia-Slavonia and joins the Danube at Belgrade. The Save has a length of 442 m., the area of its basin being 34,000 square miles. It is navigable for river steamers from Sisak to its mouth, a distance of 360 miles. (See DANUBE.)

lake, 17 m. E. of the seaport of Vengurla. Pop. (1921) 7,811. SAVERNE or ZABERN, a town of France, capital of an Before the establishment of Portuguese power Savantwadi was arrondissement in the department of Bas-Rhin, on the Rhinethe highway of a great traffic between the coast and the interior; Marne canal and the Zorn, at the foot of a pass over the Vosges, but during the 16th and 17th centuries trade suffered much from and 27 m. N.W. of Strasbourg by rail. Pop. (1926) 6,954. Saverne the rivalry of the Portuguese, and in the disturbances of the (Tres Tabernae) was an important place in the times of the r8th century it almost entirely disappeared. In consequence of Romans, and, after being destroyed by the Alamanni, was rebuilt piracy, the whole coast-line (including the port of Vengurla) was by the emperor Julian. It is interesting that, being an important ceded to the British in 1812, point in the line of communications, it early became an ecclesiastiSAVARY, ANNE JEAN MARIE RENE, Dure or cal lordship, at first of the bishops of Metz, but from the 13th Rovico (1774—1833), French general and diplomatist, was born century to 1793 of the bishops of Strasbourg. It suffered much at Marcq in the Ardennes on April 26, 1774. He was educated at during the Thirty Years’ War, but the episcopal castle, then dethe college of St. Louis at Metz and entered the royal army in stroyed, was rebuilt later, There is a rsth century church of a 1790. He served under Custine on the eastern frontier in 1792, former Franciscan convent. The parish church has a z2th century then under Pichegru and Moreau, and in 1798 under Desaix in tower, and 14th century Gothic choir. Saverne is the seat of a Egypt; and in Italy. After Marengo Bonaparte gave him com- sub-prefect and of a cantonal tribunal. mand of the gendarmes charged with the duty of guarding the In November 1913 Zabern was the scene of a fracas which First Consul. In: the discovery of the various ramifications of the caused great bitterness in France and assumed the proportions of Cadoudal-Pichegru: conspiracy Savary showed great skill and an international incident. A German lieutenant named Rorstner

activity: He was in command of the troops at Vincennes when the:duc-d’Enghien‘(q.v.) was executed. In Feb. r805*he became

general ‘of ‘division: Shortly before the battle of Austerlitz (Dec. 2;°1805)he was’sent by: ‘Napoleon with a message ‘to the emperor AlexanderI. with d request for.an:‘armistice,“a device which precipitated ‘the: attack which brought disaster: tothe Russians.

grossly insulted Alsatian recruits, and a street riot followed. Twenty-nine persons were arrested. On Dec. 2 Forstner catised the arrest of a boy at Zettweiler and struck him with his sabre. The affair led to a, vote of cénsure on Bethmann-Hollweg in the Reichstag, but thé military party secured the acquittal of Forstner on appeal to the war council. "REA

SAVIGNY—SAVINGS

16

BANKS

(1779-1861), | and to Protestant dissenters, and he defended the action of the American colonists. He refused to take office and in 1783 he resigned his seat in parliament. He died unmarried in London on dian until, in 1795, he entered the university of Marburg. After Jan. ro, 1784. Horace Walpole says Savile had “a large fortune the fashion of German students, Savigny visited several universi- and a larger mind”; Burke also had a very high opinion of him. SAVILE, SIR HENRY (1549-1622), warden of Merton ties, notably Jena, Leipzig and Halle; and returning to Marburg, SAVIGNY,

FRIEDRICH

KARL

VON

German jurist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on Feb. 21, 1779. Left an orphan at the age of 13, he was brought up by his guar-

took his doctor’s degree in 1800. In 1803 he famous treatise, Das Recht des Besitzes (the rights In 1804 Savigny married Kunigunde Brentano, Bettina von Arnim and Clemens Brentano the

published his of possession). the sister of poet, and the

same year started on an extensive tour through France and south Germany in search of fresh sources of Roman law. In 2810 he was called, chiefly at the instance of Wilhelm von Humboldt, to fill the chair of Roman law at the new university of Berlin. Here one of his services was to create, in connection with the faculty of law, a “Sprach-Collegium,” an extraordinary tribunal competent to deliver opinions on cases remitted to it by the ordinary courts; and he took an active part in its labours. This was the busiest time of his life. He was engaged in lecturing, in the government of the university, and as tutor to the crown prince in Roman, criminal and Prussian law. In 1814

appeared his pamphlet Vom Beruf unserer Zeit fir Gesetzgebung und Rechtswissenschaft (new edition, 1892), a protest against the demand for codification. In 1815 he founded, with Karl Friedrich Eichhorn, and Johann Friedrich Ludwig Göschen (1778-1837), the Zeitschrift fur geschichiliche Rechiswissenschaft, as the organ of the new historical school, In 1815 appeared the first volume of his Geschichte des römischen Rechts im Mittelalter, the last of which was not

published ‘until 1831. This work was originally intended to be

a literary history of Roman law from Imerius to the present time. As eventually completed, it left the narrative at the 16th century and the separation of Europe into national States. In 1835 Savigny began his elaborate work on contemporary Roman law, System des heutigen römischen Rechts (8 vols., 1840-1849). In March 1842, he was appointed “Grosskanzler” (High Chancellor), the title given by Frederick II. in 1746 to the official at the head of the juridical system in Prussia, and he carried out several important law reforms in regard to bills of exchange and divorce. In 1848 he resigned and returned to jurisprudence. In 1850 appeared his Vermischte Schrifien, consisting of a collection of his minor works published between 1800 and 1844. In 1853 he published his treatise on Contracts (Das Obligationenrecht), a supplement to his work on modern Roman law, in which he clearly demonstrates the necessity for the historical treatment of law. Savigny died at Berlin on Oct. 28, 1861. Savigny belongs to the so-called historical school of jurists, though he cannot claim to be regarded as its founder, an honour which belongs to Gustav Hugo. In the history of jurisprudence Savigny’s great works are the Recht, des Besitzes and the Vom. Beruf above referred to. The former marks an epoch in jurisprudence. Professor Jhering says; “With the Recht des Besitzes

the juridical method of the Romans was regained, and modern

jurisprudence born.” Savigny sought to prove that in Roman law possession had always reference to “usucaption” or to “interdicts”; that there is not a right to continuance in possession but only to immunity from interference; possession being based on the consciousness of unlimited power. The Beruf unserer Zeit, in addition to the more specific object the treatise had in view, which has been already treated, expresses the idea, unfamiliar in 1814, that law is part and parcel of national life, and combats the notion, too much assumed by French jurists, especially in the 18th century, and countenanced in practice by . Bentham, that law might be arbitrarily imposed on a country irrespective of its state of civilization and past history. See Biographies by Stinzing (1862); Rudorff (1867); BethmannHollweg (1867) ; and Landsberg (1890). See also Roman Law.

SAVILE, SIR GEORGE

(1726-1784), English politician,

was the only son of Sir George Savile, Bart. (d, 1743), of Rufford, Nottinghamshire, and was born in London on July 18, 1726. He entered the House of Commons as member for Yorkshire in 17509. In general he advocated measures of relief to Roman Catholics

College, Oxford, and provost of Eton, was the son of Henry Savile of Bradley, near Halifax, in Yorkshire. He was educated at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he matriculated in 1561. He became a fellow of Merton in 1565s, proceeded B.A. in 1566, and M.A. in 1570. He established a reputation as a Greek scholar and mathematician by voluntary lectures on the Almagest, and

in 1575 became junior proctor. In 1578 he travelled on the continent of Europe, where he collected manuscripts. On his return he was named Greek tutor to the queen,

and in 1535

was established as warden of Merton. He proved a successful and autocratic head under whom the college flourished. A translation of four Books of the Histories of Tacitus, with a learned Commentary on Roman Warfare in 1591, enhanced his reputation. On May 26, 1596 he obtained the provostship of Eton, the reward of persistent begging. In February 1601 he was put under arrest on suspicion of having been concerned in the rebellion of the earl of Essex. He was soon released and his friendship with the faction of Essex brought him the favour of James I. In 1604 Savile was knighted, and in that year he was named one of the body of scholars appointed to prepare the authorized version of the Bible. He was entrusted with parts of the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles and the Book of Revelation. His edition of Chrysostom (8 vols., fol. 1610-13) was printed by the king’s printer, William Norton, in a private press erected at the expense of Sir Henry, who imported the type. At the same press he published an edition of the Cyropaedia in 1618. In 1619 he founded and endowed the Savilian professorships of geometry and astronomy at Oxford. He died at Eton on Feb. 19, 1622. See W. D. Macray, Annals of the Bodleian Library (1868); Sir N. C. Maxwell-Lyte, History of Eton College (3rd ed., 1899); and John Aubrey, Lives of Eminent Men (1898).

SAVINGS BANKS.

In any consideration of the dimensions

of savings bank deposits, it is impossible to divorce the problem from the effects of the World-War and the post-war period. The general table given below takes this all-important point inte account, for it is designed to include 1913, the year immediately preceding the war; 1920, the first year for which comparable figures were available after the war; and 1925, the latest year for

which general information was at the time of writing available. As shown in the articles Monry and Currency, the general effect of the war and its results was to cause widespread currency depreciation. This had several, and to some extent contradictory, results in the field of savings. To mention the first, which is partly of a theoretical character, if a uniform depreciation of the currency occurs, so that all prices, salaries and wages are doubled, each individual’s margin of savings should equally be doubled. Thus if, before the war, a man earned £300 a year, spent £250 a year, and saved £50 a year, after the war, when prices were double, he should, in theory, have earned £600 a year, spent £500 a year and saved £100 a year. Hence it would be natural to

find a post-war increase in the total volume of savings, and this, to some extent, the table shows. At the same time, post-war savings are in depreciated money, for even gold has lost one-third of its pre-war purchasing power. To crystallise this argument, the increases in post-war over pre-war savings, as shown by savings bank deposits, do not necessarily prove that the peoples of the world are saving a larger proportion of their income, or that the cult of thrift is increasing. They rather suggest that, as money is worth less to-day than before the war, people have to save more units of money to-day to equal in purchasing power their savings of before the war. The next general point is the check imposed on savings by a

currency in the act of depreciation. This is of a twofold character. Currency depreciation is expressed in rising prices and wages, but every wage-earner and housewife knows that prices rise first, and wages only a considerable time afterwards; so much so that,

VARIOUS

COUNTRIES]

BANKS

SAVINGS

Comparative Table of Savings Bank Deposits in Various Countries

as a rule, wages never overtake prices. So long as they lag behind, any margin in the household budget available for savings inevitably disappears, and in many cases past savings have to be drawn upon. This is the check in its first manifestation. The second is that when a currency is depreciating rapidly, saving becomes the act of a fool. What is the use of saving 10,000 marks in a year, only to find, at the end of it, that it takes a

million marks to buy a dollar’s worth of goods?

(All figures in millions)

United Kingdom

more marks than the champagne had originally cost him, and whether or not this is true, it is obvious that currency depreciation is a serious enemy of thrift. So long as a currency is falling in value, the exercise of thrift is not only an impossibility, but also an act of folly. Hence, while, in such countries, savings bank deposits, measured in worthless paper currency, may apparently

Post Office s.b. Trustee s. banks . Total in s. banks

£ £ £

Australia | Savings banks Savings certificates Total savings

£

Canada

$

255

>

£

Savings banks Savings certificates

$

358 315 673

306 475 87x

Boj

143|

185

ans

$

2

I

80

145

186

94

95

98

94

Io5

99

IO

I

Rupees

“P.O. savings bank P.O. 5-year cash certificates Total savings

Rupees Rupees

| mrana

Savings banks

255 | i

£

Total savings

ae en ea ener a

1913 | 1920 | 1925 187 267 286 68 gI IIo

£ £

Savings certificates Total savings

classic story from Germany of the wastrel who spent his inheritance upon champagne, and then sold the empty bottles for

End of | End of | End of

Currency

Country | Type of bank, etc.

There is the

be growing, so soon as they are reduced to gold values, they shrink to nothing. As shown later, German deposits in savings banks at the end of 1923 were, measured In paper currency, 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 marks. Reduced to gold marks, they were only 100 millions as against 19,700 millions before the war. Only when the collapse ends in the stabilisation and revaluation of the currency, is it possible to obtain a true picture, and wherever the collapse has been a severe one, some-shrinkage in

17

eiiie

| erem

ar

È reee

.

Banks

the nation’s savings from pre-war figures is inevitable, Thus, for all practicable purposes, the French franc had been stabilised by

P.O, savings Total banks Certificates

the end of 1926. At that date, the total volume of savings was Frs. 1§,969,000,000, as against Frs. 5,829,000,000 in 1913. Superficially that suggests a great increase in the traditional thrift of the French nation, but during the intervening period, the franc

.

Total savings r

. | Krone for 1913 and

Banks . . Savings banks Total banks .

|ar

| a

ae

635

| had fallen to a fifth of its original gold value, To allow for this, the 1926 figure should be divided by five, reducing it to Frs. |-__—_|-___|_—|-__— |W 3,194,000,000. Finally, gold itself had lost one-third of its pre- | (i Belgium | Generals. bank war purchasing power, so that even this last figure should be reduced by one-third to Frs. 2,129,000,000. A comparison of this |. Denmark | Savings banks last figure of two milliards with the 1913 figure of nearly six milliards shows the real inroad on French savings bank deposits France| Savings banks Germany|Savings banks. Marks made by the war and the post-war inflation. Democratic Banking.—Two other important war tendencies ‘Holland ‘Florins Savings banks affecting savings banks must also be mentioned. Neither of these a

b

|g

|a

ee

is connected with currency depreciation, but both show the way in which new and formidable competitors to the savings banks have come into existence. The first is the gradual democratisation of the ordinary banking system. Fifty years ago, only the rich had banking accounts, but to-day the use of the banks has spread not only to the middle-classes but also to some extent to the artisan classes. Many banks have opened special savings banks depart-

G

ES|

I

Lire

Krone

Norway | Savings banks Russia

Savings banks

.

Roubles

Spain

Savings hanks

.

Pesetas

Sweden

ments, and instances of this will be found in the main table; but,

Banks . . Savings banks

Total banks .

Krona Krona Krona

on deposit at a bank and not in a special savings bank or savings bank account. Next come the huge loans raised to finance the war. The

Switzer- | Banks . . land Savings banks

Total banks .

Francs Francs Francs

belligerent governments had to draw upon the last penny of the nations’ capital, and no sum was too small to escape their notice. In fact, most countries issued special forms of loans, designed to appeal to the small investor, who formed the main support of the savings banks. The outstanding example was the British war savings certificate. Sold at 15/6d., it rose to £1 in five years, and to 26/— in ten years, and as no one could hold more than 500, it was limited to the small man, The net equivalent rate of interest on these was over 5%, whereas the British post office

Czechoslovakia

Banks

Koruna

Savings banks Total banks .

Koruna Koruna.

Bank of the nation

Pesos

P.O. savings bank

Pesos

26

Total banks

Pesos

618

in addition, in a large number of cases, people keep their savings

A

STE |Aap À aera aT

ES |ene ill |wept

Argentina

.

(paper)

(paper)

s es

savings bank and the Trustee savings banks (v. infra) only paid _@eper)| ooo — 32I 24%. The greater appeal of the savings certificate Ais shown :clearly Brazil Federals. bank . Milreis |__|} | by the fact that, at the end of 1925, 24/- was invested in cer- | |———}——__—__—_ Yen 1,393 | 2,919 Japan Savings banks tificates to every pound deposited at the savings banks. Finally, the economic losses of the war were reflected in a articles, separate see currency, of units For the value of the various post-war period of relatively high interest rates, while interest FRANC, Marx, etc. upon savings bank deposits remained unchanged, The disparity *End March, 1927: the total, therefore, cannot legitimately be given. in England between the return from savings bank deposits and {In 1913, 1 krone=20°263 cents. In ro25, 1 schilling=14.071 cents. savings: certificates has already been noted. The same, applies to Kronen were converted to schillings at the rate of 10,000 “paper” or l interest allowed on deposits by the joint-stock banks. This is two depreciated kronen to 1 schilling. (See Krone.) gae o *4In 1923, 10°3 millions; in 1924, 14°5 millions. points below, bank-rate, and since the war has consequently been $

SAVINGS

18

as high as 5%, and has rarely been below 2%. During most of 1927, it was 24%. As deposits are accepted in sums as low as £r and are withdrawable at seven days’ notice, the extent of the ordinary bank’s competition with the savings bank will be apparent.

This completes the general survey of the post-war position, and will enable the table to be appreciated. The figures are taken from the League of Nations publication, ‘International Statistical Year-Book, 1926,” published in England by Constable and Company, and so may be regarded as being derived from official sources. The writer wishes to place on record the great obligation which he and many others are under to the League Statistical Department for the wealth of information which they made available. Great Britain.—Apart from deposits in the joint-stock and other banks and in building and co-operative societies, and investments in securities and property of all sorts and descriptions, British savings are held in three main forms, namely, deposits at the Trustee Savings Banks, the Post Office Savings Bank, and holdings of Savings Certificates. Trustee Savings Banks date from the beginning of the nineteenth century, or even earlier (see BANKS, History oF), while the Post Office Savings Bank dates from the middle of the nineteenth century. Savings Certificates, as explained above, were instituted during the war. The following table shows changes in these three forms of sav-

ings, and in the proportion in which the total of savings is divided between them. Amounts are in millions of pounds. Year

—

Post office

Toe

js | we |e | me|

End of 1913 1920 IQ2I 1922

1923

1924 IQ25 ' 1926

|| 255°7 672-7 692°6 7Bo-1

823°7

841°8 868-7 863-6

In analysing this table, it should be noted that the Post Office pays 24% upon deposits, the Trustee Banks 23% upon deposits in the ordinary section, and a rather high rate (in 1927, this rate was raised from a maximum

of 33% to one of 4%)

on

those in the special investment departments of the banks, while, from their institution during the war until March 1922, savings certificates were sold at 15/6d. per one pound certificate, repayable at £x five years, and at 26/— ten years after the date of purchase. The yield on the last, if held the full time, was about 53%, and this explains the growth in popularity of the savings certificate, as shown by the changes in the percentage columns. In March 1922, the purchase price was raised to 16/—, and in the autumn of 1923 the 10-year redemption price was reduced to 24/corresponding to a yield of 42%. This rate was more consonant with those allowed by both classes of savings bank, and this explains why, since 1923, the three classes of savings increased proportionately, the percentages remaining unchanged. In addition to holding deposits, both the Post Office and Trustee Savings Banks purchase and sell gilt-edged stocks and shares on behalf of their depositors and collect the interest thereon. The

Post Office-has also acted with the Bank of England as jointissuers of big Government loans, such as 5% War Loan and Funding Loan, to the investing public, and subsequently as registrar of such loans. Stock issued by the Post Office cannot

be sold on the market, but must: be sold through the Post Office at the market price of the day. The Post Office is also responsible for the administration of Savings Certificates, and will issue an-

nuities to and effect life insurance:for the public. ae Deposits in the Post Office and Trustee Savings, Banks, and

holdings of Savings Certificates are limited to-4500 (par value in

the case of certificates) for each individual. An exception is that

when an ex-service mian took his war gratuity in the forth of

BANKS

[UNITED STATES

savings certificates, they did not count as part of his maximum holding of five hundred. The following table shows the balance-sheet of the Post Office Savings Bank, as of December 31, 1926. The figures are taken from the official “white paper,” which leaves the reader to detect for himself the existence of the surplus of £33,479,180. Post Office Savings Bank: Balance Sheet, Dec. 31, 1926 LIABILITIES to Depositors . 283,797,505 ASSETS: (a) British Government Stock:

(1) Pre-war stocks... 34,546,045 (2) Long-dated war & postwar stocks . . . 29,651,672 (3) Short-term stocks (Treasury Bonds, etc.) 26,862,919 (4) Treasury Bills . . 0,000 (5) Annuities . . . 86,681,944 (b) Empire Stocks, guaranteed by British Government

.

;

:

;

:

:

177,752,580

;

71,987,053

(c) Foreign Stocks, guaranteed by British Government. : š ‘ : ; . (d) Local Loans Stock, and advances to Local Loans Fund . d ‘ ge ie : (e) Advances in relief of trade and unemployment (to Unemployment Fund and under Trade Facilities Act) Sm et ted

2,136,400

43,500,686

17,939,453 3,960,513

(£) Accrued interest and cash balances

TOTAL ASSETS . Surplus of Assets over Liabilities .

. £314,276,685

. £ 33,479,180 The final comment on Great Britain must relate to the steady post-war growth in savings, despite bad trade and wide-spread unemployment. Even the coal stoppage of 1926, and its aggravation of an already serious economic and social situation did not cause more than a drop of five millions in total savings, while the Trustee Savings Banks actually improved their position. (N. E. C.) UNITED STATES The name savings banks is differently applied in various parts of the United States but the typical savings bank is a mutual corporation intended to serve as a benevolent institution. In certain States savings banks are conducted as profit-making enterprises by stock corporations. In addition to the specialized savings banks there are many commercial banks maintaining thrift departments which in their functions are similar to savings banks. The confusion of name between what are strictly.savings banks conducted for profit and general banks bearing the title of savings

banks makes it difficult to determine from available statistics

the exact ‘amount ‘on deposit in stock savings banks, but the figures as of June 30, 1928, for 791 stock savings banks were approximately: $1,561,218,000. : ae Earlier History.—The savings banks in America were ‘adapted

from similar enterprises in Great Britain. Groups of persons, usu-

ally men of substance and public spirit, secured charters for the purpose of establishing banks for the savings of the poor, the’earli¥

est being the Provident Institution for Savings in the Town’ of

Boston, chartered on Dec. 13, 1816. There were in 1928 616 institutions whose avowed purpose was to encourage savings, and without profit to their sponsors. It can no longer be said this appeal is exclusively to the very modestly circumstanced since in New York State as much as $7,500 may be deposited by a single individual and the average amount on deposit per account in that State on

June 30, 1928, was $870.96, and in the United States $739.24. Institutions originally established to serve a particular class

early found it advisable to receive deposits from all comers but it is a matter of comparatively recent development that the savings banks seek to serve their depositors with the same businesslike deference which well-managed commercial undertakings have found it profitable to employ in dealing with customers. Con-

versely, commercial banks conducting thrift and savings departments do so as a rule in a spirit of effective service. and-with no intention to exploit their depositors, > ©0070 ao toeon l ' 1 By i

The Mutual

Savings: Bank:—The: operation ‘of à mutual

SAVINGS

UNITED STATES]

savings bank is strictly limited by law to the receipt, investment and return of deposits with interest, in addition to minor auxiliary functions performed as services to depositors. The law also strictly limits the type of investment which may be made by such

institutions with a view to the greatest possible security of depositors’ funds. The importance of the mutual savings bank in the national economy of the United States is indicated by the fact that according to reports made by the Comptroller of the Currency, on June 30, 1927, the total deposits in such banks were $8,077,099,000, and the total depositors 11,337,398. These banks are situated principally in the New England States, middle Atlantic oo New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Ohio and Washington, The legal structure and general administrative features of mutual savings banks in the State of New York may be taken as indicating the mutual type of institution of which savings banks of that State are fairly representative.

Organization.—Specific

requirements

are

laid down

by

statute governing the incorporation of savings banks. Not only must these requirements be met but approval must be obtained from the official having general supervision over the banking institutions in the State. A person is ineligible for election to a board of trustees of a savings bank in New York if by his election a majority of the board shall be members of the boards of commercial banks, trust companies or national banking associations operating a special interest department, or of a mortgage or title company organized under the banking law or insurance law. From time to time, and now usually every three months, the trustees of the bank declare and credit to the depositors dividends at the rate which under the law may not exceed a maximum percentage of

5%.

Savings banks are conceived of as neighbourhood institutions, and in New York State they may have only one branch and only in cities of the first class. In Massachusetts a savings bank may

establish one or more branches in the town where the main office

is situated and in towns not more than 15 m. distant therefrom where there is no savings bank, but only with the written permission of the commissioner of banks. All of the earnings and surplus of a savings bank belong exclusively to depositors. In New York, when the undivided profits and guaranty fund as determined under the law amount to more than 25% of the money due depositors, the trustees must at least once in three years divide the accumulation in excess of 25% as an extra dividend to depositors. In Massachusetts such division must be made where the guaranty fund and undivided profits amount to 104% of the deposits, after an ordinary dividend is declared. i

BANKS

19

imposed for the failure of the bank to make such reports. Supplementing these reports the superintendent from time to time makes unannounced examinations of the records and transactions of the bank. Similar although not identical provisions are contained in the laws of other States. Thus once a year in Massachusetts a thorough examination and audit of the bank must be made by

a certified public accountant, not connected with the bank, selected by the auditing committee of the trustees and approved by the bank commissioner. In the event that the committee fails to have such an examination made, the commissioner must have one made and the bank must pay for it. These rigid restrictions, on the operation of mutual savings banks with a view to maintaining their integrity, arose out of early disastrous experiences with irresponsibly managed banks. The steady improvement in the standards of business morality, the effect of supervision by State officials, advances in methods of accounting and internal administration, and also the growth of competition between banks for the business of the public have all contributed to the present general high level of efficiency and responsibility of the management of banks, only emphasized by occasional individual lapses. A considerable number of banks organized under State charters have established thrift departments. Commercial banks have accumulated in the State of New York alone upwards of $2,817,882,000 of thrift deposits (1928). These funds are not subject to segregation for special investment and may be commingled with the general funds of the bank and used in any manner in which such general funds may be used. The growth of deposits of this character is a reflection of the increased public confidence with which banks generally are held by the working class. Extended Facilities——Savings banks maintain and are increasingly establishing service departments to give counsel on investments, to help in the preparation of family and individual budgets, to advise regarding the use of funds, and to explain the functions of the savings bank not only to depositors but to such

part of the public as comes within the walls of a bank seeking information. The progressive savings banks responding to the mod-

The investments of all savings banks are governed by the law

ern spirit of business are reaching out to encourage the public to make a maximum use of the institutions which have achieved prestige and stability, and therefore have it within their power to serve a large number of individuals satisfactorily. Some of these banks now have individually several hundred thousand depositors. Through educational publicity special forms of accounts intended to stimulate regular savings, promotion of savings for specific objects such as the purchase of a home, making of investments or the accumulation of funds for life insurance, have been developed, showing marked ingenuity in enlarging the use of the savings bank.

of the States in which they are situated. In New York State, savings banks may invest in the stocks and bonds of the United States, of any State of the Union, the District of Columbia, and

Stock Savings Banks.—Stock Savings Banks are organized for the purpose of making profit for their owners and are conducted by boards of directors selected by the stockholders. These

of the cities of such States which meet certain tests as to size and powers and record of responsibility in the payment of its debts. They may invest in the mortgage bonds of railroad corporations meeting certain fiscal qualifications and which have regularly and punctually paid the maturities of principal and interest on their indebtedness for a fixed period preceding the date of the investment, and also in certain other bonds specifically named in

banks generally exist in States where mutual savings banks have not been established. In certain cases they perform a savings bank business exclusively. In other cases the savings department

the statute. In 1928 they were authorized to invest in the securities of public utility corporations and in railway equipment trust certificates under specific restrictions. They may invest in bankers’ acceptances eligible for purchase by the Federal Reserve Bank, in promissory notes secured by collateral eligible for savings bank investments and in loans secured by the pass-books of depositors. On Jan. 1, 1929, 63% of the combined assets of the mutual savings banks ‘of the State of New York were invested in bond and:mortgage on réal estate. ' Supervision.i—Semi-annually a New York savings bank ‘is required. to:make a ‘written report to the superintendent of banks on’ a form:"prescribed by the: superintendent, ‘covering full, details of the transactions of the bank./ There is a'drastic penalty:

is conducted as a part of the general operation of a commercial bank. These banks are organized and carried on in certain States under the general banking laws, in others under special laws regulating the operation of a savings bank. School Savings.—The school savings bank is an imported idea brought to the United States by John H. Thiry, a savings bank official of Long Island city, and was modelled after those of France, Belgium and Germany. As a trustee of the public schools of Long Island city, Thiry found no difficulty’in gaining the consent of his fellow trustees to try the experiment in those schools. From that experiment which proved ‘successful’ the’ school savings bank idea spread until it received the general; én; dorsement of educators as well as bankers. It has been legalized in: numerous States arid in the principal individual States school savings have assumed impressive’ proportions. There are several plans ‘of opérating a school savings’ bank but they are alike in that they -are subsidiary ‘to a savings or other bank in which’ -

SAVINGS

40

BANKS

[FRANCE AND GERMANY

result was that this month witnessed a sudden rush on the part of the public to withdraw their savings, and in this month the Caisse lost Nationale lost 133-7million francs, and the Caisses Ordinaires into continued ns institutio latter the 53 millions. The run on August, possibly because of the time that elapses between a depositor giving notice of withdrawal and the actual withdrawal, and in the first ten days of that month as many as 88 millions were withdrawn. By September, the financial situation was in hand, and confidence was restored. The result was a steady increase in deposits. The depreciation of the franc has rendered necessary large inPostal Savings System.—Under a board of trustees consistheld by any single ing of the postmaster general, the secretary of the Treasury and creases in the maximum sum permitted to be francs. This limit 1,500 only was it war, the ‘Before t since depositor. Governmen U.S. the officio, ex acting general, attorney the and in accord1926, in again and 1925 1919, 1916, in raised Accounts was offices. roro has maintained postal savings depository year, it stands at 12,000 as low as $z.00 may be opened by persons over ten years of age. ance with the provisions made in the last ” As 1,500 Interest at 2% per annum is allowed and is credited once a year. francs for an individual, and at 50,000 for a “society. that the seen be will it to-day, francs 7,500 equal of pre-war sums in francs Individual balances may not exceed $2,500. Deposits than was required $20 or multiples thereof may be converted by the depositor into limits have been raised by a far greater extent U.S. Government bonds bearing interest at 24%. At the close of by the depreciation of the franc. Germany.—CGerman Savings Banks are organised into thirteen the fiscal year 1928, there were 6,683 depositories in operation; $152,143,349 was on deposit to the credit of 412,250 depositors District Associations, together with two separate banks owned by the provinces of Rhineland and Westphalia. Prior to the war, with an average balance per depositor of $369.06. The post-war The system is self-supporting showing a profit of $618,602.32 deposits therein amounted to 19,700 million marks. position is shown in the following table. All figures are in millions In 1928. Postal savings banks, being backed by the pledged credit of of marks. the U.S. Government, were intended to encourage thrift, suppleSavings banks deposits menting the activity of banking institutions. It was expected that they would keep in the country part of the money previously sent Gold equivalent Actual abroad on international money orders, bring hoarded money into circulation, and offer facilities to the timid and fearful in 19,700 19,700 times of financial stress. 21,200 25:403 For the first 174 years of its operation the postal savings sys16,400 31,834 tem received on deposit $1,586,498,397, of which $1,252,326,472 36,981 3:105 had been repaid. While it is to be doubted that the postal savings 44,563 2,575 system has accomplished all that was expected of it, it is unques* * tioned that the system is now regarded as a permanent part of * too the financial machinery of the nation, (H. Brv.) 608 608

money collected from the children is ultimately deposited. The essential idea is that each child should be dealt with as an individual depositor, with the customary evidence of his or her status as such, as, for example, the possession of a pass book in which his or her transactions with the bank are recorded. Children taught to save in school savings banks become users of savings banks after school years. In June 1928 there were in the United States 13,835 schools with savings plans; 3,980,237 children were reported participating in them with deposits of $26,005,138.04 and net savings of $9,476,391.32.

FRANCE AND GERMANY France—Two classes of savings banks exist, namely, the “Caisses d’Epargne Ordinaires,” or private institutions, and the Caisse Nationale or Caisse d’Epargne Postale, this being the state savings bank administered by the Post Office. As is shown by the following table, the major part of the nation’s savings is deposited in the private banks. The table also shows the post-war increases in nominal savings, and their actual decrease when reduced to gold values. Figures are in millions of francs (franc=

$0-0392). Deposits in

Total*

Total deposits {reduced to gold values)

zeae

Caisses* ordinaires

Caisse* nationale

deposits

End of 1913

4,O1L

1,818 2,353

5,829

53829

9,581

3,960

22

397 1920

1) 39:1Q2I

p

1022

1923

1924 1925

1926

55795 6,834 73796 8,286

8,577 9,831 T

2,697

3,051 33271 abe

3:93 T

8,148

10,848 11,558

11,996 13,768

15,969

2,500

4,078 3,066

3:374

2,705

3,258

*These statistics are taken from La France Economique en 1926, p. 247. tNot available.

The net result is a fall in the gold deposits from 5,829 millions at the at the end of 1926. This bears out in the first section of this article. The results for 1926 illustrate, in

value of French savings bank end of 1913 to 3,258 millions the general theory enunciated

striking fashion, the extent of the blow dealt to thrift by a depreciating currency. It will be remembered that, at the opening: of the year, the franc stood at

3-70 cents, or 130 francs to the pound, and then fell steadily until, in July, it fell as low as 2-03 cents, or 240 francs to the pound. In July alone it fell from 2-67 to 2.03 cents, or by 24%. The

1,694

1,094

3,091

3:091

4,665

4,665

*Owing to the depreciation of the mark, the figures became meaningless. 1923 is given as the anticlimax. The actual total was 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 paper marks. The figures for 1924 and onwards are in new Reichsmarks. (See Marx.)

These statistics afford a clear example of the way in which savings lose their real value when the currency collapses. The real shrinkage began in the closing year of the war, and continued until, with the final disappearance of the old mark in 1923 as a result of inflation, savings had fallen to one-twentieth of their prewar volume. Following the revaluation of the mark at the ratio of one new Reichsmark to one billion paper marks, legislation was passed to determine the amounts due by savings banks to their depositors. It was obviously impossible to reach an arrangement that was both equitable and practicable. The following provisions were made :— Savings accounts in public savings institutions or In savings banks under Government supervision were revalued by dividing

the Estate “available for distribution,” 7.e,, the revalued assets

of the savings banks and other available assets of the debtor. ‘The amount so distributed was to aggregate not less than 124% of the gold mark value of such deposits. (Authority, Moody's Manual of Investments, 1928.) In other words, every attempt was to be made to secure for depositors one-eighth of their original savings. Once confidence was restored by the revaluation of the mark, savings again began to accumulate. By the end of January, 1928, they had reached 5,094 million marks. It will clearly be a long process to overcome the destructive effects of the war and the subsequent period of inflation, so as to restore savings bank

deposits to the pre-war level.

(N. E. C.)

SAVINKOV—SAVONAROLA SAVINKOV, BORIS (pen-name, Ropshin) (d. 1925), Russian revolutionary, joined the Russian socialist-revolutionary party at the beginning of the 2oth century and reached a high position in the councils of the party, becoming one of the five members of its “Militant Organisation” and thus jointly responsible with the other members of that committee for the planning and execution

of numerous terrorist assassinations. During the years immediately preceding 1914 he withdrew from active membership of the party, and in his novel The White Horse revealed a deeply pessimistic view of the position of the “intelligentsia” in pre-war Russia.

From 1914 onwards he took a strongly pro-war attitude, and after the February 1917 revolution he became Kerensky’s able assistant, holding the position of vice-minister for war in the 2nd coalition government of August. He played an equivocal part in the Kornilov affair, and after the Bolshevik revolution devoted himself to anti-Soviet activities. He was caught by the G.P.U. secretly enter-

ing Soviet Russia for purposes never clearly elucidated, was brought to trial in Moscow for his anti-Soviet activities, and was sentenced to ten years’ imprisonment. He died in prison in 1925.

SAVOFF, MICHAEL

(1857-1928), Bulgarian general and

statesman, after three years in the Russian Staff Academy in St. Petersburg, became a captain in the Bulgarian army when, on

the outbreak of war with Serbia, he commanded one wing of the Bulgarian army at their brilliant victory of Slivnitza. In 1887 he was appointed assistant to the Minister of War, and in 189i minister. He resigned in 1897, but after a further period in the army, and as commandant of the Military Academy at Sofia, he again held the same office in 1902 in Petroff’s cabinet. The military law of 1904 was largely due to him. He retired into private life in 1908, but was appointed commander-in-chief of the Bulgarian army during the rst and 2nd Balkan wars (1912~13). Savoff signed the orders of June 29, 1913, commanding the Bulgarian Fourth Army to attack the Greek and Serbian force, thus opening the second Balkan War. For this he was recalled and an enquiry opened which was, however, never concluded; Savoff declared that the order had been given him by King Ferdinand. Although holding no command in the World War, owing to ill health, he strongly urged that Bulgaria join the Central Powers in order to recover Macedonia from Serbia. In Sept. 1918 he returned to Bulgaria from abroad in an attempt to overthrow the Malinoff Cabinet, and keep Bulgaria in the War, but found that King Ferdinand had already abdicated. On Oct. 22, 1922, he was appointed Bulgarian minister in Paris, but retired after the anti-Agrarian coup d’état of June 9, 1923. He died on July 22, 1928, at Vallier-de-Thiey, Alpes-Maritimes.

SAVOIE, a department of France, formed in 1860 of the old provinces of Haute Savoie, Savoie, the Tarentaise and the Maurienne, which constituted the southern portion of the duchy

of Savoy. It is bounded north by the department of Haute Savoie, east and south-east by Italy, south-west by the department of the Hautes Alpes, and west by those of the Isére and the Ain. Pop. (1926) 231,210; area 2,388 sq.m. It is mainly made up of the basin of the Isére. Probably the Isére formerly communicated with the Rhone past Chambéry and the Lac du Bourget. The sources of the Isére and of the Arc are separated by the ridge of the Col du Mont Iseran (9,085 ft.). The loftiest points are the Grande Casse (12,668 it.), the culminating summit of the

Vanoise group, the Mont Pourri (12,428 ft.), the Pointe de Charbonel (12,336 ft.), the Aiguille de la Grande Sassiére (12,323 ft.), the Dent Parrachée (12,179 ft.), the Levanna (11,943 ft.) and the Aiguilles d’Arves (11,529 ft.). A small portion of the department

al

and at Challes, those of Salins being saline, and those of Brides (the best known after Aix) alkaline. For the history of the district see Savoy, House oF. See J. J. Vernier, Dict. top. du dèp. dé la Savote (Chambéry 1897).

SAVONA,

a seaport and episcopal see of Liguria, Italy,

the capital of the province of Savona, 27 m. W.S.W. of Genoa by rail, 33 ft. above sea-level, and after Genoa and Nice the most important of the cities of the Riviera. Pop. (1921) 53,063, town; 38,711, commune. The greater part of the town is now modern with fine streets with porticoes. It is surrounded with green-clad hills and luxuriant orange groves. Near the shore stands the castle built by the Genoese in 1542, on the area of the old cathedral, and now occupied by large iron-works. The

cathedral (1589-1604) is a late Renaissance building with a rath century font, fine choir-stalls and pulpit (1500). In the Cappella Sistina, to the north, stands the finely carved tomb erected by Sixtus IV. to his parents. Facing the cathedral is the Della Rovere palace erected by Cardinal Giulio della Rovere (Julius IT.) from the plans of Giuliano da Sangallo, now occupied by various public buildings, the prefecture, the post-office and law-courts. The municipal picture gallery is interesting, and there are some fine old buildings in the town. Good majolica was made in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The Teatro Chiabrera was erected in 1853 in honour of the lyric poet Chiabrera (1552—1637). The harbour, dating from 1815, has since 1880 been provided with a dock excavated in the rock, 986 ft. long, 460 ft. wide and 23 ft. deep. Savona is one of the chief seats of the Italian iron industry, having iron-works and foundries, shipbuilding, railway workshops, a railway signal factory, engineering shops, brass foundry, tinplate works, sulphur mills and glass-works. In 1926 1,610 vessels of 1,251,207 tons entered and cleared the port, dealing with 1,301,070 tons of merchandise, of which 1,202,967 tons were imports, almost entirely foreign coal and petrol. The coal is dealt with by an extensive telferage system. There is a railway through the mountains from Savona to Turin (91 m. N.N.W.).

Savona is the ancient Savo, a town of the Ingauni (see ALBENGA), but less important than Vada Sabatia (Vado), 4 m. to the W., up to which the coast road from Rome was reconstructed in 109 B.C., from which a road diverged across the Apennines to Placentia. In 1191 Savona bought up the territorial claims of the marquesses Del Carretto. Its whole history is that of a long struggle against the preponderance of Genoa. As early as the r2th century the Savonese built themselves a sufficient harbour; but in the 16th century the Genoese, fearing that Francis I. of France Intended to make it a great seat of Mediterranean trade, rendered it useless by sinking at its mouth vessels filled with large stones.

SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO (1452-1498), Italian monk

and reformer, born at Ferrara on Sept. 21, 1452, was the third child of Michele Savonarola and his wife Elena Bonaccossi of Mantua. Elena was tenderly loved by her famous son, and his letters prove that she retained his fullest confidence through all the vicissitudes of his career. Girolamo was intended for the medical profession, but even as a boy he had intense pleasure in reading St. Thomas Aquinas and the Arab commentators of Aristotle, was skilled in the subtleties of the schools, wrote verses and studied music and design. To the mystic young student all festivities were repulsive, and although reared in a courtier-household he early asserted his individuality by his contempt for court life. At the age of 19 he was passionately in love with the daughter of a neighbour, a Strozzi exiled from Florence, but his suit

(including both shores of the Lac du Bourget) is in the part of the duchy of Savoy neutralised in 1815. The chief products are was repulsed with disdain and this probably decided his career. cattle and dairy-products and wine. There are general manufac- He was full of doubt and self-distrust, but in 1474 his doubts were tures and tobacco is grown. It is divided into 3 arrondissements dispelled by a sermon heard at Faenza and he entered the monas(Chambéry, the chief town, Albertville and St. Jean de Mau- tery of St. Domenico at Bologna, where his novitiate was marked rienne), 29 cantons and 330 communes, It forms the dioceses of by a fervour of humility, He passed six quiet years in the conChambéry (an archbishopric), Moutiers-Tarentaise, St. Jean de vent, but his poems written during that period are expressive of Maurienne and Anneçy, it is in the XIVth military region burning indignation against the corruptions of the church. . In 1482 he reluctantly accepted a mission to Ferrara, and (Lyons), and is in the académie (educational division) of Chambéry, where is its court of appeal. There are mineral springs at later he was sent to the convent of St. Mark in Florence. In 1483 Aix-les-Bains (g.v.), while other sulphur springs rise at Marlioz he was Lenten preacher in the church of St. Lorenzo, but his plain,

22

SAVONAROLA

earnest exhortations attracted few hearers. His first success as a| preacher was gained at San Gimignano (1484-85), but it was only at Brescia in the following year that his power as an orator was fully revealed. In a sermon on the Apocalypse he shook men’s souls by his terrible threats of the wrath to come, and drew tears from their eyes by the tender pathos of his assurances of divine mercy. Soon, at a Dominican council at Reggio, Savonarola had occasion to display his theological learning and subtlety. The famous Pico della Mirandola was particularly impressed by the friar’s attainments, and is said to have urged Lorenzo de’ Medici to recall him from Lombardy. When Savonarola returned to Florence in 1490, his fame as an orator had gone there before him, and on Aug. 1, 1490, he first preached in the church of St. Mark. Prior of St. Mark’s.—In 1491 he was invited to preach in the cathedral, and his rule over Florence may be said to begin from that date. Lorenzo sent leading citizens to him to urge him to show more respect to the head of the state. Savonarola rejected

their advice and foretold the impending deaths of Lorenzo, of the pope and of the king of Naples. In the July of the same year he was elected prior of St. Mark’s. As the convent had been rebuilt by Cosimo, and enriched by the bounty of the Medici, it was considered the duty of the new superior to present his homage to Lorenzo, Savonarola, however, refused to conform to the usage.

His election was due to God, not Lorenzo. In April 1492, Lorenzo de’ Medici was on his death-bed at Careggi.

Oppressed by the

weight of his sins, he summoned the unyielding prior to shrive his soul. Savonarola reluctantly came and offered absolution upon three conditions. Lorenzo asked in what they consisted. First, “You must repent and feel true faith in God’s mercy.” Lorenzo assented. Secondly, “You must give up your ill-gotten wealth.” This, too, Lorenzo promised, after some hesitation; but upon hearing the third clause, “You must restore the liberties of Florence,” Lorenzo turned his face to the wall and made no reply. Savonarola waited a few moments and then went away. And shortly after Lorenzo died unabsolved. Savonarola’s influence now rapidly increased. The same year Innocent VIII. died (July 1492) and men’s minds were full of anxiety, an anxiety increased by the scandalous election of Cardinal Borgia to the papal chair. During the delivery of one of his Advent sermons, Savonarola beheld the vision, recorded in contemporary medals and engravings, that is almost a

trumpets unless the sums exacted were paid, Capponi tore up the treaty in his face and made the memorable reply: “Then we will ring our bells.” The monarch, alarmed at tbe dangerous possibilities of fighting in the narrow streets of the city, accepted moderate terms, and, yielding to Savonarola’s remonstrances, left Florence on Nov. 24. The citizens turned to the patriot monk whose words had freed them of King Charles, and Savonarola became the law-giver of Florence. The first thing done at his instance was to relieve the starving populace within and without the walls; shops were opened to give work to the unemployed; all taxes, especially those weighing on the lower classes, were reduced; the strictest administration of justice was enforced, and all men were exhorted to place their trust in the Lord. And, after much debate as to the constitution of the new republic, Savonarola’s influence carried the day in favour of Soderini’s proposal of a universal or general government, with a great council on the Venetian plan. Savonarola’s programme of the new government was comprised in the

following formula: (1) fear of God and purification of manners; (2) promotion of the public welfare in preference to private interests; (3) a general amnesty to political offenders; (4) a council on the Venetian model, but with no doge. At first the new machinery acted well; the public mind was tranquil. Dictator of Florence.—Without holding any official post in the commonwealth he had created, the prior of St. Mark’s was the dictator of Florence, and guarded the public weal with extraordinary political wisdom. At his instance the tyrannical system of

arbitrary imposts and so-called voluntary loans was abolished, and replaced by a tax of 10% (la decima) on all real property. His counsels were always given as addenda to the religious exhortations in which he denounced the sins of his country and the pollution of the church, and urged Florence to cast off iniquity and become a truly Christian city, a pattern not only to Rome but to the world at large. His eloquence was now at the flood. Pleasure-loving Florence was completely changed. Abjuring pomps and vanities, its citizens observed the ascetic régime of the cloister. Hymns and psalms rang in the streets that had so recently echoed with Lorenzo’s dissolute songs. Both sexes dressed with Puritan plainness; husbands and wives quitted their homes for convents and persons of all ranks—nobles, scholars and artists—renounced the world to assume the Dominican robe. Still more wonderful symbol of his doctrine. A hand appeared to him bearing a flaming was Savonarola’s influence over children, and their response to sword inscribed with the words: “Gladius Domini supra terram his appeals is a proof of the magnetic power of his goodness and cito et velociter.” THe heard supernatural voices proclaiming purity. He organized the boys of Florence in a species of sacred mercy to the faithful, vengeance on the guilty, and mighty cries militia and it was with the aid of these youthful enthusiasts that that the wrath of God was at hand. Then the sword bent towards | Savonarola arranged the religious carnival of 1496, when the citithe eatth, the sky darkened, ‘thunder pealed, lightning flashed, and zens gave their costliest possessions in alms to the poor, and tonthe whole world was wasted by famine, bloodshed and pestilence. sured monks, crowned with flowers, sang hymns and performed He was presently addressing enthusiastic congregations at Prato wild dances for the glory of God. In the same spirit, and to point and Bologna whence he returned to Florence. He was rapturously the doctrine of renunciation of worldly enjoyments, he celebrated welcomed by the community of St. Mark’s, and at once proceeded the carnival of 1497 by the famous “burning of the vanities”- G.e. to re-establish the discipline of the order. For this purpose he masks and other objects pertaining to the carnival festivities, ant obtained, after much difficulty, a papal brief emancipating the decent books and pictures, etc.) in the Piazza della Signoria. Dominicans of St. Mark from the rule of the Lombard vicars of Nevertheless the artistic value of the objects consumed has been that order. He thus became an independent authority, no longer greatly exaggerated by some writers. Savonarola was foe neither at the command of distant superiors. He relegated many of the to art nor to learning. On the contrary, so great was ‘his respect brethren to a quieter retreat outside the city, only retaining in for both that, when there was a question of selling the Medici Florence those best fitted to aid in intellectual labour. Meanwhile library to pay that family’s debts he saved the collection at the he thundered forth predictions of heavenly wrath. In 1494 the expense of the convent purse. Conflict with the Pope.—Meanwhile his uncompromising duke of Milan demanded the aid of France, and King Charles VIII. brought’ an ‘army across the Alps. The incompetent policy spirit roused the hatred of political adversaries as well as of the of Piero de’ Medici, Lorenzo’s SUCCESSOT, towards Charles drove degraded court of Rome. Even now, when his authority was at Florence to revolt. But even at this crisis Savonarola’s influence its highest, when his fame filled the land, and the vast cathedral was all-powerful, and a bloodless revolution was effected. The and its precincts lacked space for the crowds flocking to hear him, resuscitated republic sent a fresh embassy to the French king, to his enemies were secretly preparing his downfall. Events were arrange the terms of his reception in Florence. Savonarola was one taking a turn hostile to the prior and Alexander VI., having seen of the envoys, Charles‘being known to entertain the greatest ven- a transcript of one of Savonarola’s cenlnciations of his crimes, eration for the friar'who had so long: predicted “his ‘coming and resolved to silence this daring preacher. declared it to be divinely ordained. Charles entered’ Florence on ' Bribery was thé first weapon employed, end: a cardinal’s hat Nov. 17, 1494, but the exorbitance of his demands soon showed was held out-:as a bait. But Savonarola’ indiguantly spurned ‘the that he came as a foe. ‘The signory resolved to be rid of their offer. ‘So long'as' King Charles remained in Italy Alexander’s condangerous guest; and, when Charles threatened to sound his ‘cern for his own safety prevented vigorous rméasures’ against the

SAVONAROLA

23

friar, but no Borgia ever forgave an enemy. He bided his time and in July 1495, a papal brief courteously summoned Savonarola to Rome. In terms of equal courtesy the prior declined the invitation, nor did he obey a second less softly worded, mn September. Then came a third, threatening Florence with an interdict in case of renewed refusak Savonarola disregarded the command, but went to preach for a while in other Tuscan cities. But in Lent his celebrated sermons upon Amos were delivered in the Duomo, and again he urged the necessity of reforming the church, striving by ingenious arguments to reconcile rebellion against Alexander with unalterable fidelity to the Holy See. Alexander now issued a brief, uniting St. Mark’s to a new Tuscan branch of the Dominicans, thus depriving Savonarola of his independent power, while Piero de’ Medici’s followers continued their intrigues, and party spirit increased in virulence. The citizens were growing weary of the monastic austerities imposed on them, and Alexander foresaw that his revenge was at hand. A signory openly hostile to Savonarola took office in May, and,

alone, Fra Domenico protested his willingness to enter it with any one in defence of his master’s cause. As Savonarola resolutely declined the trial, the Franciscan deputed a convert, one Giuliano dei Rondinelli, to go through the ordeal with Fra Domenico. Savonarola, perceiving that a trap was being laid for him, discountenanced the “experiment” until his calmer judgment was at last overborne by the fanaticism of his followers. On April 7, 1498, an immense throng gathered in the Piazza della Signoria to enjoy the barbarous sight. The Dominicans, led by Savonarola, and the Franciscans came forward, but neither Rondinelli nor Fra Francesco appeared and there were angry disputes between the two groups of friars. It was now late in the day, and a storm shower gave the authorities a pretext for declaring that heaven was against the ordeal. The Franciscans slipped away unobserved, but Savonarola raising the host attempted to lead his monks across the piazza in solemn order as before. On this the popular fury burst forth. Defrauded of their cruel diversion, the people were wild with rage. Fra Girolamo’s power was suddenly at an end. Against

in feigned anxiety for the public peace, besought him to suspend his discourses. Shortly afterwards the threatened bull of excommunication was launched against him, and Fra Mariano was in Rome stimulating the pope’s wrath. Savonarola remained undaunted. The sentence was null and void, he said. His mission was divinely inspired; and Alexander, elected simoniacally and laden with crimes, was no true pope. Nevertheless the reading of the bull in the Duomo with the appropriate, terrifying ceremonial, made a deep impression on the Florentines. But in July Savonarola’s friends were again in power and did their best to have his excommunication removed. During this time Rome was horrorstruck by the mysterious murder of the young duke of Gandia, and the bereaved pope mourned his son with the wildest grief. Savonarola wrote him a letter of condolence, boldly urging him to bow to the will of Heaven and repent while there was yet time. Florence then was plunged in new troubles through Medicean intrigues, and a conspiracy for the restoration of Piero was discovered and resulted in the execution of five leading citizens including Bernardo del Nero, a very aged man of lofty talents and position. It is said that at least Bernardo del Nero would have been spared had Savonarola raised his voice, but the prior would not ask mercy for them. This silence proved fatal to his popularity with moderate men. He was now interdicted from preaching even in his own convent and again summoned to Rome. As before, the mandate was disobeyed. He refrained from public preaching, but held conferences in St. Mark’s with large gatherings of his disciples, and defied the interdict on Christmas Day by publicly celebrating mass and heading a procession through the cloisters. In 1498 the Piagnoni, as Savonarola’s followers were called, were again at the head of the state, and at their request the prior resumed his sermons in the Duomo, while his dearest disciple, Fra Domenico Buonvicini, filled the pulpit of St. Lorenzo. For the last time the carnival was again kept with strange religious festivities, and some valuable books and works of art were sacrificed in a second bonfire of “vanities.” But menacing briefs poured in from Rome, the city itself was threatened with interdict, and the Florentine ambassador could barely obtain a short delay. Now, too, the Piagnoni quitted office; the new signory was less friendly, and the prior was persuaded by his adherents to retire to St. Mark’s. Alexander now demanded that the Florentines should silence the man themselves or send him to be judged by a Roman tribunal. Savonarola now despatched letters to the rulers of Europe adjuring them to assemble a council to condemn this antipope. But the papal threats were now urgent, and the signory entreated Savonarola--to cease preaching. He obeyed, ‘and concluded. his last discourse with the most touching farewell. The government hoped, that Alexander would be appeased and Florence allowed. to ‘breathe freely. But although silenced, the prophet -was,dogmed: A. creature of the Arrabbiati, a Franciscan. friar named, Francesco: di Puglia, challenged: Savonarola to preve the truth of his doctrines by the ordealof fire. At:first:the prior treated the provocation. with merited contempt, but his too.. zealous disciple Fra Domenico 'accepted.the challenge and, when the Franciscan declared, that he would-enter:the fite with Savonarola:

the real culprits, the Franciscans, no anger was felt;-the zealous prior, the prophet and lawgiver of Florence, was made the popular scapegoat. Notwithstanding the anguish that must have filled his heart, the fallen man preserved his dignity and calm. Mounting his own pulpit in St. Mark’s he quietly related the events of the day to the faithful assembled in the church, and then withdrew to his cell, while the mob outside clamoured for his blood. Artest and Trial_—The next morning the government decided on his arrest, and no sooner was this made public than the populace rushed to the attack of the convent. The monks and their few remaining friends made a most desperate defence. In vain Savonarola besought them to lay down their arms. When the church was finally stormed Savonarola was seen praying at the altar, with Fra Domenico, armed with an enormous candlestick, guarding him from the blows of the mob. A few disciples dragged their beloved master to the inner library and urged him to escape, when a cowardly monk, one Malatesta Sacramoro, cried out that the shepherd should lay down his life for his flock. Thereupon Savonarola turned, bade farewell to the brethren, and, accompanied by the faithful Domenico, quietly surrendered to his enemies. The prisoners were conveyed to the Palazzo Vecchio. Now came an exultant brief from the pope. His well-beloved Florentines were true sons of the church, but must crown their good deeds by despatching the criminals to Rome. The signory

+

refused to send their prisoners to Rome but they did Rome’s behests. Day after day Savonarola was tortured, and in his agony, with a frame weakened by constant austerity and the mental strain of the past months, he made every admission demanded by his tormentors. But directly he was released from the rack he always withdrew the confessions uttered in the delirium of pain. These being too incoherent to serve for a legal report, a false

account of the friar’s avowals was drawn up and published. Alexander was frantically eager to see his enemy die in Rome, But the signory insisted that the false prophet should suffer death before the Florentines whom he had so long led astray. The matter was finally compromised. A second mock trial was held by two apostolic commissioners specially appointed by the pope. Meanwhile the trial of Brothers Domenico and Silvestro was still in progress. The former remained faithful to his master and himself. No extremity of torture could make him recant or extract a syllable to Savonarola’s hurt; he steadfastly repeated his belief in, the divinity. of the prior’s mission. Fra Silvestro on the contrary gave way at mere sight of the rack, and owned himself and his master guilty of every crime laid to their charge. The two commissioners soon- ended their task. They had the pope’s orders that Savonarola was to die “even were he a second. John the Baptist.” On three successive days they “examined” the prior with worse tortures than before. On May 22 sentence. of :death. was-pronounced on him and his two disciples. : Savos . ‘narola listened unmoved to the awful words and then quietly resumed. ‘his interrupted devotions. Fra.Domenico exulted in:thé thought of dying by his master’s. side; Fra Silvestro,-on- the preu 2e F Paperon ge l teap YA -Catrying the wood or stone along under the blade, ‘but this is i

í

28

SAW-MILL—SAWS

not suitable for thick metal-cutting. The band-saws cut faster, with better guidance, and the dust is carried away more effectually. These machmes are either vertical or horizontal. In the former design the metal is clamped to a horizontal table and the blade runs over a top pulley and down through the work and table to the lower pulley. Straight or curved cuts are controlled by the movements of the table by handles and screws operating slides. Though small machines are occasionally used instead of the Jig-saws, most band-saws are of fairly large dimensions, with pulleys from 3 ft. to about 6 ft. in diameter, the latter size admitting slabs or forgings of nearly 6 ft. in depth. The pulleys are covered with rubber tyres to give the grip to the saw, and in cutting iron and steel a

soapy water solution has to be pumped on to the blade. This is run through a guide immediately above the surface of the work to assist in true cutting. Horizontal band-saws of large dimensions deal with forgings, fed along by a table as in a planingmachine, and are also very convenient for trimming off the uneven edges of flanged plates, for boiler construction, enabling the caulking to be done properly after riveting together. Circular Sawing Machines.—These comprise a large group, from little ones to saw bone, fibre, aluminium, brass and copper, to the more powerful types that cut iron and steel. The speeds of rotation of the saws for the soft materials are high, and the feeding can often be effected by hand instead of by slides or levers such as are necessary in steel and iron sawing. Sometimes it is the saw that is fed along by a slide, sometimes the work on aslide

stock-yard in the rail system, and carries the logs on to the machines. The cutting is performed on various kinds of big machines, a preliminary operation often being that of cross-cutting to obtain convenient lengths. Cutting up into the various thicknesses is done by either reciprocating or band-saws, or circular saws, the log being held with dogs on a table which feeds it past the saw. Some band-sawing machines are of horizontal design, some vertical, the latter taking up less floor-space. The log-frame is a machine with a set of vertically reciprocating blades, suitably spaced apart, and

it divides a log into boards at one pass of the table. The number of blades may be few, not exceeding four in some cases for cutting thick pieces, or as many as fifty for thin boards. Re-sawing machines are those for further dealing with material partly broken up, such as flitches and deals. The great quantity of sawdust and chips from the machines is neatly disposed of by pneumatic ducts ending in the boiler house, on the system mentioned in FANS.

HACK-SAW

KEYHOLE HACK-SAW

instead. The machines which cut girders have a special yielding motion to the feed device: this causes the saw to feed more slowly through the thick sections than through the thin webs, which can naturally be penetrated at a faster rate. The saw is clamped on a spindle with nut and washer for ordinary cutting, but the flush-side machines have the saw attached with sunken bolts, so that one side of it is perfectly flat. This provision is

D

essential for iron and steel foundries, to part off the superfluous runners or gates (which feed the molten metal into the mould) flush with the surface. Ordinary saw blades are formed with the teeth cut in the same disc, but the larger blades, especially for steel forging sawing, have inserted teeth, each held in with a wedge and screw fastening, so that any breakages can be made good cheaply and quiċkly. The largest blades cut armour-plate and ingots, also pieces out of big crankshaft forgings to form the webs. Duplex blades, running side by side at the appropriate distance apart halve the time of cutting out such slabs.

In the iron and steel works hot metal during forging or rolling operations is parted by a special sort of machine, the hot saw, that

cuts at a fast rate. The large machines act on the pendulum princi-

POWER SAW

ple, the blade being run in bearings at the bottom end of a deep swing frame which is pushed across by hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder to pass the saw through the hot metal, resting on a slideway beneath. The speed of revolution is higb, and large horsepower is consumed. Friction Sawing Machines.—These are peculiar inasmuch as. the circular blade has no cutting teeth, but is driven at so high a speed that the friction generates such heat in the immediate vicinity that the metal is burned through. For instance a railway

rail of go lb. per yard can be parted off in 7 seconds, or a channel section of 12 in. by 6 in. with # in. thick metal in 14 seconds, leaving a clean smooth finish. Some assistance is given to the action if the blade is very slightly notched around the periphery, though not like the true teeth of a saw. (F. H.) SAW-MILL, strictly, a mill in which logs are “broken down” into balks, deals, flitches, battens, planks and boards for sale or further treatment. But often the word is applied to a mill the plant of which includes planing, moulding, tenoning and other machines for finishing processes. The biggest mills are usually situated near a timber supply, brought by river or rail, and the design of the mill is in some degree affected by the mode of transit. More space is necessary for storage in the rail-borne example. In the water-borne system the logs float right into the mill and are dragged out in turn by a winch. An overhead crane serves the

DOCKING OR FRAMING SAW

HAND ICE-SAW

ONE-MAN CROSS-CUT SAW POWER SAW BY COURTESY OF SIMONDS SAW AND STEEL co,

THE

DE

WALT

PRODUCTS

TYPES OF SAWS WITH’ A MOTOR-DRIVEN CENTRE

€O.;

OTHERS

BY

WOODWORKER

COURTESY

OF

THE

SAW IN THE

SAWS, cutting-tools with toothed edges. The various types of saw may be classified into reciprocating, revolving, and travelling, #.¢., band-saws passing around wheels. The first class includes numerous hand- and machine-operated blades, some cut-

ting only on the one stroke, others cutting both backwards and forwards.

The second class covers the circular saws for wood,

20

SAWTREY—SAXE bone, ivory and metal; the largest of the third class are made up to about 12 ft. in diameter. Large band-saws are used for cutting up big forgings into various outlines. Some saws have the teeth milled or punched out of the solid plate or web; others haye teeth fastened in with wedges, so that they are easily replaced in case of fracture, besides being easier to make and temper. What are termed friction saws have either no teeth or but slight notches on the periphery, and they will cut through iron and steel owing to the heat generated by the friction at the great speed of rotation. Diamond saws have a large number of diamonds fixed in pockets on the rim and are employed for stone sawing. The principal difficulties with saws are clearance in the “kerf,” which depends on the “set” or side projection of the teeth beyond the web or plate of the saw; and true cutting, which depends partly on guidance and partly on the truth of the blade. Circular saws for wood are hammered to make a “tension,” so that although the saw does not lie true while at rest, its rim runs perfectly true at the appropriate speed for which it has been tensioned.

SAXE,

was best known

Saws date from Neolithic times, when they were formed from

(d. 1401), English Lollard, was a

priest at Lynn who was summoned before the bishop of Norwich for heresy in 1399. He was the first Lollard martyr, being burned at St. Paul’s Cross in March 1401.

SAX, ANTOINE

GODFREY

(1816-1887), American poet,

as a writer of humorous

verse and a lecturer.

His Some of his lyrics have genuine feeling as well as grace. Growing “I’m ,” McBride Miss Proud “The “Rhyme of the Rail,” Old” and “Treasures in Heaven” were once very popular. Among his published collections are Humorous and Satirical Poems (1850),

flint flakes with finely jagged edges; they were followed by metal saws made in bronze or copper. Now steel is employed exclusively, some for sawing wood being tempered soft enough to be’ sharpened with a file, while those for cutting metal can only be sharpened with a grinding wheel. The fineness or coarseness of teeth varies greatly, according to the class of sawing. So do the shapes of teeth, some pointing forward with straight or curved edges, others of equal angles and many of special M shapes for heavy cross-cutting of lumber. The most elaborate teeth have “cleaner” teeth interspaced so as to scrape out the sawdust and clean the kerf neatly. In the larger circular saws the inserted class of teeth is very common. These are held in pockets around the disc with a V fastening and a springy holder, or with a wedge fixing. (See WoopworKING MACHINERY; MaCHINE TOOLS.)

SAWTREY, WILLIAM

JOHN

humorist and editor, was born at Highgate, Vt., June 2, 1816. He

JOSEPH, known as ADOLPHE (1814-

1894), maker of musical instruments, was born at Dinant in Belgium on Nov. 6, 1814, and died in Paris in 1894. In 1835 he perfected a bass clarinet superior to any that had preceded it. He went to Paris in 1842, and set up a workshop in the Rue St. Georges. Sax discovered a new principle in the manufacture of wind instruments, viz., that it is the proportions given to a column of air vibrating in a sonorous tube, and these alone, that determine the character of the timbre produced: the material of the walls of the tube is not of the slightest importance so Jong as it offers enough resistance. In 1845 he patented his saxhorn and a family of cylinder instruments called saxotrombas. On June 22, 1846 he registered the saxophone. He also effected various improvements in piston instruments, of which the most important was the substitution of a single ascending piston for a number of descending ones.

See J. P. O. Cornettant, Histoire d'un inventeur (1860); C. Pilard, Les Inventions Sax (1869).

SAXA RUBRA, also called An Rusras (rupes, że., the red

The Times, The Telegraph, and other Poems (1865), and Leisure Day Rhymes (1875). He died at Albany, N. Y., March 31, 1887.

SAXE, MAURICE,

COMTE DE (1696-1750), marshal of

y and the France, was the natural son of Augustus Ti. of Saxon sent him to countess Aurora Konigsmarck. In 1698 the countess

in the Warsaw to his father, who had been elected king of Poland the of ion condit led unsett the of t previous year, but on accoun

e its limits. country the greater part of his youth was spent outsid and under lands, Nether the in e Eugén He served under Prince in I7II Peter the Great against the Swedes. After receiving he count, of rank the with father, his from ition formal recogn the in part took he 1712 in and nia, accompanied him to Pomera lance to siege of Stralsund. In manhood he bore a strong resemb powerso was grasp His ter. charac and his father, both in person to the last ful that he could bend a horse-shoe with his hand, and illnesses his energy and endurance were scarcely subdued by the wife, rich a d marrie he 1714 In s. resulting from his many excesse ated her Johanna Victoria, countess von Loeben, but he dissip marfortune so rapidly that he was soon heavily in debt, and the camriage was annulled in 1721. Meantime, after serving in a to Paris, to gone 1719 in had he 1717, in Turks paign against the maréstudy mathematics, and in 1720 obtained a commission as for his elecchal de camp. In 1725 negotiations were entered into s Anna duches the of ce instan the at tion as duke of Courland, 1726, Ivanovna, who offered him her hand. He was chosen duke in to ible imposs it found s duches the with ge but declining marria

ance resist her opposition to his claims, although, with the assist

reur, of £30,000 lent him by the French actress Adrienne Lecouv 1727, till ity author his ined mainta he he raised a force by which when he withdrew and took up his residence in Paris. On the outand break of the war in 1734 he served under Marshal Berwick, for a brilliant exploit at the siege at Philippsburg he was in August named lieutenant-general. On the opening of the Austrian Succes army the of on divisi a of nd sion War in 1741, he took comma sent to invade Austria, and on Nov. rọ surprised Prague during the night, and took it by assault before the garrison were aware of the presence of an enemy. After capturing the fortress of Eger on April 19, 1742, he received leave of absence, and went to Russia to push his claims on the duchy of Courland, but obtaining no success he returned to his command. His exploits had been the sole redeeming feature in an unsuccessful campaign, and on March 26, 1743, he was promoted to be marshal of France. Marshal Saxe was now one of the first generals of the age. In 1744 he was chosen to command the expedition to England on behalf of the Pretender, which assembled at Dunkirk but did not

proceed farther. After its abortive issue he received an independent command in the Netherlands, and by dexterous manoeuvring succeeded in continually harassing the superior forces of the

enemy without risking a decisive battle. In the following year he besieged Tournai and inflicted a severe defeat on the relieving

army of the duke of Cumberland at Fontenoy (g.v.). Thencefor-

the end of the war he continued to command in the Nethtufa cliffs) a post-station on the ancient Via Flaminia, ọm. north of ward to always with success. Besides Fontenoy he added Rocoux Rome. The modern hamlet of Prima Porta takes its name from erlands, Lawfeldt or Val (1747) to the list of French victories, and (1746) It period. tine the remains of a brick arch, perhaps of Constan under his orders that Marshal Léwendahl captured was and it was the site of the defeat of Maxentius by Constantine in A.D. He himself won the last success of the war in p-Zoom. Bergen-o nity Christia of triumph the 312 in the decisive battle which sealed in 1748. In 1747 the title formerly held by ht Maestric g capturin (see CONSTANTINE I.). This is often known as the battle of the general of the King’s camps and armies,” was Milvian bridge, from the fact that Maxentius and many of his Turenne, “Marshal But on Nov. 30, 1750, he died at Chambord. him. for revived headrouted troops were drowned there. That Constantine’s In 1748 there had been born to him a daughter, one of several quarters were at Malborghetto has been proved by Toebelmann. illegitimate children, whose granddaughter was George Sand. rg, author of a remarkable work on the art of war, See F. Toebelmann, Der Bogen von Malborghetto (Heidelbe orische Gage was the Akademie der Wissenschaften, Abhandlung, philosophisch-histRoman which though described by Carlyle as “a strange Réveries, Mes of Klasse, 1918).; T. Ashby and R. A . L. Fell in Journal (1923); T. dictated, as I should think, under opium,” is in farrago, military le Bollettino Communa Studies XI. (1921); G. Lugli in Ashby, The Roman Campagna in Classical Times; chap. xii. (1927).

fact a classic.

It was published posthumously

in 1757

(ed

SAXE-ALTENBURG—SAXIFRAGACEAE

30 Paris, 1877).

d in 1794BIBLIOGRAPEY.—Saxe’s Lettres et mémoires choisis appeareFrankreich von See C., von Weber, Moritz Graj von Sachsen, M arschall étude historique (Leipzig, 1863) ; St. René Taillandier, Maurice de Saxe, and C. F. d'après les documents des archives de Dresde (1865); H. Pichat, La Vitzthum, Maurice de Saxe (Leipzig, 1861); also. . . Suivie d'une Campagne du Maréchal de Saxe dans les Flanders e cette campagn correspondence inédite de Maurice de Saxe pendant (1909), which contains a full bibliography.

-ALTENBURG.

The district later forming the duchy

SAXE ve of of Saxe-Altenburg came into the possession of the margra of the part formed n Meisse with later and 1329, about n Meisse into a made was rg ltenbu Saxe-A 1603 In electorate of Saxony. again separate duchy, but this only lasted until x672. In 1825 it of Duke sly previou ck, Frederi under duchy e separat became a the by ated termin was reign s Saxe-Hildburghausen. His family’ German revolution of 1918.

-COBURG-GOTHA, formerly a sovereign duchy of

SAXE and Germany and a constituent member of the German empire,

and since 1918 amalgamated into Thuringia. (See THURINGIA BAVARIA.) History.—The district of Coburg came into the possession of the family of Wettin in the 14th century, and after the Wettins had become electors of Saxony this part of their lands fell at the partition of 1485 to the Ernestine branch of the house. From that time onwards Coburg, Gotha and Saalfeld were frequently of partitioned and repartitioned until 1826, when Ernest, duke the took Gotha, for Saalfeld d exchange feld, urg-Saal Saxe-Cob title of duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and became the founder of the house which ruled until the revolution of 1918. On the death of Ernest IL, in 1893 the succession passed to the children of his brother Albert, the English prince consort, whose son Prince Alfred reigned from 1893 to 1900, and was succeeded by his nephew Charles Edward, duke of Albany, the last reigning duke.

to his state was the first German sovereign to give a constitution the press of m Freedo Act. Federal the of XIII. under Article focus of being secured under its constitution, Weimar became a wrath the duke grandthe upon down drew which n, agitatio liberal thus was He ). History Y, GERMAN of the reactionary powers (see grandforced to curtail some of the liberties granted. In 1866 the the duchy joined Prussia against Austria and afterwards entered In empire. North German Confederation and the new German 1919 the grand-duchy was absorbed in the new republican state of Thuringia, of which Weimar became the capital. SAXHORN, the generic name of a family of brass wind inmouthstruments (not horns but valve-bugles) with cup-shaped pieces, invented by Adolphe Sax and in use chiefly in French and Belgian military bands and in small wind-bands. The saxhorns came into being in 1843, when Sax applied a modification of the valve system, invented in Germany in 1815, to the keyed bugle. The saxhorn consists of a conical tube of a calibre greater than that of French horn and trumpet, but smaller than that of the tubas and capable or bombardons, therefore of producing by overblowing the members of the harmonic series from the 2nd to the 8th, in common with the cornets, bugles, valve-trombones and the Wagner tubas. The saxhorns. are

SAXE-MEININGEN, a former grand duchy of Germany, and since 1918 amalgamated into Thuringia (g.v.). History.—The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, or more correctly

Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen,-was founded in 168 by Bernard, the third son of Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Gotha, and consisted’originally of the western part of the later duchy, the district around Meiningen. By the rearrangement of the Saxon duchies in 1826, Saxe-Meiningen benefited greatly, its area being more than doubled by the receipt of s530sq.m. of territory. The additions consisted of the duchy of Saxe-Hildburghausen, the duchy of Saxe-Saalfeld, which had been united with Saxe-Coburg in 1735; and the districts of Themar, Kranichfeld and Kamburg.’

Saxe-Meiningen became a

member of the new German empire in 1871. In 1918 the ruling family lost its power in the general revolution.

SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH,

formerly a grand duchy

of Germany and a sovereign and constituent State of the German empire, and since 1918 amalgamated into Thuringia (q.v.). History—In early times Weimar and district belonged to the counts of Orlamünde, and from the end of the roth century until 1067 it was the seat of the counts of Weimar. In the 14th century it passed to the elector of Saxony, falling at the partition

of 1485 to the Ernestine branch of the Wettin family. It was

not until t64r that Saxe-Weimar emerged into an independent

historical position. In this year, having just inherited Coburg

and Eisenach, the thtee brothers William, Albert, and Ernest

founded the three principalities of Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Eisenach, and Saxe-Gotha:. Eisenach fell to Saxe-Weimar in 1644, and

although the enlarged principality of Saxe-Weimar-Hisenach was temporarily split up into the lines Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Hisenach, and Saxe-Jena, it was again united under Ernest Augustus, who began to reign in 1728. The, reign of Charles Augustus, who assumed the government in 1775, is the most brilliant in the history of Saxe-Weimar. An intelligent patron of literature and art, he attracted to his court the leading scholars in Germany; Goethe, Schiller, and Herder were members of this illustrious band, and the little state attracted the eyes of all Europe.

OF THE

BY COURTESY OF ART

THE

SAXHORN

METROPOLITAN

(A

MUSEUM

MODIFICATION

OF THE KEYED BUGLE)

INVENTED

furnished with three valves, by means of which the compass is rendered chromatic, and which lower the pitch as in other valve instruments. The difference between saxhorns and bombardons or tubas consists in the calibre of the bore, which in the latter

is sufficiently wide in proportion

to the length to produce the funBY ADOLPHE SAX IN 1843 an octave below the lowest series c harmoni the of damental note note of the saxhorns.

eSAXIFRAGACEAE, in botany, a small family of dicotyl

dons belonging to the sub-class Archichlamydeae and the cohort disRosales. There are ninety genera with about 750 species alpine. often zone, ate temper north and Arctic the tributed through It is represented in Britain by its largest genus Saxifraga (see SAXIFRAGE), Chrysosplenium (golden saxifrage) and Parnassia (grass of Parnassus). The plants are herbs, generally with scattered exstipulate leaves with a broad leaf-base. The small flowers l, are generally arranged in cymose, inflorescences and are bisexua regular and hypogynous, perigynous or more frequently more or less epigynous, this variation in the relative position of the ovary occurring in one and the same genus Saxifraga. The free stamens opposite are obdiplostemonous, é.e., those of the outer whorl are free, mes someti are carpels The . carpels two and petals, the to joined tely comple mes someti or base, the more generally united at The to form a one- or two-chambered ovary with two free styles.

fruit is a many-seeded capsule.

i

SaxiNearly half the species (350) are contained in the genus fraga. Chrysosplenium, with 45 species, two of which are British, has a very similar distribution. The North American genus Heuchera has sometimes apetalous flowers. Astilbe has 20 species in temperate Asia and north-eastern North America; A. japonica is commonly grown in the spring as a pot-plant, and often misnamed Spiraea. The family is now extended to include other groups of genera differing in habit and more or less in general conformation from

those referred to. Among these is the genus Ribes,'to which belong

ria) and currants of ‘gardens. These The Congress of Vienna in 1815 added about 660sq.m. to its the gooseberry (R. Grossulaflowers which have only one whorl of „are shrubs with racemes of Augustus. area and gave its ruler the title of grand-duke. Charles Ar

4

btn

È

a

F

1

SAXIFRAGE—SAXONS stamens

(isostemonous), an inferior unilocular ovary with two

parietal placentas, and fruit a berry. Other genera are Hydrangea (g.v.), Deutzia and Philadelphus, all well-known garden plants;

P. coronarius is the so-called syringa or mock-orange. They are shrubs or trees with simple generally opposite leaves, pentamerous

31

The first nine books of the Gesta Danorum comprise traditions of kings and heroes of the half-mythical time up to about gso.

Here we have traditions about Fredfrode, about Amleth (Hamlet)

and Fenge, about Hrolfr Kraki, Hadding, the giant Starkather, Harald Hildetann and Ragnarr Lodbrok. Im this earlier history flowers with epigynous stamens and a tri- to pentalocular ovary. Saxo has also embodied myths of national gods who in tradition Escallonia, which represents a small group of genera with leathery had become Danish kings, for instance, Balder and Hother, and gland-dotted leaves, is also included. of foreign heroes, likewise incorporated in Danish history, as In North America, Saxifraga is represented by about 30 species, the Gothic Jarmunrik (A\S. Eormenric), the Anglian Vermund the other prominent genera being Ribes (currant and gooseberry) (A.S. Garmund) and Uffe (A.S. Offa), the German Hedin and with 20 species, and Heuchera (alum root) with ro species. Hild and others. Frequently the narrative is interrupted by For further details see F. Engler and A. Prantl, Die Natiirlichen translations of poems, which Saxo has used as authentic sources, Pflanzenfamilien {Leipzig, 18837-1908) ; A. B. Rendle, Classification of although they are often only a few generations older than himself. Flowering Planis (Cambridge, 1925). In the later books (x—xvi.) of his work he follows to a greater SAXIFRAGE (Saxifraga), a genus of plants which gives its extent historical accounts, and the more he approaches his own name to the family (Saxifragaceae) of which it is a member. time the fuller and the more trustworthy his relation becomes; There are about 350 species distributed in the temperate and especially brilliant is his treatment of the history of King ValdeArctic parts of the northern hemisphere, frequently at consider- mar and of Absalon. But his patriotism and want of critical able heights on the mountains, and also found on the Andes, sense often blind him to the historical truth. They are mostly herbs, native to mountains and rocky places, with Saxo’s work was published for the first time, from a ms. afterwards perennial rootstocks and leaves in tufts or scattered on the flower- lost, in Paris, 1314, by the Danish humanist Christiern Pedersen; this stalks. The arrangement of the flowers is very various, as also edition was reprinted at Basel, 1534, and at Frankfort, 1576. The last are the size and colour of the flowers themselves. Thirteen spe- complete edition is that of Alfred Holder (Strassburg, 1886). There cies are natives of Britain, some alpine plants of great beauty (S. is an English translation by O. Elton and F. Y. Powell (London, 1894). is a later edition of the first nine books of Saxo’s works, Saxo oppositifolia, S. nivalis, S. aizoides, etc.), and others, like S. granu- There Grammaticus: Die ersten neun Bücher der dänischen Geschichte (ed. lata, frequenting meadows and low ground, while S. tridactylites H. Jantzen, 1899—r900); and a commentary and German trans„ P. may be found on almost any dry wall. S. wmbrosa is London Hermann, Erläuterungen su den ersten neun Büchern der dantschen pride or St. Patrick’s cabbage, a common garden plant, a native Geschichte des Saxo Grammaticus (1901-02). There is also a new Danish edition, Sakses Danesaga (ed. J. Olick, 1925), and a Danish of the Spanish peninsula and also of the mountains of west and study of Saxo’s life and work, 5. C. Larsen, Saxo Grammaticus, hans south-west Ireland. Some 70 species occur in North America, Verk og Person (1925). most numerously in the Rocky Mountain region. Well-known SAXONS, a Teutonic people mentioned for the first time by species are the early saxifrage (S. virginiensis) and the swamp saxifrage (S. pennsylvanica), of the eastern United States and Ptolemy about the middle of the 2nd century. At that time they Canada, and the tufted saxifrage (S. caespitosa), found on rocks are said to have inhabited the neck of the Cimbric peninsula, by in mountains across the continent. Many species are in cultiva- which we have probably to understand the modern province of tion, including the numerous alpine species, such as S. pyramidalis, Schleswig, together with three islands lying off its western coast. S. cotyledon, etc., with tall panicles studded with white flowers, We next hear of them in connection with piratical expeditions in and others, many adapted for rockwork. The strawberry-geranium the North sea about the year 286. These raids became more frequent during the 4th century, and at the beginning of the 5th (S. sarmentosa) is an old conservatory and window plant. SAXO GRAMMATICUS (c. 1150-c. 1206), Danish his- century the northern coast of Gaul and the south-east coast of torian and poet, belonging to a family of warriors, his father and Britain were known at litora Saxonica. During the same period grandfather having served under Valdemar I., king of Denmark the Saxons appear to have conquered a considerable portion of (d. 1182). Saxo was in the service of Archbishop Absalon from north-west Germany. According to their own traditions they about 1182 to rzor. At the archbishop’s suggestion he began, landed at Hadeln in the neighbourhood of Cuxhaven and seized about 1185, to write the history of the Danish Christian kings the surrounding districts from the Thuringians. By the middle of from the time of Sweyn Astridson (d. 1076), but Jater Absalon the 4th century they had advanced westwards into the basin of prevailed on him to write also the history of the earlier heathen the Ysel, and in the following centuries we find them in possestimes, and to combine both into a great work, Gesta Danorum, sion of the whole of the basin of the Ems, except the coast disor Historia Danica. The archbishop died before the work was trict, while that of the Weser with all its tributaries belonged to finished, and therefore the preface, written about 1208, dedicates them as far south as the Diemel, where they bordered on the the work to his successor Archbishop Andreas, and to King Valde- Hessian Franks, the ancient Chatti. The conquest of the Boructuari mar IJ. Nothing else is known about Saxo’s life and person; a who dwelt between the Lippe and the Ruhr marks the extent of chronicle of 1265 calls him “mirae et urbanae eloquentiae cleri- their progress towards the south-west. This took place shortly cus”; and an epitome of his work from, about 1340 describes him before the end of the 7th century. They frequently came into conflict with the Franks and on several occasions had to submit as “egregius grammaticus, origine Sialandicus.” The surname of “Grammaticus” is probably of later origin, to their supremacy. No thorough conquest was, however, carried scarcely earlier than r500, apparently owing to a mistake. The until the time of Charlemagne, who, between the years 772 and title of “provost of Röskilde,” given him in the 16th century, is 785, annexed the whole region as far as the Elbe, destroying in also probably incorrect, the historian being confounded with an 472 the Irminsul, their great sanctuary, near Marsberg on the older contemporary, the provost of the same name. Saxo, from Diemel. Up to this time they had remained entirely heathen. At his apprenticeship as the archbishop’s secretary, had acquired a the beginning of the following century Charlemagne also conbrilliant but somewhat euphuistic Latin style, and wrote fine quered the Saxons known as Nordalbingi in western Holstein, a Latin verses, but otherwise he does not seem to have had any district which had perhaps been occupied by a southward movevery great learning or extensive reading. His models of style ment from the original home of the tribe. It is ‘doubtful how far the Saxons who invaded Britain were were Valerius Maximus, Justin and Martianus Capella, especially the last, Occasionally he mentions Bede, Dudo' of St. Quentin really distinct from the Angli, for all their affinities both in lan-

ànd Paulus Diaconus, but he does not seem to have studied them

or any ‘other historical works thoroughly. His sources are partly

Danish traditions and songs, partly the statements of Archbishop

Absalon, partly the accounts of Icelanders and, lastly, some few earlier sources, lists of Danish kings and short chronicles, which furnished him with some reliable chronological facts. His work

is a loose series of biographies of Danish kings and heroes." .’

guage and custom are with the latter and not with the Saxons (Old Saxons) of the Continent. During the 5th century we hear

also of Saxon settlements on the coasts of Gaul.

The most im-

portant were those at the mouth of the Loire founded in the time of Childeric, Clovis’s father; and at Bayeux, in a district which remained in their possession until towards the close of the 6th century. From the 6th century onwards, however, we hear practically

SAXONY

32 nothing of the Saxons

as a seafaring people.

Almost all the

southern coast of the North sea had now come into the possession of the Frisians, and one can hardly help concluding that most of the maritime Saxons had either voluntarily or by conquest become incorporated in that kingdom. See Ptolemy ii. 11; Eutropius ix. 213 Zosimus iii. 6; Ammianus Marcellinus xxvi. 4. 5, xxvii. 8. 5, xxvili. 2. 12, 7, 8, xxx. 5. 1 and 43 Notitia dignitatum; Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, ii. 19, iv. 10. I4, V. 27, X. 9; Bede, Hist. Eccl. v. 10 seg.; Annales Einhardi; Translatio S. Alexandri; Hucbald, Vita S. Lebutni; Widukind, Res Gestae Saxonicae, i. 1 fi. (F. G. M. B.)

SAXONY, a republic of Germany, ranking among the constituent states of the German Reich fifth in area and third in population, bounded on the south by Czechoslovakia, on the west by Bavaria and Thuringia and on the west, north and east by Prussia. Its frontiers have a circuit of 760 m. and, with the exception of some small exclaves and enclaves, it forms a compact whole of a triangular shape, its base extending from north-east to south-west, and its apex pointing north-west. Its greatest length is r30 m.; greatest breadth 93 m., and total area 5,787 sq.m. Physical Featutes.—Saxony belongs almost entirely to the central mountain region of Germany, only the districts along the north border and around Leipzig descending into the great northEuropean plain. The chief mountain range is the Erzgebirge, stretching for 90 m. along the south border, and reaching in the Fichtelberg (3,979 ft. and 3,953 ft.) the highest elevation in the country. The west and south-west is occupied by ramifications and subsidiary groups of this range, such as the Central Saxon chain, and the Oschatz group. The south-east angle of Saxony is occupied by the mountains of Upper Lusatia (highest summit 2,600 ft.). North-west from this group, and along both banks of the Elbe, which divides it from the Erzgebirge, extends the picturesque Saxon Switzerland. The action of water and ice upon the soft sandstone of which the hills here are chiefly composed has produced deep gorges and isolated fantastic peaks, but the highest summit attains a height of only 1,830 ft.; the more interesting peaks, as the Lilienstein, KG6nigstein and the Bastei, are lower. Saxony lies almost wholly in the basin of the Elbe, which has a navigable course of 72 m. from south-east to northwest. The Mulde, formed of two branches, is the second river

of Saxony; others are the Black Elster, the White Elster, the

Pleisse and the Spree, all part of the Elbe system. There are no lakes of any size. The best known of many mineral springs is at Bad Elster in the Vogtland. Climate.—The climate is mildest in the valleys of the Elbe, Mulde and Pleisse and severest in the Erzgebirge. The average temperature varies from 48° to 50°. The Erzgebirge is the rainiest district, 27} to 33% in. falling yearly; the amount decreases as one proceeds northward, and Leipzig, with an average annual rainfall of 17 in., enjoys the driest climate. Population.—In 1925 the population of Saxony was 4,970,301, ot 858-8 per square mile. Except the free towns, Saxony is the most densely peopled member of the German Republic. The growth of the population since 1815, when Saxony received its present limits, has been as follows: (1815) 1,178,802; (1830)

1,402,066; (1840) 1,706,275; (1864) 2,344,094; (1875) 2,760,

586; (1895) 3,787,688;

(1905) 4,508,601.

The preponderating

industrial activity fosters the tendency of the population to concentrate in towns, and no German state, with the exception of the Hanseatic towns, has so large a proportion of urban population. The people of Saxony are chiefly of pure Teutonic stock; a pro-

portion are Germanized Slavs, and to the south of Bautzen there is a large settlement of Wends, who retain their language. The chief towns are Dresden (pop. 1925, 608,025), Leipzig

(660,140), Chemnitz (323,153), Plauen (109,953), Zwickau (71,826), Zittau (40,387), Meissen (41,800), Freiberg (34,146), Bautzen (44,000), Meerane (23,421), Glauchau (25,502), Reichenbach (30,394), Krimmitzschau (27,253), Werdau (21,140), Pirna (30,237). ; Communications.—The roads in Saxony are numerous and

good, and there are over 2,119 m. of railway.

river is the Elbe.

Agriculture.—Saxony

The only navigable

is one of the most fertile parts of

Germany, and is highly developed agriculturally. Fertility diminishes as we ascend towards the south, until on the bleak crest of the Erzgebirge cultivation ceases. In 1834 a law was passed providing for the union of the scattered lands belonging to each proprietor, and that may be considered the dawn of modern Saxon agriculture. The richest grain districts are near Meissen, Grimma, Bautzen, Débeln and Pirna. The chief crop is rye, but oats are hardly second to it. Wheat and barley are grown in considerably less quantity. Very large quantities of potatoes are grown, especially in the Vogtland. Beet is also grown extensively. Flax is grown in the Erzgebirge and Lusatian mountains, where the manufacture of linen was at one time a flourishing domestic industry. Enormous quantities of cherries, plums and apples are annually borne by the trees round Leipzig, Dresden and Colditz. The Saxon vineyards, chiefly on the banks of the Elbe near Meissen and Dresden, have passed through difficult times of late years, owing to the ravages of the phylloxera.

Live Stock.—Cattle rearing, which has been an industry since the advent of the Wends in the 6th century, is important on the extensive pastures of the Erzgebirge and in the Vogtland. In 1765 the regent Prince Xaver imported 300 merino sheep from Spain, and so improved the native breed by this new strain that Saxon sheep were eagerly imported by foreign nations to improve their flocks, and “Saxon electoral wool” became one of the best brands in the market. Sheep farming, however, has considerably declined within the last few decades. Swine furnish a very large proportion of the flesh diet of the people. Geese abound particularly round Leipzig and in Upper Lusatia, poultry about Bautzen. Forests.—The forests of Saxony are extensive and have long been well cared for both by government and by private proprietors. The famous school of forestry at Tharandt was founded in 1811. The Vogtland is the most densely wooded portion of Saxony, and next comes the Erzgebirge.

Mining.—Silver was raised in the rath century, and argentiferous Iead is still the most valuable ore mined; tin, iron and cobalt rank next, and coal is one of the chief exports. Copper,

zinc and bismuth are also worked. The country is divided into four mining districts: Freiberg, where silver and lead are the chief products; Altenberg, where tin is mainly raised; Schneeberg, yielding cobalt, nickel and ironstone; and Johanngeorgenstadt, with ironstone and silver mines. The coal is found principally in two fields—one near Zwickau, and the other in the governmental district of Dresden. Brown coal or lignite is found chiefly in the north and north-west. Peat is especially abundant on the Erzgebirge, Immense quantities of bricks are made all over the country. Excellent sandstone for building is found on the hills

of the Elbe. Fine porcelain clay occurs near Meissen, and coarser varieties elsewhere. Industries.—The central-European position of Saxony has fostered its commerce; and its manufactures have been encouraged by the abundant water-poweér throughout the country. Nearly one-half of the motive power used in Saxon factories is

supplied by the streams, of which the Mulde, in this respect, is the chief. The early foundation of the Leipzig fairs, and the enlightened policy of the rulers of the country, have also done much

to develop its commercial

and industrial resources.

The

manufacture of textiles is carried on at Zwickau, Chemnitz, Glauchau, Meerane, Hohenstein, Kamenz, Pulsnitz and Bischofswerda. The centre of the cotton manufacture (especially of cotton hosiery) is Chemnitz; cotton-muslins are made throughout the Vogtland, ribbons at Pulsnitz and its neighbourhood. Woollen cloth and buckskin are woven at Kamenz, Bischofswerda and Grossenhain, all in the north-east, woollen and half-woollen underclothing at Chemnitz, Glauchau, Meerane and Reichenbach; while Bautzen and Limbach produce woollen stockings. Linen is manufactured chiefly in the mountains of Lusatia, where the looms are still to some extent found in the homes of the weavers. Damask is produced at Gross-Schénau and other places. Lacemaking, discovered or introduced by Barbara Uttmann in the latter half of the 16th century, and now fostered by government schools, was long an important domestic industry among the villages of the Erzgebirge, and has attained to a great industry

SAXONY in Plauen.

Straw-plaiting is carried on by the inhabitants of the

mountain slopes between Gottleuba and Lockwitz. Waxcloth is manufactured at Leipzig, and artificial flowers at Leipzig and Dresden. Stoneware and earthenware are made at Chemnitz,

Zwickau, Bautzen and Meissen, porcelain (“Dresden china”) at Meissen, chemicals in and near Leipzig. Döbeln, Werdau and Lossnitz are the chief seats of the Saxon leather trade; cigars are very extensively made in the town and district of Leipzig, and hats and pianofortes at Leipzig, Dresden and Chemnitz. Paper is made chiefly in the west of Saxony. Machinery of all kinds is produced, from the sewing-machines of Dresden to the steam-locomotives and marine-engines of Chemnitz. The lastnamed place, though the centre of the iron-manufacture of Saxony, has to import every pound of iron by railway. The leading branch is the machinery used in the industries of the country— mining, paper-making and weaving. The very large printing trade of Leipzig encourages the manufacture of printing-presses in that city. In 1925-26 Saxony contained 144 active breweries. The smelting and refining of the metal ores is also an important industry. The principal exports are wool, woollen, cotton, linen goods, machinery, china, pianofortes, cigarettes, flannels, stockings, cur-

tains and lace, cloth from Reichenbach and Zittau, watches of superlative value from Glashütte and toys from the Vogtland. Constitution—The Constitution of the Republic of Saxony dates from Nov. 1, 1920. The Landtag consists of 96 members. For administrative purposes Saxony is divided into five Kreishauptmannschaften, or governmental departments, centring in the cities of Dresden, Leipzig, Chemnitz, Bautzen and Zwickau respectively. The Oberlandesgericht has its seat at Dresden, and the Reichsgericht—the supreme court of law for the whole German Reich—at Leipzig. Church.—The great majority of the inhabitants of Saxony are Protestants. The government of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church is vested in the Evangelical Consistory at Dresden. Its representative assembly consisting of 40 clergymen and 46 lay members

(1923) is called a synod (Synode). The Moravian Brethren have their chief seat at Herrnhut, Education.—Of the four universities founded by the Saxon electors at Leipzig, Jena, Wittenberg, later transferred to Halle, and Erfurt, now extinct, only the first is included in the present

Republic of Saxony. There are famous endowed schools (Fiirstenschulen) at Meissen and Grimma. Saxony is particularly wellequipped with technical schools, the textile industries being especially fostered by numerous schools of weaving, embroidery and lace-making; but the mining academy at Freiberg and the school of forestry at Tharandt are probably the most widely known. The conservatory of music at Leipzig and the art collections at Dresden have a world-wide reputation. HISTORY The name Saxony has been borne by two distinct blocks of territory. The first was the district in the north-west. of Germany, inhabited originally by the Saxons, which became a duchy and attained its greatest size and prosperity under Henry the Lion in the 12th century. In 1180 it was broken up, and the name of Saxony disappeared from the greater part of it, remaining only

with the districts around Lauenburg and Wittenberg. Five centuries later Lauenburg was incorporated with Hanover, and Wittenberg is the nucleus of modern Saxony, the name being thus transferred from the west to the east of Germany. In t423 Meissen and Thuringia were united with Saxe-Wittenberg under Frederick of Meissen, and gradually the name of Saxony spread over all the lands ruled by this prince and his descendants. The earlier Saxony was the district lying between the Elbe and the Saale on the east, the Eider on the notth and the Rhine on the

west, with a fluctuating boundary on the south. This territory

was a stronghold of Germanic heathenism and included ‘at Eresburg, the modern Marsberg, one of the chief Germanic sanctuaries, marked by the Jrminsul, a wooden pillar which was the centre of Saxon worship.

The prolonged resistance which the

Saxons offered to Christianity was chiefly due to their hostility to

33

the Franks who threatened their independence. The reduction of the Saxons was attempted by Charles Martel and Pippin the short, and was finally carried through in a series of campaigns by Charlemagne (g.v.). Before his death Saxony had permanently passed under Frankish supremacy, and within a century it had come to form an outpost of German and Christian influence

against the Slavs of the provinces south of the Baltic. The conversion of the Saxons to Christianity, which during this time had been steadily progressing, was continued in the reign of the emperor Louis I. Bishoprics were established at Bremen, Miinster, Verden, Minden, Paderborn, Osnabriick, Hildesheim, Hamburg and Halberstadt. The abbey of Corvey soon became a centre of learning for the country, and the Saxons undertook with the eagerness of converts the conversion of their heathen neighbours. Towards the middie of the century there are signs of a reaction against Frankish rule and towards heathenism among the Saxon free peasantry, but it had no permanent result, and the connection with the empire was unbroken. By the treaty of Verdun in 843 Saxony fell to Louis the German, but he paid little attention to the northern part of his kingdom, which was harassed by the Normans and the Slavs. About 850, however, he appointed a Saxon noble named Liudolf as margrave to defend the Limes Saxoniae, a narrow strip of land on the eastern frontier. Liudolf, who is sometimes called “duke of the East Saxons,” carried on a vigorous warfare against the Slavs and extended his influence over other parts of Saxony. He died in 866, and was succeeded by his son Bruno, who was killed fighting the Normans in 880. Liudolf’s second son, Otto the Illustrious, was recognized as duke of Saxony by King Conrad I., and on the death of Burkhard, margrave of Thuringia in 908, obtained authority over that country also. He made himself practically independent in Saxony, and played an important part in the affairs of the empire. He died in g12 and his son Henry I., the Fowler, not only retained his hold over Saxony and Thuringia, but in 919 was elected German king. He extended the Saxon frontier almost to the Oder, improved the Saxon forces by training and equipment, established new marks, and erected forts on the frontiers for which he provided regular garrisons. Towns were walled, where it was decreed markets and assemblies should be held, churches and monasteries were founded, civilization was extended and learning encouraged. Henry’s son, Otto the Great, was crowned emperor in 962, and his descendants held this dignity until the death of the emperor Otto III. in roo2. Under this able dynasty the Slavs were driven back, the domestic policy of Henry the Fowler was continued, the Saxon court became a centre of learning visited by Italian scholars, and in 968 an archbishopric was founded at Magdeburg for the lands east of the Elbe. The extent of Otto the Great’s dominions compelled him to delegate much of his authority in Saxony and in g6o he

gave to a trusted relative Hermann Billung cettain duties and

privileges on the eastern frontier, and from time to time appointed him as his representative in Saxony. Hermann gradually extended his authority, and when he died in 973 was followed by his son Bernard I., who was undoubtedly duke of Saxony in 986. When Henry IT. was chosen German king in 1002 he met the Saxons at Merseburg, and on promising to observe their laws Bernard gave him the sacred lance, thus entrusting Saxony to his care. Bernard was succeeded by his son Bernard II., who took up a hostile attitude towards the German kings, Conrad TI. and Henry III. His son and successor Ordulf, who became duke in 1059, carried on a long and obstinate struggle with Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen,

who was compelled to cede one-third of his possessions to Ordulf’s son Magnus in 1066. The emperor Henry IIT. sought to win the allegiance of the Saxons by residing among them. He built a castle at Goslar and the Harzburg; and his successor Henry IV. also spent much time in Saxony. |

In 1070 Otto of Nordheim, duke of Bavaria, who held large estates in this country, was accused of a plot to murder Henry, and his lands were confiscated. Otto, im alliance with Magnus, won considerable support in Saxony, but after some fighting both submitted and were imprisoned; and Magnus was still in confinement when on his father’s death in 1072 he became titular

duke of Saxony. As he refused to givé.up his duchy hé'was kept

34+

SAXONY

in prison, while Henry confiscated the estates of powerful nobles, demanded the restoration of ducal lands by the bishops, and garrisoned newly-erected forts with Swabians. These proceedings aroused suspicion and discontent, which were increased when the emperor assembled an army, ostensibly to attack the Slavs. The Saxon nobles refused to join the host until their grievances were redressed, and in 1073 a league was formed at Wormesleben. When the insurgents under Duke Otto were joined by the Thuringians, Henry was compelled in 1074 to make various concessions to them, and in particular to release Magnus. At last Henry, having obtained help from the princes of the Rhineland, attacked and defeated the Saxons at Hohenburg near Langensalza but pardoned Otto, whom he appointed administrator of the country. The Saxons, however, were not quite subdued; risings took place from time to time, and the opponents of Henry IV. found considerable support in Saxony. During the century which followed the death of Hermann Billung, there had been constant warfare with the Slavs, but although the emperors had often taken the field, the Saxons had been driven back to the Elbe, which was

at this time their eastern boundary. In 1106 Magnus died, and the German king Henry V. bestowed the duchy upon Lothair, count of Supplinburg, whose wife Richenza inherited the Saxon estates of her grandfather Otto of Nordheim, on the death of her brother Otto in 1116. Lothair quickly made himself independent, defeated Henry at Welfesholz in 1115, and prosecuted the war against the Slavs with vigour. In 1125 he became German king, and in 1137 gave Saxony to Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, who had married his daughter Gertrude, and whose mother Wulfhild was a daughter of Magnus Billung. The succeeding German king Conrad IIT. refused to allow Henry to hold two duchies, and gave Saxony to Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg, who like his rival was a grandson of Magnus Billung. Albert’s attempts to obtain possession failed, and after Henry’s death in 1139 he formally renounced Saxony in favour of Henry’s son, Henry the

Lion (g¢.v.). The new duke improved its internal condition, increased its political importance, and pushed its eastern frontier towards the Oder. In 1180, however, he was placed under the imperial ban and Saxony was broken up. Henry retained Brunswick and Luneburg; Westphalia, as the western portion of the duchy was called, was given to Philip, archbishop of Cologne, and a large part of the land was divided among nine bishops and a number of counts who thus became immediate vassals of the emperor. The title duke of Saxony was given to Bernard, the sixth son of Albert the Bear, together with the small territories of Lauenburg and Wittenberg, which were thus the only portions of the former duchy which now bore the name of Saxony. Bernard, whose paternal grandmother, Hilicke, was a daughter of Magnus Billung, took a prominent part in German affairs, but lost. Lauenburg which was seized by Waldemar II., king of Denmark. Dying in 1212, Bernard was succeeded in Wittenberg by his younger son Albert I., who recovered Lauenburg after the defeat of Waldemar at Bornhöved in 1227. Albert died in 1260, and soon after his death his two sons divided his territories, when the elder son John took Lauenburg which was sometimes called

bishop of Ratzeburg; he also assisted the progress of the Reformation in Lauenburg. Magnus, who was formally invested with the duchy by the emperor Charles V. in 1530, was the first duke to abandon the claim to the electoral privilege. After his death in 1543 his son Francis I. reigned for the succeeding 28 years, and his grandsons, Magnus II. and Francis IL., until 1619. Francis, who did something to improve the administration of his duchy, was succeeded in turn by his two sons and his two grandsons; but on the death of Julius Francis, the younger of his grandsons, in 1689 the family became extinct. Several claimants to Saxe-Lauenburg thereupon appeared, the most prominent of whom were George William, duke of Liineburg-Celle, and John George IIL. elector of Saxony. George William based his claim upon a treaty of mutual succession made in 1369 between his ancestor Magnus II., duke of Brunswick, and the reigning dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg. John George had a double claim. Duke Magnus I. had promised that-in case of the extinction of his family Lauenburg should pass to the family of Wettin, an arrangement which had been confirmed by the emperor Maximilian I. in 1507. Secondly, John George himself had concluded

a similar treaty with Julius Francis in 1671. In 1689 the elector received the homage of the people of Lauenburg. George William, however, took Ratzeburg, and held it against the troops of a third claimant, Christian V., king of Denmark; and in 1702 he bought off the claim of John George, his successor being invested with the duchy in 1728. Since that date its history has been identified with that of Hanover (g.v.). In Saxe-Wittenberg Albert II. was succeeded in 1298 by his son Rudolph I., who was followed in 1356 by his son Rudolph II.

He in turn was succeeded in 1370 by his half-brother Wenceslaus, who temporarily acquired the duchy of Liineburg for his house. He was followed in 1388 by his eldest son Rudolph III. Lavish expenditure during the progress of the council of Constance reduced Rudolph to poverty and on the death in 1422 of his brother Albert III., who succeeded him in 1419, this branch of the family became extinct. THE ELECTORATE

A new era in the history of Saxony dates from 1423, when the Emperor Sigismund bestowed the vacant electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg upon Frederick, margrave of Meissen. Frederick was a member of the family of Wettin, which since his day has played a prominent part in the history of Europe, and he owed his new dignity to the money and other assistance which he had given to the emperor during the Hussite war. The new and more honourable title of elector of Saxony now superseded his other titles, and the name Saxony gradually spread over his other possessions, which included Meissen and Thur-

ingia as well as Saxe-Wittenberg.

His new position as elector

combined with his personal qualities to make him one of the most powerful princes in Germany, and had the principle of primogeniture been established in his country, Saxony and not Prussia might later have been the leading power in the German empire. He died in 1428, just before his lands were ravaged lower Saxony, and the younger, Albert IL, took Wittenberg or _by the Hussites' in 1429 and 1430. The division of his territory

upper Saxony. Both retained the ducal title and claimed the electoral privilege, a claim which the Lauenburg line refused to abandon when it was awarded to the Wittenberg line by the Golden Bull of 1356. Saxe-Lauenburg was governed by John until his death in 1285, when it passed to his three sons Jobn II., Albert IIT. and Eric I. As Albert had no sons the duchy was soon divided into two parts,

between his two sons, the elector Frederick II. and’ William, occasioned a destructive internecine war. Frederick II.’s two sons, Ernest and Albert, succeeded to their father’s possessions in 1464, and for 20 years ruled together peaceably. The land prospered rapidly during this respite from the horrors of war. The childless. death of their uncle William in 1482 brought Thuringia to the two princes, and Albert insisted on a division until on the death of duke Eric IIL., a grandson of John II., in of their common possessions. The important partition of Leipzig 1401, it was reunited by Eric IV., a grandson of Eric I. When accordingly took place in 1485, and resulted in the foundation Eric IV. died in 1412 he was succeeded by his son Eric V., who of the two main lines of the Saxon house. The lands were never made strenuous but vain efforts to obtain the electoral duchy’ of again united. Ernest, the elder brother, obtained Saxe-WittenSaxe-Wittenberg, which fell vacant on the death of the elector berg with. the electoral dignity, Thuringia and the Saxon VogtAlbert ITI. in 1422. Eric died in 1436 and was followed by his land; while Albert received Meissen, Osterland being divided brother Bernard IV., whose claim to exercise the electoral vote was between them. Something was still held in common, and the quashed by the electors in 1438; and who was succeeded by his division was probably made intricate to render war difficult. son John LV. in 1463. The next duke, John’s son Magnus I., spent The Reformation Period—The elector. Ernest was ‘sucmuch time in struggles with the archbishop of Bremen and the ceeded in 1486 by his son, Frederick the Wise, one of the most

SAXONY illustrious princes in German history. Under him Saxony was perhaps the most influential state in the empire, and became the cradle of the Reformation. He died in 1525 while the Peasants’ War was desolating his land, and was succeeded by his brother John, who was an enthusiastic supporter of the reformed faith and who shared with Philip, landgrave of Hesse, the leadership of the league of Schmalkalden. John’s son and successor, John Frederick the Magnanimous, who became elector in 1532, might with equal propriety have been surnamed the Unfortunate. He took part in the war of the league of Schmalkalden, but in 1547 he was captured at Mühlberg by the Emperor Charles V. and

was forced to sign the capitulation of Wittenberg.

This deed

transferred the electoral title and a large part of the electoral lands from the Ernestine to the Albertine branch of the house, whose astute representative, Maurice, had taken the imperial side during the war. Only a few scattered territories were reserved for John Frederick’s sons, although these were increased by the treaty of Naumburg in 1554, and on them were founded the Ernestine duchies of Saxe-Gotha, Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen and Saxe-Altenburg. For the second time in the history of the Saxon electorate the younger line secured the higher dignity, for the Wittenberg line was junior to the Lauenburg line. The Albertine line became later the royal line of Saxony. Maurice, who became elector of Saxony in consequence of the capitulation of Wittenberg, was a Protestant, but he did not allow his religious faith to blind him to his political interests. He refused to join the other Protestant princes in the league of Schmalkalden, but made a secret treaty with Charles V. His fidelity to Charles V. was rewarded by the capitulation of Wittenberg. All the lands torn from John Frederick were not, however, assigned to Maurice; he was forced to acknowledge the superiority of Bohemia over the Vogtland and the Silesian duchy of Sagan. Moreover, Roman Catholic prelates were reinstated in the bishoprics of Meissen, Merseburg and NaumburgZeitz. Recognizing now as a Protestant prince that the best alliance for securing his new possessions was not with the emperor, but with the other Protestant princes, Maurice began to withdraw from the former and to conciliate the latter. In 1552, suddenly marching against Charles at Innsbruck, he drove him to flight and then extorted from him the peace of Passau.

Amid the distractions of outward affairs, Maurice had not neglected the internal interests of Saxony, To its educational

advantages,

already conspicuous, he added the three Fürsten-

schulen at Pforta, Grimma and Meissen, and for administrative

purposes, especially for the collection of taxes, he divided the country into the four circles of the Electorate, Thuringia, Meissen and Leipzig. During his reign coal-mining began in Saxony. Over 200 religious houses were suppressed, the funds being partly applied to educational purposes. The country had four universities, those of Leipzig, Wittenberg, Jena and Erfurt; books began to increase rapidly, and, by virtue of Luther’s translation of the Bible, the Saxon dialect became the ruling 7 dialect of Germany. Augustus I., brother and successor of Maurice, was one of the the best domestic rulers that Saxony ever had. He increased

area of the country by the “circles” of Neustidt and the Vogt-

land, and by parts of Henneberg and the silver-yielding Mansfeld, and he devoted his long reign to the development of its resources. Under him lace-making began on the Erzgebirge, and

cloth-making flourished at Zwickau.

With all his virtues, how-

35 ended by the peace of its influence had begun will made the decline Saxe-Weissenfels, Saxefor his younger sons. extinct, and their pos-

by this terrible war. When the war was Westphalia in 1648, Saxony found that to decline in Germany. John George’s worse by detaching the three duchies of Merseburg and Saxe-Zeitz as appamages By 1746, however, these lines were all sessions had returned to the main line. The 18th Century.—The next three electors, who each bore the name of John George, had uneventful reigns. John George TV. was succeeded in 1694 by his brother Frederick Augustus L., or Augustus the Strong. This prince was elected king of Poland

as Augustus II. in 1697, but any weight which the royal title might have given him in the empire was more than counter-

balanced by the fact that he became a Roman Catholic in order to qualify for the new dignity. In order to defray the expenses of Poland’s wars with Charles XII. Augustus pawned and sold large districts of Saxon territory, while he drained the electorate of both men and money.

From this reign dates the privy council (Gekeimes Kabinet),

which lasted till 1830. The caste privileges of the estates (Stände) were increased by Augustus, a fact which tended to alienate them more from the people, and so to decrease their power. Frederick Augustus II., who succeeded his father in the electorate in 1733, and was afterwards elected to the throne of Poland as Augustus III., was an indolent prince, wholly under the influence of Count Heinrich von Briihl (g.v.). Under him Saxony sided with Prussia in the First Silesian War, and with Austria in the other two. It gained nothing in the first, Jost much in the second, and in the third, the Seven Years’ War (1756-63), suffered renewed miseries, The country was deserted by its king and his minister, who retired to Poland. By the end of the war it had lost 90,000 men and 100,000,000 thalers; its coinage was debased and its trade ruined; and the whole country was in a state of frantic disorder. The elector died seven months after his return from Poland; Brühl died 23 days later. The connection with Poland was now at an end. The elector’s son and successor, Frederick Christian, survived his father only two months, dying also in 1763, leaving a son, Frederick Augustus III., a boy of 13. Prince Xaver, the elector’s uncle, was appointed guardian, and he set himself to the work of healing the wounds of the country. THE KINGDOM

OF SAXONY

Frederick assumed the government in 1768, and in his long and eventful reign, which saw the electorate elevated to the dignity of a kingdom, though deprived of more than half its area, he won the surname of the Just. As he was the first king of Saxony, he is usually styled Frederick Augustus I. When the Bavarian succession fell open in 1777, Frederick Augustus joined Prussia in protesting against the absorption of Bavaria by Austria, and Saxon troops took part in the bloodless “potato-war.” The elector commuted his claims-in right of his mother, the Bavarian princess Maria Antonia, for 6,000,000 florins, which he spent chiefly in redeeming Saxon territory that had been pawned to other German states. When Saxony joined the Fiirstenbund in 1785, it had an

area of 15,185 sq.m. and a population of nearly 2,000,000, but its

various parts had not yet been combined into a homogeneous

whole, for the two Lusatias, Querfurt, Henneberg and the ecclesiastical foundations of Naumburg and Merseburg had each a separate diet and government, independent of the diet of the electorate proper. In 1791 Frederick declined the proffered crown of Poland. Next year saw the beginning of the great struggle between France and Germany. Frederick’s first policy was one of

ever, Augustus was an intolerant Lutheran, and used very severe abstention but when war broke out in 1806 against Napoleon, means to exterminate the Calvinists. Under John George (suc22,000, Saxon troops shared the defeat of the Prussians at Jena, ceeded 1611), the country .was devastated by the Thirty Years’ the elector immediately afterwards abandoned his f ormer ally. but | of battle the at Adolphus ‘War. .After the death. of Gustavus peace of Posen (Dec. Ir, 1806) Frederick assumed the the At Liitzen, not far from Leipzig, in 1632, the elector, who -was at title of king of Saxony, and entered the Confederation of the | whom with Sweden from himself heart an imperialist, detached Rhineas an independent sovereign, promising a contingent of he had been allied since 1629, and in 1635 concluded.the peace

sais a a ; . of: Prague with, the emperor. By this. peace he was confirmed in} go,900 men to Napoleon, Warsaw of duchy the with rewarded was submission his r807 In now: had Saxony the possession of Upper and Lower Lusatia. (to which Cracow and part of Galicia were added in 1809) and the to..suffer from the, Swedes a repetition of the devastations of of Kottbus, though he had to surrender some of his ‘former district in Germany was so scourged country Wallenstein. No other hs

26

SAXONY

true leader of the insurrection was the Russian Bakunin. Meanwhile Prussian troops had arrived to aid the Government, and campaign, but when the allies invaded Saxony in the spring of after two days’ fierce street fighting the rising was quelled. The 1813, he refused to declare against Napoleon and fied to Prague, bond with Prussia now became closer, and Frederick entered with though he withdrew his contingent from the French army. After Prussia and Hanover into the temporary “alliance of the three Napoleon’s victory at Liitzen (May 2, 1813), the Saxon king and kings”; but in 1850 he accepted the invitation of Austria to send the Saxon army were once more at the disposal of the French. deputies to the restored federal diet at Frankfort. The first During the battle of Leipzig in Oct. 1813, the popular Saxon chamber immediately protested against this step, and refused to feeling was displayed by the desertion of the Saxon troops to the consider the question of a pressing loan. The king retorted by side of the allies. Frederick was taken prisoner in Leipzig, and the dissolving the diet and summoning the old estates abolished in government of his kingdom was assumed for a year by the 1848. Beust became minister for both home and foreign affairs Russians. The congress of Vienna assigned the northern portion, in 1852, and under his guidance the policy of Saxony became more consisting of 7,800 sq.m., with 864,404 inhabitants, to Prussia, and more hostile to Prussia and friendly to Austria. The sudden death of the king in 1854 left the throne to his leaving 5,790 sq.m., with a population of 1,182,744, to Frederick, who was permitted to retain his royal title. On June 8, 1815, King brother John whose name is known in German literature as a translator and annotator of Dante. His brother’s ministers reFrederick joined the new German Confederation. territory to the new kingdom of Westphalia. The king of Saxony’s faith in Napoleon was shaken by the disasters of the Russian

Constitutionalism.—From the partition in 1815 to the war

mained but their views gradually became somewhat liberalized

of 1866 the history of Saxony is mainly a narrative of the slow with the spirit of the times. Beust, however, still retained his growth of constitutionalism and popular liberty within its limits. federalistic and philo-Austrian views. When war was declared Its influence on the general history of Europe ceased when the old between Prussia and Austria in 1866, Saxony took the side of empire was dissolved. In the new German empire it was too com- Austria. On the conclusion of peace Saxony lost no territory, but pletely overshadowed by Prussia to have any objective importance had to pay a war indemnity of 10,000,000 thalers, and was comby itself. Frederick lived 12 years after the division of his king- pelled to enter the North German Confederation. Franchise.—During the peace negotiations Beust had resigned dom. The commercial and industrial interests of the country continued to be fostered, but only a few of the most unavoidable and entered the Austrian service, and on Nov. 15 the king in his political reforms were granted. Religious equality was extended speech from the throne announced his intention of being faithful to the Reformed Church in 1818, and the separate diet of Upper to the new Confederation as he had been to the old. On Feb. 7, Lusatia was abolished. Frederick Augustus was succeeded in 1827 1867, a military convention was signed with Prussia which placed by his brother Anthony who initiated a few unimportant reforms. the army under the king of Prussia. The postal and telegraph An active opposition began to make itself evident in the diet and systems were also placed under the control of Prussia, and the in the press, and in 1830, under the influence of the July revolu- representation of the Saxon crown at foreign courts was merged tion in Paris, riots broke out in Leipzig and Dresden, and a con- in that of the Confederation. A new electoral law reformed the stitution was promised. ’ After consultation with the diet the kinig Saxon diet by abolishing the old distinction between the various promulgated, on Sept. 4, 1831, a new constitution by which the “estates” and lowering the qualification for the franchise; the feudal estates were replaced by two chambers, largely elective, result was a Liberal majority in the lower house and a period of and the privy council by a responsible ministry of six departments. civil and ecclesiastical reform. John was succeeded in 1873 by

While Saxony’s political liberty was thus enlarged, its com-

his elder son Albert (1832-1902) who had added to his military

merce and credit were stimulated by its adhesion to the Prussian Zoliverein and by the construction of railways. Anthony had died in 1836, and Frederick Augustus IT., since 1830 co-regent, became sole king. The burning questions were the publicity of legal proceedings and the freedom of the press; and on these the government sustained its first heavy defeat in the lower chamber in 1842. In 1843 the prime minister Lindenau was forced by the action of the aristocratic party to resign, and was replaced by

repyitation during the war of 1870. Under this prince the course of politics in Saxony presented little of general interest, except perhaps the spread of the doctrines of Social Democracy, which was especially remarkable in Saxony. The number of Social Democratic delegates in a diet of 80 members rose from 5§ in 1885 to I4 in 1895. So alarming did the growth appear, that the other parties combined, and on March 28, 1896, a new electoral law was passed, introducing indirect election and a franchise based on a triple division of classes determined by the amount paid in direct taxation. This resulted in rgor in the complete elimination

Julius Traugott von Kénneritz (1792-1866), a statesman of reactionary views. This increased the opposition of the Liberal middle classes to the Government.

Religious considerations arising

of the Socialists from the diet. On June 7, 1902, King Albert died,

out of the attitude of the Government towards the “German Catholics,” and a new constitution for the Protestant Church, began to mingle with purely political questions.

and was succeeded by his brother as King George. An extraordinary situation had been created by the electoral law of 1896. This law had in effect secured the misrepresentation of the mass of

Warned by the sympathy excited in Saxony by the revolutionary events at Paris in 1848, the king dismissed his reactionary ministry, and a Liberal cabinet took its place in March 1848. The privileges of the nobles were curtailed; the administration of justice was put on a better footing; the press was unshackled; publicity in legal proceedings was granted; trial by jury was introduced for some special cases; and the German Catholics were recognized. The feudal character of the first chamber was abolished, and its members made mainly elective from among the highest tax-payers, while an almost universal suffrage was introduced for the second chamber. The first demand of the overwhelmingly democratic diet returned under this reform bill was that the king should accept the German constitution elab-

the people in the diet, the representation of the country population at the expense of that of the towns, of the interests of agriculture as opposed to those of industry. The result was displayed in the elections of 1903 to the German imperial parliament, when, under the system of universal suffrage, of 23 members returned 22 were Social Democrats. This led to proposals for a slight modification in the franchise for the. Saxon diet (1904), which were not accepted. In the elections of 1906, however, only 8 of the Social Democrats succeeded in retaining their seats. In 1907 the Government announced their intention of modifying the electoral system in Saxony by the adding of representation for certain professions to that of the three classes of the electorate. This was, however, far from satisfying the parties of the extreme Left, and the strength of Social Democracy in Saxony was even more strikingly displayed in t909 when, in spite of plural voting, under a

orated by the Frankfort parliament. Frederick, alleging the dan-

ger of acting without the concurrence of Prussia, refused, and dissolved the diet. The public demonstration at Dresden in favour of the Frankfort constitution was prohibited on May 2,

1849. The people seized the town and barricaded the streets; Dresden was almost destitute of troops; and the king fled to the Königstein. The rebels then appointed a provisional Government, consisting of Tzschirner, Heubner and Todt, though the

complicated franchise, 25 Socialist members were returned to the Saxon diet.

King George died on Oct. 15, 1904, and was succeeded by his son as King Frederick Augustus III., under whom the conflict about the constitution continued. The Left demanded a reform

of the first chamber, the upper house, which should break the

SAXONY—SAY predominance of the agrarians in that house and allow to commerce, Industry and handicrafts a greater influence, This was reinforced in 1917 by the agitation of the extreme Left in the diet for the early conclusion of peace.

The Revolution.—On Oct. 26, 1918 the cabinet gave place to

a more liberal Government under Dr. Heinze. On Nov. 9, 1918, the revolution broke out, on Nov. to the republic was proclaimed, and King Frederick Augustus abdicated on Nov. 13. A cabinet of commissaries of the people (Volksbeauftragie), composed exclusively of Independent Socialists, first held power, but was succeeded by a Government of Majority Socialists. A new republican constitution was adopted on Nov. 1, 1920. The revolutionary agitation remained active in Saxony throughout 1919, 1920 and 192I. Max Hélz, the most famous guerrilla leader of the Communists was at last defeated and captured early in r921. In 1923 the strong revolutionary feeling of the Saxons was shown by the proceedings of the Zeigner ministry which depended upon an alliance of Socialists and Communists. It was expelled from office by the Reich Government who occupied the country with troops and replaced the ministry by a coalition of the German People’s Party, Democratic Party and right-wing Socialists. The chief authority for the early history of Saxony is Widukind, whose Res gestae Saxonicae is printed, together with the works of other chroniclers, in the Monumenta Germanica historica, Scriptores. Collections which may be consulted are: Codex diplomaticus Saxoniae regiae (Leipzig, 1862-79); the Archiv fiir die sachsische Geschichte, edited by K. von Weber (Leipzig, 1862—79) ; the Bibliothek der sdchsische Geschichte und Landeskunde, edited by G. Buchholz (Leipzig, 1903) ; and the Bibliographie der Sächsischen Geschichte (Leipzig, 1918, et sqq., published by the Sächsische Kommission für Geschichte). See GERMANY, bibliography.

37

nite deposits extend from Oschersleben by Kalbe to Weissenfels; lignite is also found in the neighbourhood of Aschersleben, Bitterfeld and Wittenberg. The copper mines are found chiefly in the Harz district. The other mineral resources include silver, pit-coal, pyrites, alum, plaster of Paris, sulphur, alabaster and several varieties of good building-stone. Numerous mineral springs occur in the Harz. In addition to the production of sugar the most important industries are the manufactures of cloth, leather, iron and steel wares, chiefly at Erfurt, Suhl and Sömmerda; spirits at Nordhausen, chemicals at Stassfurt and Schönebeck, and starch. Beer is also brewed extensively. Trade is facilitated by the great waterway of the Elbe as well as by a complete system of railways. The chief articles are wool, grain, sugar, salt, lignite and the principal manufactured products named above. The population of the province of Saxony in 1925 was 3,279,187, an average of 336 persons to the square mile. The bulk of the inhabitants are of unmixed German stock, but many of those in the east part have Wendish blood in their veins. Prussian Saxony is divided into the three government districts of Magdeburg, Merseburg and Erfurt. The principal towns are Magdeburg, Halle, Erfurt, Halberstadt, Nordhausen, Mühlhausen, Aschersleben, Weissenfels and Zeitz. The university of Halle holds

high rank among German seats of learning.

SAXOPHONE, a modern hybrid musical instrument invented

by Adolphe Sax, having the clarinet mouthpiece with single reed applied to a conical brass tube. In general appearance the saxophone resembles the bass clarinet, but the tube of the latter is cylindrical and of wood; both instruments are doubled up near SAXONY, province of, one of the provinces of Prus- the bell, which is shaped somewhat like the flower of the gloxinia. sia, consists mainly of what was formerly the northern The mouthpiece in both is fixed to a curved tube at right angles part of the kingdom of Saxony, which was ceded to Prussia in to the main bore. In the case of the saxophone, however, owing 1815, also comprises part of the former duchy of Magdeburg and to its conical bore, the quality of tone materially differs from other districts, the connection of which with Prussia is of earlier that of the clarinet. The reed mouthpiece in combination with date. The area of the province is 9,758 sq.m. For the former a conical tube allows the performer to give the ordinary harmonic kingdom, see SAXONY, REPUBLIC oF. It is bounded west by Hesse- series unbroken, which means in practice that the octave or second Nassau, Hanover and Brunswick, north by Hanover and Branden- member of the harmonic series is first overblown. The saxophone burg, east by Brandenburg and Silesia, and south by the Republic is therefore one of the class known as octave instruments. The of Saxony and by Thuringia, It is, however, very irregular in fundamental note given out by the tube when the lateral holes are form, entirely surrounding parts of Brunswick and Thuringia, and closed is that of an open organ pipe of the same length, whereas itself possessing several exclaves, while the northern portion is when, as in the clarinet family, the reed mouthpiece is combined with a cylindrical bore, the tube behaves as though it were closed almost severed from the southern by the Free State of Anhalt. The major part belongs to the great North-German plain, but the at one end, and its notes are an octave lower in pitch. Hence the western and south-western districts include parts of the Harz, with bass clarinet to give the same note as a bass saxophone would need the Brocken, its highest summit, and of the Thuringian Forest. to be only half as long. The quality of tone of this family of inAbout nine-tenths of Prussian Saxony belongs to the basin of the struments is inferior to that of the clarinets and has affinities with Elbe; the chief feeders of which within the province are the Saale, that of the harmonium. According to Berlioz it had kinship also with its tributary the Unstrut, and the Mulde, but a small district with the timbre of the ’cello and cor anglais, with, however, a brazen tinge. The saxophone has not enjoyed much favour hitheron the west drains into the Weser. Saxony is on the whole the most fertile province of Prussia and to with high-class composers, though Richard Strauss scored for a excels all the others in its produce of wheat and beetroot for quartet of the instruments in his Sinfonia Domestica. In military sugar, but the nature of its soil is very unequal. The best crop- bands, however, it has proved of great service while in recent years producing districts lie near the base of the Harz Mountains, such it has acquired extraordinary vogue as a leading member of the as the “Magdeburger Borde” (between Magdeburg and the Saale) jazz orchestra. SAY, JEAN BAPTISTE (1767-1832), French economist, and the “Goldene Aue,” and rich pasture lands occur in the river valleys, but the sandy plains of the Altmark, in the north part of was born at Lyons, on Jan. 5, 1767, of a Protestant family, who had fled from France after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, the province, yield but a scanty return. Wheat and rye are exported in considerable quantities. The but had returned in the 18th century. Intending to follow a combeetroot for sugar is grown chiefly in the district to the north of mercial career, Say first entered the house of an English merthe Harz, as far as the Ohre, and on the banks of the Saale; and chant, and was later employed in the office of a life assurance comthe amount of sugar produced is nearly as much as that of all pany in France. His attention having been called to The Wealth the rest of Prussia together. Flax, hops and oil-seeds are also of Nations, however, he began to study economics, and in 1789 cultivated, and large quantities of excellent fruit are grown at published his first pamphlet. In 1803 he published his principal the foot of the Harz and in the valleys of the Unstrut and the work Traité d'économie politique. Fis views being displeasing Saale. The market-gardening of Erfurt and Quedlinburg is well to Napoleon, he was dismissed from the post of tribune, to which known throughout Germany, The province is comparatively poor he had been elected in 1799. He built a spinning mill, and dein timber, though there are some fine forests in the Harz and other voted himself to the industry and to the revision of his book, of hilly districts. Cattle-rearing is carried on with success in the which the second edition appeared in 1814. In the same year he river valleys, and more goats are met with here than in any other was sent by the French Government to study the economic conditions of Great Britain. The results of his observations appart of Prussia. The chief rock-salt mines and brine springs are at Stassfurt, peared in a tract, De l’Angleterre et des Anglais, and in the corSchönebeck and Halle; potash is mined at Stassfurt (q.v.). Lig- rected edition of the Tratié (1817). A chair of industrial economy

SAY—SAY BROOK

38

was founded for him in 1819 at the Conservatoire des Arts et

Métiers.

In 1831 he was made professor of political economy at

the Collège de France, and in 1828-30 he published his Cours

complet d'économie politique pratique. At the revolution of 1830 he was named a member of the council-general of the department of the Seine, but found it necessary to resign. He died at Paris on Nov. £5, 1832. Say’s writings eccupy vols. ix—xii. of Guillaumin’s CoNection des principaux économistes. Among them are Olbie, ou essai sur les moyens de reformer les moeurs d'une nation (1800) ; Catéchisme d'économie politique (1815) ; Petit Volume contenant quelques aperçus des hommes et de la société, lettres à Malthus sur différens sujets économie politique (1820) ; Epitomé des principes de Péconomie politique (1831). A volume of Mélanges et correspondance was published posthumously by his son-in-law, Chas. Comte, author of the Traité de législation. The last edition of the Traité d’économie politique which appeared during the life of the author was the sth (1826); the 6th, with the author’s final corrections, was edited. by the eldest son, Horace Emile Say, himself known as an economist, in 1846, The work was translated into English by C. R. Prinsep (1821), and into German, by C. Morstadt (1818 and 1830). See also A. Liesse, Jean Baptiste Say (Paris, 1901).

SAY,

JEAN

BAPTISTE

LEON

(1826-1896),

French

statesman and economist, the grandson of J. B. Say (qg.v.) and the

son of Horace Emile Say (1794-1860), was born in Paris on June 6, 1826. Descended from a long line of distinguished economists, Léon Say established his reputation by his brilliant criticisms of Haussmann’s financial administration of the Seine, published in the Journal des Débats of which he was one of the proprietors.

On taking his seat in the Assembly of 1871 for the Seine, he was chosen as reporter of a commission on the state of the national finances. The statements which he published attracting the attention of Thiers he appointed Say prefect of the Seine (June 5), and in December 1872 promoted him minister of finance. This was a remarkable tribute from Thiers, who, as a protectionist, was’ op- ,

posed to Say’s free trade views. After the fall of Thiers (May 1873), Say held office in the Buffet ministry, although in profound disagreement with its leaders, and was minister of ‘finance under Dufaure and Jules Simon, in the Dufaure ministry of Dec. 1877, and in the Waddington ministry till Dec. 1879. During this period, in which he was practically the autocratic ruler of the French finances, he directed the payment of the war indemnity with con-

summate skill, completing it long before the prescribed time. Say’s general financial policy was to ameliorate the incidence of taxation and to enrich the country, and therefore the Treasury, by removing all restrictions on internal commerce. He accordingly reduced the rate of postage, repealed the duties on many articles

of ‘prime utility, such as paper, and fought strongly, though unsuccessfully, against the system of octrois. In 1880 he visited England to negotiate a commercial treaty between France and England, but the presidency of the Senate falling vacant, he was elected to it on May 25, having meanwhile secured a preliminary understanding. In Jan. 1882 he became minister of finance in the Freycinet cabinet, which was defeated in the following July on the Egyptian question. Say’s influence waned before the attacks of Socialism and the revival of protectionism, against which Say vainly organized the Ligue contre le renchérissement du pain. He had, however, a large share in the successful opposition to the income-tax.. In 1889 he. quitted the Senate to enter the Chamber as member for Pau, in the belief that his efforts for Liberalism were more urgently needed in the popular assembly. Throughout his career he was an indefatigable writer. and lecturer

on economics, and in both capacities exerted.a wide .influence. Special mention must be made of his work; as editor and- eoùtributor, on the Dictionnaire des finances and Nouveau Dictionnaire économie politique. Say’s style was easy and lucid, and he was often employed in drawing up important official documents, such as the famous presidential message of Dec. 1877. He was for many years a prominent member ‘of the Académie des Sciences Morales et

Politiques, and in 1886 succeeded to Edmond About’s seat in the Académie Francaise. He died in Paris on April 21, 1896. A selection of his most important writings and speeches has’ since been published in four volumes under the title of Les Finances

de la France sous la troisième république (1898-1901). See Georges Michel, Léon Say (Paris, 1899); Georges Picot, Léon Say, notice historique (Paris, 1901), with a bibliography.

SAY, a town on the right bank of the river Niger in 13° 4’ N. and 2° 30’ E. In the agreement of 1890 between Great Britain and France for the delimitation of their respective spheres of influence in West Africa, Say was taken as the western end of an imaginary line which ran eastward to Barrua on Lake Chad. By the convention of 1898 Say and a considerable tract of territory south and east of the town were ceded to France. The district of Say covers 18,500 square kilometres and has 69,000 inhabitants; after having formed part of the colony of the Upper Volta, it was again attached in 1927 to that of Nigeria (q.v.).

SAYAD, a descendant of Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed,

by Fatima, Mohammed’s daughter. Many of the Pathan tribes in the North-West Frontier Province of India, such as the Bangash of Kohat and the Mishwanis of the Hazara border, claim Sayad origin. The apostles who completed the conversion of the Pathans to Islam were called Sayads if they came from the west, and Sheikhs if they came from the east; hence doubtless many false claims to Sayad origin. In Afghanistan the Sayads have much of the commerce in their hands, as their holy character allows them to pass unharmed where other Pathans would be murdered. The Sayads gave a short-lived dynasty to India, which reigned at Delhi during the first half of the 15th century. Their name again figures in Indian history at the break up of the Mogul empire, when two Sayad brothers created and dethroned emperors at their will (1714-1720). -> = et

SAYAN MOUNTAINS, in Central Asia, forming the eastern continuation. of the Sailughem or Altai range, stretching from 89° E. to 106° E.. They are the border-ridge between the plateau of N.W..Mongolia and Siberia. The geology is imperfectly known; the mountains are of the Hercynian age. The general elevation is 7,000 to 9,000 ft.; peaks, consisting largely of granites and metamorphic rocks, reach 10,000 ft. and 11,450 ft., ¢.g., in Munko Sardyk; and the principal passes lie at 6,000 to 7,500 ft. above the sea, e.g., Muztagh 7,480 ft., Mongol 6,500 ft., Tenghyz 7,480 ft. and Obo-sarym 6,100 fit. In 92° E. the system is pierced by the Bei-kem or upper Yenisei, and in 106° E., it terminates above the depression of the Selenga-Orkhon valley. From the Mongolian plateau the ascent is gentle, but from the plains of Siberia it is much steeper, despite the fact that the range is masked by a broad belt of subsidiary ranges, e.g., the Usinsk, Oya, Tunkun, Kitoe and Byelaya ranges. Between the breach of the Yenisei and the Kosso-gol (lake) in 100° 30’ E. the system bears also the name of Yerghik-taiga. The flora is poor, although the higher regions carry good forests of larch, pitch pine, cedar, birch: and alder, with rhododendrons and species of Berberis and Ribes. Lichens and mosses clothe many of the boulders that are scattered over the upper slopes.

SAYBROOK,

a town

of Middlesex

county,

Connecticut,

U.S.A., on Long Island sound, at the mouth of the Connecticut river; served by the New York, New Haven:and Hartford. rail-. road and steamboat lines. Pop. (1930), 2,381. It is a beautiful.

place, with several old buildings, notably the mansion built.iabout; 1783 by Capt. Elisha Hart. Deep River, the principal village, ‘Has’ manufactures of ivory and bone and various other articles. In the, adjoining town of Old Saybrook is Fenwick, the smallest borough in the State, with a population in 1920 of 13. The first settlement on Saybrook point was made late in 1635 (forestalling by a few weeks an-attempted settlement by the Dutch) by John Winthrop, fora company: with a grant from the Earl of Warwick,

of. which Lord Saye and‘ Sele, Lord Brooke, Sir Richard Saltonstall, John.Pym and,John Hampden were the largest shareholders. A palisade across:the-narrowest/part of.the neck and a fort were built, and the names: ofthe: two: ptincipal proprietors were combined to make.a name for thè settlement. In x644'the proprietors? rights were: sold; to vConnectieut.

The Collegiate School of Con-

necticut, established herein 1701 and:moved.:to: New: Haven in 1716, was the foundation of Yale university. In;1708 a. Con-: gregational Synod met here. and! drew up:the Saybrook platform of church discipline, which continued in full force until 1784.

Say-.

SAYCE—SAZONOV brook was the home of David Bushnell (1742-1824) who in 1776 devised a submarine torpedo and a tortoise-shaped diving boat (“the American Turtle”), which were tried against the British without success in the Revolutionary War.

SAYCE,

ARCHIBALD

HENRY

(1845s-

), British

Orientalist, was born at Shirehampton on Sept. 25, 1845, son of the Rev. H. §. Sayce, vicar of Caldicot. He was educated at Bath, and at Queen’s college; Oxford, becoming a fellow in 1869. From 1891 to 1919 he was professor of Assyriology at Oxford. Although his conclusions have been modified (e.g., in chronology and transliteration) by the work of other scholars (see, e.g., BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA), it is impossible to overestimate his services to Oriental scholarship. He travelled widely in the East. There has been a strong tendency to revert to the views which he advanced on the question of the Hittites in his early Oxford lectures. He was a member of the Old Testament Revision company (187484); deputy professor of comparative philology in Oxford (1876— 90); Hibbert lecturer (1887); Gifford lecturer (1900-02). Among his more important works are: Assyrian Grammar for Comparative Purposes (1872); Principles of Comparative Philology (1874); Babylonian Literature (1877) ; Introduction to the Science of Language (1879) ; Monuments of the Hittites (1881) ; Herodotus i.-iii. (1883); Patriarchal Palestine (1895); The Egypt of the Hebrews and Herodotus (1898); Early History of the Hebrews (1897) ; Israel and the Surrounding Nations (1898); Babylonians and Assyrians (1900); Egyptian and Babylonian Religion (1903); Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscr. (1907). He also contributed important articles to the oth, roth and z1th editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica and edited a number of Oriental works. See also his Reminiscences (1923).

SAYE AND SELE, WILLIAM FIENNES, tst Viscount (1582—1662), was the only son of Richard Fiennes, 7th Baron Saye and Sele, and was descended from James Fiennes, Lord Saye and Sele, who was lord chamberlain and lord treasurer under Henry VI. and was beheaded by the rebels under Jack Cade on July 4, 1450. Fiennes was educated at New College, Oxford; he succeeded to his father’s barony in 1613, and in parliament opposed the policy of James I., undergoing a brief imprisonment for objecting to a benevolence in 1622, and he showed great

animus against Lord Bacon. In 1624, he was advanced to the rank of a viscount. In the early parliaments of Charles I. he was in Clarendon’s words “the oracle of those who were called Puritans in the worst sense, and steered all their counsels and designs.” His energies found a new outlet in helping to colonize Providence Island, and in interesting himself in other and similar enterprises in America. Although Saye resisted the levy of ship-money, he accompanied Charles on his march against the Scots in 1639; but, with only one other peer, he refused to take the oath binding him to fight for the king to “the utmost of my power and hazard of my life.” When the Civil War broke out, however, Saye was on the committee of safety, was made lord-lieutenant of Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire and Cheshire, and, raising a regiment, occupied Oxford. He was a member of the committee of both kingdoms; was mainly responsible for passing the self-denying ordinance through the House of Lords; and in 1647 stood up for the army in its struggle with the parliament, In 1648, both at the treaty of Newport and elsewhere, Saye was anxious that Charles should come to terms, and he retired into private life after’ the execution of the king, becoming a privy councillor again upon the restoration of Charles II. He died at his residence, Broughton Castle near..Banbury, on April 14, 1662. On several occasions Saye outwitted the advisers of Charles I. by his strict compliance with

39

arm had been injured the crowd pressed into the ring and the fight was declared a draw; £3,000 was raised by public subscription for Sayers, who withdrew from the ring. He died on Nov.

8, 1865. The champion was 5 ft. 84 in. in height and his fighting weight was under rz stone.

An account of the fight between

Sayers and Heenan is given by Frederick Locker-Lampson in My Confidences (1896). SAYRE, a borough of Bradford county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Susquehanna river at the mouth of the Chemung, 17 m. S.E. of Elmira and just south of the New York State line. It is served by the Lehigh Valley railroad, inter-urban trolleys and motor-bus lines. Pop. (1920) 8,078 (91% native white); 1930, Federal census 7,902. Adjoining Sayre are the Pennsylvania boroughs of Athens and South Waverly (4,384 and 1,251 respectively in 1920) and the New York village of Waverly (q-v.); the four municipalities are practically one industrial community. Sayre was founded in 1880 and incorporated in 1891. It was named for Robert Heysham Sayre (1824-1907), chief engineer of the railroad for many years.

SAYYID AHMAD KHAN, SIR (1817-1898), Mohamme-

dan educationist and reformer, was born at Delhi, India, in 1817. He belonged to a family which had come to India with the Mohammedan conquest, and had held important offices under the Mogul emperors. Although his imperfect acquaintance with English prevented his attainment of higher office than that of a judge of a small cause court, he earned the title of the recognized leader of the Mohammedan community. To the British he rendered loyal service, and when the mutiny reached Bijnor in Rohilkand in May 1857 the British residents owed their lives to his courage and tact. Sayyid Ahmad established a translation society, which became the Scientific Society of Aligarh, and encouraged the study of western life and letters. In 1873 he founded the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh. He stimulated a similar educational activities in Karachi, Bombay and Hyderabad. Thus he effected a revolution in the attitude of Mohammedans towards modern education. He was made K.C.S.I. and became

a member of the legislative councils of India and Allahabad, and of the education commission.

He died at Aligarh on March 2,

1898. See Lieut.-Colonel G. F. I. Graham, The Life and Work Saiyad Ahmed Khan

of Sir

(1885).

SAZONOV, SERGHEI DMITRIEVICH (1866-1927), Russian statesman, was born in the province of Ryazan, July 29, 1866, the son of a landed proprietor, and educated at the Alexandrovsky Lyceum, St. Petersburg (Leningrad), a high school for the sons of noblemen destined mainly for the civil service. Having occupied various diplomatic posts in Rome and served six years in the Russian Embassy in London he was promoted, in 1906, to be Minister-Resident at the Vatican, where his engaging. manners, frankness and taste for ecclesiastical affairs enabled him to make great headway. In 1909 he entered the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as coadjutor to Izvolsky, whom he succeeded as Minister in r9r0—an appointment ascribed to the influence of his brother-in-law, Stolypin. Sazonov’s line of action was definitely traced for him by the European situation on the one hand and by the limitation of his role to that of confidential secretary to the Emperor on the other. His chief functions were to parry Austria's fitful thrusts at Serbia, to. curb Serbia’s explosive impatience, buoying her up legal forms. He was a thorough aristocrat, and his ideas for the with hopes of a vast legacy to fall due on the death of the Emgovernment of colonies in America included the establishment of peror Francis Joseph, and to bespeak the help of England, Italy, an hereditary aristocracy. Saybrook (g.v.) in Connecticut is Rumania (to whom he also held out hopes of a legacy) and Bulgaria in the coming struggle. These tasks exceeded his powers, and named after Viscount Saye and Lord Brooke. “SAYERS, TOM (1826-1865), English pugilist, was born at his abortive Near-Eastern policy did not prevent Russia’s ruinous Brighton on May 25, 1826. By trade a bricklayer, he began his collapse during the World War. Yet if his work was not to career. as +a: prize fighter in 1849 and won battle after battle, his prove permanent he carried it out with considerable skill, and single defeat being at. the hands of Nat Langham in Oct. 1853. defended, himself ably in his memoirs against the charge -that In: 2857 he-gained the championship: His fight with the American, he was seeking to precipitate a World War; although he’ adJohn: C,,Heenan, the- Benicia .Boy, a.much, hèavier man than him- mitted’ knowledge of the fact that Hartwig, in Belgrade, was -workself; is. perliaps: the-mest;famous in the -history ofthe English ing against his avowed aims. Meanwhile, Sazonov genuinely

ptize ting. . It-took place at Farnborough om April 17, 1860, and

lasted. 2:hr. 6 min.,.37 rounds being fought:. After Sayers’s right

worked for; present peace,togain time for Stolypin’s far-reaching domestic. reforms.and to, allow Russia to consolidate heriimsecuré

4.0

SBEITLA—SCAEVOLA

| tion of the Turkish capital. The hostility of Turkey and Buldomestic and military situation. The arrangements come to during the Tsar’s visit to Potsdam | garia impeded assistance from the Allies, whereupon Sazonov (Nov. 4-5 1910) and the Kaiser’s return visit to Wolisgarten made a bid for the help of the Poles in the shape of a Home Rule (Nov. 11) respecting the Baghdad railway, North Persia and the scheme, but the proposal was scouted in Court circles and he maintenance of Turkey, eased the strain, but failed to dispel the was dismissed from his post. Thus ended his career. His fall was atmosphere of mistrust. Sazonov was suspected of a lack of gently broken by his appointment as Ambassador to Great Britain, straightforwardness by the Kaiser. Russia’s diplomatic repre- but before he reached his destination the revolution of March sentatives abroad were largely to blame for this, and in particular 1917 had deposed the Tsar. Sazonov, however, was willing to the rashness or awkwardness of ambassador Charykov in Con- represent the Government that had thrust aside his imperial stantinople, who secretly proposed to guarantee that city to Tur- master but it too was suddenly swept away. He was next apkey and protect her from all attacks by the Balkan States in re- pointed Minister for Foreign Affairs by Admiral Kolchak; but turn for the freedom of the Straits. Other covert moves also lent after 1920 he retired into private life, settling at Versailles, where colour to the charges of underhand dealing. For example, on he occupied himself in writing his memoirs. These appeared in the conclusion of the Balkan Alliance of 1912, Sazonov decided English in 1928 under the title “Fateful Years.” They were atto seek Germany’s help in overawing the Balkan States and thus tacked, especially in Germany, on the ground of insincerity. (See preserving peace. He accordingly arranged an interview between the work Rings um Sazonov: 1928.) Sazonov died at Nice, Dec. the Tsar and the Kaiser at Baltischport on July 4~5 1912, which 23, 1927. SBEITLA. (anc. Sufetula), a ruined city of Tunisia, 66 m. was followed by a three days’ exchange of views between the German Chancellor and the members of the Russian Govt. in St. S.W. of Kairawan. The chief ruin is the Forum, 238 ft. by 198 ft., Petersburg. Yet he concealed from Germany the existence of the having three small and one large entrance. The great gateway is a Balkan Alliance which had been communicated to him. Sazonov fine monumental arch in fair preservation, with an inscription to next repaired to London, Paris and Berlin and the Great Powers Antoninus Pius. Facing the arch, their rear walls forming one side authorised him and Berchtold to announce their determination of the enclosure, are three temples, connected with one another to uphold the status quo, so that if the Balkan States broke the by arches, and forming one design. The length of the entire facade peace their victory would be fruitless. The veto was successfully is 118 ft. The principal chamber of the central temple, which is ignored by the Balkan Powers, and a European crisis was the of the Composite order, is 44 ft. long; those of the side temples, result. Sazonov, on this occasion, behaved with moderation. He in the Corinthian style, are smaller. The walls of the middle kept a tight hand on Serbia, obliged her to content herself with temple are ornamented with engaged columns; those of the other a railway harbour on the Albanian coast, a railway connection buildings with pilasters. The porticos have been repaired, and and the secret assurance that her “promised land” lay within the run round the other three sides of the enclosure, which is still partly paved. The other ruins include baths, remains of a thedual monarchy. He was next employed in drafting, in collaboration with Beth- atre, an amphitheatre, a triumphal arch of Diocletian, two

mann Hollweg, a scheme of reforms for Armenia

(Nov. 5, churches of the priest Servas and the bishop Bellator, a chapel of

1913). Immediately afterwards, a fresh conflict with Germany arose over the despatch of General Liman von Sanders to Constantinople. Sazonov gave vent to his dissatisfaction in unusually strong terms, but on the Kaiser ordering Liman to lay down the command of the first Turkish army corps, while retaining his other functions, Nicholas IT. let the matter drop. Sazonov then drafted a memorandum to the Tsar on Russia’s claim to the freedom of the Straits (Nov. 1913) and three months later (Feb. 21, 1914) convened a council of political and military experts to discuss the ways and means of realising the scheme in case of a European war. But the military experts announced that in the plans of campaign no such side-problems could be included. On learning of the delivery of the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia on July 24, 1914, Sazonov appealed unsuccessfully to Austria to extend the time limit, and advised Serbia to accept ali demands except those concerning the sovereign rights of Serbia. Meanwhile, Russia adopted the military measures known as “pre-

mobilisation” (July 25), the Tsar and Sazonov planning a partial mobilisation to follow in case Serb should be attacked. But the General Staff objected that it had no plan ready for a transition from partial to general mobilisation, and that as war seemed unavoidable the latter was imperative.

Sazonov still insisted on

waiting; meanwhile Berchtold declared war against Serbia (July 28), whereupon Sazonov (in the night of July 28-29) advised the Tsar to sign the order. A belated telegram, however, from the Kaiser adjuring him to preserve peace for the sake of the monarchic principle moved the Tsar to withdraw the order for general, and substitute that for partial, mobilisation. This command was obeyed in words ‘but the military experts having convinced Sazonov that it would be suicidal, the Minister next morning (July 30) presented himself to the Tsar and obtained his consent to the radical measure advocated by the General Staff. On the following morning this order was posted up in St. Petersburg and the catastrophe, already inevitable, broke loose. During the War Sazonov countered all influences tending to the abandonment of the struggle by Russia, but he followed the Tsar’s lead in demanding first the opening of the Straits and the internationalisation of Constantinople and later on the annexa-

the bishop Jucundus (411-419), a still serviceable bridge which also carried an aqueduct, and several square Byzantine forts. The early history of Sufetula is preserved only in certain inscriptions. Under Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius it was a flourishing city, the district, now desolate, being then very fertile and covered with forests of olives. It was partly rebuilt during the Byzantine occupation and became a centre of Christianity. At the Arab invasion it was the capital of the exarch Gregorius. See A. Merlin, Forum et églises de Sufetula (1912).

SCABIES or ITCH, a skin disease due to an animal parasite, the Acarus or Sarcoptes scabiei (see Mite), which burrows under the epidermis at any part of the body, but hardly ever in the face or scalp of adults; it usually begins at the clefts of the fingers, where its presence may be inferred from several scattered pimples, which will probably have been torn at their summits by the scratching of the patient, or have been otherwise converted into vesicles or pustules. The remedy is soap and water, and sulphur ointment.

SCABIOUS, the common name for several European flowers.

The common or field scabious (Knautia arvensis) and the devil’sbit scabious (Scabzosa succisa) belong to the teazel family (Dipsacaceae). The flowers are aggregated together to form a head. The sheep’s-bit scabious (Jasione montana) belongs to the bell-

flower family (Campanulaceae) and is a quite different plant. It resembles the common scabious, however, in having the flowers aggregated together into a head.

SCAEVOLA, the name of a famous family of ancient Rome, the most important members of which were :—

1. Gatus Mucrus Scarvora, a legendary hero, who volunteered to assassinate Lars Porsena when he was besieging Rome. He reached Porsena’s tent, but slew his secretary by mistake. Before the royal tribunal Mucius declared that he was one of 300 noble

youths who had sworn to take the king’s life, and that he had been

chosen by lot to make the attempt first: Threatened with death or torture, Mucius thrust his right hand into the fire blazing upon

an altar, and held it there until it was consumed. The king, deeply impressed and dreading a further attempt upon his’ life, ordered Mucius to be liberated, made peace with the Romans and withdrew his forces. Mucius was rewardéd with a grant of land beyond

4I

SCAFELL—SCAFFOLD the Tiber, known as the “Mucia Prata” in the time of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and received the name of Scaevola (“lefthanded”). The story is presumably an attempt to explain the name Scaevola (Livy ii. 12; Dion. Halic. v. 27—30). The Mucius of the legend is described as a patrician; the following were undoubtedly plebeians. 2. PusLrus Mucus SCAEVOLA, Roman orator and jurist, consul 133 B.C. during the time of the Gracchan disturbances. He was not opposed to moderate reforms, and refused to use violence against Tiberius Gracchus. After the murder of Gracchus, however, he expressed his approval of the act. He was an opponent of the younger Scipio Africanus, for which he was attacked by the satirist Lucilius (Persius i. 115; Juvenal i. 154). In 130 he succeeded his brother Mucianus as pontifex maximus. During his tenure of office he published a digest in 80 books of the official annals kept by himself and his predecessors. Cicero frequently . mentions him as a lawyer of repute, and he is cited several times in the Digest. He was also a famous player at ball and the game called Duodecim Scripta; after he had lost a game, he was able to recall the moves and throws in their order. See A. H. J. Greenidge, History of Rome.

3. Quintus Mucrus Scaevora, son of (2), usually called “Pontifex Maximus,” to distinguish him from (4), consul in 95 B,C. with L. Licinius Crassus the orator. He and his colleague brought forward the lex Licinia Mucia de civibus regundis which closed Roman citizenship to the allies in future, and was largely responsible for the Social War. After his consulship Scaevola was governor of the province of Asia, and dealt severely with the

on which lies Sprinkling Tarn. termed the Scafell mass.

The range thus defined may be

North-west from the Pike the lesser

height of Lingmell (2,649 ft.) is thrown out, and the steep flank of the range sweeps down to the head of Wasdale. On the east an even steeper wall, with splendid crags, falls to Eskdale. Above Mickledore ridge Scafell rises nearly sheer, with bold clefts.

SCAFFOLD

or SCAFFOLDING, properly a platform or

stage, particularly one of a temporary character erected for viewing or displaying some spectacle. The most general modern application of the word, however, refers to the temporary frames and

platforms erected or suspended at convenient heights to afford edsy access to work of construction and repair. A scaffold, in its simplest form, may be a single plank supported by trestles, or it may be the extremely complicated construction necessary to render every part of a large cathedral or similar building accessible. Up to a comparatively recent date scaffolds were invariably constructed of timbers bound together with ropes, but now many forms of patent scaffolding and fixing devices are available. The more general adoption of steel-framed buildings has contributed largely towards the development of suspended scaffolding. The steel members themselves, supplemented by ladders, provide the only scaffolding necessary in the erection of the

frame, and since the steel work is practically completed before the wall filling and facing is commenced, it is more convenient and economical to suspend a single platform—that may extend along the whole face of the building if required, and capable of being raised as the work proceeds—from cantilevers fixed to the tax-farmers. In honour of his memory the Greeks of Asia set top members of the frame, than it is to erect a poled scaffold aside a day for the celebration of festivities and games called over the whole face of the building. Timber Scaffolds.—The ordinary type of timber scaffolding Mucia. He was subsequently appointed Pontifex Maximus, and, in accordance with custom, dispensed free legal advice, which was comprises the following:—standards, ledgers, putlogs, braces, extensively sought, even by men of the standing of Servius Sul- scaffold boards and lashings. The standards, ledgers and braces picius. He regulated the priestly colleges, and insisted on observ- are usually tapering poles (the stripped trunks of young fir ance of the traditional ritual, though he himself believed that trees), about 15 to 35 ft. in length and 34 to 5 in. in diameter at religion was only for the uneducated. He was proscribed by the the butt. The putlogs are of riven birch, 5 to 6 ft. long and 3 in. in Marian party, and in 82, when the younger Marius, after his defeat by Sulla at Sacriportus, gave orders for the evacuation of section. Scaffold boards are of spruce, 8 to 12 ft. long, 9 in. wide Rome and the massacre of the chief men of the opposite party, by r4 in. thick, with the ends bound by hoop iron to obtain Scaevola, while attempting to reconcile the opposing factions, was strength and security. The ends of the hoop iron should be slain at the altar of Vesta and his body thrown into the Tiber. He turned into saw cuts in the edges of the wood to prevent injury had already escaped an attempt made upon his life by Gaius to the workmen while handling the boards. Until recently the lashings were, in nearly every case, made Fimbria at the funeral of the elder Marius in 86. Scaevola was the founder of the scientific study of Roman law and of jute or hemp fibres, white Manila hemp being the best and the author of a systematic treatise on the subject, in eighteen books, strongest. Flexible wire cords are now used to a considerable frequently quoted and followed by subsequent writers. It was a compilation of legislative enactments, judicial precedents and authorities, extent for lashings. These cords are about jin. in diameter and are sufficiently long for every form of scaffold junction. They are from older collections, partly also from oral tradition. A small handbook called “Opor (Definitions) is the oldest work from which any made of several strands of small gauge wire, one end of the excerpts are made in the Digest, and the first example of a special kind cord being finished with a metal cap or sleeve to prevent the of judicial literature (libri definitionum or regularum). It consisted of strands from spreading, the other end being turned around a short rules of Jaw and explanations of legal terms and phrases. A number of speeches by him, praised by Cicero for their elegance of diction, metal eye piece and securely bound or spliced. Scaffold wedges are unnecessary with wire cords. were in existence in ancient times. Chain ties and tightening blocks are frequently used in the 4. Quintus Muctrus ScaEvora (c. 159-88 B.c.), uncle of (3), from whom he is distinguished by the appellation of “Augur.” He place of cord lashings and require less time for fixing. Such a form was instructed in law by his father, and in philosophy by the of scaffold fixing was used in the scaffolding erected for the reStoic Panaetius of Rhodes. In 121 he was governor of Asia. Ac- construction of Buckingham palace, and in many other important cused of extortion on his return, he defended himself successfully. works, and proved to be satisfactory. Bricklayer’s Scaffold.—In erecting a bricklayer’s scaffold, the In 117 he was consul. He was a great authority on law, and at an advanced age he gave instruction to Cicero and Atticus. He had standards are placed upright at a distance of 5 ft. from the face a high appreciation of Marius, and refused to vote for Sulla’s of the wall and from 6 to g ft. apart; the lower ends of the motion declaring him a public enemy. Scaevola is one of the standards being held in position by the method best suited to the interlocutors in Cicero’s De oratore, De amicitia and De republica. nature of the site. Thus, the ends may be placed in barrels of For the legal importance of the Scaevolas, see A. Schneider, Die earth or sand, they may be placed on a timber sole plate and drei Scaevola Ciceros (Munich, 1879), with full references to ancient held in position by nailed fillets; or they may be sunk a foot or and modern authorities. ! two into the ground. The ledgers are fixed horizontally along the SCAFELL (pronounced and sometimes written Scaw Fell), ‘inner faces of the standards at vertical intervals of 5 feet. The a mountain of Cumberland, England, in the Lake District. The putlogs are placed 3 or 4 ft. apart, perpendicular to the face of name is specially applied to the southern point (3,162 ft. in the wall, one end of each putlog resting on the ledger, the other height) of a certain range or mass, but Scafell Pike, separated end passing into a recess left, or made, in the wall for that purfrom Scafell by the steep narrow ridge of Mickledore, is the high- pose. The scaffold boards are laid on the putlogs and. parallel est point in England (3,210 ft.). The ridge continues north-east to the face of the wall. At the position where the end joints to Great End (2,984 ft.), which falls abruptly: to a flat terrace, between the boards occur, two putlogs are placed a few inches

SCAFFOLD

4.2

apart to obviate the necessity for lapping the ends of the boards. Scaffolds of this type should always have diagonal braces fixed across the faces of the standards

to avoid risk of failure by

side racking, and the scaffold must be prevented from falling away from the face of the wall by ties or bridles through the window openings. The third possible cause of failure, the buckling of the standards, is guarded against in scaffolds supporting heavy loads by having the whole or lower part of the scaffold “double poled.” All scaffolds should have guard planks and guard rails fixed to the outer standards. As the work is carried up the boarding and many of the putlogs are removed to the stage above, some putlogs, however, being left tied to the lower ledgers to stiffen the scaffold. In the case of thick walls a scaffold is required inside as well as outside the building, and when this is the case the two structures are tied together and stiffened by short connecting poles through the window and door openings.

Mason’s Scaffold.—The mason requires an independent scaf-

fold. He may not rest the inner ends of his putlogs in the wail as the bricklayer does, for this would disfigure the stonework,

hence another and parallel framework of standards and is placed within a few inches of the wall-face upon which port them. The two portions are tied together with cross and the whole of the timbering is made capable of taking weights than aré required in the case of the bricklayer. Masons’ scaffolds upon which banker work is done are

ledgers to supbraces, heavier

usually of sawn material bolted together; the arrangement of the rectangular members corresponding to that in the ordinary type of scaffold.

name has, however, come to be used generally for strong stagings of squared timber whether used for moving loads or not. Taking the general meaning of the term, gantries may be divided into

three classes: (1) Gantries supporting a traveller; (2) Travelling gantries, in which the whole stage moves along rails placed on the ground: (3) Elevated platforms which serve as a base upon

which to erect pole scaffolding. The two former of this type of structure are now little used. Many more or less permanent timber gantries exist in goods yards and similar places but modern methods of handling and hoisting materials have rendered the old type of traveller gantry almost obsolete. The form of fixed staging or platform gantry which is used over a public pavement is indispensable for conducting building opera-

tions in large towns where it is important to keep the footway clear and to safeguard pedestrians who are using the footway in front of the building site. They consist of two sets of standards, .

sill and head, one set being erected close to the building and the other about 8 or 10 ft. away. These stages are formed of square timber, framed and braced in a similar manner to gantries designed to support a traveller, but, instead of external shores or braces the uprights are braced across to each other, care being taken to fix the braces at such a height as to allow free passage beneath them. Joists are placed across from head to head, and a double layer of scaffold boards is laid to form the floor, the double thickness being necessary to prevent materials dropping through the joints upon the heads of passers-by. When the gantry abuts on the road, a heavy timber fender splayed at each end should be

placed so as to ward off the traffic. At the level of the platform a Metal or Tubular Scaffold.—This type of scaffolding was fanguard is often thrown out for a distance of about 6 ft. or more used during the process of erection of Bush house, Aldwych, and closely boarded to protect the public from falling materials Devonshire house, Piccadilly and many other important buildings and the workmen from accident. Derrick Towets.—Derrick “‘gantries” or “towers” are skeleton in London and the provinces, and must now be noticed in any towers of heavy timbers erected in a central position on a site reference work on scaffolding. The special advantages claimed for tubular scaffolding are:—It to support a platform at such a height as to enable an electric or is easily transported; since 12 feet is the maximum length of any steam power derrick crane placed upon it to clear the highest member a great quantity may be stored in an ordinary truck. Its portions of the building. The crane revolves upon a base through strength is beyond question, it is fireproof and practically inde- nearly three parts of the circumference of a circle, and in addition structible. It is easily introduced into narrow or tortuous en- to this the jib of the crane is capable of an “up and down” motion trances, and may be erected with great rapidity and little labour. which enables it to command any spot within a radius of threeIt is not affected by climatic conditions, is neat and compact when quarters of the length of the jib. For a single crane, a derrick tower with three legs is built, and the crane is placed over one of erected and is light and efficient for slung scaffolds. Tubular scaffolding consists of sections of steel tubes, about 2 these, stayed back to the other two and then counterbalanced by in. in diameter and of various lengths, with various forms of clips heavy weights. Each leg is usually from 6 ft. to ro ft. square on plan, the “king” leg (that is, the leg supporting the crane) being and couplings, base plates and patent putlogs. The putlogs are of oak reinforced with steel, the steel projecting larger than the “queen” legs. The three legs are placed from 20 beyond the wood to allow it to be inserted and wedged into the to 30 ft. apart in the form of an equilateral or isosceles triangle. brickwork joints when necessary. Thus putlog holes are not When two cranes are used, as is the case when important operarequired to be left or made in the wall surfaces. The standards tions are to be conducted over the entire area of a circle, a fourare not placed more than 8 feet apart for ordinary scaffolds, and legged square derrick tower is constructed, and a crane set upon a not more than 6 feet apart for masons’ scaffolds. The diagonal platform over each of two opposite legs. The ground upon which bracing is fixed by special swivel couplers. it Is proposed to erect the towers must be well chosen for its Suspended

Scaffolding.—Where

the nature of the building

will permit of its use suspended scaffolding has many very important advantages. Thus, in high steel framed buildings the lower floors may be occupied before the upper ones are completed. The scaffold platform may be kept at the position in which the work is always at bench height. The space immediately below the

solidity, or specially prepared to receive the towers, The founda-

tion usually consists of a platform of g-in. by 3-in. deals under each leg. The corner posts may be of three :9-in.’ by, 3-in.,,deals

The scaffold platform is flexible

bolted together, but those for the king leg may advantageously be larger. They are connected at every 8 or rọ ft. of their height by means of cross pieces or transoms from 7” by 2” to 9” by 3” in size, and each bay thus formed is filled in on all four sides with

and its height may be varied along its length, within certain limits,

diagonal bracing of the same or slightly smaller timber. Up the

by a device specially designed to ensure safety while raising or lowering the platform. | Gantries.—“Gantry” is the term applied to a staging of squared timber used for the easy transmission of heavy material. The'

queen legs may be connected with each other either by a similar trussed girder or by a single timber which is supported by struts from the supporting legs to shorten the span and give rigidity. . For the connecting girders a balk of timber reaching from king to

scaffold is clear of obstructions.

to suit special conditions. y josie This form of scaffolding was used in Adelaide House, London, E.C.: the Lewis Building, Birmingham; Messrs. C. and A.. Modes

centre ofthe king leg, from the bottom to the top, is carried an extra timber.to take the weight of the crane. It may be a balk of whole timber, 12 or,14 in. square, or may consist of deals bolted Ltd., Liverpool, and many other equally large and important together up to 16, in. square., This central member must be well buildings, and has proved to be safe, convenient and economical. braced and strutted from the four corners to resist any tendency The complete scaffold is made up of a number of units or sections: to:bending. . ~ í ee ee ee a Each section has a machine or winch at each corner, the supWhen: the towers have reached the desired height the king leg is porting cables being wound or unwound about the machine drum connected to each of the queen legs by a trussed girder; the two

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queen legs is placed on each of the two topmost transoms, which may be from 4 to 8 ft. apart, the depth of the top bays often being modified to the required depth of the connecting beams. Upright struts are fixed at intervals of about 5 ft. between the two balks, which are also connected by long iron bolts and cross braces filled into each bay. The top balks project 6 or ro ft. beyond the king leg and form the support for a working platform of deals. Struts are thrown out from the sides of the leg to support the ends of the balks. Upon the platform are laid two “sleepers” of balk timber extending from beneath the bed of the crane and passing over the centre of each queen leg. The “mast,” a vertical member composed either of a single timber or two pieces strutted and braced, is erected upon the revolving crane bed, and the “jib,” which is similar in construction to the mast, is attached to the base of the latter

GANTRY

SUPPORTING

SCAFFOLD

twisting tendencies due to wind pressure and swinging of the load, either by ties of steel bars with tightening screws, or, as is more usual, with diagonally placed scaffold-pole or squarea-timber braces secured to the framework. In the case of a three-towered gantry it is necessary to ballast only the two queen legs. Weighting of the king leg is unnecessary. With a square gantry having four legs, all should be weighted, and in calculating the ballast necessary for the crane towers the weight

of the engine should be considered. Access to the platform is obtained by ladders fixed either inside or outside one of the queen legs. With the exception of the boards forming the working platform, which are usually spiked down, the timbers of a tower gantry should all be connected by screw bolts and nuts. In steel framed buildings the derrick tower is unnecessary, the revolving jib, base and engine being supported by the steel work and raised to succeeding heights as the work proceeds.

by a pivoted hinge. The jib is raised and lowered by a rope fixed near the end of the jib and running to the engine by way of a pulley wheel at the top of the mast. The rope or chain used for lifting Swinging scaffolds or cradles, used in connection with painting, the materials passes over a pulley at the end of the jib and thence renovating and light repair work consists: of ight rigidly framed to the winch over a pulley at the top of the mast. In the operation platforms suspended from cantilever ‘supports. They are capable of the cradle by means of lifting it is obvious that a great strain is put upon the mast and of being raised or lowered by the occupants a considerable overturning force is exerted by the leverage of the of block and fall tackle. A newer type of cradle is a modified form weight lifted at the end of the jib. To counter-balance this, two of the suspended scaffolding already described, the raising and timber “stays” or “guys” are taken from the mast head, one to lowering being done by machines ‘attached direct to'the metal the centre of each queen leg, and there secured. From these points frames which hold the platform and guard rails, instead of by Ss two heavy chains are taken down the centre of each queen leg “block and fall.” and anchored. to the platform at their bases, which are each loaded

with a quantity of- bricks, stone or other heavy material equal in weight to at least. twice any load to be lifted by the crane. A coupling screw link should be provided in the length of each: anchor ‘chain. so thatit may be kept taut. The coupling screws

Scaffolding for Chimneys.—Tall chimney shafts may ‘be

erected by ‘internal scaffolding only, or by a combination of éx: ternal ańd:internal staging.. The latter method is often adopted

when the lower part of the shaft is designed with ornamental brickwork, string courses, panels, etc., and it is important that .thisswork

shouldbe placed-in an accessible place near the ground, where ‘they should be carefully. finished. An external scaffold is therefore ‘car-

may ‘easily be seen and tightened when necessary: ‘The legs of vied; up until. plain work not more than 2 or 24 bricks thick is the structure should be cross’ braced, with each other .to-nesist ¥eached;, when ‘the remainder can be completed by “overhand” :

SCALA

44

NUOVA—SCALIGER

work from an internal scaffold. The offsets made in the brickwork

on the inside are used to support the timbering. For the repair of tall chimneys, light ladders are erected one above the other by a steeplejack and his assistants, each being lashed to the one below it and secured to the brickwork by dog-hooks driven in the joints. When the top of the chimney is reached balk timbers are raised by pulleys and laid across the top. From these are swung cradles from which the defective work is made good. If the work or weather demand a more stable scaffold, a light but strong framework of putlogs held together with iron bolts is fixed on each side of the shaft with iron holdfasts, and a platform of boards is laid upon them. For circular chimneys pieces of timber cut to a curve are clamped with iron to the putlogs to prevent them from bending when the bolts connecting the two frames are screwed up. See J. F. Hurst, Tredgold’s Carpentry; A. G. H. Thatcher, Scaffolding; C. F. Mitchell, Building Construction; G. Elis, Modern Practical Carpentry.

SCALA NUOVA

(Turk. Kush-Adasi), also known as New

Ephesus, a well-protected harbour on the west coast of Asia Minor and a kasa in the vilayet of Smyrna, opposite Samos. The site of the ancient Marathesium is close by. Pop. (1927) 14,715.

SCALE, in music, signifies any selected sequence of notes, or

intervals, dividing up the octave. Thus it may consist entirely of semitones (chromatic scale); or entirely of whole tones (tonal scale); or partly of tones and partly of semitones, as in the ordinary diatonic scales, major and minor, of Western music. Our familiar major diatonic scale, represented by the white notes on the pianoforte beginning with C, consists of five tones and

two semitones, with the semitones falling between the 3rd and 4th and the 7th and 8th notes.

SCALE INSECT, the name given to insects belonging to the family Coccidae of the order Hemiptera (g.v.). The females

are inert wingless creatures usually with reduced legs and antennae, while the males are provided with a single pair of wings and have the legs and antennae well developed. Scale insects include a number of serious plant-pests, among the most injurious being the San José scale, the mussel scale, the fluted scale and certain of the mealy bugs. On the other hand, other species have a commercial value, notably the cochineal insect (g.v.), the lac insect (g.v,) and the so-called ground pearls (q.v.).

SCALES: see WEIGHING MACHINES. SCALIGER, the Latinized name of the great Della Scala

family. (See Verona.) It has also been borne by two scholars of extraordinary eminence. 1, Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484-1558) was, according to his own account, a scion of the house of La Scala, born in 1484 at the castle of La Rocca on the Lago de Garda, At the age of twelve his kinsman the emperor Maximilian placed him among his pages. He remained for seventeen years in the service of the emperor, distinguishing himself as a soldier and as a captain, But he was unmindful neither of letters, nor of art, which he studied under Albrecht Dürer. In 1512 at the battle of Ravenna, where his father and elder brother were killed, he displayed prodigies of valour, and received the highest honours of chivalry, but no substantial reward, from his imperial cousin, After a brief employ-

ment by the duke of Ferrara, he entered (15124) as a student at the university of Bologna, where he remained until 1519. The

next six years he passed in Piedmont, as a guest of the family of La Rovére, until a severe attack of rheumatic gout brought his military career to a close. Henceforth his life was wholly devoted to study. In 1525 he accompanied M. A. de la Rovere, bishop of

Agen, to that city as his physician. Such is the outline of his own

account of his early life, It was not until after his death that his son’s enemies first alleged that he was the son of Benedetto Bordone, an illuminator or school-master of Verona; that he was educated at Padua, where he took the degree of M.D.; and that his story of his life and adventures before arriving at Agen was a tissue of fables. (See below ad fin.) The remaining thirty-two years of his life were passed almost

in love with Andiette de Roques Lobejac, and at forty-five he married Andiette, who was then sixteen. The marriage, of which there were fifteen children, was one of almost uninterrupted happiness. In 1531 he printed his first oration against Erasof mus, in defence of Cicero and the Ciceronians. It is a piece vigorous invective, displaying an astonishing command of Latin, and much brilliant rhetoric, but full of vulgar abuse, and completely missing the point of the Ciceronianus of Erasmus. The second is even more abusive, and less successful. The orations were followed by a prodigious quantity of Latin verse, which appeared in successive volumes in 1533, 1534, 1539, I 546 and 1547; of these, a friendly critic, Mark Pattison, is obliged to approve the judgment of Huet, who says, “par ses poésies brutes et informes Scaliger a déshonoré le Parnasse.” A brief tract on

comic metres (De comicis dimensionibus) and a work De causis linguae Latinae—the earliest Latin grammar on scientific principles and following a scientific method—were his only other purely literary works published in his lifetime. His Poetice ap~ peared in 1561 after his death. His scientific writings are all in the form of commentaries, and it was not until his seventieth year that (with the exception of a brief tract on the De insomniis of Hippocrates) he published any of them. In 1556 he printed his Dialogue on the De plantis attributed to Aristotle, and in 1557 his Exercitationes on the work of Jerome Cardan, De subtilitate. His other scientific works, Commentaries on Theophrastus’ De causis plantarum and Aristotle’s History of Animals, left in a more or less unfinished state, were not printed until after his death. His Erercitationes upon the De subtilitate of Cardan (1557) is the book by which Scaliger is best known as a philosopher. We are astonished at the encyclopaedic wealth of knowledge which the Exercitationes display, at the vigour of the author’s style, at the accuracy of his observations, but are obliged to agree with G. Naudé that he has committed more faults than he has discovered in Cardan, and with Charles Nisard that his object seems to be to deny all that Cardan affirms and to affirm all that Cardan denies, Yet Leibniz and Sir William Hamilton recognized him as the best modern exponent of the physics and metaphysics of Aristotle. He died at Agen on Oct. 21, 1558.

2. Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609), the greatest scholar of his day, was the tenth child of J. C. Scaliger. Born at Agen in 1540, he was sent when twelve years of age, with two younger brothers, to the college of Guienne at Bordeaux. An outbreak of the plague in 1555 caused the boys to return home, and for the next few years Joseph was his father’s constant companion and amanuensis. Julius daily dictated to his son from eighty to a hundred lines of Latin verse, and sometimes more. Joseph was also required each day to write a Latin theme or declamation, though in other respects he seems to have been left to his own devices. He learned from his father to be an acute observer, never losing sight of the actual world, and aiming not so much at correcting texts as at laying the foundation of historical criticism. After his father’s death, he spent four years at the university of Paris, where he began the study of Greek under Turnebus. At the same time he taught himself. He read Homer in twenty-one days, and then went through all the other Greek poets, orators and historians, forming a grammar for himself as he went along. From Greek, at the suggestion of G. Postel, he proceeded to attack Hebrew, and then Arabic; of both he acquired a respectable knowledge, though not the critical mastery which he possessed in Latin and Greek. In 1563 Jean Dorat recommended him to Louis de Chastaigner, the young lord of La Roche Pozay, as a companion in his travels. A close friendship sprang up between the two young men, which remained unbroken till the death of Louis in 1595. The travellers first went to Rome. Here they found Marc An-

toine Muretus, who had been a great favourite and occasional visitor of Julius Caesar at Agen. After visiting Italy, the travellers passed to England and Scotland. Scaliger formed an unfavourable opinion of the English. Their inhuman disposition, and inhosimpressed him. He was wholly at Agen, in the full light of contemporary history. At his pitable treatment of foreigners especially manuscripts and few Greek few finding in disappointed also reputation literary and scientific death in 1558 he had the highest that he became intimate of any man in Europe, A few days after his arrival at Agen he fell learned men. It was not until much later

SCALLOP—SCALP with Richard Thompson and other Englishmen. In the course of his travels he had become a Protestant. In 1570 he proceeded to Valence to study jurisprudence under Cujas, the greatest living jurist. Here he remained three years. The massacre of St. Bartholomew induced him to retire to Geneva, where he was appointed a professor in the academy. In 1574 he returned to France, and made his home for the next twenty years with Chastaigner. Of his life during this period we have interesting details and notices in the Lettres françaises inédites de Joseph Scaliger, edited by M. Tamizey de Larroque (Agen, 1881). During this period he published the books which showed that with him a new school of historical criticism had arisen. In his editions of the Catalecta (1575), of Festus (1575), of Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius (1577), he was the first to lay down and apply sound rules of criticism and emendation, and to change textual criticism from a series of haphazard guesses into a “rational procedure subject to fixed laws” (Pattison). But it was reserved for his edition of Manilius (1579), and his De emendatione temporum (1583), to revolutionize all the received ideas of ancient chronology—to show that ancient history is not confined to that of the Greeks and Romans, and that the historical narratives and fragments of Persia, Babylonia, Egypt and Palestine, and their several systems of chronology, must be critically compared, if any true and general conclusions are to be reached. Tt is this which places Scaliger immeasurably above any of his contemporaries. His commentary on Manilius is really a treatise on the astronomy of the ancients, and it forms an introduction to the De emendatione temporum, in which he examines by the light of modern and Copernican science the ancient system as applied to epochs, calendars and computations of time. In the remaining twenty-four years of his life he at once corrected and enlarged the basis which he had laid in the De emendatione. With incredible patience, sometimes with a happy audacity of conjecture which itself is almost genius, he succeeded in reconstructing the lost Chronicle of Eusebius—one of the most precious remains of antiquity, and of the highest value for ancient chronology. This he printed in 1606 in his Thesaurus temporum, in which he collected, restored and arranged every chronological relic extant in Greek or Latin. When in 1590 Lipsius retired from Leyden, the university resolved to obtain Scaliger as his successor. He declined their offer. The next year it was renewed. It was made clear that lecturing would not be required of him, and he would be entirely his own master. About the middle of 1593 he started for Holland, where he passed the remaining thirteen years of his life. He was treated with the highest consideration. His rank as a prince of Verona was recognized. His literary dictatorship was unquestioned. From his throne at Leyden he ruled the learned world; a word from him could make or mar a rising reputation; and he was surrounded by young men eager to listen to and profit by his conversation. He encouraged Grotius when only a youth of sixteen to edit Capella; Daniel Heinsius, from being his favourite pupil, became his most intimate friend. But Scaliger had made numerous enemies. He hated ignorance, but he hated still more half-learning, and most of all dishonesty in argument or in quotation. His pungent sarcasms were soon carried to the persons of whom they were uttered, and his pen was not less bitter than his tongue. Nor was he always right. He trusted much to his memory, which was occasionally treacherous. The Jesuits, who aspired to be the source of all scholarship and criticism, perceived that the writings and authority of Scaliger whose historical methods had discredited many of their claims were the most formidable barrier in their way. It was the day of conversions. Muretus in the latter part of his life professed the strictest orthodoxy; J. Lipsius had been reconciled to the Church of Rome; Casaubon was supposed to be wavering; but Scaliger was known to be hopeless, and as long as his supremacy was unquestioned the Protestants had the victory in learning.

After several scurrilous attacks by the Jesuit party, in 1607 a new and more successful attempt was made. Scaliger’s weak point was his pride. In 1594, in an evil hour for his happiness and his reputation, he published his Epistola de vetustate et splendore

gentis Scaligerae et J. C. Scaligeri vita. In 1607 Gaspar Scioppius,

45

then in the service of the Jesuits, whom he afterwards so bitterly libelled, published his Scaliger hypobolimaeus (“the Supposititious Scaliger”). The main argument of the book is to show the falsity of Scaliger’s pretensions to be of the family of La Scala, and of the narrative of his father’s early life. To Scaliger the blow was crushing. Whatever the case as to Julius, Joseph had undoubtedly believed himself a prince of Verona, and in his Epistola had put forth with the most perfect good faith, and without inquiry, all that he had heard from his father. His reply, Confutatio fabulae Burdonum, was not a success. Scaliger undoubtedly exposes many pure lies and baseless calumnies; but he could not establish the family’s supposed lineage. Scioppius was wont to boast that his book had killed Scaliger. It certainly embittered the remainder of his life. The Confutatio was his last work. Five months after it appeared, on Jan. 21, 1609, he died. Of Joseph Scaliger the standard biography is that of Jacob Bernays (Berlin, 1855). See also his Autobiography, with selections from his letters etc., trs. with introd. by G. W. W. Robinson (1927). See also J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, ii. (1908), 199-204. For the life of J. C. Scaliger see the letters edited by his son, and his own writings, which are full of autobiographical matter.

SCALLOP.

The popular name for a genus (Pecten) of edible

marine molluscs belonging to the class Lamellibranchia. Nearly 300 living species of scallops are known and are found in all seas, from high latitudes to the tropics. The “scallop-shell of quiet” (Sir W. Raleigh) was worn as a badge by mediaeval pilgrims. Pecten ‘is placed in the second order (Filibranchia) of the

Lamellibranchia along with Arca (the ark shell), Mytilus (mussels) and Margaritana (the pearl oyster). This group is characterized by the possession of gills in which the filaments are doubled on themselves, forming reflected lamellae (see LAMELLIBRANCHIA) and are joined together by ciliated disks, and by the highly developed byssus. In Pecten the foot is rudimentary and the animal is more or less sedentary, the byssus serving to fasten it down to the sea-bottom. The edges of the mantle are provided with

highly developed eyes. The common scallop of the British Isles (Pecten opercularis) is usually found in beds on a bottom composed of shell-débris with a little mud. Some of the largest beds are in the Firth of Forth, between Fleetwood and the Isie of Man, off Douglas and Weymouth. These beds are usually in water of 5~20 fathoms, though individual specimens are occasionally taken from much deeper water. Representatives of the sub-genus Pseudoomussium are

found at greater depths (e.g., P. neoceanicus in 2,084 fathoms in the Pacific ocean). See W. g Dakin, “Pecten,” Mem. ane Mar. Biol. Comm., xvii, (1909); M. Kiipfer Die Sehorgane . . der Pecten-arten. (Ziri, 191665. (G. C . R)

SCALP, in anatomy, the covering of the top of the head from the skin to the bone. The skin of the scalp is thick and contains a large number of hair follicles. The arteries are remarkable for their tortuosity, which is an adaptation to so movable a part; for their anastomosing across the middle line with their fellows of the opposite side, an arrangement which is not usual in the body; and for the fact that, when cut, their ends are held open by the dense fibrous tissue in which they lie, so that bleeding is more free in the scalp than it is from arteries of the same size elsewhere in the body. The veins do not follow the twists of the arteries but run a straight course; there is often a considerable distance between an artery and its companion vein. Accompanying the veins are the larger lymphatic vessels. From the forehead the lymphatics accompany the facial vein and usually reach their first gland in the

submaxillary region, so that in the case of a poisoned wound of

the forehead sympathetic swelling or suppuration would take place below the jaw. From the temple the lymphatics drain into a gland lying just in front of the ear, while those from the region behind the ear drain into glands lying close to the mastoid process. In the occipital region a small gland (or glands) is found about a third of the distance from the external occipital protuberance to the tip of the mastoid process (see SKULL). The nerve supply of the scalp in its anterior part is from the

fifth cranial or trigeminal nerve (see NERVES, CRANIAL); behind

SCALPING—SCANDINAVIAN

46

the ear the scalp is supplied with sensation by the great auricular

and the small occipital (see Nerves, SPINAL), while behind these,

and reaching as far as the mid line posteriorly, the great occipital is distributed. Beneath the skin and fibrous tissue lies the epicranium, formed by the two fleshy bellies of the occipito-frontalis muscle and the flattened tendon or aponeurosis between them. Of these two bellies the anterior (frontalis) is the larger, and, when it acts, throws the skin of the forehead into transverse puckers. The much smaller (occipitalis or posterior) belly usually merely fixes the aponeurosis for the frontalis to act, though some people have the power of alternately contracting the two muscles and so wagging their scalps backward and forward as monkeys do. Deep to the epicranium is a layer of very lax areolar tissue constituting a lymph space and allowing great freedom of movement to the more superficial layers; it was this layer which was torn through when a Red Indian scalped his foe. So lax is the tissue here that any collection of blood or pus is quickly distributed throughout its whole area, and, owing to the absence of tension as well as of nerves, very little pain accompanies any such effusion. The deepest layer of the scalp is the pericranium or the external periosteum of the skull bones. This, until the sutures of the

skull close in middle life, is continuous with the dura mater which

forms the internal periosteum, and for this reason any subpericranial effusion is localized to the area of the skull bone over which it happens to lie. Moreover, any suppurative process may extend through the sutures to the meninges of the brain. (F. G. P.)

SCALPING.

The common term for the practice of remov-

ing, as a trophy, a portion of the skin, “shell” or “sheath,” with hair attached, from an enemy’s head. The custom was not unknown to the Old World, as it was mentioned by Herodotus as practised by the Scythians. It has been regarded, however, as a prevalent one among the American Indians, yet, contrary to the general belief, not all the tribes practised it by any means. Extended researches by Friederici indicate that in North America it was confined originally to a limited area in eastern United

St. Lawrence region, about equivalent to the Iroquois and Muskhogean tribes and custom was absent from New England and coast region, and was unknown until comparatively recent times throughout the interior and the Plains area; it was not practised on the Pacific coast, in the Canadian North-west nor in the Arctic region, nor anywhere south of the United States with the exception of an area in the Gran Chaco country of South America. Throughout most of America the

States and the lower the territory held by their neighbours. The much of the Atlantic

early trophy was the head itself.

The spread of the scalping

practice over the greater part of central and western United States was stimulated by scalp-bounties offered by the colonial and more recent governments, the scalp itself being superior to the head as a trophy by reason of its lighter weight and greater adaptability to display and ornamentation. „i:The. operation of scalping was painful, but by no means fatal. The impression that it was fatal probably arose from the fact

that the. scalp was usually taken from the head of a slain enemy

as a trophy of his death, but among the Plains tribes the attacking warrior frequently strove to overpower his enemy and scalp

him alive, to inflict greater agony before killing him; and fre-

quently also. a captured enemy. was scalped alive and permitted to return to his people. as a direct defiance and as an incitement to retaliation. The part taken was usually a small circular, patch..of

skin at the root of the scalp-lock just back of the crown.

The

scalp-lock itself was the small hair braid which hung from the back of the head, as distinguished from the larger side braids:

When opportunity offered, the whole top skin of the head, with

CIVILIZATION

rior’s prowess.

The

fresh scalp was

sometimes

offered with

prayer as a Sacrifice to the sun, the water or some other divinity. When preserved for a time, as was most usual, the scalp was cleaned of the loose flesh and then stretched by means of sinew cords around the circumference within a hoop about six inches in diameter, tied at the end of a rod. When dry the skin side was painted either entirely red, or one half red and the other half black, and the hair was usually carefully braided and embellished with various ornaments. It was carried thus by the women in the triumphal scalp or victory dance on the return of a successful war-party to the home camp, and then, having served its first purpose, was retained as a bridle pendant by the warrior, deposited with the tribal “medicine,” or thrown away in some secluded spot. This may be regarded as the typical treatment; but scalp customs varied from tribe to tribe, as likewise did the

associated beliefs and rites. The custom is involved with that

of decapitation, the severing of parts of the body, such as fingers, etc., as war trophies, and the shrinking of the heads of enemies as among the Jivaro Indians of Ecuador. See G. Friederici, Skalpieren und ähnliche Kriegsgebräuche in Amerika (Brunswick, 1906), with extended bibliography, and summarneee ized in Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1906

SCAMMONY,

a plant, Convolvulus Scammonia, native to

the countries of the eastern Mediterranean basin; it grows in bushy waste places, from Syria in the south to the Crimea in the north, its range extending westward to the Greek islands, but not to northern Africa or Italy. It is a twining perennial, bearing

flowers like those of the feld or corn bindweed, Convolvulus arvensis, and having irregularly arrow-shaped leaves and a thick fleshy root. The dried juice, “virgin scammony,” obtained by incision of the living root, has been used in medicine as scammonium, but the variable quality of the employment of scammoniae resina, which dried root by digestion with alcohol. The glucoside scammonin or jalapin, CasHssOi6; tive.

drug has led to the is obtained from the active principle is the it is a powerful purga-

SCAMOZZI IONIC ORDER, in architecture, a type of

Tonic order in which the capital has all four faces identical, with the volutes meeting at an angle in the corners, and at the centre rolling down into the top of the echinus, instead of being connected by a band above the echinus. There is usually a rosette or flower in the centre of each face of the capital, on top of the echinus, and the abacus or top slab is concave-sided as in the Corinthian order. It receives its name from the late Renaissance architect Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616), who was once thought to have invented it, although there are Roman precedents, such as the temple of Saturn at Rome (early 4th century). See ORDER.

SCANDAL, disgrace, discredit, shame, caused by the report or knowledge of wrongdoing, hence defamation or gossip, especially malicious or idle; or such action as causes public offence or disrepute. A particular form of defamation was scandalum magnatum, “slander of great men,” words, that.is, spoken defaming a peer spiritual or temporal, judge or dignitary of the realm. Action lay for such defamation under the statutes of 3 Edw. I. c. 34,2 Rich. II. c. 5, and 12 Rich. IT. c. 11 whereby damages could be recovered, even in cases where no action would lie, if the defamation were of an ordinary subject, and that without proof of special damage. These statutes, though long obsolete, were only abolished in.1887 (Statute Law Revision Act).

. SCANDINAVIAN

CIVILIZATION.

At the close of the

Ice Age climatic conditions at last allowed man to enter Scandinavia;, but authorities differ as to when this occurred, suggestions varying from: 10,000 B.C. to 6,000 B.C.

Epipalaeolithic Period.—The earliest, civilizations belong to

the hair. attached, was removed, to be divided later into smaller locks for decorating the clothing of warriors. The operation, was performed by making a quick knife stroke around: the head of a fallen enemy, followed by a strong tug of the scalp-lock. The scalper was not necessarily he who had killed the victim; nor: was

the so-called Epipalaeolithic Period, of: which two stages are at present recognised-in Denmark, ‘called. after..their type-stations the Maglemose and Ertebolle Periods. The former is that of a race of fishermen who lived on the shores of the Baltic while it was still a great fresh-water lake (called by geologists Ancylus lake); at Maglemose were found many tools of bone, horn and

“strokes” or acts of bravery in battle), the measure of the war-

stone: the most typical being the’ barbed harpoon of bone or

the number of scalps, but, rather the number of coups (i.e.

SCANDINAVIAN horn and a chipped flint axe known was not found. In the following in sea-level had allowed the sea to is called by geologists the Littorina

as the tranchet. Pottery period (Ertebolle) a rise flow into the Baltic (this sea). The typical remains

of this age are usually found in vast rubbish-heaps or kitchenmiddens (kjgkkenmgddinger). Bone and horn tools and other objects, e.g., combs were still used, but flint was now the most important material. Pottery had come into use, the com-

monest form being a wide-mouthed bulging jar with pointed base. It is probable that in Norway and Sweden similar settlements existed, at present less fully known; for instance, remains at Né¢stvet in Norway and at Limhamn in Sweden resemble and may be contemporary with those at Ertebolle. With the exception of the dog, domestic animals were unknown at this period, and agriculture was not practised. Neolithic Period.—In the remoter districts of Norway and Sweden the epipalaeolithic people retained their primitive mode of life for a long time, untouched by the more advanced, neolithic civilizations developing to the south of them. Our knowledge of these neolithic civilizations is almost entirely gathered from a study of the burial customs of the period. Such dwellings as are known are simple circular mud huts, containing few remains but animal bones, etc. All the more important graves of this period in Scandinavia are megalithic structures, a chronological sequence of three types being recognised (corresponding to Montelius’ Periods II., III. and IV.). The earliest form of

CIVILIZATION

+7

sent the entrance into Scandinavia of another race, who ultimately merged with the megalith-builders, since in the Long Stone Cist period there is little distinction between the furniture of the megalithic and of the separate graves. Duration of Neolithic and Bronze Periods.—Prof. Gordon Childe, surveying the various estimates of the duration of the neolithic period in Scandinavia, suggests the following dates: Dolmen Period (Montelius Period II.), 2500-2200 B.c.; Passagegrave Period (Montelius Period III.),2200-1650 B.c.; Long Stone Cist Period (Montelius Period IV.), 1650-1500 B.c. The last period belongs technically to the Bronze Age, since small objects of metal are occasionally found (copper and bronze pins and gold

ear-rings).

Owing to the necessity of importing the metal the Bronze Age began late in Scandinavia; it probably lasted almost until the be-

ginning of the Christian era.

Here again much information is

derived from burials, but hoards of objects are also of great importance. The dwelling-sites are imperfectly known. Montelius, in his chronological classification of the Scandinavian Bronze Age, distinguishes two main periods, an Earlier and a Later, each having three subdivisions; but for a general survey the division into two periods is sufficient; the first probably ending about 1000 B.C., the second lasting till a few centuries before the Christian Era.

Earlier Bronze Period.—The sequence of metal types was much the same as in the rest of northern Europe. (See British tomb was the Dolmen (q.v.), a small chamber enclosed by three Museum Guide, Bronze Age, Evolution of the Axe, Spear and the flat and or more rude upright stones, roofed by a single great stone slab, Sword.) Early in the period the forms were simple, at this tools; commonest the being knife small and axe flanged which graves, These mound. a by covered partially and often still But metal. than use commoner much in probably was stone time richly very usually contained several unburnt bodies, are not asserted furnished, but are characterized by the thin-butted axe (so-called before long the innate craftsmanship of the Scandinavian unequalled celt) of flint, usually ground and polished, and by pottery, mostly itself, and bronze weapons and ornaments were evolved ornamented flasks and vases. From these came the Passage Grave in northern Europe for utility and elegance. That these were not such (Chamber-Tomb), a more elaborate structure in which a large importations is proved by the discovery of moulds in which these between technique in difference the by and cast were objects roofed and walled passage a by megalithic chamber was approached with stone slabs. Such tombs are often of great size; a typical objects and those of other countries. The typical weapons were: Axes, of various forms, as, the example figured by Du Chaillu, at Axvalla Heath, near Lake the socketed and perforated axe; spears with riveted a palstave, and ft. 32XoQ Venern, Vestergotland, Sweden, has a chamber type of passage 20 ft. long. These communal tombs sometimes contained sockets; daggers and swords. The rapier or thrusting Age Bronze middle the in Europe throughout common associated sword numerous and unburnt, skeletons, 100 as as many the by tooo a.D. before replaced early being used, of little axe was objects. Some of the most typical are the thick-butted flint, sometimes ground and polished; the perforated stone axe; heavier broad sword (leaf-shaped type), which came into use at hold that transverse arrowheads and arrowheads with triangular section; an earlier date than in, e.g., Britain. Some archaeologists actuwas Europe, through distributed widely was which type this and oval, thick-butted daggers of chipped flint; amber beads; the pottery, usually angular or round bottomed bowls. The Passage ally evolved in Scandinavia by smiths who were, through Italian the with acquainted Europe, Southern with trade amber graves These Cist. Stone Long the Grave then degenerated into the place also contained numerous skeletons, but are scantily furnished, the bronze-handled dagger; others believe that Hungary was typical objects being a lunate knife of chipped flint and a beauti- of origin. Some of the Scandinavian swords have a cast bronze a ful, handled dagger, perhaps the finest achievement of any flint- hilt, others a hilt of wood or horn, etc., riveted in slabs on to flanged bronze tang. The only defensive weapon which has surworkers. The pottery was poor and undecorated. The civilization of the megalith-builders indicates a highly or- vived is the circular bronze buckler, but such authorities as hold deduce ganized society of traders and farmers. Remains of domestic that the famous rock-carvings are of Bronze Age date the later phase animals (horse, sheep, swine, cattle and dog) and traces of the from these that horned helmets were worn. If cultivation of grain (barley, wheat and flax) are found round of the Scandinavian Bronze Age was contemporary with the the form of their huts; animal bones are also found in the mounds covering British Early Iron Age, these may well have taken the tombs. Trade is proved by the occurrence of objects of the bronze helmet in the British Museum found in the River Scandinavian origin in Britain (e.g., perforated axes and thick- Thames. Personal ornaments were now for the first time abundant. butted dagger-blades of Scandinavian workmanship in graves of the Beaker Period) and in central Europe (e.g., necklaces of Baltic These are usually of bronze but sometimes of gold. They include: amber in Aunjetitz graves) and vice versa. The graves are most Finger-rings, bracelets and torcs of various forms (coiled wire, thickly distributed round the coastal districts of Denmark and cast or hammered); tutuli, i.¢., conical bosses apparently attached Sweden, only in the latest (Long Stone Cist) period spreading to to the belt; pins, frequently disc-headed or with hanging ornaments; and brooches. ' ; Norway and inner Sweden. Both weapons and ornaments were commonly decorated at this _ Contemporary with the megalithic burials a custom existed (chiefly in Jutland, S. Sweden and some of the Danish Islands) time with incised designs, sometimes of chevrons, etc., but most of burying each person in a small separate grave; several of these often of spirals. This spiral ornament is often so marvellously being covered by one barrow and found at different levels in it, regular as to suggest that some mechanical means was employed. The distribution of finds suggests that there was at this,time either. sunk in the earth, on the ground level or actually in the mound™(bottont graves, ground graves and upper graves):/'These a considerable population throughout Southern Scandinavia, ` tw: graves liave pottery: beakers and elaborate perforated stone axes, | . The dead were at this period disposed unburnt in coffins, some usually "called battle axes. Axes and pottery of this type are. times in the form of small stone cists but sometimes of wood,

widely distributed in Europe and these-graves conceivably repres

roughly. hewn from a single tree-trunk,’Some of these-tiee-trunk

4.8

SCANDINAVIAN

burials are of great interest as giving examples of the clothing worn. An oak coffin in a barrow (called Treenh@i) at Havdrup in Ribe, Denmark, contained a male skeleton with all his clothes preserved. These were: a high round cap, a wide mantle, a kind of kilt and two small fragments of leg-coverings, all of woven wool, and the remains of leather shoes. The inside of the mantle and a woollen belt which confined the kilt were fringed. A woollen shawl was rolled up to make a pillow. At the left side of the body was a sword in a sheath, and at the foot a wooden box containing a smaller box in which were another cap, a horn comb and a bronze razor. The whole contents of the grave was wrapped in an untanned hide. A complementary find at Borum-Eshoi, near Arhus, also in an oak coffin, produced a woman’s dress, consisting of a long under-robe and a sleeved bodice both of woven wool, a cap of netted worsted, a tasseled belt woven of wool and cowhair, and a large mantle of woven wool and cowhair. Another cap was found in the grave, which also contained a bronze brooch, a horn comb, a finger-ring, two bracelets, a torc, three tutli and a horn-handled bronze dagger. Later Bronze Period.—In this period cremation became general. The burnt bones were at first put in small stone cists, a number being often found under one mound; later the remains were placed in pottery urns, often still placed in cists; sometimes they

CIVILIZATION ments. Perhaps the most important find was that of a clinker-built boat 75 ft. long, at Nydam, built of oak and probably dating in the III. century a.p.; another of red pine was found. Migration Period.—After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west in the V. century A.D. Scandinavian civilization developed gradually in harmony with the Teutonic civilizations to the south of it and in England. Again little is known of the houses

of the period; the majority seem to have been four-sided huts. Burials are the chief source of information. Both inbumation and cremation were practised; the tomb furniture was rich, especially in personal ornaments and square-headed and cruciform brooches. These and other ornaments were decorated in a new style common to Scandinavia and the rest of Teutonic Europe at this period, consisting partly of geometric designs, spirals, stars, etc., and partly based on conventionalized and disintegrating animal forms, executed in a variety of techniques. The materials were sometimes bronze, occasionally silver and sometimes gold; the latter was most freely used in Sweden. In Gotland inlaid garnet ornament was popular, a technique which

unlike the animal ornament occurs only sporadically in northern Europe. An ornament peculiar to Scandinavia was the bracteate, a disc-shaped gold pendant derived from barbarous copies of late Roman and Byzantine coins. The commonest weapons were were simply laid in the ground and covered with a stone. The the spear and shield. Swords, single and double edged, were not pottery was usually in the form of plain jars and bowls, some- uncommon, Glass and wooden vessels as well as pottery are times handled. Tomb furniture, especially weapons, became found. Viking Period.—In the VIII. century the northern peoples, scantier. There is no visible break with the earlier period in the type of weapons; but gradually a new type of decoration was em- who had hitherto when restive contented themselves with local ployed, and new kinds of household objects, ornaments, etc., warfare and commercial ventures abroad, began to engage in were introduced. These include ornamented bronze vessels of piratical forays overseas. These were at first mere plundering various forms, often for hanging; a new kind of knife (so-called raids resembling those of the Anglo-Saxons on the frontiers of the razor); and many personal ornaments. These are decorated with moribund Roman Empire in the ITI, and IV. centuries; but (like repoussé as well as with incised ornament, sometimes in the form these) led ultimately to wide-spread colonization in England, of degenerate spirals, sometimes circles, and frequently wavy northern France, Ireland, Scotland, the Faroes, the Orkneys, ribbon patterns and curves suggesting roughly drawn boats with Shetland, Sicily and Russia; and to the discovery of Iceland, bird’s head terminals. Many of these were imported, being of Greenland and America and the colonization of the two former. Italian design; others are local imitations. The ornament is also Their raids were pushed into almost every corner of Europe and foreign, being typical of the Hallstatt (earliest Iron Age) civiliza- they visited Asia Minor and North Africa. We are fortunate in being able to examine in detail typical vestion of central Europe. The sword pommels are also of Hallstatt types. This period, therefore, although definitely part of the sels in which they adventured, owing to their custom of burying Bronze Age, was strongly influenced by the Iron Age of central the dead in their ships, under barrows; and it is not an exaggeraand southern Europe, being contemporary with the Hallstatt tion to say that all the finer developments of the sailing-ship were founded on their lines. A typical small war-vessel of the Period. At the close of this period a few iron objects of La Téne type, period was found at Gokstad, near Sandefjord in south Norway, such as swords and brooches, occur in cremation graves other- and what might be described as a royal pleasure-vessel at Oseberg, wise indistinguishable from those of the Bronze Age, and represent Both contained a complete outfit; in the first were the chief’s the beginning of the use of iron in Scandinavia, probably dating arms, horses, etc.; in the second the queen’s bed, sledges, vessels, ornaments, etc. Lest anyone should doubt the seaworthiness of in the first century or two B.c. Rock Carvings.—On rocks in some districts of Sweden and these vessels an exact model of the Gokstad ship was built and Norway numerous crude carvings exist, representing scenes of sailed across the Atlantic in 1893 and afterwards shown at the fighting, husbandry, seafaring, etc. If, as most people believe, Chicago exhibition; it proved an able sea-boat. In the Sagas, which provide a fund of information about life these belong to the Bronze Age, they throw a flood of light on the in those days (see Saca) the affection of the Vikings for their daily life of the time. But their dates are as yet unproved. ships is clearly shown, and they are often referred to by poetical BOG FINDS names, such as Sea-skates, Elk of the Fjords, Horse of the Gull’s Although Scandinavia was always outside the Roman Empire Track, Raven of the Sea, etc. the influence of that power was strongly shown in contemporary Apart, from warfare, farming was the chief occupatiori of the Scandinavian civilization. Very many objects of Roman manu- Vikings, and for this purpose slaves (thralls) were largely emfacture were imported, often of good quality, showing that Scan- ployed; but even kings took an active part in this pursuit. Aledinavia was prosperous and traded freely with the continent, drinking, story-telling and games occupied the winter, every houseLarge numbers of Roman coins have been found, especially in hold having its winter store of dried meat and fish and homethe island of Gotland. Native art shows strong Roman influence, brewed ale. Hospitality was practised on the grandest scale. The At this time iron was of course in general use. Much informa- vivid description in the sagas of life in the halls of the northmen tion about the period is derived from hoards found in peat-bogs has been verified by excavation, “Fire-Halls” being found reat Thorsbjerg, Vimose, Nydam and other sites in Jutland and sembling mediaeval tithe-barns. Schleswig. These are supposed to be votive offerings following Typical antiquities of the period are found wherever the Vikings a battle. The weapons are remarkably fine, and include swords, settled. Since paganism prevailed until about a.p. 1000 in Norsingle and double-edged, and damascened (the double-edged types way and Iceland and even later in Sweden, tomb furniture was having hilts resembling the Roman form); spears of various pat- abundant in the earlier period. There was a great variety of terns, ornamented and sometimes inlaid on the blade; axes, burial customs; both inhumation and cremation were practised and socketed and perforated; chain-mail; helmets, one of silver; and the latter was not confined to the less elaborate tombs; it gradushield-bosses. Tools of all kinds were found; also personal orna- ally died out, however, before the spread of Christianity. Men

SCANDINAVIAN were often buried with a complete outfit of weapons, horse, dogs, harness, etc.; and not infrequently were buried in their boats; women had personal ornaments, household gear, etc. Boat burials were rare in Denmark, and in place of the big ship burials important persons were buried in wooden tomb chambers under mounds.

As might be expected, continual fighting led to the development of far more efficient weapons than had hitherto been known. Although the spear, used for both throwing and thrusting, still played an important part, the axe now reached an importance not seen since the Bronze Age; and the beautiful horned forms evolved (cf. Bayeux Tapestry) attest the skill of the Viking blacksmith. Splendid swords are found in the graves, frequently inlaid with gold and silver. Defensive weapons are represented by the shield, helmet and coat of ring-mail (byrnj7a). From the numerous descriptions in the Sagas we gather that a Viking’s weapons were his most esteemed possessions; like the ships they are frequently described in such terms as:—for the sword, the Ice of Battle, the Dog of the Helmet, the Viper of the Host, etc.; for the spear, the Snake of the Attack, the Shooting Serpent, etc.; for the axe, the Witch of the Shield, the Wolf of the Wound; for arrows, the Bird of the Sling, the Twigs of the Corpse, etc.; for shields, the Burgh of the Swords, the Moon of Battle; for the byrnja, Gray clothes of Odin, the Woof of the Spear, etc. They also had personal names, as Magnus Barefoot’s sword Legbiter, Skarphedin’s axe, Ogress of War; and Harald Hardrada’s byrnja, Emma.

Most objects are covered with decoration, the style of which at first derived from that of the end of the Migration Period (Ven-

del Style, conventionalized animal forms: but as a result of foreign intercourse, especially with Ireland and the Carolingian Empire, a new style of a hybrid character developed towards the

close of the 8th century. Very good examples of this “Gripping beast” style are to be seen in the Oseberg Find. In the roth century the Gripping beast style was overshadowed by the Jellinge style, in which animal forms are treated more naturalistically. This style, which in some ways resembles the Vendel style, is usually regarded as the outcome of Irish, English and Carolingian influence. The Jellinge style gave place for a time during the early tith century to that of Ringerike, characterized by pure interlacing and conventionalized foliage, the animal motive being negligible; but later the interlaced animal of the Jellinge style reappeared in the Urnes style, at the close of which native Scandinavian art was overwhelmed by the bastard Romanesque of the Christian era. Bwæriocraray.—For the earlier period (Stone Age to end of Iron age) see Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte (ed. by Max Ebert, Berlin

1927), vol. ix„ article entitled “Nordischer Kreis,” with exhaustive bibliographies. Many of the works mentioned there (e.g., Montelius,

Kulturgeschichte Schwedens (Leipzig, 1906), Rygh, Norske Oldsager (Christiania, 1885), Gustafson, Norges Oldtid (Christiania, 1906), etc., deal also with the later period (Iron Age to end of Viking period). Consult besides O. Almgren, Die ältere Eisenzeit Gotlands (Stockholm, 1923) ; C. Engelhardt, Denmark in the Early Iron Age (London, 1886) : J. Mestorf, Urnenfriedhöje in Schleswig-Holstein (Hamburg, 1886) and Vorgeschichtliche Alterthümer aus Schleswig-Holstein (Hamburg, 1885) ; B. Salin, Die altgermanische Thierornamentik, trans. by Mestorf (Stockholm, 1904) ; Baldwin Brown, Arts in Early England, vols. iii, iv. and v, (London, r915) ; P. B. du Chaillu, The Viking Age (London, 1889) ; H. Shetelig, Vestlandske Graver fra Jernalderen (Bergen, I9I2); H. Shetelig, Hj. Falk and A. W. Brégger, Osebergfundet (Oslo, 1920—

LANGUAGES

49

Scandinavia, and by the inhabitants of the countries that have been wholly or partially peopled from it, in Sweden, except where Finnish and Lappish prevail; in southern Russia (government of Kerson), a village colonized from Dagsé; Norway, except where peopled by Finns and Lapps; Denmark, with the Faeroes, Iceland and Greenland, and the northern half of Slesvig Nord. Scandinavian dialects were also spoken for varying periods in the following places: Norwegian in certain parts of Ireland (Ap. 800-1250) and northern Scotland, in the Isle of Man (800-1450), the Hebrides (800-1400), the Shetland Islands (800-1800), and the Orkneys (800-1800), Danish in the whole of Slesvig Nord, in the north-eastern part of England (the Danelagh, g.v., 8751175), and in Normandy (goo-rroo or a little longer); Swedish in Russia (862-1300 or a little longer); Icelandic in Greenland

(985-c. 1450).

The Teutonic population existed in Scandinavia before the Christian era, and it is only from the beginning of that era that we get any information concerning the language of the old Scandinavians, which by that time had spread over Denmark and great parts of southern and middle Sweden and of Norway, and had reached Finland (at least Nyland) and Estonia. The language appears to have been fairly homogeneous throughout the whole territory, and as the mother of the younger Scandinavian

tongues has been named the primitive Scandinavian (urnordisk) language. The words borrowed during the first centuries of the Christian era by the Lapps from the inhabitants of central Sweden and Norway, and by the Finns from their neighbours in Finland and Estonia, and partly from their Gothic neighbours in Russia and the Baltic provinces, and preserved in Finnish and Lappish down to our own days, denoted chiefly utensils belonging to a fairly advanced stage of culture and amount to several hundreds, with a phonetic form of a very primitive stamp. These words and those mentioned by contemporary Roman and Greek authors are the oldest existing traces of any Teutonic language, but throw little light on the nature of the original northern tongue. The primitive northern runic inscriptions, the oldest upon the utensils found at Vi in Slesvig Nord and Thorsbjerg in Denmark, dating back to about ap. 250~300, together with the ms. fragments of Ulfilas’ Gothic translation of the Bible, about 200 years later in date, constitute the oldest genuine monuments of any Teutonic tongue. Although very brief, and not yet thoroughly interpreted, these primitive Scandinavian inscriptions enable us to determine with some certainty the relation which the language in which they are written bears to other languages. Thus it belongs to the Teutonic family of the Indo-European stock of languages, of which it constitutes an independent and individual branch. Its nearest relation being the Gothic, these two branches were formerly sometimes taken together under the general denomination

Eastern Teutonic, as opposed to the other Teutonic idioms man, English, Dutch, etc.), then called Western Teutonic. Before the beginning of the so-called Viking period about A.D. 800) the primitive Scandinavian language had gone a considerable transformation, and at this epoch the

(Ger-

(since underprimitive Scandinavian language must be considered as no longer existing. The centuries A.D. 700-1000 form a period of transition as regards the language as well as the alphabet which it employed.

The language of inscriptions dating from about A.D. 800 not only differs widely from the original Scandinavian, but also exhibits dialectical peculiarities suggesting the existence of a DanishBergens Museums Aarbog (Bergen), Aarsberetninger fra Foreningen til swedish language as opposed to Norwegian. These differences norske Fortidsmindesmaerkers Bevaring (Oslo), Aarbéger for nordisk are unimportant and the Scandinavians still considered their Oldhynkighed (Copenhagen), Antiquvarisk Tidskrift for Sverige (Stockholm), the Manadsblad of the Kgl. Vitterhets Historie och Antiqvitets language as one and the same throughout Scandinavia, and named Akademie (Stockholm), Fornvännen, published since 1906 by the same it Donsk tunga, Danish tongue. But when Iceland was colonized 28); J. Brøndsted, Early English Ornament (Copenhagen, 1924); J. Petersen, Vikingetidens Smykker (Stavanger Museum, 1924). See also

society; Svenska Fornminnesforeningens Tidskrift (Stockholm), Viden-

skapsselskapetskrifter

(since

1925);

Skrifter utgit av

det

Norske

Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo (Stockholm). The guides to Scandinavian museums, the British Museum guides and London and the Vikings by W. M. Wheéler (London Museum, z926) should also be consulted. (T. C. L.; M. O'R.)

(c. 900), chiefly from western Norway, a separate (western) Norwegian dialect gradually sprang up, at first differing slightly from the mother-tongue. At the definitive introduction of Christianity

(about A.D. 1000), the language had been differentiated in runic inscriptions and in the literature which was then arising, into four different dialects, and Swedish and Danish (eastern Scandinavian) SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. Closely allied lan- and Icelandic and Norwegian (western Scandinavian, or northguages are and have been spoken by the Teutonic population in ern tongue) are very nearly related to each other. The most

50

SCANDIUM—SCAPA

important differences between the two branches, as seen in the oldest preserved documents, are (1) in E. Scand. for fewer cases of “Umlaut,” (2) E. Scand. “Brechung” of y into iu (or io) before ng(w), nk(w); (3) in E. Scand. mp, nk, nt are in many cases not assimilated into pp, kk, tt; (4) in E. Scand. the dative of the definite plural ends in -umi instead of W. Scand. -onom; (5) in E. Scand. the simplification of the verbal inflectional endings is much farther advanced, and the passive ends in -s(s) for -sk. In several of these points, and indeed generally speaking, the

western Scandinavian languages have preserved the more primitive forms, which also are found in the oldest eastern Scandinavian runic inscriptions, dating from a period before the beginning of the literature, as well as in many modern eastern Scandinavian dialects. Leaving out of account the Icelandic dialects and those of the Faeroes, each of which constitutes a separate group, the remainder may be thus classified :—

1. West Norwegian Dialects—spoken on the western coast of Norway between Langesund and Molde. 2. North Scandinavian—the remaining Norwegian and the Swedish dialects of Uppland, Västmanland, Dalarna, Norrland, Finland, and Russia. - 3. The dialects on the island of Gotland. 4. Middle Swedish—spoken in the rest of Sweden, except the southernmost parts (No. 5).

5. South Scandinavian—spoken in the greater part of Småland and Halland, the whole of Skåne, Blekinge, and Denmark, and the Danish-speaking part of Slesvig Nord. This group is distinctly divided into three smaller groups—the dialects of

FLOW

Scapa Flow thus gradually assumed the aspect of a great naval station. The German ships surrendered in Nov. 1918 were interned in Scapa Flow, where on June 21, 1919 all the battleships and battle cruisers, with the exception of the battleship

“Baden” and five light cruisers, were scuttled by their German crews. Three light cruisers and some smaller vessels were beached.

Naval Aspects.—Scapa Flow now has an historic interest

which would never have been attached to it save for the World War, As the main base of the Grand Fleet throughout the earlier period of the war it was a strategic position of great importance. Long before August 1914 it had been used by the ships of the Home or Channel fleets on periodical visits to northern waters, because its roomy and well-sheltered waters provided at one and the same time a good anchorage and an excellent practice ground. In the Admiralty war plans it was the intention that the main fleet should work from this base and control the North Sea, while a smaller fleet based on Portland would watch the English Channel. The Grand Fleet, as it was afterwards called, moved to Scapa Flow during the latter days of July 1914 and it was therefore at its war station at the outbreak of hostilities, but at that time this anchorage was far from being secure against attack by submarines, and in the early days numerous scares arose in the fleet that enemy submarines had actually penetrated into the harbour. In point of fact no German submarine ever did achieve the dangerous passage into the Flow. Apart from the defences which were eventually established, the very strong currents across

the entrance made navigation under water especially risky. One enemy submarine was destroyed in the outer approaches in southern Sweden (with the island of Bornholm), of the Danish November 1914, and four years later, after the mutiny in the German fleet, one of their submarines manned entirely by officers, islands, and of Jutland (and Slesvig Nord). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—V. Thomsen, The Relations between Ancient Rus- perished in a last despairing effort to achieve success. All channels to Scapa Flow, except the Hoxa and Hoy entrances, sia and Scandinavia (1877); W. Thomsen, Uber den Einfluss der Germ. Sprachen auf die Finnisch-Lappischen (1870); A. Noreen, were fairly effectively blocked by sinking old ships in them. A “Geschichte der nordischen Sprachen,” Grundriss der germanischen submarine obstruction was placed in the Hoy entrance, while Philologie, 2nd ed. (1897); E. N. Setälä, “Zur Herkunft und Chronologie der älteren germanischen Lehnwörter” in Journal de la Société the fleet used the Hoxa sound, which was also protected and closely patrolled. In addition to these obstructions, the gun deFinno-ougrienne, xviii. (1906). fences were materially increased, while facilities for maintenance SCANDIUM, one of the rare-earth metals. The discovery were improved by the addition of a small floating dock for of its oxide, scandia, by L. F. Nilson in 1879 was of the greatest destroyers and the provision of a number of repair and supply scientific interest, because this oxide and the other compounds ships. of scandium have properties corresponding with those predicted Although Scapa Flow had many advantages, the fleet felt the by D. Mendeleyev in 1869 for the derivatives of a hypothetical want of a fully equipped dockyard nearer than those in the south element, ekaboron, which was then needed to fill a gap in the of England, and this in due course was met by sending a large periodic classification of the chemical elements. (See Prrzoprc floating dock to Invergordon in the Cromarty Firth, while the Law.) The metal itself, symbol Sc, atomic number 21, atomic work on the newly-started dockyard at Rosyth on the Firth of weight 45-1, has not been isolated, but its oxide is found combined Forth was pressed forward as rapidly as possible. With the comin the following minerals: thortveitite (Sc2Os, 42%) from Saeterspletion of the outer defences of the latter, the greater part of dalen, Norway, wiikite from Impilako, Finland (Sc2Q;, 1-2%), the Grand Fleet was eventually moved south to join the battle ytherbite (gadolinite) and orthite, and in many tin ores and wol- cruisers which had been based on the southern port since Decemframites. Spectroscopic observations show that scandium is rela: tively abundant in the sun and stars. Scandia forms many salts ber 1914. The Flow was, nevertheless, to witness one final dramatic with inorganic and organic acids which are generally colourless. Scandium acetylacetone, Sc[(CHsCO).,CH]3, crystallises from scene, when on June 21, 1919, the most important units of what organic solvents in colourless, prismatic needles, melts at 188° C had been the German High Sea Fleet, interned in ‘its waters, were scuttled and abandoned by their crews. The situation which and may be distilled unchanged under 8-ro mm. pressure, made this possible has often been misunderstood and attributed to BrsriocrapHy.—T. E. Thorpe, Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, vol. vi, 1926; J. W. Mellor, A Comprehensive Treatise of Inorganic some laxity on the part of the British ships on guard. In fact and Theoretical Chemistry, vol. v., 1924; J. N. Friend and H. F. V. it was impossible for the latter to prevent what was done. In Little, A Text Book of Inorganic Chemistry, vol. iv., 1917:

©

(G: T. M)

SCAPA FLOW, an expanse of sea, in the south of the Orkneys, bounded by Pomona on the north, Burray and South Ronaldshay on the east and south-east, and Hoy on the west and

south-west.

The area contains seven small islands and is’ about

spite of the protests of Britain’s naval representatives, her allies

. would not agree to her definitely taking over the German vessels; they were therefore interned and not surrendered, which meant that they retained the officers and crews which had navigated them across the North Sea, and were only under such distant observation that it was impossible to detect the preconcerted and simultaneous opening of under-water valves which led to their sinking. The Germans were evidently intent on avoiding the humiliation of seeing their best ships under the flag of a foreign navy, but it must have been a poor consolation that their last resting-place

15 m. in length from north to south, and about 8 m. in tiéan breadth. There are two chief exits—one, 7 m. in length and 2 m. in mean breadth, into the Atlantic Ocean by Hoy Sound, and the other, 34 m. in length by 2 m. in mean breadth, into the North Sea by Holm Sound. should have been:in the very waters from which the fleet which Admiral Jellicoe chose Scapa Flow in preference to the Cro- had over-awed. them’ throughout the war was wont to set forth. marty Firth as the chief naval base of the British: fleet in the They were, moreover, compelled,to pay dearly for their breach World War, but in Aug. r91q everything had to be improvised, of faith by having to surrender ôter tonnage. By 1928 a numguns being landed from the ships to strengthen the defences. ber of the ships had been raised by’ a British firm and broken

SCAPHOPODA--SCAPOLITE up to be sold as scrap iron, and the work was still continuing. Scapa Flow is visited from time to time by the British Atlantic

Fleet, but with the exception of the salvage work it has largely sunk back to the peaceful conditions prevalent there before the World War. (E. A.)

SCAPHOPODA.

A group of marine invertebrate animals

popularly called elephant’s tusk shells and constituting a class of the Mollusca (g.v.). They are represented by 12 genera (of which Dentalium is the most familiar), and over 300 species,

and are the smallest molluscan class. Their structure is quite distinct from that of other molluscs. They are bilaterally symmetrical, elongate animals in which the right and left edges of the mantle are

51

and there are no proper blood vessels. There are no specialized respiratory organs (gills) and the blood is oxygenated in the inner surface of the mantle. There are two kidneys in the mid-ventral

region of the body which open to the exterior, one on each side of the anus. The nervous system consists of the same pairs of ganglia with their commissures as in the Gastropoda. The cerebral and pleural ganglia are joined to the pedal ganglia by a long connective. These animals have only three kinds of sensory organs—the captacula, apparently tactile

and olfactory, the subradular organ, prob-

ably an organ of taste; and the organs of balance (otocysts), situated in the foot. The sexes are separate. The ovary and the testis are unpaired and open into the right kidney, as in the aspidobranchiate Gastrojoined in the mid-ventral line except at poda. the anterior and posterior ends. The visDevelopment.—This has been studied ceral mass is thus enclosed in a tubular in Dentalium. The eggs are laid singly and sheath open at both ends. The shell sesegmentation is unequal and irregular. A creted by the mantle is correspondingly gastrula arises through invagination, as tubular and with anterior and posterior in most Mollusca, and subsequently develorifices. The head is imperfectly developed JUTTINGS, “TIERWELT DER ops into a floating trochophore larva. A a and bears numerous long filaments. The FROM NORD- UND OSTSEE” veliger stage succeeds and after five or six FROM PILSBRY, “MANUAL oF foot is cylindrical and the animal is devoid FIG. 3.—SIPHONODENTACONCHOLOGY" LIUM LOFOTENSE, SHOW- days the velum (girdle of cilia) atrophies FIG. 1.—SHELL oF pen- Of gis. TALIUM ELEPHANTINUM The Scaphopoda are exclusively marine. ING EXPANDED FOOT AND and the young Dentalium abandons its Above, a cross-section out- The foot is adapted for digging and bur- ANTERIOR END OF SHELL fioating life and starts to creep about on line of the tusk-like shell rowing into sand, in which they lie with the sea-bottom. Interesting experiments have been done on this the posterior extremity of the shell projecting from the surface. form. (See EXPERIMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY.) Bionomics, Evolution, Etc. They were originally placed in the same class (Acephala) as the -—The Scaphopoda are sedentary Lamellibranchia; but beyond the conformation of the mantle and and live in the adult stage on the the digging foot there is no POSTERIOR ORIFICE sea-bottom, into the surface layclose resemblance to that group, OF THE MANTLE ers of which they burrow and whereas their possession of a usually remain with part of the aD | radula, mandible and buccal bulb shell projecting from the surface. uver | and of a stomatogastric system They are carnivorous and feed in their nervous organization LEFT KIDNEY upon such small animals as Forapoint to affinities with the GasORIFICE menifera, young bivalves, etc. tropoda. LEADING INTO The majority live in fairly deep External Form.—tThe shell THE,PERIANAL SINUS water and (e.g.) in the North of Dentalium is able to contain OESOPHAGUS sea are entirely absent in the litthe whole animal and is elongate, PROM JUTTINGS, “TIERWELT DER NORD- UND ANUS toral zone. Dentalium peruviconical and slightly curved. OSTSEE” There are two apertures in all FIG. 4.—DIAGRAM OF THE LOCO- anum has been found at a depth INTESTINE the Scaphopod shells, a larger an- MOTION OF SIPHONODENTALIUM of 2,235 fathoms (U.S.S. “AlbaSTOMATO-GASTRIC tross”). They have a practically terior one from which the foot LOFOTENSE GANGLION projects and a smaller posterior Sear foot closed, (right) foot ex- cosmopolitan distribution. The pande RADULAR SAC earliest representatives of the one. The hinder end bearing this E class appear in the Middle Silurian, some 285 fossil species being PLEURAL GANGLION orifice is kept clear of the sand | i MK . ' and thus admits water for respi- known. CEREBRAL GANGLION BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The most important papers up to 1906 are cited ration, and allows the excreta LABIAL. COMMISSURE and faeces to be discharged when by P. Pelseneer in Lankester’s Treatise on Zoology (Pt. v. Mollusca). See also:—T. van Benthem Jutting, “Die Tierwelt der Nord-und A ee the animal is buried. The mantle- Ostsee” IX. c. r926: J. Henderson, “A Monograph of the North MOUTH cavity is continuous from one American Scaphopod Molluscs,” United States National Museum, Bull. PEDAL GANGLION a a (G. C. R.) end of the body to the other. The fii, 1920. MANTLE head and foot lie at the anterior SCAPOLITE, a group of rock-forming minerals, which are end, the former above the latter. silicates of aluminium with calcium or sodium but containing more Foor The head is cylindrical and bears or less chlorine, carbonate or sulphate radicals. The scapolites CAPTACULA two lobes beset with long fila- (Gr. ox@zos, rod, \l@os, stone) must be regarded as variable

A

A

ne Se ee

eA

Ta

“9 j

ments (captacula). These are isomorphous mixtures of the following five components: | mainly sensory but also serve to Ma =3NaAlSi30s-NaCl—chloride-marialite TION OF DENTALIUM, LEFT SIDE MaS==3NaAlSi30s-Na2S04—sulphate-marialite capture the small organisms on |. VIEW MaC=3NaAlSis0s-NazCO3—carbonate-marialite The Dentaliidae are characterlsed by which the animal feeds. The foot MeC=3CaAlsSi203-CaCOs—carbonate-melonite the conical shaped foot, and the cur- is elongated and capable of conMeS=3CaAl2Si20s-CaSOs—sulphate-meionite vature of the shell |4 siderable extension. Its expansiIt seems not improbable that in marialite, NaCl, etc., may. be ble end is of great, service in digging. replaced to a limited extent by KOH, and in meionite CaCQ,, etc., Internal Anatomy.—All Scaphopoda have a well-devel- be similarly replaced by CaF.. The close relation which this, group opeđbuccal mass: with mandible and radula. From the oesophagus of minerals bears to the plagioclase felspars is apparent, in,.the the'food passes-intó the stomach, which is little differentiated ‘and formulae indicated above. The scapolites. crystallize in the,tetra- — recelyes the dücts ofsa. bilobed liver and a pyloric caecum. The gonal system, the crystals being prismatic hemihedral. The.domiis 5-6, while the.sp.gr. “intestinetis:provided: with an anal-gland:. The circulation and res- nant, cleavage is (100). The hardness FROM LANKESTER,

“TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY"

FIG. 2.—DIAGRAM

OF ORGANIZA-

‘piyatory ‘system: is’ extremely simpley, The heart ;is rudimentary

yaries with the, composition, pure chloride marialite 2.569 çarbon-

SCARAB

52

lite the new mineral is fresh and clear, enclosing often smail ate-meionite 2-772. The colour is usually white or grey. Between | grains of hornblende. Extensive recrystallization often goes on, | which the end members, marialite and meionite, there are mixtures | and the ultimate product is a spotted rock with white rounded have been given definite names. These include dipyre and mizpatches of scapolite surrounded by granular aggregates of clear | be felspars, se gonite, and may, as in the case of the plagiocla green hornblende: in fact the original structure disappears. arbitrarily fixed as follows: known 3. In Norway scapolite-hornblende rocks have long been Marialite Matoo—Maso been called spotted have They . localities other and en Oedegard at Dipyre MasoMe2o—MasoMese gabbros, but usually do not contain felspar, the white spots being Mizzonite MasoMeso—MazoMeso the dark matrix enveloping them is an

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rhythm can really interrupt. Beethoven directs as many repetitions of its subsections as possible, and his coda consists of an attempt to begin the trio again, dramatically cut short. The scherzo of the C minor symphony was originally meant to go twice round; and a certain pair of superfluous bars, which caused controversy for 30 years after Beethoven’s death, were due simply to traces of the difference between the prima volta and seconda volta being left in the score. Beethoven does not use the title of scherzo unless the music is humorous. Thus in the sonata in E flat (op. 31, No. 3) it is applied to a sonata-form lively movement which is technically the slow movement, while the following slow minuet is the dancemovement. The second movement of the F major quartet - (op. 59, No. 1) is a unique example of scherzo-style in a most elaborate sonata-form. Perhaps this gigantic movement may have been the inspiring source of the Mendelssohnian scherzo, one of the most distinct new types of movement since Beethoven, and quite independent of the notion of an alternating trio. The scherzos in Mendelssohn’s Midsummer Night’s Dream music, in the Scotch symphony and in the string quartets in E minor and E flat major (op. 44, Nos. 2 and 3) are splendid examples. Even Berlioz shows their influence in the “Queen Mab” scherzo of his Roméo et Juliette. Of Brahms’ scherzos there are several distinct types, ranging from a quiet allegretto and trio in melodic forms to the sonataform Presto giocoso. of the 4th symphony, which within seven minutes: accomplishes the most powerful scherza since Beethoven. Every degree of: lyric beauty and dramatic passion is comprised in the various movements that Brahms puts into the position of scherzo in, his sonata works. : ‘Chopin produced a pew type of independent scherzo; bruy inspired by Beethoven, but with a slightly macabre’ tendency of his own, exeept in the very diffuse and light 4th scherzo. The majority. of:classicalrschetzos are in a-‘quick: triple: time with only onecountable beat toa bar; and this custom is the last vestige n the.dexivation/of-the scherzo from:the: mintet: . Pig Ta

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SCHEVENINGEN

(Schivning-en), fishing port and water-

ing-place, Holland, on the North sea, province of South Holland, about 2 m. N. of The Hague, of which it is now a suburb. It is situated in the dunes at the extremity of the woods which separate it from The Hague. The development of Scheveningen as a fashionable seaside resort dates from modern times, but the fishing village is of ancient origin and once stood farther seaward. To prevent coast erosion a stone wall was built along the sea front in 1896-1900, and below this lies the fine sandy beach stretching for miles on either side. The first bathing establishment here dates from 1818, and was also the first in Holland. There is a large harbour for the fishing fleet. SCHIAPARELLI, GIOVANNI VIRGINIO (18351910), Italian astronomer and senator of the kingdom of Italy, was born on March 14, 1835, at Savigliano in Piedmont. He entered Turin university in 1850, and graduated in 1854. Two years later he went to Berlin to study astronomy under Encke, and in ©1859 was appointed assistant observer at Pulkova, a post which he resigned in 1860 for a similar one at Brera, Milan. On the death of Francesco Carlini (b. 1783) in 1862, Schiaparelli succeeded to the directorship, whea he held until 1900. He died at Milan on July 4, 1910. Schiaparelli possessed seeps powers as an observer—his first discovery was of the asteroid Hesperia in 1861—and his considerable mathematical ability is shown in his papers. In 1866 he showed the connection between meteor streams and cometary orbits, giving, in particular, the identity of the orbits of

the Perseids and Comet III., 1862; and of the Leonids ‘and/-Comet I., 1866. These discoveries were subsequently amplified: in his. Be

Stelle cadenti (1873) and in his Normeé per le osservazioni dellestelle. cadenti dei bolidi (1896). He observed double stars, and the

results: of his measures are published in 2 vols., the first containing those! made between

1875~85; andthe second rthose between.

SCHICHAU—SCHILLER

68 1886-1900.

He made extensive studies of Mercury, Venus and

Mars. In 1877 he observed on Mars the peculiar markings, which he called canali, the nature and origin of which is still controversial. (See Mars.) From his observations of Mercury and Venus he concluded that these planets rotated on their axes in the same time as they revolved about the sun. On his retirement he turned to the astronomy of the Hebrews and Babylonians; his earlier results are given in his L’ Astronomia nel? antico Testamento (1903), which has been translated into English and German, whilst later ones are to be found in various journals, the last

being in Scientia (1908). SCHICHAU, FERDINAND

(1814-1896),

German

en-

gineer and shipbuilder, was born at Elbing, the son of a smith and ironworker, on Jan. 30, 1814. He started works of his own at Elbing in 1834, and was soon employing some 8,ooo men. He began by making steam engines, hydraulic presses and industrial machinery, and, by concerning himself with canal work and river or coast improvement, came to the designing and construction of

dredgers, in which he was the pioneer (1841), and finally to the building of ships. His “Borussia,” in 1855, was the first screw-vessel constructed in Germany. Schichau began to specialize in building torpedoboats and destroyers (at first for the Russian Government) at an early date. From 1873 he had the co-operation of Carl H. Ziese, who married his daughter. Ziese introduced compound engines into the first vessels built by Schichau for the German navy, the gunboats “Habicht” and “Möwe,” launched in 1879, and also designed in 188r the first triple-expansion machinery constructed on the continent, supplying these engines to the torpedo-boats built by Schichau for the German navy in 1884, the first of some 160 that by the year 1909 were provided by the Elbing yards. Torpedoboats were also built for China, Austria and Italy. Meanwhile Elbing had become insufficient for the increased output demanded. In 1889 Schichau established a floating dock and repairing shops at Pillau, and soon afterwards, by arrangement with the Government, started a large yard at Danzig. He died on Jan. 23, 18096.

SCHICKELE,

RENE

(1883-

_—+),_ Alsatian writer, was

retirement in 1885, took his place. In 1897 his house assisted E. H. Harriman in reorganizing the Union Pacific Railway, and in roor aided him in his struggle with James J. Hill and J. P. Morgan for the control of the Northern Pacific Railway. In his later years he gave much personal attention to charities. He was a founder and president of the Montefiore Home for chronic invalids, New York city. In 1903 he presented a Semitic museum building to Harvard university. He died in New York city Sept. 25, 1920. SCHILL, FERDINAND BAPTISTA VON (1 776-1809), Prussian soldier, was born in Saxony. Entering the Prussian cavalry at the age of twelve, he was still a subaltern of dragoons when he was wounded at the battle of Auerstadt. At Kolberg he played a very prominent part in the celebrated siege of 1807. After the peace of Tilsit he was given the command of a hussar regiment. In 1809 the political situation in Europe appeared to Schill to favour an attempt to liberate his country from the French domination. Leading out his regiment from Berlin under

pretext of manoeuvres, he raised the standard of revolt, and marched for the Elbe. At Dodendorf (May 5, 1809) he had a brush with the Magdeburg garrison, but was soon driven northwards, where he hoped to find British support. With little more than his original force Schill was surrounded by 5,000 Danish and Dutch troops in the neighbourhood of Wismar. He escaped by hard fighting (action of Damgarten, May 24) to Stralsund. The Danes and Dutch soon hemmed him in, and by sheer numbers overwhelmed the defenders (May 31). Schill himself was killed. See L. Ferdinand Zug und (Potsdam,

K. C. von Liliencron, Schilliana (2 vols., 1810); Haken, von Schill (Leipzig, 1824); Barsch, Ferdinand von Schill’s

Tod (Leipzig, 1860), and F. von Schill, ein Charakterbild 1860); Francke, Aus Stralsunds Franzosenzeit (1890).

SCHILLER, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1759-1805), German poet, dramatist and philosopher, was born at Marbach on the Neckar, on Nov. ro, 1759. His father, Johann Kaspar (1723-96), was an army-surgeon, ‘and the vicissi-

tudes of his profession entailed a constant change of residence; but at Lorch and at Ludwigsburg, where the family was settled for longer periods, the child was able to receive a regular education. In 1773 the duke Karl Eugen of Württemberg claimed young Schiller as a pupil of his military school at the “Solitude” near Ludwigsburg, where he was obliged to devote himself to law. On the removal of the school in 1775 to Stuttgart, he was, however, allowed to take up medicine. The strict military discipline of the school lay heavily on Schiller, and intensified the spirit of rebellion, which burst out in the young poet’s first tragedy. In 1776 some specimens of Schiller’s lyric poetry had appeared in a magazine, and in 1777—78 he completed his drama, Die Rauber. In 1780 he left the academy qualified to practise as a surgeon, and was at once appointed by the duke as doctor to a regiment garrisoned in Stuttgart. His discontent found vent in the passionate lyrics of this period. Meanwhile Die Rauber, which Schiller had been obliged to publish at his own expense, appeared in 1781 and made an impression on his contemporaries hardly less deep than Goethe’s Götz von Berlichingen, eight years before. The strength of this SCHIEDAM, a town and river port of Holland, in the remarkable tragedy lay, in spite of its inflated tone and exagprovince of South Holland, on the Schie, near its confluence gerated characterization, in the sure dramatic instinct with which it with the Maas, and a junction station 3 m. W. of Rotterdam by is constructed and the directness with which it gives voice to the rail. Pop. (1927), 43,263. The public buildings of interest are most pregnant ideas of the time. In this respect, Schiller’s Rauber the Groote or Janskerk, the old Roman Catholic church, the is one -of the most vital German dramas of the 18th century. In synagogue, the town hall, the exchange, the concert-hall and a January 1782 it was performed in the Court and National Theatre ruined castle. Schiedam is famous as the seat of a great gin of Mannheim, Schiller himself having stolen secretly away from manufacture, which, carried on in more than three hundred Stuttgart in order to be present. The success encouraged him to distilleries, gives employment besides to malt-factories, cooper- begin a new tragedy, Die Verschwoérung des Fiesco 2u Genua, and ages and cork-cutting establishments, and supplies sufficient yeast be edited a lyric Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782, to which he was himself the chief contributor. A second surreptitious visit to to form an important article of export. SCHIFF, JACOB HENRY (1847-1920), American bank- Mannheim came, however, to the ears of the duke; he had Schiller er and philanthropist, was born at Frankfurt-on-Main, Germany, put under a fortnight’s arrest, and forbade him to write any more Jan. 10, 1847. He studied in the schools of Frankfurt and for a “comedies” or to hold intercourse with any one outside Württemtime worked in a bank. In 1865 he went to New York city and berg. Schiller resolved on flight, and took advantage of some court organized the brokerage firm of Budge, Schiff and Co. In 1875 festivities in Sept. 1782 to put his plan into execution. He hoped he was taken into the firm of Kuhn, Loeb and Co., and, on Loeb’s in the first instance for material support from the theatre in born in Oberehnheim, Alsace, Aug. 4, 1883. He was educated in Zabern and Strasburg, and afterwards lived in Paris and Berlin. His first works were poetic; they include the volumes Sommernächte (1902), Der Ritt ums Leben (1906), Mein Herz mein Land (1915). His first prose work was Der Fremde (1907). He has also written dramas, which are of less importance; but Hans im Schnakenloch (1916) was performed in both Paris and Berlin during the War. Schickele is essentially an Alsatian in both style and thought. He blends in his work, which unites warmth with strength in a remarkable degree, the essence of the Germanic and the Latin cultures, His life has been largely a revolt against the crushing of Alsace’s individuality by either German or French. Before the World War he was in revolt against Germany. During the War, against which he protested strongly, he lived in Switzerland; but later he made his home in Germany, in the Black Forest. The most remarkable novels of his maturity are Wir wollen, nicht sterben (1922), Maria Capponi (1925, English trans. 1928), and Blick auf die Vogesen (1927).

SCHILLER

69

Mannheim and its intendant, W. H. von Dalberg; but nothing | a new journal, founded in 1794, which was the occasion for his but rebuffs and disappointments were in store for him. He did |gaining the friendship of Goethe. An immediate outcome of the not even feel secure against extradition in Mannheim, and after new friendship was Schiller’s admirable treatise, Uber naive und several weeks spent mainly in the village of Oggersheim, where his sentimentalische Dichtung (1795-96). Here Schiller apphed his third drama, Kabale und Liebe, was in great part written, he found aesthetic theories to that branch of art which was most peculiarly a refuge at Bauerbach in Thuringia, in the house of Frau von his own, the art of poetry; it is an attempt to classify literature Wolzogen, the mother of one of his former schoolmates. Here in accordance with an a priori philosophic theory of “ancient” and Kabale und Liebe was finished and Don Carlos begun. In July “modern,” “classic” and “romantic,” “naive” and “sentimental”; 1783 he received a definite appointment for a year as “theatre and it sprang from the need Schiller himself felt of justifying his poet” in Mannheim, and here both Fiesce and Kabale und Liebe own “sentimental” and “modern” genius beside the “naive” and were performed in 1784. In the latter play Schiller’s powers as a “classic” tranquillity of Goethe’s. For Schiller himself this was the bridge that led back from realistic portrayer of people and conditions familiar to him are seen to best advantage. Although Schiller failed to win an estab- philosophy to poetry. Under Goethe’s stimulus he won fresh lished position in Mannheim, he added to his literary reputation laurels in that domain of philosophical lyric which he had opened by the publication of the beginning of Don Carlos (in blank verse) with Die Künstler; and in Das Ideal und das Leben, Die Macht in his journal, Die rheinische Thalia (1785). He had also the des Gesanges, Wirde der Frauen, and Der Spaziergang, he proopportunity of reading the first act of the new tragedy before the duced masterpieces of reflective poetry. These poems appeared in the Musenalmanach, a new publication which Schiller began in duke of Weimar at Darmstadt in Dec. 1784. In April 1785 Schiller accepted the invitation of four un- 1796. Here were also published the Xemem (1797), a collection of known friends—C. G. K6rner, L. F. Huber, and their fiancées distichs by Goethe and Schiller, in which the two friends avenged Minna and Dora Stock—with whom he had corresponded, to themselves on their critics. The Almanach of the following year pay a visit to Leipzig. He spent a happy summer mainly at Gohlis, was even more noteworthy, for it contained a number of Schiller’s near Leipzig, his jubilant mood being reflected in the Ode an die most popular ballads, Der Ring des Polykrates, Der Handschuh, Freude; and in September of the same year he followed his new Ritter Toggenburg, Der Taucher, Die Kraniche des Ibykus and friend Körner to Dresden. As Kérner’s guest in Dresden and at Der Gang nach dem Eisenhammer; Der Kampf mit dem Drachen Loschwitz on the Elbe, Schiller completed Don Carlos, wrote the following in 1799, and Das Lied vom der Glocke in 1800. Asa dramatic tale, Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre (1786), and the ballad poet, Schiller’s popularity has been hardly less great than unfinished novel, Der Geisterseher (1789). Ké6rner’s interest in as a dramatist; his bold and simple outlines, his terse dramatic philosophy also induced Schiller to turn his attention to such characterization appealed directly to the popular mind. The studies, the first results of which he published in the Phzloso- supreme achievement of the last period of Schiller’s life was the phische Briefe (1786). Don Carlos, meanwhile, appeared in 1787, series of master dramas which he gave to the world between 1799 and added to Schiller’s reputation as a poet. It was unfortunate, and 1804. Just as Don Carlos had led him to the study of Dutch however, that in seeking a model for this higher type of tragedy history, so now his occupation with the history of the Thirty he turned rather to the classic theatre of France than to the Years’ War supplied him with the theme of his trilogy of Wallenstein (1798-99). The plan of Wallenstein was of long standing, English drama. A new chapter in Schiller’s life opened with his visit to Weimar and it was only towards the end, when Schiller realized the imin July 1787. Goethe was then in Italy, and the duke of Weimar possibility of saying all he had to say within five acts, that he was absent; but the poet was kindly received by Herder and decided to divide it into three parts, a descriptive prologue, WallenWieland. Not very long afterwards he made the acquaintance at steins Lager, and the two dramas Die Piccolomini and WallenRudolstadt of the family von Lengefeld, the younger daughter of steins Tod. Without entirely breaking with the classic method he which subsequently became his wife. Meanwhile the preparation had adopted in Don Carlos, Wallenstein shows how much Schiller’s for Don Carlos had interested Schiller in history, and in 1788 he art had benefited by his study of Greek tragedy; the fatalism of published the first volume of his chief historical work, Geschichte his hero is a masterly application of an antique motive to a des Abfalls der vereinigten Niederlande von der spanischen Regie- modern theme. The success of Wallenstein, with which Schiller rung. It obtained for him, on the recommendation of Goethe, a passed at once into the front rank of European dramatists, was professorship in the university of Jena, and in Nov. 1789 he so encouraging that the poet resolved to devote himself with redelivered his inaugural lecture. Schiller’s other historical writings doubled ardour to dramatic poetry. Towards the end of 1799 he comprise a Sammlung historischer Memoires and Geschichte des took up his residence permanently in Weimar, not only to be near dreissigjahrigen Krieges (1791-93). The latter is written for bis friend, but also that he might have the advantage of visiting a wider public than his first history, but the narrative is dramatic regularly the theatre of which Goethe was director. Wallenstein was followed in 1800 by Maria Stuart, a tragedy, and vivid and the portraiture is sympathetic. Before, however, this work was finished, Schiller had turned which, in spite of its great popularity in and outside of Germany, from history to philosophy. A year after his marriage he had been is not one of his best. Finer in every way is the “romantic stricken down by severe illness, from the effects of which he was tragedy,” Die Jungfrau von Orleans (1801). The resplendent never completely to recover; financial cares followed, which were mediaeval colouring of the subject, the heroic character of Joan of relieved unexpectedly by the generosity of the hereditary prince Arc, gave Schiller an admirable opportunity for the display of his of Holstein-Augustenburg, who conferred upon him a pension of rich imagination and rhetorical gifts; and by an ingenious altera1,000 talers a year for three years. Schiller devoted the leisure of tion of the historical tradition he was able to make the drama these years to the study of philosophy. In the summer of 1790 he a vehicle for his own moral idealism. Between this drama and its had lectured in Jena on the aesthetics of tragedy, and in the fol- successor, Die Braut von Messina, Schiller translated and adapted lowing year he studied carefully Kant’s Kritzk der Urteilskraft, to his classic ideals Shakespeare’s Macbeth (1801) and Gozzi’s which had just appeared and appealed powerfully to Schiller’s Turandot (1802). With Die Braut von Messina (1803) he exmind, The influence of these studies is to be seen in several perimented with a tragedy on purely Greek lines, this drama being essays, as well as in his correspondence with his friend Korner. as close an approximation to ancient tragedy as its mediaeval and Here Schiller arrives at his definition of beauty, as “Freiheit in der Christian milieu permitted. The introduction of a chorus detracted Erscheinung,” which marked the beginning of a new stage in the from the value of the tragedy for the theatre, but it appealed parhistory of German aesthetic theory. Uber Anmut und Wirde, ticularly to Schiller’s genius. In the poet’s last completed drama, published in 1793, was a further contribution to the elucidation and Wilhelm Tell (1804), he once more, as in Wallenstein, chose a widening of Kant’s theories; and in the eloquent Briefe uber die historical subject involving wide issues. Wilhelm Tell is the dsthetische Erziehung des Menschen (1795), Schiller proceeded drama of the Swiss people; its subject is less the personal fate of to apply his néw standpoint to the problems of social and indi- its hero than the struggle of a nation to free itself from tyranny. vidual life. These remarkable letters were published in Die Horen, It was an attempt to win for the German drama a new field, to

SCHILTBERGER-—SCHISTS

7O

widen the domain of dramatic poetry. Besides writing Tell, Schiller had found time in 1803 and 1804 to translate two French comedies by Picard, and to prepare a German version of Racine’s Phèdre; and in the last months of his life he began a new tragedy, Demetrius, which gave promise of being another step forward in his poetic achievement. But Demetrius remains a fragment of hardly two acts. Schiller died at Weimar on May 9, 1805. His last years were darkened by constant ill-health; and indeed it is marvellous that he was able to achieve so much. A visit to Leipzig in 1801, and to Berlin in 1804, were the chief outward events of his later years. He was ennobled in 1802. Schiller’s art, with its broad, clear lines, its unambiguous moral issues, and its enthusiastic optimism, has appealed with peculiar force to the German people, especially in periods of political despondency. But since the re-establishment of the German empire in 1871 there has been a certain waning of his popularity, the Germans of to-day realizing that Goethe more fully represents the aspirations of the nation. In point of fact, Schiller’s genius lacks that universality which characterizes Goethe’s; as a dramatist, a philosopher, an historian, and a lyric poet, he was the exponent of ideas which belong essentially to the Europe of the period before the French revolution. BreriocRAPHY.—The first edition of Schillers Sämtliche Werke appeared in 1812-15 in 12 vols. Of the countless subsequent editions mention need only be made here of the Historisch-kritische Ausgabe by K. Goedeke (15 vols., 1867-76). Good modern editions are the

Sdkularousgabe, edited by E. von der Hellen and others (17 vols., 1904-05) and that edited by O. Giintter and G. Witkowsky (20 vols., 1904-11). A critical edition of Schiller’s Briefe was published by F. Jonas (7 vols. 1892-96). The chief biographies of Schiller are the following: T. Carlyle, Life of Friedrich Schiller (1824, German translation with an introduction

by Goethe, 1830); E. Palleske, Schillers Leben und Werke (1858-59, rath ed. 1894, Eng. trans. 1885); H. Viehoff, Schillers Leben (1875, new ed. 1888) ; J. Sime, Schiller (1882); R. Weltrich, F. Schiller (vol. i, 1890); O. Brahm, Schiller (vols. i. ii., 1888-92) ; J. Minor, Schiller, sein Leben und seine Werke (vols. i-ii., 1890); C. Harnack, Schiller (£1898, 2nd ed. 1905); C. Thomas, Life and Works of Schiller (1901) ; K. Berger, Schiller (rg05—09: oth ed., 1917) ; E. Kiihnemann, Schiller (190s: Eng. transl., 1912). See further: V. Basch, La Poétique de Schiller (1902) ; L. Bellermann, Schillers Dramen: Beiträge zu ihrem Verständnis (2 vols., 1888—91; 4th ed., 1908); A. Köster, Schiller als Dramaturg (1891); K. Fischer, Schiller-Schriften (1891-92); J. W. Braun, Schiller im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen (3 vols., 1882); J. G. Robertson, Schiller after a Century (1905) ; Schiller’s Gespräche, ed. by J. Petersen (x9xr1) ; M. Hecker and J. Petersen, Schillers Persönlichkeit, 3 vols. (1907-09) ; A. Ludwig, Schiller und Die Deutsche Nachwelt (1909). For a complete bibliography see Goedeke’s GTT r vV.

SCHILTBERGER,

JOHANN

or HANS

(1381-1440?),

experiences and a sketch of various chapters of contemporary Eastern history, but also an account of countries and their manners and customs. First come the lands “this side” of Danube, where he had travelled; next follow those between the Danube and the sea, which had now fallen under the Turk; then the Ottoman dominions in Asia; last come the regions from Trebizond to Russia and from Egypt to India. Schiltberger is perhaps the first writer of Western Christendom to give the true burial place of Mohammed at Medina; he contributed to fix Prester John, at the close of the middle ages, in Abyssinia. Four mss. of the Reisebuck exist: (1) at Donaueschingen in the Fürstenberg library, No. 48r; (2) at Heidelberg, university library, 216; (3) at Nuremberg, city library, 34; (4) at St. Gall, monast. library, 628 (all of rsth century, the last fragmentary). The work was first edited at Augsburg, c. 1460; four other editions appeared in the xsth century, and six in the 16th; in the roth the best were K. F. Neumann’s (Munich, 1859), P. Bruun’s (Odessa, 1866, with Russian commentary, in the Records of the Imperial University of New Russia, vol. i.), and V. Langmantel’s (Tiibingen, 1885); “Hans Schiltbergers Reisebuch,” in the 172nd volume of the Bibliothek des literärischen Vereins in Stuttgart. See also the English (Hakluyt Society) version, Tke Bondage and Travels of Johann Schiltberger ..., trans. by Buchan Telfer with notes by P. Bruun (1879) ; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography (1897, etc.) ili. 356-378, 550.

SCHINZNACH, 2 small spa in the canton of Aargau (Swit-

zerland). It is situated 3 m. from Brugg, in the lower valley of the river Aar, at the south-west foot of the small but steep, wellwooded hill mass of Wiilpelsburg (1,683 ft. altitude). The village (1,465 ft. alt.; pop. ¢. 1,200) is famed for its strongly sulphurous and saline medicinal springs (g0°-95° F) and, during the period May to September, annually, it is much patronized, principally by French visitors. Other popular spas, such as Miillingen and Birmenstorf, lying eastward in the valley of the river Reuss, are in its immediate vicinity. The Wiilpelsburg is crowned by the ruins of an Irth century castle. Tradition claims that the count

of Altenburg discovered his strayed hawk (Ger. habicht). ton: the hill summit, and the naturally defended site resulted im‘its selection for the erection of the Castle of Habichtsburg—the first important stronghold of the subsequently famous Habsburg dynasty of Austria.

SCHISM, a division, especially used of a formal separation

from a church or religious body; a sect, or church formed by such separation. The dispute which led to the separation of the Latin and Greek Churches is known as the “Great Schism.” See Heresy and for the “Great Schism” see Papacy and CHURCH ! HISTORY.

SCHISTOSOMIASIS: see BrrHarziasis.

German traveller and writer, was born of a noble family in 138r, probably at Hollern near Lohof, half way between Munich and Freising. In 1394 he joined the suite of Lienhart Richartinger, and went off to fight under Sigismund, king of Hungary (afterwards emperor), against the Turks on the Hungarian frontier. At the battle of Nicopolis (Sept. 28, 1396) he was wounded and taken prisoner; Sultan Bayezid I. (Z/derim) then took him into his service as a runner (1396-1402). During this time he accompanied Ottoman troops to Asia Minor and Egypt. On Bayezid’s overthrow at Angora (July 20, 1402), Schiltberger passed into the service of Bayezid’s conqueror Timur: he now visited Samarkand, Armenia and Georgia. After Timur’s death (Feb. 17, 1405) his German runner became a slave of various successors. He next accompanied Chekre, a Tatar prince living in Abu Bekr’s horde, on an excursion to Siberia, of which name

SCHISTS, in petrology, metamorphic rocks which have a fissile character (Gr. oxlfewv, to split); in all there is at least one mineral which crystallizes in platy forms (e.g. mica, talc, chlorite,

literature. He followed Chekre in his attack on the Old Bulgaria of the middle Volga. Wanderings in south-east Russia; visits to Sarai, the old capital of the Kipchak Khanate on the lower Volga and to Azov or Tana, still à trading centre for Venetian and Genoese merchants; travels ‘in' the Crimea, Circassia, 'Abkhasia

French schistes and the German Schiefer are used to designate also rocks of these types... The differences between schists and gneisses are that the latter have less highly developed foliation,

Schiltberger gives us the first clear mention in west European

haematite), or in long blades or fibres (anthophyllite, tremolite, actinolite, tourmaline), and, when these have a well marked parallel arrangement in definite bands or folia, the rock will break far more easily along the bands than across them. The platy minerals have a perfect. cleavage parallel to their flat surfaces,

while the fibrous often have two or more cleavages following their long axes; hence a:schistose rock may split not only by separation: of the mineral plates from.one another but also by cleav-

age of the parallel minerals through their substance. Schists in the common acceptance of ‘the. term are completely recrystallized rocks; fissile slates, shales or sandstones, in which the sedimentary ‘structures are little modified by recrystallization,

are not included in this group by’ English petrologists, though the

are, as a rule, more coarse: grained;'and contain far more quartz and felspar—two minerals: which‘rarely assume platy or acicular

and Mingrelia; and finally escape’ (from the neighbourhood of forms, and hence do not lead to’ fissility im the rocks in which Batum) followed; he lay hid at Constantinople for-a time, then they are important constituents. Schists,.as a rule, are found returned to his Bavarian home (1427) by way of Kilia, Akker- in regions composed mainly ‘of metamorphic rocks, ¢.g., the Central man, Lemberg, Cracow, Breslau and Meissen. After his return Alps, Himalayas and other mountain ranges, Saxon ‘Scandinavia, he- became a chamberlain of Duke: Albert IIT.

.

‘Schiltberger’s Reisebuch-contams not only a record of his own

the Highlands of Scotland and N.-W. Ireland. They are. typical products of “regional” metamorphism, and -aré’ in- most ’ cases

SCHLEGEL

7I

Transitions be- of Shakespeare, which was ultimately completed, under the supertween schists and normal igneous or sedimentary rocks are often | intendence of Ludwig Tieck, by Tieck’s daughter Dorothea and found. The Silurian mica-schists of Bergen are fossiliferous; in| Graf W. H. Baudissin. This rendering is one of the best poetical the Alps it is believed that even Mesozoic rocks pass laterally , trarslations in German, or indeed in any language. At Jena into mica-schists and calc-schists. These changes have probably Schlegel contributed to Schiller’s periodicals the Horen and the been produced by the operation of heat, pressure and folding. Musenalmanach; and with his brother Friedrich he conducted Igneous rocks also may be converted readily into schists (¢.g., the Athenaeum, the organ of the Romantic school. He also pubserpentine into talc-schist, dolerite into hornblende-schist) by the lished a volume of poems, and carried on a rather bitter controversy with Kotzebue. The brothers were the leaders of the new same agencies. There are two great groups, viz., schists derived from (a) sedi- Romantic criticism. A volume of their joint essays appeared in mentary and (b) igneous rocks, or, as they have been called, the 1801 under the title Charakteristiken und Kritiken. In 1802 “paraschists” and the “orthoschists.” The first is the more impor- Schlegel went to Berlin, where he lectured on art and literature; tant and includes some of the commonest metamorphic rocks. In and in the following year he published Jon, a tragedy in Euripidean the paraschists, though fossils are exceedingly rare, sedimentary style, which gave rise to a suggestive discussion on the principles structures such as bedding and the alternation of laminae of fine of dramatic poetry. This was followed by Spanisches Theater and coarse deposit may frequently be preserved; the foliation is (2 vols., 1803-1809), in which he presented admirable translaoften parallel to the bedding, but may cross it obliquely or at tions of five of Calderon’s plays; and in another volume, Blumenright angles, or the bedding may be folded and contorted while straŭüsse italienischer, spanischer und portuguesischer Poesie the foliation maintains a nearly uniform orientation. When the (1804), he gave translations of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian

older than the fossiliferous sedimentary rocks.

foliation is undulose or sinuous the rocks are said to be crumpled,

and have wavy splitting surfaces instead of nearly plane ones. The development of foliation in shaly rocks is undoubtedly closely akin to the production of cleavage in slates. The sedimentary schists or paraschists have three great subdivisions, the mica-schists (g.v.) and chlorite-schists (which correspond in a general way to shales or clay rocks) the calc-schists (impure limestones) and the quartz-schists (metamorphosed sandstones). The chlorite-schists are often of igneous derivation, such as ash-beds or fine lavas which have been metamorphosed. Many ` of them contain large octahedra of magnetite. Others are probably sedimentary rocks, especially those which contain much muscovite, Calc-schists are usually argillaceous limestones in which a large development of biotite or phlogopite has occasioned foliation. Often they contain quartz and felspar, sometimes pyroxene, amphibole, garnet or epidote, Pure limestones do not frequently take on schistose facies. The quartz-schists consist of quartz and white mica, and are intimately related to quartzites. Many of them have been originally micaceous or felspathic sandstones. We may mention also graphitic-schists containing dark scaly graphite (often altered forms of carbonaceous shales), and haematiteschists which may represent beds of ironstone. The orthoschists are white mica-schists produced by the shearing of acid rocks, such as felsite and porphyry. Some of the “porphyroids” which have grains of quartz and felspar in a finely schistose micaceous matrix are intermediate between porphyries and mica-schists of this group. Still more numerous are orthoschists of hornblendic character (hornblende-schists) consisting of green hornblende with often felspar, quartz and sphene (also rutile, garnet, epidote or zoisite, biotite and iron oxides). These are modified forms of basic rocks such as basalt and dolerite. Every transition can be found between perfectly normal ophitic dolerites and typical hornblende-schists, and occasionally the same dike or sill will provide specimens of all the connecting stages. A:few hornblende-schists are metamorphosed gabbros; others have developed from dikes or sills of lamprophyre. Under extreme crushing these basic rocks may be converted into dark biotiteschists, or greenish chlorite-schists. Tremolite-schist and anthophyllite-schist are in nearly all cases the representatives of the ultra-basic igneous rocks such as peridotite in regions of high

lyrics. In 1807 he attracted much attention in France by an essay in the French language, Comparaison entre la Phédre de Racine et celle d’Euripide, in which he attacked French classicism from the standpoint of the Romantic school. His lectures on dramatic art

and literature (Über dramatische Kunst und Literatur, 1809-

1811), which have been translated into most European languages, were delivered at Vienna in 1808. Meanwhile, after a divorce from his wife Karoline, in 1804, he travelled in France, Germany, Italy and other countries with Madame de Staél, who owed to him many of the ideas which she embodied in her work, De l’Allemagne. In 1813 he acted as secretary to the crown prince of Sweden. Schlegel was made a professor of literature at the university of Bonn in 1818, and during the remainder of his life occupied himself chiefly with oriental studies, although he continued to lecture on art and literature, and in 1828 he issued two volumes of critical writings (Kritische Schriften). In 1823—1830 be published the journal Indische Bibliothek (3 vols.) and edited (1823) the Bkagavad-Gīta with a Latin translation, and (1829) the Rémdyana. These works mark the beginning of Sanskrit scholarship in Germany. After the death of Madame de Staél Schlegel married (1818) a daughter of Professor Paulus of Heidelberg; but this union was dissolved in 1821. He died at Bonn on May 12, 1845. As an original poet Schlegel is unimportant, but as a poetical translator he has rarely been: excelled.

e A EAE AEA OEE S E EADE EA G g EE a n aran

In 1846-47 Schlegels Sämtliche Werke were issued in twelve volumes by E. Böcking. There are also editions by tbe same editor of his Œuvres écrites en français (3 vols., 1846), and of his Opuscula Latine scripta (1848). Schlegel’s Shakespeare translations have been often reprinted; the edition of 1871~72 was revised with Schlegel’s mss. by M. Bernays. See M. Bernays, Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Schlegelschen Shakespeare (1872); R. Genée, Schlegel und Shakespeare (1903); J. Koerner, Romantiker und Klassiker. Die Briider Schlegel in ihren Beziehungen zu Schiller und Goethe (1924); Schlegel’s Berlin lectures of 1801-04 were reprinted from ms. notes by J. Minor (1884), A selection of the writings of both A. W. and Friedrich Schlegel, edited by O. F. Walzel, will be found in Kiirschner’s Deutsche Nationalliteratur, 143 (1892). See especially R. Haym, Romantische Schule, and the article in the Allg. deutsche Biographie by F. Muncker.

SCHLEGEL, FRIEDRICH

VON

(1772-1829), German

poet, critic and scholar, was the younger brother of August Wilhelm von Schlegel. He was born at Hanover on March 10, 1772. metamorphism. Talc-schists are of the same category. They are He’ studied law at Göttingen and Leipzig, but ultimately devoted soft and lustrous, with a peculiarly smooth feel. They are also himself entirely to literary studies. He published in 1797 tbe imknown as the products of metamorphism of siliceous dolomitic portant book Die Griechen und Römer, which was followed by'the suggestive Geschichte der Poesie der Griechen und Römer (1798). limestones. in F ; SCHLEGEL, AUGUST WILHELM VON (1767-1845), Goethe and Schiller looked to the Greeks for form and objectivGerman poet, translator and critic, was born on Sept. 8, 1767; at ity; Schlegel’s hellenism was romantic and lyrical. At Jena,’ where ‘to Hanover, where, his, father, Johann. Adolf Schlegel (1721-1793), he lectured as a Privatdozent at the university, he contributed was.a Lutheran pastor. , He.was educated at the Hanover gymna- the Athendum the aphorisms and essays in which the principles sium and at the uniyersity of Göttingen., Having spent some years of. the Romantic school are most definitely stated: This journal

as.a, tuior,in the-house of a,banker at Amsterdam, he went: to formed the centre for the first group of romanticists:at Jenå.: Fiete Jena, where, inv1796,,he. married -Karoline Michaelis, the widow also he wrote Lucinde (1799), an unfinished romance, whichis inofthe district medical offcer: Böhmer: and in 4798 was ap- teresting as an attempt to transfer to practical ethics the Roman-

pointed, extraordinary professor. «Herethe begån his ‘translation tic’ demand .for complete individual freedom, and “Alarcos, a

72

SCHLEIERMACHER

tragedy (1802) in which, without much success, he combined | as to the freedom and independence of the spirit, and as to the relation of the mind to the world of sense and imperfect social orhe edited the review Europa (1803), lectured on philosophy and ganizations. In these essays he emphasized individual personal carried on oriental studies, some results of which he embodied in development. From 1802 to 1804, Schleiermacher was pastor in the little Uber die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier (1808). In the same year in which this work appeared, he and his wife Pomeranian town of Stolpe. These years were full of literary Dorothea (1763-1839), a daughter of Moses Mendelssohn, joined work. He relieved Friedrich Schlegel entirely of his nominal the Roman Catholic Church, and from this time he became more responsibility for the translation of Plato, which they had together and more opposed to the principles of political and religious free- undertaken (vols. 1~5, 1804—10; 3rd. ed., 1855-61; vol. 6, Repub. dom. In 1809 he was appointed imperial court secretary at the 1828; and ed., 1855-62); he was also occupied with Grundlinzen headquarters of the archduke Charles at Vienna; later he was einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre (1803; 2nd ed. 1834), the councillor of legation in the Austrian embassy at the Frankfort first of his strictly critical and philosophical productions. In the diet, but in 1818 he returned to Vienna. Meanwhile he had pub- year 1804 Schleiermacher went as university preacher and profeslished his collected Gedichte (1809) and two series of lectures, sor of theology to Halle, where he remained until 1807. There he Uber die neuere Geschichte (1811) and Geschichte der alten und wrote his dialogue the Weihnachtsfeier (1806; 4th ed. 1850), neuen Literatur (1815). After his return to Vienna from Frank- which stands midway between his Reden and his great dogmatic fort he edited Concordia (1820-23), and began the issue of his work, Der christliche Glaube. After the battle of Jena he returned to Berlin (1807), where he Sämtliche Werke. He also delivered lectures, which were republished in his Philosophie des Lebens (1828) and in his Philosophie was appointed pastor of the Trinity church. The next year he der Geschichie (1829). He died on Jan. 11, 1829, at Dresden. married the widow of his friend Willich. At the foundation of the Friedrich Schlegel’s wife, Dorothea, was the author of an un- Berlin university (1810), he received a theological chair, and finished romance, Florentin (1801), a Sammlung romantischer shortly afterward became secretary to the Academy of Sciences. Dichtungen des Mittelalters (2 vols., 1804), a version of Lother Schleiermacher threw himself into the movement for national inund Maller (1805), and a translation of Madame de Staél’s dependence, acquiring a name and place in his country’s annals Corinne (1807~08)—all of which were issued under her hus- with Arndt, Fichte, Stein and Scharnhorst. He shared in the band’s name. reorganization of the Prussian church, and advocated, unsuccessFriedrich Schlegel’s Sdmtliche Werke appeared in zo vols. (1822-25) ; fully, the union of the Lutheran and Reformed churches. In the a 2nd ed. (1846) in 15 vols. His Prosaische Jugendschriften (1794- Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Studiums (1811; and ed. 1802) have been edited by J. Minor (1882, 2nd ed. 1906); there are also reprints of Lucinde, and F. Schleiermacher’s Vertrauie Briefe 1830), he sought to do for theology what he had done for religion über Lucinde, 1800 (1907). See I. Rouge, F. Schlegel et la genèse du in his Reden. His chief theological work Der christliche Glaube romantisme allemand (1904) and Erläuterungen zu F. Schlegels nach den Grundsätzen der evangelischen Kirche (1821—22; 2nd Lucinde (1905); M. Joachimi, Die Weltanschauung der Romantik ed., greatly altered, 1830-31; 6th ed., 1884) is a classic, and has (1905); W. Glawe, Die Religion F. Schlegels (1906) ; E. Kircher, Phil- been described as the greatest theological work produced by osophie der Romantik (1906) ; R. Volpers, Friedrich Schlegel als politischer Denker und deutscher Patriot (1917). On Dorothea Schlegel Protestantism since the Reformation. Schleiermacher’s aim was see J. M. Raich, Dorothea von Schlegel und deren Sohne (1881); F. to reform Protestant theology by means of the fundamental ideas Diebel, Dorothea Schlegel als Schriftsteller im Zusammenhang mit der of the Reden, to put an end to the unreason and superficiality of romantischken Schule (1905). both supernaturalism and rationalism, and to deliver religion and theology from a relation of dependence on perpetually changing SCHLEIERMACHER, FRIEDRICH DANIEL ERNST (1768-1834), German theologian and philosopher, was the son of systems of philosophy. His claim of the right of the church to a Prussian army chaplain of the Reformed confession, and was frame its own liturgy in opposition to the arbitrary dictation of born on Nov. 21, 1768 at Breslau. He was educated in a Moravian the state brought upon him fresh troubles. He felt himself more school at Niesky in upper Lusatia, and at the Moravian seminary and more isolated in Berlin. But he continued his translation of at Barby near Halle. Reluctantly his father permitted him to enter Plato and prepared a new and greatly altered edition of his Christthe university of Halle, which had already (1787) abandoned liche Glaube, anticipating the latter in two letters to his friend pietism and adopted the rationalist spirit of Wolf and Semler Lücke (in the Studien und Kritiken, 1829), in which he defended (see RATIONALISM). But though Schleiermacher left the Mora- his theological position generally and his book in particular. He vians he retained their intense religious spirit, and the years spent continued his defence against Hengstenberg’s party on the one in their schools affected the whole course of his development. In hand and the rationalists von Cölln and D. Schulz on the other, his own life he reconciled personal emotional religion with a modi- protesting against both subscription to the ancient creeds and the fied adoption of the Kantian critical philosophy. In 1796 he be- imposition of a new rationalistic formulary. He died, after a few came chaplain to the Charité Hospital in Berlin. He was at that days’ illness, on Feb. 12, 1834. time profoundly affected by German Romanticism, as represented Philosophical System.—Schleiermacher maintained that the by his friend Friedrich Schlegel. This is evidenced by his Con- world and God are distinct, but correlative, and neither can be fidential Letters on Schlegel’s Lucinde (Vertraute Briefe über conceived without the other. The world without God would be Schlegels “Lucinde,” 1801; ed. 1835; by Jonas Frankel, 1907; “chaos,” and God without the world an empty “phantasm.” But R. Frank, 1907), as well as by his relation to Eleonore Grunow, though God is transcendent and unknowable he is immanent in the the wife of a Berlin clergyman. Meantime he studied Spinoza and world. In self-consciousness God is present as the basis of the Plato, and was profoundly influenced by both, though he was never unity of our nature in every transition from an act of knowledge a Spinozist; he made Kant more and more his master, though he to an act of will, and vice versa. As far as man is the unity of departed on fundamental points from him, and finally remodelled the real and the ideal, God is in him. He is also in all things, his philosophy; with some of Jacobi’s positions he was in sym- inasmuch as in everything the totality of the world and its tranpathy, and from Fichte and Schelling he accepted ideas, which scendental basis is presupposed by virtue of their being and corin their place in his system, however, received another value and relation. The unity of our personal life amidst the multiplicity of import. Schleiermacher was, in fact, a great eclectic. The literary its functions is the symbol of God’s immanence in the world, fruit of this period of intense fermentation was his Reden über though we may not conceive of the Absolute as a person. Though die Religion (1799; ed. Göttingen, 1906), and his “new year’s He may not be conceived as the absolute cause of the world, the gift” to the new century, the Monologen (1800; ed. 1902). In the idea of absolute causality as symbolized in it may be taken as the first book he drew a sharp line between religion on the one hand best approximate expression of the contents of the religious conand ethics and knowledge on the other. Religion is a matter of sciousness. The unbroken connection of cause and effect throughimmediate intuition, he argued, whatever its manifestations and out the world becomes thus a manifestation of God. God is to be the dogmas with which it may be cloaked. In the Monologen he sought only in ourselves and in the world. He is completely imdeveloped his ethical manifesto, in which he proclaimed his ideas manent in the universe. It is impossible that His causality should romantic and classical elements. In 1802 he went to Paris, where

SCHLEIERMACHER have any other sphere than the world, which is the totality of being. “No God without a world, and no world without God.” The divine omnipotence is quantitatively represented by the sum of the forces of nature, and qualitatively distinguished from them only as the unity of infinite causality from the multiplicity of its finite phenomena. Throughout the world—not excepting the realm of mind—absolute necessity prevails. As a whole the world is as good and perfect as a world could possibly be, evil being only the necessary limitation of individual being. Ethics.—In his earlier essays Schleiermacher pointed out the defects of ancient and modern ethical thinkers, particularly of Kant and Fichte, favouring only Plato and Spinoza. His own ethics connects the moral world by a deductive process with the fundamental idea of knowledge and being; it offers a view of the entire world of human action; it presents an arrangement of the matter of the science which tabulates its constituents after the model of the physical sciences; and it supplies a sharply defined treatment of specific moral phenomena in their relation to the fundamental idea of human life as a whole. Schleiermacher defines ethics as the theory of the nature of the reason, or as the scientific treatment of the effects produced by human reason in the world of nature and man. The ontological basis of ethics is the unity of the real and the ideal, and the psychological and actual basis of the ethical process is the tendency of reason and nature to unite in the form of the complete organization of the latter by the former. The end of the ethical process is that corporeal nature may become the perfect symbol and organ of mind. Conscience, as the subjective expression of the presupposed identity of reason and nature in their bases, guarantees the practicability of our moral vocation. Nature is preordained or constituted to become the symbol and organ of mind, just as mind is endowed with the impulse to realize this end. But the moral law must not be conceived under the form of an “imperative”; it differs from a law of nature only as being descriptive of the fact that it ranks the mind as conscious will above nature. Strictly speaking, the antitheses of good and bad and of free and necessary have no place in an ethical system, but simply in history, which is obliged to compare the actual with the ideal; but as far as the terms “good” and “bad” are used in morals they express the rule or the contrary of reason, or the harmony of the contrary of the particular and the general. The idea of “free” as opposed to necessary expresses simply the fact that the mind can propose to itself ends, though a man cannot alter his own nature. In contrast to Kant and Fichte and modern moral philosophers Schleiermacher assigned pre-eminent importance to the doctrine of the summum bonum, or highest good. It represents in his system. the aim of the entire life of man, supplying the ethical view of the conduct of indi-

73

individualization of universal reason; and the primary act of selfconsciousness is the first conjunction of universal and individual life. Thus every person becomes a specific and original representation of the universe. While therefore we cannot, as we have seen, attain the idea of the supreme unity of thought and being by either cognition or volition, we can find it in our own personality, in immediate self-consciousness or (which is the same in Schleier-

macher’s terminology) feeling. Feeling in this higher sense (as distinguished from “organic” sensibility), which is the minimum of distinct antithetic consciousness, the cessation of the antithesis of subject and object, constitutes likewise the unity of our being, in which the opposite functions of cognition and volition have their permanent background of personality and their transitional link. Having its seat in this central point of our being, or indeed consisting in the essential fact of self-consciousness, religion lies at the basis of all thought and action. In his earlier days he called it a feeling or intuition of the universe, consciousness of the unity of reason and nature, of the infinite and the eternal within the finite

and the temporal. In later life he described it as the feeling of absolute dependence, or, as meaning the same thing, the consciousness of being in relation to God. As in every alfection of our being by individual phenomena we are brought into contact with the whole universe, we are brought into contact with God at the same time as its transcendental cause. This religious feeling is not knowledge in the strict sense, as it is purely subjective or immediate; but it lies at the basis of all knowledge. The so-called natural as distinguished from positive religion, or the religion of reason, is a mere abstraction. All religions are positive, or their characteristics and value are mainly determined by the manner in which the world is conceived. But these varying conceptions with their religious meaning become religiously productive only in the souls of religious heroes, who are the authors of new religions, mediators of the religious life, founders of religious communities. For religion is essentially social, and everywhere forms churches, the necessary organs of its highest life. The specific feature of Christianity is its

mediatorial element, its profound feeling of the striving of the finite individual to reach the unity of the infinite whole, and its conception of the way in which Deity deals with this effort by

mediatorial agencies, which are both divine and human. Its adherents are conscious of having been delivered by Christ from a condition in which their religious consciousness was overridden by the sense-consciousness of the world and put into one in which everything is subordinated to it. The mediator is now the Christian church, but in the case of Jesus, its originator, it was an entirely new and original factor in the process of religious development, and in so far, like every new and higher stage of being, a supernatural revelation. The appearance of the Saviour in human viduals in relation to society and the universe, and therewith history is therefore as a divine revelation neither absolutely constituting a philosophy of history at the same time. Moral supernatural nor absolutely beyond reason, and the controversy of functions cannot be performed by the individual in isolation but the 18th century between the rationalists and supernaturalists only in relation to the family, the state, the school, the church, rests on false grounds, leads to wrong issues, and each party is and society—all forms of human life which ethical science finds right and wrong (see RATIONALISM). As regards Christian theology, it is not its business to establish a system of objective truth, to its hand and leaves to the science of natural history to account for. Duties are divided with reference to the principle that every but simply to present in a clear connected form a given body of man make his own the entire moral problem and act at the same Christian faith as the contents of the Christian consciousness. time in an existing moral society. This condition gives four gen- Dogmatic theology is a connected accurate account of the doctrine eral classes of duty: duties of general association or duties with held at a particular time in a given section of the Christian church. reference to the community (Rechtspflicht), and duties of voca- But such doctrines as constitute no integral part of the Christian tion (Berufspflicht)—both with a universal reference, duties of consciousness—e.g., the doctrine of the Trinity—must be exthe conscience (in which the individual is sole judge), and duties cluded from the theological system of the evangelical theologian. of love or of personal association. It was only the first of the As regards the relation of theology and philosophy, it is not one three sections of the science of ethics—the doctrine of moral ends of dependence or of opposition, but of complete independence, —that Schleiermacher handled with approximate completeness. equal authority, distinct functions and perfect harmony. The marked feature of Schlelermacher’s thought in every deIn his Christian Ethics he dealt with the subject from the basis of the Christian consciousness instead of from that of reason gen- partment is the effort to combine the antithetic conceptions of erally; the ethical phenomena dealt with are the same in both other thinkers. He is realistic and idealistic, individualistic and systems, and they throw light on each other, while the Christian universalistic, monistic and dualistic, sensationalist and intellecsystem treats more at length and less aphoristically the principal tualist, naturalist and supernaturalist, rationalist and mystic, ethical realities—church, state, family, art, science and society. gnostic and agnostic. Apart from the positive and permanent Religious System.—From Leibniz, Lessing, Fichte, Jacobi value of the higher unities which he succeeds in establishing, the and the Romantic school Schleiermacher had imbibed a profound suggestiveness of his discussions of the great points at issue in all mystical view of human personality. The ego, the person, is an the principal fields of human thought, unsatisfactory as many of a

SCHLESWIG—SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN

74

his positions may be considered, make him one of the most instructive of modern thinkers. And, since the focus of his almost universal thought and inquiry and of his rich culture was religion and theology, he must be regarded as the classical representative of modern effort to reconcile science and philosophy with religion and theology, and the modern world with the Christian church. Schleiermacher’s collected works were published in three sections: (1) Theological (zz vols.); (2) Sermons (1x0 vols., ed. 1873-74, 5 vols.); (3) Philosophical and Miscellaneous (9 vols., 1835-64). His Pädagogische Schriften were separately published by Platz (3rd ed., 1902). Of lives the best are his own correspondence; Aus Schleiermachers Leben in Briefen, by W. Dilthey (1858-63, in 4 vols., Eng. trans. by Rowan); Leben Schleiermachers by Dilthey (vol. i. 1870, the period from 1768-1804); Friedrich Schleiermacher, ein Lebens-

und

Charakterbild,

by

D.

Schenkel

(Elberfeld,

1868);

a

selection of the letters by M. Rade (Jena, 1906). See also E. von Willick, Aus Schleiermachers Hause, Jugenderinnerungen seimes Stiefsohnes (1909). The accounts and critiques of his philosophy, ethics and theology are numerous;

some

of the most valuable are: J. Schaller,

Vorlesungen über Schleiermacher (Halle, 1844) ; G. Weisenborn, Darstellung und Kritik der Schleiermacher’schen Glaubenslehre (1849) ; F. Vorlinder, Schleiermachers Sittenlehre (Marburg, 1851); W. Bender, Schleiermackers Theologie mit ihren philosophischen Grundlagen (187678); O. Ritschl, Schleiermachers Stellung zum Christentum in seinen Reden über die Religion (1888) ; and Schleiermachers Theorie von der

Frömmigkeit (1897); O. Kim, Schleiermacher und die Romantik (1895); H. Bleek, Die Grundlagen der Christologie Schleiermachers (1898); M. Fischer, Schleiermacher (1899); Lülmann, Das Bild des Christentums bei den grossen deutschen Idealisten (1901), and Schleiermacher der Kirchenvater des rọ. Jahrhunderts (1907) ; Stephan, Die Lehre Schletermachers von der Erlésung (1901); Theile, Schleiermachers Theologie und ihre Bedeutung für die Gegenwart (1903); G. Thimme, Die religionsphilosophischen Prämissen der Schleiermacherscken Glaubenslehre (1901) ; H. Sueskind, Der Einfluss Schellings auf die Entwicklung von Schleiermachers System (1909); F. Kattenbusch, Von Schleiermacher zu Ritschl (1903); E. Cramaussel, La Philosophie religieuse de Schleiermacher (1909). Full bibliography

in Überweg, Grundriss der Gesch. der Philosophie, A t -

F. SM.;

es X.

SCHLESWIG, town and capital of the Prussian province of

QUESTION

of Tgnder and north of Flensburg. In addition to the mainland, which decreases in breadth from south to north, the province includes several islands, the most important being Fehmarn in the Baltic, and Heligoland, Sylt and Föhr in the North Sea. The total area of the province is 5,815 sq.m. The more ancient geological formations are scarcely met with in Schleswig-Holstein. The contrast between the two coast-lines of the province is marked. The Baltic coast has generally steep welldefined banks and is irregular, being pierced by numerous long and narrow inlets (Féhrden) which often afford excellent harbours. The North Sea coast is low and flat, and its smooth outline is interrupted only by the estuary of the Eider and the peninsula of Eiderstedt. Dunes or sand-hills, though rare on the protected mainland, occur on Sylt and other islands, while the small flat islands called Halligen require protection by dykes. The climate of Schleswig-Holstein is mainly determined by the proximity of the sea, and the mean annual temperature, varying from 45° in the north to 49° in the south, is rather higher than is usual in the same latitude. Rain and fog are frequent, but the climate is on the whole healthy. The Elbe forms the southern boundary of Holstein for 65 m., but the only river of importance within the province is the Eider, which rises in Holstein, and after a course of 120 m. falls into the North Sea, forming an estuary 3 to 12 m. in breadth. It is navigable from its mouth as far as Rendsburg, which is on the Kaiser Wilhelm (Kiel-Elbe) canal, which intersects Holstein. There are numerous lakes in north-east Holstein, the.largest of which are the Pléner See (12 sq.m.) and the Selenter See (9 sq.m.). The ordinary cereals are all cultivated with success and there is generally a considerable surplus for export. Rape is grown in the marsh lands and flax on the east coast, while large quantities of apples and other fruit are raised near Altona for the Hamburg and English markets. The marsh lands afford admirable pasture, and great numbers of cattle are reared for export. The Holstein horses are also in request, but sheep-farming is comparatively neglected. Bee-keeping is a productive industry. The hills skirting

Schleswig-Holstein on the narrow arm of the sea called the Schlei, 30 m. to the N.W. of Kiel on the railway from Hamburg to the bays of the Baltic coast are generally pleasantly wooded, but Flensburg. Pop. (1925) 18,683. The town consists mainly of the forests are nowhere of great extent except in Lauenburg. a single street, 34 m. long, forming a semicircle round the Schlei. The fishing in the Baltic is productive; Eckernförde is: the chief The church of St. Peter (1100), renewed in the Gothic style in fishing station in Prussia. The oysters from the beds on the west, the rsth century, contains a fine carved oak reredos by Hans coast of Schleswig are widely known under the misnomer of Briiggemann. The former commercial importance of the town “Holstein natives.” The mineral resources are almost confined has disappeared, and the Schlei now affords access to small vessels to a few layers of rock-salt near Segeberg. The more important only. Fishing, tanning, flour-milling and gardening are the chief industrial establishments, such as iron foundries, machine works, tobacco and cloth factories, are mainly confined to the large towns, industries. History.—Schleswig (ancient forms Slesthorp, Shaswic, i.e., such as Altona, Kiel and Flensburg. The shipbuilding of Kiel and the town or bay of the Slia or Schlei) seems to have been already other seaports, however, is important. The commerce and shipa place of importance in the oth century, as a medium of trade ping of Schleswig-Holstein, stimulated by its position between between the North Sea and the Baltic. The first Christian two seas, as well as by its excellent harbours and waterways, are church was built here by Ansgarius (d. 865), and it became the much more prominent than its manufactures. Kiel is one of seat of a bishop about a century later. The town, which obtained the chief, seaports of Prussia, while oversea trade is also carried civic rights in 1200, also became the seat of the, dukes of Schles- on by Altona and Flensburg. Schleswig is the official capital of wig, ‘but its commerce gradually dwindled owing to the rivalry of the province, but, Altona and Kiel are the largest towns. The main Lübeck, the wars in which the district was. involved, and the exports are grain, cattle, horses, fish and oysters,.in return for silting up of the Schlei. At the partition of 1544 the old castle of which. come timber,. coal, salt,, wine and colonial produce. . The population of the province in 1925 was 1,529,909. Among Gottorp, built in 1160 for the bishop, became the. seat of the Gottorp line of the Schleswig-Holstein family, which remained the Germans the prevalent tongue is Low German, but the North here till expelled by the Danish king Frederick IV.. ip 1713. From Frisians on the. west coast of Schleswig.and the North Sea islands 1731 to 1846 it was the seat of the Danish governor of the duchies.

For later history see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION.

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN,

ie

a province in the north-west

of Prussia, formed out of the once Danish duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg, and bounded west by the North Sea, north by Denmark, east by the Baltic Sea, Ltibeck and Mecklenburg, and south by the lower course of the Elbe (separating it

from Hanover). It thus consists of the southern half of the Cimbric peninsula, and forms the connecting link between Germany and Denmark. As a result of the plebiscite taken in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles in 1920, the Northern Zone of

still speak a Frisian dialect, which, however, is dying out. The

peninsula of Angéln, between the Gulf of Flensburg and the

Schlei, is supposed tọ have been the original seat. of the English, and observers profess to see a striking resemblance between this

district and the counties of Kent and Surrey. The peasants of

Dithmarschen in the south-west retain many of their ancient

peculiarities. "The language boundary: between Danish and German now: practically coincides with thepolitical boundary. The chief ea institution in, Schleswig-Holstein is the university of 15

wra

pe

:

ifs

Sai

|

j

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION, the name given

the existing German province of Schleswig-Holstein was restored

to the whole complex of diplomatic and other issues arising in the

to Denmark, while the Southern Zone remained part of German territory. The new boundary line runs just north,of Syk, south

roth century out of the relations. of. the two, “Elbe duchies,” Schleswig and Holstein, to the Danish Crown on the one hand

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN and the German Confederation on the other, which came to a crisis with the extinction of the male line of the reigning house of Denmark by the death of King Frederick VII. on Nov. 15, 1863. The central question was whether the two duchies did or did not constitute an integral part of the dominions of the Danish Crown, with which they had been more or less intimately associated for centuries. This involved the purely legal question, raised by the death of the last common male heir to both Denmark and the duchies, as to the proper succession in the latter, and the constitutional questions arising out of the relations of the duchies to the Danish crown, to each other, and of Holstein to the German Confederation. There was also the national question: the ancient racial antagonism between German and Dane, intensified by the tendency, characteristic of the 19th century, to the consolidation of nationalities. Lastly, there was the international question: the rival ambitions of the German powers involved, and beyond them the interests of other European States, notably that of Great Britain, in preventing the rise of a German sea-power in the north.

Early History.—From time immemorial the country north of the Elbe had been the battle-ground of Danes and Germans. Danish scholars point to the prevalence of Danish place-names far southward into the German-speaking districts as evidence that at least the whole of Schleswig was at one time Danish, 2.e., place-names according to popular usage, not the official names given in German maps (e.g., Haderslev for Hadersleben. See La Question du Slesvig, p. 61 seq., “Noms de lieux”). German scholars claim it, on the other hand, as essentially German.

That

the duchy of Schleswig, or South Jutland (Sdnderjylland), had been from time immemorial a Danish fief was, indeed, not in dispute, nor was the fact that Holstein had been from the first a fief of the Germano-Roman empire. The controversy in the roth century raged round the “indissoluble” union of the two duchies, the principle of which had been secured by the Charter of Ribe, signed by the Danish King Christian I., in 1460, after his election by the respective estates as count of Holstein and duke of Schleswig. The “Eider Danes” (t.e., the party at Copenhagen which aimed at making the Eider, the southern boundary of Schleswig, the frontier of the Danish kingdom proper) claimed Schleswig as an integral part of the Danish monarchy, which, on the principle of the union, involved the retention of Holstein also; the Germans claimed Holstein as a part of Germany and, therefore, on the same historic principle, Schleswig also. The Congress of Vienna, instead of settling the questions involved in the relations of the duchies of Denmark once for all, sought to stereotype the old divisions in the interests of Germany. In 1806, after the dissolution of the Holy Roman empire, the duchies had been virtually Incorporated in Denmark. This settlement was reversed by the Congress, and while Schleswig remained as before, Holstein and Lauenburg were included in the new German Confederation. The opening up of the SchleswigHolstein question thus became sooner or later inevitable. The Germans of Holstein, influenced by the new national enthusiasm evoked by the War of Liberation, resented more than ever attempts to treat them as part of the Danish monarchy and, encouraged by the sympathy of the Germans in Schleswig, tried to reassert in the interests of Germanism the old principle of the unity of the duchies. The political atmosphere, however, had changed at Copenhagen also; and their demands were met by the Danes with a nationalist temper as intractable as their own. Affairs were ripe for a crisis, which the threatened failure of the common male heirs to the kingdom and° the ee precipitated.

CRISIS OF 1848-49 . When Christian : VIII. succeeded his father Frederick VII. in 18309 the’ elder maleline, of. the house of Oldenburg was on the point of extinction, the king's only son and ‘heir having no ehildren. To. Germar: opinion the solution. of the -question of., the succession: seemed clear enough. The Crown ef Denmark could

be:inherited by,, female. heirs; in,,the, duchies the:.Salic Jaw bad never been, repealed and, in the event of a failure of male heirs

QUESTION

75

to Christian VIII., the succession would pass to the dukes of Augustenburg. Danish opinion, on the other hand, clamoured for a royal pronouncement proclaiming the principle of the indivisibility of the monarchy and its transmission intact to a single heir, in accordance with the royal law. To this Christian VIII. yielded so far as to issue in 1846 letters patent declaring that the royal law in the matter of the succession was in full force so far as Schleswig was concerned. As to Holstein he stated that he could not give so clear a decision, but the principle of the independence of Schleswig and of its union with Holstein were expressly reaffirmed. An appeal against this by the estates of Holstein to the German diet received no attention. The revolutionary year 1848 brought matters to a head. On Jan. 28, Christian VIII. proclaimed a new constitution which, while preserving the autonomy of the different parts of the country, incorporated them for common purposes in a single organization. ‘The estates of the duchies replied by demanding the incorporation of Schleswig-Holstein, as a single constitutional state, in the German Confederation. Frederick VII., who had succeeded his father at the end of January, declared (March 4) that he had no right to deal in this way with Schleswig, and, yielding to the Eider-Danish

party, withdrew the rescript of January (April 4) and announced to the people of Schleswig (March 27) the promulgation of a liberal constitution under which the duchy, while preserving its local autonomy, would become an integral part of Denmark. Prussian Intervention.—Meanwhile the duchies had broken out into insurrection; a provisional Government had been established at Kiel; and the duke of Augustenburg had hurried to Berlin to secure the assistance of Prussia in asserting his rights. This was at the very crisis of the revolution in Berlin, and the Prussian Government saw in the proposed intervention in Denmark in a popular cause an excellent opportunity for restoring its damaged prestige. Prussian troops were accordingly marched into Holstein and, the diet having on April 12 recognized the provisional Government of Schleswig and commissioned Prussia to enforce its decrees, General Wrangel was ordered to occupy Schleswig also. Prussia, as the mandatory of Germany, en-

deavoured to enforce the principle that the states were independent, indissolubly united and hereditary only in the male line. But the Germans had reckoned without the European powers, which were united in opposing any dismemberment of .Denmark, even Austria refusing to assist in enforcing the German view. Convention of Malmoe.—Prussia was now confronted on the one side by the German nation urging her to action, on the other side by the European powers threatening the worst consequences should she persist. Frederick William chose the lesser of two evils and, on Aug. 26, 1848, Prussia signed at Malmoe a convention which yielded practically all the Danish demands. The Holstein estates appealed to the German parliament, but it was soon clear that this had no means of enforcing its views, and the convention was ratified at Frankfort. The convention was only in the nature of a truce establishing a temporary modus vivendi, and the main issues continued to be hotly debated. A conference held in London failed to arrive at a settlement, and on April 3, 1849, the war was renewed. But the European situation, and notably the attitude of the Emperor Nicholas I. of Russia—who looked on Augustenburg as a rebel and Russia as bound in honour to safeguard the interests of the Danish Crown—decided Prussia to conclude peace with Denmark on the basis of the status quo ante bellum. Treaty of Berlin, 1850.—Thé treaty was signed at Berlin on

July 2, 1850. Both parties reserved all their’ antecedent rights; but for Denmark it was enough, since it empowered the kingduke to restore his authority in Holstein with or without ‘the consent ofthe German Confederation. Danish troops marched in to coerce the duchies; but, meanwhile; negotiations among the powers ‘continued, and òn Aug. 2, 1850, ‘Great Britain, France, Russia and Norway-Sweden signed a protocol, to which ‘Austria subsequently adhered, ‘approving the principle of restoring" the integrity of the Danigh monarchy. On, Jan. 28, 1852, Ring-Erederick VIL.. issued,@, royal letter. ‘ announcing. the:institution, rof

a unitary State which, while maintaining. the% fundémental: con-

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN

76

stitution of Denmark, would increase the powers of the estates of the two duchies. This was approved by Prussia and Austria, and by the German federal diet in so far as it affected Holstein and Lauenburg.

The Protocol of London, 1852.—The question of the succession was next approached. The main obstacle to an agreement among the Powers was removed when, on March 31, 1852, the duke of Augustenburg resigned his claim in return for a money payment. Further adjustments followed. After the renunciation by the emperor of Russia (who represented the elder, Gottorp line) and others of their eventual rights, Charlotte, landgravine of Hesse, sister of Christian VIII., and her son Prince Frederick transferred their rights to the latter’s sister Louise, who in her turn transferred them to her husband Prince Christian of Gliicksburg. This arrangement received international sanction by the protocol signed in London on May 8, 1852, by the five great powers and Norway and Sweden. On July 31, 1853, King Frederick VII. gave his assent to a law settling the crown on Prince Christian, ‘prince of Denmark,” and his heirs male. The protocol of London, while consecrating the principle of the integrity of Denmark, stipulated that the rights of the German Confederation in Holstein and Lauenburg should remain unaffected. It was, in fact, a compromise which satisfied neither the Danes nor the Germans; and when in Oct. 1855, King Frederick issued a parliamentary constitution for the whole monarchy, its legality was disputed by the two German great powers, on the ground that the estates of the duchies had not been consulted, and the diet of the Confederation refused to admit its validity so far as Holstein and Lauenburg were concerned (Feb. 11, 1858). The question was now once mote the subject of international debate; but the situation was no longer so favourable to the Danish view. The Crimean War had crippled Russia, and Nicholas I. was dead. France was prepared to sell the interests of Denmark in the duchies to Prussia in return for “compensations” to herself elsewhere. Great Britain alone sided with the Danes; but the action of British ministers, who realized the danger to British supremacy at sea of the growth of German sea-power in the Baltic, was hampered by the natural sympathy of Queen Victoria and the prince consort with the German point of view. The result was that the German diet, on the motion of Bismarck, having

ig}reatened federal intervention (July 29), Frederick VII. abolLaed the general constitution so far as it affected Holstein and OS ov. 6).

while

retaining

it for

Denmark

and

Schleswig

CRISIS OF 1863-64

«4 Though even this concession violated the principle of the ndissoluble union’ of the duchies, the German diet, fully occu-

Pied at home, determined to refrain from further action till the Wanish parliament should make another effort to pass a law or s@udget affecting the whole kingdom without consulting the estates “ of the duchies. This contingency arose in July 1860, and in the spring of the following year the estates were once more at open odds with the Danish Government. The German diet now prepared for armed intervention; but it was in no condition to carry out its threats, and Denmark decided, on the advice of Great Britain, to ignore it and open negotiations directly with Prussia and Austria as independent Powers. These demanded the restoration of the union between the duchies, a question beyond the competence of the Confederation. Denmark replied with a refusal to recognize the right of any foreign Power to interfere in her relations with Schleswig; to which Austria, anxious to conciliate the smaller German princes, responded with a vigorous protest

against Danish infringements of the compact of 1852.

Lord

John Russell now intervened, on behalf of Great Britain, with a proposal for a settlement of the whole question on the basis of the independence of the duchies under the Danish Crown”. This 1See Queen Victoria to Lord Malmesbury, May 1, 1858, in Letters (pop. ed., 1908), iii. 280. Compare the letters to Palmerston of June 21, 1840, li. 222, and June 22, 1850, li. 279, with Palmerston to Russell, June 23, 1850, and Queen Victoria to Russell, ii. 250. 2Note of Sept. 24, 1862. For the diplomatic correspondence on the duchies see Parl. Papers, Ixxiv. (1863).

QUESTION

was accepted by Russia and by the German great powers, and

Denmark found herself isolated. The international situation, however, favoured a bold attitude, and she met the representations of the powers with a flat defiance. The retention of Schleswig as an integral part of the monarchy was to her a matter of life and death; the German Confederation had made the terms of the protocol of 1852, defining the intimate relations between the duchies, the excuse for unwarrantable interference in the internal

affairs of Denmark; and on March 30, 1863, a royal proclamation was published at Copenhagen repudiating the compacts of 1852, and, by defining the separate position of Holstein in the Danish monarchy, negativing the claims of Germany upon Schleswig’. Danish Constitution of 1863.—The reply of the German diet was a note to Copenhagen (July 9) demanding, on pain of federal execution, the withdrawal of the proclamation and the grant of a constitution based on the compacts of 1852 or on the British note of Sept. 24, 1862. Instead, King Frederick VII. issued on Sept. 28, 1863, a new constitution for “our kingdom of DenmarkSlesvig,” which, encouraged by the hesitating attitude of the German diet, the Danish parliament passed on Nov. 13. Two days later Frederick VII. died. The “Protocol-King,” Christian IX., who now ascended the throne, was in a difficult position. The first act he was called upon to perform was to sign the new constitution. To sign was to violate the terms of the very protocol which was his title to

reign; to refuse to sign was to defy the sentiment of his Danish subjects. He chose what seemed the remoter evil, and on Nov. 18 signed the constitution. The news was received in Germany with violent manifestations of anger. Frederick, duke of Augustenburg, son of the prince who in 1852 had renounced the succession to the duchies, now claimed his rights on the ground that he had had no share in the renunciation. In Holstein an agitation in his favour had begun from the first, and this was extended to Schles-

wig on the terms of the new Danish constitution becoming known. His claim was enthusiastically supported by the German princes and people, and in spite of the negative attitude of Austria and Prussia the federal diet decided to occupy Holstein “pending the settlement of the succession.” On Dec. 24 Saxon and Hanoverian troops marched into the duchy in the name of the German Confederation, and supported by their presence and by the loyalty of the Holsteiners the duke of Augustenburg assumed the Government under the style of Duke Frederick VIII.

Attitude of Austria and Prussia.—With this ‘folly”—as Bismarck roundly termed it—Austria and Prussia, in the teeth of violent public opinion, would have nothing to do, for neither wished to risk a European war. It was clear to Bismarck that the two powers, as parties to the protocol of 1852, must uphold the succession as fixed by it, and that any action they might take in consequence of the violation of that compact by Denmark must be so “correct” as to deprive Europe of all excuse for interference. The publication of the new constitution by Christian IX. was in itself sufficient to justify a declaration of war by the two powers as parties to the signature of the protocol. As to the ultimate outcome of their effective intervention, that could be left to the future to decide. Austria had no clear views. King William wavered between his Prussian feeling and a sentimental sympathy with the duke of Augustenburg. Bismarck alone knew exactly what he wanted, and how to attain it. “From the beginning,” he said later (Reflections, ii. 10), “I kept annexation steadily before my eyes.” The protests of Great Britain and Russia against the action of the German diet helped Bismarck to persuade Austria that immediate action must be taken. On Dec. 28 a motion was intro-

duced in the diet by Austria and Prussia, calling on the Confederation to occupy Schleswig as a pledge for the observance by Den-

mark of the compacts of 1852.’ This implied the recognition of the rights of Christian IX., and was indignantly rejected; whereupón the diet was informed that Austria and Prussia would act

in the matter as independent European Powers. The agreement between them was signed on Jan. 16, 1864. One article stated 8For this and later correspondence see Parl. Papers, lxiv. (1864) P. 40 seq.

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN

QUESTION

77

that the two Powers would decide only in concert on the relations of the duchies, and that they would in no case determine the question of the succession save by mutual consent. At this stage, had the Danes yielded to the necessities of the situation and withdrawn from Schleswig under protest, the European Powers would probably have intervened, a congress would have restored Schleswig to the Danish Crown, and Austria and Prussia, as European Powers, would have had no choice but to prevent any attempt upon it by the duke of Holstein. To prevent this possibility Bismarck made the Copenhagen Government believe that Great Britain had threatened Prussia with interven-

clared to be the complete separation of the duchies from Denmark. As the result of the short campaign that followed, the preliminaries of a treaty of peace were signed on Aug. 1, the king of Denmark renouncing all his rights in the duchies in favour of the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia. The definitive treaty was signed at Vienna on Oct. 30, 1864. By Article XIX., a period of six years was allowed during which the inhabitants of the duchies might “opt” for Danish nationality and transfer themselves and their goods to Denmark; and the right of “indigenacy” was guaranteed to all, whether in the kingdom or the

tion should hostilities be opened, “though, as a matter of fact, England did nothing of the kind.” The cynical stratagem succeeded; Denmark remained defiant; and on Feb. 1, 1864, the Austrian and Prussian forces crossed the Eider. The Danish War.—An invasion of Denmark itself had not been part of the original programme of the allies; but on Feb.

of the treaty”.

18 some Prussian hussars, in the excitement of a cavalry skirmish, crossed the frontier and occupied the village of Kolding. Bismarck determined to use this circumstance to revise the whole situation. He urged upon Austria the necessity for a strong policy, so as to settle once for all not only the question of the duchies but the wider question of the German Confederation; and Austria reluctantly consented to press the war. On March 5 a fresh agreement was signed between the Powers, under which the compacts of 1852 were declared to be no longer valid, and the position of the duchies within the Danish monarchy as a whole was

duchies, who enjoyed it at the time of the exchange of ratification

SETTLEMENTS

OF 1866 AND 1920

The Schleswig-Holstein Question from this time onward became merged in the larger question of the general relations of Austria and Prussia. So far as Europe was concerned it was settled by the decisive result of the Austro-Prussian war of

24th, in view of the end of the truce, Austria and Prussia had arrived at a new agreement, the object of the war being now de-

1866. (See SEVEN Weeks’ War.) It survived, however, as between Danes and Germans, though narrowed down to the question of the fate of the Danish population of the northern duchy. By Article V. of the Treaty of Prague (Aug. 23, 1866) Schleswig was ceded by Austria to Prussia with the reservation that “the populations of the North of Schleswig shall be again united with Denmark in the event of their expressing a desire so to be by a vote freely exercised.” But the plébiscite never came. Its inclusion in the treaty had been no more than a diplomatic device to save the face of the emperor Napoleon ITI.; Prussia had from the first no intention of surrendering an inch of the territory she had conquered; the outcome of the Franco-German War made it unnecessary for her even to pretend that she’ might do so; and by the Treaty of Vienna of Oct. 11, 1878, the clause relating to the plébiscite was formally abrogated with the assent of Austria. To incorporate Schleswig in the German empire, however, was one thing; to absorb its people into the German nation quite another. South Schleswig was already German; but for 50 years Germanism, backed by all the weight of the empire and imposed with the weapons of official persecution, had not held its own in North Schleswig; in spite of an enormous emigration, in 1905, of the 148,000 inhabitants of North Schleswig 139,000 spoke Danish, while of the German-speaking immigrants it was found that more than a third spoke Danish in the first generation; and this in spite of the fact that, from 1864 onward, German had gradually been substituted for Danish in the churches, the schools, and even in the playground. But the scattered outposts of Germanism could hardly be expected to acquiesce without a struggle in a situation that threatened them with social and economic extinction. Fifty years of dominance, secured by official favour, had filled them with a double measure of aggressive pride of race, and the question of the rival nationalities in Schleswig, like that in Poland, remained a source of trouble and weakness within the frontiers of the German empire. . During the years preceding the World War, the efforts to Germanize the Danish inhabitants of Schleswig continued, but only succeeded in strengthening their Danish national consciousness. In Aug. 1914 the effects of this spirit were so feared in Germany that a number of prominent Danes were imprisoned, and during the War the aspirations for union with Denmark were silenced. On the one hand, there was the German censorship, and on the other hand, the Danes themselves in Schleswig did not wish to endanger Denmark’s neutrality. On Oct. 23, 1918, however, H. P. Hanssen, a Danish representative, raised the demand for reunion in the German Reichstag; on the same day the Danish Rigsdag passed a resolution in favour of a readjustment of the frontier on the principles of nationality. On Nov. 28 the Danish Government communicated its wishes to the Allies, and in Feb. 1919 a united Danish North Schleswig delegation was sent to the Peace Conference in Paris to present

1Parl. Papers (1864), lxv. 124 seg. Beust (M em. i. 252), says that Queen Victoria’ personally intervened to prevent British action‘ in

the Danish point of view: a plebiscite ex bloc in‘North Schleswig (zone 1); a community ballot in Central Schleswig and Flens-

to be made the subject of a friendly understanding. Meanwhile, however, Lord John Russell on behalf of Great Britain, supported by Russia, France and Sweden, had intervened with a proposal that the whole question should once more be submitted to a European conference. The German Powers agreed on condition that the compacts of 1852 should not be taken as a basis, and that the duchies should be bound to Denmark by a personal tie only. But the proceedings of the conference, which opened at London on April 25 only revealed the inextricable tangle of the issues involved. Beust, on behalf of the Confederation, demanded the recognition of the Augustenburg claimant; Austria leaned to a settlement on the lines of that of 1852; Prussia, it was increasingly clear, aimed at the acquisition of the duchies. The first step towards the realization of this latter ambition was to secure the recognition of the absolute independence of the duchies, and this Austria could only oppose at the risk of forfeiting her whole influence in Germany. The two Powers, then, agreed to demand the complete political independence of the duchies bound together by common institutions. The next move was uncertain. As to the question of annexation Prussia would leave that open, but made it clear that any settlement must involve the.complete military subordination of Schleswig-Holstein to herself. This alarmed Austria, which had no wish to see a further extension of Prussia’s already overgrown power, and she began to champion the claims of the duke of Augustenburg. This contingency, however, Bismarck had foreseen and himself offered to support the claims of the duke at the conference if he would undertake to subordinate himself in all naval and military matters to Prussia, surrender Kiel for the purposes of a Prussian warharbour, give Prussia the control of the projected North Sea Canal, and enter the Prussian Customs Union. On this basis, with Austria’s support, the whole matter might have been arranged without—as Beust pointed out (Mem. i. 272)—the increase of Prussia’s power beyond the, Elbe being any serious menace to Austrian influence in Germany. Fortunately, however, for Bis-

marck’s plans, Austria’s distrust of Prussia led her to oppose this settlement and at her instigation the duke of Augustenburg rejected it.

Treaty of Vienna, 1864—On June 25 the London conference broke’up without having arrived at any conclusion. On the

favour of Denmark.

oer ae

2The full text of the treaty is in La Question du Slesvig, p. 173 et seq.

SCHLETTSTADT—SCHLIEFFEN

78

a departmental order of May in the voting | ican vessels, and of disobedience to be taken. He died in New action burg (zone 2) and voting rights to all those born no that d mende further provided | 25, but it recom

7, district. The Peace Treaty, presented May later dropped. was this but zone, third a in for a plebiscite

city, on Oct. 2, IQTI.

York Greely Schley wrote, with James Russell Soley, ae aes of | tional interna an 1920) 10, (Jan. 5 (1904) On the treaty coming into force e Han poian E fle sion took charge of the plebiscite district. Zone I gave Ces) i aE

commis

Schley, Sampson and 10); zone | (zọ12); and James Parker, Rear Admiral 75,431 votes for Denmark, 25,329 for Germany rk(Feb. (1910). Cervera | 14). (March (1840 2, 48,148 votes for Germany, 13,029 for Denma SCHLICH, SIR WILLIAM, K.C.LE., cr. 1909

effect The frontier established by the treaty of July 5, 1920 gave ig to this verdict, and restored to Denmark that part of Schlesw

y, 1925), British forestry expert, was born at Darmstadt, German

ity of ap- | on Feb. 28, 1840, and educated there and at the Univers which lies north of the Flensburg fjord, and of a line drawn in | Giessen. In 1866 he entered the Indian Forests Department, bee power orproximately west from it. On July 7 the executiv came conservator of forests in 1871, and 10 years later inspect k. Denmar to over handed was 1 became he Zone 1886 In India. of ment Govern the to forests | general of Subsequent elections have shown the line to be fairly drawn. He was one of the pioneers of the 7,700—insuffi- | a naturalized British subject. school The Danish vote polled in Germany in 1924 was for | study of forestry in England, organizing in 1885 the first cient to return a Danish representative. The German votes He 1905. in Oxford to rred transfe was returning one mem- | at Cooper’s Hill, which

the same year and The Treaty |was appointed professor of forestry athis Oxford ber under the system of proportional representation.Denmar the subject are: on books Among 1919. until post the k with | retained ions upon 1925) and vol., 5 of Versailles imposed no special obligat ed., new 5; (1889-9 y y, since the Danish constitution | 4 Manual of Forestr the Rigsdag in 1921 and 1924 totalled 7,500,

regard to her German minorit He died at Oxford on the Danish | Forestry in the United Kingdom (1904). offered adequate safeguards; on the same grounds 1925. 28, Sept. | GerPrusGovernment declined the proposal for a special treaty with might SCHLIEFFEN, ALFRED, Count von (1833—1913), this many for reciprocal protection of the minorities, as nian Pomera a of Berlin, in 1833 28, Feb. on born was soldier, of one country in the| sian Berlin Uniat studied lead to interference by the Government ment, He officer. army an of son the however, offered | family, affairs of another. The Danish Govern in the war of 1866

the military academy and served develop its own culture, | versity and the German minority every facilityig tobeing that of 1870-71 against reorganized with this against Austria and in

the school system of North Schlesw

France

as a gen-

of the general n edu-| eral staff officer. In 1891 he was appointed chiefyears, exercising view; parents decide whether they will have their childre 15 for n positio this held He army. the of staff German cated in Cerman or Danish at primary schools, and German pri- | an the of pment develo the on e influenc extraordinary

vate schools receive State grants. the problem and | general staff and the whole German army. He faced with a See Sach, Geschichte der Stadt Schleswig (Schleswig, 1875); waged be to have would which fronts, two of a war on

Jensen, Schleswig und Umgebung (Schleswig, 1905). single huge army. He promoted the training of general staf Iaoit Marin r ae aaa a waitef ee go l equi urged onintotechnica armies, energies huge all in the leadinghe ofthrew | Jan- officers and, . the effort A : : his : E i finally, ment, ; 1897) en, (Wiesbad g : Befreiun ins l g-Holste A and K. Samwer, Schleswi i sen

3 i German Empire (Eng. in 1907. see also H. C. L. von Sybel, Foundation of the ons | equip the army with mobile heavy artillery. He retired cences, Reminis and Reflecti k’s Bismarc ; ) 1890-91 He is . trans., New York, writing in views his put fen Schlief ent view of point On his retirem and L. Hahn, Bismarck (5 vols., 1878-91) . The Danish the general chief ioof ho as than author an as known better in bi far indeed | on Cl collecti of a disciple H ed in La Questzon du Slesvig,agen, 1906), taff of th ably and moderately present is who in his ausewitz, edited by F. de Jessen (Copenh the army. He was a disciple 0 of essays by various writers staff of (W. A. P.; X. ts.

with maps and documen

Fieldturn had deduced his doctrine of strategy from Napoleon. fen was, marshal von Moltke, whose successor and disciple Schlief and it was the Napoleon1911), American | had also based his ideas on Clausewitz, SCHLEY, WINFIELD SCOTT (1839carry on. The essence to sought Oct. Moltke strategy that Schlieffen naval officer, was born at Richfields, near Frederick, Md., on should be not merely forces enemy the in that is academy doctrine naval their of 9, 1839. He graduated at the United States y ?

SCHLETTSTADT: see SELESTAT.

end it seemed to them necessar service as a lieuten- | defeated but destroyed. To this 1860, and during the Civil War washe inwasactive and if possible the rear should flanks the but ent front the departm only the of not head that ant until July 1863. In 1872-75 on

give battle He was promoted | be attacked, so that the enemy should be forced toto its logical conof modern languages in the U.S. naval academy. the system this pushed en Schlieff most front. “Essex,” reversed a ed command 1876-79 commander in 1874; in sides by enemies 1883 was | clusion. He saw Germany surrounded on allherself. of the time in the South Atlantic, and then until Oct. It seemed than powerful more far 1884, Schley together, were

who, inspector of the, second lighthouse district. In Feb. of the enemies ion; | to him that the only salvation lay in opposing one expedit relief Greely third the d comman to ed appoint was and then, defeat, decisive a him on g inflictin force, a superior

on and near Cape Sabine on June 22 rescued Greely and six com-| with using a well-developed network of railways and manoeuvring then panions. He commanded the “Baltimore” in Rear Admiral George | until whom against enemy other the upon turning lines, inner | Brown’s squadron off the coast of Chile in 1891. He was commisFor this end d of| a defensive attitude would have been maintained. aimed at provsioned commodore on Feb. 6, 1898, and was put in comman writings his and needed were blows decisive rapidly | for , be ‘could the “flying squadron,” with the “Brooklyn” as his flagship troops how showing and possible be to blows off San-| ing such

poe service in the war with Spain. The command of the fleet | handled for that purpose. tiago de Cuba was taken from Schley by Acting: Rear Admiral out the sought fen Schlief purpose of ess singlen marked a With » of Santiago on July 3, Schley, in|

W. T. Sampson. In the battle military history and presented them in Aug. Io, Schley | appropriate examples in are Sampson's absence, was the senior officer.rearOn admiral not military history in the accepted works His guise.’ anew “emi-'| for was advanced six numbers and was made to corroborate his doctrines. His history y militar sense; he used nent and conspicuous conduct in battle.” When the Navy depart- | watched the militaryeight numbers and | books are: definitely instructional. , Heand feared, lest the grave ment recommended that Sampson be promoted for 42 years, there | political situation of his own country over the head of Schley, who had ranked him a man unpro- | hour should find; in the position he had had to leave, was a bitter controversy, and the Senate did not confirm the

task. “A commander-in-chief must be sioned rear admiral. | equal to the overwhelming motion. On April 14, 1899, Schley was commis uman, something supernatural, call superh ng somethi by d of | inspire In 190r he retired from active service. At his request, because | it genius or ‘what you wil.” « the charges made against him in E. S. Maclay’s History of the even | ° Schlieffen died in Berlin-on Jan. 4, 1913, but in 1914—s and of inquiry investigated Schley’s conduct before

Navy, a court during the battle of Santiago;

still played his part in the world’s in rgoz the court pronounced | years after his retirement—he hed to his successor,

| history; for on retiring, he had bequeat Schley guilty of delay in locating Cervera’s squadron, of carelessGeneral Moltke the younger, the ‘plan for deployment against nt moveme “loop” peculiar a by “Texas”. ness in endangering the This plan embodies his strategic convictions. It is at France. | Amerother of fire or turn of the “Brooklyn” which blanketed the

SCHLIEMANN—SCHLUSSELBURG once immensely bold and also simple. Only the bare minimum was to remain facing the Russians; in the West the left flank was to be held back and the troops in Alsace were to withdraw behind the Rhine and face attack on the line Metz-Strasbourg.

The bulk of the army was to deploy on the right flank and, pivoting on Metz, to drive forward against the line Dunkirk-Verdun. In this way the strongly fortified east front of France would be turned and the French army forced to give battle with a reversed front. Schlieffen intended not to give a recipe for victory, but to indicate the operative idea which, if logically carried out, would make possible the swift decision which alone could save Germany from her doom. The German army commander of 1914 considerably diluted the Schlieffen plan and, particularly in its execution, followed other courses than those pointed to by the dead strategist. And so it was that the inspired scheme of Schlieffen did not bear the fruits which were expected. How armies are to be handled in the Schlieffen spirit the war on the Eastern front showed. The battle of Tannenberg has very justly been called a super-Cannae, and the campaign of Lodz, the German attack against the Warsaw-Thorn line—the bestconceived operation of the whole War, which was directed solely against the right flank of the Russians—rests upon Schlieffen’s ideas.

The field marshal’s influence on the German

leadership

in the World War is incontestable, and his lifework cannot be ignored by anyone who intends to study the history of the World War. See Graf Schlieffen, Gesammelte Schriften (Berlin, 1913); Cannae, selection from the above (Berlin, 1925). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—General Freiherr von Freytag-Loringhoven, Generalfeldmarschall Graf von Schlieffen (Leipzig, 1920) ; Hugo Rochs, Schlieffen (Berlin, 1921) ; Wolfgang Forster, Graf Schliefien und der Weltkrieg (2nd edition, Berlin, 1925). (K. von O.)

SCHLIEMANN,

HEINRICH

(1822-1890), German ar-

chaeologist, was born on Jan. 6, 1822 at Neu Buckow in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the son of a poor pastor. He has stated in his autobiography that through all his early years of struggle, when he was successively grocer’s apprentice at Fiirstenberg, cabinboy on the “Dorothea” bound for Venezuela, and, after her wreck, office attendant and then book-keeper in Amsterdam, he nourished a passion for the Homeric story and an ambition to become a great linguist. In the end, thanks to an unusually powerful memory and determined energy, he acquired a knowledge of seven or eight tongues besides his own, including ancient and modern Greek. The house of B. H. Schréder of Amsterdam sent him in

1846 to St. Petersburg, where he established a business of his own and embarked in the indigo trade. He made a fortume at the time of the Crimean War, partly as a military contractor. Happening to be in California when made a State of the Union, in 1850, he became and remained an American citizen. After travels in Greece, Tunisia, India, China and Japan, and writing a short sketch of the last two countries, he took his large fortune to Greece in 1868, and proceeded to visit Homeric sites. In an ensuing book—Ithaka, der Peloponnes, und Troja—he propounded two theories which he was destined eventually to test in practice, viz., that Hissarlik, not Bunarbashi, was the site of Troy, and that the Atreid graves, seen by Pausanias at Mycenae, lay within the citadel wall. Two years later he took up Calvert’s work on the former site, and, convinced that Troy must be on

79

opened a large pit just within the citadel. The famous double ring of slabs and certain stone reliefs came to light. Schliemann, thinking it was only a platform levelled as a place of Achaean assembly, paused, and did not resume till November. Then, resolved to explore to the rock, he cleared away some three feet more of earth and stones, and lighted on the five shaft graves which have placed him first among fortunate excavators. A sixth grave was found immediately after his departure. The immense treasure of gold, silver, bronze, fine stone and ivory objects, which was buried with the sixteen corpses in this circle, is worth intrinsically more than any treasure-trove known to have been found in any land, and it revealed once for all the character of a great civilization preceding the Hellenic. The find was deposited at Athens, and gradually cleaned and arranged in the Polytechnic; and the discoverer, publishing his Mycenae in English in 1877, had his full share of honours and fame. He had now settled in Athens, where he married a Greek lady, and built two splendid houses, which became centres of Athenian society. In 1878 he dug unsuccessfully in Ithaca, and in the same year and the following resumed work at Hissarlik, and summed up his results in a discursive memoir, Jizos, upon which a sequel, Troja, issued in 1884, after Wilhelm Dörpfeld, associated in 1882, had introduced some archaeological method into the explorations, was a considerable improvement. In 1880 and 1881 Schliemann cleared out the ruined dometomb of Orchomenus, finding little except remains of its beautiful ceiling; and in 1885, with Dörpfeld, he laid bare the upper stratum on the rock of Tiryns, presenting scholars with a complete ground plan of a Mycenaean palace. This was his last fortunate excavation. While Tsountas, for the Greek Archaeological Society, picked up his work at Mycenae in 1886, and gradually cleared the Acropolis with notable results, Schliemann tried for traces of the Caesareum at Alexandria, of the Palace of Minos at Knossos, in Crete, and of the Aphrodite temple at Cythera (1888); but he was not successful, meeting in the two former enterprises with a local opposition which his wealth was unable

to bear down.

In 1889 he entertained at Hissarlik a committee

of archaeological experts, deputed to examine Botticher’s absurd contention that the ruins represented not a city, but a cremation necropolis; and he was contemplating a new and more extensive campaign on the same site when, in December 1890, he was

seized at Naples with an illness which ended morning of Christmas Day.

SCHLIPPE’S

SALT,

or sodium

o on the (D. G. H.)

thioantimoniate, “named

after K. F. Schlippe (1799-1867), is prepared by dissolving the calculated quantities of antimony trisulphide, sulphur and sodium hydroxide in water, and evaporating the’ liquic.::The salt, NasSbsS.-9H.0, crystallizes in large tetrahedra, which are easily soluble in water, and have a specific gravity I- 806. The anhydrous salt melts easily when heated, and in the hydrated condition on, exposure to moist air becomes coated with a red film. It combines with sodium thiosulphate to form NasSbSx-Na2S.03-20H.O.

SCHLOZER,

AUGUST

LUDWIG

VON

(1735-1809),

German historian, was born at Gaggstedt, in the county of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg, on July 5, 1735. Having studied theology and oriental languages at the universities of Wittenberg and Gottingen, he went in 1755 as a tutor to Stockholm, and afterwards to Uppsala; and while in Sweden he wrote in Swedish an Essay on the General History of Trade and of Seafaring in the most Ancient Times (1758). In 1759 he returned to Göttingen, where he began the study of medicine. From 176r to 1767 he occupied academic posts in Russia; he then returned to Göttingen, retired from active work in 1805, and died on Sept. 9, 1809. Sçhlözer’s most important works were his Allgemeine nordische Geschichte, 2 vols. (Halle, 1772) and his translation of the Russian chronicler Nestor to the year 989, 5 vols. (Gottingen, 1802—1809).

the lowest level, hewed his way down, regardless of the upper strata, wherein lay ‘unseen the remains of which he was really in search. By 1873 he had laid bare considerable fortifications and other remains of a burnt city of very great antiquity, and discovered: a treasure of, gold, jewellery. We now know this city to have belonged to the middle pre-Mycenaean period, long prior to the generation. of Homer’s Archaeans, but Schliemann far and wide proclaimed it “Troy,” and was backed by Gladstone and a large part of, the: European public. Trying to resume his work in February. 1874, ‘he found himself inhibited. by the Ottoman goy.See Zermelo, August Ludwig Schlézer (Berlin, 1875); a eek ernment, whose allotted share of the gold. treasure had not been Die Begriindun der neuern deutschen Geschichtsschretbus satisfactory’ and it was not till April 1876 that he obtained a Gatterer tind Schidzer. (Leipzig, 1876) and F. Frensdorff in “Algemene

fixman, During the delay he issued his Troy and its Remains Sebtgehe Biog. vol, xxxi (1875), and betook -himself to Mycenae. -There in August 1876, SCHLUSSELBURG,

he ‘began: work in the dome-tombs

and by, the Lion Gate, and a

dy ade ie he

a town Gf Ruse E EE

Area, in 59° 56’ N., 34° 3’ E., om marshy ground át the point

80

SCHMALKALDEN—SCHOBER

where the Neva river issues from Lake Ladoga. It has railway and steamer communication with Leningrad and there is a chintz factory. Pop. (1926) 6,317. Opposite the exit of the Neva are two islands, on the larger of which is a fortress, erected after its capture by the army of Peter the Great in 1702. It received its name because Peter considered it the key (Schlüssel) to the sea. After the final defeat of the Swedes in his reign, it was converted into a prison for political offenders, many of whom died as a result of the unhealthy conditions and severe régime. The first prisoners were the wife and daughter of Peter I., the latter of whom died here. Among other famous prisoners were Marshal Dolgoruki, Biron, the Tsar Ivan VI., many of the Dekabrists, the anarchist Bakunin, the Polish patriot Lukassinsky, who spent 37 years in prison and died here, and Lenin’s brother, who was hanged here in 1887. Founded by the Novgorodians in 1323, it changed hands many times during the wars between Russia and Sweden, and after its re-capture by the Swedes in 1661 was called Noteborg. See: Guide to the Soviet Union (Moscow, 1925).

ler’s gifts are revealed in this series: a limpid style, a strong but

never exaggerated sense of humour, an inimitably light touch, and above all, a gift of characterization second to none. Schnitzler understood the charming and frivolous Vienna of his day like no other writer, and his plays and stories are faultless reproductions of that life, so delightful within its limitations. Other plays in the same style are Liebelei (1895, Eng. trams. 1914) and Frei-

wild (1896), each striking a more tragic note in the fate of the “sweet little girl” round whom Viennese romance centres, and

Reigen, a series of dialogues describing Viennese amours in such detail that, although written in 1900, it could only be performed

in 1920. The best of his early stories are Sterben (1895), describing the decline of a consumptive, and Leutnant Gustl (1901), a monologue portraying the kindly but stupid soul of the Austrian subaltern with such deadly accuracy as to involve the author in some unpleasantness. As Schnitzler grew older, he approached his themes with added fervor but less lightness of touch. His one

long novel Der Weg ins Freie revealed his limitations; limitations still more marked in his long romantic play Der Junge Medardus SCHMALKALDEN, a town in the Prussian province of (1920). He continued, however, to produce short stories and Hesse-Nassau, situated on the south-western slope of the Thur- plays whose perfection of style and characterization never flagged. ingian forest, 30 m. S.W. of Erfurt, on the railway Wernshausen- Notable are the stories Die Griechische Tänzerin (1904), CasaZella. Pop. (1925) 10,402. Schmalkalden, which was first men- novas Heimfahrt (1918, Eng. trans. E. and C. Paul, Casanova’s tioned in 874, came wholly into the possession of Hesse in 1583, Homecoming, 1922) and Fräulein Else (1924, Eng. trans. 1925), having been a town since 1335. It has a Gothic parish church, and the play Professor Bernhardi (1913). In his later period, a palace—Schloss Wilhelmsburg—and a Gothic town hall in Schnitzler at times left Vienna to deal with such subjects as the which the Protestant League of Schmalkalden was concluded in life and adventures of Casanova; but he remained happiest in 1531, and also the house in which the articles of Schmalkalden describing his Viennese. His verse, while polished and brilliant, were drawn up in 1537 by Luther, Melanchthon and other re- gives less scope to his talents than his prose. His collected works formers. Its industries are chiefly connected with ironwares, but (1918) do not contain many later writings. Among his more recent works are Beatrice (Eng. trans. 1926); Buch der Spriiche beer, soap and toys are also manufactured. HMIDT, KARL VON (1817-1875), Prussian cavalry und Bedecken (1927); and Daybreak (Eng. trans. 1928). See J. Kapp Arthur Schnitzler (1912), and R. Specht, Arthur general, was born at Schwedt on the Oder, on Jan. 12, 1817, and (C. A, M.) entered the army in 1834. At the outbreak of the Franco-German Schnitzler (1922). War he was still an obscure and perhaps a mistrusted officer, SCHNORR VON KAROLSFELD, JULIUS (1r794though his grasp of every detail of cavalry work was admitted. 1872), German painter, was born on March 26, 1794, at Leipzig, But in the cavalry fighting around Mars-la-Tour (Aug. 16), he where he received his earliest instruction from his father Johann temporarily led a brigade and was severely wounded. Succeeding Veit Schnorr (1764-1841), a draughtsman, engraver and painter. to the temporary command of his division on the disablement of At 17 he entered the Academy of Vienna, from which Overbeck its leader, he did brilliant work in the campaign on the Loire, and and others who rebelled against the old conventional style had been even in the winter operations towards Le Mans, and earned a expelled about a year before. In 1818 he followed the founders reputation second to none amongst the officers and men of his of the new school of German pre-Raphaelites in the general army. After the war he took a leading part in the reorganization pilgrimage to Rome. This school of religious and romantic art of the Prussian cavalry, which in ten years raised its efficiency to abjured modern styles and set itself to recover fresco painting a level unexcelled by any other cavalry then in existence. He died and “monumental art.” Together with Cornelius, Overbeck and at Danzig on Aug. 25, 1875. Veit, Schnorr received a commission to decorate the entrance hall SCHMIDT, WILHELM (1868_+), Austrian philologist of the Villa Massimo with frescoes after Ariosto. His second and Roman Catholic priest, was born at Horde, Westphalia. He period dates from 1825, when he left Rome, settled in Munich, held the chair of primitive language and culture in the University entered the service of King Ludwig, and transplanted to Germany of Vienna and devoted himself to the isolation and classification the art of wall-painting learnt in Italy. of the Austric family of languages (see PHILoLocy). Schnorr’s third period is marked by his “Bible Pictures” or SCHNEEBERG, a town of Germany, in the republic of Sax- Scripture History in 180 designs. The artist was a Lutheran, ony, in the Erzgebirge, 14 m. S.E. from Zwickau by rail. Pop. and took a broad and unsectarian view which won for his Pic(1925) 9,200. It contains a Gothic parish church, dedicated to St. torial Bible ready currency throughout Christendom. It does not, Wolfgang, with an altar-piece by Lucas Cranach the elder, and a however, bear comparison with Raphael’s Bible. Biblical drawings school of lace-making. Machine-made lace, embroidery, corsets, and cartoons for frescoes formed a natural prelude to designs for shoes and colours are among the chief of its industrial products. church windows. Schnorr made designs, carried out in the royal SCHNEIDEMUHL (Polish Piia), the capital town of the factory, Munich, for windows in Glasgow cathedral and in St. Prussian province of Grenzmark on the Ciiddow, 60 m. N. of Paul’s cathedral, London. He died on May 24, 1872. Posen and 145 m. N.E. of Berlin on the main line to Königsberg, SCHOBER, JOHANN (1874~ ), Austrian politician, and at the junction of lines to Stargard and Thorn. Pop. (1925) was born and educated in Upper Austria, entering the Imperial 37,507. Schneidemühl has a trade in wood, grain and potatoes, and Austrian police service as a young man, and became the Austrian possesses iron foundries, a brewery and machine-shops, and manu- president of police in 1918, some months before the revolution. factures cement, starch and bricks. It is the seat of the provin- On the proclamation of the Austrian republic (Nov. 12, 1918), Schober immediately placed his force at the disposal of the new cial law courts. SCHNITZLER, ARTHUR (1862~ ), Austrian play- Government, and by this action and by his moderate conduct wright and novelist, was born in Vienna on May 15, 1862. He in general did much to ensure a peaceful and bloodless change took a medical degree, and practised for a time as a physician. of régime. At the same time, he succeeded in securing the safety In 1908 he won the Grillparzer prize. Schnitzler’s first and one of the ex-Imperial family, whose departure from Vienna he of his most characteristic pieces was his Anatol (1893, Eng. supervised. During the two years of social democratic Governtrans. Granville Barker, 1911), a series of dramatic sketches of ment which followed, Schober’s force was reproached by extremthe love-adventures of a rich young Viennese. Nearly all Schnitz- ists with being reactionary, quite unjustly, as he aimed at strict

SCHOBERT—SCHOLASTICISM impartiality. His administrative ability, and above all, his conspicuous honesty, gained him the confidence of all moderate opinion in Austria, and especially of the inter-allied missions and advisers. Largely because he was known to enjoy this confidence it was expected that if he were chancellor, the Allied and Associate Powers would be willing to grant the large loan necessary to restore Austria’s chaotic finances, and he was selected to form a non-party ministry in June 1921. He took the first step towards establishing friendly relations between Austria and her neighbours when he concluded the pact of Lana with Czechoslovakia on Dec. 16, 1921 (see Austria). This move aroused the hostility of the pan-Germans, who formed a part of the Government coalition, and resented any pact with Czechoslovakia as putting difficulties in the way of the ultimate Anschluss with Germany. They withdrew from the Government coalition. The Christian Socialists were not strong enough to govern alone against the opposition of the Social Democrats. On May 24, 1922 Schober resigned the chancellorship and returned to the post of president of police.

SCHOBERT, JOHANN

(c. 1720-1767), German composer

and harpsichord player, was brought up at Strasbourg but set-

tled in Paris in 1760, where he held an appointment under the Prince de Conti. He was one of the most popular players of the harpsichord of his time, and is praised by Mozart and by Grimm. He left a large number of agreeable “sonatas” for harpsichord, with and without the accompaniment of other instruments; also six “sinfonies” for clarinet and two horns. These were published and much played in London as well as in Paris. A selection is included in vol. xxxix., of Denkmäler deutscher Tonkunst (1909). See also the article Jean Schobert by Georges de Saint-Foix in the

Revue musicale of Aug. 1922.

SCHOFIELD, JOHN MCALLISTER (1831-1906), American soldier, was born at Gerry, Chautauqua county (N.Y.), on Sept. 29, 1831. He graduated at West Point in 1853, served for two years in the artillery, and was an assistant professor of

philosophy at West Point in 1855-60. When the Civil War broke out he became a major in a Missouri volunteer regiment and served as chief of staff to Maj.-Gen. Nathaniel Lyon until the death of that officer. In 1864, as commander of the Army of the Ohio, he took part in the Atlanta campaign under Maj.-Gen. W. T. Sherman. In Oct. 1864 he was sent to Tennessee to join Maj.Gen. G. H. Thomas in opposing Gen. J. B. Hood, and on Nov. 30 he fought with Gen. Hood the desperate indecisive battle of Franklin He was awarded the rank of brigadier-general (Nov.

Sr

decree (787) commanded the establishment of schools in connection with every abbey in his realms. Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York were his advisers, and under their care the opposition long supposed to exist between godliness and secular learning speedily disappeared. Besides the celebrated school of the Palace, where Alcuin had among his hearers the members of the imperial family and the dignitaries of the empire as well as talented youths of humbler origin, we hear of the episcopal schools of Lyons, Orleans and St. Denis, the cloister schools of St. Martin of Tours, of Fulda, Corbie, Fontenelle and many others, besides the older monasteries of St. Gall and Reichenau. These schools became the centres of mediaeval learning and speculation, and from them the name Scholasticism is derived (cf. Sandys, Hist. of Class. Schol., i. 471, 1906). They were designed to communicate instruction in the seven liberal arts which constituted the educational curriculum of the middle ages. (See Trrvium.) The name doctor scholasticus was applied originally to any teacher in such an ecclesiastical gymnasium, but gradually the study of dialectic or logic overshadowed the more elementary disciplines, and the general acceptation of “doctor” came to be one who occupied himself with the teaching of logic. The philosophy of the later Scholastics is more extended in its scope; but to the end of the mediaeval period philosophy centres in the discussion of the same logical problems which began to agitate the teachers of the gth and 1oth centuries. Chronological Limits.—Scholasticism in the widest sense thus extends from the gth to the end of the r4th or the beginning of the 15th century—from Erigena to Occam and his followers. The belated Scholastics who lingered beyond the last mentioned date served,only as marks for the obloquy heaped upon the schools by the men of the new time. Erigena is really of the spiritual kindred of the Neoplatonists and Christian mystics rather than of the typical Scholastic doctors, and, in fact, the activity of Scholasticism is mainly confined within the limits of the rrth and the rth centuries. It is divisible into two wellmarked periods—the first extending to the end of the 12th centuryand embracing as its chief names Roscellinus, Anselm, William of Champeaux and Abélard, while the second extended from the beginning of the 13th century to the Renaissance and the general distraction of men’s thoughts from the problems and methods of Scholasticism. In this second period the names of Albertus Mag-

nus, Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus (g.v.) represent (in the

13th century and the first years of the 14th century) the culmination of Scholastic thought and its consolidation into system. Prantl says that there is no such thing as philosopby in the 1864) and the brevet rank of major-general (March, 1865) in the regular army. He co-operated with Sherman in North Carolina middle ages; there are only logic and theology. The remark overlooks two facts—firstly that the main objects of theology and in the spring of 1865 with great skill and distinction. After the war he was sent on a special diplomatic mission to philosophy are identical, though the method of treatment is difFrance, on account of the presence of French troops in Mexico. ferent, and secondly that logical discussion commonly leads up to From June 1868 to March 1869 he served as secretary of war metaphysical problems, and that this was pre-eminently the case under President Andrew Johnson, after the retirement of E. M. with the logic of the Schoolmen, But the saying draws attention Stanton (g.v.). From 1876 to 1881 he was superintendent of the to the two great influences which shaped mediaeval thought—the Military Academy at West Point, and from 1888 until his retire- tradition of ancient logic and the system of Christian theology. ment in 1895 he was commanding general of the United States Scholasticism opens with a discussion of certain points in the its logical distincArmy. He died at St. Augustine (Fla.) on March 4, 1906. Gen. Aristotelian logic; it speedily begins to apply and when it attains its full church; the of doctrines the to tions (1897). Army the in years Forty-Six published Schofield certain mysSCHOLASTICISM, the name usually employed to denote stature in St. Thomas it has, with the exception of the most’ typical products of mediaeval thought, and commonly teries, rationalized or Aristotelianized the whole churchly system. employed with differing shades of meaning down to modern times Or we might say with equal truth that the philosophy of St. contemplate when its application has become fixed in accordance with the Thomas is Aristotle Christianized. The Schoolmen latest views of modern philosophy. These views are so far-reach- the universe of nature and man not with their own eyes but in the ing and complicated that the present article will be confined to an glass of Aristotelian formulae. Their chief works are in the shape “the philosopher” (Arishistorical sketch of Scholasticism merely, and the reader is re- of commentaries upon the writings of alike spring from the solutions and problems Their totle). ferred to the bibliography for details of modern publications on master’s dicta—from the need of reconciling these with one the subject. After the centuries of intellectual darkness which followed another and with the conclusions of Christian theology. Reason and Authority.—The fact that the channels of upon the closing of the philosophical schools in Athens (529), and the death of Boetius, the last of the ancient philosophers, the thought during the middle ages were determined in this way Is first symptorns of renewed intellectual activity appear contempor~- usually expressed by saying that reason in the middle age is subits aneously with the consolidation of the empire of the West in ject to authority. It has not the free play which characterizes, Its times.. modern of philosophy the in and Greece in activity. the hands ‘of..Charlemagne. He endeavoured to attract to his court, the best scholars of Britain and Ireland, and by imperial conclusions: are predetermined, and the initiative of the: dividual

82

SCHOLIUM—SCHOMBERG

thinker is almost confined, therefore, to formal details in the treatment of his thesis. To the church, reason is the handmaid of faith (ancilla fidei). But this principle of the subordination of the reason wears a different aspect according to the century and writer referred to. In Scotus Erigena, at the beginning of the Scholastic era, there is no such subordination contemplated, because philosophy and theology in his work are in implicit unity. “Conficitur inde veram esse philosophiam veram religionem, conversimque veram religionem esse veram philosophiam” (De divina praedestinatione, Proem). Reason in its own strength and with its own instruments evolves a system of the universe which coincides, according to Erigena, with the teaching of Scripture. For Erigena, therefore, the speculative reason is the supreme arbiter; and in accordance with its results the utterances of Scripture and of the church have not infrequently to be subjected to an allegorical or mystical interpretation. But this is only to say again that Erigena is more of a Neoplatonist than a Scholastic. Hence Cousin suggested in respect of this point a threefold chronological division—at the outset the absolute subordination of philosophy to theology, then the period of their alliance, and finally the beginning of their separation. In other words, we note philosophy gradually extending its claims. Dialectic is, to begin with, a merely secular art, and only by degrees are its terms and distinctions applied to the subject-matter of theology. The early results of the application, in the hands of Berengarius and Roscellinus, did not seem favourable to Christian orthodoxy. Hence the strength with which a champion of the faith like Anselm insists on the subordination of reason. To Bernard of Clairvaux and many other churchmen the application of dialectic to the things of faith appears as dangerous as it is impious. Later, in the systems of the great Schoolmen, the rights of reason are fully established and acknowledged. The relation of reason and faith remains external, and certain doctrines—an increasing number as time goes on—are withdrawn from the sphere of reason. But with these exceptions the two march side by side; they establish by different means the same results. For the conflicts which accompanied the first intrusion of philosophy into the theological domain more profound and cautious thinkers with a far ampler apparatus of knowledge had substituted a harmony. “The constant effort of Scholasticism to be at once philosophy and theology” seemed at last satisfactorily realized. ‘But

the further progress of Scholastic thought consisted’ in-a ‘with-

drawal of doctrine after doctrine from the possibility of rational proof and their relegation to the ‘sphere of faith. Indeed, no sooner was the harmony apparently established by Aquinas than Duns Scotus. began this negative criticism, which is carried much farther by William of Occam. -But this is equivalent to a confession that ‘Scholasticism had failed in its task, which was to rationalize the doctrines of the church. The Aristotelian form

| sur Pâge et Vorigine des traductions latines d’Aristote (1819; znd ed. 1843) ; Rousselot’s Etudes sur la philosophie dans le moyen age (18401842), Cousin’s Introduction to his Ouvrages inédits d Abélard (1836), and Prantl’s Geschichte der Logik im Abendiande (4 vols., 1855-1870) are invaluable aids in studying the history of mediaeval thought. For modern views see C. Baeumker, Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters (1923) ; G. Ritter, Studien zur Spätscholas-

tik (1921, etc.); A. C. A. der Scholastik (1921); H. (1925); O. Wichmann, Die de la philosophie médiévale

SCHOLIUM

Schneider, Die Erkenntnislehre bei Beginn O. Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, 2 vols. Scholastiker (1921); N. de Wulf, Histoire (1924, etc.).

(to be distinguished from Scolium, an after-

dinner song), the name given to grammatical, critical and explanatory notes, extracted from existing commentaries and inserted on the margin of the m.s. of an ancient author. These notes were altered by successive copyists and owners of the m.s. and in some cases increased to such an extent that there was no longer room for them in the margin, and it became necessary to make them into a separate work. The name of “the first scholiast” has been given

to Didymus of Alexandria (g.v.), and the practice of compiling scholia continued till the 15th or 16th century A.D. The word oxéXcov itself is first met with in Cicero (Ad Att. xvi. 7). The Greek scholia we possess are for the most part anonymous, the commentaries of Eustathius on Homer and Tzetzes on Lycophron being exceptions. Although frequently trifling, they contain much information not found elsewhere, and are of use for the correction and interpretation of the text. The most important are those on Homer (especially the Venetian scholia on the Zad, discovered by Villoison in 1781 in the library of St. Mark), Hesiod, Pindar, Sophocles, Aristophanes and Apollonius Rhodius; and, in Latin, those of Servius on Virgil, of Acro and Porphyrio on Horace, an of Donatus on Terence. SCHOMBERG, FRIEDRICH HERMANN (or Frepertc

ARMAND), DUKE oF (c. 1615-1690), marshal of France and English general, was born in Dec: 1615 or Jan. 1616, at Heidelberg,

the son of Hans Meinard von: Schénberg: (4582-1616) and Anne Sutton, daughter of the oth Lord Dudley. He’ was’ educated by

various friends, among whom was `thé: Wiater King?’ Frederick

V. of the ‘Palatinate, in whose service his father Had been. He began his military career under Frederick Henry, prince’of-Orange,

and passed about 1634 into the Swedish service, whence tie'entered

that of France in 1635. After a time he retired to his family estate at Geisenheim on the Rhine, but in 1639 he re-entered‘the Dutch army, in which he remained until about 1650. He then ejoined the French army as a general officer (maréchal de camp)," served under Turenne in the campaigns against Condé, and became a lieutenant-general in 1665. After the peace of the Pyrenees (1659) the independence of Portugal being again menaced by Spain, Schomberg was sent as military adviser to Lisbon with the secret approval of Charles IT. of England and Louis XIV., who in order not to infringe the

refused to fit a matter for which it was never intended; the matter of Christian theology refused to be forced into an alien form. The end of the period was thus brought about by the internal decay of its method and principles quite as much as by the variety of external causes which contributed to transfer men’s interests to other subjects.

treaty just made with Spain, deprived Schomberg of his French offices. Schomberg won the victory of Montes Claros on June 17, 1665 over the Spaniards under the prince of Parma. He helped

in 1894, by Hauréau’s Notices et extraits de quelques MS. latins de la Bibliothèque Nationale (6 vols., 1890-1895) and by the Beitrége zur Geschichte d. Phil. d. Mitielalters. The accounts of mediaeval thought by Ritter, Erdmann, Ueberweg and Windelband are very good. There are also notices of the leading systems in Milman’s History of Latin Christianity (6 vols., 1854-55). The psychology of the Scholastic writers is ably dealt with in Siebeck’s Die Psychologie von ‘Aristoteles bis. zu Thomas von Aquino (1885). Jourdain’s Recherches critiques

merits had been long ignored on account of his Protestantism. The revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685) compelled him to quit France, and he became general-in-chief of the forces of the elector of Brandenburg; at Berlin he was the acknowledged leader of the Huguenot refugees. ! Soon afterwards, with the elector’s consent, he joined the prince of Orange on his expedition to England in 1688, as: second in

to depose the reigning king in favour of his brother Dom Pedro, and then returned to France, became a naturalized Frenchman and bought the lordship of Coubert near Paris. In 1673 he was BrstioGraPHy.—Besides the numerous works quoted in articles on invited by Charles to England to command the army, but sentithe individual philosophers, see Hauréau, Histoire de la philosophie ment was so strong against the appointment, as savouring: of scolastique (2 vols., 1850; revised and expanded in 1870 as Histoire French influence, that it was not carried into effect. He again de la phil. scol.), Kaulich, Geschichte d. schol. Philosophie (1863); entered the service of France. His first operations in Catalonia Stöckl, Gesch. der Phil. des Mittelalters (3 vols. 1864-66); Karl were unsuccessful owing to the disobedience of subordinates and Werner, Die Scholastik des späteren Mittelalters (4 vols., 1881-87); and, on a smaller scale, de Wulf’s Histoire de la phil. médiévale (1900; the rawness of his troops, but he retrieved the failure of 1674 by. sth ed., 1924-25). Supplementary details are given in Hauréau’s retaking Bellegarde in 1675. For this he was made a marshal, Singularités historiques et littéraires (1861) and in R. L. Poole’'s being included in the promotion that followed the death of Illustrations of the History of Mediaeval Thought (1884), while much Turenne. ' light is thrown upon the minuter history of the period by the The tide had now set against the Huguenots, and Schomberg’s Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis edited by Denifle and Chatelain

SCHOMBURGK—SCHONGAUER command to the prince. The following year he was made a knight of the Garter, was created successively baron, marquis and duke, was appointed master-general of the ordnance, and received compensation for the loss of his French estates, of which Louis had deprived him. In August he commanded the expedition to Ireland against James II. After capturing Carrickfergus he marched unopposed through a country desolated before him to Dundalk, but decided not to risk a battle with his undisciplined troops, and entrenching himself at Dundalk declined to be drawn beyond the circle of his defences. Shortly afterwards pestilence broke out, and when he retired to winter quarters in Ulster his forces were

severely shattered. His conduct was criticized in ill-informed quarters, but the facts justified his inactivity. In the spring he began the campaign with the capture of Charlemont, but no advance southward was made until the arrival of William. At the Boyne (July 1, 1690) Schomberg gave his opinion against the determination of William to cross the river in face of the opposing army. In the battle he commanded the centre, and while riding through the river without his cuirass to rally his men, was surrounded by Irish horsemen and instantly killed. He was buried in St. Patrick’s cathedral, Dublin. His eldest son Charles, the second duke in the English peerage, died in 1693 of wounds received at the battle of Marsaglia. The most important work on Schomberg’s life and career is Kazner’s Leben Friedrichs von Schomberg oder Schönberg (Mannheim, 1789). The military histories and memoirs of the time should also be consulted.

SCHOMBURGK, SIR ROBERT HERMANN (:8041865), British traveller, was born at Freiburg, Prussian Saxony, on June 5, 1804, the son of a Protestant minister. In 1829 he went to the United States and in 1830 to Anegada, one of the Virgin Isles. He surveyed the island at his own expense. In 1835 he was entrusted by the Royal Geographical Society with the conduct of an exploring expedition to British Guiana, in the course of which he discovered the Victoria Regia lily. In 1841 he returned to Guiana to survey the colony and fix the boundary, which was known as the “Schomburgk Line.” (See BritisH GuIANA and

VENEZUELA.) On his return to England he was knighted. In 1848 he was appointed British consul to St. Domingo, and, in 1857, British consul to Bangkok, meanwhile continuing his geographical surveys. He retired from the public service in 1864, and died at Berlin on March 11, 1865. He wrote Description of British Guiana and a History of Barbados. SCHONBEIN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1799-1868), German chemist, was born at Metzingen, Swabia, on Oct. 18, 1799, and died at Sauersberg, near Baden Baden, on Aug. 29, 1868. After studying at Tiibingen and Erlangen, he taught chemistry and physics, first at Keilhau, Thuringia, and then at Epsom, England, but most of his life was spent at Basel, where he began to lecture on chemistry and physics in 1828 and was appointed full professor in 1835. His name is chiefly known in connection with ozone (q.v.), which he discovered in 1840, and with guncotton (see EXPLosives), which he prepared and applied as a propellant in fire-arms early in 1846. He also worked on the passivity of iron, the properties of hydrogen peroxide and catalysis. He was a most prolific writer, 364 papers appearing under his name in the Royal Society’s Catalogue. E ‘ Many of his letters together with a life will be found in G. W. A. Kahlbaum’s Monographien aus der Geschichte der Chemie, vols. iv. and vi. (1899 and 1901).

SCHONBERG,

ARNOLD

(1874-

), Austrian

com-

poser, was born in’ Vienna on Sept. 13, 1874. He began to study violin and'’cello at an early age and to compose chamber music. In musical theory he was ‘practically self-taught. His earlier

works include ‘songs, the string sextet, Verklärte Nacht op. 4 (revised later for string orchestra’ with six soloists), the symphonic poem, Pelléas et Mélisande, and the Gurrelieder, a ballad cycle

83

With the 2nd chamber symphony and particularly the 2nd string quartet (1908), into the last two movements of which he introduces a soprano part to words by Stephan George, he definitely breaks away from tradition; and with the piano pieces op. 11 his mature period may be said to begin, although he continues to strike out new paths with each successive work. In 1911 he went to live in Berlin and in the same year produced his Harmonie-

lehre (see Harmony), a revised edition of which was published

In 1922. An eventful performance was that of Pierrot Lunaire in Berlin the following year with Albertine Zehme in the spoken part. This cycle of twenty-one (“three times seven”) poems for recitation with piano, flute, clarinet, violin, and violoncello in constantly changing combinations, is, after the Gurrelieder, his best known work. In 1918, having returned to Vienna, Schonberg founded there a society for private musical performances. A revival of Die glückliche Hand op. 18 at Breslau in 1928 aroused much interest. This dramatic piece, which is in effect a monodrama, with dumb secondary characters and a chorus, is in spite of its early date perhaps the most daring of Schénberg’s experiments and that in which his psychology finds its clearest expression. He both wrote the libretto and ordered every detail of the staging. Essentially a pioneer, he has never made concessions to the ordinary listener, but the tenseness and extreme compression of this work make quite unprecedented demands on the concentrative powers of his audiences. In all his later writing the combination of a tersely dramatic and fragmentary style with complete atonality leaves an impression of complication and strain: he is nevertheless sincerely striving towards simplicity and compactness, and his reversion to a smaller or chamber orchestra has led to a general adoption of this medium by younger composers. He has also adopted a simplified method of scoring, in which duplication of parts is avoided and the whole is compressed on to a few staves, Other important works are: 6 songs with orchestra op. 8 (1921); chamber symphony for 15 solo instr. 21; serenade for clarinet, bass clarinet, and (low) male voice op. 24 (1924); for wind instr. op. 26. See E. Wellesz, Bekker, Kritische Zeitbilder (1921).

op. 9 (1912); Melodramen op. mandoline, guitar, three strings pianoforte suite op. 25; quintet Arnold Schénberg (1924) ; Paul

SCHONEBECK, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian Saxony, on the left bank of the Elbe, 9 m. S. of Magdeburg by the railway to Halle and Leipzig. Pop. (1925) 21,409. It contains manufactories of chemicals, machinery, bicycles, rubber, explosives and various other articles, but is chiefly noted for its extensive salt works. There is a harbour on the Elbe here, and a brisk trade is carried on in coal, grain ard timber.

SCHONEBERG,

a suburb of Berlin, Germany, which it

adjoins on the south-west. Pop. (1925) 239,042. ‘The fcundation of Alt-Schoneberg is ascribed to Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg, in the 12th century, while Neu-Schéneberg was founded by Frederick the Great in 1750 to accommodate some Bohemian weavers exiled for their religion. Its chief manufactures are railway material, cigars, soap, paper and chemicals.

SCHONGAUER

(or SHén), MARTIN

engraver and painter of the early German

(c. 1445-1491), school.

His father

was a goldsmith named Caspar, a native of Augsburg, who had settled at Colmar, where the chief part of Martin’s life was spent.

Schongauer established at Colmar a very important school of

engraving, out of which grew the “little masters” of the succeeding generation, and a ‘large group of Nuremberg artists. As a painter, Schongauer was a follower of the Flemish Roger van der

Weyden, and his painting closely resembles both in splendour of colour and exquisite minuteness of execution, the best works” of contemporary art in Flanders. The only picture which can with

certainty be attributed to him, is a magnificent altar-piece in the church of St. Martin at Colmar, dated 1473, representing ‘the

for:ehorus and full orchestra (first produced in Vienna 1912-3), wiitten: under ‘the influence of the Wagner tradition. Schönberg

Virgin and Child before a hedge of roses. Schongauer ‘was. the

then ‘came into touch with Kokoschka and other leaders of the new movement in art and literature, and entered upon an experi-

large only His hand

first: painter who was also an engraver, and his work contributed

much’to the development of engraving. He produced a number of beautiful engravings, which were largely sold, not mental period in which:be put romanticism behind him and went in..Germany,, but also in Italy, England, France and: Spain. back: to Bach and: the earlier polyphonic’ writers for inspiration. | subjects/are always religious; 113 prints from copper by his pot

84.

SCHONHERR—SCHOOL

ADMINISTRATION

are known; they are signed with his monogram M-++S. Among the most beautiful of Schongauer’s engravings are the series of the “Passion” and the “Death and Coronation of the Virgin,”

and the series of the “Wise and Foolish Virgins.” All are remarkable for their treatment of line, their brilliant touch, and their chromatic force. Some, such as the “Death of the Virgin” and the “Adoration of the Magi” are richly-filled compositions of many figures, treated with much largeness of style in spite of their minute scale. He died in Breisach in 1491. The British Museum possesses a fine collection of Schongauer’s prints. Fine facsimiles of his engravings have been produced by Armand-Durand with text by Duplessis (Paris, 1881). See A. V. Bartsch, Peintre Graveur (1803-21); A. Waltz, Bibliographie (Colmar, 1903); Seidlitz, Repertorium VII. (1884); Wendland, Martin Schongauer als Kupferstecher (1907); Arthur M. Hind, History of Engraving and Etching (1923).

SCHONHERR,

KARL

(1867—

), Austrian dramatist,

was born at Axams, Tyrol, Feb. 24, 1867. He first wrote dialect poems of an unassuming nature and short stories, but in 1897 he turned his attention to drama and the stage with the Judas von Tirol, which he remodelled in 1927. Schönherr stood midway between realism and symbolism and expressed himself in a vigorous and original style. His accomplished technique, applied frequently to peasant or medical life, enabled him to evolve successful dramas with a very limited number of characters. In his pieces, quite elementary and simple emotions and the problems and crises arising out of them are presented with inexorable consistency. His most famous drama, Glaube und Heimat (1910), dealing with the time of the Counter-Reformation, and also Der Weibsteufel (1915) have aroused religious controversy. Schénherr’s other

important wotks include Die Bildschnitzer (1900); Erde (1908);

Volk in Not (1915); Frou Suitner (1916); Vivot academia (1922); Es (1923); Hungerblockade (1925). Most of his dramas

IN THE

USS.

States has, since the ’90s, experienced a marked development and expansion. As a result one finds to-day, for each of the States, a large and important body of laws—naturally more detailed in some States than in others—relating to the organization, administration, supervision and financing of a complete system of public instruction for the State. The management of the schools of any city or school district within a State may be placed by law in the hands of locallyelected school officers, and much liberty of action may be granted to these local officials by the State school code, but the schools nevertheless exist to carry out a State purpose, as expressed in the State Constitution and the State school law. The local governing authorities act as agents for the State and can do only those things which the school law permits. Throughout all the educational history of America it has been the State that has ordered that children shall be educated, advantages extended, standards raised and taxation for education increased. As the chief representative of each State school system one

finds an appointed or in a few cases an elected State board of education, and an elected or an appointed State superintendent of public instruction or State commissioner of education. The plan followed in approximately one-fourth of the States is the appointment of a lay State board of education of from seven to nine members, for relatively long terms, to act as a legislative control and policy-determining body for the “school system of the State, and for this board then to select and appoint a State commissioner of education to act as its chief executive officer. The State board of education in the best organized States acts in the name of the State as a board for general control of the State school system in its larger aspects, and for the enforcement of the provisions of the State school law. It selects, on the recom-

mendation of its chief executive officer, educational experts to exercise supervisory administrative control over the different divisions were first produced in the Burgtheater and in the Deutsches of the State school system—elementary schools, secondary schools, Volkstheater in Vienna. His tales and sketches, Caritas and Aus child welfare, vocational education, school buildings, etc.; exermeinem Merkbuch, express much the same trend of thought and cises general oversight of the work in vocational education and motif as his dramas. He won the Schiller Prize in 1908 and vocational rehabilitation, maintained in part by Federal aid the Grillparzer Prize In 1911, 1917, and 1920. His Gesammelte grants; often controls in large part the training and certification Werke began to appear in 1927. See monographs by Sedlmaier of teachers; determines the broad educational policies to be pur(1920), Lederer (1925), and Bettelheim (1927). sued by the State; and enacts rules and regulations for the government of its executive officers and, to a limited extent, the SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED STATES differs from that in most other nations in that it is schools of the State as well. Such a board of control is primarily less centralized. While it is common to speak of the Amer- a legislative body, leaving the execution of policies and the carryican public school system, legally at least there is no such organization. Education in the United States, in all its branches, and from kindergarten to university, has been left by the Federal

Constitution to the different States to provide and manage as they

ing out of decisions arrived at to the executive officers it employs. County and Local Administration.—The county is used

more or less everywhere as a unit for school administration, except

in the New England States. The town in New England and the see fit. There is no national legislation relating to the subject, analogous township in the North Central States also are used as aside from that concerning the Federal aid granted to the States units for school administrative control. The city as a unit is for certain specific purposes. One finds in the city of Washington found everywhere, and the school district, in the sense of a small a U.S. commissioner of education, appointed by the President rural area under the control of an elected board of three local and confirmed by the Senate, who has a small office force, collects ‘school trustees, is found by the thousands in approximately threestatistics as to the progress of education in the States and in fourths of the States. Long experience has demonstrated the other lands, answers inquiries and offers advice when asked to do inefficiency and wastefulness,.of; the little school district, and the so, but in reality an officer without power, even within the Fed- tendency everywhere is to limit their powers and to abolish them eral district. Each State is responsible for the maintenance of for some larger unit of school control. Approximately one-fourth a State system of public instruction. Still more, due to the large | of the States have already-‘made this transition, and have only liberty in matters of instruction and control allowed counties, county and city school districts beneath the State, while another cities, towns and districts within the different States, there are fourth of the States have made important progress in this direcwide variations in the schools maintained by the different local tion. The ultimate outcome of the process is that the State, for governing school boards. School administration then divides subordinate administrative control, becomes organized into only itself into three main headings—State, county and city. as many school districts as there are counties and cities in the State School Administration.—Throughout all the history State, with each county and each city under a separate representaof the relations of the Federal Government to the States, in the tive board for school control. In a very few of the States the matter of public education, Congress, since the beginning of the city has even been made a part of the county organization. For each nation under the Federal Constitution, in 1789, has dealt entirely county and each city the people then elect a small lay board of with the governments of the States. Each of the States has in education, which in turn elects its own executive officer—county turn developed a State school system, and in time has built up a or city superintendent of schools—and exercises control over the body of legislative enactments relating to education known as schools in its jurisdiction as required by the State school law the State School Law, or the State School Code. Dealing at first and the rules and regulations of the State board of education. with only the essential outlines of a school system, and elementary The result of such a transformation, where effected, has been to rather than secondary education, the school law for each of the abolish thousands of little independent school districts, and to

SCHOOL

AND

CURRICULUM

T

substitute in their stead from 25 to 100 county school districts, and an approximately equal number of city school districts. One classification then provides for the education of rural and village children, and the other for the education of the children who live in cities. With the reorganization of all the district and village schools of a county into one county unit for educational administration, supervision and finance; the election by the people of one lay county board of education to select the educational experts and to determine the larger questions of policy and educational procedure for the schools of the county; and the reorganization and redirection of rural and village education so as to meet modern educational needs, with independent organization for the cities only because of their size and the diversity of their educational problems, an efficient State educational system is being evolved. The school affairs of any large commonwealth have grown into a large and very important business undertaking, costing the people millions of dollars each year, and the direction of this business is being placed under a form of administration dictated by the best American experience in educational and corporation control. The form of subordinate educational organization, then, which any State has evolved determines, to a large extent, the effectiveness of the educational system it maintains.

that the superintendent shall be in immediate charge of the educational department, but with supervisory oversight of all other department heads; and that the initiative in all such matters as the determination of the courses of study, the selection of text-books and teaching supplies, the nomination and placement of teachers, the supervision of the instruction, the progress of pupils in the schools, and the determination of records to be kept and reports to be made shall rest with the superintendent of schools. A distinctive feature of city school systems, and one that has made them an interesting object of study to students of educational administration coming from other lands, is the wide diversity in educational facilities which they provide, with a resulting adaptability of the instruction to the needs of the many diferent classes in the population which attend. Unlike most European two-class school systems, the American public school has been compelled to organize its instruction about a one-track form of educational organization and provide an educational ladder nominally at least open to all. The adjustment to the needs of the different social and intellectual classes which attend has had to be made by providing a diversity of types of classes and instruction. This adaptability has been made possible only by reason of the unity of its administration and finance, and it could not have been provided except under a centralized large-scale form of , Major State Administrative Problems.—The present tend- educational organization. In business administration and finance, the city school district ency is toward a centralization of administration, with a more or less clear demarcation between State and locus powers and duties has long enjoyed exceptional advantages. As a part of the State in matters of school control. In such matters as statistical and educational organization, the cities share in any apportionment of financial returns State uniformity naturally is to be prescribed. State school funds and taxes made. In the rate of taxation which In all such matters as minimum length of term, types of schools must be levied locally or degree of support which must be proto be maintained, sanitary standards, maximum rates for taxation vided, the State has set the limits rather than the loeal city govfor school support, standards for the training and certification of erning authorities. In addition, due to the concentration of wealth teachers, minimum salary laws, compulsory attendance and child- which the city usually represents, and with local school levies labour laws, it is clearly the duty of the State to determine the made on the city school district as a whole by one administrative minimum standards which shall be permitted. Still more, from board, a pooling of costs is made possible which results in the time to time, as changing needs and conditions may seem to re- provision of uniform educational advantages for all without undue

quire, it is clearly the duty of the State to raise these minima. To do these things successfully involves a carefully thought out educational policy which looks to a series of progressive Changes and

the securing of results over a period of time. In carrying out a constructive State educational policy a number of distinctively State educational problems call for careful consideration. These group themselves about the nature and extent of State oversight and control; the proper division of powers and functions, as between the State and its subordinate units; the provision of adequate professional supervision for all schools; the best subordinate unit or units for local administration; proper methods in taxation for education, and the apportionment of school funds; the scope of the educational system to be maintained; the large social and educational problems surrounding rural and village education; vocational training; part-time, extension, and adult education; the material equipment of schools; health and sanitary control; the training of teachers, both before and ‘after beginning service; salary schedules, tenure and pensions; the protection of the child; and the relation of the State to nonState educational agencies. City School Administration.—A wholly different set of educational problems relate to school organization and administration in the cities. These relate to the grading of schools, instruction of special classes, playgrounds and vacation schools, kindergartens and pre-school training, schools for delinquents, compulsory education, health work in the schools, vocational instruction and guidance, business organization, school plant, professional supervision and similar matters.

Practically everywhere in cities the

schools, while regarded as State schools in theory and under the provisions of the general State school law, are for control placed under the immediate oversight of a local school board, generally known as the board. of education. Standard procedures have been established which are quite generally followed, namely: that the superintendent of city schools shall be the recognized executive

officer of the board of education, responsible to it for the proper carrying on of the school business of the city; that the board shall legislate, and the superintendent and. his staff shall execute;

burden to any portion of the whole. In practice, city boards of education determine their own expenditures, within limits set by the State school law, in approximately three-fourths of the cities of the United States, and in the

remaining cities they formulate their budget but are dependent on the city council for allotment of the amount they may have to spend, after the State minimum requirements have been met. In the United States as a whole, approximately 20% of all money expended comes from State sources, approximately 15% from county sources and the remaining 65% is levied locally, though with wide variations in these proportions in the different States. Approximately 25% of the total taxes levied for all purposes in cities is devoted to the maintenance of schools, with extremes as low as 10% and as high as 40%. For school administration in other countries see EDUCATION. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W.

E. Chancellor, Our Schools; Their Administra-

tion and Supervision (1904); S. T. Dutton and D. Snedden, Administration of Public Education in the U.S. (1908); E. P. Cubberley, State and County Educational Reorganization, (1914); State School Administration (1927); and Public School eames (1929). E. P. Cv.)

SCHOOL

AND

CURRICULUM.

A curriculum is a

course of study laid down for the students of a university or school, or, in a wider sense, for schools of a certain standard, e.g., secondary, elementary, etc. (Lat. curriculum, a course). GREAT BRITAIN Secondary School.—The beginnings of the present curriculum in English secondary schools are to be sought in that of the ‘‘Public Schools” which during the 18th and the early part of the roth century was practically confined to Latin and Greek, even the grammar of both languages being taught through the medium of action. Classics in fact were held to provide the complete outfit for the education of the scholar and gentleman that it was the ideal of the school to produce. The girls’ schools (see, WOMEN, EDUCATION OF) as they grew and multiplied helped by' their ex-

ample to accelerate the introduction of. more modern subjects.

But each subject, whether science, history or the like,.had so to

SCHOOL

86

AND

CURRICULUM

say, to fight its way in the curriculum as something that was per se desirable from the standpoint of general education. The rapid growth of the municipal and county secondary schools after 1902 gave a further impetus to the modern side of education already recognized in the public schools. None the less the idea of a scientific curriculum as a whole composed of carefully selected ingredients with a clear objective in view in place of a conglomeration of supposed indispensable subjects has been very slow in making its way in Great Britain. Almost equally tardy has been the recognition of the vital principle that the curriculum exists for the average pupil and not the average pupil for the curriculum, with its corollary that the inclusion of this or that subject is not to be decided by its supposed intrinsic value alone, but either by the duration of the educational life of the pupil or by the nature of his future vocation. Every complete type of education should have a sound basis of general culture with some degree of specialization at the top. How far this is being realized in England may be seen from the table given below: 2-5

II

Private

Day

Nursery

Schools School”

cult. (See EDUCATION.)

Intermediate

Second

ary

. Secondary Higher

Z| entral School 15-16

19-21 (22)

21 (22)

University

Postgraduate

E University

W

Research

(General, Arts or Science)J 12,

Higher Technical

N Hig! er Grade (Senior) 15

0 4l

18 (19) Higher

e

(C. Br.)

The Mother-tongue. —There is nothing so paradoxical in the history of education in England as the insignificant part that till recently the teaching of the mother-tongue has occupied in the schools. There has been a remarkable conspiracy of circumstances to prevent it from taking its right place. The Norman

16 | 16

Pre-Sckoal

: Kindergarten

sive, the aim being rather to cover as much ground as possible and cultivate the reason and imagination of the pupil. Possibly in some subjects the insufficient stress laid on the acquisition of technique has gone too far. Recent psychological research in America has been re-establishing the claims of habit-forming and memory. Already one may note in some subjects the harking back to some extent to older methods whether it be the memorizing of dates (history), or of place names (geography), or of grammatical forms (modern languages) or of accuracy and the mastery of numerical manipulations (arithmetic). In any case to English teachers whose teaching has also been based on experimenting by trial and error, the necessary adjustments should not prove diff-

, in elementary subjects. Pupils usually attend evening school two hours per night for two or three evenings per week, from Oct. x to April r. By increasing the time allotment, Cincinnati, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia and other cities offer an evening school diploma equivalent to that of the day high school. Rural evening schools have

THE UNITED STATES ‘Special schools of art, many of which bear no relation to the public schools, have a ‘powerful influence on art education in the ‘United States. (See Art TEACHING.) While the state universities, larger high schools, and even the lower grades, often

developed an enrollment of more than 15,000. This work is essentially for adult men, and is strictly vocational. The growth of evening schools, more than seven-fold in 50 years, has been phenomenal. The evening school in the. United States, adapte Americanization, classes, is chiefly for young working people. The pupils average about 1g years in age and are about equally divided as to. sex, (O. D. E.)

are taught, they-do not provide courses for pupils specializing in one or more of the arts, but rather for those who take a regular course and are sufficiently interested in art to select it as one of many studies. Art schools are, therefore, established and controlled largely by art societies, boards of trustees, and private patronage, a very small number depending upon governmental aid. A few of the large cities maintain art schools, some connection with the museums, and charge only a small fee for admission.

SCHOOLS OF ART.

As institutions, art schools are com- |.

paratively recent. The first signs of organization were perhaps in the Middle Ages when the arts and trades were controlled by guilds. Courses of instruction, promotions, competitions, and general advisory councils were in existence at that time in the more important art centers of England, France, Germany, and, especially, Italy. However, such organizations did not take the place of personal instruction by the masters of the arts, fine and applied. It was to the great artists that pupils looked for supervision, and the term “school” as applied to these masters (such as the school of Michelangelo) has no connection with organized institutions. The gth and early 2oth centuries have seen the birth and development of innumerable art schools, especially in countries where the government has made appropriations for such educational work,

but this advancement has not meant the obliteration of personal instruction under pre-eminent artists and it is not uncommon to find students who have never attended an art school. This “personal supervision” system of study has its weaknesses, chief among which is the tendency toward imitation. The artist, in imparting the secrets of his craft, as well as certain generally established laws and traditions, stands pre-eminent, and it is often difficult for his pupils’so to forget the tricks and mannerisms of their master as to become individualists themselves. The modern school of art had its inception perhaps in the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, which was founded in Paris in 1648

have an art department, where drawing and elementary design

The Departments of Fine Arts in the larger universities of the United States serve as important factors in maintaining the balance necessary for institutions that seek to give an insight to all the arts and sciences. Although most of these departments are closely allied with the College of Liberal Arts and Science, giving pupils who work toward a bachelor’s degree the opportunity of choosing one or more of the arts as a “major” or “minor” study, there is a growing tendency to organize all the fine arts into a School of Fine Arts, which can then be divided into its various departments. The University of Pennsylvania is a good example, although it tends to specialize in architecture. In 1920 all of the various divisions of the university providing instruction in the fine arts were grouped together under the School of Fine Arts, viz: Department of Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Department of Fine Arts, and Department of Music.

In 1928 there were 31 instructors and 444 stu-

dents in the school. Of the other larger universities that have outstanding courses in the various arts, the following should be mentioned: (1) Yale University, School of Fine Arts, having four-year courses in architecture, drawing and painting, sculpture, and drama. The enrollment in 1927 was 705. (2) University of Michigan, College of Architecture, offering three programs, each requiring a minimum of four years. Two of these courses are in architecture, and one is a four-year course in decorative design which empha-

SCHOOLS sizes interlor decoration, with instruction in drawing, painting,

and modeling as supplementary. (3) Carnegie Institute of Technology, College of Fine arts. The most important activity of this department, and the one which distinguishes it from others

OF ART

IOI

to guide and develop rather than to encourage imitation. (F.L. D.) GREAT BRITAIN

The opening of an art school at Somerset House, London, in in the country, is the annual International Exhibition of Paint- 1827 was a forerunner of the many provincial schools that folings. This exhibition has been held each year since 1896 with the lowed. The Exhibition of 1851, at the Crystal Palace, was of unexception of the years during the World War. The school intends told influence not only in Great Britain but on the Continent. to specialize in contemporary painting. Practically all of the France had taken the lead in the industrial arts and the exhibipaintings in the permanent collection date from 1896 or there- tion of her products in London caused an awakening as to the adabout. (4) University of Illinois, Department of Architecture and vantages in organized training for art trades. In 1889 the TechniDepartment of Art and Design. (5) University of Iowa, Depart- cal Instruction Act was passed and in 1897 the Royal College of ment of Graphic and Plastic Arts. (6) University of Missouri, Art was inaugurated, the latter being perhaps the greatest factor School of Fine Arts. (7) University of Nebraska, School of Fine in the movement toward national art education. The Education Arts. (8) Columbia University, Department of Fine Arts Act of 1902 meant that art became a definite subject in the (Teachers College). (9) New York University, Department of curriculum of English elementary and secondary education. The Fine Arts. (10) Syracuse University, College of Fine Arts. (11) Burnham scales of salaries for teachers and the Pension Act of Ohio State University, Department of Fine Arts. (12) Uni- 1925 have meant a higher standard of art teaching. Some of the important schools of art in Great Britain and Ireversity of Wisconsin, Department of Industrial Education and Applied Arts. land are: London: Royal College of Art, London County Council Of the art schools that are independent of State or municipal Central School of Arts and Crafts, St. John’s Wood Art Schools, control, the better known ones are in the larger cities. In New Glade School at University College, School of Art of the Royal York, the following list comprises the more important ones: (1) Academy; Bristol: University of Bristol, Merchant Venturers’ Art Students League of New York, which had an enrollment in College; Edinburgh: College of Art; Glasgow: School of Art, 1927 of 2,850 pupils, 28 instructors, and a curriculum that in- Technical College; Liverpool: University of Liverpool; Mancluded painting, drawing, illustration, sculpture, etching, lithog- chester: Municipal School of Art; Cheltenham: School of Arts raphy, composition, wood-block, sculptural wood-carving, stone and Crafts; Derby: School of Arts and Crafts; Dover: School of cutting, and mural painting. As in most of the larger art schools, Art; Dublin: Metropolitan School of Art, Hibernian Academy of evening classes are offered for those who cannot attend during Art; Leeds: School of Art, Hudders’ Field, Technical College; the day. (2) Beaux-Arts Institute of Design, with an enrollment Newcastle: Aermstrong College; Nottingham: Municipal School in 1927 of about 2,000 students, and a course of instruction that of Art and Design; Reading: University College. covers largely architecture, mural painting and sculpture, and

interior decoration.

(3) Cooper Union, which is divided into a

Night School of Art and a Woman’s Art School with an enrollment in 1927-28 of 1,446 and 337, respectively. Tuition is free, and it holds a unique position in affording instruction to students who work during the day or whose means are limited. (4) Grand Central School of Art, founded in 1924, with the object of developing a note of individuality in every pupil. The fact that this institution is associated with the well known art galleries and in its first four years became one of the largest and best known of the country is particularly significant. It is self-supporting, and in 1927 had an enrollment of 875, with a faculty of 18 instructors. (5) Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, with 53 instructors and 1,498 pupils in 1927. This school is noted particularly for its work in the applied arts. The School of the Art Institute of Chicago exerts great influence in the Middle West, and has perhaps the largest enrollment of any art school in the United States, having 4,662 for the school year of 1927-28. More than half of these attend the evening or the Saturday school. There were 69 instructors in 1927-28, serving the five specialized departments of Drawing, Painting and Illustration, Sculpture, Design, Teacher Training and Drama. Other large and influential schools of art are: The Art Academy

of Cincinnati; The Cleveland School of Art; Maryland School of Fine and Practical Arts; Art School of the Detroit Society of

Arts and Crafts; St. Louis School of Fine Arts; School of Industrial Art of the Pennsylvania Museum. Schools of industrial art, which center their interests on design as applied to industry, as well as to the decorative arts,

are gaining ground in the United States. These schools must be distinguished from the schools of the fine arts, where painting, sculpture, and architecture predominate, Sometimes the industrial arts are taught in the same schools as the fine arts, but they are designated as different departments. In the teaching of the arts, the growing tendency in America is toward the encouragement of individual expression as distinguished from the hard, tight, or academic style. The idea is that a thorough technical training may be secured without prejudicing the minds of the students in favor of any particular creed of art, leaving them free to express their own individuality with-

out undue influence from their instructors, whose business it-.is

THE CONTINENT

France.—Paris: The Ecole Nationale des Beaux-Arts, with departments of architecture, sculpture, painting and engraving, is free to the French and admits a limited number of foreigners. The Ecole Nationale des Arts Décoratifs gives a general training in the decorative arts, with special courses in decorative paintings, decorative sculpture, tapestry and glass. The Ecole du Louvre is a graduate school of the history and theory of the arts, using the collections of the Louvre for illustration and research. The Ecole des Hautes Etudes Urbaines specializes in city planning and decoration, and urban administration. It is a graduate school for men. The Ecole Centrale d’Architecture is a private incorporated school recognized officially as an “institution d’utilite publique.” There are also in Paris many private schools of drawing and painting, the most celebrated being the Atelier Julien and the Atelier

L’Héte.

The Ecole d’Art Animalier of M. Navalier, for sculp-

tors of animal life, is of high repute. The New York School of Fine and Applied Arts, directed by Professor Parsons, maintains a branch at Paris for American students, especially those who can-

not speak French. Italy.—An Istituto di Belle Arti, a government-controlled art school, is found at Florence, Bologna, Lucca, Modena, Naples, Palermo, Parma, Venice and Siena (provincial). In Milan, Perugia, and Ravenna similar art schools are known as Accademia di Belle Arti. The Istituto Supertore di Belle Arti is at Rome. Spain.—There are in most of the provinces elementary schools of Arts and Crafts or Fine Arts where design and modeling are taught. The various higher institutions of learning also have art classes. Among the important schools of art in Madrid are: Escuela especial de Pintura, Escultura y Grabado, in Calle de Alcala. The Escuela Superior de Bellos Oficios is in Barcelona.

The Netherlands.—The

following are the chief schools of

art: Amsterdam: The State Academy of Fine Arts, The Central

Institute for Decorative and Industrial Arts; The Hague: Academy of Fine Arts; Rotterdam: Academy of Fine Arts and Applied Sciences; Haarlem: School of Architecture, Decorative Arts and Trade Arts; Utrecht: Museum School of Industrial Arts... ., -

Belgium.—z. It should be noted carefully that the instances required for the application of this method are instances that are as different from each other as possible except in regard to the common factor or antecedent which is under investigation. Just as the difference between instances is only significant when the instances ate iwery similar in other respects,

so the agreement or similarity bétween instances is significant

only when: thé imstances'aré as different asi possible in other respects. A thousand instances which agree in everything would be no better, no more instructive, than one of them. The main preeautions:to be borne in mind when applying the method of agreement are the following: (1) To make sure that no relevant circumstance is overlooked; (2) Not to regard different consequents as similar, and assign them all to a common antecedent, merely because they may all serve more or less the same practical purpose; (3) To remember that the antecedent and consequent may have no direct causal connection, but may both be the consequents of some other antecedents. The Method of Residues.—If part of a complex effect can be accounted for by reference to certain antecedents which are known to be, or to have been, present, and the consequents of

which are already known from previous investigations, then the residue of the complex effect must be causally connected with the rest of the antecedents. Symbolically, a b c d... wzyz

: . -3 (a b c— w x y); ... d—» z. Sometimes these other antecedents are known to be present, but their precise effect has not yet been'determined. At other times their presence is not suspected until the residual phenomenon compels the investigator to search for them. These latter cases are, perhaps, the most important, as they often.lead to important discoveries. It was, e.g., the residual weight or density of atmospheric nitrogen (as compared with nitrogen obtainėd from nitrous oxide, etc.), that led to the discovery of argon, and it was the residual deviation in the

orbit of Uranus that led to the discovery of Neptune. The Joint Method

of Agreement

and Difference.—If

a

group of instances in which a certain phenomenon occurs have only one relevant antecedent in common, while another group of otherwise similar instances in which the phenomenon does not

SCIENTIFIC occur have nothing relevant in common except the absence of the common antecedent of the first group, then that antecedent is causally connected with that phenomenon. Symbolically, positive group: 206d... wexys...5,0bdf eg... 4SS5t...;

adfkl...—2spu...; negative group: bcf...—- Lys 3 O0gk...etp...;cla...+yuw...; therefore d— z. The positive group consists of instances such as are required for the method of agreement. The negative group, it should be noted carefully, does not contain any instance that, in conjunction with one of the positive instances, would enable one to apply the method of difference. But still the observation of such negative instances does strengthen the conclusion suggested by the positive instances, namely, by eliminating the possibility of plurality of causes in the positive instances (that is to say, the possibility that in each of the positive instances the common effect was produced by a different antecedent, not by the common ante-

cedent). By treating each whole group as if it were one instance, we get here an approximation to the group form of the method of difference. Note on “Relevance.”—It may have been noticed that in the formulation of each of the simpler inductive methods reference was made to “relevant” factors or antecedents. The qualification is very important. Every event or change occurs in an infinitely complex setting, and it is only in so far as the vast majority of antecedents and accompaniments of any phenomenon can be safely ignored that it is possible to apply these and other methods at all. Of course, mistakes are sometimes made, and some thing that is dismissed or ignored as irrelevant may turn out to be most relevant. A warning to this effect had to be especially em-

phasized instance. whether general,

in connection with the Method of Agreement, for The question therefore arises as to how it can be known an antecedent or circumstance is relevant or not. No fool-proof test can be suggested. In every inductive

investigation, common sense, accumulated experience and knowl-

edge, some originality, and a spirit of adventure are indispensable. Nothing, not even a study of scientific method, can serve as a substitute for these things. One can only indicate briefly how investigators are commonly guided in discriminating between what is likely to be relevant and what is likely to be irrelevant. The most important clue is that afforded by previous knowledge. Antecedents and circumstances the effects of which are already known, and are known to be different from the phenomenon under investigation, are generally dismissed as irrelevant, unless there is some prima facie ground for suspecting that they may be influencing it to some extent by way of modification or resistance. In this way the knowledge of what is relevant, like every other part of human knowledge, can only be improved or confirmed by more knowledge. Another clue is almost too vague for precise description, yet its influence is very real. It just consists of a vague feeling, or intuition, that certam things are relevant and others are not. This “feeling in our marrow” is probably an out-

come of previous experience that has not yet emerged into artic-

ulate thought. Its very vagueness shields it from critical scrutiny. No wonder that it sometimes misleads. However, there it is, and a wise man makes the best of things, keeping an open and alert mind, and wasting no tears over the absence of sure signs and fool-proof criteria. The Statistical Method.—The simpler inductive methods already described, and the Deductive-Inductive Method, which will be dealt with presently, can only be applied to phenomena that can be adequately analysed, and examined under sufficiently varied’ conditions or circumstances. But these requirements are not always satisfied. Many phenomena—meteorological, biological,

medical, social, econamic—are too complicated for adequate analysis, and are not observable under sufficiently varied or controlled conditions: for the reliable application of these methods.

In such‘ cases; popular. thought, impelled sometimes by practical needs and sometimes by sheer inability to suspend judgment,

usually resorts'to.the so-called Method of Simple Enumeration.

That is to’say//it assames a causal connection between any. things or ‘events’ between which: a° concurrence’ or ‘sequence has-been

observed on a. number of occasions. No attempt is made’to:dis-

METHOD

131

cover exceptions or to study the phenomena under sufficiently varied circumstances. It is a loose habit of thought, or of thoughtlessness, rather than a scientific method. Most popular fallacies and superstitions are its offspring. Now, the Statistical Method is an attempt to deal with such complex and exceptionally diffcult, phenomena in a scientific manner. It has several distinguishable functions. Its first and main business is to tidy up vast masses of varied data or material, so as to make them suitable for practical, or for scientifc use. In this way it embraces such interests as the practical requirements of insurance companies, etc., and is a useful auxiliary to the methods of classification (which it furnishes with concise quantitative descriptions of classes of variable phenomena) and to other scientific methods. But here we are concerned with it mainly as an independent method of science for ascertaining connections between such phenomena as cannot be studied adequately by the other methods of science. The details of statistical technique are explained in the article Statistics. Here it is only proposed to sketch in outline the general character of statistical method as one of the methods of science. Like other scientific methods statistical method aims at the

discovery of connections between natural phenomena. And it does so by a close study of their concurrences or sequences. Unlike the so-called method of simple enumeration, it notes and records carefully not only actual concurrences and sequences, but also exceptions; it makes observations over as large and varied a field as possible; and cautiously draws conclusions that will fit al the observed facts. The observation of only a few cases of concurrence, or sequence, or concomitant variation, among certain phenomena, especially when the conditions are not under control and the full circumstances are not known, makes it impossible to distinguish a causal connection between the phenomena from a casual coincidence between them. But the observation of a large number of cases over a wide and varied range of circumstances, an exact record of positive and negative cases, and of variations between series of instances, may justify a highly probable conclusion about a causal connection between the phenomena concerned. The assumption on which the statistical method proceeds is this: If two phenomena, say A and B are not really connected, then their concurrence (or sequence, or concomitant variation) is a mere coincidence. In that case, the concurrence, etc., of B with other things than A should, as a matter of probability, be about as frequent as with A. But if the concurrence, etc., of B with A is appreciably greater than with things other than A, then the two are probably connected. Such greater concurrence of B with A than with non-A is called their correlation or association (according as the reference is to “variables,” that is, things that can be present in various measurable magnitudes, or “attributes,” that is, what can only be present or absent, what

can be counted but not measured). And the main line of enquiry by means of statistical method, as an independent method of science, is into correlations and associations as clues to causal connections. The degree of such correlation or association may vary considerably, and is expressed by certain “co-efficients.” When it is complete we get a general law of the ordinary type (If

A, then B); if partial we get what is more especially called a

statistical law stating that B occurs in such and such a percentage of cases of A, or A=c (B), where c stands for som net ascertained constant. In view of the tendency to exaggerate the importance of statistical method as an independent method of science, it may, perhaps, be well to point out that it is only one of the methods of science, and really only a substitute for more cogent methods when. these are inapplicable, for reasons already indicated. This seems; obvious from the fact that as soon as the law of certain phenomena is discovered (by the other methods mainly) ‘there

is no further use for the statistical method in that field of enquiy.

There was:a time, for instance, when statistical records were kept of solar and lunar eclipses, just as they are still kept of meteoro logical :phenomena. , These records were useful and valudhle,or

to note ~certain ;€mpirical they’ enabled .the ancients. already:

cycles on which they! could base fairly accurate antieipations: of

132

SCIENTIFIC

eclipses, although they did not understand them. But since the laws of the occurrence of eclipses have been discovered there is no further need of statistical records of them—they can be foretold with accuracy and confidence. This, of course, does not affect the great value of statistical method as one of the methods of science, and as an auxiliary to the others. The important thing to bear in mind is that no amount of statistical technique can serve as an adequate substitute for a direct knowledge of, and familiarity with, the phenomena under investigation.

The Deductive-inductive Method.—Just

~~

as money makes

METHOD all in the more comprehensive induction, or theory, of celestial gravitation. He showed that they could all be deduced from the one law that the planets tend to move towards each other with a force varying directly with the product of their masses, and inversely with the square of the distances between them. (3) Hi. Spencer, by comparing a number of predominantly industrial States and also, of predominantly military States, ancient and modern, inferred inductively that the former type of State is democratic and gives rise to free institutions, whereas the latter type is undemocratic and tends to oppression. As the sparse evidence hardly permitted of a rigorous application of any of the inductive methods, Spencer tried to confirm his conclusion by deductive reasoning from the nature of the case in the light of what is known about the human mind. He pointed out that in a type of society which is predominantly industrial the trading relations between individuals are the predominant relations, and these train them to humour and consider others. The result is

money, so knowledge already acquired facilitates the acquisition of more knowledge. This fact has already been illustrated above in connection with the method of residues, etc. It is equally evident in the case of the method which will now engage our attention. The progress of science, and of knowledge generally, is frequently facilitated by supplementing the simpler inductive methods by deductive reasoning from knowledge already acquired. Such a combination of deduction with induction, J. S. Mill called a democratic attitude in all, In a State which is predominantly the “Deductive Method,” by which he really meant the “Deduc- military, the relations which are most common among its members tive Method of Induction.” To avoid the confusion of the “De- are those of authority, on the one part, and of subordination on ductive Method” with mere deduction, which is only one part the other. The result is the reverse of a democratic atmosphere. of the whole method, it is better to describe it as the “DeductiveInductive Methods and Their Postulates.—All the methods Inductive Method” or the “Inductive-Deductive Method.” Mill of science start from observed facts, and usually end in some kind distinguished two principal forms of this method as applied to of generalization relating to a whole class of facts or events, or the study of natural phenomena, namely, (1) that form of it in a large group of them. The number of instances actually obwhich deduction precedes induction, and (2) that in which induc- served is never more than a very small percentage of the whole tion precedes deduction, The first of these (1) he called the Class or group to which the generalization is extended. The ques“Physical Method”; the second (2) he called the “Historical tion therefore arises as to the justification of such generalization Method,” from a limited number of observations. Even if we assume that These names are rather misleading, inasmuch as both forms there is law and order among natural phenomena this does not of the method are frequently employed in physics, where some- yet answer our question. It is probably impossible to offer a times, say in the study of light, mathematical (¢.e., deductive) complete justification of scientific induction in this respect. As a calculations precede and suggest physical experiments (i.e., induc- matter of fact, certain assumptions are usually made, wittingly tion), and sometimes the inductive results of observation or ex- or unwittingly, both in science and in practical life. And all one periment provide the occasion or stimulus for mathematical de- can do is to state these assumptions or postulates explicitly, and ductions. In any case, the differences in order of sequence are hope that, to some extent at least, they are the result: of: org, of no great importance, and hardly deserve separate names. What process of adaptation of human thought to the nature of things: a is of importance is to note the principal kinds of occasion which The first of these assumptions is that it is possible with reasonable call for the use of this combined method. They are mainly three care to select as samples from a group, or a class, that will in number: (1) When an hypothesis cannot be verified (ie., fairly represent the whole -group or class. This assumption is

tested) directly, but only indirectly; (2) when it is possible to

systematize a number of already established inductions, or laws, under more comprehensive laws or theories; (3) when, owing to the difficulties of certain problems, or on account of the lack of sufficient and suitable instances of the phenomena under investigation, it is considered desirable either to confirm an inductive result by independent deductive reasoriing from the nature of the case in the light of previous knowledge, or to confirm a deductive conclusion by independent inductive investigation. An example of each of these types may help to make them clear. (1) When Galileo was investigating the law of the velocity of falling bodies he eventually formed the hypothesis that a body starting from rest falls with a uniform acceleration, and that its velocity varies with the time of its fall. But he could not devise any method for the direct verification of this hypothesis. By mathematical deduction, however, he arrived at the conclusion that a body falling according to his hypothetical law would fall through a distance proportionate to the time of its fall. This consequence could be tested by comparing the distances and the time of falling bodies, which thus served as an indirect verifica-

tion of his hypothesis. (2) By inductions from numerous astronomical observations made by Tycho Brahe and himself, Kepler discovered the three familiar laws called by his name, namely,

known as the Principle of Fair Samples.

In order to obtain a

fair sample, the selection must be made in a way that is calculated to avoid onesidedness or bias. In that sense such a sample is often described as a random sample; but the selection of such a sample usually calls for much knowledge and insight as to the best way of avoiding bias. The reliability of a sample can never be more than probable, and the degree of this probability varies with the size and variety of the sample—the actual number being less important than the variety, whenever there is reason to suspect variation in the whole that is to be judged by the sample. Much depends on our experience of the phenomena in question. In some cases a single instance (observed, say, under conditions

of the method of difference) may be deemed to be a fair sample, in other cases even a large sample may fail to inspire confidence. This brings us to the second assumption. In cases of strict generalizations or uniformities (as distinguished from partial statistical laws), inferred inductively by means of one of the more reliable inductive methods, what happens is really this: The conditions under which the observations are made are such as to show that in the particular cases observed certain antecedents are causally connected with certain consequents. The generalization that all antecedents of that kind are causally connected with

consequents of that kind is made so spontaneously that most people hardly realize that they have made it. But, strictly speaking, the generalization is an additional inference over and that the radius vector (7.¢., an imaginary line joining the moving above the inference concerning the connection in the particular planet to the sun) sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of cases observed. And here again one cannot strictly justify it, time; and (c) that the squares of the periodic times of any two but only state explicitly the assumption on which it rests. The planets (that is, the times which they take to complete their assumption is that what is found to be a sufficient reason in one revolutions round the sun) are proportional to the cubes of their instance must be a reason in all instances of that kind. This mean distances from the sun. These three laws appeared to be assumption I have called the Principle of the Uniformity o f quite independent of each other. But Newton systematized them Reasons. ;

(a) that the planets move in elliptic orbits which have the sun for one of their foci; (b) that the velocity of a planet is such

SCILLITAN Scientific Method

and

MARTYRS—SCILLY

Scientific Explanation.—All

the

methods of science are essentially methods of discovering order in natural phenomena. For it is the ultimate aim of science to discover order in nature. To discover order in any class or group

ISLES

133

legitimate aim of science. They really object to teleological explanation being applied indiscriminately to all kinds of natural phenomena. This is quite right. But it is a very short-sighted policy to give this extremely narrow meaning to the term “ex-

of phenomena is to explain them; that is, to make them clearer, planation,” and so to deprive science of its legitimate and honourmore intelligible. Conversely, to explain anything is to indicate able claim to explain things, even if it does not explain everyits place in some orderly system. In a broad sense it may be said thing, nor any one thing completely. The unsophisticated man of that explanation generally takes the form of tracing the one in science who is not addicted to shibboleths certainly thinks not the many, or identity amid differences (see the article EXPLANA- only that science explains things, but explains them most corTION). Still, there are different types of explanation, and their rectly. (See articles INDUCTION, LoGIC, EXPLANATION, PROBAdifferences are worth noting. As might have been expected, there BILITY, LocIc, HISTORY oF.) BIBLIOGRAPHY .—A. D. Ritchie, Scientific Method (1924); J. S. MM, is a general correspondence between the several kinds of scientific method and the several types of explanation, as will appear A System of Logic (1890, etc.); W. S. Jevons, The Principles of (1890); J. Venn, Empirical Logic (19x0); K. Pearson, Tke from what follows. The main types of explanation may be sum- Science Grammar of Science (1910); F. W. Westaway, Scientific Method marily indicated under a few heads. (1) Reference to a Class. (1910); F. Barry, The Scientific Habit of Thought (1927); A. Wolf, Sometimes an object is explained when it is allocated to its class, Essentials of Scientific Method (1928). (A. Wo.) especially if the class is already known. If, e.g., one is in doubt SCILLITAN MARTYRS, a company of early North Afriabout the character of a plant, it is explained by finding out to can Christians who suffered under Marcus Aurelius in A.D. 180, and what species or variety, etc., it belongs, or if one is puzzled by whose Acta are at once the earliest documents of the Church of a certain flash of light it may be explained as lightning, etc. (2) Africa and the earliest specimen of Christian Latin. The martyrs Reference to an Evolutionary Series. Sometimes an object (or take their name from Scilla (or Scillium), a town in Numidia. class of objects) is explained by assigning to it a place in a Their trial and execution took place in Carthage under the Propossible evolutionary series. Thus, e.g., the rival explanations of consul Vigellius Saturninus, whom Tertullian declares to have the South African skull of an alleged ape-man assigned to it been the first persecutor of the Christians in Africa. The date of different places in the chain of biological evolution. (3) Reference their martyrdom is the 17th of July av. 180. We have in this to Mediating Conditions. Sometimes the problem is, how certain martyrdom an excellent example of “Acts of Martyrs” properly apparently remote or different facts or events come to be con- so called. The document is in brief legal form, beginning with the nected nevertheless. In such cases the explanation takes the form of date and the names of the accused, and giving the actual dialogue indicating certain intermediate facts or events which bridge the between them and their judge. It closes with the sentence, based gulf. Thus, e.g., the perception of sound, light, etc., is explained on “obstinate” persistency in an illicit cult, and with the proclamaby the mediation of air-waves or ether-waves, etc., between the | tion by the herald of the names of the offenders and the penalty. source of stimulation and the percipient or receiver. (4) Refer-| All this may quite well be a transcript of the Acta, or official ence to Laws. The commonest type of explanation consists in | report of the proceedings. referring events to certain relevant laws. Thus, e.g., the bent apThe Scillitan sufferers were twelve in all—seven men and five pearance of a stick partly immersed in water is explained by refer- women. Two of these bear Punic names, but the rest Latin names. ence to Snell’s law of refraction. The position of a planet may be Six had already been tried: of the remainder, to whom these Acta explained by reference to Kepler’s laws. And Keplers laws primarily relate, Speratus is the principal spokesman. He claims themselves may be explained by reference to Newton’s law of for himself and his companions that they have lived a quiet and gravitation. (5) Reference to Purpose. In the study of human moral life, paying their dues and doing no wrong to their neighconduct, and of certain other biological phenomena, it seems bours. But when called upon to swear by the genius of the emimpossible to dispense with all reference to purpose, even when peror, he replies: “I recognize not the empire of this world; but other kinds of explanation are made use of at the same time. rather do I serve that God whom no man hath seen, nor with The most familiar way of explaining human actions is by referring these eyes can see.” them to some purpose that is pursued either consciously or unBrBLiocRAPHY.—The historical questions connected with these marconsciously. Such explanations are suggested by our own felt tyrs are treated by Lightfoot, Ignatius (1889, and ed.), i. 524 ff. The one

experiences on similar occasions, and have always been found so satisfying to many people that they have been applied also to most other phenomena at one time or another. Hence the animism, fetishism, and anthropomorphism characteristic of the early history of human thought. This kind of extravagance was a serious obstacle to the progress of science during many centuries—to say nothing about the evil influences of theological anthropomorphism. Hence the reaction in modern science, which has not unnaturally displayed a strong hostility to all such teleological explanations, that is, explanations by reference to purposes. But the just revolt against one extreme does not justify another extreme. Such teleological explanations, too, have their proper place in certain limited fields of research. And it seems difficult to conceive how even the most violent opponent of teleological explanation could regard his own researches, writings and other higher activities as aimless and purposeless. What has just been said may help to account for the tendency of modern science to disclaim all attempts to explain things, and to confine itself to the more modest task of describing them. The contrast is usually expressed by the statement that science only tries to answer kow things happen, not wky. But to say how things happen is also to explain them. Indeed, what is called scientific description often includes much that cannot be considered to be anything but explanation, right or wrong. The opposition to the question: Why? and the identification of all explanation with answets-to such questions, betrays what is really at the back of the mind of the opponents of explanation as a

Latin text, together with later recensions and a Greek version, is published in Texts and Studies, i. 2 (Passion of Perpetua, 1890) ; see also

Analecta Bollandiana (1889), vili. 5; H. M. Gwatkin, Selections from Early

Christian Writers, where, as in Ante-Nicene

there is an English translation.

Fathers, ix. 285,

SCILLY ISLES, group of small islands, off Cornwall, England, 25 m. W. by S. of Land’s End.

They form an outlying

member of the series of granite masses of Cornwall and contain

a few metalliferous veins. The origin of thelr name has never been authoritatively settled. The islands are wild and picturesque, with sheer cliffs and many-large caves hollowed out by the Atlantic. Owing to the reefs and shoals by which these shores are surrounded, navigation becomes perilous in rough weather. In 1707 Sir Cloudesley Shovel perished here and a local proverb tells that for every man who dies a natural death on the islands the sea takes nine. On an outlying rock to the south-west is Bishop Light (49° 52’ 30” N., 6° 27’ W.), constructed with infinite dificulty In 1858, and rebuilt 30 years later, and other lighthouses are on Round island and Penninis head (St. Mary’s). The islands are composed of granite, most of which is coarse and porphyritic, but the centre of the mass is finer and nonporphyritic. The finer granite occurs on the north-west side of St. Mary’s, the southern part of Tresco, Bryher and Samson and the north-west side of Annet. Elvans (dykes) of quartz-por-

phyry are found in the granite. On the north-east end of White

island a fragment of the altered killas (shale), which once cov-

ered the whole area, is still visible. A gravel deposit with chalk flints and Greensand cherts which caps some of the higher ground

134

SCIPIO—SCIPIO

AEMILIANUS

on St. Mary’s may possibly be of Eocene age. Raised beach, blown sand, fragmental granitic waste and an iron-cemented glacial deposit are found resting upon the granite. The climate of the islands is unusually mild, snow being rarely seen, and the range of temperature being from 46° to 58° F. Fuchsias, geraniums and myrtles attain an immense size, and aloes, cactus and prickly pear flourish in the open. The gardens of the governor on Tresco island are quite subtropical in character, and, therefore, unique in the British isles. Great flocks of sea-birds haunt the remoter parts, and on some of the islands there are deer. Some of the rarer land-birds occasionally visit the islands, such as the golden oriole. The islands are served by steamers from Penzance, and telephone and telegraph communication is established with the mainland. The raising of early asparagus, spring vegetables and flowers is the principal industry. There is also a small coasting trade; and fishing is carried on, lobsters being sent to London. The true islands number about 4o, with total area of 4,041 ac.; but only five islands are inhabited—St. Mary’s, Tresco, St. Martin’s, St. Agnes and Bryher. The total population in 1931 was 1,732. Hugh Town in St. Mary’s is the capital, occupying a sandy peninsula crowned by the height known as the Garrison, with Star castle, dating from the days of Elizabeth. The town possesses a harbour, and a roadstead where large vessels can lie at anchor. Governed by a county council, they are part of the St. Ives parliamentary division, Cornwall. On Tresco there are ruins of an abbey, and of two fortifications called Oliver Cromwell’s tower and King Charles’s tower. The church of St. Nicholas was built in 1882. Numerous rude pillars and circles of stones are to be noticed; and barrows are common, the most remarkable of these prehistoric remains being a barrow on the Isle of Samson, 58 ft. in girth, and containing a very perfect “kistvaen,” or sepulchral chamber of stone.

It is not until the reign of Henry I. that we have written evidence concerning these isles. The king gave all the churches of Scilly and the land to the abbot and church of Tavistock. In 1180 the bishop of Exeter confirmed a grant by Richard de Wicha. Secular priests were temporally substituted for regulars by the abbot of Tavistock in 1345. The family of Blanchminster (de

Albo Monasterio), at the beginning of the 14th century, held of the earldom of Cornwall lands in Scilly at a yearly service of 6s. 8d. or 600 puffins. The Blanchminsters resisted and imprisoned the coroner of Cornwall and in 1319 were granted a coroner of their own. In 1345 they are found petitioning the king against an invasion of the king’s Welsh troops, who, being becalmed at Scilly, had carried away everything. In 1547 Silvester Danvers, as representing the Blanchminsters, sold his moiety of Scilly to Sir Thomas Seymour, by whose attainder in 1549 this and probably the other moiety fell to the Crown. The suppression of the religious houses had already placed church land and revenues at the king’s disposal. During the Civil Wars, Hugh Town in 1645 gave shelter to Prince Charles, until his escape to Jersey. In 1649 the islands were occupied by a royalist, Sir Richard Grenville, who swept the surrounding seas for two years, before Admiral Blake and Sir John Ayscue forced him to surrender. In ancient times a haunt of pirates, the islands were afterwards notorious for smuggling. In 1687 the whole of Scilly was granted to Sidney Godolphin for 89 years from the expiration of the lease for 50 years granted to Francis Godolphin in 1636 by Charles I. In 1831 Augustus Smith succeeded the Godolphins as lessee.

SCIPIO (“staff”; the first 7 is long—Scipio), the name of a patrician branch of the Cornelian gens whose historical representatives are separately noticed.

SCIPIO, PUBLIUS

CORNELIUS,

father of the elder

Africanus. He was consul in 218 B.c., the first year of the Second Punic War, and sailed with an army from Pisa to Massilia, with the view of arresting Hannibal’s advance on Italy. Failing to meet him, he returned by sea to Cisalpine Gaul, having sent back his army to Spain under the command of his brother Gnaeus, with instructions to hold the Carthaginian forces there in check. On his return to Italy he at once advanced to meet Hannibal. In a cavalry engagement in the upper valley of the. Po, on the

AFRICANUS

Ticinus, he was defeated and severely wounded.

Again, in De-

cember of the same year, he witnessed the complete defeat of the Roman army on the Trebia, his colleague, T. Sempronius Longus, having insisted on fighting contrary to his advice. His term of command was extended, and we find him with his brother in Spain in the following year, winning victories over the Carthaginians and strengthening Rome’s hold on that country, till 212 (or 211). The details of these campaigns are not accurately known, but it would seem that the ultimate defeat and death of the Scipios were due to the desertion of the Celtiberi, bribed by Hasdrubal, Hannibal’s brother. See Polybius iii. 40; Livy xxi—xxv.;

Appian, Hannib.

5-8, Hisp.

I4—-16.

SCIPIO

AEMILIANUS

CORNELIUS,

the younger

AFRICANUS,

PUBLIUS

(185-129 3B.c.), was the younger

son of L. Aemilius Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia. He fought when a youth of 17 by his father’s side at the battle of Pydna (168), which decided the fate of Macedonia and made northern Greece subject to Rome. He was adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio, the eldest son of Scipio Africanus the elder, and from him took the name Scipio. In 151, a time of defeat and disaster for the Romans in Spain, he voluntarily offered his services in that country and obtained an influence over the native tribes similar to that which the elder Scipio, his grandfather by adoption, had acquired nearly 60 years before.’ In the next year an appeal’ was made to

him by the Carthaginians ’to act as arbiter between them and the Numidian prince Massinissa, who, backed up by a party at'Rome,

was incessantly encroaching on Carthaginian territory.

In’ 149

war was declared by Rome, and a force sent to besiege Carthage. ` In the early operations of the war, which went altogether agairist the Romans, Scipio, though a subordinate officer, distinguished himself repeatedly, and in 147 he was elected consul, while yet under the legal age, in order that he might hold the supreme command. After a year of desperate fighting and splendid heroism on the part of the defenders he carried the fortress, and at the

senate’s bidding levelled it to the ground. On his return to Rome he celebrated a splendid triumph, having established a personal

claim to the surname of Africanus. In 142, during his censorship;

he endeavoured to check the growing luxury and immorality of the period. In 139 he was unsuccessfully accused of high treason by Tiberius Claudius Asellus, whom he had degraded when censor. The speeches delivered by him on that occasion (now lost) were considered brilliant. In'134 he was again consul, with the province of Spain, where a demoralized Roman army was vainly attempting the conquest of Numantia on the Durius (Douro). After devoting several months to restoring the discipline of his troops, he reduced the city by blockade. The fall of Numantia in 133 established the Roman dominion in the province of Hither Spain. For his services Scipio received the additional surname of Numantinus. Scipio himself, though not in sympathy with the extreme conservative party, was. decidedly opposed to the schemes of the

Gracchi (whose sister Sempronia was his wife). When he heard of the death of Tiberius Gracchus, he is said to have quoted the line from the Odyssey (i. 47), “So perish all who do the like again”; on his return to Rome he wrecked the working of the Gracchan agrarian legislation by getting the commissioners’ judicial powers removed. This made him the chief enemy of the popular party for the time, and he died mysteriously in 129, the night before he was to have spoken. on the agrarian laws. The mystery of his death was never cleared up, and there were political reasons for

letting the matter drop, but there is little doubt that he was assassinated by one of the supporters of the Gracchi, probably Carbo. He:was aman of culture and refinement; he gathered round him such men as the Greek historian Polybius, the philosopher Panaetius, and the poets Lucilius and Terence. At the same time he had all the virtues of an old-fashioned Roman, according to Polybius and Cicero, the latter of whom gives an appreciation of him in his De republica, in which Scipio isthe chief speaker.. As a speaker he seems. to have been noless, distinguished than as a soldier. Though politically opposed to the Gracchi, he cannot be said to have been a foe to the interests of the people, but their revolutionary methods dreve him into the arms of the Senatorial party, who

SCIPIO AFRICANUS—SCONE

135

were not much more to his taste themselves. He was, in fact, a | fined. Africanus himself was subsequently (185) accused of having

people that it was moderate man, in favour of conciliation, and as such inevitably |been bribed by Antiochus, but by reminding the an outburst of caused he Zama at victory his of | the anniversary unpopular, though respected, in an age of political violence. him and See Polybius xxxv. 4, xxxix.; Vell. Pat. i. 12; Florus ii. 15, 17, 18; | enthusiasm in his favour. The people crowded round Appian, Punica, 72, 98, 113-131, H isp. 48~95, Beli. Civ. i. 19; Plutarch, followed him to the Capitol to offer thanks to the gods and beg Aemilius Paullus, 22, Tib. Gracchus, 21, C. Gracchus, 10; Gellius iv. 20, | them to give Rome more citizens like himself. He then retired to v. 19; Cicero, De orat. ii. 40; exhaustive life by E. Person (Paris, his native country seat at Liternum on the coast of Campania, 1877) ; monograph by Lincke (Dresden, 1898). where he died. By his wife Aemilia, daughter of the Aemilius SCIPIO AFRICANUS, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS, the Paullus who fell at Cannae, he had a daughter Cornelia, who elder (237-183 B.c.), son of P. Cornelius Scipio; was present at became the mother of the two famous Gracchi. the disastrous battles of the Ticinus (where, according to one traScipio was one of Rome’s greatest generals. Skilful alike in dition, he saved his father’s life), the Trebia and Cannae. Even strategy and in tactics, he had also the faculty of inspiring his after the last he resolutely protested against several Roman nobles soldiers with confidence. According to the story, Hannibal, who who advocated leaving Italy. The year after his father’s death, regarded Alexander as the first and Pyrrhus as the second among he was elected to the command of the new army which the commanders, confessed that had he beaten Scipio he military Romans resolved to send to Spain. All Spain south of the Ebro should have put himself before either of them. He was a man of in the year of his arrival (210 or 209) was under Carthaginian great intellectual culture and could speak and write Greek percontrol, but fortunately for him the three Carthaginian generals, fectly. He wrote his own memoirs in Greek. He also enjoyed the Hasdrubal and Mago (Hannibal’s brothers), and Hasdrubal the reputation of being a graceful orator. There was a belief that he son of Gisgo, were not disposed to act in concert and were prea special favourite of heaven and held actual communication was occupied with revolts in Africa. Scipio, on landing at the mouth with the gods. It is quite possible that he himself honestly shared of the Ebro, was thus enabled to surprise and capture New Car- this belief; to his political opponents he was often harsh and thage, the headquarters of the Carthaginian power in Spain. He arrogant, but towards others singularly gracious and sympathetic. thus obtained a rich booty of war stores and supplies, and an According to Gellius, his life was written by Oppius and Hyginus, excellent harbour. His kindly treatment of the Spanish hostages and also, it was said, by Plutarch. and prisoners brought many over to his side. In 209 he drove See Livy xxi-xxxviii. and Polybius; Aulus Gellius iv. 18; Val. Max. back Hasdrubal, from his position at Baecula, on the upper iii. 7; biography by F. D. Gerlach (1868); E. Berwick (1817), with Napoleon Guadalquivir, but was unable to hinder his march to Italy. After notes and illustrations; B. H. Liddell Hart, A Greater than Punic Wars. winning over a number of Spanish chiefs he achieved in 206 a —Scipio Africanus (1926); also SCIRE FACIAS, in English and American law, a judicial decisive victory at Ilipa (near Corduba), which resulted in the founded upon some record directing the sheriff to make it of writ idea evacuation of Spain by the Punic commanders. With the whom it is brought, and striking a blow at Carthage in Africa, he paid a short visit to the known (scire facias) to the party against party bringing the writ the why cause show to latter the of requiring court the at but Massinissa, Numidian princes, Syphax and Proceedings in record. such of advantage the have not of should Syphax he was foiled by the presence of Hasdrubal, the son the defendant may plead and action, an as regarded are facias scire Numidian the to married was Sophonisba daughter Gisgo, whose in England is now of little chief. On his return to Spain Scipio had to quell a mutiny among his defence as in an action. The writ the writ has been abolished in his troops. Hannibal’s brother Mago had meanwhile sailed for practical importance. In America action is maintainable in its Italy, and in 206 Scipio himself, having secured the Roman occu- the code States and an ordinary retains much of its original facias scire States other in stead; command pation of Spain by the capture of Gades, gave up his and returned to Rome. In the following year he was elected importance. SCISSORS: see CUTLERY. consul, the province of Sicily being assigned to him. Hannibal SCOLECITE, a mineral of the Zeolite group (g.v.). It is a was by now penned in the south-west of Italy, and Scipio was of lime and alumina, crystallizing in the monostrongly in favour of carrying the war into Africa. Here he was hydrated silicate angles very near those of the cube. It comwith system, clinic was he whom with strongly opposed by the old Roman nobility, of radiating fibres, and when heated bundles as occurs monly unpopular. After a commission of enquiry had visited Sicily, he whence the name (Gr. CKONNĚ, worm, a like up curls sometimes had meanwhile Carthage Utica. near sailed in 204 and landed white and more or less transor colourless usually is It worm). a advance whose secured the friendship of the Numidian Syphax, occurs frequently with other zeolites in the Scolecite parent. himentrench to and Utica of siege the raise to Scipio compelled Scotland, Iceland, and in the Deccan Trap area self on the shore between that place and Carthage. Next year western isles of i other localities. many among India, in and he destroyed two combined armies of the Carthaginians ; SANDPIPER. Woopcock SNIPE; see : ACIDAE which in SCOLOP negotiations peace of failure the Numidians. After SCONE, a parish of Perthshire, Scotland, containing Old Scipio displayed great moderation, he defeated Hannibal in a the site of an historic abbey and palace, and New Scone, Scone, the decisive battle near Zama (Oct. 19, 202; see PUNIC Wars). In village, 2 m. N. of Perth, near the left bank of the Tay. modern a his success with upheld he Carthage with subsequent settlement (1931) 2,559. It became the capital of Pictavia, parish of Pop. of demands comparatively lenient terms against the immoderate the kingdom of northern Picts, in succession to Forteviot. The many Roman aristocrats. where the first national council of which we possess Scipio was welcomed back to Rome with the surname of Afri- Moot Hill, held (906), was known also as the Hill of Belief was records which honours canus, and had the good sense to refuse the many that here the Pictish king promulgated the edict fact the from lived he years some For him. upon thrust have would the people church. The abbey was founded in IIIs Christian the regulating comthe of one was he 193 In quietly and took no part in politics. before this date Scone had been a centre long but I., Alexander by a Massiniss missioners sent to Africa to settle a dispute between and the seat of a monastery. Kenneth activity al ecclesiastic of war declared Romans the when 190, In ians. and the Carthagin the Stone of Destiny, on which the brought have to alleged is legate as attached was Publius against Antiochus III. of Syria, from Dunstaffnage castle on Loch crowned, were kings Celtic ento his brother Lucius, to whom the chief command had been it in Scone, whence it was conveyed deposited have to and Etive, a by n conclusio a to war the brought brothers two trusted. The r abbey (where it lies beneath the coronation chair) décisive victory at Magnesia in the same year. Meanwhile Scipio’s to Westminste by Edward I. in 1296. Most of the Scottish kings were crownied | a political enemies had gained ground, and on their return to Rome last function being held on Jan. 1, 1651, when the Scone, at on Lucius against tribunes two by (x87) prosecution was started the crown. The abbey and the house of Scorie received IL. Charles Antifrom received the ground’ of misappropriation of moneys by the Reformers in 1359, and next year ‘the ochus. “ As Lucius -was in the act of producing his account-books were burned down were granted to the Ruthvens. On the attainderof the his brother wrested them from his hands, tore them in pieces, and estates Gowrie conspiracy in 1600, the land:passed ‘to after‘the family bad flung them: où the. floor of .the senate-house. This created.a

impressioh;Qucius-was brought to’ trial,’ condemned: and heavily

Sit: David Murray. of the Tullibardine ‘line; who ‘bécamé rst! vis-

136

SCOPAS—SCORESBY

count Stormont (1621) and was the ancestor of the earl of Mans-

field, to whom the existing house belongs. Sir David completed in 1606 the palace which the earl of Gowrie had begun. The present palace, which dates from 1803 and stands in a beautiful park, contains several historic relics. SCOPAS, probably of Parian origin, the son of Aristander, a great Greek sculptor of the 4th century B.C. Although classed as an Athenian, and similar in tendency to Praxiteles, he was really a cosmopolitan artist, working largely in Asia and Peloponnesus. The extant works with which he is associated are the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus (finished 349) and the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea (some time after 395). In the case of the Mausoleum, though no doubt the sculpture generally belongs to his school, we are unable to single out any special part of it as his own. A recent suggestion attributes the small “‘chariot-race”’ frieze to Scopas. But we have good reason to think that the pedimental figures from Tegea are Scopas’ own early work. The subjects of the pedimental compositions were the hunting of the Calydonian

action of dulling pain and producing loss of memory. It is thus useful in labour, especially when the process is likely to be prolonged, as in primiparae. In these cases the initial dose should be given when the first stage is well established. The patient should then fall into a somnolent condition from which she is

partially roused when each pain effect, the patient’s ears should be eyes bandaged, and the room kept advantage in the “twilight sleep” child may be born in an apnoeic time may

elapse before

occurs. To obtain the best plugged with cotton wool, her perfectly quiet. The chief dismethod in labour is that the condition and a considerable

regular respiration is established.

If

skilled attention is available, however, it is rare for the baby to suffer any ill effects. The action of the drug upon the foetal heart appears to be negligible. If forceps have to be applied or any other form of instrumental delivery is necessary, an inhalation anaesthesia will have to be administered in addition. “Twilight sleep” can also be used as a preliminary

to the

various types of regional analgesia. For instance, a severe operaboar and the battle between Achilles and Telephus. Four heads tion can be performed under preliminary morphine-scopolamine remain, that of Hercules, that of Atalanta and two of warriors: injection and subsequent spinal analgesia without the patient also part of the body of Atalanta and the head of the boar. Un- being aware that he has been moved out of bed. fortunately all these are in very poor preservation; but it is Some anaesthetists also use the drugs as a preliminary to allowed that they are our best evidence for the style of Scopas. general anaesthesia, such as nitrous oxide-oxygen. This method Ancient writers give us a good deal of information as to works undoubtedly lessens the apprehension of a nervous patient and of Scopas. He made for the people of Elis a bronze Aphrodite, has the advantage that less general anaesthetic is necessary, but riding on a goat (copied on the coins of Elis); a Maenad at it tends to depress respiration so that cyanosis and a difficult Athens, running with head thrown back, and a torn kid in her administration may ensue. The breathing may become so shalhands was ascribed to him; of this Dr. Treu has published a low that the requisite depth of anaesthesia is impossible to attain, probable copy in the Albertinum at Dresden (Mélanges Perrot, The blood pressure also tends to fall, while the eye and other p. 317). Another type of his was Apollo as leader of the Muses, reflex signs which are useful in estimating the depth of anaesthesia singing to the lyre. The most elaborate of his works was a great can no longer be trusted. group representing Poseidon, Thetis and Achilles, accompanied Scopolamine-morphine is definitely contra-indicated in children, by Nereids, Tritons and other sea-beings. On the basis of his in severe abdominal operations and in cases of intestinal obstrucknown work, many extant statues can be confidently attributed tion, as the drugs may increase the paralysis of the gut. Furtherto his influence and some may be direct copies. more, it should not be given to patients who are known to have Jointly with his contemporaries Praxiteles and Lysippus, Scopas an idiosyncrasy for either of its constituents. For these reasons, may be considered as having completely changed the character scopolamine-morphine should not be used as_a routine preliminary of Greek sculpture. It was they who initiated the lines of de- injection but should be reserved for selected cases, i velopment which culminated in the schools of Pergamum, Rhodes BiBLIoGRAPHY.—Munro Kerr and others, 4 Combined Textbook and other great cities of later Greece. In most of the modern of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (1923); A. R. Cushny, Pharmacology museums of ancient art their influence may be seen in three- and Therapeutics (1924); H. E. Boyle and C, L. Hewer, Practical (C. L. H.) fourths of the works exhibited. At the Renaissance it was espe- Anaesthetics (1923). cially their influence which dominated Italian painting and SCORDISCI, a Celtic tribe inhabiting the southern part of through it modern art. lower Pannonia between the Savus, Dravus and Danuvius. As See B. Gräf in Rom. Miitheit. (1889), 199; Urlichs, Scopas (Greifs- early as 175 B.C. they came into collision with the Romans by wald, 1863). assisting Perseus, King of Macedonia; and after Macedonia SCOPIDAE: sce HAMMERHEAD. became a Roman province they were for many years engaged in SCOPOLAMINE. Scopolamine or hyoscine is a complex hostilities with them. In 135 B.C. they were defeated by M. Cosalkaloid closely related to atropine and having the chemical conius in Thrace; in 118 B.c. Sextus Pompeius, the grandfather formula CıHaNO.. It is laevorotary to polarised light but in of the triumvir, was slain fighting against them near Stobi. In its commercial form may be mixed with its dextrorotary isomer. r14 B.c. they surprised and destroyed the army of Gaius Porcius Scopolamine occurs in varying proportions and is extracted from Cato, but were defeated by Q. Minucius Rufus in 107. They deadly nightshade, henbane, thornapple and a few other less- still from time to time gave trouble to the Roman governors of known plants. Hyoscine hydrobromide, the official preparation Macedonia; they even advanced as far as Delphi and plundered of the British Pharmacopoeia, consists of transparent colourless the temple; but Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus finally overbitter crystals, which are soluble in water and have the formula came them in 88 B.c. and drove them across the Danube. In Cora NOH BrO. The therapeutic dose is s45 to zt, grain. Strabo’s time they had been expelled from the valley of the The chief action of scopolamine is hypnotic, a condition very Danube by the Dacians (Strabo vii. pp. 203, 313). similar to natural sleep being induced. This usually lasts for SCORESBY, WILLIAM (1789-1857), English Arctic exabout six hours and the patient wakes up with an unclouded plorer, scientist and divine, was born near Whitby, Yorkshire, on mind but may complain of thirst and dryness of the mouth and Oct. 5, 1789. He made his first voyage with his father when he throat. In some cases a stage of excitement, giddiness and inco- was eleven years of age, but on his return he was sent back to herent speech may precede that of sleep, and it is this uncer- school till 1803. After this he was his father’s constant comtainty of action which renders the drug somewhat unreliable. panion, and was with him on May 25, 1806, on the whaler Some tolerance is produced after prolonged exhibition of scopola- “Resolution,” when he reached 81° 30’ N. lat. (19° E. long.). In mine so that the dose has to be increased to have the same effect. 1811 his father resigned to him the command of the “Resolution.” Administration.—Scopolamine by itself does not relieve pain, In his voyage of 1813 he established the fact that the temperaso -that for anaesthetic purposes it is usually combined with ture of the polar ocean is warmer at great depths than at the morphia. Some such mixture as:—Morphine er, 4, Scopola- surface. In 1819 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society mine gf. +$q, is injected hypodermically, the scopolamine being of Edinburgh. In his voyage of 1822 to Greenland he surveyed repeated as necessary in doses of gr. z4,. This “twilight sleep” and charted 400 m. of the east coast, between 69° 30’ and 72° 30’. method does not produce surgical anaesthesia, but has the double ' This, however, was the last of his Arctic voyages. On his return

SCORIA—SCOT his wife had died, and he entered the church. After two years at Cambridge he took his degree (1825) and was appointed to the curacy of Bassingby, Yorkshire, later to preferments at Liverpool, at Exeter and Bradford. In 1824 he was elected F.RS., and he received other honours. From the first he was an active member and official of the British Association, and he contributed especially to the knowledge of terrestrial magnetism. In order to obtain additional data for his theories on magnetism he made a voyage to Australia in 1856, the results of which were published in a posthumous work—Journal of a Voyage to Australia for Magnetical Research, edited by Archibald Smith (1859). He visited America in 1844 and 1848. He died at Torquay on March

137

fossils and existing forms. These Carboniferous scorpions, however, were preceded by others, in Silurian deposits, which lived in the sea and exhibit differences marking them off as a distinct

group and attesting affinity with the earlier marine Arachnida. known as Gigantostraca. Their legs were short, thick, and ended in a single claw, adapted for maintaining a hold upon rocks or seaweed against the wash of waves. These Silurian scorpions, of which the best-known genus is Palaeopkonus, were only 1 or 2 in. in length. At the present time scorpions are almost universal south of the goth or 45th parallels of north latitude; and their geographical distribution shows a close correspondence with that of the 2I, 1857. mammalia, their absence from New Zealand being an interesting He wrote: An Account of the Arctic Regions and Northern Whale point of agreement. Scorpions are adapted to diverse conditions, Fishery (1820) and Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale some thriving in tropical forests, others on open plains, others in Fishery, including Researches and Discoveries on the Eastern Coast of sandy deserts, and a few at high altitudes with abundant snow Greenland (1823). in winter. In the tropics they aestivate at times of drought; and See also the Life by his nephew, R. E. Scoresby-Jackson (1861). SCORIA, in geology, a name applied to lava when moderately in temperate latitudes they pass the cold months in hibernation. SCORPION-FLY, the name given to insects of the family vesicular and having a structure like that of a clinker (Lat. scoria, slag). Ejected masses of scoriaceous lava are often called “cin- Panorpidae of the order Mecoptera. Their name is derived from ders,” a term conveniently used for all lumps of vesicular lava. the fact that the males carry the extremity of the body upwardly curved after the manner of a scorpion. These insects are recog(See VOLCANO.) SCORPIO or SCORPIUS (“The Scorpion”), in astronomy, nizable by the beak-like prolongation of the front of the head the 8th sign of the zodiac (qg.v.), denoted by the symbol fl. and the two pairs of usually conspicuously marbled wings. The The Greeks fabled that Orion having boasted to Diana and chief genus is Panorpa, which is widely distributed, three species Latona that he would kill every animal on the earth, these god- occurring in the British Isles. Both the larvae and perfect insects desses sent a poisonous reptile—a scorpion-—-which stung him so are carnivorous: the former are caterpillar-like; they live in the that he died. Jupiter raised the scorpion to Heaven, and after- earth and are provided with eight pairs of abdominal feet in wards, at Diana’s request, did the same for Orion. Not much addition to three pairs of short thoracic legs. The pupa is found of the constellation can be seen from the latitude of Britain, in an earthen cavity below ground and the perfect insects occur but in the southern hemisphere it is a particularly fine constella- among rank herbage in shaded situations. SCORZONERA (Scorzonera hispanica), a hardy perennial, tion, the resemblance to a scorpion being well-marked. The native to central and southern Europe, and cultivated in gardens brightest star is Antares, of a noticeably red colour. SCORPION, the name for the order Scorpiones of the Arach- as a vegetable for its fleshy cylindrical roots, which resemble those nida (q.v.), distinguished by having the last five segments of the of salsify except in being black outside. They should be treated in body modified to form a flexible tail, armed with a sting consisting every respect like salsify. The genus is a member of the family of a vesicle holding a pair of poison glands, and of a sharp Compositae, and nearly allied to Tragopogon, to which salsify spine behind the tip of which the ducts of the glands open. In belongs. SCOT, MICHAEL (? 1175-c. 1232), Scottish translator, addition, they have four pairs of walking legs; the second pair form powerful pincers, and those of the first pair smaller nippers. mathematician and astrologer. He studied at Oxford and Paris, They feed principally upon insects although the larger kinds and after being ordained, held various benefices in Italy, but remay kill small lizards and mice. The large pincers are studded fused the appointment of archbishop of Cashel in Ireland. Having with tactile hairs, and the moment an insect touches these he is acquired a knowledge of Arabic at Toledo, he became one of the seized by the pincers, the scorpion’s tail brought over his back scholars of the court of Frederick II., and at the instigation of the and the sting thrust into the prey. Scorpions vary in size from emperor superintended (along with Hermannus Alemannus) a about 1 in. to 8 in. The poison is more virulent in some of the fresh translation of Aristotle and the Arabian commentaries from smaller than in the larger species. Upon mankind the effects of Arabic into Latin. The chief of these were the De Animalibus, the De anima, the De coelo, and probably the Physics and the the poison are seldom fatal. The belief that scorpions commit suicide by stinging them- Metaphysics, and also the De Sphaera of Al Bitrogi. Scot’s own selves to death when tortured by fire is quite without foundation; books, dealing almost exclusively with astrology, alchemy and the the venom has no effect ypon the individual itself, nor upon other occult sciences generally, are mainly responsible for the developmembers of the same species. Scorpions, however, succumb ment of the Michael Scot legend. Chief among these are Super rapidly when exposed to the warmth of a fire or of the tropical sun. auctorem spherae (pr. Bologna 1495, Venice 1631); De sole et They are easily rendered innocuous by scraping off the sharp luna (pr. Strassburg 1622), the De chiromantia, an opuscule often point of the sting; and it has been shown that immunity to the ill published in the r5th century; De physiognomia et de hominis procreatione (18 editions between 1477 and 1660). effects can be acquired by being repeatedly stung. Around his own death many legends gathered. He was supposed Many scorpions exhibit a conspicuous warning coloration of jet-black or black and yellow; and many have stridulating organs. to have foretold that he would end by a blow from a stone of These, like the rattle of rattlesnakes, advertise their presence not more than two ounces in weight, and that to protect himself and help to prevent their being attacked or trodden on. In habits he wore an iron helmet, and that, raising this in church at the they are nocturnal, spending the daytime concealed under stones elevation of the host, the fatal stone fell on him from the roof. or fallen tree trunks or in burrows. Amongst the burrowing kinds Italian tradition says he died in Italy; other accounts place his are the large African species of the genera Pandinus and Opis- death in his native country, and his burial at Holme Cultram in thophthalmus and the eastern genus Palamnaeus. Cumberland or in Melrose Abbey. In the notes to Scott’s Lay of Scorpions are viviparous. The brood, which consists of a dozen the Last Minstrel, of which the opening of the wizard’s tomb forms or more young, is carried about on its mother’s back until they are the most striking episode, Scott recounts the exploits attributed by able to shift for themselves. The young resemble their parents popular belief to the magician. “In the south of Scotland any and undergo no metamorphosis. Moulting occurs by means of a work of great labour and antiquity is ascribed either to the agency

split just below the edge of the carapace as in king-crabs and

spiders. Scorpions’ were

already in existence in the Carboniferous Period and there is no essential structural difference between these

of Auld Michael, of Sir William Wallace or the devil.” He used to feast his friends with dishes brought by spirits from the royal

kitchens of France and Spain and other lands. On an émbassy' to France he brought the French monarch to his knees by the stamp-

wel wk

SCOT

138

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LOT—SCOTLAND

[PHYSICAL

GEOGRAPHY

ton to Stonehaven); and the southern Uplands. To these, geographers add a fourth division, to be regarded as at least a sub-region of the Highlands, viz., the iower eastern slopes of that region powers and exploits are narrated in Folengo’s Macaronic poem the North sea, from Stonehaven and Aberdeen in the bordering magician a as reputation Michael’s (1595). of Merlin Coccaius high plain of Caithness in the north. It may be the to south (canto Dante _ was early established. He appears in the Inferno of tern region. the termed north-eas XX. 115-117) among the magicians and soothsayers. He is repreall this region is high ground, deeply —Nearly Highlands. The sented in the same character by Boccaccio. lochs. The Highland hills stand in sea and valleys with trenched ; (1897) Scot See J. Wood Brown, Life and Legend of Michael confluent ridges, having in parallel Haskens, C. less or (1917); a succession of more P. Duhem, Le Système du Monde t. III. «Michael Scot and Frederick II.” in Zsis (1921) and Studies in the the main a trend from north-east to south-west. These ridges are Hist. of Mediaeval Science (Cambridge, 1924) ; L. Thorndike, Hist. of separated by longitudinal and furrowed by transverse valleys. The Magic and Experimental Science (vol. 2, 1924). longitudinal valleys, which run in the same general direction as SCOT AND LOT, a phrase common in the records of Eng- the ridges, have had their trend defined by geological structure, lish mediaeval boroughs, applied to those householders who were such as a line of dislocation (the Great Glen), or the plications of assessed to any payment (such as tallage, aid, etc.) made by the the rocks (Lochs Ericht, Tay and Awe, and most of the sea lochs borough for local or national purposes. They were usually mem- of Argyllshire). The transverse valleys run north-west or southbers of a gild merchant. Previous to the Reform Act 1832 those east and are for the most part independent of geological structure. who paid scot and bore lot were entitled to the franchise in virtue The valley of the Garry and Tay crosses the strike of all the of this payment. Highland rocks, traverses the great fault on the Highland border, SCOTER (Oidemia nigra), a diving duck, also known as the and finally breaks through the chain of the Sidlaw hills at Perth. “black duck” from the male being, save for a stripe of orange River-gorges are characteristic features in many of the valleys. In down the bill, wholly of that colour. Of all ducks the scoter has the Old Red Sandstone they are particularly prominent where that the most marine habits, keeping to the sea in all weathers, and formation has lain in the way of the streams sweeping down from coming to land only to breed. A second species, the velvet scoter, the Highlands. In the basin of the Moray firth some fine examples O. fusca, of larger size, with a white spot under each eye and a may be seen on the Nairn and Findhorn, while on the west side of white bar on each wing, is less abundant. It has its American the Cromarty firth some of the small streams descending from the counterpart, O. americana, and a third, the surf-duck, O. perspi- high grounds of the east of the shire of Ross and Cromarty have cillata, with a white patch on the crown and another on the nape, cut out defiles in the conglomerates, remarkable for their depth and a curiously parti-coloured bill, is not uncommon in North and narrowness. Towards the south margin of the Highlands inAmerican waters. All the species have their true home in arctic stances of true canyons in the Old Red sandstone are to be seen or sub-arctic countries, but the scoter itself breeds occasionally in where the Isla and North Esk enter that formation. While many of the Highland mountains, viewed from near at Scotland. The nest is on the ground and contains five to eight creamy eggs. The females are soot-coloured above and brownish hand, tower above the surrounding country, and are often of white beneath. The flesh of all these birds has an exceedingly noble form, from a distance they are seen not to vary much from a general uniformity of height. A few exceptions occur along strong taste, and ranked as fish in ecclesiastical dietary. ing of his horse's hoof, the first ringing the bells of Notre Dame

and the second causing the towers of the palace to fall. Other

SCOTIA, aresidential village of Schenectady county, New

York, U.S.A., on the north bank of the Mohawk river, opposite Schenectady; served by the Boston and Maine railroad. Pop. 1930, 7,437. It was incorporated in 1904.

SCOTLAND, that portion of Great Britain which lies north

of the English boundary; it also comprises the Outer and Inner Hebrides and other islands off the west coast, and the Orkney and Shetland islands off the north coast. With England lying to

the south, it is bounded on the north and west by the Atlantic ocean and on the east by the North sea. It.is separated from

the western seaboard of Sutherland, in Skye, and elsewhere, but their structure explains the reason of their prominence, ieg adac

broadly, the Highland mountains are monuments,.of erosion, the” relics of an old plateau, the surface, and former slopes of which are shown approximately by the summits of the existing masses and the directions of the chief waterflows. The surface is rugged. The rocks project in bosses and crags, which roughen the sides and crests of the ridges. The shape and colour of these roughnesses

depend on the nature of the underlying rock. Where it is hard

and jointed, weathering into large quadrangular blocks, the hills for the gnarled bossy character of their decliviEngland by the Solway firth, the Sark, Scotsdyke (an old.em- are, distinguished: bankment connecting the Sark with the Esk), the Esk (for one ties, as may be seen in Ben Ledi and the heights to the north-east mile), the Liddel, the Kershope, the Cheviot-hills, the Tweed and of it. Where, on the other hand, the rock decays into smaller a small area known as the “liberties of Berwick. The greatest debris, the hills assume smoother contours, as in the slate hills length from Cape Wrath in Sutherland to the Mull of Galloway running from. the Kyles of Bute to Loch Lomond. The process by which the ancient plateau has been trenched is 274 m., and the greatest breadth from Buchan Ness to Applecross in the shire of Ross and Cromarty 154 m., but from Bonar into valleys and confluent ridges is best displayed among the higher Bridge at the head of Dornoch firth to the head of Loch Broom mountains, where erosion proceeds at an accelerated pace. The

it is only 26 m. wide, and 30 m. from Grangemouth on the Forth - to Bowling on the Clyde. The coast-line is estimated at 2,300 m., the arms of the sea being so numerous and in several cases penetrating so far inland that few places are beyond 4o m. from salt water. The total area is 19,069,500 ac. or 29,796 sq.m., exclusive of inland waters (about 608 sq.m.), the foreshore (about

long screes or talus-slopes at the foot of every crag and cliff bear witness to the continual waste. The headwaters of a river cut ito the slopes of the. parent hill.. Each valley is consequently length-

cally used) originated in the 11th century, when (from the tribe of Scots) part of it was called Scotia (a name previously applied

to the bottom of the hollow. which long trails of debris descend

498 sq.m.) and tidal water (about 608 sq. miles). The name Scotland (the ancient Caledonia—a name still poetito what is now Ireland); and the name of Scotland became established in the 12th and 13th centuries. PHYSICAL

GEOGRAPHY

ened at the expense of the mountain from which it descends.

Where a number, of small torrents converge in a steep mountain recess, they cut, out a, crescent-shaped hollow or half-cauldron, which in the Scottish Highlands is known as a corrie. Usually the upper part of a corrie is formed by a crescent of naked rock, from Every distinct variety of rock has its own type of corrie, the peculiarities being marked, both.in the details of the upper cliffs and crags, and in the amount, form and colour of the screes. The Scottish corries have been occupied by glaciers. Hence their bot-

toms are generally ice-worn or, strewn over with moraine stuff.

Physically, Scotland is divided into three structural regions— the Highlands (subdivided by Glen More into the north-western

Often a small tarn fills up the bottom,,ponded back by a moraine.

south-westerly to north-easterly trend, between a line drawn roughly from Girvan to Dunbar and a line drawn from Dumbar-

grounds also the gradual narrowing of ridges into sharp, narrow, knife-edged crests and the lowering of these into cols or passes

It is in such localities that we can, best observe the evidences of and south-eastern Highlands); the central Lowlands (a tract of the glaciers that once overspread the country. Among these high

139

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I40

SCOTLAND

can be well seen. The stages in this demolition are clearest where the underlying rock is of granite or similarly tough material, which at the same time is apt to be split and splintered by means of its numerous transverse joints. The granite mountains of Arran furnish excellent illustrations. Where a rock yields to weather with considerable uniformity in all directions it is likely to assume conical forms in the progress of denudation. Sometimes this uniformity is attained by a general disintegration of the rock into fine debris, which rolls down the slopes in long screes. In other cases it is secured by the intersection of joints, whereby a rock, in itself hard and durable, is divided into small angular blocks, which are separated by weathering and slide down the declivities. In many instances the beginning of the formation of a cone may be detected on ridges which have been deeply trenched by valleys. The mountain Schiehallion (3,547 ft.) is an instance of a cone not yet freed from its parent ridge. A further stage in denudation results in isolated groups of cones completely separated from the rest of the rocks among which they once lay buried. Such groups may be carved out of a continuous band of rock extending into the regions beyond. The Paps of Jura, for instance, rise out of a long belt of quartzite which stretches through the islands of Islay, Jura and Scarba. In many cases, however, the groups point to the existence of some boss of rock of greater durability than those in the immediate neighbourhood, as in the Coolins (Cuchullins), and Red hills of Skye and the group of granite cones of Ben Loyal, Sutherland. The raost impressive form of solitary cone is that wherein, after vast denudation, a thick overlying formation has been reduced toa single outlier, such as Morven in Caithness, the two Bens Griam in Sutherland, and the pyramids of red sandstone on the western margin of the shires of Sutherland and Ross and Cromarty. While, in Scotland, the dislocation of rocks has generally prevented the formation of continuous escarpments, there are instances of these in the wide basalt. plateaux of the Inner Hebrides, where lava has been poured out in nearly horizontal sheets, with occasional layers of tuff or other softer rock between them.

[PHYSICAL

GEOGRAPHY

scenery, betokening, even at a distance, the general monotony of structure. But the sameness is relieved along the western coast of the shires of Sutherland and Ross and Cromarty by groups of cones and stacks, and farther south by the terraced

plateaux and abrupt conical hills of Skye, Rum and Mull. The south-eastern region of the Highlands, having a more diversified geological structure, offers greater variety of scenery.

Most of the valleys, lakes and sea lochs run in a south-westerly and north-easterly direction, a feature strikingly exhibited in west Argyllshire. But there are also several important transverse valleys, that of the Garry and Tay, already noticed, being the most conspicuous example. The watershed, too, is somewhat different. It first strikes eastwards round the head of Loch Laggan and then swings southwards, pursuing a sinuous course till it leaves the Highlands on the east side of Loch Lomond. The

streams flowing westward, however, are still short, while those running to the north-east, east and south-east have long courses and drain wide areas. There is a marked contrast between the configuration of the north-eastern district, and the other parts of this region. In that area the Grampians rise to level or gently rounded summits, often more than 3,000, and in a few places exceeding 4,cooft. in height,and bounded by steep declivities and sometimes by precipices. Farther south-west, in the shires of Perth, Inverness and Argyll, they give place to the more typical hummocky crested ridges of Highland scenery which, in Ben Nevis and Aonach Beg, reach heights of over 4,000 ft. Geological struc-

ture alone does not account for this contrast, and one reason may

which, spread out between the bases of the boundary hills, has been levelled into meadow land by the rivers and provides almost the sole arable ground in each district. It is appropriate here to notice certain terms common throughout Scottish topography in apse tion to types of valleys and low-lying land, for examples,of

Erosion.—Platforms of erosion, successively established by them are found in the Highlands or on theirspond Straths are broad expanses of low ground betien :

the wearing down of the land to sea-level, occur both in the Highlands and among the southern Uplands. Allusion has been made to the flat-topped moorlands which, in the eastern Grampians, reach heights of 3,000 to 4,ocooft. above the sea. The summits of Lochnagar and Ben Macdhui may be taken as examples. These mountains lie within granite areas; but not less striking

examples may be found among the schists.

That these high

plateaux are planes of erosion is shown by their independence of geological structure, the upturned edges of the vertical and con-

torted schists having been shorn off and the granite wasted and levelled along its exposed surface. An example of the similar destruction of a much younger platform is to be found in the terraced plateaux of Skye, Eigg, Canna, Muck, Mull and Morven, which are portions of what was probably originally a continuous plain of basalt. Though dating back only to older Tertiary time, this plain has been so deeply trenched by denudation that it has been reduced to scattered fragments. The Highlands are separated into two disconnected and in some respects contrasted divisions by the depression of the Great glen, extending from Loch Linnhe to Inverness. In the northwestern section the highest ground is found along the Atlantic coast, mounting steeply from the sea to an average height of 2,000 to 3,000 feet. The watershed consequently keeps close to the western seaboard, in some places not above t$ m. from it. From these hills, which catch the first downpour of the rains from the ocean, the ground falls eastward. Numerous eminences, however, prolong the mountainous features to the North sea and south-eastward to Glen More. The difference of the general level on the two sides of the waterparting is re-

flected in the length of their streams. On the west the drainage empties itself into the Atlantic after flowing only a very few miles, on the east it has to run 30 or 40 miles. At the head of Loch Nevis the western stream is but 3m. long, while the eastern has a course of some 18m. to the Great glen. Throughout the north-western region uniformity of features characterizes the

`

lie in the heavier rainfall, and consequently stronger erosion, to which the western mountains, facing the Atlantic ocean, have been exposed. Long narrow strips of flat land occur in the more important valleys. Most of the straths and glens have a floor of detritus

à

traversed by one main stream and its tributaries—e.g., Strath Tay, Strath Spey, Strath Conor. -Fhis name, however, has also been applied to wide tracts of lowland which embrace portions of several valleys, but are defined by lines of heights on each side; the best example is afforded by Strathmore—the “Great Strath” —between the southern margin of the Highlands and the line of the Sidlaw hills. This long wide depression, though it looks like one great valley, includes portions of the valleys of the Tay, Isla, North Esk and South Esk, all of which cross it. Elsewhere in “central Scotland such awide depression is known as a howe, as

in the Howe of Fife between the Ochil and Lomond hills. A glen

is a.narrower and steeper-sided valley than a strath, though the /names’ have not always been applied with discrimination. Most of the Highland valleys are true glens, Glencoe being the best known example. The hills rise steeply on each side, sometimes in grassy slopes, sometimes in rocky bosses and precipitous cliffs,

while the bottom is occupied by a lake. In the south of Scotland the larger streams flow in wide open valleys called dales, as in Clydesdale, Tweeddale, Teviotdale, Liddesdale, Eskdale, Nithsdale. The strips of alluvial land bordering a river are known as haughs, and where, along estuaries, they expand into wide plains they are termed carses. The carses of the Forth extend seawards

as far as Bo’ness and consist chiefly of raised beaches. The Carse of Gowrie is the strip of low ground intervening between the Firth of Tay and the Sidlaw hills. Brae signifies the steep bank of a river, and so any slope or hill-side.

Scottish lochs (or lakes) ‘are sometimes classified into four

groups—glen lochs, rock-tarfis, moraine-tarns, and lochs of the Lowlands, of which the first and most important are practically confined to the Highlands and the second and third are far more numerous there than elsewhere. The small rock-tarns, lying in rock-basins on the flanks of mountains, or the summit of ridges, or rocky plateaux, are by far the commonest, and especially so in the north-west. They almost invariably lie in strongly

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY]

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I41

ice-worn platforms, and are held to occupy hollows produced by tion, nor even a potential industrial population, were available the gouging action of the ice-sheets in glacial times. Moraine- at these places. Further schemes are developing in Lochaber and tarns—small sheets of water dammed back by moraines left by the district near Mallaig. Otherwise, homestead industry, such retreating glaciers—are also numerous in the Highlands, nestling as the manufacture of Harris tweed in the outer Hebrides, can in the bottoms of corries. In the south-west, where the glaciers maintain itself (apart from local consumption) only by the continued longest to reach sea-level, lakes retained by moraine- special excellence of its products. It thus follows that the Highbarriers are found very little above the sea. More important, if land population is principally agricultural, and concentrated upon less numerous than either of these categories, are the larger the limited cultivable areas, the resources of which it tends easily glen-lochs, which are associated with the finest inland scenery to outgrow, so that the Highlands have sent and still send abroad in the Highlands. These occupy depressions in the glens, not due many emigrants. Only a few alluvial basins—up to an elevation to local heaping up of detritus, but true rock-basins, often of of 1,200ft. in Banffshire, but usually much lower—the levels great depth. It is commonly but not invariably held that these of raised beaches, and narrow isolated coastal strips offer fair depressions were formed by the erosive action of ice, since glaciers agricultural land, and a more or less complete subsistence to the occupied the glens where they occur and wore down the rocks crofters, of whom those on the coast lands may add to their along the sides and bottom; but it is a point of difficulty in this means of livelihood by fishing, while others may take service as theory whether ice could have eroded the deepest of the hollows. gamekeepers on the large sporting estates which occupy a high In any circumstances the lochs must be of recent geological date. proportion of the total area. The North-eastern Region.—This division embraces the Any such basins belonging to the time of the folding of the crystalline schists would have been filled up and effaced long considerable low-lying areas in eastern Aberdeenshire and the ago, so rapid is the infilling by the torrents which sweep down northern parts of Banff, Elgin, and Nairn, together with the level detritus from the surrounding heights. Glen lakes are almost strip of land bordering both sides of Moray firth. Farther north, wholly confined to the western half of the Highlands. Hardly the Highlands of Sutherland sink close to the coast, but the narrow any lakes are to be seen east of a line drawn from Inverness to coastal belt there broadens northward again in Caithness, which Perth. West of that line, however, they abound in both the does not strictly belong to the Highlands. In the south-eastern part of the region (east and south-east of Moray firth) the longitudinal and the transverse valleys. The western Highland coast is intersected throughout by principal rivers—Spey and Dee, and, within the angle formed by long narrow sea-lochs or fiords. The mainland slopes steeply these, the Don, Ythan, Deveron, and others—drain long valleys into the sea and is fronted by chains and groups of islands. ‘These separated by extended spurs of the Highland mountains. The fiords are submerged land-valleys, for the whole western coast has hills sink to a fairly wide foreland, here sloping gently to the subsided to a considerable depth beneath its former level. The sea, there broken off in low cliffs. On this part of the coast there Scottish sea lochs must be considered in connection with those of are neither islands nor deep inlets, though plenty of small bays western Ireland and Norway. The whole of this north-western offer shelter for shipping, especially fishing vessels. Northward, coast-line of Europe bears witness to recent submergence. On this the coast is deeply indented by the Firths of Moray, Cromarty view the Outer and Inner Hebrides were formerly one with them- and Dornoch, and a further series of fine rivers, hardly less selves and the mainland, and the western isles therefore are truly famous among salmon and trout fishermen than those just grouped with the Highland province of Scotland. Nearly the whole mentioned, enter the sea from the mountains to the west. The coast-line is rocky. On the west the coast is mostly either steep chief of these rivers are the Findhorn, Beauly, Conon, Shin, and rocky declivity or a sea-wall, though strips of lower ground are Helmsdale. The peninsulas between the firths reach no great found in the bays. The cliffs vary in character according to the elevation—an extreme height of 80o0ft. is found in the Black nature of the rock. At Cape Wrath, precipices 300ft. high have Isle south of Cromarty firth. The coastal Lowland of Sutherland, been cut out of the Archean gneiss. The varying texture of this as already indicated, is very narrow, but Caithness is a wide moor, rock, its irregular foliation and jointing, and its ramifying veins of terminating almost everywhere seaward in a range of precipices pegmatite give it very unequal powers of resistance. Here it of Old Red sandstone. The population of this region is, on the whole, closer on the projects in irregular bastions and buttresses, there retires into deep recesses and tunnels, but shows everywhere a characteristic rugged- coastal lands than in the interior; the largest towns, such as ness. In striking contrast to these precipices are those of the Aberdeen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, Banff, Inverness, Wick, are Cambrian red sandstone a few miles to the east. Vast vertical seaports. In Sutherland population is almost confined to the walls of rock rise to a height of 6ooft., cut by their perpendicular raised beaches of the narrow coastal belt. On the other hand a joints into quadrangular piers and projections, some of which fairly dense rural population covers most of the area between the stand out alone as islets in front of the main cliff. The sombre lower Dee and the Deveron, and extends far up the valley of the colouring is relieved by vegetation along the edges of the nearly Spey. The region is not devoid of very fertile lands, although flat beds which project like great cornices and serve as nesting- their preparation for tilling has, in the past, necessitated in some places for sea-fowl. Along the western sea-lochs raised sea- parts immense labour in clearing the glacial boulders with which beaches sometimes afford the only arable soil, their flat green they were bestrewn. A high standard of farming is reached in surfaces presenting a strong contrast to the brown moors above. the lower parts of the Dee and Don basins, the Laigh of Moray, The population of the Highlands is naturally scattered, since and other localities. Oats and turnips, with some barley, are main great tracts of mountain and moorland are uninhabitable. The crops, and the lower lands of the eastern division are famous few small towns and larger villages are for the most part such for cattle. On the higher grounds sheep are more prominent. as have grown in modern times as touring centres and places Granite is quarried at several points in the same division, and of summer residence along the west coast and the railways, in granite-polishing is a characteristic industry at Aberdeen. Pure particular the line between Perth and Inverness. Settlements water, favourable for malting, has helped in the establishment of remote from these influences are commonly small, and some on the distilling industry. The fisheries centre mainly on Aberdeen, the western seaboard share with Norwegian fjord-side settlements which is also the principal port for the export of herrings; the the characteristic of having their chief lmes of access by water. pelagic fisheries are carried on mostly from more northerly The Highlands are not rich in minerals; only a few workings, such ports—Peterhead, Fraserburgh and Wick (as well as the Orkney and Shetland Islands). as that of the iron ore of Raasay, near Skye, are encountered; The Central Lowlands.—These constitute a broad depresand only the modern development of hydro-electric power gives promise of any considerable industrial activity. This use of the sion with south-westerly to north-easterly trend lying between water-power resources of the west, however, has already resulted the Highland line that runs from the head of the Firth of Clyde in the establishment of aluminium works at Foyers and at to Stonehaven and the pastoral uplands that stretch from Girvan Kinlochleven—the power itself being the sole attraction, for to Dunbar. They may be regarded as a long trough of younger

neither raw material, mor an easy line of commercial communica-

rocks let down by parallel dislocations between the older masses

14.2

SCOTLAND

to the south and north. The depression as such, however, is of great geological antiquity. Long dislocations have sharply defined its northern and southern margins. By other fractures and unequal movements of upheaval or depression portions of the older rocks have been brought up within the bounds of the younger, and areas of the younger have been enclosed by the older. On the whole, these disturbances have followed the prevalent north-easterly trend, and hence a tendency may be observed among the main ridges and valleys to run in that direction. The chains of the Ochil, Sidlaw, Pentland, Renfrew, Campsie and Fintry hills, and the valleys of the Strathmore, Firth of Tay, and the basin of Midlothian are examples. But the dominant cause in the determination of the topographical prominences and depressions of the district has been the relative hardness and softness of the rocks. Almost all the eminences in the Lowlands consist of hard igneous rocks, forming not only chains of hills such as those just mentioned and others in Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, but isolated crags and hills like those on which stand the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling, and others conspicuous in Fife and the Lothians. Of the three chief valleys in the central Lowlands, two, those of the Tay and the Forth, descend from the Highlands, and one, that of the Clyde, from the southern Uplands. Though on the whole transverse, these depressions furnish another notable example of that independence of geological structure already referred to. The gorge in which the famous Falls of Clyde are situated is the best example of a river-gorge in the Lowlands. Lochs are not many. Occasional rock-tarns are found in the hills. The larger lochs of the Lowlands lie in hollows of the glacial detritus, which is strewn thickly over the lower grounds. As these hollows were caused by original irregular deposition rather than by erosion, they have no intimate relation to the present drainagelines. The lakes vary in size from pools to sheets of water several square miles in area. As a rule they are shallow in proportion to their extent and surface. They were once more numerous than they are now, for some have disappeared through natural causes and others have been drained. The largest sheets of fresh water

in the Lowlands are lakes of the plains, as Loch Leven and the Lake of Menteith. The fact that two-thirds of the population of Scotland live in the central Lowlands on one-tenth of the total area of the country, is evidence of the pre-eminent industrial position of this region. Among the geographical reasons for that pre-eminence we find, first, ease of communication, both internal and external. The Firth of Clyde on the west, the Firths of Forth and Tay on the rast, deeply. indent the coasts and offer access for shipping directly or ‘very near to the chief industrial centres. Secondly, the Carboniferous rocks of the Lowlands carry important coal-fields, the richest that of Lanarkshire, others in Ayrshire, about the head of the Firth of Forth, in the Lothians and in Fife.. Iron is allied with coal, notably in thé Ayrshire and Lanarkshire fields. Oilshale is worked in Midlothian and Linlithgowshire, but its importance has declined; lead is worked in Lanarkshire. Upon, the Lanarkshire coal-field, the city of Glasgow, and its neighbouring industrial towns, there centre a variety of great manufacturing industries—shipbuilding and engineering, cotton, woollen and linen manufactures, brewing and distilling, chemical, pottery and glass manufactures, and many others. Elsewhere certain great industries are definitely localized, such as the jute manufacture and jam and marmalade making at Dundee; the woollen industry in Stirlingshire and Clackmannanshire, linen manufacture at and about Dunfermline, Arbroath and Montrose, that of linoleum and oilcloth at Kirkcaldy, that of paper in places neighbouring to Edinburgh, and the dyeing industry at Perth. All depend now upon the coal supplies; the woollen manufactures were based originally upon the neighbourhood of wide hill-pastures for sheep, the jam-making of Dundee upon the fertile fruit-lands in the adjacent Carse of Gowrie and Strathmore; and all the textile industries, the paper mills, and the distilleries owe their establishment in part to ample supplies of pure water. Rich agricultural lands, albeit restricted in area, lie. close to the manufacturing districts, especially in the east, in Perthshire, Forfarshire, Fife and the Lothians: barley, a high yield of wheat on a small acreage,

[PHYSICAL

GEOGRAPHY

and potatoes are crops especially noted. The

Southern

Uplands.—These

extend

from

the

north

channel in the south-west to St. Abb’s head in the north-east, and form a well-defined belt of hilly ground, and though much less elevated (their highest point is 2,764ft. above the seai) than the Highlands, rise with scarcely less abruptness above the lower tracts that bound them. Their north-western margin for the most part springs boldly above the fields and moorlands of the central plain, and its boundary for long distances continues remarkably straight. On the south and south-east their limits in general are less prominently defined but are better seen west and south-west of the Nith, from which they extend to the sea and Loch Ryan, terminating in the extreme south-west in a plateau of which the loftiest point is little over 1,oooft. above the sea. The Cheviots do not properly belong to the Uplands, from which they are separated by Liddesdale and other hollows, and on which they abut abruptly. But though geologically the one set of mountains must be separated from the other, geographically it is convenient to include within the southern Uplands the whole area between the central plain and the Border. A survey of the Uplands, therefore, presents in succession from south-west to north-east the Kirkcudbrightshire and Ayrshire mountain moors, the Lowthers, the Moffat hills, the Moorfoots and the Lammermuirs. Distinguished by the smoothness of their surface, they may be regarded as a rolling moorland, traversed by many valleys conducting the drainage to the sea. This character is well observed from the heights of Tweedsmuir. Wide, mossy moors, 2,oooft. or more above the sea, and sometimes level as a racecourse, spread out on all sides. Their continuity, however, is interrupted by numerous valleys separating them into detached flat-topped hills, seldom marked by precipices of naked rock. Where the rock projects it more usually appears in low crags and knolls, from which long trails of grey or purple debris descend till they are lost among the grass. These smooth green hills form excellent pasture-land, while the alluvial flats in the valleys, and even some. of‘the lower slopes, are fitted for grain and green crops.;’ Ondy:}iai'/théhigher tracts are there rugged features recalling the character off;

land scenery.

In the heights of Hartfell (2,651ft.) andWiel,

coomb (2,695 ft.), whence the Clyde, Tweed, Annan and Moffat” Water descend, the high moorlands have been scarped into gloomy

corries, with crags and talus-slopes, which form a series of landscapes all the more striking from the contrast with everything around them. In Galloway, also, the highest portions of the Uplands have acquired a ruggedness and wildness more like those of the Highlands than any other district in the south of Scotland. In that region the Silurian rocks have been invaded by large bosses of granite, and have undergone a variable amount of metamorphism which. has, in some places, altered them into hard crystalline schists. These various rocky masses have yielded unequally to disintegration; the harder portions project in rocky kmolls, crags and cliffs, while the softer parts have been worn down into more flowing outlines. The highest summit in the south of Scotland—Merrick (2,764ft.)—consists of Silurian strata much altered by. proximity to the granite, while the rest of the more prominent heights (all in Kirkcudbrightshire)—Rinns of

Kells (2,668ft.), Cairnsmuir of Carsphairn (2,612ft.)

and Cairns-

more of Fleet (2,331ft.)—are formed of granite: ' The watershed of the southern Uplands runs from ihe mouth of Loch Ryan in a sinuous north-easterly direction, keeping near

the northern limit of the region till it reaches the basin of the Nith, where it quits the Uplands; descends ‘into the lowlands of Ayrshire, and, after circling round the headwaters of- the Nith, strikes south-eastwards across half the breadth of the Uplands, then sweeps north and eastwards between the basins of the Clyde,

Tweed and Annan, and then through the moors that surround the sources of the Ettrick, Teviot and:.Jed,:into the Cheviot hills. Here, again, the longest slopeis on the east side, where the Tweed bears the whole drainage of that side into the sea. Although the rocks throughout the southern. Uplands have a persistent north-easterly and south-westerly strike, and though this trend is apparent in the bands of more rugged hills that mark the outcrop of hard grits and greywackes, nevertheless geological

GEOLOGY]

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143

structure has been much less effective in determining the lines`_ palaeontologists, extends into the Lower Ordovician (Durness lithof ridge and valley than in i the Highlands. On the southern side ology and fauna are of American facies). The base passes of the watershed, in Dumfriesshire and Galloway, the valleys smoothly and unconformably across Torridonian east-south-eastrun generally transversely from north-west to south-east. But wards on to Lewisian exposed in a pre-Cambrian anticline. The in the eastern half of the Uplands the valleys do not appear to stratigraphy is persistent for roo miles along the strike: basal have any relation to the geological structure of the ground quartzite, 320 ft.; quartzite with vertical worm “pipes,” 270 ft.; dolomitic shales, ‘mudstones and dolomites, with Olenellus, etc., underneath. In the southern Uplands, owing to the greater softness and 50 ft.; grit, with Salterella and also Olenellus, 30 ft.; limestones uniformity of texture of the rocks, as compared with those of and dolomites in seven stages, some fossiliferous,1,500 feet. the Highlands, rock-tarns are comparatively infrequent, except Plutonic (possibly early Devonian) intrusions of alkali-syenite, in Galloway, where the protrusion of granite and its associated borolanite, etc., accompanied by sills, cut the Durness sediments. metamorphism have reproduced Highland conditions of rock- Contact effects include dedolomitisation. The Durness fossiliferous succession with its intrusions passes structure. The best known and one of the most picturesque of moraine-dammed lochs is the wild and lonely Loch Skene, lying east-south-eastwards in disturbed fashion under the Moine in a recess of Whitecoombe at the head of Moffat water. Others Thrust overlain by crystalline schists. This thrust has been traced are sprinkled over the higher parts of the valleys in Galloway. from Durness to Skye, and may continue through Islay. Near On the east the southern uplands plunge abruptly into the Durness, a thrust-outlier (Klippe) of the Moine Thrust-mass sea near St. Abb’s head in a noble range of precipices 300 to (nappe) has been preserved by down-faulting 10 miles in advance sco ft. in height, and on the west terminate in a long broken of the main outcrop. In Assynt and Glencoul, there are particuline of sea-wall, which begins at the mouth of Loch Ryan, extends larly good exposures of the disturbed belt with subsidiary thrusts to the Mull of Galloway and reappears again in the southern bringing 1,500 ft. slices of Lewisian for miles over Cambrian. headlands of Wigtown and Kirkcudbright. Southward they sink Recumbent folding occurs in and near Skye. Isoclinal packing, schuppen Struktur, crushing (mylonisation), slaty cleavage, etc., to the narrow Lowland bordering Solway firth. On the grassy hills of the Uplands, from end to end, sheep arediagrammatically exposed at many localities. Pre-Devonian of the Highlands South-east of Moine farming is naturally an outstanding occupation, and with it is associated the woollen industry centred in the chief inland Thrust.—Sedimentary quartzo-felspathic schist or gneiss, with towns of the Tweed basin. In the west (Galloway, Ayrshire) sufficient mica to give a flaggy structure, is prevalent north-west dairy farming is highly developed for the supply of the neigh- of the Caledonian canal. Micaceous gneiss representing shales bouring populous centres in the Lowlands. Into the western is also common. Such rocks are grouped together as Moine dales, too, some of the industries of the Lowlands extend, with Schists. A limestone with particular associates occurs a little some coal-mining in Nithsdale, quarrying of freestone, etc., while above the Moine Thrust in Eireboll. Several minor outcrops of the granite of Creetown and the neighbourhood is famous. But, Lewisian igneous and sedimentary types are generally interpreted asa whole, the human, like the physical, geography of the southern as Lewisian inliers interfolded with unconformable Moines. The Uplands, is clearly differentiated from that of the Highlands and Inchbae porphyritic granite, now largely augen-gneiss, was inthe Lowlands; it approaches more nearly in character to that truded into the Moines before these had suffered regional metamorphism. Much of the resultant indurated hornfels, escaping of our north-eastern region. (O. J. R. H.) subsequent deformation, retains minutiae of sedimentary strucGEOLOGY ture, such as grains, ripple-marks and sun-cracks. The Moine Scotland lies in the course of a pre-Devonian mountain chain Schists seem to decrease in metamorphism, near the Moine that stretches from Scandinavia to Ireland. This chain, called Thrust, but evidence is blurred by crush-phenomena. In Skye Caledonian by Suess, dominates the early geological history of there is a thrust-mass under the Moine Thrust, the rocks of the country. The general course of its structures is north-east- which are variously interpreted as Moines or Torridonian. Some south-west. Its foreland is in the Outer Hebrides, its front in think all Moines are metamorphosed Torridonian; most regard the north-west Highlands. Its latest manifestation is the cor- the Moine Metamorphism as pre-Torridonian. Moine-like rocks cross the Caledonian canal fault, but half rugation of the Silurian of the Southern Uplands—where Lapof this south-eastern district consists of a varied assemblage of worth demonstrated the true worth of graptolites. Pre-Devonian of the North-west Highlands and Islands. undated sedimentary schists known as Dalradian. Quartzites, —The oldest rocks are grouped as Lewisian Complex. They make limestones and graphitic schists are characteristic members; the the greater part of Lewis, with its companion Outer Hebrides, Schichallion conglomerate may be glacial; pillow lavas occur and much of the coast of the adjacent mainland. Apparently, at Loch Awe; basic intrusions are wide-spread; granites, that their earliest members consist of metamorphic sediments, in- have shared to some extent in the movements, are common in cluding magnesian marbles and graphitic schists. Into these the east. The Dalradians overlie Moine-like rocks, pitching off are intruded igneous gneisses (intermediate, basic, etc.). Lo- them towards Loch Awe and Banffshire. Large-scale recumbent cally, late dykes of the complex have escaped metamorphism. The folds with fold-faults (slides), the whole refolded, are typically shown at Ballachulish and elsewhere. Lewisian abounds in records of pre-Torridonian movements Zonal mapping of regional metamorphism was first enticed executed under diverse conditions. Two phenomena have attracted particular attention: transformation of dolerite into horn- out in the Dalradian belt. The grade, varying from sillimaniteblende-schist, and production by frictional .fusion of so-called gneiss to roofing slate, is low at Loch Awe, in Banffshire and “flinty” crush-rock. A great development’ of “flinty? crush- along the south-eastern Highland border. Probable Upper Cambrian pillow lavas, radiolarian chetts and rock follows an east-south-eastwardly inclined thrust-plane along fossiliferous shales outcrop discontinuously along the Highland the Outer Hebrides. Torridonian succeeds Lewisian with complete unconformity. border fault. In Arran they overlie Dalradians. Farther northFrom Islay northward to Skye, the Lower’forridonian basal con- east they are associated with a grit and conglomerate group glomerates, epidotic grits, ‘grey sandstones, flags and grey and (Margie Beds) and appear overthrust by Dalradians. At Stoneblack shales reach a collective thickness of 7,000 feet. Farther haven they are unconformably overlain by uppermost Silurian north, Middle Torridonian -arkose (6,000-8,000 ft.), with local (Downtonian) sandstones with mudstones, tuffs and congiat > breccias, rests among and covers over “fossil hills” of Lewisian erates (2,760 ft.); that yield fish-and Dictyocaris. Silurian of Lesmahagow and Pentland Antictines in the gneiss which are sometimes more then 2,000 ft. in individual height. `Upper Porncones sandstones, flags and shales attain Central Valley.-Lesmahazow exposures of Silurian show= Wenlock greywacke and’shale. {base not seen}; 1,300 ft.;' Ludlow 4,500 feet. `. * . The Durness Quartaite-limestone—This succession begins mudstone, greywacke and shale 1,480 ft.; Downtonian yellow, at or below:the Lawer: ‚Cambrian, and, according. to American rediand: chocolate sandstone with two conglomierates and some

SCOTLAND

144

mudstone, 2,700 feet. The Wenlock-Ludlow rocks have yielded many brachiopods and molluscs, especially in the Pentlands, also scorpion, phyllocarids, eurypterids and fish. The three last appear again in the Downtonian, accompanying a transition from marine to Old Red Sandstone conditions. Ordovician and Silurian of the Southern Uplands.— Closely packed isoclinal folding (seldom accompanied by cleavage) and rapid cross-strike change of facies are characteristic. Nothing older than Arenig has been recognised. The succession is marine and ends with Wenlock near Girvan and with Ludlow on the English Borders. The Ordovician commences with Arenig pillow lavas capped by Arenig-Llandeilo radiolarian cherts (7o ft.). Near Girvan 1,500 ft, of Arenig volcanic rocks are cut by serpentine, gabbro and granite which erosion bared before deposition of conglom-

eratic Upper Llandeilo (830 ft., including 60 ft. interbedded fossiliferous Stinchar limestone), South-east of Stinchar Valley, Upper Llandeilo suddenly becomes conformable to the radiolarian cherts and consists of mudstones and grits (500 ft.) and conglomerate (soo ft,). Farther south-east it passes to grit and greywacke (1,000 ft,} and then near Moffat to 20 ft. of graptolite shale (Glenkiln), The Caradoc (including Ashgillian) at Girvan is mostly mudstones, grits, flags and shales (2,800 ft.) with interbedded shelly and graptolitic faunas. Near Moffat this reduces to zoo ft. of graptolite shale and barren mudstone (Hartfell). Acid lavas occur at Wrae. A general palaeontological break introduces the Silurian, although there was no upheaval at Moffat. The Llandovery at Girvan consists of conglomerates, grits, flags, shales and thin limestones (1,050 ft.) with interbedded shelly and graptolitic faunas. Near Moffat there are only roo ft, of graptolite shale (Birkhill). The Tarannon, both at Girvan and Moffat, consists of grits, flags and shales with occasional graptolitic intercalations, This series is thinner and finer-grained at Girvan (2,100 ft.) than at Moffat (3,000 to 4,000 ft.). Wenlock is doubtfully represented near Girvan by conglomerates, grits, flags and shales, (509 ft. preserved) with minor graptolitic and shelly layers, Near the English Borders Wenlock conglomerates, grits, greywackes, shales and mudstones (1,000 to 1,500 ft.) contain sev-

eral graptolitic bands with occasional eurypterids, also occur.

Shelly layers

In the same district Ludlow mudstones with lime-

stone-nodules and grits (500-750 ft.) yield shells. The Llandeilo unconformity at Girvan is probably a partial

continuation of the post-Cambrian pre-Downtonian unconformity

at Stonehaven. Upper Llandeilo and subsequent Ordovician and Silurian: rocks of the southern Uplands tell of derivation of sedi-

ment from the north-west. Much of their material can be referred to denudation of Cambro-Arenig lavas, cherts and plutonics. Quartzite appears as pebbles in the Caradoc, and micaschist in the Llandovery, Undated post-Silurian mineral veins occur at Lead Hills. Devonian.—The Scottish Devonian is wholly continental Old

Red Sandstone. Three divisions are recognised with distinct faunas and floras. Fish have furnished most of the determinable

fossils. The Lower Old Red Sandstone or Caledonian is most fully preserved in the Central Valley (19,000 ft., including lavas, Kincardineshire). A widespread type is dull purplish brown sandstone, Upper members in Strathmore are red sandstones and marls. Conglomerates attain great prominence towards the HighJands and southern Uplands. North-westwards there is conformity with Downtonian (Lesmahagow and Stonehaven) and violent unconformity with schists (within Highlands). South-eastwards there is violent unconformity with Downtonian, etc. (Pentlands, Girvan, Cheviot). A basal conglomerate of Silurian greywacke extends north-westward to Lesmahagow. Volcanic

rocks (basalts, andesites, rhyolites) occupy a roughly central position in the Lower Old Red sequence (6,500 ft, in Ochils, well exposed also Pentlands to Ayrshire). In the Highlands (Oban, Glen Coe, Ben Nevis) and also at Cheviot, lavas greatly exceed sediment. Glen Coe and Ben Nevis are famous for cauldronsubsidences. At both localities granites (or granodiorites) with north-eastern dyke-swarms are Jater than the lavas, Granites

[GEOLOGY

cutting Lower Old Red Sandstone also occur at Distinkhorn (Ayrshire) and Cheviot. Others cut folded Silurian (southern Uplands). Many undated Highland granites are probably of Lower Old Red age, but granite pebbles are well known in Lower Old Red Sandstone conglomerates (Glen Coe, Stonehaven). Middle Old Red Sandstone or Orcadian is widely developed in north-east Scotland (18,000 ft. in Caithness). It largely consists of flags, often bituminous, calcareous, ripple-marked and sun-

cracked. The earlier part of the Orcadian is restricted to Caithness, but later divisions extend into Orkney and round the Moray Firth. The Rhynie Chert with wonderfully preserved plants is

generally referred to the Orcadian, The Upper Old Red Sandstone (some thousands of feet thick) is found in the Central

Valley and north-east Scotland.

The Lower Old Red Sandstone

was locally much faulted, folded and eroded before the deposition

of the Upper. The Upper is also unconformable to the Middle, except perhaps in Shetland. Red sandstones with some wind-

rounded grains are common in the earlier parts of the Upper Qld Red Sandstone; while paler sandstones with cornstones occur towards the conformable base of the Carboniferous. Carboniferous—The Scottish Carboniferous, a marine, estuarine and terrestrial accumulation, is typically developed in the Central Valley and along the English Borders. The two areas of deposition were always connected across the east end of the

southern Uplands. Farther west (Sanquhar) Upper Carboniferous rests on Silurian. In the Highlands, Carboniferous is scarcely known (Campbeltown, Bridge of Awe, Morven). In the Central

Valley and on the Borders, it follows Upper Old Red Sandstone conformably, though with a palaeontological break. Measurements of sub-divisions in Edinburgh district are: Calciferous Sandstone

Series, including Cementstone Group (1,000 ft.) and Oil Shale Group (3,000 ft.); Scottish Carboniferous Limestone Series, including Lower Limestone Group (700 ft.), Limestone (or Edge) Coal Group (1,050 ft.), and Upper Limestone Group (1,050 ft.); Millstone Grit (800 ft.); Productive Coal Measures (1,500 ft.); Barren Red Coal Measures (in Ayrshire, 1,500 ft.), Palaeontologically, the sequence is important for its abundant Lower Carboniferous land plants and estuarine fishes. These are completely

replaced by English Upper Carboniferous forms one-third. way.up the Millstone Grit. oe pees Economically, the oil shale and the two widely separated coalbearing groups (with ironstones) are very valuable. Marine limestones are scarcely represented except in the Lower and Upper Limestone Groups (near Edinburgh, 8 beds reach the quite exceptional total of 230 ft.), A well-known 40-ft. fresh-water limestone (Burdiehouse) occurs in the Oil Shale Group. Rapid variations of group-thicknesses are characteristic. Near Patna in Ayrshire, the Lower Limestone Group reduces from 70 ft. to 30 it., the Limestone Coal Group from 260 ft. to 100 ft., the Upper Limestone Group from 700 ft. to 40 ft., and the Millstone Grit from 390 ft, to 120 ft. in a distance of 2 miles, The floor of deposition evidently subsided in independently moving blocks. Change of facies is exemplified by the restriction of workable oil shale to West Lothian and its borders. Vulcanicity is common till the close of the Millstone Grit, Special activity reigned about the end of the Cement-

stone Group (Clyde Plateau, Arthur’s Seat, Calton Hill). Prod-

ucts include essexitic basalts, mugearites, trachytes and phonolites. Contemporaneous weathering of Millstone Grit basalts has

given valuable bauxitic clay (Ayrshire).

New Red Sandstone-—The Scottish deposits are of conti-

nental facies. A train of outcrops reaches intermittently across the southern Uplands and Central Valley from the Solway to Arran,

In Ayrshire, lavas and tuffs (basalt and nepheline-basalt,

500 ft.) underlie brick-red desert sandstone (1,500 ft.). The vol-

canic period was one of faulting and was further marked by ash-

necks

and

doleritic

intrusions,

some

(essexitic)

carrying

nepheline, others quartz. It may correspond roughly with the Permo-Carboniferous intrusion period of many quartz-dolerite sills and east to west dykes between Stirling and Northumberland. In Arran brick-red desert-sandstone (2,000 ft.) underlies breccia,

sandstone, and interbedded sandstone and marl ‘with occasional

nodular limestone.

The top division, probably Keuper, is over-

lain, in a fallen mass within a Tertiary volcanic neck, by Pteria contorta shales (Rhaetic). The base of the Mesozoics from Mull northwards consists of

Trias

conglomerates

145

SCOTLAND

FLORA AND FAUNA]

and sandstones

with concretionary

corn-

The Skye plutonic centre is well known for its gabbro to granophyre succession; Rum for its peridotites; Mull and Ardnamurchan for their ring-dykes—in Mull the plutonic succession is very complex and begins with granophyre, in Ardnamurchan it is essentially gabbroidai; Arran is specially noteworthy for the

stones. Red colouration is often subordinate. In Western Mull 200 ft. of these rocks underlie 40 ft. Rhaetic with Pteria contorta. doming of its granite’s roof—peripheral folding is a related feature Elsewhere Rhaetic is only doubtfully distinguishable. in Mull. Cone-sheet complexes are extensively developed in Skye, In Elgin two outliers of New Red Sandstone have yielded Mull and Ardnamurchan. The Skye, Rum, Mull and Arran remarkable reptilian faunas. One of these outliers is of marked centres have crowded dyke-swarms. The general dyke-direction desert character and perhaps of Permian age, the other outlier is is north-westerly, but this is combined with a radial tendency in certainly Trias. Rum. Some believe that most of the Hebridean lavas were fed Jurassic.—Low-lying outcrops of Jurassic, conformable to from dykes (fissure eruptions). It is certain, however, that the Trias, are preserved on the west and east coasts of the Highlands. great centres were established before the dyke-swarms, since they On the west, where a cover of Tertiary lavas has furnished addi- locate the latter. It is also certain that most of the dykes are later tional protection, the type area is Skye and Raasay: Lower Lias than any lavas spared by erosion. (Broadford Beds, mostly limestone, 240 ft.; Pabba Shales, 600 West Highland scenery has been shaped entirely since the early ft.) ; Middle Lias (Scalpa Sandstone, 240 ft.); Upper Lias (shales, Tertiary eruptions. The magnificent mountain and valley forms 70 ft.; Raasay Ironstone, 8 ft.); Inferior Oolite (shales, 70 ft.: of Skye are cut in Tertiary plutonics. sandstone, 600 ft.); Great Estuarine Series (sandstone, bitumiPossible Pliocene gravel occurs near Turriff, Fyvie and in Cennous shale and limestone, 400 ft.); Cornbrash (limestone with tral Buchan, all in Aberdeenshire. comminuted fossils, only in Raasay, 20 ft.); Callovian (sandstone Pleistocene and Recent.—During the Glacial Period, Scotremnant in Skye); Upper Oxfordian (grits, Skye, 80 ft.) followed land functioned as a complex centre of dispersal within the great by Upper Oxfordian and Corallian (shales, Skye, 220 ft.). The North European ice-sheet. Scandinavian currents were almost exsequence also reaches Corallian in Figg, but in Ardnamurchan and cluded except in Shetland, whilst Scottish currents freely invaded Mull ends with Inferior Oolite. The Hebridean marine faunas are England. Some districts were crossed by ice that traversed the as rich as any in Britain. The Great Estuarine Series, agreeing sea-bed bringing in shells and, in Caithness, Mesozoic erratics. in age with the Yorkshire Upper Estuarine Series, contains Cyrena, Glacial erosion is often pronounced. Crag and tail is developed to Viviparus, Ostrea, etc. perfection in Edinburgh and elsewhere. Rock basins are numerous At Brora on the east coast are remarked: Lower Lias (shales, in the Highlands, with Loch Coruisk as a diagrammatic example.

80 ft.); Great Estuarine Series (over 80 ft. shale, sandstone, etc., with 3 ft. Brora Coal at top); Callovian (limestone, 5 ft.); Lower Oxfordian (shales, 279 ft.);Upper Oxfordian and Corallian (sand-

stone, 200 ft.); Kimmeridgian (sandstone and bituminous shale, 100 ft.; boulder-beds and shales, soo ft.). The boulders of the boulder-beds consist of Old Red Sandstone. Many are big; one measures 150X90X30 ft. They have fallen from a moving submarine fault-scarp and are mixed with corals and shells. The throw of the fault exceeds 2,000 ft. In Skye another 2,000 ft. post-Corallian fault can be shown to have been planed down by erosion before Upper Cretaceous times. Cretaceous.—Scotland is embraced within the scope of the

great Upper Cretaceous marine transgression. The- Upper Cretaceous rests indifferently on Lower Lias and later Jurassic rocks. It is known im situ (Skye, Scalpa, Raasay, Eigg, Mull, Morven), as block remanié in a Tertiary vent (Arran), and as remanié flints

Characteristic

deposits

are:

West

Highlands,

hummocky

mo-

raines; East Highlands, fluvio-glacial gravel; Lowlands, boulder clay, either flat or in drumlins, and gravel kames. In Glen Roy glacially dammed Jakes are recorded by conspicuous strand-lines, and throughout most of eastern Scotland glacially diverted rivers can be traced by channels now left dry.

Raised beaches up to about roo ft. occur round Scotland, but not in the Outer Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands. The higher beaches are late Glacial and are locally interfered with by glacial readvance (Loch Lomond and Mull). The best marked beach, often about 30 ft., has a temperate fauna. It rests in places on a peat or forest bed that continues below sea-level.

early man are found in this raised beach.

‘Traces- of

(E. B. B.)

FLORA AND FAUNA. Vegetation.—Geographical usage places Scotland within the cool-temperate forest division of the Northern Hemisphere, but in doing so implies no more than that Scotland lies between those latitudes within which neither arctic nor sub-tropical vegetation is characteristic, and that the conditions are those of a land under maritime, not interior-continental, climatic influence. Actually

(Aberdeenshire). The Morven succession is: Cenomanian Greensand (45 ft.); White Sandstone (35 ft.); Silicified Chalk with Belemnitella mucronata (5 ft.). This condensation of the succession is typical of the Hebrides. The White Sandstone consists of desert sand blown on to’the Scottish shore of the FrancoBritto-Russian Chalk sea. In Morven, Cretaceous is still pre- forests—extensive tree-covered areas, as distinct from the treeserved 1,600 ft. above sea-level. less “deer forests” of Scottish phrase—are practically absent in Tertiary.—The Cretaceous Chalk was upraised, weathered and Scotland; wooded tracts are of no great extent and are scattered, silicified and its crannies filled with desert sand (Mull). Subse- save In so far as they appear mainly upon the eastern and southern quent conglomerate and lateritically weathered ash bespeak a borders of the Highlands. They consist mostly of conifers and change to moist climate and volcanic eruptions. Subaerial basalt oaks. Native species are few. Apart from destruction by man lavas characterise Skye, Eigg, Muil and Morven. Leaf-beds inter- (which has in some measure been offset by planting) it is clear calated near their base suggest early Eocene (Ardtun). Excep- that Scotland, separated from Europe felatively soon after the final tionally these lavas are columnar (Staffa). The basalt succession glacial epoch, was poorly colonized by north-European species of in Mull is: olivine-rich, 3,000 ft.; olivine-poor, 3,000 ft. The trees. A damp climate, imperfect drainagé and wet soil, and unSgur of Eigg pitchstone seems to be an acid lava that flowed favourable exposure to prevalent winds over wide areas, are furdown a valley, the sides of which, consisting of basalt, have since ther reasons adduced for the poverty of the growth. The upper been eroded away. Great plutonic centres occur at St. Kilda, limit. of trees lies about 2,cooft. above sea-level in the southern Skye, Rum, Mull, Ardnamurchan and. Arran. Some think that Uplands, and somewhat below that height (x,700—1,g00ft.} in. the most of the lavas, still preserved, were fed from these centres. central Highlands ;; farther north, it falls to 1,200-1,400ft. in cenA Kilauean sink, repeatedly renewed in central Mull, was often tral Sutherland, and lower: still in the extreme north. Types ‘of occupied by a crater-lake, and lavas flowing into it developed vegetation in the Highlands may in a measure be localized. Thus, pillow-structure.. Vent-agglomerates are abundant in Skye, Mull, peat moors of wide extent occur in deéfinite areas—in Sutherland Axdnamurchan and ‘Arran. In the last named island, the latest and Caithness most notably; also, in the south, on thé: ror surface-rock i# situ. is Keuper, but masses of Rhaetic, Lias and of Rannoch and about Lochs Awe and Etive, between the héads Chalk have tumbled into a. Tertiary vent and thus escaped of Lochs Fyne and Lomond, and to the.east of Callander, ‘and i erosion. on the long eastern flanks of the region. Marshy grass lands have

SCOTLAND

14.6

[POPULATION

Area and Population of Civil Counties in 1932 a wider extent in the west than in the east, in sympathy with the drier with higher ramtall ot the west; they are interspersed ae ee or mountain and pasture lands, usually at higher levels, with better ecrease opulaArea in . foie of type drier % since tion drainage on the steeper slopes; while a definitely acres Civil counties IQ2I moorland occurs at lower levels in the north-west and on the outer isiands, where the surface is much broken. Heath moors, I. Northern: as distinct from grass moors, occur widely both in the Highlands 21,410 | —I6°1 352,319 r. Shetland more the far by are they but Upland, — 84 22,075 and on the southern 240,847 2. Orkney. on than generally s — 93 25,656 438,833 characteristic on the east side of the Highland 3. Caithness — 9:6 16,100] wide The heights. 1,297,914 n | . Grampia the Sutherland on y 4. especiall and the west, 2. North-western: expanse of grassy hill-pasture on the southern uplands has al5. Ross and ready been mentioned, and indications have been given of the —II3 62,802 Cromarty. | 1,977,248 distribution of agricultural lands in the respective regional divi— OF 82,082 2,695,004 | . Inverness 6. be may lands sions. But the main localization of agricultural indicated briefly as occurring in an eastern belt following the| 3. North-eastern:

curves of the coast between the Firths of Dornoch and Forth, with some extension north of the first and south of the second; for the rest, such lands, except in the non-industrial parts of the

central Lowlands and in the dales and on the western slopes of the southern Uplands, are strictly limited in area. At certain points on all the coasts, but most notably the east, extensive sand-dunes, with their characteristic vegetation, are- found. Finally, reference is due to the alpine and arctic types of plants, such as saxifrages and mountain willow, which are common on Highland summits above some 2,cooft. of elevation, though Ben Lawers (3,982ft.), above Loch Tay, is usually cited as offering examples of particular interest. Fauna.—Deer-forests cover over 24 million acres. The red deer in Scotland is confined to the Highlands, but the roe-deer, living in woods, is found also in the southern Uplands in some

parts where tree plantation has been carried out. Other kinds of the larger mammals, once abundant, are now extinct; the last

wolf is said to have been killed in 1680. The wild cat survives in the Highlands; as also the otter, polecat, ermine and pine marten. Rabbits and hares are abundant, including both the common and the mountain hare, of which the last assumes a white coat in winter. Grouse moors occupy an extensive area; ptarmigan and blackcock, among other game birds, are found in many districts, and the capercailzie has been reintroduced. The golden eagle and the white-tailed eagle haunt only the remoter mountainous districts; other large birds of prey, such as the osprey

and kite, are also becoming scarce. The islands and sea-cliffs, and some of the inland lochs, are frequented by a great variety of water-fowl. The Scottish lochs are noted in particular for salmon and trout;. of this family there are several varieties, one of which, the Loch Leven trout, is peculiar to the loch of

that name. Some arctic crustacea occur among the loch fauna;

and a marine crustacean (mysis) appears to have migrated from the coastal waters to certain freshwater lochs not, far, from sea-

level.

;

|

©

1s

POPULATION

At the end of the rsth century it is conservatively estimated that the population of Scotland did not exceed 500,000—Edinburgh having about 20,000 inhabitants, Perth about 9,000, and Aberdeen, Dundee and St. Andrews about 4,000 each. By ‘the Union with England (1707) the population is supposed to have grown to 1,000,000. In 1755, according to the returns furnished

by the clergy to the Rev. Dr. Alexander Webster (1707-1 784), minister of the Tron kirk, Edinburgh—who had been commissioned by Lord President Dundas to prepare a census for Government—it was 1,265,380.

At the first Government census (1801) it had reached 1,608,420.

The increase at succeeding decades has been continuous though fluctuating in amount. After 1841, however, the population in several Highland shires—in which the clearance of crofters to make way for deer was one of the most strongly-felt grievances among the Celtic part of the people—in the islands, and in some of the southern counties, diminished. In 1931 the population amounted to. 4,842,554 (females 2,516,687) showing a decrease of 0.8% on the 1922 figures, the first decrease to be recorded. In rg2r there were 162 persons to each square mile, and 3-9 acres (excluding inland waters, tidal rivers and foreshore) to

7, Naim

104,252

.

8,294 | —

56

— —

o'2 4°6

40,805 | — 1°8 54,835 | — 4°3

304,931 403,053

8. Moray . 9. Banff .

300,430 39,864 |

to. Aberdeen rz. Kincardine . 4. East Midland:

1,261,521 244,482

13. Perth . . r4. Fife . rs. Kinross. 16. Clackmannan 5. West Midland: . 17. Stirling. 18. Dumbarton. ro. Argyll . 20. Bute

1,595,805 323,012 52,392 34:927

120,772 | — — 276,261 — 7,454 — 31,947]

288,842 156,927 1,990,472 139,658

+ 2-9 166,447 — 19 147,751 63,014 | —18-0 —44°2 18,822

151,431

288,575 | + o7

12. Forfar .

6, South-western: 21. Renfrew 22, Ayr.

.

23. Lanark. 7. South-eastern: 24. W. Lothian. 25. Midlothian . 26. E. Lothian .

27. Berwick

28. Peebles.

29. Selkirk . 8. Southern 30. Roxburgh 31. Dumfries. 32. Kirkcudbright|

33. Wigtown

559,037 |

270,190 | — 03

285,182

724,251

—

3-8 5:7 6:4 r8

47

564,507 | 1,585,968 | + 2'2 81,426 | — 3'0

76,861

526,277 | + 39 47,309 | — o2

234,325 170,971

26,601 | — 58

292,535 222,240 170,793

426,028 686,302 575,832

311,984

|

15,050]

— 18

|

22,608 | —....

43

n

joy

+ 1°8 45,787 81,060 | — o5 — 2:3 30,341

29,299 | — 48

each person. The distribution of population is illustrated in the

above table, in which is given the names and areas of the 2 h counties. : = In the northern, north-western, north-eastern and southern divisions the population declined during the decade, 18 counties being thusjaffected. It will thus be seen that the far north and far south alike decreased in population, the decline being largely due to physical conditions, though it need not be supposed that the limit of population was reached in either area. The most sparsely inhabited county was Sutherland, the most densely Lanark. The counties in ‘which there was the largest increase in the decennial period—Ayr, Fife, East Lothian, Argyll and 11 others—belonged largely to the central plain, or Lowlands, in which, broadly stated, industries and manufactures, trade, commerce and agriculture, and educational facilities have attained their highest development. Actually by far the largest increase (35%) was in Bute, but this was only an apparent and not a real increase, because of the number of summer visitors at the time ~——the census was taken. In every county the. population increased between 1801 and 1841. The urban population (z.¢., that of burghs and special light-

ing and scavenging districts with populations of 1,000 and over)

was 77-3% in 1921, as compared with 754% in 1911.

Urbani-

zation is highest in the lowland industrial areas, Lanark, Midlothian and Renfrew having an'urban population of over 90%. The highest proportion ‘of rural‘population is found in Ross and Cromarty (83-7), Orkney (77-8), Berwick (76-4), and Shetland (74-8). The population of the 176 inhabited islands is 154,624.

GOVERNMENT]

147

SCOTLAND

The burghs in which the largest proportion of Scottish-born | alists, Wesleyan Methodists and Unitarians. There has always remained a small but steady native Roman persons lived (over 93%) in 1921 were Kirkcaldy, Aberdeen, Dundee, Perth, and Kilmarnock. The largest proportion of Catholic population in Scotland, mostly centred in Inverness English-born were found in Dunfermline and Edinburgh, and and Dumfries, but in recent times the infiltration of Irish labourIrish-born, in Port Glasgow, Greenock and Coatbridge. There were ers has resulted in a large increase in the Roman Catholic popu20,223 foreigners. In 1926 there were 102,449 births and 63,780 Jation, which was estimated at as high a figure as 606,650 in deaths. The birth-rate, which was 29-5 per thousand of the 1927. There are two Roman Catholic archbishops, four bishops. population in 1go1, has fallen every year since, with the excep- and one bishop auxiliary, and 13-46% of Scottish marriages are tion of 1920 and 1921, when it rose to 28 and 25 per thousand. celebrated in Roman Catholic churches. There were over 500 In 1926 it was 20-9. The death-rate also fell from 1901, when it Roman Catholic priests and monks in Scotland in 1921. (O. J. R. H.) was 17-8 per thousand, until in 1918 it was 16 and in GOVERNMENT 1926 13-00, the latter being the lowest figure on record, with the exception of that for 1923 (12-9). The marriage rate has Parliamentary Representation.—By the Act of Union in remained roughly stationary at 6 or 7 per thousand, except in 1707 the Scottish parliament was assimilated to that of England. IgIg and 1920, when it rose to 9. The mortality of infants Scottish representation in the parliament of Great Britain was under one year of age had fallen to 83 per thousand births by fixed at 16 peers (to the 108 who formed the English House of 1926. Illegitimate births were 6.8 per hundred. These figures Lords), to be elected for the duration of each parliament by the may be compared with those of 1855, when the birth-rate was peers of Scotland, and 45 members (to the 513 English) in the 31 per thousand of the population, the death-rate 20-8, the House of Commons, of whom the Scottish counties returned 30 marriage-rate 6-6, illegitimacy 7-8, and infant mortality 125 (per and the burghs 15. The power of the sovereign to create new thousand births). Scottish peerages lapsed at the Union. The representation in the Of the total population of Scotland, 91-49% were Scottish in Lords has remained unchanged, but the Representation of the 1921, a figure which had been almost stationary for a consider- People (Scotland) Act of 1832 raised the number of members in able period before that date. English people represented 3-8%, the Commons to 53, the counties under a slightly altered arrangeTrish 3-2, Welsh o-1, British Colonials 0-4, British born abroad ment returning 30 as before, and the burghs reinforced by the o-r, and aliens o-4. The Irish (159,000 in 1921) and English creation of certain new “parliamentary burghs,” 23. The Act (who increased by 17-2% between z911 and 1921) are found of 1867 added 7 members, the universities obtaining representamostly in the cities of the south and in the central industrial tion by two members, while two additional members were assigned area; there are very few in the northern counties. In 1921 nearly to the counties and three to the burghs, and in 1885 the Redistri170,000 men were employed respectively in agriculture and bution of Seats Act gave an additional 7 members to the counties transport, Over 150,000 in mining and quarrying, and 280,000 in and 5 to the burghs. Under the Act of 1918 the total representametal working. Professional occupations engaged 42,000. Among tion was raised to 74—38 members for the counties, 33 for the the women nearly 170,000 were engaged in personal service, and burghs and 3 for the universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow, 146,000 in the manufacture of textiles, textile goods and clothes. Aberdeen and Edinburgh. Among the counties, Angus,! Argyll, In 1931, of the total population 7,069 persons spoke Gaelic only, Banff, Dunbarton, Dumfries and West Lothian return one and 130,080 persons spoke both Gaelic and English. The high- member each; Fife and Renfrew, two members each; Lanarkshire est percentages of Gaelic-speaking inhabitants were found in 7 members (in the divisions of Bothwell, Coatbridge, Hamilton, Ross and Cromarty (55), Sutherland (42-2), Inverness (42-1), Lanark, Motherwell, Northern and Rutherglen). The combined and Argyll (33-7). In 2: counties under 1% spoke Gaelic, and counties of Berwick and East Lothian, Caithness and Sutherland, over 50% of all those speaking the language were found in Ross Moray and Nairn, Orkney and Zetland, Roxburgh and Selkirk, and Cromarty and Inverness. Of the 73,602 inhabitants of the and Galloway (the shire of Wigton and stewartry of Kircudinsular portions of Inverness, Ross and Cromarty and Argyll, bright combine to form the parliamentary county and sheriffdom 8,797 in 1921 spoke Gaelic only, as compared with 15,746 in of Galloway) return one member for each two counties; Mid1911; the majority are children under nine or people over 50, lothian and Peebles, Perth and Kinross, Stirling and Clackmannan, two for each two counties; Aberdeen and Kincardine, Ayr and Gaelic being still largely the language of the homes. In recent years, large numbers of Scottish people have emi- Bute (including the division of Kilmarnock), Inverness with grated, owing to difficult economic conditions in the rural and Ross and Cromarty (including the Western Isles division), three isolated areas (from which a large proportion of the emigrants members for each two counties. While a majority of the burghs are drawn) and to the prevalence of unemployment in the indus- are included for parliamentary purposes in the counties in which trial centres. In 1924 and 1925 Scottish emigrants numbered they are situated,” the following form independent constituencies. between one-third and one-half of the number emigrating from namely, Greenock, Leith, Paisley, one member each; Aberdeen England and Wales, although the total population of Scotland and Dundee, two members each; Edinburgh, 5; Glasgow, 15 (in is only about one-eighth of that of England and Wales. The the divisions of Bridgeton, Camlachie, Cathcart, Central, Gorbals, population of Canada was 13% Scottish in 1921. This coincides Govan, Hillhead, Kelvingrove, Maryhill, Partick, Pollok, St. Rolwith a large immigration of Irish labourers, which has caused lox, Shettleston, Springburn and Tradeston). Six groups or some alarm to certain Scotch writers, as threatening the national “districts of burghs,” named after the leading burgh in each group, also return one member each, namely, Ayr, Dumbarton, Duntraditions of Scotland. Religion.—The Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) is the fermline, Kirkcaldy, Montrose, and Stirling and Falkirk districts of most influential and powerful religiotis body in Scotland, and its burghs. The Central Authority.—The minister for Scottish affairs membership has increased during the last 50 years at a greater rate than that of the population in general. Nearly half the is the secretary of State for Scotland. This office came into total marriages of Scotland are performed by Church of Scotland existence at the Union but was abolished in 1746. From 1782 to ministers, and there were some 760,000 communicants In 1927. 1885 Scottish business was entrusted to the Home Department The next most important body.is the United Free Church, formed (afterwards the Home Office) advised by the lord advocate, the

in 1900 by the union of the Free Presbyterian Churches of Scot- » IBy a resolution of the county council in May 1928 the county land. The Church. of Scotland Act (1921) was passed in order to reverted to its older historic name of Angus in place of Forfarshire. facilitate union among the various Presbyterian bodies in’ Scot- Other instances of shire names derived from the county town giving land, and the ‘Church of Scotland bill of 1925 vested all the place to the older name are the three Lothians, East, West and Midproperty and endowments.of the Church in its general trustees. lothian, for Haddingtonshire, Linlithgowshire and Edinburghshire, and

The Episcopal. Church in Scotland had some 145,000 members (60,000 communicants) in 1925, with seven bishops and 352 clergy: There, arealsostnaller bodies of Baptists, Coggregation-

Moray for Elginshire. Dunbarton and Zetland are the Scottish forms for Dumbartonshire and Shetland.

2Twenty-three counties include all burghs within their area for

parliamentary purposes. *

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SCOTLAND

chief Scottish law officer. The office of secretary for Scotland was restored in 1885, and in 1894 the Local Government Board for Scotland was established; in 1926 the secretaryship for Scotland was raised to a principal secretaryship of State with a seat in the cabinet. The department for Scottish affairs is the Scottish Office. The secretary for Scotland is the responsible head of the other departments by which Scottish business is administered, and he is assisted by the lord advocate and the solicitor general for Scotland, both of whom are members of the Government though not in the cabinet, and by the parliamentary and permanent under-secretaries. Official publication of Scottish business is made in the Edinburgh Gazette. The other Scottish departments, each with its permanent secretary and offices in Edinburgh, are the Scottish Board of Health, which succeeded in 1919 to the former Local Government Board for Scotland; the General Board of Control (Scotland), which was constituted as a Board of Lunacy in 1857; the Scottish Education Department; the Board of Agriculture for Scotland; and the Fishery Board for Scotland. There is also a Scottish Valuation Office in Edinburgh under the administration of the Board of Inland Revenue for the United Kingdom. The Scottish Board of Health is the department concerned with local government. There are, however, no Scottish departments to answer for the functions and policy exercised by the Home Office, the Board of Trade and the Ministries of Transport, Labour and Pensions (see GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS) in respect to mines, emigration, electricity supply, roads and canals, unemployment, etc. The Scottish Office and the Scottish Education Department have offices in London, and the last named being a committee of the privy council, the lord president of the council signs the annual report as ex officto head of the department. The Scottish departments are also assisted by advisory committees or councils, such as the Highlands and Islands Consultative Council for the 7 northern counties constituted under the Scottish Board of Health Act of rọrọ. By

the Reorganization of Offices (Scotland) Act 1928, the Scottish Boards of Health and Agriculture and the prison commissioners for Scotland become departments as from Jan. 1929; the main effect of this is that they are under a single advisor instead of a group or board. Other Scottish officers are the keeper of the registers and records and the registrar-general.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT Local government administration in Scotland follows the same general principles as in England. (See Locat GovERNMENT.) But there are no urban or rural district councils in Scotland, poor relief is administered throughout by the parish councils, and education is entrusted to an ad hoc education authority for the county in place of the town, county and urban district councils in England. Public general Acts are sometimes modified, or their terms may be expressly excepted, with reference to their application in Scotland; local authorities are held to have more independent powers for raising loans and a simpler legal procedure for private bill legislation. On the whole, it is said, “independent

powers have been more freely entrusted to small municipalities

in Scotland than in England.” Other differences are the levying of rates on both owner and occupier in Scotland; the election by town councils of their own magistrates or bailies for the burgh, as well as the closer relations to local bodies and wider administrative and judicial functions of the sheriffs. Local Government Units.—The principal divisions of local government administration are the county, burgh and parish councils, with the education authorities already named. In addition, the following statutory bodies, mainly appointed by the county councils, may be named: the county district committees are the executive body of the council in each of the electoral

divisions in which they are elected; the standing joint committed of the county is responsible for police administration and has control over all loans and capital expenditure; the county road board is the authority for road and bridge construction (maintenance and administration lie with the district committees); and district boards of control for counties and combined counties (with representatives of parish councils and royal and parliamentary

[LOCAL GOVERNMENT

burghs) deal with lunacy under the General Board for the country. The total number

of these authorities is thus: the 33 county

councils with their respective standing joint committees, county road boards and education authorities (Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee and Aberdeen are separate education authorities), and 27 district boards of control and 98 district committees; 20r burgh or town councils and 869 parish councils. There are 61 police districts, consisting of the 33 county and 28 burghal police districts. In addition, there are a number of statutory committees for particular purposes, such as finance, pensions, distress (un-

employment), school management, health insurance, etc., committees, as well as joint committees of local bodies for purposes in which they are jointly interested, and special district committees for water supply, light, scavenging and drainage. About three-fourths of the population is “burghal,” the remainder “landward”: terms used in Scotland to denote urban and rural. Twentytwo burghs have a population of over 20,000; 8 counties have less than 10,000 population and 5 have a smaller population than in 1801. Of the parishes, 653 are landward; 210 are partly landward, partly burghal. County, burgh and parish councils are directly elected bodies, and until recently were the three principal authorities for rating

and borrowing.

By the Rating

(Scotland)

Act

1926 parish

councils ceased to be a rating authority. The chairmen of town and county councils are ex officio Justices of the peace; the chairman of a town council is called the provost, or in some cases the

lord provost; other chairmen in Scotland are called conveners. Police and Other Powers.—Under

the Local Government

(Scotland) Act which set up the new county councils in 1880, royal and parliamentary burghs were excluded from the administrative county area. But a limiting condition as to population frequently applies in respect of certain duties and powers. Since 1892 a population of 20,000 is required for any new burgh wishing to maintain a separate police force, and for all burghs appointing a quota to the county insurance committee under the National Health Insurance Act. Any burgh may, however, consolidate its police establishment with that of the county and with royal and parliamentary burghs that do not maintain their own police are represented on the county counċil by a member or members of the town council, but voting only in respect of such delegated or excepted powers. Police burghs, though self-governing units for public health purposes, and in some cases including highways and police administration,

are included in the county

area for general county purposes. Valuation and Assessment.—The word assessment is used in Scotland for rate in England, and the word valuation for what in England would be called assessment. Valuation rolls in Scotland are made up annually. By the Rating (Scotland) Act 1926, which came into force on May 16, 1927, parish councils ceased to be rating authorities, and there is thus only one rating authority for all rates leviable in any rating area, namely, either the town or county council. The amounts to be provided for each of the purposes administered by parish councils are certified by them to the rating authority, who fixes the rate or “assessment” per £ County and parish rates are levied equally on owners and occupiers; in burghs about two-thirds of the aggregate sum raised by rates fall on occupiers and one-third on owners. Education authorities, district committees and district boards of control requisition for the sums they require by precept on the rating authority. Inequalities in the basis of rating, especially in respect of land held out of use and, on the vast scale which is peculiar to Scotland, for sporting purposes (see Report of the Scottish

Land Enquiry Committee), have led to the promotion of a number of bills aiming at the reform of local taxation. Thus in 1904 the Land Values Taxation (Scotland) Bill, known as the “Glasgow Bill,” gave effect to the principle of rating based on the site or capital selling value of the land, apart from improvements, and led in 1907-08 to'a Government Land Values (Scotland) Bill, which however dealt with valuation and not with rating, and like other subsequent private members’ bills failed to become law.

(See TAXATION, LOCAL.) The Common Good.—A feature of burgh accounts which is

LOCAL GOVERNMENT]

SCOTLAND

peculiar to Scotland is the property known as the Common Good which is held by certain burghs for the benefit of the community.

149

tion so given,” and including also in the case of any “transferred” or denominational school at least one representative of the church or denominational body. The derating and exchequer grant clauses in the Scottish Act are similar to those in the English Act. (See LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN ENGLAND AND WALES and IRELAND, NORTHERN.)

Originating in grants of land or the accumulated surpluses of feu duties, markets or other assets, the proceeds of the Common Good may be expended for any object directly beneficial to the community without the statutory restrictions that apply to the ordinary grant and rate income. Thus, the small town of Tain (pop. 1,551) with a rateable value of £10,479 in 1927 had a Common Good producing over £800 a year and Kirkcudbright one of £1,500 a year, whilst in Glasgow the city tramways have been largely constructed with the monies and loans raised on the security of the Common Good, to which in return contributions from the tramways aggregating over a million pounds sterling had been made in 1926. Local Government (Scotland) Act (1929).—The Scottish bill goes much farther than the English Act, to which it is generally similar, in the proposal to abolish a large number of existing local authorities, with other changes in the character and constitution of the new bodies. Administrative Changes (Part I).—The Act makes a new classification of all burghs into “large burghs,” containing a population of 20,000 or over, and “small burghs,” meaning all other burghs. The administrative county will include all small burghs, and the reconstituted county councils and town councils of large burghs will become the local authorities for poor Jaw, major public health services, town planning, maintenance of classified roads, police, valuation, and lunacy and mental deficiency. All large burghs which do not maintain a separate police at present will be included for police purposes in the county. Police burghs will cease to be electoral divisions of the county and (as in the case of royal and

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS Poor Relief.—Before the Reformation, relief of the poor had been the duty of the Church, for early legislation aimed at suppressing rather than aiding poverty. Those who were absolutely dependent on alms might receive a licence to beg within the bounds of their own parish, but the able-bodied poor were severely dealt with. The act of 1579 directed the magistrates in towns and the justices in rural parishes to prepare a register of the aged and impotent poor and to levy a tax on the inhabitants of every parish for their support. One consequence of the denial of relief to the able-bodied was that the workhouse of the English poor-law

parliamentary burghs at present) will nominate representatives to the county councils with voting power in respect of those services in which they are interested. County councils may delegate

system was not established in Scotland, though almshouses are found in many towns, and poorhouses, where those indigent who are alone in the world without any one to care for them find food

some of their functions with regard to classified roads to the small burghs, who will continue to administer their own water supply, drainage and housing services. The following existing authorities are to be abolished: Parish councils, district committees, district boards of control, education authorities, distress committees, standing joint committees, commissioners of supply and (where the county council may require) landward committees. Statutory committees will be appointed for police, poor relief and education. The education area will be the county as before, but the duties of the former ad hoc authorities will be transferred to the education committees. Six groups of burghs are named that are to be compulsorily united, and the counties of Kinross and Perth, Moray and Nairn, and Bute with Renfrew and Ayr, are to be combined for administrative purposes. The new county and town councils (1929) will prepare and submit schemes to the Scottish secretary for his approval of the administrative arrangements proposed to be made throughout their areas for all the changes to be effected. County councils may be required to divide the county (except for education) into areas to be administered by local committees or sub-committees. Town and county councils are to be put on the same basis of audit. Rates are to be consolidated over the whole area of the rating authority, except in the case of differential rating for special parish and special district rates. Payment of travelling expenses and allowances to members of the county councils and committees

the prevalence of out-relief, one of the distinctive features of the Scottish poor law. The act of 1579, however, proved largely inoperative, and even in 1842 about half of the parishes were yet unassessed to the poor. The inadequacy of the voluntary system to cope with genuine distress, in respect both of contributions and of the dispensing of alms, led in 1845 to the passing of an Act which made the parish the poor-relief area, substituted the parochial board for the kirk-session where recourse was had to a rate, made the appointment of inspectors of the poor and medical officers compulsory, and set up a system of central administrative control known as the Board of Supervision for the Relief of the Poor. In 1894 a change in the governing body was effected, the Local Government Board for Scotland replacing the Board of Supervision, while the parochial boards made way for parish councils. As the authorities could not give relief to those able to work, there were no casual wards in Scotland, vagrants having to pay for their night’s lodging, or find it in the police station or elsewhere, but this was altered in 1922. A Scottish Board of Health (now the Department of Health for Scotland) was created in, 1919, and took over the powers and duties of the Local Government Board, the Scottish Insurance Commissioners, etc. It was entrusted with all measures concerning the health of the people, including the supervision of local housing schemes under the Housing (Scotland) Act of xorg. The district lunacy

and sub-committees attending meetings is introduced. An important new provision (s. 12) authorizes the co-option of non-elected persons to any committee or sub-committee of a town or county council (other than an education or school management committee under s. 3 of the 1918 Act) to an extent

not exceeding one-half of the members, and the first poor relief and education committees to be appointed must include one or more members of the outgoing bodies, Education committees must provide for a majority of the members of the council, the inclusion of women, and the appointment of persons of experience in education and in the needs of the area, including in all cases at least one person “conversant with the custom which has prevailed in the public schools of Scotland of giving instruction in religion. to children. whose parents do not object to the instruc-

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W. E. Whyte, Local Government in Scotland (1925) ; Scottish Board of Health, Reports by Consulative Councils on a Reformed Local Authority, etc. (1923); Scottish Office, Proposals for Reform in Local Government in Scotland, Cmd. 3135 (1928); Local Government (Scotland) Bil, 1928: Explanatory Memorandum, Cmd. 3222 (1928) ; Royal Commission on Local Government, Minutes of Evidence, Parts I-IX. (1923-28), especially Pt. VII., pp. 1504 seq. “Memorandum by the Scottish Office on the Local Government System in Scotland” (obtainable separately}, and Pt. VIII., containing the evidence given by the Scottish Departments and representatives of Scottish local authorities; Report of the Scottish Land Enquiry Commiitee (1914); Report of the Departmental Committee on Local Taxation in Scotland, Cmd. 1674 (1922). Return for the Year ro923-24 of the Areas, Population and Valuation of Counties, Burghs and Parishes of Scotland. See also under Boroucs, etc. (W. D. M.C.)

and shelter, began to be general in the roth century. Hence arises

boards (practically joint-committees of the county and burgh councils) were reconstituted in 1913 as a General Board of Control, charged with the upkeep of mental hospitals, the poor-law authorities defraying only the maintenance of their own patients. For the extensive changes in the administration of public assistance effected by the Local Government Act, 1929, see Poor Law. Responsibility for the general administration of relief, and for the provision, maintenance and management of all public institutions for the cure of disease was placed on the county and county borough authorities, Police.—It was not till the middle of the roth century that a regular police force was established in Scotland. Till then

dwellers in rural districts had practically to provide for their own safety as best they could, while some towns maintained a

150

SCOTLAND

paid watch and others enrolled volunteer constables, every citizen

[EDUCATION

and professional authorities in lieu of their preliminary exam-

being expected to take his turn in patrolling the streets to protect | inations. In 1923 new regulations were made for secondary person and property. At first an adoptive Act was introduced, | schools. A Technical Schools Act, passed in 1887, was applied under which the commissioners of supply, who then managed county business—resident landowners in possession of landed estate to the annual value of £100—were empowered to raise a police force in the counties; but the want of common policy and initiative led in 1857 to the compulsory institution of a police force throughout the country. Burghs having a population of more than 7,000 might furnish their own police, and smaller burghs were policed as part of the county to which they belonged. The police forces, of which there were 31 county and 27 city and burgh in 1927 (excluding Orkney and Shetland which do not come under the Act of 1857) are paid for partly from the county rates and partly by Government subsidies. Education. (a) Elementary Schools——The system of schools which prevailed till the Education Act of 1872 dated from 1696, when the Act of Settling of Schools was passed—one of the last but not the least of the achievements of the Scots Parliament— providing for the maintenance of a school in every parish by the kirk-session and heritors, with power to the commissioners of supply to appoint a schoolmaster in case the primary authorities made default. The schoolmaster held his office for life, coeducation was the rule, and the school was undenominational. The various religious secessions in Scotland led to the founding of a large number of sectarian and subscription schools, and at the Disruption in 1843 the Free Church made provision for the secular as well as the religious instruction of the children of its members. The Education Act of 1872 abolished the old management of the parish schools and provided for the creation of districts (burgh, parish or group of parishes) under the control of school boards, elected every three years by the ratepayers. School fees for the compulsory standards were abolished in 1889.

The Education (Scotland) Act, which accompanied the English Act of 1918, brought great educational changes. The school boards were swept away in favour of larger administrative areas. The counties, with the exception of Edinburgh, Leith (now incorporated with Edinburgh), Glasgow, Aberdeen and Dundee, were made separate educational areas. The educational authorities, who are elected by the local government electors, expend the Education Fund, which is raised from Government grants or loaned and from local rates. Expenditure or education has grown enormously, owing to the operation of the Act and to a large increase in teachers’ salaries.

by a few local authorities; but in 1890 funds were by chance made available from an unexpected source, and devoted to the

purposes ef technical and secondary education. Parliament had introduced a measure of public-house reform along with a scheme for compensating such houses as lost their licences. This feature iwas so stoutly opposed that the bill did not pass, although the

| chancellor of the exchequer had provided the necessary funds.

Government proposed to distribute this money among local authorities and expend the balance in relief of rates, but a clause was inserted in this bill giving burgh and county councils the option of spending the balance on technical education as well as in relief of rates. Advantage was largely taken of this power, and

the grant came to be succinctly described as the “residue” grant. There were in 1928 x11 Central Institutions under the Scottish Education Department and 5 under the Department of Agriculture for Scotland, including the Glasgow Veterinary College, which is not in receipt of a government grant. Among the more ; important are the Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh; the Royal Technical College, Glasgow; the West of Scotland Agricultural

College; the Edinburgh and East of Scotland Agricultural College:

Robert Gordon’s Technical College, Aberdeen; and the Dundee Technical College. A new system of continuation classes was brought in under the 1918 Act, and nearly a thousand classes

were in existence in 1928. The leading public schools on the English model are Trinity College, Glenalmond, Perthshire; Loretto School, Musselburgh, and Fettes College, Merchiston College and the Academy in Edinburgh.

(c) Universities and Colleges-~There are four universities in Scotland, namely (in the order of foundation), St. Andrews (1411), Glasgow (1450), Aberdeen (1494) and Edinburgh (1583), in which are the customary faculties of arts, divinity, law, medicine and science. In r901 Andrew Carnegie gave £2,000,000 to the universities.

The administration of the fund was handed over to...’

a body of trustees, who devote the annual income partly to thë” payment of students’ fees and partly to buildings, apparatus, professorships and research. State financial assistance to the universities has been very largely increased since the Education Act of 1918, and a number of new chairs have been founded by private benefactions, and from further grants by the Carnegie trustees.

(5) Secondary Schools—Records of the existence of schools

The court of each university is the supreme authority in rein the chief towns occur as early as the 13th century. They were gard to finance, discipline, and the regulation of the duties of under the supervision of the chancellor of each diocese, and were professors and lecturers. The universities are empowered to mainly devoted to studies preparatory for the Church. Before affiliate other academical institutions, and women students are the Reformation schools for general education were attached to admitted on an equal footing with men. Under the Act of 1899 many religious houses, and in 1496 the first Scottish Act was the University College of Dundee was incorporated with St. passed requiring substantial householders to send their eldest Andrews University, and Queen Margaret College became a part sons to school from the time they were eight or nine years old of the University of Glasgow: the buildings and endowments, used until they were “competentlie founded and have perfite Latin.” for women. students exclusively,.’being handed over to the UniIn 1560 John Knox propounded in his First Book of Discipline versity Court. St. Mungo’s College, Glasgow, incorporated in a comprehensive scheme of education from elementary to uni- 1889 undera Board of Trade licence, has a medical faculty, and versity, but neither this proposal nor a School Act passed by the Anderson’s College Medical ‘School, Glasgow, was instituted in privy council in 1616 for the establishment of a school in every 1887. These are on the same basis as the extra-mural medical parish was carried into effect. In- several burghs grammar schools schools in Edinburgh, their medical curricula qualifying for licence have existed from a very early date, and some of them, as the only and not for Scottish university degrees. The United Free Royal High School of Edinburgh and the High School of Glas- Church: maintains colleges at Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Glasgow, gow reached a high standard of proficiency. They were largely and there are Roman Catholic colleges at Blairs near Aberdeen supported by the town councils, who erected the buildings, kept and at Glasgow, besides a monastery and college at Fort Augustus, them in repair, and usually paid the rector’s salary. By the Act and Episcopal, Baptist and Congregational colleges. The Episof 1872 their management was transferred to the school boards. copal Church and the Roman Catholic Church have training colThere were in 1928, 252 secondary schools, including higher- leges for teachers. Koap y class public schools, such as the old grammar schools and the Agriculture.—Though Scotland still -contains many great esliberally endowed schools of the Merchant Company in Edinburgh. tates, this circumstance possesses less significance from the agri-

In 1885 the Scottish Education Department was reorganized. It cultural than from the historical standpoint. The excessive size of was separated from the English Department, and undertook the properties may to some extent be accounted: for by the fact the inspection of higher class schools (public, endowed and volun- that most of the surface is so mountainous and unproductive as to tary), and two years later instituted a leaving certificate examina- be unsuitable for division into smaller estates, but two other causes tion, the pass of which is accepted for most of the university have also operated, namely, first, the wide territorial ‘authority of

IGI

SCOTLAND

AGRICULTURE]

such Lowland families as the Scotts and Douglases, and such thirds of the total, though the larger portion of cultivated land was Highland clans as the Campbells of Argyll and Breadalbane, and held in farms between 5o and 300 acres. There were 603 holdings the Murrays of Athol and the duke of Sutherland; and secondly, of mountain and heath land only. The average holding in 1927 the stricter law of entail introduced in 1685. Thus many of the was 61-7 acres. The total number of holdings has fallen during largest estates remain in the hands of the old hereditary families, the last 40 years, there being fewer small and very large holdings, but since the World War a large number have been sold. The while the number of medium-sized farms remains fairly constant. The following table shows the cultivated area and the area proportion of persons farming their own land has become much greater and is still increasing. The almost absolute power for- under grain, green and miscellaneous crops. merly wielded by the landlords, who within their own territories Acreage Under Cultivation were lords of regality, hindered independent agricultural enterTotal area, excluding water, 19,069,683 acres prise, and it was not till after the abolition of hereditable jurisi | Average | 1927z dictions in 1748 that agriculture made real progress. The Society 1917-26 Crops 1723, in founded of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture, Acres Acres ceased to exist after the rebellion of 1745, and the introduction 4,681,221 4,732,114 of new and improved methods, where not the result of private Total area under crops and grasses Permanent pasture è RA s energy and sagacity, was chiefly due to the Highland and Agriestablished in 1784.

Further stimulus was also

For hay .

.

.

.

àa

3

|

167,212

cultural Society, Not for hay . . . . . 1,345:385 supplied by the high prices that obtained during the Napoleonic Total . . ° I 403,608 1,512,597 wars. The system of 19 years’ leases had proved distinctly superior to the system of yearly tenancy so general in England, 3,168,624 i | 3,328,506 Arable land . although prejudicially affected by customs and conditions which, Grain crops— | for a considerable time, seriously strained the relations between Wheat 61,494 66,577 landlord and tenant. But the abolition of the law of hypothec in 117,369 160,329 Barley the upon rent 1879—under which the landlord had a lien for Oats 1,021,800 897,370 produce of the land, the cattle and sheep fed on it, and the live 3,868 5:945 Rye Beans . 4,842 3:574 stock and implements used in husbandry—the Ground Game 422 427 . . Peas Act of 1880, the several Agricultural Holdings Acts, and the 1,240 1,678 Mixed grain construction of light railways improved matters and established a better understanding. The period of general depression which Total 1,256,346 1,090,420 set in before 1885 was surmounted in Scotland with comparatively 147,184 159,479 . . Potatoes. little trouble. A large amount of capital was lost by tenants, and Turnips and swedes 407,965 376,693 landlords’ the a few. farms were thrown here and there upon Mangolds 1,819 1,124 Cabbage 3:839 4,197 hands, but in no district was rent extinguished or were holdings 12,916 11,199 : Rape abandoned. The sub-commissioners who reported to the Royal Sugar beet . te 10,352 Commission on Agriculture in 1895 found nearly everywhere a II, 11,683 Other crops, . demand, sometimes competition for farms, persisting throughout Total . 586,984 564,275 the crisis. Afterwards, owing to the increased attention given to stock-fattening and dairying, and to a rise in prices, farming reached a condition of equilibrium, and the most noticeable During the last half-century the total acreage under crops and , but the acreage residuum of the period of depression was the large intrusion of grass has remained comparatively stationary permanent pasture under land while , diminished has under crops the butcher and grazier class into the farmer class proper. one-fourth of the total During and after the World War agriculture experienced a has increased. Only a little more than be borne in mind should it but ; cultivated is Scotland of area deperiod of marked prosperity, giving place to a period of not include the mountainous dispression in more recent years. The decline in the value of land that. permanent pasture does tricts, which not only form a large proportion of the surface, but has been very great. grasses, supply a scanty herbage The crofters of the Highlands and islands had special griev- also, in their heaths and natural being used for grazing in 1927. ac. 9,896,854 cattle, and sheep for century 19th the of half first the During ances of their own. thus used has increased by land heath and mountain 1914 Since the and wholesale clearances had been effected in many districts, is partly due to the inclusion crofters were compelled either to emigrate or to crowd into 750,000 ac., but the size of this figure Oats remain the staple areas already congested, where, eking out a precarious living by of land previously used as deer forest. as also that of land land, arable of acreage the but crop, grain following the fisheries, they led a hard and miserable existence. each case the smallest on At last after agitation and discontent had become rife, govern- under oats, turnips and barley was in bly below the average of the previous ment appointed a royal commission to inquire into the whole record in 1927, and considera and potatoes have, however, inwheat under areas The years. question in 1883. It reported next year, and in 1886 the Crofters’ ten of sugar beet, stimulated acreage the and years, recent in creased years succeeding of statutes Amending passed. was Holding Act 1923 to 10,352 in 1927. in 4 from grew subsidy, t governmen a by and rents fair added to the commissioners’ powers of fixing under rye grass and ac. 1,496,363 were there year In the same cancelling arrears, the power of enlarging crofts and common per acre of grain yield The clover. and grasses rotation other out. died practically has agitation grazings. Since then political to the limited offset an as high, extremely is Scotland in crops (now In rgzr the Scottish Land Court and Board of Agriculture of wheat, barley and oats in the Department of Agriculture for Scotland) were constituted, area cultivated. The average yield 39-1, 36-3 and 40-2 bushels and the provisions of the earlier Crofters Acts were extended to the ten. years from 1917 to 1927 was ly. respective other Small Landholders (Scotland) Act. The Department of The following table shows the number of live stock in 1927, Agriculture has expended considerable sums in recent years on the average for the period 1917-1926. The breeds .include with the Under development, including education and research work. specially adapted for dairy farms Congested Districts (Scotland) Act of 1897, £35,000 a year was the Ayrshire, noted milkers and Galloway Shorthorns; the south-west); the in prevail (which and Ross Inverness, Argyll, of devoted within certain districts but valuable for ,their milkers, fair Aberdeen, or Angus polled Cromarty, Sutherland, Caithness, Orkney and Shetland, to assistWest Highland or Kyloe bregd,.a the and qualities, beef-making piers building stock, live of breeds the. improving ing migration, coats and decided and -boat-slips, making roads’.and bridges; developing ‘home in- picturesque breed with long horns, shaggy colours, that thrives well on wild and healthy pasture. The special a a dustries, etc. In 1927 thereywere 16,787 holdings under s.acres.in extent, and breeds of sheep are the fine-woolled,of Shetland, the blackfaced natives of the hills from which ` 50349 wader. soi%acres-., Holdings under so acres constituted two- of.the Highlands, the Cheviots,

SCOTLAND

152

they are named, a favourite breed in the south, though Border Leicesters and other English breeds, as well as a variety of Average 1917-26

Stock

Horses— Used for cluding Unbroken Unbroken

agricultural purposes, inmares kept for Peres (over 1 year) : (under 1 year)

orl; s s «= ws

y

Cattle— Cows and heifers in milk or in calf Other cattle, 2 years and above Other cattle, under 2 years Total

.

Sheep— Ewes kept for breeding ; Other sheep, r year and above . Other sheep, under r year . Total

Pigs

.

5

137,505 32,127

129,526

16,778

10,439

5,071

180,071

151,975

449,103 237,141 247,322

460,317

933,566

Q17,411

2,937,817 1,099,789

32395143 1,085,706 3,210,628

2,748,278 . | 6,785,884 150,830

225,994 231,100

sions had reference chiefly to what afterwards came to be known as “statute labour roads,” intended primarily to supply a means

of communication within the several parishes. They were kept in repair by the tenants and cotters, and, when their labour was not sufficient, by the landlords, who were required to “stent” (assess) themselves, customs also being sometimes levied at bridges, ferries and causeways. By separate local Acts the “statute labour” was in many cases replaced by a payment called “conversion money,” and the General Roads Act of 1845 made the alteration universal. The Roads and Bridges (Scotland) Act of 1878 entrusted the control of the roads to royal and police burghs and in the counties

to road trustees, from whom it was transferred by the Local

Government Act of 1889 to county councils. Many of the counties were divided into separately rated districts for road-making purposes, and there were 106 highway authorities in existence in 1928, including 7 burghal authorities. The Local Government (Scotland) Bill of that year, however, was designed to centralize the administration by reducing the authorities to one for each county. The Highlands had good military roads earlier than the rest of the country. The project, begun in 1725 under the direction of General George Wade, took ten years to complete, and the

7:535:477

roads were afterwards kept in repair by an annual parliamentary

196,613

grant. In the Lowlands the main roads were constructed under the Turnpike Acts, the earliest of which was obtained in 1750. As elsewhere in Great Britain, large sums from the Road Fund have been expended in recent years on road-reconstruction and widening and the building of by-pass roads. Work on the Glasgow-Inverness, the Perth-Inverness, and the Glasgow-Edinburgh roads was in progress in 1928. The roads were numbered in 1922. Canals.—There are four canals in Scotland, the Caledonian, the Crinan, the Forth and Clyde and the Union, of which the Caledonian and Crinan are national property. (See CALEDONIAN CANAL.) The Forth and Clyde Navigation (opened in 1790) runs from Bowling on the Clyde, through the north-western part of Glasgow and through Kirkintilloch and Falkirk to Grangemouth on the Forth, a distance of 35 m. There is also a branch, 24 m. long, from Stockingfield to Pert Dundas in the city of Glasgow; which is continued for the distance of r m. to form a junction with the Monkland canal. The reconstruction of the Forth and Clyde Canal to take larger vessels has been much discussed from time to time, but no steps had been taken in the matter by 1929. The Monkland canal (opened in 1792) has a length of 124 m., and runs from the north-east of Glasgow through Coatbridge to Woodhall in the parish of Old Monkland. In 1867 both undertakings passed into the hands of the Caledonian Railway Company. The Union canal, 314 m. long, starts from Port Downie, on the Forth and Clyde canal near Falkirk, and runs to Port Hopetown in Edinburgh. Completed in 1822, it was vested in 1849 in the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway Company, which in turn was absorbed by the North Bnitish Railway Company, and in 1923 by the London and North Eastern Railway. The Aberdeen canal, 184 m. long, running up the Don valley from Aberdeen to Inverurie, the Glasgow, Paisley ‘and Johnstone Canal, 11 m. long, and the Forth and Cart Junction canal have been abandoned. Railways.—The first railway in Scotland for which an Act was obtained.was that between Kilmarnock and Troon (9# m.}, opened in 1812, and worked by horses. A similar railway, of which the chief.source of profit was the passenger traffic, was opened between Edinburgh and Dalkeith in 1831, branches being afterwards extended to Leith and Musselburgh. By 1840 the length of the railway lines for which bills were passed was 1914 m., the capital being £3,122,133. The chief companies were the Caledonian, formed in 1845; the North British, of the same date; the Glasgow and South-Western, formed by amalgamation in 1850; the Highland, formed by amalgamation in 1865; and the Great

crosses, are kept for winter feeding on lowland farms. The principal breeds of horses are the Shetland and Highland ponies, and the Clydesdale draught. Orchards and Forests.—The acreage devoted to orchards, which was 1,560 in 1880 and 2,482 in 1905, fell to 1,282 in 1927, with 8,064 acres under small fruit. The chief areas for tree and small fruit are Clydesdale and the Carse of Gowrie. Market-

gardening has developed in the neighbourhood of the larger towns. Fisheries.—The Scottish seaboard is divided for administrative purposes into twenty-seven fishery districts, namely, on the east coast, Eyemouth, Leith, Anstruther, Montrose, Stonehaven, Aberdeen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, Banff, Buckie, Findhorn, Cromarty, Helmsdale, Lybster, Wick (15); on the north, Orkney, Shetland (2); on the west, Stornoway, Barra, Loch Broom, Loch Carron and Skye, Fort William, Campeltown, Inverary, Rothesay, Greenock, Ballantrae (ro). The whole of the fisheries are controlled by the Fisbery Board for Scotland. In 1928 the number of fishermen directly employed in fishing was 25,943, there were 41,633 engaged in curing and preserving the fish landed and in subsidiary industries on shore, making a total of 66,676 persons engaged in the fisheries and dependent industries. This may be compared with a total of 86,271 m 1913. In 1928 the herring fishery yielded 4,235,567 cwts. The most prolific districts are Shetland in the north, Fraserburgh, Peterhead, Wick in the east,

and Stornoway in the west. The principal herring market is continental Europe, Germany being the largest consumer.

[COMMUNICATIONS

In 1928 the

catch of fish of all kinds (excepting shellfish) amounted to. 7,333,218 cwts. The annual value of the shellfish (lobsters, crabs, oysters, mussels, clams, etc.) was £97,974. The weight of salmon carried by Scottish railways and steamers in 1927 was 2,910 ton. In the last few years there has been a steady rise in the salmon catch, and the figure for 1927 was the highest since 1896.. There were 7 whalers operating in 1927;°459 whales were caught in 1926, 314-In 1927, and 184 in 1928. Roads.—In the 12th century an Act was passed providing that the highways between market-towns should be at least 20 ft. broad. Over the principal rivers at this early period there were bridges near the most populous places, as over the Dee ‘néar Aberdeen, the Esk at Brechin, the Tay at Perth and the Forth near Stirling. ‘Until the 16th century, however, traffic between distant places was carried on chiefly by pack-horses. Fhe first stage-coach in Scòtland was that which ran between Edinburgh and Leith in 1610. In 1658 there was a fortnightly stage-coach

North of Scotland,.1846. By the Railway Act of 1921 the Caledonian, Glasgow’ and South-Western, and Highland lines were between Edinburgh and London, but afterwards it would appear taken over by the London, Midland and Scottish Company, and to have been discontinued for many years. Separate Acts enjoin- the North British and Great North of. Scotland by the London ing the justices of the peace, and afterwards along with them the and North Eastern Company. Mining Industry—Coal and iron, generally found in concommissioners of supply, to take measures for the maintenance of roads were passed in 1617, 1669, 1676 and 1686. These provi- venient proximity to each other, are the chief sources of the

INDUSTRY]

SCOTLAND

153

mineral wealth of Scotland. The principal coalfields are Lanark-

in south Stirlingshire and in some parts of East and Midlothian and Fife. Since the World War the iron industry has reached Stirlingshire and Midlothian, but coal is also mined in the counties a condition of stagnation, and in 1928 only 21 of the blast furnaces (usually reckoned as forming part of one or other of the main in existence were at work. The electrical industry, on the other fields) of Linlithgow, Haddington, Dumbarton, Clackmannan, hand, has largely increased in importance, and employed in its Dumfries, Renfrew, Argyll and Peebles, while a small quantity is various ramifications some 2,000,000 workers in 1928. Steel-work obtained from the Oolite at Brora in Sutherlandshire. The earliest manufacturers have been faced with severe competition in recent records concerning coalpits appear to be the charters granted, years, and have been working under great difficulties. In 192r the towards the end of the 12th century, to William Oldbridge of number of persons employed in engineering and machine-making Carriden in Linlithgowshire, and in 1291 to the abbot and convent (not marine or electrical) was 92,894 (in roor it was nearly of Dunfermline conferring the privilege of digging coal in the 119,000). Ship-building and marine engineering employ J 125,026. lands of Pittencrieff. The monks of Newbattle Abbey also dug The metal, machinery and allied trades employed in 1921 354,735 coal at an early date from surface pits on the banks of the Esk, persons. shire, which yields over 4 of the total output, Fifeshire, Ayrshire,

but it was not used for domestic purposes till about the close of the 16th century. In 1606 an Act was passed binding colliers to perpetual service at the works where they were employed, and they were not fully emancipated till 1799. An Act was passed in 1843 forbidding the employment of children of tender years and women in underground mines. In 1927 there were 502 mines of all kinds in operation, employing 113,061 hands (87,620 below ground). The total output of coal in that year amounted to 34,597,694 tons. The quantity of coal exported in 1927 from the principal Scottish ports was 5,476,722 tons. Since the World War the position in the coal trade has been one of grave difficulty. Between 1913 and 1927 Scotland lost 39 per cent of her foreign trade, and the inland demand was also below normal. The rise of the iron industry dates from the establishment of the Carron ironworks near Falkirk in 1760, but it was the introduction of railways that gave the production of pig-iron its greatest impetus. In 1865 when the industry was at the height of its prosperity, 1,164,000 tons were produced, In 1927 only 692,100 tons of pig-iron were made. In 1905, 832,388 tons of iron ore were raised but in 1927 only 28,345. The ore came mostly from Linlithgow, Stirling and Dumfries. The oil shale industry is wholly modern and attained to considerable magnitude after its establishment (in 1851 and following

years). Linlithgowshire yields nearly three-fourths of the total output and Midlothian nearly one-fourth. The mineral is chiefly obtained from seams in the Calciferous Sandstone at the base of the Carboniferous rocks. The total production in 1927 was 2,047,263 tons. In the previous four years production had fallen by nearly 800,000 tons Stirling. Better results were hoped for in 1928, as a result of improved refining methods. Fire-clay is produced in Lanarkshire, which yields between 4 and 4 of the total output, Stirling (nearly 4), and, less extensively, in Fifeshire, Ayr, Dumbarton, Linlithgow and a few other shires. With the exception of the counties of Orkney, Shetland and Caithness, granite is quarried in every shire in Scotland, but chiefly in Aberdeenshire, Midlothian, Ayr, Fife and Lanark; limestone is quarried in half of the counties, but especially in Midlothian and Fife; large quantities of paving-stones are exported from Caithness and Forfarshire, and there are extensive slate quarries at Ballachulish and other places in Argyllshire, which furnishes about three-fourths of the total supply. Sandstone, of which the total production in 1927 was 251,715 tons, is quarried in nearly every county, but particularly in the shires of Lanark and Dumfries. Lead ore occurs at Wanlockhead in Dumfriesshire and Leadhills in Lanarkshire. In 1927 there were produced 4,352 tons of dressed lead ore. A small quantity of zinc is mined in Dumfriesshire: over 24,000 tons of barytes were raised in Ayr in 1927, and nearly 48,000 tons of ganister, largely in Stirling. The precious metals were once worked at Abington in Lanarkshire and in the Ochils. Schemes for the utilization of water-power are in opera-

tion at Foyers (where alumina is treated) and Loch Leven, and in process of construction in the Lochaber district (1928).

Iron and Steel—In 1921 35,167 persons were engaged in working of the raw material, in steel smelting and founding, blast furnaces for pig-iron, etc. All the great iron foundries and engineering works are situated in the Central Lowlands, in close proximity to the shipbuilding yards and coalfields, especially in

the lower and part of the middle wards of Lanarkshire, in certain districts of Ayrshire and Renfrewshire, at and near Dumbarton,

Manufactures. (a) Wool and Worsted—Although a company

of wool weavers was incorporated by the town council of Edinburgh in 1475, the cloth worn by the wealthier classes down to the beginning of the 17th century was of English or French manufacture, the lower classes wearing “‘coarse cloth made at home,” a custom still prevalent in the remoter districts of the Highlands. A company of Flemings was established in the Canongate (Edin-

burgh) in 1609 for the manufacture of cloth under the protection

of the king, and an English company for the manufacture of woollen fabrics near Haddington in 1681, but the industry for long made little progress. In fact its importance dates from the introduction of machinery in the roth century. The most important branch of the trade, that of tweeds, first began to attract attention shortly after 1830; it still has its principal seat in the district the Tweed, including Galashiels, Hawick, Innerleithen and Selkirk. Woollens are also manufactured elsewhere, especially at Stirling, Aberdeen, Elgin, Inverness, Stirling, Bannockburn, Dumfries and Paisley. Carpet manufacture has had its principal seat in Kilmarnock since 1817, but is also carried on in Elderslie, Ayr, Glasgow, Stirling and elsewhere. Fingering and many other kinds of woollen yarns are manufactured at Alloa, the headquarters of the industry. In 1921 the number of operatives in the woollen industry amounted to 22,870.

(b) Flax, Hemp and Jute-—-The manufacture of cloth from flax is of very ancient date, and towards the close of the 16th century Scottish linen cloths -were largely exported to foreign countries, as well as to England. Regulations in regard to the manufacture were passed in 1641 and 1661. To encourage the trade it was enacted in 1686 that the bodies of all persons, excepting poor tenants and cotters, should be buried in plain linen only, spun and made within the kingdom. The Act was renewed in 1693 and 1695, and in the former year another Act was passed prohibiting the export of lint and permitting its Import free of duty. At the time of the Union the annual amount of linen cloth manufactured in Scotland is supposed to have been about 1,500,000 yards. The Union gave a considerable impetus to the manufacture, as did also

the establishment of the Board of Manufactures in 1727, which applied an annual sum of £2,650 to its encouragement, and in 1729 established a colony of French Protestants in Edinburgh, on the site of the present Picardy Place, to teach the spinning and weaving of cambric. The counties in which linen is now most largely carried on are Forfar, Perth, Fife, Aberdeen, Renfrew, and Midlothian. Dundee is the principal seat of the manufacture of coarser fabrics, Dunfermline of the table and other finer linens, while Paisley is widely known for its sewing threads. The allied industry of jute is the staple industry of Dundee. In 1921 the operatives in the flax, jute and hemp industry numbered 55,035.

(c) Cotton—The first cotton mill was built at Rothesay by an English company in 1779, though Penicuik also lays claim to priority. The Rothesay mill was soon afterwards acquired by David Dale, who also established cotton factories in 1785 at New Lanark, afterwards so closely associated with the socialistic schemes of his son-in-law, Robert Owen. The counties of Lanark and Renfrew are now the principal seats of the industry. The

great majority of the cotton factories are concentrated in Glasgow; Paisley and the neighbouring towns, but the industry extends: in other districts of the west and is also represented in the counties

of Aberdeen and Perth. As compared with England, however, the manufacture has stagnated.

The number of hands employed in

154

SCOTLAND

[EARLY Foreign and Coastwise Trade:

1850 wWaS 34.325. in Igor it was 34,057, and in 1921 (including , bleachers, dyers, printers, calenderers, etc.) it was 41,212.

Coastwise

(d) Silk and other Textiles—The principal seats of the silk | manufacture are Paisley and Glasgow. In 1901 the number employed amounted to 2,424, but in 1921 it was only 680, including those engaged in artificial silk manufacture, an industry which has increased in Importance since that date. The weaving of lace curtains has made considerable progress. Hosiery manufactures, a characteristic Border industry, has its chief seat at Hawick. In 1921 34,493 persons were engaged in the production of miscellaneous textiles, such as rope, carpets, lace, etc. The textile industry has been comparatively prosperous in recent years, and the output in 1928 was probably greater than before the World War. (e) Whisky and Beer-—Scotland claims a distinctive manufacture in whisky. Though distillation was originally introduced from England, by 1771 large quantities of spirits were already being consigned to the English market. The legal manufacture of whisky was greatly checked in the earlier part of the roth century by occasional advances in the duty, but after the reduc-

tion of 2s. 43d. per proof gallon in 1823 the number of licensed distillers rapidly increased, to the discouragement of smuggling and illicit distillation. In rt900 31,798,465 proof gallons were made, but in 1927 only 18,988,437. In that year all but 7 of the distilleries of the United Kingdom were in Scotland, but the number had fallen from 128 in 1923 to 84. The leading distilling counties are Argyll, Banff and Inverness. Brewing is extensively carried on in Edinburgh, whose ales are in high repute, Alloa and elsewhere. The Temperance Act (Scotland), which came into force in 1920, provided for a poll by local authorities in burghs, wards of large burghs, and parishes with reference to the limitation or abolition of liquor licences, or the retention of the existing licences. In the result 60% of the votes were for no change. (f) Miscellaneous—Paper, stationery and printing are industries in which Scotland has always occupied a foremost position. A paper mill was erected in 1675 at Dalry on the Water of Leith in which French operatives were employed to give instruction, with the result, in the words of the proprietors, that “grey and blue paper was produced much finer than ever was done before in the kingdom.” Midlothian has never lost the lead then secured. There are paper mills at Penicuik and elsewhere in the vale of the Esk and around Edinburgh and the industry is also conducted near Aberdeen. Stationery is largely manufactured at Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh. In 1921 the number of persons employed in the paper and stationery industries amounted to 19,953. Ever since it was established early in the 16th century, the Edinburgh press has been renowned for the beauty and excellence of its typography, a large proportion of the books issued by London publishers emanating from the printing works of the Scottish capital. Printing is also extensively carried on in Glasgow. The number of persons engaged in the production of books and kindred occupations amounted in 1921 to 26,919. The first sugar refinery was erected in 1765 at Greenock, which,

HISTORY

Tonnage of Vessels.

Foreign

1855 | 1,963,552] 2,057,036| 668,078 1900 | 7,213,574. |6,791,059 | 5,057,200] 6,602,545/12,870,774/13,304,504 8,575,156 | 8,267,004 | 9,484,068 |12,041,955|/18,059,224/20,309,649 Though the value of imports into Scotland is less than one-thirteenth of that into England, this does not represent the due

proportion of foreign wares used and consumed in the obvious reason that large quantities of goods are the country by rail, nearly all the tea, for example, Great Britain being imported into London, while have almost a monopoly of certain other imports. revenue

rose from

Scotland, for brought into consumed in several ports The customs

£1,965,080 in 1894 to £3,399,141

in 1903.

Chief Ports—1927 Port

Imports and exports

Orderof produce of the U. K.

Glasgow Leith

Orderin foreign trade

8,844,258

76,362,693 25,545,968

3:9037,054

12,015,207

Grangemouth Dundee Aberdeen Greenock Ardrossan . Methil ; Burntisland

Tonnage of vessels

1,842,402 1,223,727 642,031

10,830,017 3,108,167

2,824,590

3,305,958 402,121 L,2QI,OOI

1,492,004

1,457,093 CONTI 10 AW HAn b

904,029

OUL O WHAN AL H

629,985

vessels in coasting trade

3,491,913 1,299,055 T,151,713

575,700 1,301,503

1,124,898

1,345,055 1,065,659 ND H ON AW OOt&r1304,487

Shipbuilding.—Many of the most important improvements in the construction of ships, especially steam vessels, are due to the enterprise and skill of the Clyde shipbuilders, who, from the time of Robert Napier of Shandon who built and engined the first

steamers for the Cunard Company, formed in 1840, have enjoyed an unrivalled reputation for the construction of liners. The principal Clyde yards are situated in the Glasgow district (Govan, >

Scotstoun, Fairfield, Clydebank, Dalmuir), Dumbarton,

Pest “

Glasgow and Greenock. At several of the ports on the lower firth, as at Ardrossan and Fairlie, famous for its yachts, the industry is also carried on. On the east coast the leading yards are at Dundee, Peterhead, Fraserburgh and Aberdeen, which, in the days of sailing ships, was renowned for its clippers built for the tea trade. There are yards also at Inverness. After rising to a “peak” year in 1913, shipbuilding fell off during the World War; and since then its fortunes have been fluctuating and uncertain. The industry was fairly active in 1928, but towards the end of the year the unemployment figures were higher than in any other of the basic industries of the country. (O. J. R. H.) HISTORY The Kingdom of Scotland was founded in the early years of despite periodical vicissitudes, has remained the principal seat of the 11th century by an amalgamation of four tribal kingdoms— the industry. —The making of preserves and confectionery flour- Scots, Picts, British and Angles, two of which, Scots and Picts, ishes in Dundee. Kirkcaldy is the seat of the oil floor-cloth and had been united at an earlier period. The Scots were an Irish linoleum industries, the latter introduced in 1877. The head- tribe who settled, about the beginning of the 6th century, in the quarters of the chemicals manufacture are situated in Glasgow and district known later as Argyll; the Angles, in the second half of the vicinity, while explosives are chiefly manufactured at Steven- the same century, colonized. what became the Lothians and the ston and elsewhere in Ayrshire, and at certain places on the Argyll counties of Selkirk, Peebles and Roxburgh. The British, who coast. Among occupations providing employment for large num- occupied: the country between the Solway Firth and the Firth bers were trades in connection with building and works of con- of Clyde, were akin to the Welsh, and were probably driven into struction and furniture and timber, while transport (including north Britain by the Anglo-Saxon invasions in the south. Three, railways, roads, sea, rivers, docks, harbours, etc.) employed 160,- therefore, of the four constituent parts, of the historic kingdoms

Commerce and Shipping.—The following table between 1855 and 1927 illustrates the development that took place in the

of Scotland date back no farther than -the 6th century. The identification of the Picts and. Caledonians whom the Romans found in the country in the first centuries of the Christian era

shipping trade with foreign countries and British possessions, as well as the expansion of the coasting trade.

has been for generations a subject of, controversy. in Roman days see CALEDONTA,.also BRITAIN.

218 persons in 1921.

Foreign trade has shown rapid growth. In 1755 the imports were worth £464,411, and the exports £535,576. By 1851 the figures were £8,921,108 and £5,016,116. In 1900 they were £38,691,245 and £32,166,561, and in 1927 £80,822,241 and £62,670,566.

For Scotland

Christian Scotland.—Scottish history is often said to begin with the mission of St. Columba in 563. ‚Columba wasan Irish-

man of noble birth who became a monk and. a:priest-and settled

in Iona to undertake the conversion of the-portions: of. North

SCOTLAND

ANGLICIZATION]

Britain which were still heathen.

155

Iona belonged to the small

Conquest of Lothian.—The most important attempt of the latter kind occurred in 937 when the Scottish king, Constantine founded by the race to which Columba belonged, and its ruler IIH., was defeated by Athelstan of England at Brunanburh was his kinsman. The Scots had come from Ireland, a Chris- (probably Burnswark on the Solway). Constantine’s object was tian land, and had brought their religion with them, and Chris- the realization of a persistent ambition which is, perhaps, the most tianity had persisted from Roman times, or had been revived, remarkable feature of Scottish history in the two centuries folin Strathclyde. In the beginning of the sth century, St. Ninian lowing the union of the Picts and Scots—the severance of the had preached in Strathclyde and had sent his disciples to convert Lothians from the kingdom of Northumbria. These attempts Pictland, and it is probable that many of the religious founda- continued throughout the roth century but did not attain any pertions in the north-east of Scotland, generally ascribed to St. manent success till, in 1018, Malcolm II. completely defeated the Columba, really date from an older missionary effort.1 Some Northumbrians at the battle of Carham, near Coldstream. The years before St. Columba landed in Iona, a great Christian | victory was followed by the gradual extension of Scottish rule teacher, known as St. Kentigern or St. Mungo, was labouring in to the Tweed. Malcolm was followed, in 1034, by his grandson, Strathclyde, and to his mission is traced the foundation of the Duncan, who had already succeeded, by inheritance, to the throne future city of Glasgow. St. Columba, therefore, cannot be said to of Strathclyde, and thus Scots, Picts, Angles and British were all have converted Scotland, but he laboured as a missionary in included within the kingdom which came to be known as ScotPictland and he made Iona the centre of Scottish Christianity. land. The Norsemen still held the islands; the Hebrides were not In the century succeeding his death in 597, the most important recovered till after the middle of the 13th century, and the Orkcontribution made by Scotland to the history of Great Britain neys and Shetlands not till the middle of the 15th century, when was the direct result of his work—the re-conversion of the North they passed from Denmark to Scotland through the marriage of a of England to Christianity. A pagan reaction in the second quar- Danish princess to James ITI. ter of the 7th century had dethroned the Christian king, Edwin ANGLICIZATION AND FEUDALIZATION of Northumbria, who ruled from the Humber to the Forth. Macbeth and Malcolm IiIl.—Duncan, the Duncan of ShakeEdwin’s nephew, Oswald, had been educated at Iona, and, when he recovered the kingdom of Northumbria by a victory won m speare’s “Macbeth,” the first ruler of the historical kingdom of 655, he brought Scottish missionaries to rebuild the shattered Scotland, did not experience the “plenteous joys”? which brought fabric of Christianity. The influence of Scotland upon English tears into his eyes in the play. He met with defeats both from the Christianity was, however, short-lived. There were some differ- Northumbrians and from the Norsemen, and in r040 he was slain ences of method, organization and ritual between the Irish Church in a civil war by his own general, Macbeth, who had a claim to and the Roman Church. Oswald’s successor, Oswy, declared in the succession, probably in his own right, and also as the reprefavour of Roman custom, and the Scottish missionaries aban- sentative of his wife and stepson. Macbeth was almost certainly doned Northumbria in accordance with the decision of the Synod in alliance with the Norwegian earl of Caithness and Sutherland, a cousin of Duncan, named Thorfinn. While Thorfinn lived, atof Whitby (664). Picts, Scots and Norse.—The kingdom of Northumbria had, tempts to dethrone Macbeth, who proved himself an efficient by this date, reached the height of its greatness, and its rulers ruler, were unsuccessful, at all events in Pictland, though Strathwere ambitious of conquering the north of the island. In 685 a clyde and the Lothians may have acknowledged Malcolm Canmore great Northumbrian army invaded Pictland and was defeated at (Bighead) the son of Duncan. After Thorfinn’s death, Malcolm, the battle of Nectansmere, fought near Dunnichen in Forfarshire. in 1057, defeated and slew Macbeth at Lumphanan in AberdeenThe expedition proved to be the ruin of Northumbrian supremacy shire. The kingdom of which Malcolm III. took possession was a in England; the centre of English power shifted southwards and Celtic kingdom, though one of its provinces was peopled by the menace of an English conquest was removed. North Britain Angles. Local and tribal custom prevailed alike in Scotland kingdom of Dalriada, which had, comparatively recently, been

was to be left, for some centuries, to work out its own destiny. proper (the district north of the Forth and Clyde) and in GalloThe Picts became supreme in the north, and gained control over way; the speech was Celtic; the court and the administrative sysboth the Scots of Dalriada and the British of Strathclyde. Then tem, so far as the latter can be said to have existed, were Celtic. the Picts were weakened by the attacks of the Norsemen, who The church still retained, to a large extent, the structure and cusfirst attacked the coasts in the end of the 8th century, and, about toms of Irish Christianity, although, in the beginning of the 8th century, a powerful Pictish monarch had ordered his people to 835, began to make permanent settlements. Dalriada threw off keep the Roman date for Easter (one of the points disputed at Pictish control, and in 844, when the Norsemen .were attacking the Synod of Whitby) and this rule had afterwards been followed Pictland, Kenneth MacAlpine, King of the Scots, established a in Dalriada and probably in Strathclyde. The Irish Church did claim to the Pictish throne. There seems to have been something not repudiate papal authority, but theré was no opportunity for in the nature of a conquest, but the resources of Pictland were the exercise of papal jurisdiction. Diocesan organization did not so much greater than those of Dalriada that it is difficult to credit exist. There was only one bishop of the Scots; his see was St. the smaller country with a military conquest of the larger. Andrews and he could enjoy little influence outside his own neighKenneth MacAlpine’s claim was in right of his mother, and bourhood. Such organization as the Columban Church had origithe Picts preferred maternal to paternal descent. The union of nally possessed was based upon powers'claimed by the abbots of Picts and Scots was followed by an attempt to snatch the Lothians the monasteries, but the abuse of appointing lay abbots had defrom Northumbria, then devastated by the Danish invasions; but stroyed the early monasticism, and a later order of monks, the the effort was unsuccessful, and Kenneth’s successors were themCuldees, which had developed in the 9th century, had no adminisselves engaged in struggles with the Norsemen, who occupied the trative authority. Hebrides and the Orkney and Shetland islands and made settleQueen Margaret.—The disorganized state of the Scottish

ments along the western and northern coasts and on the east coast

as far south as the Moray Firth. They also attacked the kingdom of Strathclyde and founded colonies between the rivers Esk and Dee. The islands became definitely Scandinavian, as also did a large part of Caithness. During the long conflict. with the Norse-

men, ‘the Scots sometimes allied themselves with the. English against the common enemy, and ‘these alliances constituted, long afterwards, a ground of the English claim to the overlordship of Scotland, but there were’ other occasions oe which the Scots joined. the N orsemen against the English.. -

Church, and some peculiar customs which marked its ritual, shocked the conscience of Malcolm’s wife, an English princess, Margaret, who, after the Norman Conquest, sought refuge in Scotland. Margaret was a woman of saintly life—she was canonized a century and a half after her death—and her own desire was to be a nun. She would have been the glory of a cloister, but ‘she

accepted, her inission to redeem an ignorant and almost schismatic nation. She was not destined to’ fulfil that mission herself, but its

accdmplishment was, none the less, her work. There were many

difficulties,in her way. She could not introduce a diocesan. system aW, D. Simpson, The Historical St. Columba aop. oo oe +e, till‘there was a vacancy in the one Scottish bishopric, and none t

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occurred in her lifetime. She could not reform the monastic system and bring it into line with European monasticism, because Malcolm, though amenable in many ways to his wife’s influence,

refused to surrender the gains which he and other laymen, the great men of the land, enjoyed from the secularization of monastic revenues. She did succeed in changing some Scottish customs. She brought English clergy to convince the Scots of the error of their

ways (Malcolm who had been in exile in England, acting as interpreter); she restored the monastery of Iona which had been destroyed by the Northmen; and she encouraged the Culdees as the nearest approach to the religious life which she admired. Her

most important personal achievements were the introduction of an English-speaking court and of English-speaking clergy, and the education of her children in English ways and traditions. She bore six sons to Malcolm, but he was not allowed to give any one of them his own name, or the name of any of his predecessors; four of them were named after Saxon kings of England. Anglicization of the Church.—Margaret’s three sons who successively came to the throne had all some personal experience of English life. Malcolm III. and his eldest son, Edward, were killed in 1093 in one of the raids on the north of England from

which his pious wife vainly tried to restrain him. After his death there was a Celtic reaction against the Anglicizing influences introduced by Margaret (who was herself dying when her son Edgar

brought her the news of the deaths of his father and brother). The English who had followed the queen to Scotland were driven out, and Edgar and his brothers, Alexander and David, took refuge in England. It was with English help that Edgar regained his throne in 1107; he died ten years later and was succeeded by Alexander, and he in turn by David (1124-53). The three brothers were all their mother’s sons, and they continued her work. All three were pious and all three were English in tastes and sympathies, and were bent upon converting Celtic Scotland into a feudal kingdom of the Anglo-Norman type. Piety and policy

both pointed in one direction; the church was to be one of the most powerful instruments of Anglicization.

Edgar abandoned

[ANGLICIZATION

rapidly, and all the mediaeval Scottish dioceses had been founded by the end of his reign, Anglicization of the Administrative System.—David I. was more familiar with English ways than any of his brothers. His sister was married to Henry I. and he spent some years of his youth at the English court, made friends with Anglo-Norman barons and married the widow of one of them. He changed the

system of land tenure in Scotland by making to his English friends grants of land, on the model of the charters granted by the AngloNorman kings of England. The first of the Scottish Bruces, for example, received by charter a grant of over 200,000 acres in Annandale, and the progenitor of the House of Stuart came to Scotland as the recipient of charters conveying great tracts of land in Ayrshire and Renfrewshire. There was no dispossession of the existing landowners; they held their rights, in future, from the new lord instead of directly from the Crown. Such charters were granted not only to newcomers, but also to great landlords who had hitherto held their lands by tribal custom and were glad to receive written guarantees of their possessions and privileges. Gradually, the whole of the land, outside the Highlands, came to be held under feudal law, and the landowners, whether Anglo-Normans or representatives of the old Scottish families (who intermarried with David’s new nobility), were, like the monks and the bishops, inevitably instruments of the royal policy of Anglicization. The civil, as well as the ecclesiastical, organization was gradually remodelled in accordance with English (and European) institutions, and, under David and his successors, great officers of the household (whose functions were analogous to the duties of later administrative departments) came into existence, the English office of sheriff was borrowed for purposes of local government, and the old tribal laws of the component parts of the kingdom were replaced by adaptations of English legislative measures. To the influences of an English court, an English Church, and an English system of law and land-tenure were added the effects of English trade. Commerce was mostly with England and from England was adopted the institution of the burgh. The early Scottish

and colonies Malcolm’s palace at Dunfermline and held an English court at burgh charters were all founded on English models, These processes,

Edinburgh. Alexander suppressed a Celtic rebellion in Moray and Mearns so efficiently that he earned the description “the Fierce,” nem

and he followed up his victory by founding a house of Austin Canons at Scone (the coronation place of the Pictish kings and their Scottish successors) and filling it with English monks. The

Anglicization of the’ country, outside the western and northern Highlands, was to a very considerable extent the result of ecclesi-

astical influences. Alexander I. and David I. planted English monasteries in many districts of Scotland, south of the Moray Firth, and endowed them so liberally that David acquired a popular repu-

tation for sanctity. However, the political motive of the new foundations is indicated by the suppression of the Culdees, the

form of religious life associated with the Gaelic speech and with . Celtic customs. The plantation of monasteries was accompanied by a diocesan organization of the church. This was essential for efficient ecclesi-

astical administration and for the exercise of papal supremacy, but it was also useful as a means of furthering royal policy. The new bishops were English, their sees were richly endowed with lands, and their religious authority was enhanced by their position as territorial magnates. Diocesan organization was delayed by claims asserted by the sees of Canterbury and York to possess

superiority over the church in Scotland. Two Englishmen in suc-

cession, Turgot, the chaplain and biographer of Queen Margaret, and Eadmer, the ecclesiastical historian, were elected to the see of St. Andrews, but Turgot acknowledged the superiority of York

and Eadmer that of Canterbury, and neither was allowed to reside

in Scotland. AlexanderI. would not tolerate pretensions which,

apart from introducing complications into the relations between

Church and State, were likely to compromise the independence of the Scottish Crown. Ultimately, on Eadmer’s death in 1124, the English prior of the new monastery at Scone was consecrated to the see of St. Andrews by the Archbishop of York, without prejudice either to the claims of York or to the freedom of the Church in Scotland. Under David I. the process of organization went on

of English merchants settled in Scottish towns. initiated under the sons of Queen Margaret, had a continuous development until the outbreak of the War of Independence. A series of Celtic revolts against the Anglicizing policy of the Crown occurred in the course of the 12th century and in the beginning of the 13th, but they were all suppressed (sometimes with English

help), and, before the death of Alexander ITI. in 1286, the organi-

zation of Lowland Scotland, from the Moray Firth to Tweed and Solway, was definitely English, and the English tongue was spoken in a large portion of the area. Relations with England.—While this process of Angliciza~-

tion was in progress, political relations with England were not, for many years, entirely friendly. The border-line between the two countries had not been definitely ascertained. As the rulers of Strathclyde, the Scottish kings imagined themselves to possess a claim to Cumberland and Westmorland, and they cherished an ambition of annexing portions of the old Northumbrian kingdom beyond the Tweed. The raids of Malcolm ITI. (Canmore) had led William I. to found Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1079 and William II. to fortify Carlisle in 1091, and the boundary line might be regarded as stretching from the Tyne to the Solway, although the English did not admit Scottish claims between Tweed and Tyne. The wife of David I. was the heiress of two English earldoms, of which Northumbria was one. Henry I. recognized his brother-inlaw’s claim to the earldom of Huntingdon, which descended to the Scottish queen from her father, but refused to acknowledge that Northumbria had passed to her from her grandfather: (Earl Siward, who had played an important part in the reign of Edward the Confessor). When the English throne was disputed between Stephen and the Empress Matilda, David invaded England in support of the empress, who was his niece. His real purpose was to take possession of Northumberland, and he succeeded in effecting it in spite of his defeat at the Battle of the Standard, fought near Northallerton in Aug. 1138. Stephen, whose wife was also a niece of David, granted Northumberland as an English fief to Prince

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Henry, the heir to the Scottish throne. The gift did not secure David’s loyalty, for when the future Henry II. made his first, and unsuccessful, attempt to gain the English throne in 1149, David aided him and was promised the whole area north of the Tyne. This promise was repudiated by Henry II. on his accession in 1154. David had died in 1153, his son had predeceased him, and his grandson, Malcolm IV. (1153-65), had to surrender David’s territorial gains.

Treaty of Falaise—The ambition of annexing Northumbria continued to guide Scottish policy, and William the Lion (116s5— 1214), the brother and successor of Malcolm IV., hoped to attain it by joining the English rebels against Henry II. in 1173-74. His capture, near Alnwick Castle, in July 1174, not only put an end to such expectations but resulted in the temporary loss of Scottish independence. The roth-century alliances against the Danes, in which the English king had been “father and lord” of the king of Scots, were by this time interpreted in England as having involved a feudal subjection of Scotland to England, and since the time of William the Conqueror, the Scottish kings had held English fiefs and had done homage for them. The precise nature of this homage

had not been defined and the meaning of the ceremony was left deliberately ambiguous. What the Scottish kings gave as homage for English lands, English kings could receive as homage for the crown of Scotland. Henry released William only after forcing him to consent to the Treaty of Falaise (1174) by which he did homage

avowedly for the Scottish crown. The treaty was cancelled 15 years later by an agreement between William and Richard I., who sold the rights extorted by his father, réceiving in return a sum of

money, required for the Third Crusade. The bargain (which forms almost the only link between Scotland and the Crusading movement) merely annulled the Treaty of Falaise and left the question of homage precisely where it had been im 1174. One ancient controversy was, however, settled immediately after the agreement was made. The Treaty of Falaise had expressly admitted the subordination of the Scottish to the English Church, but its provisions had not come into operation because it had failed to discriminate between the rival claims of Canterbury and York. In 1192, after the close of a controversy between William the Lion and the papacy, Pope Celestine ITI. issued a Bull declaring the Scottish Church to be the special daughter of the Holy See, “with mediation of none.”! The church in Scotland was still denied the privilege of a metropolitan see, although in 1225 Honorius IIT. granted the clergy permission to hold regular provincial councils under the presidency of an elected “Conservator of the

Privileges of the Scottish Church.”

It was not till 1472 that St.

Andrews was given metropolitan jurisdiction in Scotland; 20 years later a province was detached and placed under the newly founded archbishopric of Glasgow.

The Golden Age.—William the Lion (the ascription of that

title to him is an unsolved problem) continued to hope for the restoration of Northumberland. He offered to purchase it in 1rg4, but refused to accept it when Richard I. proposed to exclude from

the bargain the right of holding fortified castles; and he made further unavailing efforts, including an admission of the right of King John to choose a wife for his son Alexander, the heir to the Scottish throne as well as to the possessions of the Scottish Royal House in England and to their Northumbrian claims—a dangerous expedient in view of English pretensions to overlordship. Alexander IT. (1214-49) tried to seize Northumberland during the struggle which followed the grant of Magna Carta; but in 1236,

by the Treaty of York, he resigned his claims to the earldom of Northumbria, and also his possessions in Huntingdon, in return

for a grant of lands in the north of England. His reign witnessed the last of the Celtic revolts against the policy of Anglicization,

and in his later years Scotland entered upon a period of consolidation and prosperity which -continued throughout the reign of his

son, Alexander ITE. (1249-86).

The recovery of the Western

Isles, which had been under Norse rule, was achieved by Alexander HI. after the battle of Largs (1263), in which the Norwegians

were défeated. In 1266 Eric of Norway surrendered the Hebrides 1The date tro2 ‘was established by Prof: R. K: Hannay in an article

on the subject in the Scottish Historical Review, April 1926.

157

in return for a money payment. There was continuous peace with England. Alexander was the nephew and also the son-in-law of Henry IIL, and his relations both with him and with his brotherin-law, Edward I., were friendly.

The Borders, about to be the

scene of almost incessant fighting for two and a half centuries, were quiet and peaceful. Later tradition did not err In regarding the reign of the last of the old line of Scottish kings as a golden

age. His death closed the period of Anglicization and in the later middle ages Scotland drew its inspiration rather from France than from England. THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE The Succession Problem.—Alexander ITI. was killed by a fall from his horse in March 1286. His two sons and his daughter had predeceased him and his only living descendant was his daughter’s infant child, Margaret, daughter of Eric of Norway. Her age, her sex and her nationality would have combined to prevent the suc-

cession of the little Maid of Norway, if there had been any adult male claimant nearly related to the late king. But Alexander left neither brother, nephew nor cousin, and there was no living legitimate descendant of any Scottish monarch later than David I. Of the three grandsons of David, two, Malcolm and William, had succeeded to the throne. The third, David, who had been given the English earldom of Huntingdon, had left a son and three daughters. The son had died without issue; the eldest daughter had married an Anglo-Scottish baron, and her grandson (through her daughter, Devorguilla, the foundress of Balliol college at Oxford) was, by the theory of primogeniture, the direct heir to the Crown. But the rule of succession by primogeniture was not yet established either in Scotland or in England, and the

claim of John Balliol was disputed by Robert Bruce, the son of the second daughter of David of Huntingdon. Bruce argued that a grandson, being closer in descent to the grandfather from whom the claim was derived, was his true representative, rather than a, great-grandson who was separated from him by an additional generation. Years before, when Alexander II. was childless, Bruce had been recognized as heir presumptive, and the birth of Alexander ITI. had deprived him of a chance which, in 1286, he held to have recurred. The Scots were thus faced by a choice between the minority of a baby girl who was the daughter of a foreign sovereign, and a civil war between two Scottish claimants. The nobles decided that the former was the lesser of the two evils, and the Great Council of Scottish tenants-in-chief, clerical and lay, appointed guardians to conduct the Government in the name of Margaret of Norway.

Agreement with England.—At first, it seemed as if the

choice were to involve the country in both evils, for the Bruce party began to raise a rebellion, but Edward I. of England, a great-uncle of the baby queen, intervened to secure her throne. This intervention was welcome in Scotland; in the late. king’s minority, his father-in-law, Henry III; bad taken part in Scottish politics, asserting no claim to overlordship, and describing himself as principal counsellor to the king of Scots. Edward I. similarly made no pretension to the right and duty of an overlord to act-as guardian during a minority.. The long continuance of peace with England, and the two centuries’ tradition of the adoption of English speech, manners and institutions, made it natural for him to offer, and for the Scots to accept, a guarantee of the succession òf the little Maid. Edward had, in fact, devised the statesmanlike scheme of a union of the two Crowns by the marriage of the heiress of Scotland to his son Edward (afterwards Edward IT.): English, Scottish and Norwegiam commissioners met to discuss the question, and in the summer of 1290, the Treaty of Birghamon-T weed defined the conditions of the marriage. In proposing his scheme, and in the termis of the treaty, Edward showed. every

consideration for Scottish feelings, and it was provided that, after

the marriage, and even after the succession of 4 son of the marviage to both Crowtis, the two kingdoms should remain separate organizations—doubtless Edward hoped that 'a union of ‘the king-

doms would follow a union of the Crowns, but he was' content to

lay the foundations of that union. Further; it was agreed: in'-the Treaty that, should there be no heir of the martiage, the Crown of

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Scotland was to revert to the proper heirs, and the kingdom of' try, and its loss of the status even of a vassal kingdom, was emScotland was to be “free in itself, without subjection, as it hath | phasized by the destruction of the Great Seal, and by the removal hitherto been.” Any rights pertaining to the Crown of England to London of the national records and of the “Stone of Fate” were reserved, but these rights were neither asserted nor defined. | upon which the Scottish kings were crowned. In October the The English Claim to Overlordship.—The agreement prom- English king returned home, leaving Scotland under a military ised a peaceful future for both countries, as far as their relations occupation. William Wallace.—English soldiers and officials were far with each other were concerned, but within two months, the Maid of Norway died on her way to Scotland (Sept. 1290). Civil war from tactful, but the explanation of the revolt that followed is between the Bruces and the Balliols was inevitable, and each party not to be found in garrison outrages. The lay magnates who had wished to secure Edward’s support. During the minority of accepted the English overlordship were largely of Anglo-Norman Alexander III., the Bruce family had supported the policy of blood; the smaller landowners and the lower classes of the populaHenry III. in Scotland, and Robert Bruce, the claimant, was an tion nourished a stronger dislike to English rule than did their English landowner, had held high official positions in England, natural leaders who had deserted the cause of independence. and had fought with Edward during the Barons’ Wars. There are They found at once a new leader in Sir William Wallace, a indications that he would have acknowledged English overlordship younger son of a Renfrewshire landowner, and it was soon proved in return for Edward’s support, but such a bargain would not have that only leadership was wanted to enlist an army of soldiers fulfilled the purpose which Edward had begun to cherish—the drawn from all parts of Scotland, including the Highlands. On reduction of Scotland to the position of a vassal kingdom of Sept. 11, 1297, Wallace, as commander of “the army of the comEngland. A compact with the Bruces would only have resulted mons of Scotland,” routed the English army of occupation at in placing behind Balliol all who upheld Scottish claims to inde- Stirling bridge, and for a year he ruled Scotland in the capacity pendence, and Edward was determined to obtain an acknowledg- of guardian for John Balliol. Meanwhile, Edward I., relieved ment of his paramount authority from all the claimants—there both of foreign and of domestic anxieties, prepared to lead an were rivals to Balliol and Bruce, but with clearly inferior preten- army to Scotland in person. At Falkirk, on July 22, 1298, he sions. After collecting evidence from monastic chronicles about defeated Wallace, who escaped but resigned his office of guardian. the history of the overlordship controversy, Edward asked the The victory did not, however, restore the English to the position Scottish nobles to meet him at Norham-on-Tweed in May 1292. they had held in 1296. The spirit of resistance, thoroughly awakThere he at once announced his intention of establishing his claim ened, was not dismayed by defeat. New guardians were appointed, to be the feudal overlord of the kingdom of Scotland, and he including Robert Bruce, grandson of the Competitor (the future gave the Scottish magnates some days to consider their attitude. King Robert), and' Edward, summoned to London by fresh Meanwhile, a great English army was assembling on the opposite domestic complications, had to leave Scotland unconquered. It bank of the Tweed. Edward’s claim was not entirely repugnant to was not till the autumn of 1303 that he was able to undertake an assembly consisting largely of Anglo-Norman barons, some of operations on a scale adequate for his purpose. He brought a whom held lands in England as well as in Scotland, and, after a great army to Scotland in September, traversed the country, met protest had been entered in the name of the “community” of with little resistance, and spent the winter in Scotland. In the Scotland, the English overlordship was admitted and the admis- summer of 1304, having captured Stirling Castle, which had been sion was duly recorded. The Lord Paramount then ordered an taken by the Scots after their defeat at Falkirk;-he. again left enquiry into the pretensions of the various competitors, who were behind him what he believed to be a conquered country. In:a3o reminded that any symptoms of recalcitrance would be followed he captured Wallace and put the noblest of Scottish patriots to by a declaration that the kingdom, owing to failure of heirs, had the cruel death prescribed by English law for a traitor. reverted to the overlord. Edward then made a progress, as far Robert Bruce—Wallace was executed in Aug. 1305. Six north as Perth, through the kingdom of his (as yet unidentified) months later, Robert Bruce and John (“the Red”) Comyn, both of them ex-guardians of Scotland, met secretly in the Greyfriars vassal, Balliol’s Revolt.--In Nov. 1292, Edward, after a judicial in- church at Dumfries. Comyn was a nephew of Balliol and was revestigation, gave his decision in favour. of John Balliol, thus defin- garded as the representative of the Balliol claims. A meeting of ing right of succession in accordance with the later rules of primo- the only two possible candidates for the Scottish throne must have geniture. Within three years the vassal king ‘was in revolt against been: held for the purpose of adjusting their claims with a view his overlord, who had subjected: him to ignominious treatment; to further resistance. The result of the conference was to make Whether Edward deliberately intenđed to produce this result is resistance inevitable and immediate. There was a quarrel, and uncertain. Balliol’s character and disposition suggested that he Bruce stabbed Comyn; his followers despatched the wounded man. would submit to almost any humiliation rather than face Edward’s It was impossible for Bruce to conceal his real aims from Edward, wrath, and, if the English king did contemplate a 'ċonquest of and, though he had made no preparations for resistance, he was Scotland, he cannot have wished to undertake it in 1295, when he crowned in March 1306 at Scone. His chances of success seemed had on his hands a Welsh rebellion, a French war and. serious slight, for the kindred and friends of the great families of Balliol domestic quarrels. The remark attributed to him when news and Comyn were violently hostile to him; and the clergy, who was brought of Balliol’s alliance with France, “Has the fool done had. hitherto supported the cause of independence, were likely this folly?” indicates that he was surprised by the audacity of his to be alienated by a crime which combined murder with sacrilege. vassal, and he was so far right that Balliol seems to have been A defeat at Methven, near Perth, in June, might well have put an compelled by Scottish opinion to take action. Edward at once end to the rising, and Bruce’s failure in the battlefield was folassembled a powerful army to give effect to a new claim—that lowed by other misfortunes: He spent the winter of 1306-07 as a Scotland, as the fief of a disobedient vassal, had passed by for- fugitive—his adventures are described in Barbour’s Bruce and in feiture into the direct possession of the feudal superior. The Sir Walter Scott’s Lord of ‘the Isles and Tales of a Grandfather. strength of Scottish feeling is illustrated by the stubborn resis- But Bruce was to prove himself a great: national leader, the detance offered by the Anglian population of the prosperous mer- termination of the Scots to regain their independence had been cantile town of Berwick-on-Tweed, where English rule might strengthened by the death of Wallace, and even the clergy did have been expected to be more welcome than in any other province not desert the new monarch.in spite of a papal excommunication. of Scotland. Edward took vengeance by a merciless massacre In the spring, Bruce appeared on his own lands in Ayrshire, (the first act, of warfare for.nearly a century) and gave a prece- and in May he won a victory at Loudoun Hill in the same county. dent for a cruel and relentless struggle. . At: first, it seemed as if Then an event happened which changed the whole situation. Edthe conquest were to be'a very simple process. Scotland was ward I. had spent the winter at Lanercost Abbey in the north of divided—the Bruces denied suppért;to Balliok—and Edward, England, and had moved to Carlisle, where, in March, he seneasily defeating a Scottish army, at: Dunbar (April 1296), made a tenced to death two of Bruce’s brothers who had fallen into his triumphal march through Scotland. The annexation of the coun- hands. On hearing the news of Loudoun Hill he resolved to lead

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his army to Scotland in person, but he died at Burgh-on-Sands on July 7, and his successor abandoned the campaign.

Bannockburn.—Edward

II. probably had adequate reasons

for returning to London, but he missed a great opportunity in Scotland. One of his father’s great difficulties had been that Scottish barons and bishops were ready to take, and just as ready to break, oaths of allegiance to the sovereign of England. He could not rely upon the unfailing support of any Scottish family or faction. The murder of Comyn had accomplished what all the first Edward’s oaths had failed to achieve—the creation of an English party in Scotland which could be trusted unswervingly to maintain English interests. There was an irreconcilable bloodfeud between King Robert and the friends and adherents of the murdered Comyn. Edward II. left this party without support and without any definite plan of campaign, and between 1307 and 1310 Bruce crushed its members individually. A futile and half-hearted invasion led by Edward in person in 1310 did nothing to retrieve the balance, and for the next four years, Bruce, with the help of his brother Edward, and of the “Black” Douglas, not only expelled English garrisons from Scottish castles but was able to inflict great damage by raids upon the northern counties of England. At last, in 1314, Edward IJ. made a serious effort to recover his father’s conquest and suffered at Bannockburn (June 24) the greatest disaster which an English army had ever sustained. The fight was not of Bruce’s seeking; he had avoided a general action in 1310 in accordance with the usual Scottish policy of guerrilla warfare. A pitched battle was too great a risk in view of the comparative resources of the two countries, and it was an imprudent challenge accepted by Edward Bruce from the English governor of Stirling Castle in the summer of 1313 that led to what proved to be the only successful battle on a great scale ever _ won by the Scots over the English. But Bannockburn was won, and it was sufficient for the vindication of Scottish independence. Edward II. stubbornly declined to admit the accomplished fact, and for many years Bruce carried terror into the northern counties, and he also dealt a serious blow to English dominion in Ireland. It was not till after the deposition and murder of Edward II. that the regents for his son, Edward III., agreed to the Treaty of Northampton (1328), by which England acknowledged the

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Balliol was crowned at Scone as Edward I. of Scotland. The English king then openly espoused Balliol’s cause and, abandoning his grandfather’s final policy of complete annexation, reverted to the earlier project of a vassal kingdom. Before Edward ITI. could come to Balliol’s assistance his vassal had been ignominiously driven out of Scotland, but he led a large army to the siege of Berwick-on-Tweed, which had been recovered by Bruce in 1318. The Scots suffered a crushing defeat at Halidon Hill, near Berwick (July 19, 1333), and the town fell

into English hands. Edward then modified his consent to the revival of the vassal kingdom by extorting from Balliol a cession of most of the south of Scotland (including the counties of Linlithgow, Edinburgh, Haddington, Berwick, Selkirk, Peebles and Roxburgh). This district passed under the administration of English officials, but Balliol, in spite of successive invasions of Scotland by his overlord in the years 1334-37, never established himself as a vassal king. Then there occurred another change in the political situation, involving effects similar to those which had followed the death of Edward I., 30 years earlier. In the autumn of 1337, Edward III. put forward his claim to the throne of France, and he at once lost interest in Edward Balliol’s feeble pretensions and even in the defence of the ceded territory. The Scottish regents were left, as Robert Bruce had been left, to suppress Scottish traitors and expel English garrisons, and by 1341, Perth, Stirling and Edinburgh were in Scottish hands, the English had been driven out of a large area in southern Scotland, and the young David II. was brought back from France, whither he and his English queen had been sent for safety in 1334. Scotland and France.—The diversion of English ambition from Scotland to France really marks the close of the War of Independence, but it also inaugurated a new series of hostile relations between England and Scotland. Although John Balliol had made his original defiance of Edward I. in the assurance of support from Philip IV. of France, the help given by the French in the earlier stage of the struggle for independence had been negligible. In 1298, Philip agreed to a truce, and again in 1303, the darkest hour in Scottish history, he had concluded a permanent peace with England. When the struggle began again, however, the French, under Philip VI., had given refuge to the young David IT., and French support of Scotland was one of the independence of the Kingdom of Scotland. Revival of the Conflict.—In the following year, King Robert reasons for the English attack upon France. When that attack died, leaving as his heir a son, David II. (1329-71), who, though began in earnest, in 1346, Edward III. offered to restore the only a child of five, had already been married, in accordance with portions of Scotland which were still in English hands on condition a provision of the Treaty of Northampton, to Joanna, a daughter of Scottish neutrality in the Anglo-French war. The Scots made of Edward II. In 1330, Edward III. threw off the yoke of his a decision which, as time went on, they declined, on several mother and her paramour, Mortimer, who had deposed his occasions, to revoke. The explanation of their persistent adfather, and a new phase of the War of Independence began. It herence to a Franco-Scottish alliance lies in their conviction that was then that the most disastrous effects of the murder,of Comyn no peace with England could possibly be permanent. If the began to operate. Bruce had vanquished the Scottish opponents English became the masters of France, they were not likely long whose bitter enmity that deed had provoked, but they had reso- to acquiesce in the existence of a small independent kingdom on lutely refused to acknowledge his sovereignty or, in the mediaeval their northern borders. If they failed to establish English dophrase, to “come into his peace.” Their estates had been forfeited minion in France, they were equally sure to seek such compensaand they had taken refuge in England. Thus, when England had tion as a conquest of Scotland would afford, and the Scots, if they again a strong king and Scotland a weak one, there was at the deserted France in her hour of need, could expect no help in their English court a body of “Disinherited Knights,” as they were own. The Franco-Scottish alliance, as a factor In European hiscalled, who urged the young Edward to wipe out the shame tory, began in 1346, when David II., invading the north of Engof Bannockburn, deeply felt by his people, and to reconquer land in the interests of France, was defeated and captured at the Scotland. The Treaty of Northampton, confirmed by an English battle of Neville’s cross, fought near Durham on Oct. 17, about Parliament, stood in the way, but the conditions of the treaty two months after Crecy. The English at once re-occupied a large had not been fully carried out by the Scots. It provided for the area of southern Scotland and thus provided an unanswerable restoration of the estates of a few of the disinherited, and the reason for the maintenance of Franco-Scottish friendship. While Scottish regent,. Randolph, earl of Moray, a nephew of King England held portions of France and of Scotland, an alliance of Robert, felt that it was not safe to take this step while the exiles her two victims was inevitable. There was, indeed, no other bond were in favour at the English court. It was an ominous circum- of union between French and Scots, and the political alliance was stance that the new English king had invited from France Edward by no means always a happy or cordial arrangement, although Balliol, the heir of John Balliol, who was known to be contem- France took, in the development of Scottish civilization, the place plating an attempt to regain his father’s vassal throne. In the which had been held by England before the War of Independence, summer of 1332, while England and Scotland were officially at and profoundly influenced Scottish law and institutions ;as well : oP a peace, Edward III. permitted BaHiol to lead an army of the dis- as manners and customs. inherited: for the'recevery of Scotland. The earl of Mar, who had ' The Ransom of David Il.—Scottish intervention in thewAnglojust ‘sueceeded-to: thexregency on Randolph's death, was defeated French war proved to.be rather irritating than actually dangerous by Balliol .at Dupplin-Méoor (Aug. 12, 1332), and,.in September, to England, and Edward III. made.a remarkable attenapt ‘to get

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rid of the complications which it involved. His prisoner, David cated in France. The boy was captured by the English at sea, and II., was childless and extravagant; he hated his heir, Robert the Robert III. died when the news reached him. The reign of James Steward, the son of his half-sister and his own senior by some I. nominally covers the years 1406-37, but he was a prisoner in years. David was released in 1357 and the Scots undertook to England till 1424, and during this period Scotland was governed pay a heavy ransom in instalments spread over many years. The by Albany until his death in 1420 and thereafter by his son, MurScottish Crown was thus impoverished, and David, who had been doch, 2nd duke. The regency of the elder Albany witnessed the kindly treated in London and had made many friends in England, foundation of the first Scottish university (St. Andrews, 1411)— listened to a suggestion of the English king that the ransom should partly an endeavour to repress the Lollard heresy which had be commuted for an acknowledgment of an English prince as reached Scotland—and the battle of Harlaw, which has frequently the heir to the throne of Scotland. The son of Robert Bruce been misinterpreted as a decisive struggle between Celt and Saxon actually made this proposal to the Scottish parliament, which in Scotland. It was, in fact, a fiercely fought skirmish between contemptuously repudiated it. The lIong-continued negotiations Donald of the Isles, a grandson of Robert II., who claimed the for the ransom of David II. brought about an important change earldom of Ross in right of his wife, a member of a Lowland in the parliamentary constitution of Scotland. Whatever it may family, and the burghers of Aberdeen, reinforced by the earl of have derived from the Celtic heritage of the Kingdom, the Great Mar and other Aberdeenshire lairds. Donald, having defeated the Council of the land has been organized by the descendants of Mackays and the Frasers, Highlanders who opposed his claim, Malcolm Canmore upon an English model. It was both the was marching to plunder the town of Aberdeen. Like other dissupreme court of law and an advisory council of the sovereign, affected Scottish barons, he had made an alliance with England, and it was composed of the tenants-in-chief, clerical and lay. To and Harlaw was an episode in Anglo-Scottish warfare. Albany these two estates of the realm, the clergy and the barons, was made considerable progress in the recovery of southern Scotland added in the middle of the 14th century a third estate, consisting from the English, and he also encouraged the recruitment of Scotof representatives of the royal burghs. The financial help of the tish soldiers for the struggle in France. In the year after his death burghs was required for the payment of the ransom, and it was the Scots rendered their most distinguished service to the French therefore necessary to secure their concurrence in the decisions in helping to win the victory of Baugé (1421), the first French taken by parliament. The presence of burgess representatives in success since the invasion of France by Henry V. of England. The first two Stuart kings had been feeble rulers, and though parliament, or in the less formal meetings of the estates known as general councils, cannot be shown to have exercised any notable the elder Albany was a strong man, his position, and possibly his influence upon either the authority or the policy of the Crown, personal ambitions, prevented him from suppressing the feudal but it may be traced in a long series of legislative measures dealing anarchy which threatened the monarchy and paralyzed the central administration. James I., who was released on payment of a with trade, commerce and police. ransom in 1424, was fearless and determined, and he resolved to THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE CROWN AND THE BARONS establish order and good government—in his own words, to . The Early Stuart Kings——The War of Independence, and the “make the key keep the castle and the bracken bush the cow.” subsequent warfare with England, deeply affected the relations He was merciless in his treatment of the great barons, and he between the Crown and the great baronial families. The distribu- roused many enemies. He tried to find support for his reforms tion of the estates of the “disinherited” among Bruce’s supporters in widening the membership of the Great Council or Parliament was one of the causes of the dangerous greatness of the House by establishing a representative system for the lesser barons of Douglas and of other Scottish families, and, in the course whose technical obligation to attend its meetings had never been of the English wars, the Crown was frequently weakened by the enforced, but the statute passed in 1428 for this purpose was premature deaths of monarchs and by the recurrence of minori- inoperative. None the less, the parliaments of the reign passed ties. The initial weakness of the Crown, after the death of Robert a long series of beneficent legislative measures; the king’s diffiI., was, however, due not to such accidents, but to the personality culty lay in enforcing them. In 1437 he fell a victim to a conof his first three successors. David IT. was a futile ruler and a spiracy organized by the earl of. Athol, a relative who, if the worthless man, and the determination of the Scots to maintain legitimacy of Robert IIE. had not been recognized, would have their independence receives additional proof from the circumstance been the rightful occupant of the throne. His son and successor that his reign did not witness its loss. When he died in 137z, the James IE. (1437-60) was a child of six, and the advance made by nephew who succeeded him, Robert IE. (1371-g0}, the first mon- the central government during the personal rule of James I. was arch of the House of Stuart, was 55 years of age, and already lost in the intrigues and factions of a minority. When James I. worn out by a strenuous public hfe. His reign was largely spent began his personal rule, the great House of Douglas, in spite of in conflict with England, but he took no part in the warfare. Scot- sustaining a severe blow by the murder of its young chief in the land had been included in truces between England and France, course of the royal minority, was a grave danger to the supremacy

and when the Anglo-French struggle entered on a new phase in 1377, the Scots renewed their efforts to expel the English from the occupied country in the south, and their success pravoked

of the Crown.

James found a pretext for invading the Douglas

dominions while the 8th earl of Douglas was on a pilgrimage to Rome, and Douglas, on his return, made a league with his three invasions by John of Gaunt and by Richard II., which resulted brothers, Archibald, earl of Moray, Hugh, earl of Ormond, and solely in devastations of Scottish soil. The best remembered in- John, lord of Balveny, and with a great northern magnate, the cident was the battle of Otterburn (1388), a chivalrous and ro- earl of Crawford. The king heard of the league and sent for mantic episode, but negligible as a military event. The next king, Douglas to Stirling Castle, giving him a safe-conduct. The earl Robert III. (1390-1406), was a lame old man who with some refused to break the bond into which he had entered, and James, reason described himself as “the worst of kings and the most losing his temper, stabbed him and wounded him fatally (Feb. wretched of men.” His legitimacy was doubtful, and he made no 1452). An obedient parliament found that the Earl was “guilty effort to repress the disorders which were rampant in the country. of his own death by resisting the king’s gentle persuasions to aid During the early years of his reign the Government was in the him against rebellious subjects,” but the murder was necessarily hands of his younger brother, the earl of Fife, whom he created the signal for a final conflict between the Crown and the House of duke of Albany, but in 1399 his eldest son, the duke of Rothesay, Dotglas. James defeated the Douglases on the battlefield and ousted his uncle from the regency. There was a bitter feud be- captured their strongholds, and the oth earl fled to England to tween Rothesay and Albany, the latter of whom recovered power reappear in Scotland in the next reign. Recovery of Southern Scotland.—The Douglases had been in 1401. In the following year Rothesay died mysteriously at Falkland (the story is told in Scott’s Fair Maid of Perth), and involved in matty intrigues with England, but they had played a rumour, which has crystallized into tradition, ascribed his death notable part in the recovery of southern Scotland, and by the to Albany. The old king was alarmed by the fate of his heir, and, year 1460 this task had been completed except for the town of early in r406, he sent his remaining son, Prince James, to be edu- Berwick-on-Tweed and the castle of Roxburgh; the town of

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Roxburgh, once one of the leading Scottish burghs, had been entirely destroyed in the course of more than 160 years of almost continuous warfare. The outbreak of the Wars of the Roses in England afforded a suitable opportunity for the recovery of the castle, and James besieged it in the summer of 1460.

He

himself, interested in the growing use of artillery, was watching the operations of his gunners, when he was hit and killed by “a piece of mis-framed gun that brak in the shooting,” and Scotland was again plunged into the woes of a minority. Roxburgh Castle was taken a few days after the king’s death, and with the expulsion of the English from Scotland, the real reason for the Franco-

Scottish alliance had come to an end. While the English held large portions of France and of Scotland alike, an alliance of their two enemies was inevitable, and James I. had repeated the Scottish refusal of English offers of friendship on condition of Scottish neutrality in the French war. The Scots had rendered greater military assistance to the French than they had received from them, but it was the French who bore the brunt of the conflict against the common enemy, and, in negotiations with the English, they never failed to protect Scottish interests. By 1460 the alliance had served the purpose for which it was formed; the English held only Calais in France and Berwick in Scotland.

The Reign of James III.—During the minority of James III. (1460~88), the Scots took advantage of the civil war in England to obtain the cession of Berwick-on-Tweed from Margaret of Anjou, the wife of Henry VL., giving in return some help to the Lancastrian cause. Edward IV. retaliated by an intrigue with the Lord of the Isles, but the Scots recognized the accomplished fact of Yorkist supremacy in England and a truce was made in 1463 and converted into a peace in 1464. During the first years of the minority of James ITI., Scotland was ruled by a statesman, Bishop Kennedy of St. Andrews, and though there were troubles after his death, the young king, when he assumed the government in 1469, began his reign in fortunate conditions. There was peace with England; his father had destroyed the perilous greatness of the Douglases; his marriage with Anne of Denmark led to the recovery of the Orkney and Shetland islands, which had been Scandinavian for centuries; and the prestige of the kingdom was enhanced by the creation of the metropolitan see of St. Andrews in 1472. Four years later the Lord of the Isles was reduced to submission by an army led by some of the great barons whose ambitions had hitherto been dangerous to the Crown. Yet James III. was one of the most unfortunate of the Stuart kings. His nobles complained that he “delighted mair in music and policy of building than in the government of his realm,” and they preferred his brother, the duke of Albany. The brothers quarrelled, Albany fled to France, and James was suffciently unwise to break the peace with England, where the oth earl of Douglas was still in receipt of an English pension. With Douglas as an intermediary, Edward IV. made a treaty with Albany for his establishment on the Scottish throne as an English vassal, and for the restoration of the House of Douglas. Albany, calling himself Alexander, king of Scots, led an army to the

Borders, accompanied by Richard, duke of Gloucester (afterwards Richard ITI.). Gloucester retook the town and castle of Berwick-on-Tweed, which thus passed finally out of Scottish hands (1482), and Albany invaded Scotland. The army which James led to meet him brought about a revolution; the nobles, under the leadership of the earl of Angus, the head of the Red Douglases who had risen on the ruins of the older or Black Douglases, seized and hanged the musicians and architects who were the king’s friends, and made an agreement with Albany. The amusing story of how Angus gained his nick-name, Archi-

bald-Bell-the Cat, is told in Scott’s Tales of a Grandfather. In the following year, Albany was again an exile in England, and in 1484 he and Douglas again invaded Scotland with a small English force, but were defeated. Albany escaped to, France, where he was killed in a tournament in 1485, and the oth and last earl of Douglas died a prisoner in the monastery of Lindores. Four years later Jatnes ITI. was killed-in'a civil conflict. The

faction of the nobility which conspired against him and defeated

him ‘at Sauchieburn,,néar Stirling (June 1488), had seized the

16I

person of his son and heir, the prince of Scotland, and brought him to the field against his father. This circumstance indicates the permanent character of the change in Scottish politics brought about by the victory of James IJ. over the Douglases. Neither of the two rebellions against James ITI. was directed against the dynasty, and each of them was the result of widespread political opposition to the king’s conduct of public affairs, and not of secret conspiracies inspired by jealousy of the House of Stuart. It is also significant that, in 1488, the rebels made a defence of their action on political grounds; rebellion, for the frst time, admittedly required an excuse capable of being stated openly. The revolution was followed by indications of a tendency towards constitutional government and an assertion of parliamentary authority, but this tendency did not survive the assumption of power by James IV. (1488-1513) in person. He was an able and strenuous ruler, and he soon acquired complete control over the traditionally amenable Scottish parliament. He humbled rebellious barons, who, either as partisans of the late king, or for other reasons, resisted him, and he annexed to the Crown the title of Lord of the Isles and by personal visits established royal authority in the Hebrides. SCOTLAND, ENGLAND AND FRANCE Union of the Thistle and the Rose.—James IV. aimed at acquiring for Scotland a place in European politics. The causes which, for nearly two centuries, had compelled his kingdom to follow the policy of France had ceased to operate, he was him-

self related to the rulers of Denmark and Burgundy, and he was ambitious of a marriage alliance with Spain, then under Ferdinand and Isabella. He built a Scattish navy and challenged England on the seas. In alliance with the Emperor Maximilian and the duchess of Burgundy, he supported Perkin Warbeck’s pre-

tensions to the throne of Henry VII., and made a half-hearted

invasion on his behalf. The Spanish sovereigns were in frequent communication with James and sent to Scotland an envoy who has left an interesting account of the social condition of the country in the last years of the 15th century. Failing to obtain a Spanish bride, he accepted Henry VII.’s offer of the hand of his elder daughter, Margaret, whom he married in 1503. The marriage, celebrated by the poet Dumbar as the Union of the Thistle and the Rose, implied a fresh orientation of Scottish policy and dealt a blow to the tradition that Scotland must always be on hostile terms with its great neighbour, and a period of some 15 years of peace brought a great increase of commercial prosperity to Scotland. But James, on more than one occasion, indicated to Henry VII. that he had no intention of being ruled by his fatherin-law, and he continued to build a great navy. Peace was maintained while Henry VII. lived, but the accession of Henry VIII. soon placed before James the old alternative of friendship with England or with France. Flodden Field.—The formation of the Holy League against France alarmed the Scottish king, who dreaded the effect upon Scotland of the destruction of France by a great European combination. That France was in no such danger as he imagined is proved by the circumstance that, a year later, Henry VIII. married his sister to Louis XII., but it is easy to understand James’s alarm. He was willing to yield to his brother-in-law on other points of dispute which had arisen between the two sovereigns, but he resolved to maintain the traditional Scottish policy of helping France in her hour of need. It is, however, significant that the royal decision was persistently opposed by: the older and wiser councillors, who, though themselves trained in the French tradition and bound to France by many personal ties, realized that circumstances had changed, and that what had been wisdom less than a century earlier was likely to be folly in the new conditions. This view found expression, a few years later, in the History of

Greater Britain, by a famous Franco-Scottish scholar, John Major, who urged the expediency of a union of Scotland ‘with

England. James took his own way and in Sept. 1513 he: was defeated and killed in the battle of Flodden. His heir was an infant, and Scotland, overwhelmed by a great national disaster, was again subjected to the intrigues of a minority. The navy,

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to the throne) was reign, and, like his father, heir-presumptive and was known tu n Beato of s a century, appointed in defiance of the effort in negotiating, France, and the country did not recover, for at least eded succe Henry nes. doctri new the to incline between his the prosperity which had marked his reign. treaty age marri a of s July 1543, the preliminarie The Regency of the Duke of Albany.—James, by will, had in Queen of Scots. infant the and VI.) d Edwar s rward (afte V. heir left his English wife as the guardian of his infant son, James g demands which the had but. he followed up this success by makin (1513~42), and she might have secured the regency if she to have plotted to known I514. Scots indignantly refused, and he was not married a Scottish nobleman, the earl of Angus, in Mary of Guise. The er, -moth queen the and kidnap the regent the Her second marriage rendered her position impossible and and Beaton and the retraitor result was a reconciliation between Arran Scots invited Alexander, duke of Albany, the son of the (Dec. 1543). It Henry treaty ge marria h Englis the of ion who pudiat duke of the reign of James IIL., to become regent. Albany, end, for Arran and the in won have might but had been patient he had been born and educated in France, spoke no language the temptation to dissolve the and , quarrel to likely were Beaton (1515French and he spent a considerable portion of his regency would have been resolutely monasteries during a minority of the Crown brother-in-law, 24) in Paris. If Margaret and Angus had set themselves his and temper, his have very strong. But Henry lost et), ravaged to champion English influence in Scotland, they could Somers tor Protec wards (after rd Hertfo of earl , a true the

sold to upon which James IV. had lavished care and money, was

smoothed the way of English diplomacy. But Margaret and sister of Henry VIII., quarrelled with her second husband Henry’s ing disregard marriage, her of t annulmen an obtain tried to

the laws remonstrance that she had chosen her husband and, by ed of God and man, was bound to stick to him. Angus maintain , Margaret but England, with intrigue of the Douglas tradition the indominated by hatred of her husband, frequently acted in terests of France and checkmated English designs in Scotland. Arran, In July 1524, Margaret, in conjunction with the earl of to be heir-presumptive to the throne, declared the young king made and her deserted Arran but person, in old enough to rule when friends with Angus, who governed the kingdom until 1528, from escape romantic a made r, stepfathe his hated James, who his control. James V. and Henry VIIL—Under the influence of his the mother, who had been freed from Angus by a decision of to Papal Court in 1527 and had therefore no reason for hostility with terms friendly on was years, few a for James, Henry VIII., felt his uncle. After the English breach with Rome, when Henry his exhis isolation in Christendom, he urged his nephew to follow ample and enrich himself with the spoils of the monasteries. The Reformation was, by this time, making some progress in Scotland, but James, though he recognized the need of a reformation of the lives of the clergy, had no sympathy with the new doctrines, and he was not prepared to adopt Henry’s methods. He made two French marriages; after his first wife, a daughter of Francis I., died, as a bride, in 1537, he married Mary of Guise, widow of the duc de Longueville. Henry, however, persevered in trying to detach James from his French alliance and to alienate him

rn Scotland in 1544 and 1545—his merciless campaigns

southe Scotland was were derisively known as “the English Wooing.” the murder and , France of arms the into more once thus thrown his own in episcopal party, French the of Beaton, the leader of

situcastle of St. Andrews (1546) did not affect the political -

defend ation. His murderers were glad to have English help in

Enging the castle of St. Andrews, but a national alliance with

land was impossible for: the time. His Protector Somerset carried on the policy of Henry VIII. that than wiser was problem Scottish the to attitude personal of his late master; he aimed at a union on equal terms, and, if course he had come into power in 1542 instead of in 1547, the that all was, it As . different widely been have of events might the he could do was to employ force in an endeavour to sever though failed, ely complet he this in and alliance, cottish Franco-S he gained some military reputation by his third invasion of Scotold land and his victory at Pinkie in Sept. 1547—the last of the Scottish the le, Meanwhi . Scotland and England battles between Government had, with French help, captured the castle of St. Andrews (July 1547), and the Regent Arran. entered into nego: Freie tiations for a marriage of the girl queen to the heir of the throne. In Aug. 1548 Mary was sent to France, wherêlishe mained for 13 years. The French continued to assist ‘the Scots to recapture strongholds taken by the English, and the Auld Allipeace ance seemed to be more firmly cemented than ever when 1551. was made with England in E

End of the French Alliance.—But

ni

y

France had become too

II. great a Power to treat Scotland on equal terms, and Henry

Arran was determined to make the country a ‘province of France. and Guise, of Mary of favour: in regency the resign to was bribed shows, ondence corresp ed publish the new regent, as her recently French became an agent of French policy. She was surrounded by digthe Huntly of earl the with shared an advisers—a Frenchm of nity of the chancellorship—and she relied upon the services The . Scotland in ar unpopul been always had who soldiers, French Scots were alarmed. They spoke of Scotland as threatened with fate of Brittany, and parliament in 1555 had to pass an act Angus had embittered his relations with the great families at the the slanderers of the queen regent and of the French troops beginning of his reign; he offended the Border chiefs by restor- against the common- weal and suppressing the auld enemy.” for “sent policy ing order in the Borders, and in carrying out his ‘father’s were several outbreaks against the French garrisons. Antiin the Western Isles, he quarrelled with the earl of Argyll. The There ed ‘feeling: was stimulated. by the growth of the Reform French the upon rely tọ result was that he had come more and more Bibles” of ds “cartloa the by spread been had. which s, doctrine support of the clergy, and by this and by the employment of to have brought with him. In 1557, that? Somerset is recorded’ favourites he still further alienated the nobles. The opposition a, league which they called “the formed nts Protesta Scottish the Tudor of the Scottish nobility to James V. was stimulated by the signed the first National Coveand: Lord,”: the ‘of tion Congrega methods of bribery, and their eyes were fixed on the spoils of the ` ntism... Protesta of interests the in nant a called. they church. They refused to support James in what in April 1558 Dauphin the to Mary Queen of marriage The French war, and it was Beaton and the ecclesiastical party. that it rather inbut Scotland, in s rejoicing was celebrated with.due furnished James with the army that was routed at the battle of was a suspicion, there: for cause, French, the assisted than, jured his Solway Moss in Nov. 1542. The king’s health had prevented have; been, well-founded, that agreements ton, which is now know taking part in the fighting, and he returned to Falkland Palace, on, her, marriage formed a danger to the n gizl-quee the by: signed , Linlithgow at where he died on Dec. 14, six days after the birth, ; Mary. had, in fact, been induced country. the nce..of. independe ' of his daughter and heiress, Mary Queen of Scots. the event of her decease without isin which, s document sign to nephew his of death The Minority of Queen Mary.—The sue, transferred the succession to:the, French king and his heirs, a gave Henry VIII. a great opportunity which he failed to use, stipulation which directly. contravened assurances solemnly given for the new rulers of Scotland might have been persuaded to ac- by Henry II. to the Scottish parliament. 0.50 0). cept the Reformation and seize the lands of the Church. The _. The Lordsof the Congregation.—The revolt of the Scotregent, the earl of Arran (a son of the Arran of the preceding

from Cardinal Beaton, the leader of the Church Party; he continued to urge him to dissolve the monasteries, and made various attempts to arrange a personal interview; we now know that he intended to kidnap him. James declined his uncle’s overtures and refused to give him a chance of seizing his person, and Henry broke off friendly relations, revived the claim of homage, and , i sent armies to invade Scotland. James was not supported by his nobility. .His conflict with

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alliance

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and the Roman | in the succession to the Scottish throne. Elizabeth had allowed Darnley (who had been brought up in England) to go to Scotland, and the marriage was in no way antagonistic to English in-

Church was hastened by events in England. While Mary Tudor lived, they could form no English alliance, in spite of the English queen’s hostility to France. When Elizabeth succeeded in Nov. 1558, Henry II. was guilty of the foolish insult of asserting the claim of his daughter-in-law to the English throne as the nearest heir of Henry VII—Elizabeth being, in the eyes of Roman Catholic Europe, an illegitimate child. It was, therefore, in the interests of England to help the Scottish Protestants against the Scottish Government, and it happened that the queen regent chose this unfortunate moment for severe measures. In 1559 she denounced the Protestant leaders as heretics, and their reply came in the form of the destruction of the religious houses at Perth. Alarmed by the outbreak, Mary of Guise promised not to send a

French garrison to the city, but her arrival at Perth with a personal bodyguard of French soldiers was interpreted as a breach of her promise. The destruction of religious buildings continued, and the Protestant leaders, known as the Lords of the Congregation, invited English help. Henry II. was killed in the summer of 1559, and the king of France, Francis II., became, in right of his wife, king of Scots. The Guises were the Government of both France and Scotland, and France, just released from the burden of a Spanish war, was free to prosecute its policy in Scotland. But the Lords of the Congregation gave the Scottish Government no time for preparation. In Oct. 1559 they announced the deposition of the queen regent, and asked Elizabeth “to accept the realm of Scotland into her protection and maintenance, only for preservation of them in their old freedom and liberties, and from conquest, during the time the marriage shall continue between the Queen of Scots and the French King.” QUEEN MARY IN SCOTLAND The alliance between Elizabeth and the Protestants marks the end of the Franco-Scottish League and the triumph of the Reformation in Scotland. An English fleet besieged Leith, and the queen regent, stricken with mortal illness, took refuge in the castle of Edinburgh, where she died in June 1560. There was no one to represent the authority of the Crown, and a Scottish parliament, the legality of the summons of which was doubtful, abolished Roman Catholicism and prohibited under severe penalties (culminating in capital punishment) the celebration of Mass. The parliament of 1560 secured the de facto establishment of Protestantism, though its legislation was not ratified by the Crown. Mary’s husband died in Dec. 1560, and she returned to Scotland in Aug. 156r. At first she was guided by her halfbrother, whom she made earl of Murray. Any attempt to restore her own religion was out of the question. The utmost that Mary could seriously hope for was a toleration for Roman Catholics, and her efforts to secure this were unsuccessful. She could not even protect the worship of her own attendants in her own chapel, and John Knox afterwards said that on her first arrival, he could have “executed God’s judgments upon her” if he had chosen to do so. England and Protestantism were definitely in the ascendant, and the new Church became stronger than ever when, in 1562, Murray secured Mary’s acquiescence in the suppression of the earl of Huntly, the most powerful Roman Catholic nobleman in Scotland. Darnley and Rizzio.—A marriage with a foreign prince might

have strengthened Mary in Scotland, but she was restrained from this course by her position as heiress-presumptive to the Eng-

terests; but she declared herself offended and secretly sent aid to Murray, who raised a rebellion against the marriage. Her people supported Mary, and Murray fled to England. Darnley proved an impossible husband, and his foolish ambition sought a somewhat mysterious right known as the Crown Matrimonial, which would have secured the throne to him for life and might even have given his children by a second wife precedence over the Hamiltons in the succession to the throne. He had made many enemies, and no friends, in Scotland, and Mary’s Italian secretary, David Rizzio, was known to have advised Mary to refuse her husband's request. Darnley became involved in a plot for the murder of Rizzio. The murder was only a small part of the design of the conspirators, who included Murray and the other exiles in England and their friends in Scotland. Darnley was led to believe that his accomplices would give him the authority of a king regnant. Rizzio was murdered on the evening of March 9, 1566, and, the same night, Murray arrived from England, where Elizabeth had been cognizant of the plot. Then Mary, in an interview with her husband, persuaded him that he was the dupe of his accomplices, and, on the night of March 11, husband and wife escaped from Holyrood, and fled to Dunbar. Public opinion again supported Mary, and, while Murray remained in Scotland, the nobles who had taken part in the Rizzio murder had to flee to England. Darnley disavowed any knowledge of the plot, and bitterly opposed any suggestion of pardon for his fellow-consplrators, who supplied Mary with full evidence of his guilt. Mary’s two successes alarmed the Protestants, and if Mary could have retained her hold over Darnley, the Reformed Church

might have been in some danger. But the birth of a son, Prince James, in June 1566, was followed by a violent and permanent quarrel between the unhappy parents. Darnley’s enemies were resolved to have his life, and when the accomplices whom he had betrayed were allowed to return to Scotland at the end of 1566, he was a doomed man. But the enemies of Darnley were also the enemies of Mary, and they found in the earl of Bothwell, a tool for the destruction of both. Darnley was murdered on Feb. ro, 1567, at Kirk-of-Field, in the outskirts of Edinburgh, and his murderers, by blowing up the house with gunpowder, made sure that no alternative explanation of his death should be feasible. Bothwell was known to be a principal actor in the crime, and a collusive trial did nothing to weaken the belief in his guilt. On May 15 Mary married Bothwell. There was another rebellion, the queen had been discredited by the Darnley murder and the Bothwell marriage, and she had no option but to surrender to the rebels (June 15). The question of Mary’s guilt or innocence of her husband’s murder is rather biographical than historical (see CASKET LETTERS). Guilty or innocent, she could not retain her authority after what had happened. If, as in the present state of the controversy unfortunately seems probable, there was a domestic conspiracy between Mary and Bothwell, Darnley’s death was not merely the result of a plot between a guilty wife and her paramour. If Mary was an accomplice of Bothwell, she was also the unconscious tool of a wider conspiracy, the members of

which, after she and Bothwell were both out of the way, fell to accusing each other of a share in the murder of Darnley. Mary’s Abdication.—The insurgent lords imprisoned Mary in Lochleven Castle and forced her to abdicate in favour of her infant son, and Murray extorted from her an assent to his own

lish Crown. Nine years younger than Elizabeth, Mary judged that she would outlive her, and the main aim of her policy was appointment as regent. Within a year, she escaped from Lochto sectire a recognition of her claim to the succession in the event leven, and a few days later her army was defeated at Langside. of Elizabeth dying without issue. Elizabeth threatened that if Relying on an invitation sent by Elizabeth to her in Lochleven; Mary måde a marriage with a foreign prince, steps would Pé Mary took refuge in England, where she was imprisoned by the taken to debar her’ succession’ to thé English Crown, and, for English Queen (May 1568). Her vigorous and attractive person: some years, shé ‘amused herself with insincere suggestions for the ality had introduced a new element into Scottish politics, for,in Scottish queen’s “marriage: In July 1565, Mary married her her army at Langside were Protestants whose interest in: the cousin, Henry, Lord Darnley, who, as: the ‘Fepresentative Of struggle was loyalty to the queen, and during the first: years ‘ol their grandmother, Margaret Tudor;: by: ‘her second ‘marriage her-Engtish: imprisonment, her party in: ‘Scotland, which: gave (with. theeart'of Angus), stood next: to "Maty’ herself ini the buc: considerable’ ‘frouble:to: successive regents, was, for‘a awarietyn bt

cession to the English throne. He was also next to the Hamiltons

redsnis, mdintdinéd by two Protestants, Maitland of Lethington

|

164

and Kirkcaldy of Grange. Her fall meant the complete triumph of English influence, for Elizabeth had only to threaten to release her prisoner in order to exert pressure on the regents. The Regent Murray (1567-70), the Regent Lennox (1 570-1), the Regent Mar (1671-2) and the Regent Morton (1572-8) were all on

friendly terms with Elizabeth, and they had English help in the civil war between the king’s party and the queen’s party. The troubled state of the country, until the capture of Edinburgh Castle in 1573 put an end to the resistance of Mary’s adherents, is illustrated by the fate of the first two regents. Murray was assassinated and Lennox died of wounds received in a skirmish at Stirling. THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN

THE CHURCH AND THE CROWN

Andrew Melville—Mary’s fall also meant the complete triumph cf Protestantism, and the Protestant Church was legally established by parliament in 1567. Its early organization was the work of John Knox, and the presbyterian system which became its characteristic feature was introduced by Andrew Melville, under whose guidance the General Assembly (see SCOTLAND, CururcH oF) insisted upon the essential parity or equality of all

ministers and abolished a modified form of episcopal government which had originated in Knox’s institution of superintendents charged with the oversight of districts corresponding to the old dioceses.

[CHURCH AND THE CROWN

SCOTLAND

The superintendents, who had come to Be known as

bishops, were purely administrative officers and did not claim to

possess orders superior to those of the ordinary clergy. Their administrative powers were conferred in 1580-81 upon the courts of the Church known as Presbyteries. Under Melville, the Church developed a claim which had been less rigidly advanced by Knox— that the ecclesiastical authority, the Power of the Keys, is different from, and independent of, the civil power. This theory was bound to produce a conflict between Church and State, and it was maintained so thoroughly that the ministers claimed to be responsible for their pulpit utterances to the Church courts and to them alone, and this at a time when ecclesiastical considerations affected every question both of domestic and foreign policy. The claims of the Church caused friction with the earl of Morton, and, after his fall, the young James VI. (1567-162 5) waged an incessant struggle against them, and, even before his accession to the English throne, had established a royal control over the Church.

put his mother to death. The approaching Spanish invasion made the friendship of Scotland more important to England than it had ever been before, but James made no real effort on Mary’s behalf and apologized for such efforts as he did make. The execution (Feb. 1587) caused intense indignation in Scotland, but James succeeded in keeping the country quiet, and in the following year he took steps to resist the Armada.

James and Spain.—While James would not imperil his Eng-

lish claims for the sake of his mother’s life, his impatience with

Elizabeth’s longevity led him to take grave risks by intrigues with the enemies of England. In 1589 he aroused suspicion by his lenient treatment of two Roman Catholic earls, Huntly and Errol, whom Elizabeth’s ministers had detected in correspondence

with Spain, and in 1592, the English Government came into pos-

session of the “Spanish Blanks,” a series of papers bearing only the signatures of Huntly, Errol and Angus. Letters from these

earls which

accompanied

the blank

forms

showed

that the

“Blanks” were intended to contain a treaty with Spain for the invasion of England, and it was proved that James was aware of

the project. His views on what could be said for and against it are preserved in a document in the Hatfield Papers, vol. iv., p. 214. It was only because Cecil regarded James as the least of the possible evils from among which England would have to choose on Elizabeth’s death, that action was nct taken to in-

capacitate him from succeeding her.

Elizabeth meanwhile re-

torted by intrigues with James’s Protestant

opponents in Scot-

land, and it was not till the last year of her life that the relations between. the two sovereigns were really friendly. James and the Church.—Meanwhile,

James had been pur-

suing his quarrel with the Church. After the execution of Gowrie in 1584, he took vengeance on the earl’s Presbyterian supporters

by persuading parliament to pass the “Black Acts,” which asserted

a royal headship over the church and empowered the sovereign to appoint bishops and to decide when assemblies should meet. He tried to meet the challenge to the civil power which was involved in the authority claimed and exercised by the;assembly,

by means of an increase in the prestige of parliament, and. in 1587 an act was passed instituting a representative system for the smaller barons in the counties. But the .parliament was, at the same time, brought so completely under royal control that it never rivalled the influence of the assembly. The Spanish intrigues of the Catholic earls strengthened the Presbyterian Party and James in 1592 had to permit parliament to pass the “Golden to compelled was orton Elizabeth—M and Mary VI., James of which gave a legal status to the church courts and repealed Act” recovery resign the regency in 1578. He made a temporary with the freedom influence, but in June 158z he was executed for his share in the the legislation of 1584 in so far as it interfered to suppress the compelled was he later years Two Church. the of responsible became 15, of age the Darnley murder, and James, at the end cf 1596, for the Government. He roused opposition by relying upon a Catholic earls, but a quarrel with the Church in untenable position, gave him Roman Catholic favourite, Esmé Stuart, a cousin of Dafnley, in which the ministers adopted an He acquired a large victory. permanent a be to proved cona what whom he made duke of Lennox. The favourite professed obtained version to Protestantism and James tried to suppress any alarm measure of control over the general assembly, and. he its sanction for the appointment of titular bishops, to whom he denounced which (1581) by initiating a new National Covenant “the usurped authority of that Roman Anti-Christ,” but the ex- gave seats in. parliament. treme Protestants kidnapped James in the raid of Ruthven - Plots and Conspiracies.—Up to the year 1603 James con(1582), and Lennox had to flee. In 1583 James escaped from ducted his administration of Scotland under serious difficulties. his captors and fell under the influence of a new favourite, whom The revenues of the Crown were insufficient to meet the expenses he created earl of Arran. A rebellion was nipped in the bud, and of Government, and, though, in 1596, a commission of eight leadthe earl of Gowrie, one of the leaders of the raid of Ruthven, ing Scottish statesmen, known as the Octavians, brought the royal and was executed. During this time James was in friendly negotiations finances into something like order, the king’s political action impoveran of restraint the under were and expenditure Guise, personal of his duke the with his mother, and he intrigued with pass an even with the pope. Elizabeth, on her part, was encouraging the ished exchequer. In 1587 pecuniary necessities led him to

opposition to James, as she had encouraged the opposition to his

act annexing’ ecclesiastical property to the Crown, an expedient

But James was alarmed by the rise of

which he.soon found to be inconsistent with his ambition of re-

for Elizabeth distrusted him, and when James came to terms with her, he dismissed him. In the end of 1585, James made an offensive and defensive league with England, and when, a year later, Mary’s life was in danger, he refused to risk his chance of the succession by threatening to break the league if Elizabeth should

spiracy, if the king’s very doubtful statements about it can be credited, was an attempt by the sons of the rst earl of Gowrie to

mother and grandmother.

the Catholic League in France, his success in dealing with Gowrie storing episcopacy in.the Church. Like his predecessors, he had made him less desirous of possible aid from Roman Catholic. to be. on guard against’ conspiracies. The raid of Ruthven was powers, and Arran persuaded him that his best chance of the the only successful plot in the reign, but the outrages of Francis, English succession, on which his heart was set, lay in friendly earl of Bothwell (a nephew of Queen Mary’s third husband), relations with Elizabeth. Arran fell a victim to his own advice, caused James some alarm, and, as late as 1600; the Gowrie con-

repeat the,raid of Ruthven. It is to James’s credit that he succeeded in introducing something like order into the Borders and the Highlands, even if the methods which he employed. to attain

THE CIVIL WAR]

SCOTLAND

this end were cruel and unscrupulous. The Union of the Crowns.—The accession of James to the English throne in March 1603 entirely altered his position in Scotland. Intrigues with the sovereign of England were no longer possible either for rebellious Scottish barons or for discontented Scottish preachers. The absence of English support rendered rebellion a dangerous expedient, popular opinion, absorbed in re-

ligious controversy, did not respond to the appeal of the traditional family feuds, and the nobles were more interested in the

165

by making the government and ritual of the Church uniform with those of the Church of England. A prayer-book designed to supersede an optional service book which had been drawn up by John Knox was published in 1637, and the public use of ex tempore prayer was forbidden to ministers under pain of deprivation. The National Covenant.—The challenge to Scottish custom thus made was ignorantly believed to be part of a scheme for the introduction of popery, and a riot against the new prayer-book in St. Giles’s cathedral, Edinburgh, on July 23, 1637, proved to be the beginning of a revolution. The ecclesiastical quarrel came at a time when Charles had roused the opposition of the Scottish nobility by the provision which he made for the sustentation of

distribution of Church lands than in bands and conspiracies. The king was strong enough to punish private quarrels which led to disorder and bloodshed, and to dragoon the Highlands into something like obedience to the law. James, in governing Scotland, relied upon the Privy Council, but it was no part of his plan to the clergy and by the confidence which he reposed in the bishops, establish a powerful bureaucracy, and it was the king’s personal and when unusually heavy taxation had provided the middle policy that the council carried out. But the experiences of his classes with a grievance specially felt in Edinburgh, the burgesses youth made him conscious of the limits of national acquiescence of which had been forced to contribute to the erection of a new parliament house and to the expenses incurred in the foundation in a despotic rule. The King’s Victory over the Church.—That limit was most of the Bishopric of Edinburgh in 1633. It is possible that an likely to be reached in ecclesiastical affairs. James was resolved immediate withdrawal of the prayer-book might have saved the upon transforming the titular episcopacy which he had established situation, but Charles, in spite of warnings from the Privy Couninto an episcopate possessed of Anglican consecration and exer- cil, refused to give way, and his opponents formed an organization cising real control over the clergy. His desire for episcopacy was known as the Tables, which almost superseded the timorous purely political. He looked upon the form of church government Privy Council as the executive of the kingdom. In reply to a as being, in itself, a “thing indifferent,” but he held that church royal threat made in Feb. 1638, there was sent for signature government in any State ought to harmonize with the civil gov- throughout the country the National Covenant of 1638. It was ernment, and episcopacy agreed best with monarchy. His oppo- the document to which James VI. had invited signatures in 1581, nents, led by Andrew Melville, regarded episcopacy as unscriptural but it included an appended protest against recent innovations. and therefore unlawful in a Christian Church, and believed Pres- Charles was at last alarmed and offered to withdraw the service bytery to be of divine institution. There was, therefore, no pos- book and to permit a free assembly and a free parliament to sibility of compromise, and, by a series of clever and unscrupulous meet, but it was too late. The assembly was duly summoned, and tricks, James defeated the Presbyterian Party in the Church it- it met at Glasgow in Dec. 1638. It proved to be a meeting of self and secured complete control over the General Assembly. extreme Presbyterians—only Covenanters were admitted to its Parliament, which was always a facile instrument in his hands, membership—and it defied the Royal Commissioner, pronounced passed in 1606 an act to acknowledge the sovereign authority sentence of deposition upon the bishops, and repealed all the of the Crown over all estates, persons and causes, ecclesiastical legislation of former assemblies by which James VI. and Charles as well as secular, and repealed an act of 1587 which had an- I. had established episcopacy. nexed diacesan revenues to the Crown, thereby indirectly “abolishTHE CIVIL WAR AND THE COMMONWEALTH ing the estate of bishops.” In 1610 a General Assembly approved The “Bishops’ Wars.”—An appeal to arms was inevitable, but of an episcopal constitution of the Church, provided that the new bishops should be subject to the assembly. In the same year, the Covenanters (g.v.) were prepared for it and ready to send James appointed bishops with Anglican consecration, and in 1612 one army to force the Covenant upon the episcopal north-east parlament ratified the Acts of the Assembly of 1610, without and another to the Borders to meet such levies as Charles, then reference to the authority of the assembly over the bishops. Such ruling England without a parliament, could raise. King and authority was, indeed, inconsistent with the powers enjoyed by Covenanters met at Berwick in Jume 1639, and made a comthe bishops both individually and in a court of high commission promise by which the questions at issue were reserved for the decision of another parliament and assembly. Neither party was which James instituted on the English model. Ecclesiastical Policy of Charles L—The ecclesiastical policy prepared to go to extremities. Charles was unwilling to summon of James VL, which did not include the abolition of the lower an English parliament, without which he could not hope to coerce church courts of the presbyterian system, was successful. He had grafted bishops on to a Presbyterian Church, and, if no other considerations had intervened, his compromise might well have en-

dured. He once disturbed it himself when, in £618, he got a general assembly at Perth to sanction some innovations in ritual known as the Five Articles of Perth. This was the last occasion upon which he summoned an assembly; he intended that its place should be taken by the bishops. Parliament in 1621 ratified the Perth articles, though after an unusual display of opposition, and while the articles were willingly observed in the north-east, they led elsewhere to irreverent wranglings in church and to the

deprivation of ministers and imprisonment of both mimisters and laymen. In spite of some explosions of temper there are indications that James realized the danger, and, in his last years, refusals to conform to the Five Articles were frequently ignored.

the Scots, and the Covenanters

did not know what action an

English parliament might take. The meeting of the Short parlia-

ment in the spring of 1640 convinced them that Charles had more to fear from an English parliament than they had, and when he was unwise enough to hesitate about carrying out the terms of the- Pacification of Berwick, a Scottish force, under Alexander Leslie and the young earl of Montrose, invaded England in Aug. 1640 and occupied Newcastle. Charles had no force to bring against them, and by the Treaty of Ripon they remained at Newcastle, and a body of Scottish commissioners went to London to discuss terms of evacuation. The king at first hoped that the Scottish invasion would lead the Long parliament to give support ‘ to the Crown, but he soon found that the Commons regarded the Scots as allies, and, after the execution of Strafford, he tried to obtain Scottish support by yielding on all the points at issue. For this purpose he visited Scotland in 1641. He assented to the abolition of episcopacy, and agreed that the officers of State, the Privy Council, and the judges should be appointed with the sanction of the Scottish parliament. He showered honours upon his opponents, made the eart of Argyll a marquis and created Leslie

This cautious policy was at first maintained by Charles I. (162549), but when the new king visited Scotland for his coronation in. 1633, he got parliament to pass an act ordering the clergy to wear white surplices in place of the Genevan black gown. In 1635 a Book.of Canons for the Church of Scotland was issued by royal authority. The canons were intended to destroy the Jacobean earl of Leven. But, except for the adhesion of the eart (aftercompromise by making new Po for the discharge of the wards marquis} of Montrose, he failed to create a Royalist Patty, duties hitherto assigned to the lower presbyterian courts, and andhis visit was worse than useless.

166

SCOTLAND

[THE RESTORATION

The Solemn League and Covenant.—The royal surrender on all the points at issue left the Scots without any quarrel with Charles or any pretext for joining the English parliament in the civil war. But some Scottish ecclesiastics, who had been resident in London as Commissioners under the Treaty of Ripon, had become impressed with the Presbyterian atmosphere of the City of London and of the House of Commons, and had formed an ambition of establishing a Presbyterian uniformity between the Churches of England and Scotland. When, after the early cam-

land or give him regal authority until he signed both the National Covenant and the Solemn League. He hesitated for some time, but the execution of Montrose, who was captured after an abortive invasion in 1650, convinced him that he had no alternative but subscription to the Covenants, and he landed at the mouth of the Spey in June 1650, to find himself practically a prisoner in the hands of the Anti-Engaging section of the Covenanters. The defeat of the Scottish army by Cromwell at Dunbar (Sept. 3, 1650) went far to destroy the influence of the

paigns of the civil war, both king and parliament

assembly and the Anti-Engagers, and not only Engagers, but even royalists, were exempted from the Act of Classes bya series of public resolutions passed in parliament in 1651. These resolutions

asked

for

Scottish help, the advocates of this policy decided Scottish action. By the Solemn League and Covenant the Scots agreed to send an

army into England to oppose the king, and the English parlia- produced a fresh division between Resolutioners and Protesters ment agreed to accept a reformation of the English Church. An or Remonstrants. The breach thus produced survived the defeat assembly of English divines, with some Scottish assessors, was to of the army which Charles II. led to Worcester (Sept. 3, 1651) meet at Westminster to settle the new constitution of the Church, and also the rule of the Commonwealth and Protectorate. but by the terms of the Solemn League, popery, episcopacy and For nearly nine years Scotland was under a military occupaschism (independency) were expressly excluded from the settle- tion, though the naked rule of the sword was partially disguised ment. These terms included every known form of Church gov- by the admission of Scotland into the United Commonwealth of ernment except Presbytery, and, though the assembly of divines England, Scotland and Ireland. Scottish administration, under was nominally free to deal with the English ecclesiastical problem Gen. Monck, was vigorous and efficient, but the impoverished in its own way, it was really bound to accept the Presbyterian condition of the country prevented it from reaping the full benesolution. The Scottish army, under Leven, made a substantial fit either of the restoration of law and order or of the institution contribution to the parliamentary victory at Marston Moor, in of free trade with England and the English colonies. The civil July 1644, but the parliament, even with the help of the Scots, war, followed by Cromwell’s campaigns, had serious economic was unable to beat the royalists. That task was accomplished in results which were aggravated by the confiscation of royalist 1645 by the New Model Army, but Cromwell and his soldiers estates and by the introduction of a burdensome system of taxawere Independents, and though they, like other inhabitants of tion, which, however, did not nearly cover the expenses of adboth England and Scotland, had been compelled to take the ministration. On the religious side, the Cromwellian Government Solemn League, they were determined not to establish Presbytery forbade the general assembly to meet, and insisted upon a toleraas the only form of church government permitted in the island. tion of Independents. Meanwhile, a large portion of the Scottish army was recalled to RESTORATION AND REVOLUTION Scotland to defend the Covenanting parliament against Montrose, whose brilliant campaign in 1644-45 revived royalist hopes of The Second Episcopacy.—Though the Protectorate was unvictory. After Montrose’s defeat at Philiphaugh (Sept. 1645) popular, Scotland had no direct share in the Restoration and the king’s cause was hopeless, and in May 1646 he surrendered merely accepted the accomplished fact. The chief problem of, to the Scottish army at Newark. Charles IT. (1660-85) and his ministers was the religious question.. The Scots hoped to secure the assent of Charles to the Solemn Presbytery was legally established in Scotland by acts of parliaLeague and a consequent union of king, parliament, and Scots ment to which Charles I. had given the royal assent, and the new against the army, but Charles, apart from his personal conscien- king began his reign by promising to “protect and preserve the tious scruples, could not desert the Anglican Cavaliers who had government of the Church of Scotland as it is settled by law.” fought for him. When he refused, the Scots surrendered him to But a Scottish parliament passed in March 1661 a General Act the parliament, on condition of payment of part of the arrears Rescissory which annulled all legislation since 1633, and episcodue to the Scottish army for its expenses in the war. The devel- pacy automatically became the government of the Church “‘as setopment of events in England made it clear that the parliament tled by law.” Scottish bishops were appointed, but Charles II. could not fulfil the terms of the Solemn League, for power passed did not follow his father’s example in prescribing a prayer-book from the two Houses to the army. Chagrined at the failure of or in superseding the lower courts of the church, which were the scheme of a covenanted uniformity, under which Scotland had placed under’ the supervision of the bishops. But lay patronage already abandoned its own Catechisms and Confession of Faith of livings was restored by the repeal of an act of 1648 which had in favour of the documents produced by the Westminster Assem- abolished it, every one admitted to office of, any kind had to rebly of Divines, the Scottish parliament in 1647 entered into what nounce the covenants, and penalties were prescribed for: preachwas known as the Engagement with the king, then a prisoner in ing (or praying in public) against the episcopal government of the Isle of Wight. The General Assembly with which the parlia- the church. A few years later fines were imposed for non-attendment had hitherto acted in harmony, strongly disapproved of this ance at parish churches, lists of absentees were required from the agreement by which Charles was to allow a three years’ trial of incumbents, and soldiers were quartered in non-conformist disthe establishment of Presbytery in England—an insulting sug- tricts to collect the fines: ‘ gestion for what the Scots held to be a divine institution. The The result was that, conscientious Presbyterians began to worquarrel between Engagers and Anti-Engagers affected Scottish ship in, secret conventicles, and further repressive measures were history for years to come. The army under the duke of Hamil- therefore necessitated. Ejected ministers were forbidden to reside ton which, in accordance with the Engagement, invaded England, within 20 miles of their former. parishes, and masters, and even - was defeated by Cromwell at Preston in Aug. 1648. The victory landlords, were heldiresponsible for the attendance, at such fieldwas also a triumph for the assembly over the parliament, and the meetings, of their servants or tenants.- A rebellion’ was expected Anti-Engagers, led by the marquis of Argyll, entered into friendly by the Government,.and itcame in the end.of 1666. It originated relations with Cromwell, and, obtaining a parliamentary majority, in- the south-west; and. the insurgents marched upon Edinburgh, proscribed the defeated Engagers in the statute known as the but were easily defeated:.at: Rullion Green in the Pentland Hills. “Act of Classes” which placed them in a class or category with A cruel vengeance was taken by the Privy Council, the president the royalists as men incapable of holding any civil office or serv- of which, James Sharpe, had deserted the Presbyterian cause in ing in the army. order to become Archbishop of St. Andrews. Under the first two

Cromwell.—The execution of -Charles I. created a revulsion of feeling in Scotland, and a proclamation of Charles II. as King

of Great Britain offered defiance to the new English Commonwealth. The Scots, however, would not; receive Charles in Scot-

royal commissioners: through swhom Charles II. ruled Scotland

the earl of Middleton andi:the earl.of-Rothes, the bishops had

exercised a powerful influence over’ the administration. The next commissioner, the duke:.of, Laudesdale,; who was in power from

THE RESTORATION]

SCOTLAND

1667-79, disliked the episcopal system which he was bound to

maintain and his jealousy of the influence of the bishops was illustrated by his insistence upon the royal supremacy over the Church. He began his rule by treating the recalcitrant Covenanters more mildly, but an increase in the number of conventicles was followed first by savage measures of repression and then by a renewal of efforts at conciliation. These again failed and Lauderdale, like Rothes, began to desire a rebellion. He had his wish, but the result was his fall from power. Bothwell Bridge and Drumclog.—On May 3, 1679, Archbishop Sharpe was murdered by a small body of fanatics. A few years earlier the murder would have been an isolated outrage, but Lauderdale’s measures had created sympathy for the murderers, and on May 29 some 80 Covenanters at Rutherglen proclaimed their defiance of the king. They collected an army which was unsuccessfully attacked by James Graham of Claverhouse (afterwards Viscount Dundee) at Drumclog on June 1, and, flushed with victory, they marched on Glasgow but failed to enter it. For three weeks they held the country round Hamilton. An organized movement would have been a serious matter for the Government, but the rebels were looked upon by the majority of the Presbyterians as extreme fanatics and only a few outlaws joined them. On June 22 the duke of Monmouth defeated them at Bothwell bridge. Both by instinct and from policy, Monmouth was inclined to leniency, but he was soon replaced by the duke of York, who ruled, with intervals of absence, during the years 1680-2. York had some ideas of moderation and his encouragement of trade does him some credit, but the period of his rule was distinctively known as the Killing Time. Parliament put the penal laws passed against Roman Catholics into force against the Covenanters, and by the Test Act it imposed upon all persons in public trust an oath which emphasized the royal supremacy over the Church so strongly that 80 of the episcopal clergy gave up their livings rather than take it. After York left Scotland, things grew worse, and the torture of the thumbscrew was called in to supplement the use of another instrument of torture, the boot. The Reign of James VIl.—When the duke of York succeeded to the throne as James VII. (1685-88), the earl of Argyll, an exile under sentence of death for a “treasonable” refusal to take the Test Act, raised a rebellion in combination with Monmouth. He landed in Argyll and crossed to the neighbourhood of Glasgow, where his small army quarrelled and dispersed; its leader was captured and executed. The rising gave the Government little trouble, but it was the excuse for a ferocious act which appointed a death penalty for mere attendance at a conventicle. The Tory Parliament which passed this act could not, however, in its second session (1686), be persuaded to accept a measure for toleration of Roman Catholics, upon which the king had set his heart. James, therefore, resolved to employ the royal prerogative for this purpose as he was doing in England, and in 1687 he issued a Declaration of Indulgence which brought the Killing Time to an end. Fear of popery diminished the gratitude felt for this boon, and in 1687~8 the measures adopted by James to place Roman Catholics at the head of affairs raised widespread alarm. But the Revolution, like the Restoration, was distinctively an English movement, and it was not until the prince of Orange had been for more than a month on English soil, that a body of Edinburgh rioters sacked Holyrood, which had been given as a place of Roman Catholic worship and education. In various distri¢ts in the south and’ south-west bands of rufhans “rabbled” the manses of the episcopal clergy.

A Convention of Estates, summoned by the prince of Orange, met in April 1689, and, by a majority, declared that James had forfeited the Crown. Tt was offered to, and accepted by, William and Mary and entailed upon their issue and then upon the Princess

167

the Scottish episcopalians into a Jacobite Party, and, in the early summer of 1689, Edinburgh Castle was holding out timorously for King James, and Viscount Dundee was raising an army tu carry out a famous threat which he had made to the convention. The castle surrendered on June 13. On July 27 Dundee was killed in the hour of victory at Killiecrankie. With his death, the danger of a Jacobite restoration came to an end. Presbytery was reestablished in 1690, and the general assembly met that same year, for the first time since 1653.

The Massacre of Glencoe.—The reign of William was marked

| by two serious disputes, which embittered feeling between Scotland and England. The Highlanders were opposed to the revolution settlement, and the Government, apprehensive of a French invasion, tried by money payments to induce the chiefs to take the oaths to William and Mary. Dec. 31, 1691, was fixed as the last day on which the submission of the recalcitrant chiefs could be received; those who had not qualified by that date were to be liable to the terrors of the law. Alexander MacDonald of Glencoe delayed his acceptance of the terms to the last moment, and then presented himself before a Government official who was not authorized to administer the oath. Owing to this accident, he did

not take the oath until January 6. The Under-Secretary of State, Sir John Dalrymple, Master of Stair, was glad to have an opportunity of making an example, and, in accordance with precedent, “letters of fire and sword” were issued against the MacDonalds of Glencoe, The penalty contemplated by the law seems to have been the expulsion of the clan from its territory and a consequent dispersion of its members, as the MacGregors had been rooted out and scattered in the reign of James VI. But the Government devised a scheme of murder committed in circumstances of revolting treachery. A small body of troops, under Campbell of Glenlyon, was sent to Glencoe, and the soldiers were for nearly a fortnight the guests of the clansmen, while Glenlyon was arranging to guard the passes by which his hosts might escape. Shortly after midnight on Feb. 12-13, 1692, the signal for a massacre was given. The military plans miscarried and a large proportion of the MacDonalds escaped (some of them to perish from cold and exposure), but between 30 and 40 were murdered. The crime evoked an indignation which indicates.the development of a sympathy for the Highlanders that had been foreign to Lowland feeling for more than a century, and the Jacobites naturally availed themselves of it for political purposes, but it was not till 1695 that the Scottish parliament demanded an enquiry and, on receiving an official report, voted that “the killing of the Glencoe men was a murder.” The responsibility for the crime lay with William’s Scottish ministers, but the king was guilty (in Macaulay’s words) of “a great breach of duty” in shielding the Master of Stair from any punishment beyond dismissal from the Secretaryship of State which he held in 1695, and the massacre of Glencoe contributed to the rise of an anti-English feeling even in the Lowlands. The Darien Scheme.—Another tragedy of William’s reign was much more directly attributable to English influence. Scottish commerce, which had been seriously affected by the civil war, the Dutch wars, and the war with France, was attempting to find new outlets, and William Paterson, the founder of the Bank of England, suggested a project for the colonization of the Isthmus of Darien. Thé scheme involved a challenge to Spain, which

claimed the territory on which the Scottish emigrants were to settle, but the “African Company” formed to trade with Africa

and the Indies, received a charter conferring powers of military colonization as well as trading privileges.

The venture was un-

fortunate from the first. A strenuous and remarkable effort made by the Scots to raise capital was to be supplemented by English subscriptions, but the jealousy of English merchants was aroused,

atid the House’ of Commons compelled the withdrawal of the

Anne and heriissue. Stipulations similar to those of the English English shareholders. The Scots perseveted and in the end ‘of Bill of Rights were made, and the new sovereigns had to’ accépt 1698, about 1,209 Scottish colonists landed in the pestilential dnother limitation; viz., that prelacy |was an insupportable gtiev- region of Darien: There were two further expeditions, but disease, ance and ought to be ‘abolished. The Crown’ was accepted on famine and Spanish attacks combined to render the adventure these ‘conditions and the convention was converted into a patlia- hopeless. At the time’ the chances of preserving peace in ‘Europe ment, in Ame. . bik But the Promised abolition of episcopacy turn phar ye aed by PaaS fy

deperided upon William’ S successfully negotiating the Partition

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168

Treaties, and he could not give the Scots support against Spain. In March 1700 the remnants of the Scottish colony evacuated Darien; their vessels were shipwrecked and few of the survivors reached home. It was the greatest disaster in Scottish commercial history, and the calamity which had overtaken the nation was ascribed to English hostility and to the refusal of William to maintain the privileges originally granted to the African Company. THE UNION

The Constitutional Position After the Revolution.—When William died, in March 1702, the hostility between England and Scotland was so bitter that the continuance of a Union of the Crowns after the death of Queen Anne was in danger. The revolution settlements in the two countries had, in fact, made the existing constitution unworkable. Before 1689, the Scottish parliament, except during the civil war (1638-51), had exercised only a slight influence upon the national history. It was much

less representative than the English House of Commons, and its methods of procedure were such as to make it a tool in the hands of the Government. Its efficient powers were entrusted to a committee known as the Lords of the Articles, which, though consisting of members of parliament, was not elected by the whole House. The choice of its members was manipulated by the Government and on many occasions a majority of its members were also members of the Privy Council, the executive of the country. But, after the revolution, the Committee of the Articles was abolished, and the Scottish parliament, having secured the rights for which the English parliament had long contended, could compel the sovereign to act in accordance with its demands in domestic affairs, and claimed also to control foreign policy. In the days of personal government, a monarch ruling over two independent kingdoms had no difficulty in securing unity of policy, but the new constitutional monarchy found it hard to reconcile the aims of two separate parliaments. A mere union of the Crowns could not suffice to meet the necessities of government. Proposals for union had been made on several occasions since 1603. James VI. had tried to bring about a complete incorporating union with “one worship of God, one kingdom entirely governed [i.¢., with 4 single government], one uniformity of law,” but had been compelled by the opposition of the English Commons to abandon his projects. Cromwell had forced a union upon the Scots, and, after the Restoration, they suffered from the loss of the trading privileges which a union had involved. In 1667 commissioners from the two countries met to negotiate a com-

[JACOBITE RISINGS

strength to the English Jacobites. It was therefore essential to bring about, in Anne’s lifetime, a complete incorporating union on the basis of the Protestant succession, so that there would be, on the Queen’s death, no legal means whereby the Scots, by themselves, could alter the succession. Such a union must involve freedom of trade, and to this the English Whigs, largely composed of the mercantile classes, were opposed. In Scotland, the desire for a union which had been shown in 1689 had almost entirely disappeared, and its vehement opponents included not only the Jacobites but also a “Patriot” or “Country” Party, led by Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, which championed the independence of Scotland from French and English influence alike. A combination of Jacobites and Patriots brought about in 1703-4 a dangerous legislative warfare between the two parliaments, and an outbreak of hostilities between the two nations was well within the bounds of possibility. The English Whig ministry, strengthened by Marlborough’s victory at Blenheim, resolved to defy the prejudices of their own supporters and to offer a union on the basis of freedom of trade combined with securities for the safety of the Presbyterian Established Church and for the maintenance of Scots law and of the Scottish Courts of Justice. The Scottish Whigs responded to the offer and commissioners from both countries met in April 1706. The subject which gave rise to most discussion was the representation of Scotland in the future parliament of Great Britain. The numbers as finally settled gave Scotland the inadequate representation of 45 members in the Commons and 16 in the Lords. In Jan. 1707 the proposed Treaty of Union was confirmed by the Scottish parliament by a majority of rro votes to 68, and the terms were embodied in legislative measures carried by each of the two parliaments. The union was distinctly. unpopular, but the Jacobite assertions that it was carried by bribery have been challenged. THE JACOBITE

RISINGS

“The Fifteen.”—The first General Election for the British

parliament (1708) gave something like national sanction for the Union, possibly because of the alarm caused by an attempted French invasion in the beginning of the year. But the process of carrying out the financial provisions of the Union caused considerable friction; the Scots resented the introduction into Scotland of the English law of treason, and the Presbyterians disliked a grant of toleration to Scottish Episcopalians and had more reasonable ground for indignation at the restoration of lay patronage in the Church, It had been abolished in 1690, and the patrons mercial treaty, and when the English commissioners refused to had been compensated, and the act of 1712 was a breach of the exempt Scotland from the operation of the Navigation Act, agreement made at the Union. Thus, by Anne’s death in 1714, Charles II. proposed a scheme of union which was discussed in the party which had brought about the Union seemed to have 1670, but without result. At the revolution, the Scottish parlia- suffered most from its effects. It was the strength of Protestant ment itself appointed commissioners “to treat the terms of an feeling among the Scottish Whigs that prevented these disapentire and perpetual union between the two kingdoms,” but pointments from bringing large reinforcements to the Jacobites though William did his best to encourage the scheme, his Eng- on the accession of George I. The Tory ministers of the end of lish parliament would not appoint English commissioners. William Anne’s reign had been suspected of an intention of restoring the remained an enthusiastic advocate of union, and recognized in the Stuarts in the person of the Old Chevalier, then a man of 26, bitter temper of both nations after the failure of the Darien and the Whig ministry of George I. was supported, in the election scheme a reason for accelerating it. But again (1700) the Eng- held at the beginning of 1715, by a large proportion of Scottish lish Commons would not agree to the appointment of a commis- Whigs. In the same summer the earl of Mar raised the first sion, and William, from his deathbed in 1702, sent a royal mes- Jacobite rebellion, but failed to win Lowland support, except in sage to the English parliament urging the necessity of a union the north-east, which had always been a stronghold of episcopacy. for the preservation of peace between the two countries. As a “James III. and VIII.” was proclaimed at Aberdeen, and Mar mark of respect for his memory, Anne invited the two parlia- led his army to Perth. But the death of Louis XIV. ‘led to the ments to ‘appoint commissioners. A commission sat in the winter withdrawal of French support which had been promised, and of 1702-3, but the negotiations failed because of the opposition Mar, instead of marching at once upon Edinburgh, remained at of the English merchants to a scheme which involved reciprocal Perth till Nov, to. On Nov. 13 his march upon Edinburgh was freedom of trade. intercepted by Government troops under John, duke of Argyll, at The Problem of Union.—A union was recognized to be de- Sherifmuir, near Dunblane, and, though the battle was tech-

sirable both for constitutional and for commercial reasons, but it nicaąlly a drawn one, it compelled Mar to retire to Perth. A rising in the north of England was defeated on Nov. 14, the day

was a political necessity that compelled the ministers of Queen

Anne to take further action. In spite of the Act of Settlement, after Sherifmuir. James, who had been prevented by the change the Hanoverian succession could not be regarded as safe even in of policyin France fromjjoining his troops, landed near Peterhead England. The Scots had made no settlement of the Crown after on Dec. 22, spent three weeksiin Perth, and then fled with Mar the death of Anne, and a Jacobite triumph in Scotland, on the to France. occurrence of that event, would have meant a large increase of Argyll proved a merciful victor and the number of executions

REFORM ACTS]

SCOTLAND

was only about 30, but some hundreds of prisoners were trans-

ported to the American colonies, and many of them were tried, under an act of parliament passed for the purpose, at Carlisle, Scottish juries, even in the lowlands, being unwilling to find them guilty. The sale of confiscated Jacobite estates involved injustice to innocent sufferers, but an Act of Indemnity was passed in 1717. In order to provide for future emergencies, Gen. Wade was entrusted with the task of constructing roads in the Highlands, the military purpose of which did not diminish their economic value. A new Jacobite attempt was planned for 1719, and aid was promised by Sweden, but the death of Charles XII. prevented the fulfilment of the promise. An outbreak of war between Great Britain and Spain in 1718 raised hopes of Spanish help, but the Spaniards sent only a small raiding force. The Spaniards were bea by a few Highlanders and were defeated at Glenshiel (June 1719). The Porteous Riots—During the long rule of Walpole (172142), the gradual growth of trade and commerce began to reconcile Scotland to the Union, but the period was marked by two outbreaks of violence. A tax upon malt roused so much Scottish opposition that it was only after some years that the authorities, in 1725, attempted to enforce it. There were fierce riots in Glasgow when excise-officers tried to enter the malt houses, and the Edinburgh brewers, encouraged by the mob, announced their intention of refusing to brew with taxed malt. This remarkable form of “strike” lasted for a week, and, in the end, Scotland paid the tax and enjoyed its beer. A more famous Edinburgh riot has been immortalized in The Heart of Midlothian. Two smugglers under sentence of death made an effort to escape, and one of them succeeded in doing so with the help of the other, a man named Wilson. The sympathy generally felt for smugglers was increased by the circumstances, and the City Guard, under Captain Porteous, was warned to expect an attempt to rescue Wilson at his execution. There was no attempt at rescue, but, after the execution, the mob attacked the guard, who fired and killed a small number of onlookers. Porteous was sentenced to death for murder, but Queen Caroline, who was regent during an absence of George II. in Hanover, granted a reprieve for six weeks and was believed to intend to follow the reprieve by a pardon. On the night of the day originally fixed for the execution (Sept. 7, 1736), a mob broke into the Tolbooth prison, seized Porteous and hanged him on a dyer’s pole. There was no riot in the ordinary sense of the word, and the murderers of Porteous were never detected.

169

his troops and was immediately defeated at Prestonpans (Sept. 2x). The prince expected this success to be followed by a large adhesion of followers, but he waited in vain at Edinburgh for the expected recruits. Then, deciding to attempt a march upon London, he crossed the Border on Nov. 9, hoping to be joined by the Lancashire Jacobites. His expectation was again disappointed, but he continued his southward march as far as Derby (Dec. 4). By that time troops had been recalled from the Continent, the duke

of Cumberland was at Lichfield with one army, and Marshal

Wade commanded another in the north of England. Charles had reluctantly to accept the opinion of his officers that a further advance was useless, and the retreat began on Dec. 7. The Jacobites marched by Carlisle and Dumfries to Glasgow, and thence to Stirling, where they besieged the castle. On Jan. 17, 1746, the prince attacked a relieving force under Gen. Hawley at Falkirk and won his second and last victory, The state of feeling in the Lowlands rendered a further retreat inevitable, and Charles, having taken Inverness and Fort Augustus, indulged in hopes of help from France. It did not come, and on April 17 Cumberland destroyed the Jacobite army on Culloden Moor. The prince, after many adventurous wanderings, escaped to France in September. The ferocity with which Cumberland treated the prisoners gained him his nickname of the Butcher. The Government had been desperately alarmed, and less mercy was shown than in 1716. About 80 Jacobites were executed, and the Highlanders were forbidden to carry arms, to wear their distinctive dress, or to play the bagpipes; the prohibition of the kilt was maintained until 1782. The part played by the Episcopalians of the north-east in the rising led to acts which punished with transportation for life any Episcopal clergyman who did not pray in express words for King George, denied protection under the Toleration Act of Queen Anne to clergy ordained by Scottish bishops, and subjected to fine and imprisonment laymen who attended services held by such clergy. This attempt to restrict toleration to Scottish Episcopalians who were members of the Church of England was not abandoned until 1792. The results of the suppression of the ‘“’Forty-five” were, however, not all evil. The abolition of hereditary jurisdictions in 1747 was a reform long overdue, for the administration of justice by magistrates whose tenure of office was not dependent upon the central government was incompatible with good administration. The owners of the hereditary jurisdicticns received compensation, and many of them used the money to effect great improvements in agriculture. The period marks a new era in the Prince Charles Edward and “the ’Forty-five.”—The Jac- history of Scottish farming. A few years later, William Pitt tried obite movement in Scotland was, by this time, moribund, but it the successful experiment of raising two regiments of Scottish was galvanized into activity by the ambition of the young Prince Highlanders for the army. This device had been suggested to Charles Edward to recover the throne which his grandfather had Walpole by Duncan Forbes of Culloden, a statesman whose influlost. Walpole had always believed that the exiled house would ence afterwards prevented some of the clans from joining Prince make another attempt, and this belief had been one-of his reasons Charles, and Walpole had recognized its wisdom, but had been for maintaining a policy of peace. After his fall, the existence of prevented from acting upon it by parliamentary dislike to an hostile relations with Spam and France afforded an opportunity increase of the standing army.

for which Jacobite exiles had been watching. The French Government assembled troops for an invasion of Scotland in 1744,

but a storm destroyed their transports, and, in July 1745, Charles Edward was allowed to try his fortune without any French aid except a small quantity of munitions. The adventure was inspired by exiles and there was no enthusiasm for it in Scotland; Charles had to persuade even the Highland chiefs to join him, and he was not always successful. The troops he commanded were never so numerous as the army which Mar had collected 30 years before. The charm and daring of the young prince, and the absence of Government troops on the Continent, produced, however, a much more dangerous and a much more dramatic result than that of “the ’Fifteen.” The commander-in-chief in Scotland, Sir John Cope, instead of guarding Edinburgh, marched to intercept the prince and his Highlanders, but, probably wisely, refused a chance of giving him battle, and the Jacobite force made its way to Edinburgh. On Sept. 17, Charles, as prince regent of the three Kingdoms, took up his quarters in Holyrood. Cope, having marched to Inverness and thence to, Aberdeen, took ship to Dunbar, disembarked

REFORM

Scotland Under George III.—During the reign of George ITI. the history of Scotland merges in that of the United Kingdom, in the politics of which Scotland began to take a prominent part, and only a few points need be mentioned. It was a disgrace to the country that, in the second half of the 18th century, servile conditions still existed in coal-mines and salt-pits. The old feudal serfdom had died out earlier in Scotland than in England, and a judicial decision in 1775 had declared that a slave brought to Scotland was thereby emancipated, but, in spite of this, workers in coal-mines and salt-pits remained under ancient obligations scarcely distinguishable from serfdom. Having once entered a mine, at however early an age, a miner was bound to remain at work there to the end of his life, and his services were sold along with the mine in which he worked. Henry Dundas, who was the actual, though not the official, minister for Scotland almost continuously from 1775 to 1801, abolished this evil system by’ acts passed in 1775 and 1799. His period of rule witnessed a large extension of Scottish commerce, in spite of a check to the pros-

17 o

[MODERN HISTORY

SCOTLAND

perity of the rapidly growing city of Glasgow through the American War and the repudiation of American debts to Great Britain after the Declaration of Independence. The Forth and Clyde canal was begun in 1768 and other canals, roads and bridges were constructed in various parts of the country. The outbreak of the French Revolution, which soon put an end to the short period of peace that followed the American War, at first created considerable sympathy in Scotland, but, as the violence of the revolutionaries progressed, the sympathy became confined to the Societies of the Friends of the People, which, like similar Societies in England, began to demand universal suffrage and annual parliaments. A convention of delegates from these societies, held at Edinburgh in Dec. 1792, was followed by the trial of Thomas Muir for sedition. The development of events in France brought about a panic, and it is admitted that Muir did not have a fair trial; he was sentenced to transportation for 14 years. A similar convention in the following year was believed to contemplate inviting foreign troops into the country and was suppressed by the authorities, but the seditious element among the Friends of the People was very much smaller than the Government imagined. Most of them were constitutional reformers who advocated changes which had received considerable support before the massacres in France created a general aversion to any alteration in the constitution. The fear of sedition, fed by the activities of a small number of extremists, continued throughout the first years of the Great French War, and volunteers were enlisted in 1794 for the preservation of order at home as well as for defence. The most important political event which affected Scotland during the war was the impeachment of Henry Dundas, Lord Melville, in 1805. He was acquitted in the following year, but his prosecution introduced into Scottish politics an intense bitterness, illustrations of which may be found in Lockhart’s Life of Sir Walter Scott. The Reform Acts.—After the conclusion of the war, Scotland shared in the discontent of the troubled years 1815-20, and the name of the “Radical War” has been given to a series of political riots in Paisley, Glasgow and Greenock in 1819-20; the Government again over-estimated the danger of an outburst which was closely related to unemployment and agricultural distress. In the reign of George IV. (whose visit to Edinburgh in 1822 was the first state visit of a sovereign to Scotland since the time of Charles I.) the discontent passed into a constitutional agitation for parliamentary reform. The representation of Scotland in the British parliament had been settled in 1707 on the lines of the then existing system. The country electorate was so small that, in 1822, when the population of Scotland was nearly 2,100,000, the total number of county voters was under 3,000. The ‘burgh members were returned by the town councils,’ themselves selfelected bodies. The Reform Act of 1832, which added eight to

the number of Scottish members, extended the franchise in: the counties to owners of lands or houses of the yearly value of £10 and to certain classes of tenants. In the burghs.& vote was given

age Act of 1712 until the repeal of that act in 1874. A minority of the Free Church disapproved of the Union of rgoo, and their claim to retain the property of the church was upheld, on appeal, by the House of Lords in 1904. The obviously inequitable character of the legal decision led to the appointment of a royal commission to allocate the property between the Free Church and the United Free Church, and its recommendations were embodied in

an act of parliament in 1905 (see SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF). A movement

for a still wider

union

of the Presbyterian

Churches in Scotland began about 1912. Negotiations between the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church were interrupted by the World War, and, after their resumption, the Church of Scotland obtained in 1921 an act of parliament the effect of which was to transform the relations of the Established Church with the State and to give the church liberty both “to adjudicate finally in all matters of doctrine, worship, government and discipline,” and to interpret and modify (within the limits of Trinitarian Protestantism) the Articles of the Constitution, which were scheduled in the act. This legislation removed the historical difficulties which, in conjunction with patronage, had led to the disruption of 1843, but it was felt that the system of endowment also required readjustment, after the lapse of nearly three centuries since it was settled by Charles I. This object was effected by the Church of Scotland (Property and Endowments) Act of

1925, and a body of Scottish Ecclesiastical Commissioners was appointed to give effect to a number of its provisions, including the transfer of endowments

to general trustees of the Church.

The two acts of 1921 and 1925 were promoted by of Scotland avowedly for the purpose of removing causes keeping the two Churches apart,” and, while 1925 was passing through its last stages in parliament,

the Church “the main the act of the general

assembly of the United Free Church passed, by a majority, a resolution recognizing the progress achieved in this direction. The General Assemblies, both of the Church of Scotland and of the United Free Church, in 1928 gave definite approval to, the basis of a scheme for union, to be constituted in 1929 or rogo!" =

Poor Law and Education.—Two years after the disruption,

a Poor Law was introduced inte Scotland. Up to 1845, the relief of the poor had been entirely in the hands of the Kirk Sessions of the various parishes, which possessed, but seldom used, powers of local taxation for the purpose. Social and economic developments, as well as the ecclesiastical separation produced by the disruption, necessitated a change in the traditional methods, and a Poor Law (Scotland) Act was passed in 1845. It followed in many respects the English Act of 1834 and established parochial

boards under a central Board of Supervision, but it did not impose the English workhouse test, though it forbade relief to ablebodied poor. A Compulsory Education Act followed in 1872. Acts of the Scottish parliament had long ago ordered the provision of a school in every parish, but at the beginning of the roth century this requirement had not been universally fulfilled, though educational facilities were better. than in England. There was a considerable advance in the early 19th century, and from ' 1833 Scotland received a parliamentary grant for education. It was entrusted to the church, which remained in control of the schools; the Free Church, after 1843, established schools of its own. Church control was diminished by more direct Government supervision in .1861, and, after:the act of 1872 was passed, the Presbyterian churches gave up their schools to the newly established School Boards.. The Scottish Episcopal Church and the

to occupiers of houses valued at £10 a year. Further extensions were made, as in England, by the Reform Acts of 1867-68 and 1884-85. The change made by the act of’ T832 is ilustrátėdď ‘by the circumstance that Scotland, which in: 1831 returnéd 24 Rëformers and 21 anti-Reformers, sent to the ‘first Reformed ‘parliament 41 Whigs and 12 Tories. That parliament passedin 1833 a Scottish Burgh Act which swept away the old corrupt burghal constitutions, against which Reformers had been waging ‘war for nearly half a century, and restored to thecitizens a lotig-lost right Roman Catholic Church retained voluntary schools until the Education Act of 1919 replaced the School Boards by education. of electing their own municipal rulers. authorities elected over a wider area and made provision for the 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES transfer: of voluntary schools. The teachers in such transferred The Church.—The middle of the roth century was marked. i schools are, in accordance with the act, appointed by the local a great ecclesiastical struggle, culminating in 1843 in the disrup- authority after being approved; as regards character and religióus tion of the Church of Scotland and the foundation of the Free belief, :by thë denomination còncerned. Electors to education auChurch. After 57 years of separate existence it united in 1900 thorities are persons registered asIocal. government electors, and

with the United Presbyterian Church, itself an amalgamation of small churches which had seceded from the Church of Scotland, frequently on some dispute connected with lay patronage, an institution which troubled Scotland from the passage of the Patron-

voting is. conducted on: the principle of proportional representation, Education authorities are: ‘empowered to expend money on the provision..of food and beoks for:children, and also to give assistance to qualified persons ‘attending a university or training

MODERN

HISTORY]

SCOTLAND

171

college. This last provision has been followed by a large increase from electors in their areas, should take a poll on three alternain the number of students at the Scottish universities. The act tive resolutions dealing with the number of licences to sell alcocontemplated an extension of the compulsory school age to 15 holic liquors in an area, viz., (1) that there should be no change years and an elaborate system of continuation schools, but its in the system of licensing; (2) that the licensing court should provisions have only been partially carried out. grant not more than 75% of the licences previously in existence; The Scottish Secretaryship.—The administration of Scot- (3) that all licences in the area should be withdrawn. Polls were land has been conducted since 1885 by a Secretary for Scotland, taken in 584 out of 1,221 polling areas; in about 300 of the reand since 1926 by a Secretary of State for Scotland. Soon after maining areas no licences were in existence In 1920. Five hundred the Union of 1707, an additional Secretary of State had been ap- and nine areas voted for no change, 35 for limitation, and 40 for pointed for Scottish affairs, and this arrangement continued until no licence. The contest of 1920 was fought by the Temperance 1746, except for an interval from 1725-42, during which Scotland | Party upon a prohibition programme, and the result was rather a was governed nominally by one of the other two Secretaries of repudiation of prohibition than an indication of satisfaction with State, but really by Lord Islay, afterwards duke of Argyll. In existing licensing conditions. Subsequent polls taken on requisi1746, in the middle of the Jacobite Rising, the Secretary of State tions made in accordance with the act of 1913 have not seriously for Scotland was involved in an intrigue against the Prime Min- modified the results ascertained in 1920, and it has been generally ister, and had to resign. His place was not filled, and till 1885 felt that the act requires amendment, especially in the definition Scotland was under the charge of the Home Secretary, who was of an “area” as a single ward in the larger burghs, which must always advised by some. unofficial “Minister for Scotland’—in be treated as a whole in order to render possible a more equal the later portion of the period, the Lord Advocate. The govern- distribution in any reduction of licences; in Glasgow, the withment of Scotland by a law officer, under the supervision of the drawals of licences after the polls of 1920 were chiefly in middleHome Secretary, was an arrangement which could not survive the class residential districts. The most important municipal developments have been the wide extension of governmental action and responsibilities which took place in the 19th century, and the arrangement was resented inclusion of the burghs of Govan, Partick, Pollokshaws, and some in Scotland. A Scottish National Convention, held in Edinburgh suburban districts within the city of Glasgow by an act of 1912, in 1884, demanded the creation of a Scottish Office, and in 1885 and a further extension of Glasgow municipal boundaries by an an act was passed creating a Scottish Secretaryship. In 1926 the act of 1925; the amalgamation of Edinburgh with Leith, and the office was raised to the dignity of a Secretaryship of State, during absorption of the suburban districts of Liberton, Colinton, Corstorphine and Cramond by the city of Edinburgh in 1920; and the tenure of office of Sir John Gilmour. The World War.—Scotland was only slightly affected by the the amalgamation of Motherwell with Wishaw in 1920. There military operations of the war; considerable damage was done has been a remarkable series of gifts of historical buildings to the at Edinburgh by a Zeppelin raid on April 2, 1916, and the remote nation, including Dryburgh abbey by the late Lord Glenconner; island of St. Kilda was bombarded by German naval units on Nov. Melrose abbey by the duke of Buccleuch; the farm of Ellisland 21, 1918. But, for the first time in history, the main activities (occupied by Robert Burns from 1788-91); and Duddingston of the Grand Fleet were conducted in Scottish waters, from Aug. Loch, near Edinburgh. Other buildings, including Kelso abbey, 1914 to the surrender of the German fleet on Nov. 21, 1918. It Inchcolm abbey and Restenneth priory, have also been placed was in Scapa Flow that the crews of 70 German men-of-war scut- under national custody. The National Library.—The greatest of these gifts was made tled their ships on June 21, 1920; some of them have since been salved. The Clyde took a large share in British naval construc- by the Faculty of Advocates in 1925. The library of the Faculty tion, and in various districts munition factories came into exis- of Advocates, founded in the reign of Charles II., was given the tence—the largest was built at Gretna in 1915. The, expansion copyright privilege of the Copyright Act of Queen Anne, and it of industry during the war period and its diversion to unpro- became one of the great public libraries of the United Kingdom. ductive activities had effects which were seriously felt after the It was open to the public, but the members of the faculty, whose conclusion of peace. The country, and especially the “heavy” property it was, bore the whole responsibility for maintenance industries in the Clyde valley have experienced the deepest and and upkeep. Even before the World War, this burden was too longest depression of trade in their history, and it is also in the heavy for a small body of professional men, and the subsequent Clyde area that the shortage of houses has been most severely rise in prices rendered it impossible to maintain the library on felt. The failure of Scottish local authorities to solve the housing the old scale and to continue the facilities given to the public. problem led to Government intervention at the end of 1925, and, In 1922 the faculty offered to transfer the library, with the exception of the collection of legal books, to the nation, but the Govsince then, considerable progress has been made. Political.—Since the conclusion of the World War a great ernment replied that in the existing state of the national finances change has occurred in the political complexion of the country. it could not undertake the responsibility of maintenance, and it The Representation of the People Act (1918) increased the num- was not until June 1923, when Sir Alexander Grant, Bt., intimated ber of electors from 800,448 at the General Election of Dec. rgro a gift of £100,000, the sum for which the Treasury had stipulated, to 2,211,178 at the General Election of Dec. r9r8. With the that the project became feasible. Negotiations with the Governchange in the electorate came a break im the traditional fidelity ment were at once resumed, but arrangements for the transfer, of Scottish constituencies to the Liberal party. In Dec. 1910 Scot- and two changes of Government, delayed the passage of a bill land returned 58 Liberal, 11 Conservative and three Labour which became in 1925 the National Library of Scotland Act. The members; in 1918, when a proportion of Liberals supported the great library is now administered by a body of trustees, some of Coalition Government, there were 58 Coalition, seven Liberal, whom are ex officio, and others are appointed by the Crown or seven Labour and two Independent members. After the break-up by administrative and educational authorities, or are co-opted by of the Coalition in 1922 the Liberals held 28, Labour 29, and the trustees. The books continue meanwhile to be housed in the Unionists 1 5 seats; in 1923 the figures were 22, 3 5, and 16 respec- premises belonging to the Faculty of Advocates, which has intively; and in 1924 the Liberals were reduced to nine and Labour cluded in its gift such portions of the buildings as are not needed 24, while the Conservative holding was increased to 4o. During forits own administrative purposes. BrsrrocraPHy—General Histories. The best general histories of 1922-24 Motherwell was represented by a Communist. are those of Patrick Fraser-Tytler (1841-43), John Hill The electorate in 1929 had increased to 2,937,067 and of the Scotland Burton (1867—70), Peter Hume Brown (1899-1909) and Andrew Lang +4 seats Labour held 37, the Unionists 22, and the Liberals 14, (1g00-07). Tytler’s History, which ends in 1603, is based on thorough

while one was represented by ati Independent Prohibitionist. ‘A Local Veto Experiment.—An important experiment in social legislation was tried in 1920, in accordance with the pro-. visions of the Temperance (Scotland) Act, of 3913, which provided that local authorities, on the receipt, of signed requisitions

ane

research in mss., but many documents now available, such as the re-

ports of diplomatic agents were not accessible when he wrote. Hill

Burton’s ends in 1746 and is of unequal merit, being best in points of development of law, but his anti-Celticism, and scepticism with regard to archaeology make his work inadequate in the earlier parts. Hume Brown’s original work ended with the Disruption of 1843, but

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an illustrated edition (1911) brings the story down to the date of publication. It is a judicious narrative, critical and cautious in its use of evidence and brings out the factors which affected the political development of the country. Lang, who carried his narrative down to 1746, was deeply interested in controversial issues and in secret history, and he described his book as a “study of spies and traitors.” See also Sir Walter Scott’s Tales of a Grandfather, which, in spite of its date, remains an excellent introduction to Scottish history. Special Periods. For the period up to the death of Alexander III., 1286, W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (1876-80) and Highlanders of Scotland (ed. A. Macbain, 1902) are still standard works, though

Skene’s conclusions have been subjected to considerable criticism; e.g., in Rhys’s Celtic Britain (1884). E. W. Robertson, Scotland under her Early Kings (1862), is invaluable for the later portion of the period and especially for the discussion of the relations of the Crowns of Scotland and England. For the War of Independence, Joseph Bain, The Edwards in Scotland (1901), and E. M. Barron, Scottish War of Independence (1914), should be read; the last mentioned supplies information which has not yet been incorporated in the general histories about the attitude of the Highlands to the war. John Knox, History of the Reformation, should be studied in conjunction with Lang’s John Knox and the Reformation (1905) and with Hay Fleming, Reformation in Scotland (1910). W. L. Mathieson, Politics and Religion: a Study in Scottish History (1902), treats the period 15501695 from a modern and moderate standpoint, covering the whole Covenanting period. The Union is discussed in Prof. James MacKinnon’s Union of England and Scotland (2nd ed. r907); Hume Brown, Union of England and Scotland (1914); Dicey and Rait, Thoughts on the Scottish Union (1920); and W. L. Mathieson, Scotland and the Union (1905), which covers the period 1695-1747. For the 18th century see W. L. Mathieson, Awakening of Scotland, 1747-97 (1910), and Sir Henry Craik, Century of Scottisk History (1901), which gives an acute analysis of the factors in the making of the nation from before the Rising of 1745 to the Education Act of 1872 and includes the Disruption controversy.

parliament, on the 24th of August 1560, passed the acts abolishing the papal jurisdiction and the mass in Scotland, it was able, as Knox had been preparing for this crisis, to sanction a new confession of faith for the Refermed church. Other documents of the new system were quickly forthcoming. The First Book of Discipline set forth the whole of the proposed religious and educational constitution, and this book speaks of “the order of Geneva which is now in use in some of our churches.” This order, afterwards with some modifications known as John Knox’s Liturgy, and used in the church down to the reign of Charles L,, is a complete directory of worship, with forms of all the services to be held in the church. The type of religion found in these

documents is that of Geneva, the unit being the self-governing congregation, and the great aim of the system the pure preaching of the Word; but the First Book of Discipline does not set forth any complete scheme of church government. Its arrangements are in part provisional. In addition to the minister, who is its most definite figure and proved to be the most permanent, it recognizes the superintendent, the lay elder and the reader. The superintendent was a parish minister whose added function was to plant churches, and place ministers, elders and deacons where

required. Whether the superintendents were meant to be permanent in the church is not clear. The lay elder was very much what he is still. The reader was to conduct service when no minister was available, reading the Scriptures and the Common Prayer. A noble scheme of education was sketched for the whole country, but neither this nor the provision made for ministers’ stipends was carried out, the revenues of the old church, from which the expenses of both were to be paid, being in the hands of the barons. The system naturally took time to get into working order, The old clergy, bishops, abbots and priests were still on the ground, and were slow to take service in the new church. In

Special Topics. Constitutional History: Cosmo Innes, Scotch Legal Antiquities (1872) and Scotland in the Middle Ages (1860), R. S. Rait, Parliaments of Scotland (1924); James MacKinnon, Constitutżonal History of Scotland (1924). The best history of the Mediaeval Church is A. McEwan, History of the Church in Scotland (1912); for the organization of the Mediaeval Church see Bishop Dowden Mediaeval Church in Scotland (1910). For later church history, John Cun- 1574 there were 289 ministers and 715 readers, As the ranks of ningham, Church History of Scotland (2nd ed. 1882), has still no the clergy slowly filled, questions arose which the Refotmation rival, Social history: Cosmo Innes, Sketches of Early Scotch History had not settled, and it was natural that the old system ‘with and Social Progress (1861) ; John Mackintosh, History of Civilization in Scatland (1877-88) ; Hume Brown, Scotland in the Time of Queen which the country was familiar should creep in again. Presbytery Mary (1904); Henry Grey Graham, Social Life in the r8th Century was never much in favour with the crown; and when the crown, (1899), and the topic is well illustrated in Robert Chambers, Domestic so weak at the Reformation, gained strength, encroachments

Annals of Scotland (1858-61). See also W. M. Mackenzie, The Castle in Scotland (1927). For the Highlands, Dr. Gregory’s History of the Highlands (1881) is excellent, but it ceases at 1603. Biographies. Only a few of the more important biographies can be mentioned—Sir Herbert Maxwell, Robert Bruce (1897) ; Hume Brown, George Buchanan (1890) and John Knox (1895) ; Hay Fleming, Mary Queen of Scots (1897); Thomas McCrie, John Knox (1811) and

Andrew Melville (1819); C. S. Terry, Claverhouse (1905); W. C. MacKenzie, Lauderdale (1923) ; Andrew Lang, Sir George MacKenzie (1909) and Prince Charles Edward (1900). State Papers and Society Publications. The most important additions to current knowledge are being made through the documents in course of publication in a large variety of series by H.M. Stationery Office (including Registers of the Privy Council, the Great Seal and the Privy Seal, the Exchequer Rolls and the Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer) and through the publications of the learned societies, such as the Scottish History Society and the Scottish Text Society,

were made on the popular character of the kirk, while the barons also had obvious reasons for not wishing the kirk to be too strong. The first parliament of the Regent Moray (1567), while confirming the establishment of the Reformed church as the only true church of Christ, settling the Protestant succession, and doing something to secure the right of stipend to ministers, re-

introduced lay patronage, the superintendent being charged to induct the patton’s nominee—an infringement of the reformed system against which the church never ceased to protest. Andrew

Melville (g.v.) came to Scotland at this time, and became the leader of the church in place of Knox, who died in 1572. He brought with him from Geneva, where he had been the colleague of Beza, a fervent hatred of ecclesiastical tyranny and a cleat which are continuing the work accomplished a century ago by the grasp of the Presbyterian church system. The Scottish church, Bannatyne, Maitland, Abbotsford and other clubs. A large number hitherto without a definite constitution, soon espoused under of important articles will be found in the Scottish Historical Review his able leadership a logical and thorough Presbyterianism, which (1904-28). Some of the earlier series of State papers require to be was expressed in the Second Book of Discipline, adopted by the checked by the original mss. (R.S. assembly in 1577, and was never aftetwards set aside by the SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF. The purpose of this article church when acting freely. It recognizes four kinds of office in is to trace the growth of the Scottish “Kirk” as a whole, defining the church, and no one can lawfully be placed in any of them the views on which it was based and the organization in which except by being called to it by the mernbers. Pastor, bishop and they took form. The controversies within the Church of Scot- minister are all titles of the same office, that of those who preach land have not arisen out of matters of faith but out of practical the word and administer the sacraments, each to a particular questions of church government and of the relation of church congregation. The doctor is a teacher in school or university; he and state. Holding a church theory to which the rulers of the is an elder and assists in the work of government. Elders are country were for a century strongly opposed, Scotland became rulers; their function also is spiritual, though practical and disthe leading exponent of Presbyterianism (g.v,); and this note has ciplinary. The fourth office is that of the deacons, who have to been the dominant one in her religious history even in recent do with matters of property and are not members of. church times. courts. Kirk-sessions and presbyteries are not named, but the Scottish Reformation.—The Scottish Reformation came out principles are clearly laid down on which these institutions are of a covenant in which the barons, inspired by John Knox, then to rest. abroad, bound themselves in 1557 to oppose the Roman Catholic Presbyterian Principle—By committing herself to this sysreligion and to promote the cause of the Reformation. When tem the Church of Scotland established between herself and the

SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF Church of England a division which became more and more apparent and was the cause of much of her subsequent sufferings. It is no doubt strange that she should have endured so much not for any great Christian principle, but for a question of church government. On the other hand, Presbyterianism stood in Scottish history for freedom, and for the rights of the middle and lower classes against the crown and the aristocracy; and it might not have been held with such tenacity or proved so incapable of compromise but for the opposition and persecution of the three Stuart kings. The history of the Scottish church for a century after the date of the Book of Discipline is that of a religious struggle between the people and the crown. For some years after its inception Presbyterianism carried all before it. The presbyteries came quickly into existence; that of Edinburgh dates from 1580. In that year it was found that there were 924 parishes in Scotland, but not nearly all supplied with ministers; it was proposed that there should be so presbyteries and 400 ministers. A great part of the country, especially in the north and west, had not yet been reached by the Reformation. At this time began the long series of attempts made by James VI. in the direction of curbing Presbyterian liberty and of the restoration of Episcopacy. For a few years his attitude was different. A Roman Catholic rising threw James into the arms of the kirk; in 1592 the Second Book of Discipline was legalized and Presbytery set up. The church was at the time very powerful, the people generally sympathizing with her system, and her assemblies being attended by many of the nobles and the foremost men. Discipline was ‘strict; the temper of the church was in accordance with the Old rather than the New Testament. On his accession to the throne of England in 1603 James entered on a new set of attempts to assimilate the Scottish church to that of England. In 1609 two courts of high commission were set up by the royal authority with plenary powers to enforce conformity to the new arrangements. In 1612 the act of 1592 which established Presbytery was rescinded, and Episcopacy became the legal church system of Scotland. Nationai Covenant.—TIn all this it was the position and rights

of the clergy that were assailed. The people had been less interfered with; the change of church government involved no change in the conduct of worship. But the articles of Perth, passed by a packed assembly in 1618, foreshadowed what was soon to be the policy of the crown. During the first years of his reign Charles was occupied in other directions; but when he came to Scotland in 1633 to be crowned, Laud came with him, and though like his father he showed himself kind to the clergy in matters of stipend, and adopted measures which caused many schools to be built, he also showed that in the matter of worship the policy of forcing Scotland into uniformity with England was to be carried through with a high hand, A book of canons and constitutions of the church which appeared in 1636, instead of being a digest of acts of assembly, was English in its ideas, dealt with matters of church furniture, exalted the bishops and ignored the kirk-session and elders. The liturgy was ordered to be used, which had not yet appeared, but which proved to be a version, with somewhat higher doctrine, of the Anglican Common Prayer. The introduction of this service book in St, Giles’s Church, Edin-

burgh, on the 16th of July 1637, occasioned the tumult of which

Jenny Geddes will always figure as the heroine, The sentiment was echoed throughout Scotland. Petitions against the service nook and the book of canons poured in from every quarter; the committee formed to forward the petition rapidly became a powerful body at the head of a national movement, the action of the crown was temporizing, and on the 28th of February the National Covenant was signed in the famous scene in Greyfriars church and churchyard. This document recited the covenant, signed by King James and his household in 1580, to uphold Presbyterianism and to defend the state against Romanism, and then declared a new covenant of nobles, barons, gentlemen, burgesses, ministers and commons to continue in the reformed religion, to defend it and resist all contrary errors and corruptions,

The Covenant was no doubt an act of revolt against legal authority, and can only be justified on the ground that the crown had for

173

many years acted oppressively and illegally in its attempt to coerce Scotland into a religious system alien to the country, and that the subjects were entitled to free themselves from tyranny. The crown was unable either to check the popular movement or to come to any compromise with it, and the Glasgow assembly of 1638, the first free assembly that had met for thirty years, proceeded to make the church what the Covenant required, and effected the “second Scottish reformation.” The assembly contained many influential laymen and was carried on the crest of a great national movement. The Covenant was accepted by parliament in 1639. The succeeding decennium is the culminating period of Scottish Presbyterianism, when, having successfully resisted the crown, it not only was supreme in Scotland but exercised a decisive influence over England. The causes which brought about this state of affairs are to be sought to a large extent in the civil history of England. The English parliament sought the alliance of the assembly, while the Independents, though in the event Presbytery was as little to their liking as Episcopacy, joined in the wish to get rid of the episcopal system. In its period of triumph the Presbyterianism of Scotland displayed its character. After the injustice and persecution it had suffered it could scarcely prove moderate or tolerant; it showed a vehement determination to carry out the truth it had vindicated with such enthusiasm, to the full extent and wherever possible. The Covenant, at first a standard of freedom, was immediately converted into a test and made the instrument of oppression and persecution. All policy was to be determined by the Covenant; the king and every official was to be obliged to take it. The mind of the nation being so preoccupied with the Covenant, it naturally followed that those who carried their fanaticism farthest were ready to denounce and to unchurch those who showed any inclination to moderation and political sanity, and that the beginnings of schism soon appeared in the ranks of the Covenanters. In 1643, when the full legal establishment of Presbytery had just been consummated, the General Assembly, asked by the

English parliament to arrange a league to be signed in both countries for the furtherance of reformed religion, agreed, but asked that the league should be a religious one. The result was the Solemn League and Covenant. It did not mention Presbyterlanism; but the Assembly had refused to hear of any recog-

nition of independency; if religion were thoroughly reformed, they considered the result must be Presbyterianism in England as in Scotland. In the Westminster Standards also, which were the fruit of the Scottish desire for a religious uniformity, Scotland did not obtain by any means all it desired in its church documents, The Scottish divines in the Westminster Assembly were only five in number, while the assembly contained effective parties of Erastians and Independents. The Confession of Faith contains no approval of any system of church government, and when she adopted it in 1647 the kirk gave up her old confession in which the principles at least of true church order are laid down. In accepting in 1645 the Westminster Directory of Public Worship she tacitly gave up her own liturgy which had been in use till recently, and committed herself to a bald and uninviting order of worship, in which no forms of prayer were allowed to

be used.

Struggle Against Episcopacy.—If the mismanagement of Scottish religious affairs under James and Charles I. is a melancholy story, what took place under Charles JT. is infinitely sadder. From the first Charles showed himself determined to force Episcopalianism on Scotland, and not too scrupulous in the choice of methods for securing his ends. The attempt was nearly successful. In the greater part of the country little change took place in the

religious services. The service book was not read nor kneeling at communion required, and it made no immediate difference to the people that the clergy should be under bishops. The inferior church courts still sat, though not the assembly. At the Restoration it was a question whether the bulk of the population was in favour of Presbytery or of Episcopacy; but the matter was handled in such a way in the west of Scotland that an. extreme Covenanting ‘spirit arose, nourished on intolerable grievances,

174

SCOTLAND,

and the nation as a whole decided against the system which had been promoted by such means. The Rescissory Act of 166r swept away the legislation of the preceding twenty years, and so disposed of the Presbyterian polity of the church. Episcopacy was restored by a letter from the king on the sth of September 1661 (see SCOTLAND, EpIscopAL CHURCH oF). An act requiring all ministers appointed during the period when patronage was abolished to get presentation from their patrons and institution from their bishops was applied in the west of Scotland in such a way that 300 ministers left their manses. Their places were filled with less competent men whom the people did not wish to hear, and so conventicles began to be held. The attempts

to suppress

these, the harsh measures

taken against

those who attended them or connived at them, or refused to give information against them, the military violence and the judicial severities, the confiscations, imprisonments, tortures, expatriations, all make up a dreadful narrative. Indulgences were tried, and were successful in bringing back about 100 ministers to their parishes and introducing a new cause of division among the clergy. On the other hand, the Covenanting spirit rose higher and higher among the persecuted till the armed risings took place and the formal rebellion of a handful of desperate men against the ruler of three kingdoms. When William landed in England in 1688, the scene changed

in Scotland.

The soldiery was withdrawn from the west, and

the people at once showed their feelings by the “rabbling” or ejection of the curates who occupied the manses of the ousted ministers, in which, however, no lives were lost. William would have decided for Episcopacy in Scotland, as the great body of the nobles and gentry adhered to it, but only on condition that the Episcopalians agreed to support him and that they had the people with them. Neither of these conditions was fulfilled. On the 22nd of July 1689 the Convention which declared the throne vacant and called William and Mary to fill it, declared in its Claim of Right that prelacy and the superiority of any office in the church above ministers had been a great and insupportable grievance to Scot-

CHURCH

OF

patronage. Presbyteries in various parts of the country were still disposed to disregard the presentations of lay patrons, and to settle the men desired by the people; but legal decisions had shown that if they acted in this way their nominee, while legally minister of the parish, could not claim the stipend. To the risk of such sacrifices the church, led by the Moderate party, refused to expose herself. By the new policy inaugurated by Dr. William Robertson (1721-1793), the assembly compelled presbyteries to give effect to presentations, and in a long series of disputed settlements the “call,” though still held essential to a settlement, was less and less regarded, until it was declared that it was not necessary, and that the church courts were bound to induct any qualified presentee. The substitution of the word “concurrence” for “call” about 1764 indicates the subsidiary and ornamental light in which the assent of the parishioners was now to be regarded. It was in the power of the church to give more weight than she did to the feelings of the people; but her working of the patronage system drove large numbers from the Establishment. A melancholy catalogue of forced settlements marks the annals of the church from 1749 to 1780, and wherever an unpopular presen-

tee was settled the people quietly left the Establishment and erected a meeting-house. Growth of Dissent.—In 1763 there was a great debate in the Assembly on the progress of schism, in which the Popular party laid the whole blame at the door of the Moderates, while the Moderates rejoined that patronage and Moderatism had made the church the dignified and powerful institution she had come to be. Nor was a conciliatory attitude taken up towards the seceders.

The ministers of the Relief (see UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH)

desired to remain connected with the Establishment, but were not

suffered to do so. Those ministers who resigned their parishes to accept calls to Relief congregations, in places where forced settlements had taken place, and who might have been and claimed

to be recognized as still ministers of the church, were deposed

and forbidden to look for any ministerial communion with the clergy of the Establishment. The growth of dissent steadily land. Effect was given to this; and in April 1690 the act was continued and excited alarm from time to time; and it may be passed on which the establishment of the Church of Scotland rests, questioned whether the peace of the church was not purchased the Westminster Confession being recognized, the laws in favour at too high a price. The Moderate period is justly regarded as in of Episcopacy repealed, though the Rescissory Act remained on some respects the most brilliant in the history of the church. the statute book, and the assembly appointed to meet. Three years Her clergy included many distinguished Scotsmen, among them later the formula of subscription, to be signed by all ministers, was Thomas Reid, George Campbell, Adam Ferguson, John Home, fixed, Hugh Blair, William Robertson and John Erskine. The labours =! From this time forward the church, while jealously asserting of these men were not mainly in theology; in religion the age was her spiritual independence, was on the side of the crown against one not of advance but of rest; they gained for the church a great the Jacobites, and became more and more an orderly and useful and widespread respect and influence. ally of the state. The difficulties which threatened to arise about Revival.—With the close of the 18th century a great change the union were skilfully avoided; the Act of Security provided passed over the spirit of the church. The new activity which that the Confession of Faith and the Presbyterian government Sprang up everywhere after the French Revolution produced in should “continue without any alteration to the people of this land Scotland a revival of Evangelicalism. Moderatism had cultivated in all succeeding ages,” and the first oath taken by Queen Anne the ministers too fast for the people, and the church had become at her accession was to preserve it. The Act of Toleration of 1712 to a large extent more of a dignified ruler than a spiritual mother. allowed Episcopalian dissenters to use the English liturgy. This About this time the brothers Robert and James Haldane devoted had not hitherto been done, and the claim of the Episcopalians for themselves to the work of promoting Evangelical Christianity, this liberty had been the occasion of a bitter controversy. The James making missionary journeys throughout Scotland and same parliament restored lay patronage in Scotland, an act against founding Sunday schools; and in 1798 the eccentric preacher which the church always protested and which was the origin of Rowland Hill visited Scotland at their request. In the journals of great troubles. these evangelists dark pictures are drawn of the religious state Patronage Difficulties——Presbytery, being loyal to the house of the country, though their censorious tone detracts greatly from of Hanover, while Episcopacy was Jacobite, was now in enjoyment their value; but’ there is no doubt that the efforts of the Haldanes of the royal favour and was treated as a firm ally of the govern- brought about:or coincided with a quickening of the religious spirit ment. But while the church as a whole was more peaceful, more | of Scotland. The assembly of.1799 passed an act forbidding thé courtly, more inclined to the friendship of the world than at any admission to the pulpits of laymen or of ministers of other former time, it contained two well-marked parties. The Moder- churches, and issueda manifesto on Sunday schools. These acts ate party, which maintained its ascendancy till the: beginning of helped greatly to discredit the, Moderate party, of whose spirit the 19th century, sought to make the working of the church im its ; they were the ‘outcome. In 1810 the Christian Instructor began different parts as orderly and regular as possible, to make the to appear under the editorship of-Dr. Andrew Thomson, a churchassembly supreme and to enforce on presbyteries respect for its man of vigorous: intellect and noble character. It was an ably decisions. The Popular party, regarding the church less from the written review, ‘in which the theology: of the Haldanes asserted side of the government, had less sympathy with the progressive itself in a somewhat dogmatic.and ‘confident tone against all unmovements of the age, and desired greater strictness in discipline. soundness and Moderatism, clearly proclaiming that the former The main subject of dispute arose at first from the exercise of things had passed away. The question of pluralities began to be

SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF agitated in 1813, and gave rise to a long struggle, in which Dr.

Thomas Chalmers (g.v.) took a notable part, and which terminated in the regulation that a university chair or principalship

should not be held along with a parish which was not close to the university seat.

The growth of Evangelical sentiment in the church, along with the example of the great missionary societies founded in

the end of the 18th and the beginning of the roth century, led to the institution of the various missionary schemes, and their history forms the chief part of the history of the church for a number of years. The education scheme, having for its object the planting of schools in destitute Highland districts, came into existence in 1824. The foreign mission committee was formed in 1825,

175

ciety, helped in that direction. For the Ten Years’ Conflict, which began in 1833 with the passing by the Assembly of the Veto Act, see the article FREE CHURCH of SCOTLAND; it is not necessary to dwell further in this place on the consequences of those acts. The Assembly of 1843, from which the exodus took place, proceeded to undo the acts of the church during the preceding nine years. The Veto was not repealed but ignored, as having never had the force of law. The Assembly addressed a pastoral letter to the people of the country, in which, while declining to “admit that the course taken by the seceders was justified by irresistible necessity,” they counselled peace and goodwill towards them, and called for the loyal support of the remaining members of the church. Two acts at once passed through the legislature in answer to the claims put forward by the church. The Scottish Benefices Act of Lord Aberdeen, 1843, gave the people power to state objections personal to a presentee, and bearing on his fitness for the particular charge to which he was presented, and also authorized the presbytery in dealing with the objections to look .to the number and character of the objectors.

at the instance of Dr. John Inglis (1763—1834), a leader of the Moderate party; and Dr. Alexander Duff (g¢.v.) went to India in 1829 as the first missionary of the Church of Scotland. The church extension committee was first appointed in 1828, and in 1834 it was made permanent. It was originally formed to collect information regarding the spiritual wants of the country, and to apply to the government to build the churches found to be necessary. As Development Since 1843.—The Disruption left the Church the population of Scotland had doubled since the Reformation, of Scotland in a sadly maimed condition. Of r203 ministers 451 and its distribution had been completely altered in many counties, left her, and among these were many of her foremost men. A while the number of parish churches remained unchanged, and third of her membership is computed to have gone with them. In meeting-houses had only been erected where seceding congrega- Edinburgh many of her churches were nearly empty. The Gaelictions required them, the need for new churches was very great. The speaking population of the northern counties completely deserted application to government for aid, however, proved the occasion her. All her missionaries left her but one. She had no gale of of a “Voluntary controversy,” which raged with great fierceness popular enthusiasm to carry her forward, representing as she did for many years and has never completely subsided. The union of not a newly arisen principle but opposition to a principle which the Burgher and the Anti-burgher bodies in 1820 in the United she maintained to be dangerous and exaggerated. For many years Secession (see UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH) added to the in- she had much obloquy to endure. But she at once set herself to fluence of the voluntary principle in the country, while the political the task of filling wp vacancies and recruiting the missionary staff. excitement of the period disposed men’s minds to such discus- A lay association was formed, which raised large sums of money sions. The government built forty-two churches in the Highlands, for the missionary schemes, so that their income was not allowed providing them with a slender endowment; and these are still seriously to decline. The good works of the church, indeed, were known as parliamentary churches. Under Thomas Chalmers, how- in a few years not only continued but extended. All hope being ever, the church extension committee struck out a new line of lost that parliament would endow the new churches built by the action. The great philanthropist had come to see that the church church extension scheme of Dr. Chalmers, it was felt that this also could only reach the masses of the people effectively by greatly must be the work of voluntary liberality. increasing the number of her places of worship and abolishing or Agitation on the subject of patronage went on in the Assembly minimizing seat-rents in the poorer districts. In his powerful de- from 1857 to 1869, when by a large majority patronage as refence of establishments against the voluntaries in both Scotland stored by the Act of Queen Anne was condemned, and a petition and England, in which his ablest assistants were those who after- sent to parliament for its removal. The request was granted, and wards became, along with him, the leaders of the Free Church, he the right of electing parish ministers was conferred by the Patronpleaded that an established church to be efective must divide the age Act 1874 on the congregation; thus a grievance of old standing, country territorially into a large number of small parishes, so that from which all the ecclesiastical troubles of a‘century and:a half every corner of the land and every person, of whatever class, shall had sprung, was removed and the church placed on a thoroughly actually enjoy the benefits of the parochial machinery. This democratic basis. This act, combined with various efforts made “territorial principle” the church has steadily kept in view ever within the church for her improvement, secured for the Scottish since. With the view of realizing this idea he appealed to the Establishment a large measure of popular favour, and in the last church to provide funds to build a large number of new churches, half of the 19th century she grew rapidly both in numbers and in and personally carried his appeal throughout the country. By 1840 influence. This revival was largely due on the one hand to the over 200 new churches had been built. improvement of her worship which began with the efforts of Dr. The zealous orthodoxy of the church found at this period several Robert Lee (1804-1868), minister of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, occasions to assert itself. John M’Leod Campbell (g.v.), minister and professor of Biblical criticism in Edinburgh university. By of Row, was deposed by the assembly of 1830 for:teaching that introducing into his church a printed book of prayers and also an assurance is of the essence of faith and that Christ died for all organ, Dr. Lee stirred up vehement controversies in the church men. He has since been recognized as one of the profoundest courts, which resulted in the recognition of the liberty of congreScottish theologians of the 19th century, although his deposition gations to improve their worship. The Church Service Society, was never removed. The same assembly condemned the doctrine having for its object the study of ancient and modern liturgies, put forth by Edward Irving (q¢.v.), that Christ took upon Him the with a view to the preparation of forms of prayer for public sinful nature of man and was not impeccable, and Irving was de- worship, was founded in 1865; it has published eight editions of posed five years later by the Presbytery of Annan, when the out- its “Book of Common Order,” which, though at first regarded burst of supposed miraculous gifts in his church in London had with suspicion, has been largely used by the clergy. Church music rendered him still more obnoxious to the strict censures of the has been cultivated and improved in a marked degree; and hymns period (see CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH). have been introduced to supplement the psalms and paraphrases; The Disruption—and After.—The influence of dissent also in 4898 a committee appointed by the Church of Scotland, the acted along with the rapidly rising religious fervour of the age in Free Church, the United Presbyterian Church and the Presbyterian. quickening in the church that sense of a divine mission, and of the Church in Ireland issued The Church Hymnary, which was authorright and power to carry out that mission without obstruction from ized.for use in all these churches alike, and after 30 years a new Bini, a Ree ee any worldly authority, which belongs to the essential consciousness hymnary is being compiled. The “Committee on Christian Life and Work,” was appointed-in of the Christian church. An agitation against patronage, the ancient root of evil, and the formation of an anti-patronage so- 1869 with the aim of exercising some supervision of the-work of

176

SCOTLAND,

EPISCOPAL

CHURCH

the church throughout the country, stimulating evangelistic efforts and organizing the labours of lay agents. This committee publishes a magazine of “Life and Work,” which has a circulation of over 100,000, and has organized young men’s gilds in connection with congregations and revived the ancient order of deaconesses. It was to reinforce this element of the church’s activity, as well

as to strengthen her generally, that James Baird (1802-1876) in 1873 made the munificent gift of £500,000. This fund is administered by a trust which is not under the control of the church, and the revenue is used mainly in aid of church building and endowment throughout the country. Subscription and Re-union.—The church has greatly increased of late years in width of view and liberality of sentiment, and shelters various tendencies of thought; and for this and other reasons the question of subscription has been more or less before the church for many years. The formula adopted by the assembly of 1711 had still to be signed by ministers, and was felt to be much too strict. After debates extending over many years, the assembly of 1889 fell back on the words of the act of parliament 1693, passed to enable the Episcopalian clergy to join the establishment, in which the candidate declared the Confession of Faith to be the confession of his faith, owned the doctrine therein contained to be the true doctrine and promised faithfully to adhere to it. This was accompanied by a Declaratory Act in which the church expressed its desire to enlarge rather than curtail the liberty hitherto enjoyed. Ten years later the assembly was again debating the question of subscription. A committee appointed in 1899 to inquire into the powers of the church in the matter reported that the power of the church was merely administrative—it was in her power as cases arose to prosecute or to refrain from prosecuting, but that she had no power to modify the confession in any way. Here the matter might have remained, but that the approach to parliament of the United and the Free Churches after the decision of the House of Lords in 1904 (see Free Courcu and UNrrep Free CHuRcH) offered an opportunity for asking parliament to remove a grievance the church herself had no power to deal with. The Scottish Churches Bill of 1905 left it to the Church of Scotland to frame a new formula for her ministers and professors, an undertaking to which she is seriously addressing herself. Since 1909—when the quater-centenary of the birth of Calvin brought the Church of Scotland and United Free Church Assemblies together in a memorial service in St. Giles’s, and a joint-committee on union was appointed—the two bodies have been moving towards reunion. The negotiations, interrupted by the War, have been resumed, and the main causes of keeping the Churches apart have been removed. The leaders of the Church of Scotland have already twice gone to Parliament in order to secure Acts which might remove the scruples of the other Church; the first Act (in 1921) ratified a Constitution drawn up by the Church declaring her spiritual freedom, with Nine Articles outlining an acceptable doctrinal basis; the second (in 1925) ratified a financial arrangement between the Church and the heritors, relating to the teinds. Finally the General Assemblies of the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church, at their meetings held in Edinburgh in May, 1929, both resolved on an incorporating union of the two Churches. The incorporating resolution was passed by the Assembly of the Church of Scotland with practical unanimity and by the Assembly of the United Free Church with an overwhelming majority. The union was consummated at a meeting of the Assemblies held on October 2, 1929, at the Cathedral of St. Giles, according to the plan formulated in May. BrsriocraPHy.—For the earlier history of the kirk the outstanding authorities are the histories of Knox, Calderwood, Baillie’s Letters, and Wodrow’s History: Knox’s liturgy has been edited by Dr. Sprott, and on the Westminster Standards the reader may consult Dr. Mitchells Minutes of the Westminster Assembly, and Baird lectures on the same subject. Modern histories of the church have been written by Cook, Hetherington and Principal Cunningham; Dr. Story’s Church

of Scotland in § vols. contains information

on

every side of the subject. Among books professedly dealing with the Free Church question, the most valuable are Sydow’s Die Schottische Kirchenfrage (Potsdam, 1845), and The Scottish Church Question

(London,

1845); Buchanan’s Ten Years’ Conflict (1849); Hanna’s

OF—SCOTS

GREYS

Life of Chalmers (1852) ; and Taylor Innes on The Law Scotland (1867). See also Cockburn, M emorials of His tinuation, 1874); Walker, Dr. Robert Buchanan: an Biography (1877); Annals of the Disruption (published

of Creeds in Time (ConEcclesiastical

by authority

of a committee of the Free Church (1876—77). On the United Presbyterian Church see McKerrow, History of the United Secession Church (1841); Struthers, History of the Relief Church (1843); McKelvie, Annals and Statistics of the United Presbyterian Church (1873); and

on re-union, A. Martin, Church Union in Scotland (1910). (A. Ms.; X.)

SCOTLAND,

EPISCOPAL

CHURCH

OF, a Scottish

Episcopal church in communion with, but historically distinct from, the Church of England, and composed of seven dioceses: Aberdeen and Orkney; Argyll and the Isles; Brechin; Edinburgh, Glasgow and Galloway; Moray, Ross and Caithness; and St. Andrews, Dunkeld and Dunblane. All, except Edinburgh, founded by Charles I., are pre-Reformation sees. The bishops constitute the episcopal synod, the supreme court of appeal, whose president, elected by the members from among themselves, has the style, not the functions, of a metropolitan, being called primus. The legislature is the provincial synod, consisting of the bishops, at whose discretion it is summoned, and a lower chamber of presbyters. The canons have the authority of this synod. The representative church council, including laymen, administers finance. Each diocese has its synod of the clergy. Its dean is appointed by the bishop, and, on the voidance of the see, summons the clerical and lay electors, at the instance of the primus, to choose a bishop, who is presented to the episcopal synod for confirmation and to

the primus for consecration. There are cathedrals at Perth, Inverness, Edinburgh and Cumbrae; the sees of Aberdeen, Brechin and Glasgow have no cathedrals. The Theological College was founded in 1810, incorporated with Trinity College, Glenalmond, in 1848, and re-established at Edinburgh in 1876. The bishops of the Episcopal Church are direct successors of the prelates consecrated to Scottish sees at the Restoration. After the Revolution, the Comprehension Act of 1690 allowed episcopalian incumbents, on taking the Oath of Allegiance, to retain their benefices, though excluding them from any share in the government without a further declaration of presbyterian principles. The extruded bishops were slow to organize the episcopalian remnant under a jurisdiction independent of the state, regarding the then arrangements as provisional, and looking for-

ward to a reconstituted national kirk under a “legitimate” sov-

ereign. But at length the hopelessness of the Stuart cause and the growth of congregations outside the establishment forced the bishops to dissociate canonical jurisdiction from royal prerogative and to reconstitute for themselves a territorial episcopate. . The act of Queen Anne (1712), which protects the “Episcopal Communion,” marks its virtual incorporation as a distinct society. But matters were still complicated by a considerable, though declining, number of episcopalian incumbents holding the parish churches. Moreover, the Jacobitism of some of the clergy provoked a state policy of repression in 1715 and 1745, and fostered the growth of new Hanoverian congregations, served by clergy episcopally ordained but amenable to no bishop, who qualified themselves under the act of 1712. These causes reduced the Episcopalians, who included at the Revolution a large section of the people, to what is now, save in a few corners of the west and north-east of Scotland, a small minority; but the chief bar to progress had been removed by the official recognition of George III. on the death of Charles Edward in 1788. The latest statistics show 421 churches and mission stations, 321 clergy, and 60,495 communicants. . On the history, see Carstares, State Papers; Keith, Historical Catalogue of the Scottish Bishops (Russel’s edition, 1824) ; Lawson, History

of the Scottish Episcopal Church from the Revolution to the Present Time (1843); Stephen, History of the Church of Scotland from the Reformation to the Present Time (4 vols., 1843); Lathbury, History

of the Nonjurors (1848); Grub, Ecclesiastical History of Scotland (4

vols., 1861) ; Dowden, Annotated Scottish Communion Office (1884).

SCOTS

GREYS, THE ROYAL

(2nd Dragoons).

This

famous corps was raised in Scotland in 1678 and derives its title from the colour of its original facings—stone grey. They

have also always been mounted on grey horses for a great number

SCOTS LAW of years. As the Scots Dragoons they served under William IIL in Flanders. In 1702 as the Grey Dragoons they served in the Low Countries. The regiment was at the battle of Blenheim, captured a standard of the French Régiment du Roi at Ramillies, and was also with the victorious army at Oudenarde and Malplaquet. In 1736 it bore the title of Royal North British Dragoons which it retained until March 1877, when it became the 2nd Dragoons (Royal Scots Greys). At Waterloo Napoleon referred to the Greys as ces terribles chevaux gris owing to their fine fighting qualities. Here they captured an “eagle” (standard) of the 45th French Line Regiment. Their long roll of battle honours also shows service in the Crimean War, South Africa 1899-1902, and the World War.

SCOTS LAW.

At the union of the parliaments of England

and Scotland, in 1707, the legal systems of the two countries were as disparate as was reasonably possible in two civilizations ap-

proximately equal.

Scotland, mainly in the preceding century,

had adopted Roman law, as developed, and in some respects altered, by the jurists of Holland and France, as her main guide; English lawyers had forgotten, or refused to acknowledge, the debt owed to Rome both by common law and equity. The law of Scotland, again, had recently been set forth in the Institutions of Lord Stair, a masterpiece of lucidity and orderly arrangement; in England the student or practitioner had little to guide him through a maze of precedents and forms of pleading beyond the difficult pages of Coke. And the Scots lawyer might have pointed, with pardonable pride, to the fact that in the court of session there was no separation of law and equity. Historical Development.—The legal history of the succeeding centuries has been one of gradual assimilation, almost exclusively by the penetration of English rules into the law of Scotland. The process of assimilation is by no means complete, but the apparent disparities are to a certain extent due to the difference in legal terminology. Thus there is little real distinction between the English “estoppel” and the Scotch “personal bar”; between “set-off” and “compensation”; between “merger” and confusio; between the doctrine of “advancement” and collatio inter liberos. Causes of Assimilation —vVarious causes have contributed to the gradual assimilation of English and Scots law. One main cause is that much of the existing law depends on statutes applicable to both countries. The House of Lords until 1876 almost exclusively English lawyers acting as the supreme court of appeal from Scotland, had a tendency to apply English law to Scotch appeals, and in some cases seems to have forgotten the distinction between its legislative and its judicial functions. Thus in Jaffray v. Allan (1790) 3 Paton 191, the House decided that the law of stoppage i transitu was applicable to Scotland, without any evidence that it had ever been suggested in Scots law. The citation of English cases in Scotland, now of daily occurrence in practice, was very rare in the 18th century, and may be traced to Prof. Bell. Judicial remonstrances against the citation of English authorities, which the judges professed themselves unable to understand, persisted for the next 30 years. The reforms in English procedure, between 1830 and 1860, did much to make English authorities more intelligible in Scotland. Much remained to be done; the separation of law and equity was a constant stumbling-block; but at least the Scotch lawyer was no longer perplexed by the question of what John Doe and Richard Roe had to do with the case. The result has been, with some aid from legislation, that in many leading branches of commercial law, such as the law of bills of exchange and negotiable instruments, suretyship or cautionary, agency, insurance, carriers by land and sea, the difference between English and Scots laws is now negligible. In attempting to indicate the main points on which English and Scots law still differ it would be hopeless to deal, within the limits of an article, with courts and procedure. In these respects any resemblance is accidental. Land Tenure.—In the law of tenure of land there is no reason to suppose (though the early history of tenure in Scotland is very obscure) that any material difference existed in Norman times. But there are no statutes in Scotland equivalent to Qua Emp-

177

tores, and while subinfeudation remained lawful and usual, the right of the vassal to alienate his feu without the superior’s consent was not recognized by the legislature until 1747, although conveyancing expedients to enable him to do so had been devised at a much earlier date. The consequence has been that the rights of subject superiors has bulked much more largely in Scotland than in England. A series of statutes, culminating in the Feudal Casualties Act 1914, have abolished all prestations except feuduty, and it may now be said that a “feu”—the normal tenure in Scotland—is equivalent to an English “freehold,” subject, in cases where there is a feu-duty, to a perpetual rent charge. There is, however, a very important distinction in the system of registration of title, only partially and imperfectly developed in England. In Scotland, since the establishment of the registers of sasines, in 1617, all deeds relating to land may be recorded in that register, and it has for long been established that a purchaser, or a lender on heritable security, is entitled to trust to the registers, and is not affected by any conveyance or burden which is not there recorded. Leases for any period exceeding 21 years, though not unknown, have never been common in Scotland. Recent legislation—the Crofters Act 1886 and the Small Landholders Act 1911—has established a system of leasehold in agricultural subjects not exceeding so acres, with security of tenure and the right to have the rent fixed judicially, and in this respect there is no English analogy. In other respects the law of leases is, in its main aspects, the same in England and Scotland. The Agricultural Holdings Acts (13 and 14 Geo. V. ch. 9 and ro) which respectively apply, differ only in minor details. Husband and Wife.—In the law of husband and wife, the enfranchisement of married women has reached an approximately equal stage in each country. But the laws as to the constitution of marriage differ. While in England some form of official recognition or ceremony is necessary to the validity of a marriage, Scots law has preserved the rule that the mere interchange of consent (which may be verbal, and in certain cases is implied) is sufficient. Such marriages, where there is no religious ceremony, are termed irregular, but are fully binding in Scotland. By the Marriage (Scotland) Act 1856 no irregular marriage in Scotland is to be recognized by the English courts unless one or other of the parties has his or her usual residence in Scotland, or had resided there for the preceding 21 days. By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1923 the English law of divorce is so far assimilated to that of Scotland that adultery by either spouse is recognized as a sufficient ground of action. Scots law, however, recognizes, while English law does not, wilful desertion for four years by ° either spouse. In Scotland a decree of divorce dissolves the marriage at once; in England neither party is free to re-marry until, in any event, six months have expired. Succession.—In the law of succession the Administration of Estates Act 1923, by establishing a general order in intestate succession In England, has created a fundamental difference. In

Scotland the order of succession in heritable (real) and movable (personal) property remains separate. And Scots law has never admitted absolute freedom of bequest in cases where there is a surviving husband, wife or child. A widow has a legal right, known as zus relictae, to one half of her husband’s movable property if there is no surviving child; if there is, to one third. A widower, by the Married Woman’s Property Act 1881, has a similar right in the movable property of his wife (ius relicti). Children have a legal right to legitim in the movable estate of each parent, one half if there is no surviving spouse, one-third if there is. All rights may be excluded by ante-nuptial marriage contract; any particular claim by post-nuptial contract between husband and wife, or between parent and child. They cannot, however, be excluded or limited by will. In heritable property a widow has a legal right (tierce) to a liferent of one-third; a widower, under certain limitations, has a right of courtesy, which gives him a liferent of the whole of the wife’s estate. Wills.—In testate succession English authorities on, the construction of wills are constantly cited in Scotland. Three points

of difference may be noted. (1) Scots law recognizes the validity

178

SCOTT

of a will in the testator’s handwriting (holograph), without wit- | the common law of Scotland.

nesses.

(2) It demands in every case subscription. There are |

ae

In the case of defamation thedistinctions are of some impor-

legislative provisions (Conveyancing [Scotland] Act 1924) under | tance. Between defamation in “words” (slander) and defamation which, when a testator cannot write, his will may be subscribed | in “writing” (libel) the law of Scotland draws no distinction. It for him by a law agent, justice of the peace or parish minister. | treats either merely as a civil wrong, not, except in the special

(3) The validity of a will is, in Scots law, in no case affected by | case of parliamentary elections, as a criminal offence. It is not the subsequent marriage of the testator. necessary, in any case, to prove that special damage has resulted, Contracts.—In the general law of contract the most important | though this will be taken account of in the award of damages.

distinction is that Scots law has never recognized the English | And on the principle of allowing solatium for injured feelings an doctrine of consideration. Perhaps a very important result is that | action is admitted in Scots law even although the defamatory Scots law admits the principle of ius quaestium tertio, i.e., that | statement is not made known to anyone except the person him-

C. may have a title to sue on a contract between A. and B. | self.

o

;

if made for his benefit; a right of action excluded in England by | Criminal Law.—In criminal law the English law of high the principle that consideration must move from the promisee.

treason was expressly made applicable to Scotland by 7Anne ch.

In the contingency of contractual questions where the element of | 21. With regard to other crimes the terms used often differ, but consideration does not enter, such as the effect of error, fraud, | there is no case of serious importance in which an act is criminal misrepresentation or illegality, the law, although not in all points | in the one country and not in the other. The procedure, however, identical, allows the citation of decisions in one country as | differs greatly. Private prosecution, at the instance of the injured authorities in the other.

This cannot be said of the question as | party, though competent, is in Scotland very rare except in minor

to the necessity of writing in the constitution or proof of an j|statutory offences. It requires the consent and concurrence of the obligation; there, the law, depending on different statutes, seems Crown (given through the agency of the lord advocate, or, in completely dissimilar. And it has recently been established that | minor offences, of the procurator fiscal) and, although the High

where one party is precluded from performing his obligation | Court of Justiciary has power to dispense with this requirement, through some cause beyond his own control, the law of Scotland | the case of Coats (1909, S.C. [J] 29) is the only modern instance (following Roman law) will enforce the return of any payment | of the exercise of that power. There is no institution in Scotland

in advance that may have been made (Cantiere San Rocco v. | analogous to the English grand jury; the question whether there Clyde Shipbuilding Co., 1923, S.C. [H.L.] 105); whereas English | is a prima facie case for prosecution being always one for the authorities hold that matters must remain as they were when the | discretion of the criminal authorities. In the trial of criminal invalidating causes became operative (Krell v. Henry, 1903, 2 offences the jury in Scotland numbers 15, as opposed to the K.B. 740). English 12, and the verdict may be given by a majority. The Gee a PR EARL Le aSee

Sale of Goods.—In the contract of sale of goods the law of| Scotch verdict of “not proven,” having the same legal effect as a Scotland, until 1894, held that the property in goods sold did not verdict of “not guilty,” has no English counterpart. A

pass until delivery. But in this respect the law has been com- defect in the Scotch legal system, which had no provision for any pletely altered by the Sale of Goods Act 1893, which provides | public inquiry in cases of death under doubtful or suspicious rules on this subject applicable to both countries, and derived

circumstances, analogous to the English coroner’s inquest, has

from English law. The Act, however, leaves certain points of | been partially remedied by the Fatal Accidents Inquiry Acts of variance, Thus s. 4, providing for a memorandum in writing | 1895 and 1906, under which a public inquiry by a sheriff and jury in ‘sales of the value of £10, is not applicable to Scotland, where | is held in all cases of fatal accidents in any industrial employment, parole evidence is in all cases sufficient. In cases of breach of | and may be directed by the lord advocate in the case of any contract the distinction between conditions and warranties, in | sudden or suspicious death. the technical meaning given to these terms in English law, is not e en iy a m NE < Stair, J lable “at ECSEDI zed in Scotland:



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BY COURTESY

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SCULPTURE

OF

(1, 7, 8) THE

(5) BONNEY,

METROPOLITAN

(9) CARL KLEIN

MUSEUM

OF ART,

NEW

DECORATIVE

YORK,

(3)

THE

AMERICAN

SCULPTURE

e “Mare and Foal,” bronze statuette group by Herbert Haseltine, English animal sculptor

“Deposition,” wood relief by Ivan Mestrovic (1883~

“Horse” by Carl Milles (1875—

“Danae,” bronze figure by Aristide Maillo! (1861ul N &. &

“Black Panther,” by Mateo Hernandez sculptor

). Yugoslavic

). Swedish

(1888—

SWEDISH

NEWS

EXCHANGE,

OF THE 20TH

INC.,

(4) THE WEYHE

GALLERY,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(2) ALFRED

CENTURY

6. “Hounds,” by Wilhelm Hunt Diederich (1884— ). American J “Woman at Her Toilet,” bronze statue by Jane Poupelet. French

8. “Heracles Drawing His Bow Against the Stymphalian Birds,” a group in ). French

), Spanish animal

bronze gilt by Emile Antoine Bourdelle (1861~

). French

9. “Diana,” bronze statuette (24 in. high) by Charles Despiau ).

(1874—

SCULPTURE _ Polychromy in Sculpture.—One of the important elements in arriving at decorative effects in sculpture is the application of

colour to its surface. In ancient times sculpture was generally polychromed. The savage people of practically all countries have liked to apply colour to statues of their deities, to the carvings

used in connection with their religious rites, and to the masks worn in their ceremonials as well as to their architecture in gen-

eral. The polychromy was usually in the nature of opaque earth colours, the principal tones used depending upon the country

where found and the substances available, but with red and black dominating and white, yellow and green or blue used. The colour was applied in flat tones with usually no attempt at mixing or blending, and the quality of the vivacity of the idol or mask or other object was heightened by its use and the decorative effects of the ensemble intensified. In Egypt, colour was generally applied to sculpture, and in particular was a feature of relief work. It was rather the colour effect that dominated in the picture than the shadow of delineation of the carving. In fact, one is inclined to consider the relief rather as a painting in which the drawing was made permanent by the carved and rounded outline. Here, too, unmodulated colours were used and often patterns and ornamentation were picked out with the brush rather than carved with the chisel. The sculptors of Greece followed the tradition of Egyptian polychromy and until Hellenistic times used colour in their statuary. Ornamentations in architecture were also painted but it was in the great chryselephantine statues by Phidias that the art of the use of coloured matter in sculpture reached its greatest expression. Here flesh parts were executed in ivory while an intarsia of gold and silver and ebony made up together with other materials the rest of the statue or group. It is master craftsmanship in the hands of genius of artistic expression. Early Greek bronze statuary was oftentimes gilded and silver was inlaid in the ornamentation of a robe or a fillet around the head of a statue. The eyes were generally done in colour of inlaid materials, giving an expression of great liveliness. With Hellenistic times in Greece and the increased tendency towards naturalism in sculpture, painting gave way and the Romans made less use of polychromy than the Greeks, although many statues have come down to us composed of different coloured marbles. The Gothic sculpters liked to paint their statues and the interiors of churches of that period were generally rich in colour. This tendency towards painting of statuary was maintained until the time of the Renaissance. But after the finding of excavated marbles from ancient times in Rome, which were usually without colour, and the general popularizing of collecting of antiques, sculptors gave up the practice which had formerly been usual. Chinese sculpture has always been characterized by its use of colour. One is sometimes inclined to think that they preferred to a greater extent the use of colour on their statuary than on their paintings themselves. With the general influence on the moderns of the primitives in

art it remains to be seen how and what will be the reaction. Indications are that interesting use will be made of the lessons learned and the ways indicated. And hand in hand with the most ancient of methods come those of the most modern. Chrome steel, nickel and aluminium are metals, the use of which has considerable decorative value. New methods of applying glazes and paints are in use in the industries of to-day and new paints and enamels influence our artists. New materials are bemg frequently

TECHNIQUE

217

The theory of technique is treated under the general article TECHNIQUE IN ART and under the other individual articles preceding this section: Garden, Portrait, Monumental, Architectural and Decorative Sculpture; and it is necessary for the student to consult these articles as the techniques vary somewhat according to the application of the sculptor’s work. Further study of technique may be pursued in the articles or sections of articles on Greek Art, Chinese Sculpture, Japanese Sculpture, Indian Art and Archaeology, etc., as many of these articles, though written from an archaeological viewpoint, do nevertheless treat upon the techniques involved in the practice of these ancient arts. WOOD-CARVING Wood-carving consists entirely in a sort of elimination of parts obscuring the desired image. Although the mechanical process is simple, the training required by the carver before he can put it into practice is by no means simple. Firstly, the carver must have a. clear idea of what he is about to carve; its shape and form have to be studied before he makes a cut. He must have long practised the use of his various tools; he must know how to conquer the very serious difficulty which the grain of the wood presents in every inch of his work. Many years of laborious practice at last enable him to master all these problems. Of course there are many cases in which such skill and knowledge are neither to be found nor expected, as for instance in the case of primitive work, where 2 kind of child-like naiveté compensates for the lack of skill. The more sophisticated carver is not content to stop at this stage; he experiments with new forms, invents new tools, and slowly builds up a coherent manner of work which embodies both knowledge of form and skill in the use of his tools. From beginner to master, from generation to generation, this goes on, and so shapes itself into a dignified art—an art which demands a keen love of beautiful form and a constant pleasure in the use of the creative faculties. Acquiring Technique.—Two kinds of knowledge therefore are essential to the wood-carver. A knowledge of form and a knowledge of and skill with his tools. The beginner must learn to cut before he invents anything for himself. The grain of all kinds of wood runs in a fairly straight direction, but the cuts made by the tools go in every possible direction. This difficulty has to be cunningly mastered by subtle movements of the tools; it takes at least two years of constant practice before ‘one has thoroughly mastered the art of “cutting.” When a carver begins to learn the use of beautiful forms those forms are to him never the precise counterpart of nature’s forms, He has been long enough at his craft to have learned that purely natural shapes and forms are inexpressible in wood, and that his only chance of making his subject readable is to adopt the traditional “convention” in his treatment, wherein he must simplify all his forms, arrange them in agreeable groups and make the very most of the strong contrast between light and shade of which his subject may admit. Up to this stage the carver has been learning what may be called the technicalities of his craft, and perhaps exercising his mind in getting a useful knowledge of form. In this respect there

is probably no difference between the education of a mediaeval

and a modern carver, but here the modern carver is often expected to remain satisfied, and to go on carving, not what he would himself like to do, but what he is told to do by others. An archiinvented which find beautiful use in the automobile industry, in tect, “builder,” or some patron of art may give him a “design” to the making of radio apparatus, and in many fixtures and objects follow—none of them, probably, knowing anything about the use of utilitarian purpose. Those serving the use of artistry and in of carving tools. A handicap like this puts a full stop to the the hands of the new school of craftsmen sculptors, it is to be progress of the craftsman; he ceases to think of his craft in any hoped, will give to the coming age a brilliant addition to the use other way than as a source of. livelihood, and thus the innate talent of our wood-carvers is lost, This was not so in the case of polychromy and coloured materials in our art. (P. Man.) SCULPTURE TECHNIQUE. The following articles treat of the mediaeval carvers. There can be no doubt that there was upon all the various mechanical techniques involved in the art someone to guide the work going on in the shop. This would $e in of sculpture including Wood-Carving, Stone. Carving, Ivory Cary: all probability the master carver who controlled but did not feting, Terra Cotta. Further material will be found under the sepa- ter. This will be clearly seen by a reference to the illustrations, rate articles on BRONZE AND Brass ORNAMENTAL Work, LEAD IN showing work of 14th and 15th century carvings. Such work could Art, Ivory Carvinc, Woop-Carvine, Terra Corta, as well as not have been dene by fettered hands. Here fancy is seen to play within well kept hounds—the best treatment: for a given position the shorter articles on REPOUSSE, ENGRAVING, etc. *

218

SCULPTURE

TECHNIQUE

has been decided by actual experience, be it under a miserere seat, on a stall division, or the orderly arrangement of a rood screen. This delightful playfulness of fancy bas disappeared from

bench and screwed into the lower side of the wood, which can thus be turned about on the bench; the use of the cramp is obvious, but there is a larger one known as a “bench holdfast”

our workshops, and instead of invention, spontaneous and living, we get miles of some stupid kind of “ornament” generally copied mechanically. It would be rash to look for an early change for the better in this respect, but there are some signs of improvement.

for thick wood which cannot be cramped to the bench. A carver’s bench must ‘be of very firm construction to remain steady under blows and sideway pressure. It is generally about 3 ft. 2 in. high ' and of a length and width suitable to the space he has at command: it should have the light in front of it, never over it. The benches in a carver’s shop are often of considerable length as much room is required for long pieces of wood. Woods Used in Carving.—The woods in common use are oak, yellow pine, and limewood, but many others are used in a less degree such as mahogany, walnut, chestnut, and for small articles box, pearwood and cherrywood. Teak is sometimes carved but it does not compare well with oak. The choicest kind of oak for the carver is English oak, as its texture is hard and close and its colour is beautiful. Next to this comes the Austrian oak which cuts freely but is not so close in its grain. The American variety is not so good for the carver’s purpose; it is caney in texture and unpleasant in colour. Chestnut is not much used for carving but . it might have a wider acceptance because it is very like oak and cuts well under the tool. This, of course, is the “Spanish” or “sweet” chestnut, variety. Mahogany likewise is not much used, except for very inferior work, where it is always French-polished. Mahogany, though, may be very useful wood if properly treated: if it is left unpolished, or simply waxed, it in time takes on a very beautiful colour but passes through stages of unpleasantness bee, fore that arrives. It is a good wood for figure carving which is intended for painting and decorating. For furniture or other work which comes close to the eye there is no better wood than Italian walnut; the most delicate carving may be done upon it. The

PARTING TOOL AT LEFT: SHAPES OF THE CUTTING EDGES

FIG. 1.—A FEW OF THE MORE COMMON SHAPES OF CARVERS’ WHICH ARE MADE IN MANY SIZES AND SWEEPS OF EDGES

“American” walnut and “French” walnut are much used for

TOOLS

Many architects are now trusting their carvers with more liberal freedom in the execution of their instructions, a movement which

must have a good effect on all the workmen in the shop, where, as a rule, the manual dexterity of the carvers is in every way equal to that of their ancient predecessors, but where they seldom find much encouragement for their inventive faculties. The Wood-carver’s Tools.—The tools most commonly in use consist for the most part of chisels and gouges. They vary in

smaller work, but are not very amenable to the more delicate touches of the carver. Limewood is mostly used for figure: work which is intended for decoration, although sometimes left in its natural state, as in the work of Grinling Gibbons. Methods.—Having drawn the outline of the work in hand upon the wood the carver proceeds to make a groove all round this outline with a gouge of small size called a “fluter.” Then he takes up a fairly large gouge of quickish curve and with it digs out all the wood between the standing parts until he approaches the depth he

size and shape. The gouges may run from 4, in. to over an inch

in width and have a variety of “sweeps” or curve of cutting edge: the chisels likewise are of different widths, and they are in three or four different forms, “straight,” “bent” and “corner” (see fig. 1). The number of tools which may be used by a carver varies of course in accordance with the work he is doing; sometimes he will use half-a-dozen, sometimes more, these being a selection from his whole set which, in itself, may amount to several hundred. When the tools are in use, they are laid beside the carver with their cutting edges towards him in order that he may quickly _ pick up the one he wants. These tools have to be kept very sharp and this requires great skill and care on the part of the carver. Blunt or mis-shapen tools cannot be used with effect. The stones he uses for this purpose are of various kinds. Some use “Turkey,” some “Washita,” but there are many more, including artificial stones such as Carborundum. For the inside of gouges “slips” of these stones are

used shaped to the curves required, and for fine or very small tools a slip of “Arcansas” is used, a thin slip of very close tex-

ture. As a rule, soft wood like pine, requires a sharper tool than the hard woods like oak. Therefore tools used for this kind of wood are sharpened with'a more acute edge. Both sides of a carver’s tools are rubbed to a bevel, that which rests on the wood being the longest bevel. The’ inside only receives enough rubbing to produce a clean cutting edge.‘ Some ‘other: tools are ‘shown in

fig. 2. The mallet is used for the heavier kind of work, where forcible blows are wanted, but mostly, for the lighter use of his tools, the carver uses thé palm of his hand as a:mallet- when such

is required. The bench screw is passed through thé ‘top of.'the

FIG. 2.-WOODEN MALLET, USED ONLY FOR HEAVY WORK: CLAMP AND BENCH SCREW USED TO HOLD WORK FIRMLY ON BENCH ` requires. Then with.a gouge of flatter curve he cuts down the sides of the projecting parts until they are nearly upright. His next movement is towards a more complete realization of his de-

sign. He begins to indicate the positions of veins, lower parts to their respective planes, and in general’tries to: put in-the first stage gy

of any detail such as the articulation of a leaf, berriés, ‘tendrils,

etc., but all in a tentative way, leaving sufficient wood around every part to allow of little amendments as the work develops. This process, up to the point he has reached, is called ““‘bosting in,” that is, getting his work into a rough state of readiness: for

the “finishing.” This is considered the most important part of

SCULPTURE TECHNIQUE

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PHOTOGRAPHS,

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(3, 4)

EYRE

AND

SPOTTISWOODE,

LTD.

ANCIENT

AND

MODERN

CARVING

4. The Three Fates from the east pediment of the Parthenon

l. Slave by Michelangelo from the tomb of Julius II. 2. Head of “Evening” by Michelangelo from the tomb of Lorenzo 3. Low relief of horsemen from frieze of the Parthenon

STONE

de'Medici

5. Sculptor finishing work on a marble

i

SCULPTURE the work of a carver. The work, when it has been through this process of “bosting in,” should be so suggestive of the final stage that it is not difficult for a skilful carver to realize completely all that is meant by the more or less rough details in it. The “finishing” is the clearing up of details by completing the contours, levelling the ground, making mitred corners, and should, if properly done, include securing a pleasant texture which may display the quality of the wood. The foregoing applies to work in moderate relief. Low relief carving or very high relief requires a somewhat different treatment. Low relief requires in the carver a very high level of knowledge in the matter of drawing, because it depends so much upon the way in which its leading lines are disposed. Not less important is the management of the surface contours, and as in low relief not one of them can be even approximately true to the real form of the object represented, it follows that the contours must be delicately graduated so as to suggest roundness where it does not exist (at least to the same extent). All this means in the carver good draughtsmanship, FIG. 3.—STEPS IN CARVING A DEand a very keen sense of form. In SIGN; ABOVE, DESIGN OUTLINED low relief, therefore, there is very AND WOOD AROUND IT CUT AWAY; BELOW, MODELLING STARTED little to do in the way of “bosting in.” It is mostly sharp cutting and drawing with the tools. High relief carving, or carving in the round, demands much knowledge of form on the carver’s part. Let us suppose that he is carving a head; he must know to a nicety and by heart the exact proportions, the position of each feature and he must find these details by a process of clearance which is very confusing. Figure carving in a modern shop is often done as a divided labour: that is to say, one man makes a’model and another man carves it. This is done by means of an instrument called a “pointer” which is so made that a measurement can be taken on any part of a modelled surface and transferred to the wood in exactly the same relation to a registered mark on each. By this means little points are made all over the surfaces which have

previously been “‘blocked out,” that is, carved down to within a

TECHNIQUE

2109

used on household furniture, and for domestic architecture such decoration is no longer required. Shops, railway stations, restaurants and some public buildings still make use of wood-carving, but of no artistic merit. The church seems to be the only sanctuary of the art, and there a better kind of carving may be seen, though never on the scale of importance which it once had. No doubt the cause of the decline is to be found in the increasing use of machinery and the enormous advance in the cost of labour. It is difficult to see in the face of these formidable facts what can be done to preserve the craft. It is not an art that can stand by itself; detached pieces of wood-carving, however good, are no more than toys. The danger in making such a use of wood-carving lies in the fact that it is under no restraint; there is no necessity for discipline, and such unlimited freedom leads mostly to a mere seeking after novelty, both as to motive and execution.

(G. Ja.)

STONE CARVING

To a sculptor, in the true sense of the word

(sculpere, to

carve), a knowledge of the nature of marble is essential, for in marble he visualizes his finished work. However, it often happens that he is ignorant through lack of previous training of the very corner stone of his education as a sculptor, and has to entrust the execution of his work to men, who, though skilled in the art of carving, may not possess the artistic fire of the creator. There is a distinction in the words sculptor and carver. Michelangelo was a sculptor, because he wrested his creations from the stone with his own hands; the artisan, who copies in stone from the model given him by the artist, is a carver, who, often, may not have any knowledge of art, and works to tbe best of his mechanical ability, upon the work entrusted to his skull.

Marble, because of its texture and consistency, as well as its workable qualities, is the stone best suited to the needs of the sculptor, and for the sake of his art he should be taught early the nature of it, and the way of using it. It is as essential as the academic studies of geometry, perspective, anatomy and form (for Nature herself created it for her glory).

How

to Begin a Statue.—In

preparation of the finished

masterpiece a model of the work on a small scale is essential, either in wax or in plaster. From excavations, years ago, it seems that even the ancient Egyptians made models in plaster, for when a room was unearthed, which seemed to be the studio of an Egyptian sculptor, many sketches in plaster were found in a good state of preservation, as well as casts from life of faces, etc., and all the necessary instruments for the pursuit of his art. The Etruscans, too, knew and made models in plaster, as well as the Greeks, and certainly, the Tuscan artists of a later day. The model itself, however, is nothing but a sketch, an idea, which must later complete itself under the chisel, upon the marble.

quarter of an inch of the true surface. When some hundreds of these points have been made the whole surface is carved true between them. Such mechanical workmanship cannot have the most interesting results, but it saves time and eliminates the chances After a little familiarity with the subject it is. possible, by of failure and so is much in favour. A word or two may be said here as to figure-carving in general. means of a few points and measurements, to give form to a There can be little -deubt that when figures were being carved for marble statue; ‘with the help of a small sketch a hfe size statue the decoration of churches in ancient days they were carved with may be executed, or one even larger than life, by beginning with the full intention of completing them by covering them with the gradual indication of the lines and principal reliefs. For this paint and gold. That this was so, many examples testify and often indication it will be necessary to use pointed tools. Then with where the painting has disappeared traces of such still remain. the aid of compasses, measurements are made: between the small the marble block, to make sure that the finished work So many met with this misfortune that it gradually became the model custom for carvers to copy them as they saw them, that is, with- will be done in accurate proportion. The statue to be executed is out decoration, so that in modern times figures have seldom been then blocked out in form, always with the help of the pointed decorated in the old way. The result is that they are not often tool, taking care to make the indications parsimoniously, though seen in such:a good light that their lines or features ‘can be prop- fearlessly. When the pointing is satisfactory, with just regard for erly distinguished. Wood always has a way of hiding itself if reliefs and accurate values, a-dented chisel is used, care being the lighting is not very strong, but the moment it is covered with taken that the work is done always with due regard for the whole, gold and paint it reappears in all its details even in a dark recess. and -avoiding isolating the more fragile details when they are ;not Nearly ‘all the carved woodwork of ancient times was decorated closely linked with the principal form. This first work on the with paint and gold, that is, of course, in all cases where it was stope. must be maintained at nly one value, and care, must. be

safe from, rubbing, .Stalls.or other church fittings which were

liable to rubbing. were never painted. Modern ‘Decline.—The outlook, from a wood-carver’s point

of .view, cannot be said to be very encouraging at the present time. Ever since the beginning of the roth century, the output

from the.carver’s shop has steadily declmed., It has ceased to be 1

taken: that no deep cavities. dre made, which might prevent the

making of possible slight changes. When the statue has. reached this state, the main plan of the finished work being clearly mapped

out,,it is. placed upon a turning table that is at once manageable and wery solidly constructed, so that the blows.of the hammer will not cause any oscillations. Approachimg the: biock with

220

SCULPTURE

TECHNIQUE

greater precision, the sculptor next begins the main work, starting with the head of the statue. Unlike modelling in clay, wherein

the Slaves which were brought to light not many years ago.

achieved statue as the artist had planned it. For this reason it is necessary upon beginning to work on the model with hammer and dented chisel, to approach with caution and precision toward the release of the final forms. Geometrical working, upon the principles of right angles and squares, has ever been the method of the great masters. When the head of the statue presents a just value with the whole, and is well allied with the neck, the sculptor proceeds upon the torso and arms, without losing sight of the general plan and construction. Indeed, the whole is ever borne in mind, and no given part is ever dwelt upon at the expense of another. ‘Thus an equal tone is maintained, and harmony achieved in every form and value. This method seems to have been the one adopted by Michelangelo, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, and the brothers Pisano before them, who have left sound traces of their labour. The Greeks.—Nothing definite has come down to us of the system employed by the Greeks, but all their works show beyond a doubt that they were primarily master carvers on stone. Of course, even they had to make use of sketches in plaster to embody the original form of their creations, but Parian and Pentelic marble, of which the most famous museums are full, was the medium of their divine art, and never was the medium better employed and immortalized. The work of the Greeks was the product of the bottega. Every artist’s studio was a school; academies with definite programmes did not exist. At a tender age the future sculptor exercised himself in working upon stone and marble, and this was the first step in his art. Then he drew and modelled under the supervision of the master, who, with paternal love guided the hand of the student and developed his intelligence. From the simple plane to the minutest decorations the students advanced. Often they worked hand in hand with the master upon his statue, and thus they developed into artists —carvers and sculptors. In this fashion were created the masterworks of the past. The Parthenon, in which sculpture and architecture are united in one glorious harmony, is the expression of the highest art. Pheidias, the sculptor, worked hand in hand with Ictinus, the architect,

maturity and which seems to have attained the apex of an artist’s

In

two of them in particular are still to be seen the planes and from the small one proceeds to the larger and main object, in cavities as they were wrought by nature in the marble quarry. There is also the Madonna de’ Medici, created in Michelangelo’s sculpture one starts with the whole and gradually arrives at the

and carver’s potentiality, both in the largeness of conception and the compactness of form, insuring solidity. No particular of the work is isolated; harmony is maintained throughout. Yet even in this group is to be found the suggestion of the mountain. The principal line has still the imprint of the natural plane, and religiously Michelangelo seems to have maintained it, even though he made it serve the purposes of his group: it is the line that descends from the right shoulder of the Madonna to the sole. It is also to be observed how well allied he kept the foot of the Child in its firmness and strength, making every detail serve toward the ultimate harmony of the finished statue. Only through thorough cognizance of his substance and a mastery of his tools was it possible to the artist to achieve his perfection.

Modern Methods of Carving.—With new times and new civil-

ization have come other methods and ideas in all things, as well as in the method of carving. Under present conditions any young sculptor could become a proficient carver if he devoted a little of his daily time to this art. The problem of his existence would

and under them a legion of master carvers wrought on the Parian

marble reliefs, statues and groups that are a glory to this day. Take, for example, the great relief that covered the wall of the inner portico; it was the chisel of the carver that glorified it. The artist, indeed, contributed in the conception of the work with sketches and designs in charcoal upon the marble; but, working on relief and background, it was the carver that left his impress upon it. A study of the friezes in the Parthenon shows, by its unequal quality, that the carving was executed by various hands: some groups present all the perfection of the Pheidian hand; others, though still of a high order and holding their own with dignity, are lacking, however, in the precision noted elsewhere. Nevertheless, a small fragment of any Parthenon frieze would be enough to build the reputation of an artist. Michelangelo.—-It is well known how Michelangelo created his David. Already the immense block of marble that he used for his statue had suffered sacrilege by the tools of another sculptor. To Michelangelo was granted to create therefrom a POINTING MACHINE FOR TRANSFERRING POINTS FROM THE WORKING miracle of sculpture. The marble was placed upon a pedestal, MODEL TO BLOCK OF STONE a house was erected about it, and the artist gave himself up to his task. A sketch was made, smaller by one-tenth, finished in be solved, for if it is too difficult for a young beginner to find all the minutest anatomical details. From this, with the help of in himself statues and monuments to be erected, he can easily scans and measurements, with carving and reliefs, Michelangelo manage to gain both experience and a livelihood by learning how wrested out of the stone his immortal work, made possible only to carve marble. by the daring of his youth and the supreme mastery he had over With the help of a pointing machine the present mechanical his material. system of carving is easy to learn and free of responsibility beUpon observing the works of Michelangelo it often seems as cause it is mathematically exact. Let us imagine that a though the rough and varying form of the raw block of marble statue is to be carved; the marble block is acquired and brought as it came from the quarry gave to him the conception of the to the studio, then upon the model is applied a cross with three figure and group. This is more apparent in the four statues of points, one of which is in the shape of a hook to support the

SCULPTURE armature of the cross.

The three points are of iron or brass,

needle-shaped, which will find a place to receive them, also of

metal, in the model or plaster mould. Upon the cross there is a movable armature, easy to manipulate, and revolving to the desire of the carver. At the extremity of the instrument there is a needle, the point of which will be approached to the model. At first, that is, for the primary blocking, the needle will not be made to touch the model, but will be limited to approach within an inch of it. The cross will then be placed upon the marble, and the needle will be guided until it touches the point already marked. For the primary roughing out, given a statue six feet in height, a point every six inches should prove sufficient; for the rest, the good sense and accurate eye of the manipulator will be needed. When the statue has thus been dealt with in attaining its first form, the pointing is done anew. Even this second time it is advisable not to go to the final points; for the beginner it is better to make an approach of approximately one-third of an inch, leaving the rest for the final pointing. (It is also advisable for beginners not to employ too many points or measures, but rather to content themselves with placing these indications upon the highest reliefs, marking each with the maximum of neatness and assurance, each point being given its own proper plane, before designating with the metal needle the final point.) The tools used are chisels, plain and dented, and points of various sizes. They must always be clean and sharp: clean, too, must be the statue, in whatever stage of work. The marble must be cut in good, clear light, that the forms may always be well defined. The carver then examines his work from different aspects and by various lights, seeing to it that the surface of the statue is free of little undulations, and that the plane is clean, almost smooth, so that it may attain positiveness. Later, that the true beauty and colour of the marble may be brought to light, the statue is washed with sand and rubbed with burlap or any cloth of rough texture. If a higher polish is desired, the marble is rubbed with either natural or artificial pumice stone for a long time, clear, clean water always being used. The marble is then washed with oxalic acid which has been reduced to the consistency of table salt, applied with a damp cloth to the surface, and rubbed vigorously. Care must be taken that no quantity of the acid remain upon the statue, for it is injurious to marble. (There is, of course, the danger of refining to a fault, until the stone loses the qualities of its own peculiar nature and seems soft and weak to the eye.) Bernini was among the first to finish his statues with the maximum. of precision and care as to detail. Afterwards Canova, taking advantage of all progress and improvements made in the art of sculpture, was assiduous in giving his work such a quality of refinement that his carvers often went to extremes. Under them the qualities of the past masters were not taken into consideration, so that in the meticulous refinement that resulted from their labour the marble often had the semblance of majolica. + That which is best in sculpture never makes one forget the origin of the art, from carving on stone, as the Egyptians carved it, and the Greeks, and the masters of the Renaissance. The most important equipment of a young sculptor should be a knowledge and a love of the mother stone, which immortalizes the artist’s greatest dreams. (See also SCULPTURE, and other (A. P.) sections of this article.)

IVORY CARVING The Material.—In approaching the subject of ivory carving it is necessary first to consider the material in so far as it concerns the carver. Ivory, strictly speaking, is the tusk of the elephant: the tusk being the upper incisor tooth. For practical purposes the term must be allowed to include morse or walrus ivory, hippopotamus ivory and even certain kinds of bone and horn. The best ivory comes from tropical Africa. Asiatic ivory is whiter, more opaque and somewhat softer. The tusk ts hollow at the end where it joins on to the jaw-bone; the walls gradually become thicker until, at about half the length, the tusk becomes solid; from here to the tip runs a nerve centre which shows in

TECHNIQUE

221

the cross section as a black spot; the tusk is covered with a rough bark of a hard pithy nature, brown on the outside and greenish white within; the thickness of the bark varies with the size of the

tusk from 4 in.—ġin. or so. The whole of the bark must be re-

moved in carving. Seen in cross section the tusk shows a number of minute intersecting tubes radiating from the centre outwards, giving rather the appearance of engine turning on the back of a

HOLLOW CAVITY INTO WHICH THE BONE OF JAW Frrs

SECTIONAL VIEW OF TUSK;

CURVATURE

INCREASES WITH LENGTH OF TUSK

watch. The pores of the substance contain a waxy solution, which renders the ivory amenable to the carving tool and also helps to give it its characteristic polish. With age this waxy solution tends to dry out and cracks appear on the surface of the ivory—

cracks which in no way detract from its beauty. But, generally speaking, it does not perish for thousands of years; and, as the surface does not crumble or corrode like stone or bronze, we get in ivory carvings of past ages more nearly the work as it actually left the hands of the artist than is the case with most other materials. Age also gives to ivory a variety of hues—from deepest chestnut to the colour of boxwood. The biggest tusks weigh nearly 200 lb. and measure from 8 ft.—ro ft. These are rare. From such a tusk it may be possible to get a slab 18 in. X 6 in. X # in. thick. Owing to the curvature of the tusk through nearly a semi-circle it is difficult to get a larger area. and thickness than this. An exceptionally solid point may give a figure In the round of 2 ft. 6 in. in length. These dimensions are not quoted as being absolute limits for size. Chemically, ivory may be placed between bone and horn and is a substance of great elasticity. It has a very pronounced grain running lengthwise. It is carved on the side and not on the end grain. The Tools.—The tools used in ivory carving are few and simple. Within historic times they do not appear to have varied. They are as follows:— 1. Bow Saw.—This is a narrow saw, say 10 In.—12 in. in length, stretched like a bow string on a wooden frame. With this the

TOOLS USED

IN IVORY CARVING

tusk may be sawn into lengths or slabs. [Note: When available a small-toothed circular machine saw is much quicker, more accurate and less wasteful than as bow saw for the prelimmary cutting of ivory.] 2. Float:-—(See Illustration. ) This is a triangular davetiig tool in a wooden handle. Two of the three faces are cut across into small ridges throughout their length. By holding the bandle in the right hand and forcing one of the ridged faces outwards. and obliquely over the surface of the ivory, shreds of: the substance

222

SCULPTURE TECHNIQUE

may be pared off. 3. Gouge and Mallet—Small gouges, up to about 4 in., tempered as for wood-carving, may be used with a mallet. The carving should always be with the grain and the mallet must not be used with violence. Great care and some experience are necessary as the ivory will break or flake some little distance ahead of the tool. 4. Rasp and File——Fine rasps and medium files will be found useful at many points of ivory carving. 5. Chisel—(See Illustration p. 221.) After the roughing out has been done, this small tool comes into use. The ball handle is held firmly in the centre of the palm; the blade is held near the point between the thumb and forefinger. Considerable force must be exerted in each cut, pressure being given with the wrist and forearm. 6. Scraper —(See Illustration p. 221.) This is the most distinctive tool used in ivory carving. It resembles a wood-carving chisel ground to a point, fine or round as required, with the front face kept flat and the rear face bevelled off into a cutting edge. It is held like a pen in the right hand: the finger tips being about 1 in—} in. from the point. Using the thumb of the left hand to give a steadying pressure at the point, the tool is pushed with a short flicking movement over the surface of the ivory, removing the substance in shavings. Fine pointed scrapers can be used for engraving the most delicate lines. Nearly all ivory carving is finished with the scraper. Polishing the Carving is most effectively carried out by gently applying fine pumice powder with a soft damp cloth. In small interstices, where the finger cannot reach, a piece of wood, such as a match-stick, may be used with the damp powder. Whiting or a white tooth-powder may also be used for a final polish, if this is required. Methods of Holding —When carving in the round, ivory is best held in a wooden vice, or between pieces of wood, cork or thick felt inserted into the jaws of an iron vice. Ivory must never be held directly between the jaws of a metal vice, as this will cause a deep bruise. Larger pieces can often be held conveniently in the left hand at certain stages of the carving. Slabs of ivory on which a relief is to be carved should be fixed to a piece of wood of suitable size, 1 in—} in. thick, by means of beeswax. The melted beeswax should be poured on to the centre of the piece of wood, the ivory pressed on to the molten

ance to heat, so that it does not warp and crack in the firing or shrink excessively. The open, rather sandy clays are the more desirable. Uses.—Sculptors have worked in terra cotta since the beginning of history, using it for the modelling of small figures, for the making of moulds and for pressing in the moulds, as well as for architectural details, friezes, tiles, roofing and façades. The amount of terra cotta objects produced is naturally governed by the workable material of the country. In Egypt and Italy it was used extensively because of the scarcity of marble and stone. METHOD

Preparation.—A suitable clay having been located, it must be mined and cleaned of all foreign substances (stone, twigs, etc.) by washing, blunging, sieving, and then separating from the water. In modern efficient equipment the separating is done by means of a compressor which absorbs the water and leaves the clay in compact workable squares, which in turn are placed in a damp box and kept moist for use by the sculptor when needed. In primitive plants one method is to make a trough of hollow tile; into this trough the liquid clay, or slip, is poured and, because of the porous quality of the tile, the water is absorbed and evaporated, leaving the clay which can be rolled up and stored away.

Construction.—Now it is ready for the sculptor. One method of constructing a figure is to build it up on an armature, with either plasticine or clay. If clay is used, it must be kept wet either by spraying water on the figure from time to time as the work advances, or by keeping damp cloths around most of the surface, and by covering it entirely and keeping it in a damp box when

not being worked. If the original is not to be cast, but to be fired directly, no armature can remain in the statue because of the twisting and burning of the wire in the fire. Usually small statuettes are made solid; but for larger figures and groups it is best to build them hollow, keeping the thickness of the clay walls as even as possible. In this method the clay requires definite preparation. It must be thoroughly wedged, which means that the clay is cut in two on a taut wire and vigorously thrown down, one piece on top of the other, to expel the air. This is done repeatedly until the clay is even in texture and uniform in moisture. If a clay is too hard, water can be poured on the clay and then the clay cut and beaten again as before. It is wise to start with approximately as much clay as the size of the figure to be constructed, working as wax. The wax should be in such quantity that a small amount long as possible until it begins to sag on account of the moisture. exudes on all sides when the ivory is pressed down. When set, While working up to this point care should be taken when adding this superfluous wax should be scraped away before the carving new clay to work it thoroughly into the old clay, making sure that is commenced, or it will get on to the hands and tools. When it is no air has been allowed to enter and that the added clay is securely necessary to draw updn ivory, as for a relief, an ordinary lead blended to the old. When the sculptor has worked as long as the pencil should be used. The pencil lines can be fixed by painting clay will permit, the statue is allowed to dry and stiffen just over the whole surface with white spirit varnish. This quickly enough to hold its shape, and then the sculptor will proceed as dries into a hard transparent skin, impervious to moisture, which before. When the figure is ultimately accomplished, and the fine in no way interferes with the process of the carving. (A. Dv.) details are being developed, it is helpful to spray the figure occasionally with a very fine spray-of water. TERRA COTTA Should a mould be made, the clay is not allowed to dry but is Material.—Clay is decomposed felspathic and silicious rock kept in what is known as leather-hard condition, firm and hard but (see Ciays), varying in composition and colour according to its still moist. From this the mould is cast, and if the piece is not too location. Pure clay or Kaolin, as the Chinese named it, isa resid- intricate and has no undercuts, the original may be saved. The ual, non-plastic, white-burning clay, not usable in its natural state clay, shrinking slightly as it drys, separates itself from the plaster but essential in the composition of porcelain and china bodies. mould. In order to cast a difficult mould, one with small passages In contrast, the impure sedimentary clays, of which all earthen- and many pieces, the clay must be poured. Clay in a dry state, ware and most terra cotta sculpture are made, are plastic and in powdered and sprinkled into water and then stirred vigorously or their natural state contain all the requisites for modelling (plas- blunged, makes what is known as slip (a liquid clay). Slip needs ticity, porosity, vitrification). If these are lacking, the clay can to be fairly thick to prevent too great shrinkage in the drying. The be modified to obtain these essentials. Buff and red-burning clays mould should be dry before the pouring, and the slip free from ait in their green (or raw) state are grey, black, tan and red, but when bubbles. Pouring the slip very slowly over the mouth of one burned these change to a light flesh colour which ranges to a deep pitcher on to the mouth of another will break the bubbles. To chocolate brown, the tones modified according to the proportions make‘ the mould ready for pouring, it should be tied together of iron carried and also by the temperature reached in the firing. Securely and wedges placed between the plaster and the cord to A good modelling clay must have: (1) plasticity, with the ability tighten the hold. Then the slip is poured in until the mould is full of holding its form both while being worked and during the firing; and shaken gently to raise any bubbles. The slip will adhere to the {2) porosity, or sufficient looseness or openness in the clay dry mould, the moisture soaking: into the plaster, and as the particles to enable the moisture to escape in drying without shrink- amount soaks down, more slip is poured in to fill the mould again to ing too much or cracking; (3) vitrification, or the proper resist- the top. This process is repeated until the thickness of the wall can

SCULPTURE TECHNIQUE

BY

COURTESY

OF

(3, 5, 6)

THE

METROPOLITAN

MUSEUM

OF ART,

NEW

YORK,

SCULPTURE 1. Opened mould for the horse’s head in fig. 2 2. Illustrating the four stages of development

from

COPR.

AND

mould

H.

BONNAIRE

SCULPTURE

to finished

product, left to right: (1) rough casting by pressing, (2) retouched, (3) once fired, (4) finished glazed head

PREPARATION

terra cotta sculpture 5. “The Caryatid’ by Rodin

6. “Ephabe” by Louis Aimé

7. Portrait statuette by Paul Manship

3. Head of Balzac, by Rodin

4. Latest type of electric kiln at Greenwich

Prate II

8. Pediment for Philadelphia Museum of Art, executed by Carl Paul House pottery.

Used for firing

Jennewein

Prate IIT

BY COURTESY

SCULPTURE

OF THE

ETTL

STUDIOS

THE

CONSTRUCTION

1. Completed armature ready for clay

2. Artist’s small

model

from which the large armature was

of the left hind

OF A LARGE

ARMATURE

the wood Indicates the position of a point taken from the small model

made by a

system of points 3. Detail

TECHNIQUE

and so governs the thickness of the clay 4. Putting the horse’s head of the armature

leg.

The end of each wire which

projects from

5. Plaster cast of the finished full sized statue

in place

SCULPTURE be seen by scraping across the mouth of the mould with a flat knife, and, if sufficient, the mould is then inverted on two or three small blocks or tiles and allowed to drain. When it begins to pull away from the mould, or is firm enough to stand by itself, it is safe to untie and separate the mould.

It is stood on a flat level table,

and the sculptor then begins to work over the surface, cutting away the seams which always show where the sections of the mould come together, and refinishing and retouching. The statue is then allowed to dry slowly and is ready for the fire. Another method, which, if possible to use, is quicker, is to saturate the mould and then, after wedging the clay thoroughly, to roll it out with a rolling pin on a flat, dry, unpainted surface until the clay is an even thickness and not hard. The clay is then placed on each half of the mould and with a damp sponge gently patted into all of the irregularities of the mould and the edges are trimmed with a thin pointed knife. Then the two halves of the mould are tied together, and the sculptor works the clay back and forth across the seam inside the mould vigorously, adding small bits of clay where it is uneven. This is very important, because if the joining is not sufficient the clay will crack in the firing. The cast can be taken from the mould almost immediately, and the mould is ready to use again. With the heavier clay the shrinkage is less

than with the slip. The retouching is the same in both methods. The colour of the clay can be modified by blending a light clay with a red clay or by completing the objects in one clay and then by giving them a wash, or engobe, of slip of the desired colour. Firing.—Kilns vary in their size, construction, and manipulation and have been built to burn coal, wood, oil or gas. There are updraft, downdraft, and muffle kilns, and round, square, and oblong kilns, made of brick, stone, and sheet iron. The latest development is the electric kiln. In stacking a kiln, the unglazed ware will not stick together and the pieces can consequently be allowed to touch. Figures set in the kiln for firing should be placed on spurs, or small pieces of fire brick, which raise them slightly and allow the heat to. circulate all around the figures. When the fire is started it is raised gradually to allow the moisture to escape slowly so as to prevent cracking; for although a piece may have been drying for a year, it still contains from 18 to 20%

of moisture. Terra-cotta can be fired in any type of kiln, different clays demanding different temperatures. To fire heads, sketches, statuettes, animals, etc., the average clay fired to 1,800° F is sufficient. The higher the fire the denser the body, the darker the colour. For unglazed architectural decoration and for garden sculpture, the body needs to be well fired, as it will be exposed to the weather. Science has progressed in registering heat from the sight gauge to the Seger Pyrometric Cones, and analy to the. automatic heatrecording pyrometer.

When the kiln has cooled, the ware is unpacked and, if the sculptor is. interested in colour by glaze, he weighs out his glaze

formula, grinds the glaze and applies it to the statue as a liquid, painting it on and allowing it to dry. Then it is reset in the kiln, great care being taken to prevent the statues from touching, and refired, the temperature being determined by the type of the glaze. There is.a,growing interest among modern sculptors to work in

clay, some carrying their work to the height of exquisite finish and others dashing off:spirited sketches which in ie medium express spontaneity,as they-can in no other material.

Among the American sculptors, Herbert. Adi

Paul Man-

TECHNIQUE

223

in modern German. The possibilities of glaze sculpture are just being investigated. The Della Robbias used it extensively, but their colour and type of glaze never varied and did not lend itself to very sensitive modelling. The modern sculptor who is interested in colour is working to make a glaze which has quality and yet is thin enough not to hide the details of the modelling. For architectural details, however, the thick brilliant glazes are suitable. (See TERRA Cotta, which includes bibliography; also SCULPTURE.) (M. R.)

MODELLING, PRACTICE Modelling, as treated in this article, is that preliminary stage of a work of scůlpture which involves its actual creation in a soft material and its subsequent casting or reproduction in a more

permanent material. No consideration is to be given to tbat attribute of a piece of sculpture which is spoken of in criticism s “good or bad” modelling. The latter attribute is dependent upon those qualities which the sculptor has put into his work, such as the conception of mass, surface, texture and detail. (See following section, MODELLING, THEORY.) Materials.—Formerly, sculptors often carved their works direct from the stone or wood, but the advantages of being able to take off or add on, to twist and change until such time as the work has assumed the desired form has appealed so strongly to the modern sculptor that modeling is almost universally used and the acceptance of the possibility of these changes help to bring modern sculpture to perfection just as the changes in the manuscript help to bring the writing of a book into better form. Michelangelo and other old masters often carved directly in stone, but only an artist of great vision and much training dare commence work upon so executed may times to lack in tractable material

a valuable piece of marble, and though work possibly gain in spontaneity it is sure at all that thoughtful consideration which a more permits. When the processes in modelling were first practised clay was used, but this material has faults in that it is difficult to keep at just the right degree of moisture, and when too dry it must be frequently sprayed with water or covered with moist rags. Wax, which came into use later, is also difficult to handle and very fragile. Thus a comparatively new substance, which is called plasticine and which is really a clay-like material of an oily composition that dries much more slowly, has come into sinan use, eliminating many of the sculptor’s difficulties. Conception.—The sculptor often makes a number of pre-

liminary sketches in plasticine of the work of art he is contemplating, and as a rule he makes these sketches small enough to avoid the necessity of supports or armatures. Sometimes these sketches are made over an extended period of time and changed again and again until the general idea has “crystallized” in the artist’s mind, and he has established just about what arrangement of his work is going to be best. It is often necessary to miake a larger and more detailed sketch, cluding final corrections so that the whole may be kept in mind as his work proceeds. This preliminary work is necessary because of the fact. that sculpture often involves so extended a period of time in. its creation that certain considerations. are likely to be lost sight of as the work proceeds. Armatures.—On the basis of the’ final sketch and upon the sculptor’s determination as to the size im which the modelling is to! be catried out, a suitable armature or support must be constructed: For. mstance, assuming: that the. sculptor intends to model a. Standing figure 30 inches high, a square, iron rod, with

ship, Victor Salyatore,, Gleb Derujinski, Paul Jennewein, Bessie Potter Vonnoh,,Aifie Faggi,-John Gregory, Elsa Horn Voss, Janet three bramches at the bottom for support, and bent. at. a: point Scudder, Beniamino. Bufana, Carl Walters, and A. A. Weiman are about: 18 inches from. the:base to-meat at a right angle the small: the chief workers.. They use various. methods of finish.. Adams o£ the back’ of the standing figure,!.is screwed to a board. which and Manship treat the terra cotta individually. with a wax and oil is used as a base. The fixéd centre of the human bodyis the smalt paint finish.. Salvatore and. Derujinski leave..their work:.in the of the back, or the centre :between: the pelvis bone,).and :it’ is biscuit, while Jennewein, Gregory, Weiman, and Voss carry their important that the armature at this point be so arranged that sculpture to a glazed finish. The sculptors ‘show ‘great contrast, any change in the position of the arms, legs or torso will not Jennewein and Gregory designing strong and decorative archi- interfere with the fundamental balance of the figure. ‘This bent’ tectural details, pediments, friezes, etc., ;while Voss: portrays portion of the -iron rod at the small of the back should be, in animals with great charm.; Rodin, Despiau, and Maiullol are’ the the example adopted, about 6 inches! in length with:a 2-inch outstanding figures im modern French terra cotta, and Wackérle upward. bend at the end,‘Lead wire, or pipe, of #7 diameter should

i

“aay

A

etek

wate ve

*

224

SCULPTURE

be used, one section for each leg, one extended up to the top of the head and two more attached properly for the arms, and these lead extensions are attached to the iron support and bent in accordance with the movement of the sketch from which the sculptor is working. Sufficient plasticine must next be applied to the armature and the work of modelling should proceed until it arrives at an approximation of the original sketch at which time a living model should be obtained and posed as nearly as possible like the sketch. From the model measurements can be taken and corrections made to bring the work closer to life and actuality. Sculptors sometimes take liberty with modelling and this is the artist’s license if any advantage of general effect is obtained, but though it is not entirely essential to follow the anatomy of the model or models exactly, it is certainly very necessary that the sculptor be well versed in this part of his work and equipped with the knowledge which makes it possible for him to change the forms to advantage. It is wise to follow the model closely in the control of mass as a whole, but many of the details may be changed so that the planes and profiles are

TECHNIQUE is in perfect keeping with his personality and the spontaneity of

his conception. article.)

(See discussion of other related subjects in this CL. Len.) MODELLING, THEORY

As sculpture is the art of form, modelling is that part of the art of sculpture concerned with the treatment and manipulation of the surface of form; also, in a secondary meaning of the word, the building up and shaping of a work of sculpture in a plastic material preparatory to casting in plaster of Paris, bronze or terra cotta, or cutting in wood or stone.

With the Greeks one of the tests of a work of sculpture lay in the animation, vibration and life of its surfaces. This is due to the modelling and in this special sense modelling may be called the art of the surface of form. Modelling as a method of building sculpture dates from the time when men hunted the wild horse, the hairy mammoth, the reindeer and the bison in western Europe. There is proof of this to be seen to-day in the caves of France and Spain in the group of bison and the torso of a woman found there. The originals of the Greek terra cottas were undoubtedly first modelled in clay, followed by a mould from which many copies could be repro-

duced. The earliest bronzes were either modelled solid in wax, as was done in the half life-size figure of Gudea from Sumeria, 13th century, B.C., now in the Louvre, and the earliest Egyptian and Greek bronzes, or over a core, composed of materials similar to those used in this for casting in bronze, thereby allowing the metal to be made very thin and the statue hollow. Modelling, considered as the art of surfaces as distinguished from the building up of a statue or other piece of sculpture, is well illustrated by the works of Michelangelo and Rodin. Michel-

angelo’s bronzes have perished, but his works in marble show better related and more pleasing. MODELLING STAND AND ARMATURE almost perfectly this special quality of modelling, as the art of When the artist feels that he has accomplished to the best of surfaces; they rely, almost wholly, for their effect, power and his ability the work before him, he must next consider the process charm on what has been done with their surfaces. The Greeks, of putting it into plaster, as no casting in bronze or cutting from instead of relying primarily on the surfaces, which were only the stone can be made from the clay model. It is advisable to part of their conception of sculpture, paid particular attention have a professional moulder do this work, as even the mixing of to the development of clear profiles and significant silhouettes. the plaster is a skilful process and the location and arrangement As a result of this practice, Greek sculpture always appears to of the mould sutures‘ takes a great deal of practice. (See section, good advantage in the open air, while Michelangelo’s, with the this article, Plaster Casting.) possible exception of the “David,” is confused when placed out Relief.—The sculptor, if he would be successful in modelling high or low relief, should have a mastery of modelling in the round as he is attempting in relief to give a three-dimensional effect and this involves the same understanding of mass, composition, planes and profiles as in the round. The most important question to be considered is that of the relationship of the highest points

to the lowest in the background, and this must be carefully thought about and established. The background does not, however, have to be perfectly flat but may follow the general movement of the figures upon it, being deeper in some places than in. others, in order to soften certain passages and aid the relief in its various planes. Enlargement.—For enlarging to life size or greater, the modern sculptor makes use of a so-called enlarging machine of which there are several types, all based, however, upon the principle of the pantograph. For the large figure the armature is erected similar in principle to that for the small work, but is usually constructed of wood, lath and plaster so as to bring the bulk of the armature closer to the surface and in this way not necessitate the use of such great masses of clay, and thus avoid the possibility of parts falling off by their own weight and lack of proper support. For some large works plaster may be used as a modelling medium, thus avoiding the extra work and expense of the final casting. After the figure has been so treated and carefully “pointed

of doors. Basing his theory and practice of sculpture on the development of beautiful surfaces and significant modelling, he paid little attention, comparatively, to the clearness of the silhouettes. As seen from a distance, his silhouettes are rather obscure, his statues more or less shapeless. To get the maximum enjoyment out of Michelangelo’s masterpieces, the observer should be near enough to see and feel the projections and depressions—

the convex and concave surfaces.

(See MICHELANGELO.)

In the case of Rodin, these qualities of modelling are developed to excess, with the consequent neglect of qualities just as vital. No group of his is as fine as the figures composing it, and no figure is as good as the individual parts. We have only to recall such figures as have been placed in the squares and gardens of Paris to be aware of the difference in the effect of the same figures when seen in a museum, where all the advancing and receding planes, with their projections and depressions, become a source of keen enjoyment and result in a surface of great richness. Thus it was that Rodin instinctively created so many fragments, justifying his use of sensual and highly modelled planes against areas

deliberately left rough and unfinished. A Rodin is best when it is

small enough to be handled and the surface felt with the fingers, thereby getting the utmost possible enjoyment out of it. This conception of sculpture leads naturally to the “morceau” (the.

part or detail) and is the result of too much occupation with modelling.

It is also one of the causes of the modern cult of the

up,” it must be gone over again carefully by the sculptor to fragment. make any minor changes which appear to be necessary when the In the actual manipulation of the materials used in modelling, figure is perceived in larger scale and which were not so obvious many methods are employed, resulting in various textures of the in the smaller model. Thus the modern sculptor not only makes surface. Some sculptors apply the clay, plasticine or wax in use of all the above mediums for the betterment of his work, small, round pellets, called in French “modelé à la boulette.” but also keeps the result carefully under his supervision so that it This method has been very popular since the middle of the roth

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in ane Loggia gei Lanzi, Florence 2. “Evening” by Michelangelo (1475-1564),

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19TH

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G. Sabine Houdon in 1788 at the age of 10 Houdon (1741-1828), French 7.

(1£27—75)

(9)

leading sculptor of animal

clining figures on the sarcophagus of Lorenzo de’ Medici: built 1523— 3. “Dancing,”

HARKNESS,

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9. “Grief” (also known as “Death” and “The Peace of God”) by Augustus the

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FROM PARKER & HASWELL, “TEXTBOOK OF ZOOLOGY” (MACMILLAN) FIG. 1.—DIAGRAM OF A JELLYFISH (AURELIA)

Above, vertfoal section; below, view from below, showing oral arms, radial canals, marginal tentactes, and positions of sense-organs, sex-organs, and of the four pouches of the coelenteron; (C) coelenteron, (CC) circular canal, (EC) ectoderm, (EW) endoderm, (G) gonad, (GF) endodermal tentacle,

(M) mouth,

(PC) radial canal, (S$) sub-genital pit, (T) marginal tentacle

which attaches itself by its aboral end to a foreign support (see COELENTERATA where its feeding mechanism is also described, and Hyprozoa). This polyp can produce rootlets (stolons), from

FIG. 3.—VERTICAL SECTION OF THE MEDIAN DISTAL OCELLUS (V OF B) CHARYBDAEA (ENLARGED); (C) CORNEA, (L) LENS, (R) RETINA, VITREOUS BODY, (P) PIGMENT tozoa. The method by which the medusae are formed from the polyp, however, is a specialty of the Scyphozoa, and is quite unlike

that adopted by the Hydrozoa. The Scyphozoa constitute a large group of medusae of extremely varied and sometimes very elaborate structure. They possess in common, however, a number of features which distinguish them from the hydrozoan medusae, such as the absence of a velum (see Hyprozoa), and the presence, inside the coelenteron, of peculiar tentacles clothed by endoderm. The Scyphozoa are cruciform in their’ symmetry, that is to say, all their organs are symmetrically arranged with relation to four main radii placed at right angles to one another. Their sex-organs are endodermal. They possess well-developed sense-organs, these including not only hollow tentaculocysts of a distinctive nature (see also COELEN-

TeRATA and Hyprozoa), which occur in definite positions round the margin of the bell, but also ocelli or eye-spots, which attain, in the case of Charybdaea, an astonishingly high grade of develop. ment, possessing cornea, lens, retina, and vitreous mass, and recalling in outline the structure of a vertebrate eye (fig. 3). In certain jellyfish (Rhizostomae) a curious condition of the mouth

which new polyps are budded, and can also give rise to new polyps in other ways. The scyphistoma is-& perennial organism, and at a given time of year may undergo a remarkable change, which varies has arisen. By basal fusion of the four long arms which depend according to whether. the sup, in so many of these jellyfish from ply of food has recently been the corners of the mouth (fig. scarce or plentiful. In. the for1), the mouth itself is obliterated, | from differentiates it case mer and food is taken in’ through | its upper end, a disc-like sec-a multitude of pores in the surtion of its tissues which in time faces of the arms, which opéninto Fie. 4.—HALICLYSTUS AURICULA, becomes free ahd swims away. STEM AND 8 canals leading to the stomach. A JELLY-FISH WITH ATENTACLES Tf the food has been plentiful, Finally, in certain Scyphozoa (é.g., TUFTS OF, KNOBBED however, a whole: succession of such sections will: be formed, FROM KUKENTHAL, “HANDBUCH DER ZOOL- Haliclystus, fig. 4) the animal is not a swimmer, but has a stalk $ by’ means of which 'it attaches itself to weed and other objects; one above the other lke a OGIE” (DE GRUYTER) 2.—LIFE-HISTORY OF SCYFIG. and here ‘the anatomy is distinctive and is rather intermediate pile of ‘saucers, so, that’ most PHOZOAN JELLY-FISH of the substance of the polyp’ be- Left, scyphistoma In the act of stro- between that of a polyp and that of a medusa.

comes converted into such. The

billsation; centre, an ephyra; right, scyphistoma. (all ehlarged) .

segments separate ‘from the patent (which in its dividing condition is known as‘strobile) successively when sufficiently developed. Each of them ‘is found on examination to ‘constitute a small. flattened medusa’ with eight long arms, and is termed an ephyra. It is quite unlike’ the adult

Aurelia in shape even ‘now, but assumes the fully developed con-

For general accounts see CortentTexata bibl., and for recent lists of

literature,,W. Ktikenthal, Handbuch der Zoologie (1923-2 an

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SCYROS, a small rocky barren island in the Aegean Sea, off

the coast of: Thessaly.

The earlier inhabitants of Scyros were

Dolopes':(Thuc. 1. 98); Pelasgians, orCarians. There was 4 sanctuary ‘of Achilles on the island; and’numerous: traditions con-

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A medusa of the class Scyphozoa, genus Chrysaora, a common

jellyfish of the North Sea

SCYTHIA nect Scyros with him. Disguised there as a woman, in the palace of Lycomedes, to keep him back from the Trojan War, he was

discovered by Odysseus, and accompanied him to Troy. “Another legend deals with the conquest of Scyros by Achilles. It was taken by Philip IT. and was under Macedonian rule till 196, when the Romans restored it to Athens. It was sacked by Goths, Heruli and Peucini, in av. 269. The ancient city was on a rocky peak, on the north-eastern coast, where is the modern town of St. George. A temple of Athena was on the shore near the town.

SCYTHIA,

originally (e.g., in Herodotus iv. 1-142) the

country of the Scythae or the country over which the nomad Scythae were lords; that is, the steppe from the Carpathians to the Don. With the disappearance of the Scythae as an ethnic and

political entity, the name of Scythia gives place in its original seat to that of Sarmatia, and is artificially applied by geographers,

on the one hand, to the Dobrogea, the lesser Scythia of Strabo, where it remained in official use until Byzantine times; on the other, to the unknown regions of northern Asia, the eastern Scythia of Strabo, the “Scythia intra et extra Imaum” of Ptolemy; but throughout classical literature Scythia generally meant all regions to the north and north-east of the Black sea, and a Scythian (Skuthés) any barbarian coming from those parts. Herodotus (J.c.) to whom, with Hippocrates, we owe our earliest knowledge of the land and its inhabitants, tries to confine the word Scyth to a certain race and its subjects, but even he seems to slip back into the wider use. Hence there is much doubt as to -his exact meaning.

Geography.—Herodotus’

account of Scythia falls into two

irreconcilable parts: one (iv. 99 ef seg.), in connection with the tale of the invasion of Darius, makes of Scythia a kind of chess board 4,000 stades square on which the combatants can make their moves quite unhindered by the great rivers; the other (16—20), founded on what he learned from Greeks of Olbia, and supplemented by the tales of the 7th-century traveller, Aristeas of Proconnesus, tallies more or less with the lie of the land. In accordance with this we can give the relative positions of the various tribes, and an excursus on the rivers (47-57) lets us - define their actual seats. In western Scythia, starting from Olbia and going northwards, we have Callipidae on the lower Hypanis (Bug), Alazones (’AXotGves) where the Tyras (Dniester) and

Hypanis come near each other in their middle courses, and

235

called by foreigners after the ruling tribe. The evidence suggests that this tribe was itself of mixed blood. In the 2nd century A.D., when the steppes were dominated by the Sarmatae (q¢.v.), the majority of the barbarian names in the inscriptions of Olbia, Tanais and Panticapaeum were Iranian. We can infer that the Sarmatae spoke an Iranian language. Pliny speaks of their descent from the Medes. Now the Sauromatae are represented as half-caste Scyths speaking a corrupt variety of Scythian. Presumably, therefore, the Scyths also spoke an Iranian dialect. But of the Scyth words preserved by Herodotus some are Iranian; others, especially the names of deities, rather suggest a Ugrian origin. The Scyths may be regarded as a horde which came down from upper Asia and conquered Iranian-speaking people, perhaps in time adopting the speech of their subjects. The settled Scythians might be, in part, the remains of this Iranian population, or the different tribes of them may have been connected with their neighbours beyond Scythian dominion—Thracian Getae and Agathyrsi, Slavonic Neuri, Finnish Androphagi and such like. The Cimmerians (g.v.) who preceded the Scythians used Iranian proper names, and possibly represented this Iranian element in greater purity. Herodotus gives three legends of the origin of the Scyths (iv. 5-12); these, though they contradict each other, can be reconciled with the view stated above. The first two purport to describe the origin of a people termed Scoloti, who are said to be autochthonous and have Iranian names. Surely this is the national legend of the agricultural Scythians about Olbia, and the name Scoloti, by which modern writers have designated the royal Scyths, is the true designation of one subject race. The royal line of these is quite distinct from the true royal Scyths, who, like most nomad conquerors, allowed their subjects to preserve their own organizations.

According to the third account (which Herodotus prefers), the Scyths dwelt in Asia, and were forced by the Massagetae (g.v.) over the Araxes (Volga?) into the land of the Cimmerians. Aristeas says that the first impulse came from the Arimaspi, who displaced the Issedones, who in turn fell upon the Scyths. The Cimmerians appear to have given way in two directions, towards the south-west, where the tombs of their kings were shown on the Tyras (Dniester), and one body joined with the Treres of Thrace in invading Asia Minor by the Hellespont, and towards the southeast where another body threatened the Assyrians, who called

Arotéres (“Ploughmen”) above them. These tribes raised wheat, them Gimirrai (Hebrew Gomer; Gen. xi.). They were followed presumably in the river valleys, and sold it for export; in the by the Scyths (Ashguzai, Heb. Ashkenaz), whom, the Assyrians eastern half from west to east were Georgi (perhaps the same as welcomed as allies and used against the Cimmerians, against the Arotéres or perhaps garden cultivators not using the plough) Medes and even against Egypt. Hence the references to the between the Ingul and the ‘Borysthenes (Dnieper), nomad Scyths Scyths in the Hebrew prophets (Jer. iv. 3, vi. 7). This is alt put in and royal Scyths between the Borysthenes and the Tanais (Don). the latter half of the 7th century s.c. Herodotus says that the Behind all these stretched a row of non-Scythian tribes from west Scyths ruled Media for 28 years, and were then massacred or to east: on the Maris (Maros) in Transylvania the Agathyrsi expelled. The Assyrian evidence is in the main a confirmation (g.v.); Neuri in Podolia and Kiev; Androphagi and Me- of Herodotus. Hippocrates says that the Scyths are quite unlike any other lanchlaeni (gg.v.), in Poltava, Ryazan and Tambov. On the lower Don and Volga we have the Sauromatae, and on the middle race of men, and very like each other. The main point seems to course of the Volga the Budini (g.v.) with the great wooden town be a tendency to slackness, fatness and excess of humour, The of Gelonus and its semi-Greek inhabitants. From this region men. are in appearance very like eunuchs, and both sexes have a started an important trade route eastward by the Thyssagetae tendency to ‘sexual indifference amounting in the men to impo(g.v.) among the southern Urals, the Iyrcae on the Tobol and tence. When a man finds himself in this condition he assumes the Irtysh to the Kirgiz steppe, where "dwelt other Scyths, regarded as woman’s dress and habits. Herodotus (iv. 67) mentions the excolonists of those in Europe; then the traveller passed by the istence of this class, called Enarées ("Evapees), and says that they Argippaeiin the Altai andthe Issedones (q.v.) in the Tarim basin, suffer from a sacred disease owing to the wrath of the goddess of to the one-eyed Arimaspi (g.v.) on the, borders of China, who Ascalon, whosė shrine they had ‘plundered. The whole account stole their gold fom’ the watchful’ griffins, and who marched suggests a Tatar clan in the last stage of degeneracy. Theburial customs ‘and some other institutions of the royal with goat-footed men and Hyperboreans reaching to the sea; but this is all guess work. To the south of Scythia the Crimean moun- Scyths' are certainly strongly reminiscent of those of the nomads tains were inhabited by a non-Scythic race, the Tauri (q. v.). The of upper Asia. Distinctive weapons, such as a short sword that Sauromatae have generally been thought the same as the Sarmatae the Greeks termed axuwdxys, as opposed to the axes current in pre: later found in theirplace, but. Rostovtsev has raised serious diffi- Scythian times, are likewise oriental. Scythian art, however, may be ‘related to a style best represented in north-eastern Europe. culties.

Ethnology.—Herodotus divides the Scythians into the agri- Yet even this art province may have extended very much farther

culturists (Cailipidae, Alazones, Arotéres and Gedrgi) in the east than it has yet been traced. The skulls dug up in, Scythic western part of ‘thé ‘country, and the‘ nomads with the royal Scyths ‘to the’ east.” The latter claimed dominion over ali the rest.

It is clear that we have to do with a mixed population

graves throw rio light on the question, some being round and some long. The representations of nomads on objects of Greek art shew people with full beards and shaggy hair such as cannot be

SCYTHIA

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reconciled with Hippocrates; but the only reliefs which seem to be accurate belong to a late date when the blood of the ruling clan was probably much mixed. Customs.—Herodotus gives a good survey of the customs of the Scyths; it seems mostly to apply to the ruling race. They lived upon the produce of their herds of cattle and horses, their main food being the flesh of the latter, either cooked in a cauldron or made into a kind of haggis, and the milk of mares from which they made cheese and kumys (a fermented drink resembling buttermilk). They constantly moved in search of fresh pasture, spending the spring and autumn upon the open steppe, the winter and summer by the rivers for the sake of moisture and shelter. The men journeyed on horseback, the women in wagons with felt tilts. These were drawn by their cattle, and were the homes of each family. Hence the Greek epithets £o. (perhaps “of primitive life”), ‘Iaranuonyot (“mare-milkers”) and ‘AuafoBior (“‘living in wagons”). The women were kept in subjection, unlike those of the Sauromatae (g.v.). Polygamy was practised, the son inheriting his father’s wives. Both men and women avoided washing, but there was something of the nature of a vapour bath, with which Herodotus has confused a custom of using the smoke of hemp as a narcotic. The women daubed themselves with a kind of cosmetic paste. The dress of the men is well shown upon the Kul Oba and Chertomlyk vases, and upon other Greek works of art made for Scythic use. It must not be confused with the fanciful barbarian costumes that are so common upon the Attic pots. They wore coats confined by belts, trousers tucked into soft boots, and hoods or tall, pointed caps. The women had flowing robes, tall, pointed caps, and veils descending over most of the figure. Both sexes wore many stamped gold plates sewn upon their clothes in lines or semés. Their horses had severe bits, and were adorned with nose pieces, cheek pieces and saddle cloths. True stirrups were unknown. In war the nation was divided into three sub-kingdoms, and these into companies, each with its commander. The companies had yearly feasts, at which the commander honoured warriors who had slain one or more of the enemy. As evidence of such prowess, and as a token of his right to a share of any spoil, the warrior was accustomed to scalp his enemy and adorn his bridle with the trophy. In the case of a special enemy or an adversary overcome in a private dispute before the king, he would make a cup of the skull, mounting it in bull’s hide or in gold. The tactics in war were the traditional nomad tactics of harassing the enemy

on the march, constantly retreating before him and avoiding a

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a eo , was founded by Richard W. Sears, who, about 1886, while a railroad agent in a small Minnesota town, began selling ‘watches by mail, securing his customers through personal correspendence. His early venture proving very successful, Sears soon moved to Chicago to secure a more central situation for a business rapidly growing nation wide. There he joined forces with A. C. Roebuck and organized the Richard W. Sears Watch Company, which later was sold. Not long after they branched out in a more general line, constantly adding merchandise of varied character and steadily increasing sales. A corporation was formed under the name Sears, Roebuck and Company in 1893. The first Sears’s catalogue of general merchandise contained less than 300 small pages. In 1928 the current Sears’s catalogue had more than 1,000 pages, 8$x11in. and showed more than 35,000 items. These included an enormous variety of merchandise, comprising practically everything needed in the home or on the farm, including complete homes and complete farm buildings, with their entire equipment. In 1928, Sears, Roebuck and Company had ten complete mail order plants in various metropolitan centres of the United States. These were: Chicago (DOL), Philadelphia (Pa.), Kansas City (Mo.), Boston (Mass.), Memphis

certain responsibilities as well as establishing certain rights. It was the general conviction of the chief maritime nations of those days that the Lord of the Sea would provide for policing the waters over which he exercised dominion. At a time when piracy was rampant this was recognized as being of very real importance to trade. In 1299 not only English merchants but also “the (Tenn.), Atlanta (Ga.), Dallas (Tex.), Minneapolis (Minn.), maritime people of Genoa, Catalonia, Spain, Germany, Zeeland, Seattle (Wash.) and Los Angeles (Calif.). With each of these is Holland, Fresia, Denmark, Norway and several other places of incorporated a complete retail department store. In 1928 the the Empire” declared that Kings of England ‘had from time company had 16 additional retail stores not connected with the immemorial been in “peaceable possession of the sovereign lord- mail order division, each carrying a full line of general merchanship of the seas of England,” and had done “what was needful dise. In 1928 the company had well over 11,000,000 customers for the maintenance of peace, right and equity for the people of on its books, filled more than 37,000,000 orders and was showing all sorts, whether subjects of another kingdom or not, who passed steady increase in both customers and sales. The gross sales for through those seas.” (S. K. Laughton, “Sovereignty of the Seas,” 1925 were more than $258,000,0c0; for 1926, above $27,009,000; Fortnightly Review, August 1866.) for 1927 they were in excess of $290,000,000, and in 1928..they “The English Sovereignty of the Seas’ was not taken as passed $319,000,000. (E. E. P.) authority to exact toll but a salute was expected as a form of SEA-SERPENT. Enormous serpents, both terrestrial and acknowledgment of the more or less effective policing of the marine, are subjects around which have arisen such an array of waters. But in the 17th century the Dutch objected. to the legends and stories that it is almost impossible to disentangle ficdemand for this salute and insistence upon it was one of the tion from fact. So far as terrestrial snakes are concerned it seems causes of the war which ensued. In the end that nation acknowl- fairly safe to assume that there are none in the few remaining edged ‘by solemn treaty, its obligation to render the salute, but unexplored parts of the world which greatly exceed in size those the fact of the matter was that conditions had so changed that that are already known; in the depths of the sea, however, there the whole system of “sovereignty of the seas” was out of date. may still be gigantic creatures of which we have ne knowledge; There was not much piracy in the waters surrounding the British and with this,‘possibility, remote though it may be, in the hackIsles and merchant vessels were generally able to look after them- ground it is unwise to deny the existence of the. sea-serpent, Up selves, whilei in the case of those belonging to other nations, their to the present no animal has.been captured which has not on Governments ,always. possessed means of affording the necessary examination by competent persons proved. to belong to a: previ, protection. In 1805 Creat Britain wisely gave up her claim to ously well-known group, and a large number of the well-authentiexact the. salute, but the custom of dipping, the ensign when cated stories of monstrous marine creatures seem to be: explicable passing still survives. British merchant shipping isin the habit as incorrect observations, due to abnormal visual conditions. ‘er of saluting British men, of war in this fashion, doubtless iin token to ignorance, of animals: already quite well-known. Some of, the of the protection which the latter afford them and.as.a mark of possible explanations which have been put forward may be menloyalty to the King’ s ships, and such salutes are promptly and tioned :—(x) A number of porpoises swimming one behind. ibe punctiliously: returned. Similarly warships of different; nations other and rising regularly to take breath might produce the apr passing each other are wont to salute mutually in i like manner. pearance of a very large serpentiform creature progressing .by a Thus the old demand..for recognition as the “sovereign of the series of vertical undulations. (2) A flight of sea-fowl and 2 brood seas” has now become a form of politeness which may be regarded of ducks have ‘been, mistaken for a laxgé snake. „swimming, at the

as 2,

en of.the seas.”

(E. A.)

surface of the water.

(3) Large masses of Sea-weed, half awash

252

SEA-SICK NESS—SEATTLE

have, on more than one occasion, been believed to be some gigantic | and has boldly suggested the existence of an undiscovered, long-

animal.

(4) Basking Sharks (Cetorkinus maximus) which have

a habit of swimming in pairs one behind the other with the dorsal fin and the upper lobe of the tail just above the surface produce the effect of a body 60 or more feet long, and a partially decomposed specimen which was cast ashore was reported in all good faith as a sea-serpent. In the same category as Basking Sharks POM

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This type of sea serpent, according to Olaus Magnus in “Histor. Septentrion.” inhabited Norwegian coast waters where it occasionally would snap men from the deck of a vessel. Ht was 200 feet in length and 20 feet around

may be mentioned Tunnies (Thynnus thynnus), Porbeagles (Lomna cornubica) and Chimaeras (Chimaera monstrosa} which at various times have been incorrectly recorded by observers un-

familiar with them. (5) Ribbon or Oar Fishes (Regalecus) which attain a length of 20-30 feet and are snake-like in shape have been suggested as the possible explanation of some so-called seaserpents, particularly of those reported from the Mediterranean

tailed mammal allied to the seals and walruses.

(H. W. P.)

SEA-SICKNESS, the symptoms experienced by many persons when subjected to the pitching and rolling motion of a vessel at sea. Identical symptoms are liable to occur in flying, and in some persons even in railway travellmg. They generally show themselves, soon after the vessel has begun to roll, by giddiness, nausea and sinking at the stomach, which soon culminate in vomiting. With the sickness there are great physical prostration, pallor, cold sweats and feeble pulse, accompanied with mental depression and wretchedness. The condition depends upon disturbance of the balancing system contained in the semicircular canals (see Ear, ANATOMY OF) but visual, mental and olfactory impressions con: tribute. No means has yet been discovered which can altogether prevent sea-sickness. Swinging couches or chambers have not proved of practical utility, nevertheless there is less risk of sickness in a large and well-ballasted vessel than in a small one. None of the medicinal agents proposed is infallible even in the same person on different occasions. Nerve sedatives, e.g., bromide of potassium, acetanilide, bromural or chloral, appear to act usefully in many persons. On the other hand, some authorities have recommended nerve stimulants, such as a small cupful of very strong coffee, to be taken about two hours before sailing. The recumbent position and warmth, especially to the feet, often help; so soon as they can be taken small amounts of dry biscuit or toast and weak brandy and soda aid recovery. As a rule the individual is well again in 24 hours or less but in lengthened voyages sea-sickness may be so severe that the help of the ship’s doctor is necessary. Even the ship’s doctor is sometimes subject to sea-sickness. see R. A. Bennett, “Sea-sickness and Its Treatment,” Brit. Med. Jour., 1928, 1,781.

SEA-SQUIRT, the common name for the Tunicata (g.v.),

where these animals are most common. (6) Nemertines, which animals representing a degenerate off-shoot of the vertebrate may reach a length of 30-45 feet, have also been suggested as a stem. The sac-like adults live fixed to rocks or other substrata, possible explanation of some records. (7) Sea-Lions when break- but, in the more typical cases, have a free-swimming larva which ing surface for breath might, if seen from an unfamiliar view- reveals their affinities by its possession of a dorsal, hollow central point or in a fading light be mistaken for much larger, snake-like nervous system, gill-slits and notochord; the first and last of animals. (8) Gigantic Squids (Architeuthis) are undoubtedly the these are lost on metamorphosis.

foundation on which many accounts are based; these animals, SEATTLE (sé-at’él), the chief city of Washington, U.S.A., which attain a total length of 50 feet, are sufficiently uncommon to situated on a neck of land between Elliott bay (Puget sound) and be unfamiliar to the mafority of people but do occasionally fre- the freshwater Lake Washington; 125 nautical miles from the quent those regions from which many accounts of sea-serpents Pacific ocean, 140 m. S. of the Canadian border, 965 m. by water have come, viz., Scandinavia, Denmark, the British Isles and the N. of San Francisco, and 2,200 m. by rail from Chicago; a port eastern coasts of N. América. One of these animals swimming at of entry, headquarters of the Washington customs district, the the surface with the two enormously elongate arms trailing along county seat of King county, the largest city of the Pacific Norththrough the water would produce almost exactly the picture west, and the largest city of its age in the world. It is on Federal which many of the strangély consistent independent accounts highways 10 and 97 and the Pacific Coast air-mail route; is served require; 2 general cylindrical shape with a flattened head (=pos- by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, the Great terior end of the squid’s body), appendages on the head and neck Northern, the Northern Pacific and the Union Pacific railways, (=lateral fins and edge of mantle), colour dark, lighter beneath, has through train service over the Burlington Route and the progression steady and uniform, body straight but capable of Southern Pacific Lines, and has connection through both boat being bent and spouting water (=water ejected from siphon). and train service at Vancouver, B.C., with the Canadian Pacific Further, Sperm Whales are known to kill and devour Architeuthis railway; and is the terminus or a port of call for numerous lines and similar cephalopods, and one of the most graphic accounts of of steamers with sailings across the Pacific ocean, to Alaska and the sea-serpent speaks of it as in conflict with a whale around California, and through the Panama Canal to eastern American which it had thrown two coils and which it ultimately dragged and European ports. It is the centre of interurban trolley and below the surface; actually it seems very probable that the whale motor-coach lines, and of the “mosquito fleet” of steamers serving was eating a giant squid whose tentacles, thrown round the whale the 2,000 m. of Puget Sound shores. The population (1920) was in the struggle, were mistaken for the coils of a snake, and that 315,312 (113-5 males to 100 females), of whom 80,976 were the whale, so far from being dragged under, merely “sounded” foreign born, including 6,016 Japanese; and was 365,583 by the with its prey in its mouth. Federal census in 1930. When, however, all these and similar possibilities have been Seattle is situated om a series of hills above its fine harbour explored, there still remain a number of independent and appar- (reaching a maximum of 500 ft. above sea-level), in surroundings ently credible stories which are not satisfactorily explained. To of great natural beauty. To the west, across Puget Sound, rises account for these, the continued existence of plesiosaurs or some the jagged sierra of the Olympics. The eastern boundary of the other huge marine reptiles, usually believed to be extinct, has city is Lake Washington (27 m. long), backed by the Cascade been advocated in the past. More recently Oudemans!, who range. To the south rises snow-capped Mount Rainier. Within gives a very full account of the whole subject, has pointed out that the city are Union and Green lakes, the latter bordered by a pubthe known characters of plesiosaurus do not in the least agree with lic park. The area of the city includes 68-5 sq.m. of land and the features described in the unexplained accounts of sea-serpents 36 sq.m. of water. 1Oudemans, The Great Sea Serpent (1892). The outer (salt water) harbour measures 5 m. across ftom

SEATTLE West Point on the north to Alki Point on the south, and includes the East, West and Duwamish Waterways, extending inland on the south side of the bay; Smith Cove, on the north side; and Shilshole bay, the western outlet of the Lake Washington Ship

Canal, north of West Point. The ship canal (8 m. long, with a minimum depth of 26 ft.) connects Puget Sound with the freshwater harbour, Lake Washington, passing through Lake Union.

3,8, $, 3, 8, o

1 WEATHER GRAPH OF SEATTLE. THE MERCURY INDICATES THE NORMAL ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE, THE CENTRE CURVE SHOWS THE NORMAL MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURE AND THE CURVES ON EITHER SIDE THE LOWEST AND HIGHEST RECORDED EACH MONTH. THE COLUMNS INDICATE THE NORMAL MONTHLY PRECIPITATION, THE SHADED PART SIGNIFYING TOTAL PRECIPITATION, THE WHITE PART, SNOWFALL

The locks near the west end of the canal, which overcome the difference of 16 ft. between sea and lake levels, accommodate ships 780 ft. long. Elliott Bay proper, where the greater part of the shipping is concentrated, lying between Magnolia Bluff on the north and Duwamish Head on the south, has an entrance width of 2-5 m., a shore line of 9-7 m., and a surface area of 3,800 ac., and is very deep and free from natural obstructions or dangers throughout its entire extent. Harbour development and administration of public terminal facilities are in the hands of a public corporation called “the Port of Seattle,” created in 1911 by the people of Seattle and King county, and administered by a board of elected commissioners. Under its jurisdiction harbour facilities were developed by 1928 to a value of $15,000,000, and included terminal wharves, transit sheds, waterside warehouses, cold-storage plants, grain elevators and tanks for vegetable and fuel oils. Along the water front the hills have been graded down to give a comparatively level area for the business district. This is built up with many large and substantial hotels, public buildings (some of them grouped around a civic centre), the fine public library (1905), and high business buildings (one of them 42 stories high), most of which have been erected since the World War. Beyond this narrow strip rises a succession of heights, crowned with residential districts commanding fine views, and reached by cable railways or by electric lines ascending by wind-

ing routes. There are 35 m. of boulevard (skirting the sound and the three lakes and following the high ridges), 44 parks and 24 playgrounds, with an aggregate area of 1900 acres. The 582 ac. campus of the University of Washington, lying between Lakes Union and Washington, with a shore line on both, and the fine grounds of Ft. Lawton (605 ac., given to the Federal, Government by the city) are practically additions to the city’s park system. The climate is moderate, favourable to industry and to health, and encouraging outdoor recreation the year round. The extremes of temperature on record are 3° and 96° F. The average annual. precipitation is 34 in., distributed through all 12 months, but two-thirds falling in the winter months October to March. The average wind velocity is 7-4m per hour (compared with 17 m, in New York city). The death rate is low.

' The city is governed under a charter of 1896, with various amendments, one-of which (1908) provides ifor initiative and

253

referendum petitions. The mayor is elected every two years. The city council is composed of nine members, elected at large for a one-year or a two-year term. The city owns its street railway, water-supply and hydro-electric generating and distributing systems. The water supply is obtained from the Cedar river, and is stored in reservoirs with a capacity of 300,000,000 gal., in the Cascade mountains, 26m. S.E. In 1911 the city took its first step towards acquiring the street railways, and by 1928 it owned 235 m. of track out of the total of 265 miles. The municipal light and power plant built up its patronage, against determined opposition from the private companies in the city, until by 1928 it was serving 80% of all the customers. A zoning ordinance was adopted in 1923. The assessed valuation of property for 1928 was $288,882,721. Building permits in the nine years following the World War represented values averaging $23,000,000 per year. The percentage of home ownership is high. The public school system includes 82 grade and special schools and 9 high schools. Attendance in the higher grades is unusually large, and the percentage of illiteracy in the general population is very low. The public library maintains ten stations, and has a total circulation of over 2,000,000 volumes per year. The city has a cosmopolitan press, including two Japanese dailies and a Swedish weekly. Seattle is the leading commercial, industrial and financial centre of the Pacific North-west. Its geographical position (the nearest United States port to the Orient, and the nearest large city of the United States to Alaska} makes it a natural receiving and distributing point for trans-Pacific and Alaska traffic, and the Panama Canal gives easy access to Atlantic and Gulf markets; while the products of its tributary territory and its own manufactures supply staple articles for outgoing freight. About 80% of the mail moving across the Pacific is handled in Seattle. The traffic of the port in 1927 amounted to 8,544,910 tons, valued at

$705,255,761, of which $251,203,678 represented imports from foreign countries, $398,283,008 exports, and $55,769,075 domestic coastwise receipts and shipments. The Washington customs district, of which Seattle is the headquarters, ranked first in 1927 among the Pacific Coast districts in value of imports, and third (after New York and Boston) among all the customs districts of the country. Raw silk (valued at $223,789,870 in 1925) constitutes nearly 80% (according to value) of all the imports entering through the port of Seattle, and this is about 80% of the total amount of raw silk imported into the country. Other imports of consequence are coffee and tea, rice, vegetable oils, porcelain and silk goods. Exports consist largely of tobacco and cigarettes, raw cotton, lumber products, canned salmon, flour and machinery.

Every State in the Union and almost every Canadian province

contributes to the foreign commerce of Seattle, but the great bulk of the exports come from the north-western States and the south-western cotton-producing States (Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas and Louisiana). Seattle is the principal outfitting point for the whaling industry and the fisheries of the North Pacific, the principal trading centre for Alaska, and the principal supply point and wholesale market for the 300 logging camps of Washington and the agricultural North-west in general. Cheap electric power, combined with abundant raw materials of certain kinds and distance from the older industrial centres, has stimulated manufactures, and in 1927 the city had 1,154 plants, representing an investment of more than $120,000,000 and producing goods valued at $268,032,381. Seattle is the seat of a branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of the 12th district: Debits in the local banking institutions amounted in 1927 to $2,615,826,c00.

‘Seattle was founded in 1852 by 21 white settlers who had arrived at Alki Point the preceding year, and was named after a friendly Indian chief (d. 1866). In 1853 a town plat was filed, King county was created, and Seattle became the county seat. By 1855 it had a population of 300. In Jan. 1856, it was attacked by neighbouring Indians and successfully defended by the US. sleop-of-war “Decatur.” Growth was slow at first. The city was incorporated in 1869, with an area of 10-86 sq. miles. ' In 4870 the population was 1,107, and in 1880 only 3,533. The figst ‘railroad (the Northern Pacific) reached the city in 1884, and’ by 1890 the population had increased to 42,837, though a destructive

254

SEA-URCHIN—SEA-WOLF

fire had in 1889 burned down most of the buildings. Seattle was

still a little-known lumbering town when in 1897 the discovery

of gold in Alaska and the Yukon Territory changed it almost

overnight into an important commercial centre, point for prospectors, and the port to which they gold; and by 1900 the population was 80,671. The first steamer from the Orient in 1896, marked

the outfitting shipped their arrival of the the beginning

of considerable foreign trade, and in 1910 the Union Pacific and the Milwaukee railroads were connected with Seattle. In t909-10 the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition was held, on grounds which are now part of the university campus. Between

1905 and the close of 1910 ten adjacent cities and towns were brought within the city limits, and in gro the population was 237,194. The opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 gave a new stimulus to the city’s commerce, and the years of the World War, when Seattle built more ships than any other port of the United States, were a period of rapid and hectic growth. The average number of wage-earners in the city’s manufacturing establishments rose in five years (1914 to 1919) from 11,523 to 40,843; the value of the output, from $64,475,000 to $274,431,000. Since the first incorporation of the city in 1869 successive annexations of territory have increased its area about sevenfold.

swarm up a glass rod by grasping it with the curved and serrate radioles round the mouth; it uses these also to seize its prey. Though the small prickles protect the openings in the test, the true defensive organs are its pedicellariae, scattered over the test between the prickles. These are like little pincers, each having three teeth at the end of a flexible stalk, and each tooth with a poison-gland. Pedicellariae are found in all sea-urchins, but differ in size and shape according to the genus. Besides gripping and poisoning enemies and prey, pedicellariae clean the test from particles of dirt, and in some shallow-water urchins they hold bits of sea-weed on the upper surface of the test to hide it. The most familiar British echinoid is the egg-urchin, Echinus esculentus (ECHINODERMA, fig. 3), which owes its name to the fact that the ripe ovaries are eaten, both raw and cooked. Essentially a shore-dweller, it grips the sea-weed with its podia, which

have well-developed suckers and are far more numerous than in Cidaris; E. Forbes estimated their number as 1,860. To accommodate them, the number of plates in the test is increased, and the ambulacral plates are crowded, so that the pore-pairs are arranged in oblique groups of three on each side of the avenue,

instead of in single rows as in Cidaris. The prickles are all short,

and locomotion is effected mainly by the podia; the animal can also drag itself along by its teeth. The purple egg-urchin (Paracentrotus lividus), which ranges the south of the British Isles to the Azores and into. the from dewhen test the them In tiara”). “jewelled (Cidaris, Cidaridae , lives among Zostera leaves and on rocky shores in Mediterranean flattened of is surface, its nuded of prickles, which thickly cover bores in the rocks. Some of the turban-urchins'’ it which holes turban shape, beautifully ornamented with tubercles. The test is live on rocky bottoms in smoother water, have which (Diadema), five into divided is It united. closely plates solid but thin of built which can pierce the stoutest boot; some prickles, thin long very of each to and parts by five double columns of smaller plates, sensitive to light and shade, so that organs have urchins these of these plates is attached an extensile tube (podium, or “little foot”) Reefconnected through two holes in the plate with the hydraulic sys- they quickly direct their prickles to the point of danger. the dwelling exposed to thickened urchins surf their prickles have fem inside the test. These double columns are called ambulacra (“garden walks”). The five portions of the test between them are and crowded, and sometimes the ends are expanded like parasols the interambulacra, and each is composed of larger plates, also to form a complete outer covering. In some deep sea-urchins, as in most of those that lived in arranged in double alternating columns. The terminal plate at the upper end of each ambulacrum is pierced with a pore for a early ages, the test is flexible, and in one of them the podia are sensitive papilla, and is termed an “ocular,” because in sea-stars protected by sharp prickles each bearing a poison-gland. ‘These the corresponding plate bears an eye. Between the oculars and at and all previously mentioned are of regular five-rayed symmetry. the top of the interambulacra are five larger plates, each pierced Many urchins that have taken to live in sand or mud are irregular. with a pore for the extrusion of the generative products; they are In them the mouth tends to move forward, and to become wide, therefore termed “genitals.” One of the genital plates has also with projecting under-lip; the vent moves from the top to the many small pores leading to the hydraulic system, and is termed binder end of the test; the prickles are fine and directed backthe “madreporite.”” Within the circlet formed by these ten plates wards; the podia of the upper surface subserve respiration and is a fimely-plated membrane through which opens the vent. On are concentrated in five petal-shaped areas. Among such forms the under side of the test is a larger circular space covered with are the shield-stars or cake-urchins (Clypeaster), which live just membrane, in the centre of which is the mouth. The pore-plates below the surface of the sand, and use their reduced teeth for of the ambulacra pass over the membrane to the edge of the shovelling sand, with its small animals, into the mouth. The sanddollars (Scutella) are thin and flat, and in some the test grows mouth. Each interambulacral plate bears a large tubercle, set in a circlet out like the spokes of a wheel (Rotwa). More familiar are the of smaller tubercles. Each main tubercle bears a long prickle heart-urchins, such as the common Echinocardium cordatum or “radiole,”’ attached to it by a socket and a covering of muscles, (ECHINODERMA, fig. 19), which lives at the bottom of a burrow which can move the radiole in any direction. The joint is pro- and has the podia of its front ambulacrum modified so that they tected by flattened prickles or radioles attached to the smaller can be stretched right up the tube of the burrow to collect food. The position of sea-urchins in the Economy of Nature has tubercles. Prickles also protect the various pores and the delicate organs issuing from them. This species is dredged at depths of been mentioned in ECHINODERMA (q.v.). BrsrioGRraPHy.—Besides works mentioned under ECHINODERMA, ~a 50 to 1,800 metres along the east coast of the Atlantic, and Scottish fishermen call it the piper, from the resemblance of its specialist work is H. L. Clark, Catalogue of the Recent Sea-urchins in the British Museum (1925); an illustrated popular account is in Anilong radioles to the drones of a bagpipe. mals of all Countries (1924). (F. A. B.) Projecting from the mouth of a Ctderis are five pointed teeth; SEA-WOLF, SEA-CAT or WOLF-FISH (Anarrhichas), these are long, curved and chisel-ended, and are supported by a frame-work of 30 bones, with the necessary muscles, forming a marine fish, the largest of the blenny group (see BLENNY): a five-sided structure which Aristotle compared to a ship’s lantern. The body is long, subcylindrical in front, compressed in the tail From the top of the lantern rises the gut, which passes in a region, smooth and slippery, with rudimentary scales embedded looped curve round the inside of the test till it reaches ‘the vent. in the skin. An even dorsal fin extends the whole length of the Inside the test are also the five double rows of hollow balls ‘cone back, anda similar fin from the vent to the caudal fin, as in

SEA-URCHIN, any animal belonging to the Echinoidea, a class of Echinoderma (q.v.}. The simplest living forms are the

nected with the podia (see ECHINODERMA, fig. 7); and iw the blerines. The pectorals are large and rounded, the pelvic fins en-

interspaces the five genital glands. Fhe :suckers :of' thé ‘podia tirely.absent.’.Both jaws are armed in front with strong conical are poorly developed, and are chiefly: used ‘ás feelers «when .the teeth, ahd.on the sides with two-series of large tubercular molars, the middle of the palate. animal walks about in search off. foods because. they `have. no a double band: of similarmolars:'oceupying gripping power, Cidaris is net found în waters disturbed ,by waves By these teeth the, sea-wolf.is able.to ‘crush the bard carapaces ‘or of the crustaceans and molluses: ‘on which it feeds. It is and currents, Cidaris usually movesiiby using! the large radidles shells as stilts. It can climb over obstacles, and ‘has:evem been seen:to

doubtful if it: deserves ‘the character of ferocity. often attributed

SEAWRACK—SEBASTIANO to it. Sea-wolves inhabit the northern seas of both hemispheres,| one (A. lupus) being common on the coasts of Scandinavia and North Britain, and two in the seas round Iceland and Greenland. Two others occur in corresponding latitudes in the North Pacific. They attain a length of over 6ft., and in the north are esteemed as food, both fresh and preserved. The oil extracted from the liver is said to be in quality equal to the best cod-liver oil.

SEAWRACK,

the detached seaweeds thrown up, often in

great quantities, by the sea and used for manure, also formerly for making kelp. It consists largely of species of Fucuws—brown seaweeds with flat branched ribbon-like fronds, characterized in F. serratus by a saw-toothed margin and in F. vesiculosus, another common species, by bearing air-bladders. Also of Zostera marina, so-called sea-grass, a marine flowering plant with bright green long narrow grass-like leaves. (See EEL-GRASS.)

SEBASTIAN, ST., a Christian martyr whose festival is cele-

brated on Jan. 20. According to St. Ambrose (in Psalm 118, oct. 20) Sebastian was a native of Milan, went to Rome at the height of Diocletian’s persecution, and there suffered martyrdom. The Acta of St. Sebastian, falsely attributed to the same St. Ambrose, are far less sparing of details. They make him a citizen of Narbonne and captain of the first cohort under the emperors Diocletian and Maximian. He made many converts, several of

DEL

PIOMBO

253

The third, Gabriel Espinosa, was a man of some education, whose adherents included members of the Austrian and Spanish courts and of the Society of Jesus in Portugal. He was executed in 1594. The fourth was a Calabrian named Marco Tullio, who

knew no Portuguese; he impersonated the “hidden king” at Venice in 1603 and gained many supporters, but was ultimately captured and executed. The Sebastianists had an important share in the Portuguese insurrection of 1640, and were again prominent

during the Miguelite wars (1828-34). At an even later period Sir R. F. Burton stated that he had met with Sebastianists in remote parts of Brazil (Burton, Camoens, vol. i. p- 363, London,

1881), and the cult appears to have survived until the beginning of the zoth century, although it ceased to be a political force after 1834. See PortuGcar, History; J. Barbosa Machado, Memorias para o governo del rey D. Sebastião (4 vols., Lisbon, 1736—41); Miguel d’Antas, Les Faux Don Sébastien (1866); São Mamede, Don Sébastien et Philippe II (1884). +

e

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SEBASTIANI,

HORACE

FRANCOIS

BASTIEN,

Count (1772-185 1) French marshal and diplomatist. Of Corsican birth, he was in his early years banished from his native island during the civil disturbances, and in 1789 he entered the French army. In 1793, as a French lieutenant, he took part in the whom. suffered martyrdom. Diocletian remonstrated with him, war in Corsica, serving later in the Army of the Alps. He became but, finding him inflexible, ordered him to be bound to a stake and chef de brigade in 1799. Attached to the future Emperor Naposhot to death. After the archers had left him for dead, a devout leon, he took part in the coup d’état of 18th Brumaire (Nov. g, woman, Irene, came by night to take his body away for burial, 1799). He was present at Marengo in 1800. Sébastiani next apbut, finding him still alive, carried him to her house, where his pears in his first diplomatic post, in Turkey and Egypt (1802). wounds were dressed. No sooner had he wholly recovered than he Promoted general of brigade in 1803, he served in 1805 in the first hastened to confront the emperor, who ordered him to be instantly of the great campaigns of the Empire. At Austerlitz he was carried off and beaten to death with rods. The sentence was promoted (Dec. 2) general of division. As French ambassador forthwith executed, his body being thrown into the cloaca, where, at Constantinople he induced the Porte to declare war on Russia; as a soldier he directed the defence of Constantinople against however, it was found by another pious matron, Lucina, whom Sebastian visited in a dream, directing her to bury him ad Cata- the British squadron. But the deposition of the Sultan Selim combas juxta vestigia apostolorum. It was on this spot, on the IIT. put an end to French diplomatic success. Sébastiani was reAppian way, that was built the basilica of St. Sebastian, which called in April 1807, and made count of the empire. He comwas a popular place of pilgrimage in the middle ages. The trans- manded a corps in the Peninsular War, but his cavalry genius lation of his relics to Soissons in 826 made that town a new did not shine in the laborious and painful operations against the centre of his cult. St. Sebastian is specially invoked against the careful English and the ubiquitous guerrilleros. In the grande plague. As a young and beautiful soldier, he is a favourite sub- guerre of Russia and Germany he did brilliant service. He acject of sacred art, being most generally represented undraped, cepted the Restoration government in 1814, but rejoined NapoIeon on his return from Elba. After Waterloo he retired into and severely though not mortally wounded with arrows. See Acta Sanctorum, January, ii. 257—296; Bibliotkeca hagiographica England for a time. From 1819 he was a prominent member of Latina (Brussels, 1899), n. 7,543-7,549; A. Bell, Lives and Legends of the Chamber of Deputies. He held the posts of minister of the Evangelists, Apostles and other early Saints (London, 1901). marine, and later of foreign affairs and was-the author of the

SEBASTIAN,

king of Portugal (Port, Sebastido)

(1554- historic saying “Order reigns at Warsaw.”

1578), the posthumous son of Prince John of Portugal and of his wife, Joanna, daughter of the emperor Charles, was born in 1554, and became king in 1557, on the death of his grandfather John ITI. of Portugal. During his minority (1557-68), his grandmother Queen Catherine and his great uncle the Cardinal Prince Henry acted jointly as regents. Sebastian was a mystic and a fanatic, whose sole ambition was to lead a crusade against the Mohammedans in north-west Africa. He entrusted the government to the Jesuits; refused either to summon the Cortes or to marry, although the Portuguese crown would otherwise pass to a foreigner, and devoted himself wholly to hunting, martial exer-

cises and the severest forms of asceticism. His first expedition to Morocco, in 1574, was little more than a reconnaissance; in a second expedition Sebastian was killed and his army annihilated at Al Kasr al Kebir (Aug. 4, 1578). Although his body was identified before burial at Al Kasr, reinterred at Ceuta, and thence

He became consecu-

tively minister of state without portfolio (2832), ambassador at

Naples (1833), and ambassador to Great Britain (1835—40}. On

his retirement he was made marshal of France. He died im Paris on July 21, 1851. See E. Driault, La Politique orientale de Napoléon: Sébastiani et Gardane (1905).

SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO (1485-1547), Italian painter of the Venetian school, was born at Venice in 1485. His family name was Luciani. At frst a musician, chiefty a soloplayer on the lute, he soon showed a turn for painting, and became a pupil of Giovanni Bellini and afterwards of Giorgione. His first painting of note was done for the church of San Giọvanni

Crisóstomo in Venice. It represents Chrysostom reading aloud at a desk, a grand Magdalene in front, and two other female and three male saints. Towards r5rr Sebastiano was invited to

(1582) removed by Philip II. of Spain to the Convento dos Jeronymos in Lisbon, many Portuguese refused to credit his

Rome by the wealthy Sienese merchant Agostino Chigi, and came under the powerful influence of Michelangelo. Four leading pictures which Sebastiano painted in pursuance of

peasant origin; they.were captured in i I 584.and 1585 respectively.

faciebat, ” and was transferred from wood to’ canvas in 1771.

death. “Sebastianism” became a religion. Its votaries believed his, admiration for Buonarroti are the “Pietà” (earliest of, the that.the rei encisberto, or “hidden king,” was either absent on a four), in the church of the Conventuali, Viterbo: ‘the’ “ =>

to lie against the top one. A small stow-net is used also for taking “whitebait.”

Board (1900) ; Cunningham, Journal of the Marine Biological AssociaSEISIN, the possession of such an estate in land as was antion of the United Kingdom, vol. iv.; Petersen, Report of the Danish Biological Association, vol. viii. (Copenhagen, 1899); Hjort, Report ciently thought worthy to be held by a free man. Seismsisiief on Norwegian Fishery, and Marine Investigation, vol. i. (Christiania, two kinds, in law and în deed. Seisin in law is where lands ide1900); Mittheilungen: Deutscher Seefischer-V erein, various numbers;

and in other numbers; Report and Minutes of Evidence of the Committee, “appointed to inquire into the scientific and statistical investigations now being carried on in relation to the fishing industry of the

United Kingdom” (1908). at

2 f

(J. O. BJ)

scend and the heir has. not actually entered upon-them ;'by entry he converts bis seisin in law into seisin in deed.. Seisin is now confined to possession of the freehold, though at ene time it appears to have been used for simple possession. without regard to

SEISMOMETER

288

the estate of the possessor. Its importance is considerably less than it was at one time, owing to the old form of conveyance by feofiment with livery of seisin having been superseded by a deed of grant (see FeorrMeNT), and the old rule of descent from the

person last seised having been abolished in favour of descent from the purchaser (g.v.}. At one time the right of the wife to dower (g.v.) and of the husband to an estate by curtesy (g.v.) depended upon the doctrine of seisin. Primer seisin was a feudal burden at one time incident to the king’s tenants in capite, whether by knight service or in socage.

It was the right of the Crown to receive of the heir, after the death of a tenant in capite, one year’s profits of lands in possession and half a year’s profits of lands in reversion. This was ended by the act abolishing feudal tenures (12 Car. II. c. 24, 1660). See F. W. Maitland, “Seisin of Chattels,’ Law Quarterly Review, vol. L, p. 324 and “The Mystery of Seisin,” Law Q.R. ii. 481; Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law, vol. ii. 29 seq.

SEISMOMETER,

The term seismometer (from cecpés,

an earthquake, and perpdv, a measure) was invented by David

Milne (afterwards Milne Home) in 1841 to denote an instrument for recording and measuring the movements of the ground during an earthquake. It is our earliest seismological term. A few years later, the name seismograph (yeadn, a writing) was given to an instrument erected in 1855 by L. Palmieri in the (then) new observatory on Vesuvius. A much simpler type of

instrument is included under the heading of seismoscope and aims at little more than the announcement of the fact that a shaking has occurred, or the record of its time or direction. Early Instruments.—The first seismometer deserving of the name was one invented in 1841 by J. D. Forbes for “measuring earthquake shocks and other concussions.” The scientific principles underlying the construction of seismographs were realized in 1880 by some of the British teachers in Japan—J. A. Ewing, T. Gray and J. Mime—and the instruments erected by them in Tokyo and elsewhere, threw much light on the nature of the earthquake-motion. In 1881-82, the attempt of G. H. and H. Darwin at Cambridge to measure the lunar disturbance of gravity

led to the construction, in 1893, of H. Darwin’s bifilar pendulum and of Rebeur-Paschwitz’s horizontal pendulum (1887).

Seismoscopes.—The earliest instrument of the kind known to us may be classed as a seismoscope. The invention of a Chinese scholar Chang Héng, it dates as far back as the year aD. 132. It consisted of a column so suspended that it could move in one

of eight directions. A ball was held lightly along each of these lines and, when thrown down by the rod, was caught in a cup below and so revealed the direction of the motion. Later seismoscopes were frequently designed to give the time of occurrence of a shock.

They consisted as a rule of a hori-

zontal rod lightly pivoted at one end and provided with teeth below so that, when the rod fell, the teeth caught a pin projecting from the pendulum of a clock. Modern Types.—The essential feature of a seismometer is that some point or line within it shall remain at rest, or very nearly so, during the complicated movements of the ground in an earthquake. Various methods of obtaining such steady points have been proposed, but the instruments in general use are various forms of pendulums, either common pendulums, in which a heavy mass is suspended by a wire or rod from a fixed point above, or inverted pendulums, which consist of a vertical rod with its lower end pointed and working in a conical cavity and carrying a heavy mass at its upper end, or korizontal pendulums in which a horizontal rod carrying a heavy mass is suspended from two *points in various ways. A few instruments are a combination of two forms of pendulum—the Ewing duplex pendulum seismometer of common and inverted pendulums, and the instrument used by the Darwins of common and horizontal pendulums. Two methods of registration are now used—the one mechanical, a fine point tracing the movement on smooth paper covered with a thin layer of smoke, the other photographic, the beam of light either passing through a hole at the end of the pendulum or, more generally, reflected from a mirror connected with it. An impecrtant point to remember about all pendulums is that

they tend to oscillate with their own proper period. If the period of vibration of an earthquake should approach that of the pendulum, such vibrations will then be unduly magnified in the record. The tendency is met, and the record corrected, by some form of damping, such as the resistance of a liquid (as in the Darwin

bifilar pendulum), or a confined air-space (as in the Wiechert pendulum), or electro-magnetic reactions (as in the Galitzin and Milne-Shaw seismographs). Common Pendulums.—Seismometers based on the common pendulum were in early use. One was erected near Comrie in Perthshire in 1840. It was 39 inches long and the bob carried at its lower end a pointer that traced the movement of the pendulum in a thin layer of sand below it. Instruments of this class have always been favoured in Italy, and many records of distant earthquakes have been obtained by them. They agree closely in their methods of recording the movements on smoked paper wrapped round a revolving drum. A thin rod, projecting downwards from the bob of the pendulum, works in slits in the short arms of two horizontal levers. The short arms are at right angles to one another, so that the pointed ends of the long arms record two perpendicular components of the motion. One of the levers is straight and the other is bent at right angles, or both are bent at an angle of 45°, and the pointed ends rest near one another on the smoked paper in motion below. The instruments differ chiefly in the length of the pendulum and the weight of the bob. Inverted Pendulums.—The oldest form of inverted pendulum seismometer, indeed the oldest seismometer of any kind, was that designed by Prof. J. D. Forbes in 1841 and erected in the same year at several places near Comrie. Its essential features are shown in fig. 1. The heavy ball C is carried on a vertical metal rod AB, on which it can be adjusted at any height desired. The rod ends below in a cylindrical steel wire D fixed to the base of the instrument, which can be made more or less stiff by altering its free length. As this wire is cylindrical, the direction of the displacement is indicated by the plane of vibration of the pendulum. The self-registering part of the instrument consists of a spherical segment E of copper lined with paper, against which a pencil F, in the top of the pendulum rod, is pressed by a spring. The most widely used form of inverted pendulum is that designed by Prof. E. Wiechert. In one, the heavy mass consists of iron plates, weighing a little more than a ton. This is carried on a stout iron rod, supported at the lower end on springs which enable it to turn freely in any direction and yet, after disturbance, restore it to its vertical position of equilibrium. The displacements of the pendulum are magnified by two levers ending in fine glass rods which inscribe the records of their movements on a sheet of moving smoked paper. By means of air-damping cylinders, the pendulum can be made as nearly aperiodic

as is desired. The movements of the ground are magnified about 500 times. In a still more sensitive form of the instrument, the iron plates forming the heavy mass are replaced by a cylinder that can be filled with the heavy mineral barytes. The weight is thus increased to nearly 17 tons, while the movements are magnified 2,200 times. FIG. 1.—FORBES'S INHorizontal Pendulums.—The boriVERTED PENDULUM zontal pendulum in its simplest form consists of a metal rod or frame rotating about a nearly vertical axis, and carrying a heavy mass near one end or the middle. It may be (a) supported on two conical steel points, or (b) one end of the rod may be pointed and rest in a conical hole in the frame while

the other is supported by a wire, or (c) the rod may be supported by two wires, the weight being either between or outside the two points of attachment of the wires. Whatever the mode of suspension, however, it is essential that the horizontal distance between the points of support shall be very small compared with the vertical distance between them, that is, that the line joining

SEISMOMETER

289

the two points of support shall be inclined at a very small angle | which rotates in an agate setting and is coupled to the free end to the vertical. In each case, it is clear that, if the pendulum of the boom. This gives a magnifying power of 300. Aifter pass~when at rest is directed east and west, it is only movements which ing through two cylindrical lenses at right angles to one another, are wholly or partly in the north-south direction that disturb the the beam of light converges to so fine a point on the paper that instrument. For a complete representation of the horizontal mo- waves with a period of two or three seconds are clearly shown on tion, it is therefore necessary to have two similar instruments paper moving at the rate of about 20 inches an hour. placed side by side at right angles. : The Omori horizontal pendulum (fig. 4) belongs to the same

The Rebeur-Paschwitz horizontal pendulum is of interest as the first instrument erected by which records of distant earthquakes were regularly made. It is notable for its lightness and small size, its weigbt being only r4 ounces and its length less than

type as the Milne seismograph, the chief difference being that the record is made on smoked paper,

FROM

Fic.

atp as te ol so b e a

FIG. 2.—REBEUR-PASCHWITZ HORIZONTAL PENDULUN 8 inches. It consists (fig. 2) of three thin brass tubes, C, D, E, in the form of an isosceles triangle, carrying a small mass M.

The two equal tubes are prolonged at A and B and end jn small spherical agate cups. These rest against steel points fixed to the frame of the instrument. The rod G projects at right angles to the tube E, and to it is attached the mirror F, which passes through the frame of the support. The photographic method of registration is used. The Milne seismograph (fig. 3) was used by Prof. Milne in Japan for the registration of distant earthquakes and, with improvements in detail, became for many years the standard instrument at the observatories under the care of the British Association Seismological Committee. The boom of the pendulum BD is an aluminium rod about 39 inches long. The bob M consists of two brass balls, each about half a pound in weight and attached to the ends of a short bar crossing the boom at right angles. At the end B. of the boom there is a small agate cup that rests on a steel point in the cast-iron column AB,*which is about 20 inches in height. The boom is further supported by a silk which passes over a small pulley at the top of the ends at D in a small aluminium plate, in which there slit, In the top of the case containing the recording

thread CA, column. It 1s a narrow part of the

instrument a similar plate is fixed in the direction at right angles to the other. A ray of light from an adjacent lamp is reflected by a mirror so as to pass through both slits and form a small

spot of light on a sheet of bromide paper wrapped round the brass cylindrical ‘drum P. The

drum is 39 inches in circumfer-

ence, rotates once in four hours,

and, with every revolution, advances one-quarter of an inch in the direction of its axis. Close to the end D, a small shutter attachedtothe long hand of a watch cuts off the light once every hour, thus providing the scale of time. FROM

GLAZEBROOK,

PHYSICS”

“DICTIONARY

OF

APPLIED

FIG, 3.—MILNE’S SEISMOGRAPH

It would þe

difficult

to

over-

estimate the value of the records

DAVISON,

“A

MANUAL

4.—omMorI'S

OF

SEISMOLOGY"

HORIZONTAL

thus allowing a much more open diagram. The boom BC is an iron rod about 40 inches long and the bob M is a cylinder filled with lead and weighing about 30 pounds. The pointed end B rests in a conical socket fixed to the iron supporting column, the other support being a wire CA that passes over a pulley at the top of the column. The recording lever

DE

is a light aluminium

rod

PENDULUM which turns about an axle F connected with the ground. The short arm FE of the lever ends a horizontal fork, the branches of which pass round a vertical steel axle connected with the mass M. This axle turns with great freedom, so that there is very little friction between it and the lever. The other end D of the lever is a light aluminium pointer which rests lightly on a sheet of thinly smoked paper wrapped round the rotating drum P. The drum is about 36 inches in circumference,

rotates once an hour, and advances parallel to its axle one-sixth of an inch with every revolution. Once every minute, time-marks

are made on the paper by a small pointer (not shown in fig. 4) connected with a clock. The chief advantage of the Omori pendulum is the open diagram that it provides, but, being undamped, the oscillations of the pendulum lessen the value of the record. The Omori pendulum is also made in other forms. In the portable form, the mass weighs about 67 pounds and the length of the rod is nearly 30 inches. For recording local shocks, two other forms are used. In one, the mass weighs 110 pounds, the length of the rod is nearly 8 inches, and the movements of the ground are magnified 20 times; in the other, the corresponding figures are 33 pounds, 24 inches and 70 times, A somewhat similar instrument is the Bosch~Omori horizontal pendulum, one form of which records mechanically and the other photographically. The Darwin bifilar pendulum (fig. 5) is a modification’ of the instrument used by G. H. and H. Darwin in their experiments on the lunar disturbance of gravity. In this instrument, the mirror M itself is the bob of the pendulum. It is carried by a fine silver wire, passing through two hooks C, D, in the rim of the mirror and attached to two points of support at a very small distance apart horizontally. The instrument is damped by being entirely immersed in oil, and its movements are recorded by light reflected from the mirror to a sheet of bromide paper wrapped round a revolving drum. Though many earthquakes have been recorded by the

FIG. 5.—DARWIN’S

PILAR PENDUGUN

BI- bifilar pendulum, it does not, owing to its

immersion in oil, respond to the prelimi-

made all over the world with the Milne seismograph. The magnifying power of the instrument is, however, low (about 7 or 8 times), and it is unprovided with any form of damping. Both of these defects haye been removed by Mr. J. J. Shaw, and, since 1915, the Milne-Shaw seismograph has been gradually replacing the earlier form, In this, a boom, 16 inches long, carries a heavy mass weighing one pound, and also a damping vane which moves

mary tremors of short period.

The instrument is, however, ex-

after each oscillation.’ The beam of light is reflected by a mirzor

6. The weight of the mass is about 110 ke. At one end of the

tremely sensitive to small tilts of the ground, and it bas been found possible to measure a tilt of $y of a second, which is equal

to the angle formed by lifting through an Inch the end of a line one thousand miles in ; The Galitzin seismograph, like the Darwin pendulum, . belengs

to the third type of horizontal pendulum.

The arrangement of

in a, magnetic field so strong that the pendulum, is brought to rest, the mass M and the supporting wires AB, CD. are‘as shown im fig.

SEISTAN

290

placed between magnets, beam, a copper plate is attached horizontally and placed between | attached a copper plate and coils of wire the other for recording and instrument the damping for one the is pendulum the When magnets. horseshoe a pair of powerful displaced, currents are induced in the copper plate, and the attraction between them and the magnets damps the swing. By adjusting the distance between the magnets, the pendulum can be rendered absolutely aperiodic. Close to the copper plate, coils

of fine wire are also attached to the beam and placed between

another pair of horseshoe magnets. When the beam moves, an electric current is generated in the coils, and is transmitted to a sensitive d’Arsonval galvanometer, the movements of which are registered by a ray of light reflected by the galvanometer mirror on to photographic paper wrapped round a revolving drum. This current is proportional, not to the displacement of the beam, but to its velocity. Thus, the record does not correspond to the actual movements of the ground, but it gives with great accuracy

is very extensive,

theory and construction of different instruments are described—R. Ehlert. (Beit. zur Geoph., vol. 3, 1896-98, DD. 350-474) ; J. A. Ewing, Earthquake Measurement (Tokyo Imp. Univ., Mem. Sci. Dept., no. 9,

1883, pp. 1-92); Prince B. Galitzin, Vorlesungen über Seismometrie

Ewing’s three component seismograph, the Gray-Milne seismograph,

in C.

SEISTAN, the ancient Sakastane (“land of the Sakae”), an

jz

strument possesses many COM- Toon pensations. It can be accurately xomrrm damped, it can be arranged so as FIG.

SYORLESUNGER

6.—GALITZIN'S

HSER

SEIS-

HORIZONTAL

to magnify the movements of the PENDULUM ground 1,000 times or more, owing to its suspension by wires the beam moves without friction, and the recording apparatus can be placed at some distance from the pendulum, if desired. A pendulum suspended in the same manner, with a small concave mirror attached to the rod at the centre of rotation, has recently (1927) been erected by Mr. M. Ishimoto at Tokyo and other places in order to measure very small tilts of the ground.

Vertical Motion Seismograph—All the instruments described above are designed to record the horizontal component or compenents of the earthquake motion. Instruments intended for

recording the vertical component

depend as a rule on a principle first recognised by Prof. T. Gray in 188z. Gray’s vertical motion seismograph, with improvements suggested by Sir J. A. Ewing, is represented in fig. 7. In this instrument, AC is a horizontal metal beam, carrying near one end the cylindrical heavy mass M. The beam turns about a fulcrum at the end A, which consists of two steel points fixed to a projection from the frame and pressing into a hole and knife-edge at the end of the beam. It is supported by two long springs S, adjustable From DAVISON, “A MANUAL OF SEISMOLOGY"

lower ends are attached toa hang- Fie. 7.—GRAY’s AND EWING’S VERB, in the middle

literature of seismometry

and Ewing’s duplex pendulum seismometer, will be found Davison’s Manual of Seismology (1921, pp. 17-22).

of an earthquake. Though not # without disadvantages, the in-

ing cross-bar

BrsiiocRAPHY.—The

and it is only possible here to refer to a few of the works in which the

(1914, pp. 1-538, German trans. edited by O. Hecker); C. G. Knott, The Physics of Earthquake Phenomena (1908, pp. 48-89) ; H. F. Reid, Theory of the Seismograph (Californian Earthquake of 1906, vol. 2, 1910, Pp. 143-190) and On the Choice of a Seismograph (Amer. Seis. Soc. Bull., vol. 2, 1912, pp. 8-30); G. W. Walker, Modern Seismology (1913, pp. 1-36); and E. Wiechert, Theorie der automatischen Seismographen (Abhand. der kén. Gesell. Wissen. zu Gottingen, Math. Phys. Kl., vol. 2, 1903, pp. 1-128). Brief descriptions of several instruments specially adapted for recording near earthquakes, such as

the epochs of the various phases ¢

at the upper end D, while their

the velocity of the beam, as in the horizontal motion selsmograph.

TICAL MOTION SEISMOGRAPH

of which a point presses against the lower side of the beam. The

length of the springs S is adjusted so that the moments about the fulcrum of the weight of the pendulum and the upward pull of the springs are approximately equal. When the fulcrum A is displaced in the vertical direction, the line that remains steady lies within the mass M on the side of its centre away from the fulcrum, and the movements of the ground are magnified by à lever prójecting downwards from the free end of the arm. In Galitzin’s

extensive border district between Persia and Afghanistan, situated in most part between 29° o’ and 32° o’ N., and 61° o” and 62° 30’ E. Its area, some 100 m. in extreme length and breadth, covers about 7,000 sq.m. about two-fifths of which lies in Persia and three-fifths in Afghanistan. The total population was estimated at 205,000 in 1906. A physical feature of this region of Asia is that none of the rivers flow to the sea, but discharge into great inland depressions— the Seistan depression being one—of which the general level is about 1,400~1,700 ft. above the sea. Regarded as a whole the Seistan depression, or Hamun, into which the rivers here discharge themselves, consists of two extensive lagoons, formed respectively by the Harud Rud and the Farah Rud (both coming from the

north), and by the Helmund river and Khash Rud (coming respectively from the south and east). South of these lagoons extends a tract of country covered with reeds called the Naizar. When the rivers are in flood the two lagoons become united and the inundation covers the Naizar also. A further tract then also

becomes overflowed, so that a great lake is formed which, lastly, discharges its redundant waters, through a course called the Shela (or Shelag), into a depression called the Gawd i Zarih. The population consists chiefly of Tajiks, but Baluchis and Qainis, descendants of the ancient rulers of the land, have also established themselves; and Nadir Shah forced some nomad tribes of Shiraz to emigrate to Seistan. Politically, Seistan is divided between Persia and Afghanistan by a theoretical boundary line fixed by Commissions appointed to examine the question in 1872 and 1903—5. This line runs from the Kuh i Malik Siyah mountain, on the Perso-Afghan frontier, roughly north-east to Band i Seistan on the Helmund, thence northward to the Naizar reed beds on the Hamun shore, whence it turns westward to Siyah Kuh. The part falling to Persia west of this line is usually known as “Seistan Proper” and that on the east as “Outer Seistan.” The original chief town of Persian Seistan, Sihkuna, has been supplanted by Nasratabad (formerly Nasirabad), founded by the Amir of Qain about 1870, and locally known as Shahr-i-Seistan. Quain (g.v.) and Seistan together form a hereditary governorship, practically independent of the governor-general of Khurasan. The trade outlets from Seistan proper are: (a) from Nasratabad southward to Duzdab (135 m.) and thence by rail to Nushki and Quetta; (b) from Nasratabad to Birjand, where the route joins the Meshed-Duzdab motor road. Both roads are unmetalled but are passable for light motor traffic; transport by caravan on the

first takes 7-8 days to Duzdab, and on the second 14—15 days to

‘Birjand. A project was under consideration in 1927 for’ a light

‘railway from Duzdab to Seistan, for the transport of the wheat which is the special product of the district, to the Indian market. : Afghan Seistan comprises the land east of the frontier described

‘above, and includes the Hamun iPuza (the more eastern ‘of the

vertical motion seismograph, which is a compact form of the ‘two northern lagoons) up to Juwaim in the north; the tract exabove, the weight of the beam and mass is about 54 pounds and ‘tends southward to’ the frontiér of Persian Baluchistan, in which the length of the beam 30 inches. At the end of thé beam are country liés the Gawd i Zarih lagoon. ‘The capital is Khakansur,

291

SEITZ—SELACHIANS a small settlement on the Khash Rud, about 30 m. north-east of Nasratabad. History.—The

ancient

Drangiana,

the name now implies and possibly even included a great area

towards the east up to Kandahar. Ardashir, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, subjugated Sakastane, but during the Sasanian epoch the Sakae appear rather as allies than subjects.

The Arab conquest of Seistan began in 683~4, but the hold of the country by some of the caliphs was precarious and uncertain. The only time Seistan played an important part in mediaeval history was during the reign of the Safavid dynasty—founded by Yaqub b. Layth, himself a Seistani—during which period it was naturally the central land of the dynasty. After the downfall of the Safavids, Seistan belonged successively to the empire of the Samanids and Ghaznawids, but the land had its own malzks, or native rulers, under the suzerainty of the greater dynasties. The early ravages of the Mongols reached the frontiers of Seistan and after their departure its history becomes confused and several persons strove for the supremacy. In 1300-1 Seistan suffered from an invasion of the Chagatai and then, again, sustained fearful damages from the Mongols at the hands of Timur, who destroyed Zaranj, the capital situated near the Sanarud canal, took prisoner the malik, Qutb ud Din Kayam (1383) and destroyed the canal system of the land. Thenceforward Seistan had its own rulers until Shah Ismail conquered the country in 1508-9. The native princes of Seistan remained vassals of the Persian empire till the Afghan invasion of Mir Mohammed (1722), when the malik, Kayani Mohammed, by means of a disloyal treaty with the Afghans, secured for himself the possession of Seistan and Khurasan. He was slain by Nadir Quli Khan, the general of Shah Tahmasp who, afterwards, as Nadir Shah, retained Seistan as part of his Persian dominions. After Nadir’s death (1736) Seistan came under the suzerainty of Ahmad Shah, the Durrani ruler of Afghanistan but, on his death (1773), the land became a bone of contention not so much between Persians and Afghans as between Herat and Kandahar. Eventually the internal dissensions of Afghanistan gave Persia her opportunity—the Sarbandi chief, Ali Khan, allied himself with the Persian government, hoisted the Persian flag on the fortress of Sihkuha, the capital town, and sent his sons as hostages to the Shah at Meshed (1853). The Shah’s army finally took possession of Seistan in 1865, and two years later it was placed under a Persian governor with the title of Hashmat ul Mulk, Complications between Persia and Afghanistan during this period led to British arbitration and the delimitation of the border by the Seistan Commission of 1872, under the leadership of Sir F. J. Goldsmid. In accordance with the award, the Persian forces evacuated that part of Seistan lying on the right bank of the Helmund. The work of delimitation was finally completed by the MacMahon Mission in 1903-5. Lovett,

(P.

or land of the Drangai,

received the name of Sakastane after the country was conquered by the Sakae (Scythians) about 128 B.c. Certain references in the Avesta lead to the supposition that Seistan, in antiquity, was a principal seat of the Zoroastrian religion. In ancient and mediaeval times the name Sakastane denoted a larger area than

BreriocrapHy.—Beresford

bad (Persien Seistan)”; Met. Z., 1921, pp. 257-261; A. Mohr, “Seistan,” Norsk Geogr. Tidss., 1927, Bd. I., Heft 6-7, Pp, ean

“Survey

of

the

Perso-Kalat

frontier,” Proc. R.G.S., 1871-72, XVI.; H. W. Belew, From the Indus to the Tigris (1872); F. J. Goldsmid, Eastern Persia, i. (1876);

G. N. Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question (1892); C. E. Yate,

Khurasan and Seistan (1900); P. M. Sykes, “A fourth journey in Persia,” Geogr. J., 1902, XIX.; Ten thousand miles in Persia (1902), pp. 361-393; H. R. Sykes, “Some notes on journeys in southern and south-eastern Persia,” J. Manchr. Geogr. Soc., 1905, .; E. Huntington, “The de jon of Seistan,” Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., New York, 1905, XXXVIL; R. Pumpelly, “Explorations in Turkestan with an account of eastern Persia and Seistan,” C rnegie Instn. Washington,

No. 26; H. MacMahon, “Recent survey and exploration m Seistan,” Geogr. J. 1906, XXVIII. and “Seistan:

past and present,” J. Soc:

SEITZ, KARL (1869-

Z.

C.

}, Austrian politician, was born at

Vienna on Sept. 4, 1869, the son of a wood merchant. Originally inclined to the German National party, he joined in 1888 the Social Democratic party. He organized the Social Democratic teachers of Vienna, and in the diet of Lower Austria waged a fierce fight against Burgomaster Lueger and the dominant Christian Socialist party. Elected to the Austrian Reichsrat in 1901 he became after the death of Pernerstorfer, its vice-president down to its dissolution. After the revolution of 1918 he was president of the GermanAustrian National Assembly, and subsequently of the national parliament (Nationalrat) until the new elections in Oct. 1920, and acting federal president until Nov. 1920. He was in 1921 chairman of the committee of the Social Democratic party and of the parliamentary party, and vice-president of the Nationalrat. In 1924 he was elected burgomaster of Vienna.

SEJANUS, LUCIUS AELITIUS, favourite and minister of

the emperor Tiberius. He was the son of Seius Strabo, prefect of the praetorians, and was adopted into the Aelian gens. When his father became governor of Egypt, Sejanus was made prefect m his stead, with the support of the praetorians, whom he concentrated in a camp on the Viminal hill. He became virtually ruler of Rome. In pursuit of a still higher ambition, he poisoned Drusus, whose death was followed by those of Agrippina and her sons, Drusus and Nero, all under suspicious circumstances. He then induced Tiberius to return to Capreae. Tiberius caused Sejanus to be put to death (ap. 31). See Tacitus, Annals, iv. 1, 2, 3, 8, 39-39, 74, V. 6-9; Suetonius, Tiberius, 62; Dio Cassius, lvii., lvili.; Juvenal, x. 65-86; J. Jiilg, Vite Aelii Sejani (1882), with notes giving full references to authorities; J. C. Tarver, Tiberius the Tyrant, chap. xvii. (London, 1902).

SEKONDI, a town on the Gold Coast, British West Africa, in 4° 57’ N., 1° 42’ W., and 167 m. by rail S. by W. of Kumasi. Pop. (1921) 9,500 natives and about 300 Europeans. Sekondi is one of the old trading stations on the Guinea coast, and Fort Orange was built here by the Dutch about 1640, the English later on building another fort near by. In 1694 the Dutch fort was plundered by the Ahanta, who in 1698 burnt the English fort. It was not rebuilt, and it was not until 1872 that the place became definitely British. The town was of little account until it was chosen as the sea terminus of the railway serving the gold-mining districts and Ashanti. The railway reached the Tarkwa goldfields in 1901 and thé Obuassi mines in 1902. Although it had no sheltered harbour (ships had to anchor in the roadstead half a mile from the shore). Sekondi then became the chief port of the Gold Coast colony. But after the opening in 1928 of the deep water harbour a few miles west at Takoradi (g.v.) Sekondi declined as a port. It continued, however, to be a business centre, with excellent rail and road connections with Takoradi.

SELACHIANS, a group of fish-like vertebrates that includes

the sharks and rays. They are often ranked as a sub-class of the

Pisces, but differ so fundamentally from the bony fishes that it is best to recognize them as a distinct class, Selachii, which may be

thus defined :—Craniate vertebrates with jaws, and with branchial arches supporting the gills. Nasal organs, paired blind sacs, with incompletely divided external apertures. Skin with denticles structurally similar to teeth; no dermal ossifications. Internal skele-

ton cartilaginous.

Median and paired fins with horny rays,, and

with skeleton typically of a series of cartilaginous rods. Vertebral column of the notochord and its sheath, neural and haemal arches, and intermuscular ribs; no supra-neural arches or pleural nbs, ee No air-bladder. Most living sharks are more or less spindle-shaped, with transverse or crescentic mouth, generally on the under side of the head,

Arts, 1906, LIV.; A. Hamilton, Afghanistan (1906).; G. P. Tate, The and with a series of five to seven gill-openings on each side in Frontier of Baluchistas Be i .qn the history; i (1909))} and Seistan: a memoir m

topography, etc. (Calcutta, 1930-12); Sven Hedin, Zu Land mach

Indien durch Persien, Seistan, Belutschistan (1910) and Overland to India (rg10); N. Annandale, “Notes on the vegetation of Seistan,” J. & Prac. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1919, XV. and “Report on the aquatic aquats

fauna of Seistan,” Rec. Indian Mus. Calctitta, 1919-21, XVIEL;.,H, Ficker, “Ergebnisse der mieteorologischer Beobachtungen in H

front of or partly above thé pectoral fins. The end of the tail is provided with a fin above and below the upper and lower lobes of

pecaudal fin. Generally the end of the tail is upturned and the ywer caudal lobe is more developed than the upper (hetérocercal

faa?) “in swift pelagic

sharks with pointed fins thé end of'the tail

t

292

SELACHIANS

is strongly upturned, the upper lobe is greatly reduced and the mented into two principal pieces, basals within the body and lower is correspondingly developed, but in the slower bottom- radials in the fin; each of the rods has a muscle on each side. A living forms with rounded fins the end of the tail is but little up- study of the development shows that all the fins begin as longiturned and the caudal lobes are more nearly equal. The rays are tudinal folds of the epidermis, at the base of which a mesenchyme bottom-living forms with flattened head and body, ventral gill- plate develops; next a double series of buds from the body muscles openings and large pectoral fins. The Chimaeroids live on the bot- migrate into the fins, and later the cartilaginous skeleton differentom, and have a long tapering tail and large paddle-like pectoral tiates out of the mesenchyme plate. From their similar structure fins. From the correspondence between habits and form of the fins in living selachians, it is certain that the Palaeozoic Clado-

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a =
roh uH . In earlier: geological times the sequoias otêpied a far-more important place in the: vegetation: of the.earth than at: présent; and it is interesting to note that fossil cones, branches and ‘leaves*

of these trees were known 'to’science many years beforethethiving species iwere'discovered. Instead of‘being ‘confined chiefiy within the. limits: of-a ‘sinzle Stute they were‘once distributed over four

SERAING—SERAPIS

340 continents.

The most ancient positively identified sequoia was

recently discovered in the Upper Jurassic ias were widespread Cretaceous times Europe. In Tertiary times they were still occurring in the Eocene flora of Great

of France. In Lower in North America and more widely diffused, Britain and attaining

es

‘scovered and published by G. Wobbermin In 1899. eae book, containing thirty prayers belonging to

the mass (19-30,

1-6), baptism

(7-11,

I5, 16), ordination

(12-

14), benediction of oil, bread and water (17), and burial (18), omitting the fixed structural formulae of the rites, the parts of is the other ministers, and almost all rubrication, except what

development in the Miocene period. Fossiled implied in the titles of the prayers. The name of Serapion is trunks, 6 ft. to 10 ft. in diameter and 3o ft. high, still standing | prefixed to the anaphora of the mass (1) and to the group 15—18: erect, in deposits in the Yellowstone region (Miocene), are this indicates authorship is doubtful; for whereas whether but the of characters l scarcely distinguishable in the microscopica their maximum

wood from the living species. During the glacial period the sequoias were exterminated except in the limited area in North America where they still persist. See BE. W. Berry, Tree Ancestors (Baltimore, 1923).

SERAING, town, province of Liége, Belgium. Pop. (1925),

41,352. It is on the Meuse, above Liége, and owes its importance to Jobn Cockerill, who, in partnership with King Wiliam I. of the Netherlands, founded what is still called the “John Cockerill company,” making machinery, with headquarters in the old summier-palace of the prince-bishops of Liége.

the whole collection is bound together by certain marks of vo-

cabulary, style and thought, 15-18 have characteristics of their

own not shared by the anaphora, while no part of the collection

shows special affinities with the current works of Serapion. But his name is at least a symbol of probable date and

provenance: the theology, which is orthodox so far as it goes, but “conservative,” and perhaps glancing at Arianism, shows no sign that the Macedonian question has arisen; the doxologies,

of a type abandoned by the orthodox, and by c. 370 treated by Didymus of Alexandria as heretical; the apparent presupposition (1, 20); the exclusive approSERAMPORE, a town of British India, in the Hooghly dis- that the population is mainly pagan priation of (19; Sunday the cp. Ath. ap. c. Ar. 11), to mass trict of Bengal, on the right bank of tbe river Hooghly, opposite Egypt Barrackpore, on the East Indian railway, 12 m. from Howrah. whereas the liturgical observance of Saturday prevailed in

Pop. (1921) 33,197. The Danes established themselves here in by c. 380: the terms in which monasticism is referred to-——together 1755 and called the town Frederikspagar. With the rest of the point to c. 350; the occurrence of official interpreters (25) points Danish possessions in India, it was acquired by purchase by the to a bilingual Church, ée., Syria or Egypt; and certain theological phrases (a&yévnros, émidnula, uóvn kaĝon) éxxAnola) charEnglish in 1845. SERAO, MATILDA (1856-1927), Italian novelist and jour- acteristic of the old Egyptian creed, and the liturgical characternalist, was born at Patras in Greece. Her father was an Italian, istics, indicate Egypt; while the petition for rains (23), without a political emigrant, and hber mother a Greek. She was a tele- reference to the Nile-rising, points to the Delta as distinguished graph clerk in Naples, but early attracted notice by short stories from Upper Egypt. The book is important, therefore, as the contributed to the press. Her novel, Fantasie (1883), first def- earliest liturgical collection on so large a scale, and as belonging nitely established her as a writer full of feeling and analytical to Egypt, where evidence for 4th-century ritual is scanty as subtlety. She spent the years between 1880 and 1886 in Rome, compared with Syria. The rites form a link between those of the Egyptian Church where she published volumes of short stories and also novels, all dealing with the life of the people: Cuore Infermo (1881), Order (a 3rd- or early 4th-century development of the HippolyFior di Passione (1883), La Conguista di Roma (1885), Le tean Canons, which are perhaps Egyptian of c. 260) and later Wirth di Checchina (1884) and Piccole Anime (1883). With Egyptian rites—marking the stage of development reached in her Edoardo Scarfogho, she founded Z} Corriere di Egypt by c. 350, while exhibiting characteristics of their own. See J. Wordsworth, Bishop Sarapion’s Prayer-Book (1899). Rowe, the first Italian attempt to model a daily journal on the limes of the Parisian press. The paper was short-lived, and when SERAPIS, a famous Graeco-Egyptian god. The statue of it was given up Matilda Serao established herself in Naples, where Serapis in the Serapeum of Alexandria was of purely Greek type she edited 7} Corriere dì Napoli and in 1891 founded J] Mattino, and workmanship—a Hades or Pluto enthroned with a basket which became the most popular daily paper of southern Italy. or corn measure on his head, a sceptre in his hand, Cerberus at Between 1890 and 1902 she produced Paese di Cuccagna, Ventre his feet, and (apparently) a serpent. It was proclaimed as the di Napoli, Addio Amore, AIP Erta Sentinella, Castigo, La Bal- anthropomorphic equivalent of a much revered and highly populevine, Suor Gtooenwa della Croce, Paese di Gesù, novels in which lar Egyptian beast-divinity, the dead Apis, assimilated to Osiris. the character of the people is rendered with sensitive power and | The Greek figure probably had little effect on the native ideas, Wide sympathy. Most of these have been translated into Eng- but it is likely that it served as a useful link between the two lish. She died on July 25, 1927. religions. The god of Alexandria soon won an important place AP plural of the Hebrew noun sérdpk, is the name in the Greek world. The anthropomorphic Isis and Horus were of the | beings attendant upon Yahweh in Isaiah’s easily rendered in Greek style, and Anubis was prepared for by

vision, Isaiah vi. 2,6. Each has six wings, and apparently human

Cerberus. The worship of Serapis along with Isis, Horus and

feet, hands and voice. They chant im antiphon the praise of Yah- Anubis spread far and wide, reached Rome, and ultimately beweh, Representations of such mixed figures were to be found at came one of the leading cults of the west. The destruction in the entrance to oriental temples, where they served as guardians AD. 385 of the Serapeum of Alexandria, and of the famous idol of the gate, and they also are depicted upon coins of the Roman within it, after the decree of Theodosius, marked the death-agony period. It is not unlikely that this feature in the prophet’s vision of paganism throughout the empire. was dueto his seeing such figures at the entrance to the Temple and It is assumed above that the name Serapis (so written in later hearing the chants of the choir immediately before he passed into Greek and in Latin, in earlier Greek Sarapis) is derived from the’ ecstasy. It is noteworthy that “the thresholds were moved” (v. 4) Egyptian Userhapi—as it were Osiris-Apis—the name of the bull at the voice of the seraphim. The singular noun is used in Num- Apis, dead and, like all the blessed dead, assimilated to Osiris, bers x0. 8, Isaiah xiv. 29, xxx. 6, where it is rendered “fiery ser- king of theunderworld. There is no doubt that Serapis was bepent”: accordingly it has been supposed that the seraphim were fore long identified with Userhapi; the identification appears originally serpentiike in form. clearly in a bilingual inscription of the time of Ptolemy Philo-

SERAPION or Sararion (#. c. 350), bishop of Thmuis in pator (221-205 BC.), and frequently later. It has, however, been

the Nile Delta and a promiment supporter of Athanasius in the contended by an eminent authority (Wilcken, Archiv für Papystruggle _against Arianism (sometimes called, for his learning, rusforschung, iii. 249) that the parallel occurrence of the names

Scholasticus), is best known in connection with a prayer-book or

Sarapis and Osorapis (Userhiapi) points to an independent origin forthe former. But doublets, e.g., Petisis-Petésis, are common contained in a collection of Egyptian documents im anIrth-cen- in Graecismof s Egyptian names. See Ecyrt: Religion. tury ms. at the Laura on Mount Athos, was published by A. See Iss; A. Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire des Lagide i. (1903), ch. Dmitzijewskij in 1894, but attracted little attention util inde- | iv.; J. G. Milne, History of Egypt under Roman Rules, (1898), p. 140;

sacramentary intended for the use of bishops. This document,

EARLY

SERBIA

HISTORY]

341

G. Lafaye, Histoire du culte des divinités d’Alexandrie hors de VEgypte' tury the bulk of the Serbs was under either Bulgarian or Greek (Paris, 1884) suzerainty, while the Serbo-Croat provinces of Dalmatia acknowlSERBIA (Srbiya), formerly an inland kingdom of south- edged either Venetian or Hungarian supremacy. The Visheslav Dynasty.—The first Serb princes who more eastern Europe, situated in the north of the Balkan Peninsula, now incorporated in Yugoslavia (g.v.). The frontier, as defined or less successfully united several Zhupaniyas into one state,

by the Berlin Treaty of 1878, was, roughly speaking, indicated by rivers in the north, and by mountains in the south. In the north, between Verciorova and Belgrade, the Danube divided Serbia from Hungary for 157 m.; and between Belgrade and the border village of Racha the Save divided it from Croatia-Slavonia for 80m. In the north-west the Drina flowed for 102 m. between Bosnia and Serbia; in the north-east the Danube, for so m., and the Timok for 23 m., constituted respectively the Rumanian and Bulgarian boundaries. Various mountain ranges marked the frontiers of Bosnia on the west, Turkey on the south-west and south, and Bulgaria on the south and south-east. According to the survey carried out by the Serbian general staff in 1884 the area of the country was 18,782 sq.m. HISTORY

The Serbs (Srbi, as they call themselves) are a Slavonic nation, ethnically and by language the same as the Croats (Hrvati, Horvati, Croati). The Croats, however, are Roman Catholics and use the Latin alphabet, while the Serbs belong to the Orthodox Church and use the Cyrillic alphabet, augmented by special

signs for the special sounds of the Serb language. (See SrLavs.) The earliest mention of the Serbs is to be found in the ninth century; the origin of the name which appears alike in Lusatia and the Balkans is obscure. Nothing is known of their earlier history except that they lived as an agricultural people in Galicia, near the source of the river Dniester. In the beginning of the 6th century they descended to the shores of the Black Sea. Thence

belonged to what might be called “the Visheslav dynasty.” Zhupan Visheslav lived in the beginning of the oth century, and seems to have been the descendant of that leader of the Serbs who signed the settlement treaty with the emperor Heraclius towards the middle of the 7th century. His ancestral Zhupaniya comprised Tara, Piva, Lim (the neck of land between the Montenegro and Serbia of pre-war days). Visheslav’s son Radoslav, his grandson Prissegoy, and his great-grandson Vlastimir, “the first clear personality” of Serbian history, continued his work. Vlastimir successfully defended the western provinces of Serbia against the Bulgarians, although the eastern provinces (Branichevo, Morava, Timok, Vardar, Podrimlye) were occupied by the Bulgars. The Bulgarian danger, and probably the successful operations of the Greek emperor Basil the Macedonian (867-886), determined the Serbian Zhupans to acknowledge again the suzerainty of the Greek emperors. One of the important consequences of this new vassalship to the Byzantine empire was that the entire Serbian people embraced Christianity, about 879—a process begun, however, by Latin priests between 642 and 731. In all important transactions the Serbians were led by the Grand Zhupan Mutimir Visheslavich (d. 890). During the reign of his heirs almost all the Serbian provinces were conquered by the Bul-

garian Tsar Simeon (924). Im 931 Chaslav, one of the princes of the Visheslav dynasty, liberated the largest part of the Serbian territory from Bulgarian domination, but to maintain that liberty he had to acknowledge the Byzantine emperors as his suzerains. The Princes of Zeta and the First Serb Kingdom.—To-

they began to move westerly along the left shore of the Danube, wards the end of the oth century the political centre of the Serbs crossed that river and occupied the north-western corner of the was transferred to Zeta (or Zenta: see MONTENEGRO) and the Balkan Peninsula. According to the emperor Constantine Primorye (Sea-Coast). The prince (sometimes called king) of Porphyrogenitus, the emperor Heraclius (610-640) invited the Zeta, Yovan Vladimir, tried to stop the triumphal march of the Serbs to settle in the devastated north-western provinces of the Bulgarian Tsar Samuel through the Serb provinces, but in 989 Byzantine empire and to defend them against the incursions of the was defeated, made prisoner and sent to Samuel’s capital, Prespa. Avars. According to newer investigations, Heraclius only made The historical fact that Vladimir married Kossara, the daughter peace with them, confirming them in the possession of the prov- of Samuel, and was sent back to Zeta as reigning prince under inces which they already had occupied, and obtaining from them the Bulgarian suzerainty, forms the subject of the first Serb novel, at the same time the recognition of his suzerainty. Their known Vladimir and Kossara, as early as the 13th century. Vladimir, history as a Balkan nation begins towards the middle of the 7th who seems to have been a noble-minded man, was murdered by Samuel’s successor, the usurper Tsar Vladislav (1015). By the century. The Zhupaniyas.—In their new settlements the Serbs did not Christians of both churches in Albania he is to this day venerated form at once a united political organization. The clans more or as a saint. But after the death of Samuel the Bulgarian power less related to each other, occupied a certain territory, which as rapidly lost the Serb provinces, which, tu get rid of the Bulgarians, a geographical and political unit was called Zhupa or Zhupaniya again acknowledged the Greek overlordship. About 1042, how(county), the political and military chief of which was called ever, Prince Voislav of Travuniya (Trebinje), cousin of the Zhupan. The history of the Serbs during the first five centuries assassinated Vladimir of Zeta, started a successful insurrection after their arrival in their present country was a struggle be- against the Greeks, and united under his own rule Travuniya, tween the attempts at union and centralization of the Zhupaniyas Zahumlye (the modern Herzegovina) and Zeta. His son Michael into one state under one government, and the resistance to such Voislavich annexed the important Zhupaniya of Rashka (Rascia union and centralization. The more powerful Zhupan was tempted or Rassia), and in 1077 was addressed as king (rex) in a letter to subjugate and absorb the less powerful Zhupaniyas. If suc- from Pope Gregory VII. His son Bodin enlarged the first Serb cessful, he would take the title of Vel#ki Zhupan (Grand Zhupan). kingdom by annexing territories which up to that time were under But such unions were followed again and again by decentraliza- direct Greek rule. After Bodin’s death the civil wars between his tion and disruption. The earlier history of the Serbs on the Balkan sons and relatives materially weakened the kingdom. Bosnia territory is especially turbulent and bloody, one of the minor reclaimed her own independence; so did Rashka, whose Grand causes being the struggle between the ancient Slavonic order of Zhupans came forward as leaders of the Serb national policy, inheritance, according to which a Zhupan ought to be succeeded which aimed at freedom from Greek suzerainty and the union of by the oldest member of the family and not necessarily by his all the Serb Zhupaniyas into one kingdom under one king. The own son, and the natural desire of every ruler that his own son task was difficult enough, as the Byzantine empire, then under the reign of the energetic Manuel Comnenus, regained much of its should inherit the throne. This internal political process was complicated by the struggle lost influence. About the middle of the r2th century all the Serb between the Greek Church and Greek emperors on the one side Zhupaniyas were acknowledging the suzerainty of the Byzantine and the Roman Catholic Church and the Roman Catholic Powers emperors. The Nemanyich Dynasty and the Serb Empire —A change (Venice and Hungary) on the other, for the possession of excluSive ecclesiastical and political influence. The danger increased for the better began when Stephen Nemanya became the Grand when the Bulgarians came, towards the end of the 7th century, Zhupan of Rashka (1159). He succeeded in uniting all the Serb and formed‘a powerful kingdom on the eastern and south-eastern countries except Bosnia under his rule, and although he never took frontiers of the Serbs. Practically from the 8th to the r2th cen- the title of king, he was the real founder of the Serb kingdom and

SERBIA

344

[1400-1909

IV., king of of the royal dynasty of Nemanyich, which reigned for nearly 200 ,tbe Tall,” who was an intimate friend of Sigismund Stephen childless, Being Germans. the of emperor and Hungary | father’s his left secretly Rastko, years. His youngest son, Prince successor. his be to Brankovich, George nephew, his appointed court, went to a convent in Mount Athos, where Stephen Nemanya

Serbia, Bosnia died as the monk Simeon at Chiliandarion in 1200, became a monk, | George worked to establish an alliance between

arranged, and afterwards, under the name of Sava, the first archbishop of and Hungary. But before such an alliance could be Serbia. As such he established eight bishoprics and encouraged Murad II. attacked Serbia in 1437 and forced George to seek Warning. He is regarded as the great patron of education among refuge in Hungary, where he continued to work for a Serbo-

the Serbs, as a saint, and as one of the greatest statesmen. After Hungarian alliance and organized an expedition, under the joint Stephen Nemanya and Sava the most distinguished members of the command of the Despot George and of Hunyadi Janos, which Nemanyich dynasty were Stephen Urosh I. (1243-76), bis son| defeated the Turks in a great battle at Kunovitsa in 1444. The Milutin (1281-1321) and Stephen Dushan! (1331-1355). Urosh |sultan was forced to restore all the countries previously taken. married Helen, a daughter of thé exiled Latin Emperor of Con-' At the age of ninety George was wounded in a quarrel with the stantinople, Baldwin II., and through her kept friendly relations !Hungarian governor of Belgrade, Michael Szilagyi, and died on with the French court of Charles of Anjou in Naples. He en- Dec. 24, 1456. His youngest son Lazar III. succeeded him, but deavoured to negotiate an alliance between Serbs and French only for a few months. Lazar’s widow Helena Palaeoliogina offered for the partition of the Byzantine empire. His son Milutin con- Serbia to the pope, hoping thereby the secure the assistance of tinued that policy and increased bis territory by taking several Roman Catholic Europe against the Turks. Indeed, for a few fortified places from the Greeks; but later he joined the Greeks months, a Roman Catholic prince, Stephen Tomashevich, son of under ibe emperor Andronicus against the Turks. Milutin’s the king of Bosnia, who had married Lazar III.’s daughter, was bastard’s son, Stephen Dushan, was a great soldier and statesman. “despot” at the then capital of Semendria. But no one in Europe Seeing the danger which menaced the disorganized Byzantine moved a finger to help Serbia, and Sultan Mohammed II. occuempire from the Turks, he tried to prevent the Turkish invasion pied the country in 1459, with the aid of the anti-Catholic Serbs, of the Balkan peninsula by replacing that empire by a Serbo- making it a pashalik under the direct government of the Porte. For fully 345 years Serbia remained a Turkish pashalik, endurGreek empire. He took from the Greeks Albania, Epeiros, Thessaly and Macedonia (excepting Salonika). Towards the end ing all the miseries which that lawless régime implied (see of 1345 he proclaimed himself “emperor of the Serbs and the Turkey: History). But the more or less successful invasions of Greeks,” and was solemnly crowned at Skoplje on Easter Day the Turkish empire in Europe by the Austrian armies in the 18th 1346. At the same time he raised the archbishop of Ipek (Petch), century—invasions in which thousands of Serbs always particithe primate of Serbia, to the dignity of patriarch. Three years pated as volunteers—prepared the way for a new state of things. later he convoked the Sabor (parliament) at Skoplje to begin a 1400-1909 codification of the laws and legal usages. The result was the The defeat of Kosovo reduced Serbia to a passive réle: she publication, in 1349, of tbe Zakonik Tsara Duskana (Tsar Du-

looked on helplessly when the Turks overran Bulgaria (1393) and when Sigismund of Hungary’s new crusade ended in the disaster of Nicopolis (1396). The Turks thus entrenched themselves firmly to the south and east, and all that Stephen Lazarević could hold Sexbs and Bulgars and prevent the Turkish power taking root was the country lying between the Danube, Save, Drina and onEuropean ground. While making preparations for a siege of Timok, as far south as Niš. Stephen paid tribute to the Sultan Constantin he died suddenly at Deabolis on Dec. 20; 1355. and served as his vassal at Angora (1402), afterwards escaping Under his only son Stephen Urosh V., a young man of nineteen, to Byzantium and receiving from Manuel II. the title of Despot. his.brother Simeon Ureskk and some of the powerful viceroys of In this dignity he was succeeded in 1427 by his nephew George Dushan’s previnces made themselves independent. The most Branković, who married a Cantacuzene and maintained himself prominent amongst them was Vukashin, who proclaimed himself by alliance with the Eastern Empire and Hungary. King Sigisting ef Macedonia. He wished to continue Dushan’s policy and mund seized Belgrade and forced George to transfer his capital to te expel the Turks from Europe, but in the battle on the Maritza the Danubian fortress of Smederevo (Semendria), but compenon Sent. 26, 1391, kis army was destroyed and he was slain. Two sated him with huge grants of land in Southern Hungary. Though shan's Boek of Laws), a code of great historical interest which proves that Serbia was net much behind the foremost European skates im civilization. In 1355 Dushan began a new campaign against the Greeks, the object of which was to unite Greeks,

menths later Tsar Urosh died, and the rule of the Nemanyich dynasty ended. |

he gave his daughter Mara in marriage to Sultan Murad (1433), George was attacked and expelled by the Turks in 1439 and only

The Turkish Invasien: Kosovo.—After a few years of in- recovered his dominions thanks to King Ladislas of Hungary’s vicdecision and anarchy the Sabor met at Ipek in 1374 and elected torious Balkan campaign in 1443. The Turkish triumph at Varna

empire and to organize a Christian league against the Turks. This was the real cause of the Turkish attacks on Bulgaria and Serbia

next year ended all hope of a general Christian Coalition, rest of George’s reign is filled by precarious intrigue and tion with Turk, Hungarian and Venetian, with Skanderbeg new ruler of Hercegovina. George died at the age of 80

made such a deep impression onthe Serbs.as the battle af Kosovo

only survived him one year, the succession was disputed, and in

Knez

(count)

Sa Wr Lazar EIPEDELY.ANC

2

a kinsman

of Urosh,,. as

ruler of the Serbs. He tried to stop the further disruption of the

and the negotiaand the in 1456, in the same year that John Hunyddy died after his successful

im 1389, which resulted in the subjugation of Bulgaria and in the ` defeat of the Serbs at Kosovo {Jume 15, 1389). No event has defence of Belgrade against Mohammed II. George’s son Lazar because the flower of the Serb aristocracy fell inthat battle, amd because both the tsar of the: Serbs, Lazar; and the sultanof the ‘Turks, Murad L, lost. their lives. .The Sultan.was killed by the Serb knight or voyvode Milosh Obilich (the later

1459 Smederevo and all Serbia were finally overrun by Mohammed. The fall of Bosnia (1463) and of Hercegovina (1483) set the seal to Turkish predominance in the Balkans. The only frag-

ments of Southern Slav territory to retain independence were the alteration, of the imelegant Kobil “son of a brood-mare”). There Ragusan Republic (Dubrovnik) and Montenegro. Under the Sulexists a cycle. ofnational

songs—sung to this day by the Serb tans ‘Seim I. (1512-20) and Suleiman I. (1520-66) the Turks “i. hee eg

resumed the offensive northwards: in 1521 Belgrade was wrested the battle of Kosovo Serbia existed from Hungary, and in 1526 the battle of Mohdcs broke Hun(1389-1459) aş @ çomiry, tributary, t gary’s powers of resistance, and led to her partition. The numerthe sultans but governing itself Bericht own rulers, aie ous Serb colonies which had been formed along the Danube and in peror apd bore the Greek title of “despot.” Southern Hungary after the conquest of Serbia, shared gusari

—cencerning this: battle. eae

i The ea or some seventy pears

the fate of Lazar’s eldest son, Lazar.IT, or “Stephen the. Magyars: the Banat of „Jajce, Syrmia and parts of Croatia and Dalmatia were also seized by the Turks, whose constant raids

into Croat and Slovene territory forced the Habsburgs to organize

the defensive Military Frontiers (gy),

‘ a

t

+

a a

re lap

w

dat

:

eas

SERBIA

343

Serbia Under Turkish Rule.—Serbia, like Bulgaria, felt the exploit of the war. When foreign complications forced Leopold full weight of Turkish rule, for they were the direct road of strate- | IT. to conclude peace and restore Belgrade (1792), the Serbs again gic advance westwards. The Serbian aristocracy was wiped out— : saw their hopes dashed: but a new spirit was stirring, and the

save in Bosnia, where it accepted Islam to save its lands and thus | Turkish commissioner who saw one of the fortresses evacuated

became a-national in feeling: the peasantry was bled mercilessly | by a well armed and drilled detachment of native Serbs, exclaimed by the karatch (bloodtax), their children thus supplying the Turk- | in just alarm to the Austrians, “Neighbours, what have you ish army with recruits and becoming the instrument of their own | made of our rayah?” Serbia’s War of Independence.—During the next decade the subjection. Only the Church kept the national spirit alive. In 1557 the grand Vizier Mohammed Sokolović, a native of Herze- | rapid decay of the central Turkish authority placed outlying govina, revived the Patriarchate of Peć (Ipek) in favour of his |provinces at the mercy of insubordinate and rapacious soldiers : brother Makarij: and this See avoided the Hellenizing influences | in Serbia there was a sharp conflict between the Pasha of Belwhich

submerged

the

Bulgarian

sister

Patriarchate

of Ohrid. |grade, Hadji Mustafa, and the Janissaries quartered throughout

Native literature almost ceased to exist, though fragments of cul- ! the country. These latter allied themselves with Pasvan Oglu, ture survived in the monasteries. During the 16th century Serb i the Pasha of Vidin, who successfully defied two sieges by regular was still the lingua franca of the Peninsula, spoken by the local | Turkish armies (1796-98) and on his reconciliation with the Begs and Pashas and freely used in correspondence between the | Porte induced it to support the Janissaries against Mustafa, Porte and Ragusa or John Zápolya of Hungary: this explains the | whose mildness had earned him the name of “Mother of the attempt of the Slovenes, Primus Truber and Baron Ungnad, to | Serbs.” Finally the four “Dahis,” or military chiefs, murdered win over to Protestantism the Balkan Slavs, and even the Turks, | Mustafa in Dec. 1801, subjected Serbia to their lawless rule, by issuing from Urach and Tübingen Slav books in Latin, Cyrillic | and when the Serbs protested to Constantinople, organized a and Glagolitic type. Under Turkish rule the Serbs were increas- | massacre of many of their foremost leaders (Feb. 1804). Fortuingly agricultural, Balkan trade being mainly in the hands of| nately a notable substitute was found in Karageorge (q.v.), who defeated the Vlachs and Ragusans. The mining industry was abandoned, and| led an insurrection against the Dahis and decisively citadel of the storming 1805, Aug. in Migar at Bosnia of Pasha | Ragusan importance. in grew Novipazar Sarajevo, Mostar and efforts declined rapidly after the earthquake of 1667: while colo- | Belgrade in the following December. Though at first the innies of exiled Sephardim Jews from Spain became prominent | surgents professed loyalty to the Sultan, the breach became his 200 trading factors. In the x7th century there grew up a class of| irreparable when in March 1807 Suleiman Pasha and broken men, known as Hajduks, round whom popular legend and | Janissaries, after having duly evacuated the fortress, were poetry centred: the most notable examples were in Montenegro treacherously murdered on their way to the frontier. This was followed by the complete ejection of the Turks from the whole (g.v.) and among the Uskoks (g.v.), of Dalmatia. In the long war waged by the Habsburgs to recover Hungary, | Pashalik of Belgrade. Kara George, combining in a primitive Croat and Serb soldiers played a great part in the Imperialist |manner the functions of commander-in-chief and chief of state,

armies. It seemed as though Leopold I. might emancipate at | summoned the first Skupština or assembly of notables, created least the western half of the Balkan Peninsula. In 1690 he issued | a Senate on western models and laid the rudiments of administra-

a proclamation to the Christian population, urging them to rise | tion and education. Finding his overtures to Vienna (through he against their oppressors and promising his protection: and on Archduke Charles and the Aulic War Council) rejected, with convention a negotiated 1807 July in and Russia, to turned | 36,000 with Crnojević, Arsen Patriarch, the this of the strength The young Serbian families, migrated to Hungary. Two charters assured | Rodofinikin, the first Russian agent in Belgrade. Porte, their recognition as a nation, freedom of religion and the right | state gallantly cooperated with Russia in her war with the are which clauses included (18r2) Bucharest of Treaty the and not were privileges These to elect their patriarch and voivode. to her a observed, Arsen’s successors were not allowed to call themselves | the first international recognition of Serbia, secured Patriarchs, and the office of voivode remained unfilled. But the limited autonomy and to Russia a permanent right of interference tide of Serb emigration continued; in the 18th century the Serbs | on her behalf. On the other hand, its reinstatement of Turkish formed flourishing centres at Karlovci (Karlowitz), Novi Sad | garrisons in Belgrade and other fortresses was a bitter disappointindependence. (Neusatz), Kikinda etc.; and in. the repeopling of the Banat and | ment to the Serbs, who had hoped for complete Bačka under Charles VI. and Maria Theresa they played a part | Moreover, the withdrawal of Russian forces in the south owing to Napoleon’s Moscow campaign encouraged the Porte to attempt only:second to the Germans. the reconquest of Serbia in the summer of 1813. By October: | save Hungary all restored The Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) the Banat to Habsburg rule: after Eugéne’s victories the Treaty all resistance was crushed, and Kara George forced into flight. the of Požarevac (Passarowitz, 1718) not merely won back the | But the new Pasha, Suleiman Skopljak, revived many of Dec. in and Treaty the defied regime, old the of features worst | Serbia of portion Banat, but converted Belgrade and the northern younger notables. (known as the Sumadija) into an Austrian province. During the | 1814 bebeaded or impaled nearly 200 of the (g.v.), again Obrenović Miloš then, 1815, Sunday Palm On | Vienna, towards turned race whole the of hopes next, 20 years the

and such culture as the Serbs possessed centered in the towns of | raised the standard of revolt.

southern Hungary and the Military Frontiers. But the constant diversions of western policy and the exhaustion following the

By August Serbia was virtually

free, and Miloš by diplomatic tact and moderation secured his recognition by the Porte as “Supreme Chief” (Vrhovni Knez)

of Serbia. He further reassured the Porte by arranging the secret assassination of Kara George, who had returned from exile in Thus hostilities with Turkey, they suffered reverses and by the Treaty | the hope of heading a movement for full independence. 3 of Belgrade (1739) restored to the Porte all territory south of began. the long feud between two rival dynasties. Serbia as Autonomous- State.—In 1817 Miloš secured the Danube and Save.: This, following. upon the abortive rising the Skup&tina the recognition of his hereditary right, but this from | charter), in r735 (due to non-fulfilment of the Leopoldine of the Serbs, whe henceforth turned | status was confirmed by the Sultan only in 1830, after the Convenincreased the disillusionment. (1829) their eyes increasingly towards Russia; numerous: Serb colonies | tiom of Akkerman (1826) and the Treaty of Adrianople those. laid were founded north of Odessa by the Empress Elizabeth. In the had provided for Serbian autonomy on fuller lines than Turkish; war: ofi769-74 Catherine the Great: issued a manifesto | down at Bucharest in. 1812. The hatti sherif of 1830 still further the to: the: subject’ Christian populations, : while. Austria remained | defied that autonomy and in 1833 Miloš was able to ocoupy ons _ inactive: and ‘the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainardji (1774) formally | Six Districts-till then in dispute with the Turks. ‘Turkish:garris long wars’ prevented the Habsburgs from extending their conquests farther southwards: and when in 1737 they renewed

tecognised . Russia’s: claim* to: champion .Orthodox: and'Slav in- | were retained in Belgrade, Šabac, Smederevo, Uzice and:twovether tetests. i-In-1789). whet Russia and -Austria again ‘made joint | places, and Turkish residents were henceforth restricted to these cause against’ Turkey; the Serbs formed irregular bands: inthe | towns. In home affairs Milog developed highly autocratic tendenlatter’s-service, and Loudon’s capture of Belgrade was the-chief | cies, opposed representative institutions and used his position to 4

SERBIA

344

[1400-1900

enrich himself. In 1835, however, a serious conspiracy forced him to summon a Skupština, and though the new constitution

stances.

Miloš, now nearly eighty, governed as highhandedly

of the Sultan in 1838, instituting a Council of State or Senate and a Cabinet of four ministers. These years witnessed the curious spectacle of the two autocracies, Russia and Turkey, working to restrict the Prince’s autocratic powers, while the Western Liberal Powers, Britain and France, favoured their

Western methods of government, but set himself to strengthen the princely power: by the new Constitution of 1861 he had the right to nominate and dismiss members of the Council, and

as ever, but was quick enough to check any encroachments

on

which it voted never came into force owing to the hostility of | the part of the Porte. In September 1860 he was succeeded by the Porte and the Powers, another was promulgated by katti sherif Michael, Serbia’s ablest modern ruler, who introduced more

extension. Fortunately the efforts of Palmerston’s agents, Colonel

Hodges and Lord Ponsonby, were unsuccessful. In 1839 Miloš was forced to abdicate and withdraw, and government was carried on by the so-called “Defenders of the Constitution” (Ustavobranitelji), led by Vučić and Petronijević, first in the name of Milo’’s eldest son Milan, and on his death a month later, of the second son Michael (g.v.). In 1842 Michael also was abandoned by the army and popular feeling and driven into exile. The Skupština, instead of electing Thomas Vučić as be himself had boped, now summoned to the throne Alexander, son of Kara George, 2 man of mediocre ability and weak will. The hostility of Tsar Nicholas delayed recognition for many months, but in June 1843 a newly elected Skupština unanimously confirmed the election of Prince Alexander. Alexander Karageorgjevié—The new reign was 2 period of growth and transition, in which a civil code was promulgated

(1844), the judicial system completed (1846), a state printing

press set up, the National Museum and Serbian Scientific Society

founded. Primary and secondary education was encouraged, and an increasing number of young Serbs began to visit French and German universities. The publication of Vuk KaradZié’s version of the New Testament (1847) was a landmark in literary progress: and his great services in collecting popular tales, ballads aad proverbs and issuing the first scientific Serbian grammar and dictionary were crowned by his philological reforms and a mew phonetic Serbian orthography, which, following parallel Enes with Gaj’s revision of Croat orthography, made Serbo-Croat literary unity a reality and thus laid the basis for political unity. In foreign policy Alexander leaned towards Austria. The racial war in Eiumgary which followed the revolution of 1848 (see

HUNGARY

and Croatia-Stavonta)

caused great excitement in

Serbia, mumerous volunteers flocking across the river to help their Serb kinsmen against the Magyars—notably the Senator Stephen Knitanin. There were close confidential relations between Alexander, Patriarch Rajačić and Meyerhofer, the ul al, who afterwards became governor of ojvodina established by Austria (1849-59). nimuster GaraSanin, an enthusiast for Western

culiure, but also infected by the Slavophil ideas current in Prague,

travelled to the Court ef Napoleon III. to appeal for French help, but Tsar Nicholas regarded him as a pupil of Kossuth and Mazzini and forced his dismissal upon the reluctant Prince. In the Crimean War Serbia found it difficult to choose between her

suzerain and her protector, and maintained an measy armed neutrality which at least px an Austrian occupation. The Treaty of Paris (1856) brought Serbia one stage nearer to PCC DETICIRCEe | she was now InGependermce: placed under a special guarantee of

the signatory Powers, and was assured full autonomy in administration, legislation, religion and trade. The Turkish garrisons remained, but armed interference in Serbian affairs was

henceforth forbidden, save by consent of the Powers (§ 22). Thus a quite illogical situation arose, in which the sovereign rights of the Port were restricted e by the Powers, who substituted

a virtual protectorate of their awn for that of Russia. The Return of Milo’ and Michael—In against Alexander's weak rule culminated in an attempt of the ee to i , |

the new Assembly through which h to result, was almast as hostile to Wutiéos eee

-

Prince, and in December, tion, promptly recalled Miloš Obrenović, who skilfully secuned

ministers were responsible to him and to it jointly, not to the SkupStina. Helped by a French officer, Captain Mondain, as Minister of War, he completely reformed the Serbian army, and in 1862 when the Turks in the fortress of Belgrade bombarded the town, he pressed the question of complete evacuation upon

the Powers.

The opposition of Britain and Austria postponed

a solution, though the Turkish garrisons were reduced to four and the Turkish civil population withdrawn from Serbia. But

in 1867 (Austria having lost prestige after the war of 1866 and Stanley following less Turcophil lines than Russell) the Powers persuaded the Porte to hand over the four fortresses, though the Turkish flag was still to fly beside the Serbian. Michael meanwhile pursued far-reaching designs of policy, negotiated with Kossuth and Cuza, worked out plans with the exiled Bulgarian committee for a joint Serbo-Bulgarian state, corresponded with the Croat and Serb leaders in Habsburg territory and concluded secret alliances with Montenegro, Greece and Rumania, for joint action against the Turks. These ambitious dreams suddenly collapsed on June 10, 1868, when Michael was murdered in the park of Topčider, outside Belgrade, by adherents of the rival dynasty.

Prince

Milan

and

the Eastern

Crisis—The

conspiracy

failed, and Michael’s cousin and only male heir, Milan (g.v), was elected Prince at the age of 14. The Regency, led by Blaznavac, the Minister of War, and Jovan Ristić, governed till Milan’s majority in 1872. The new constitution which it intro-

duced in 1869, by abolishing the senate and giving wider powers to the Skupština, was a step towards parliamentary government: but in certain directions the princely power was still further entrenched, and the demand for constitutional revision dominated internal politics during Milan’s reign. In foreign policy the regency showed Austrophil leanings, but the visit of Prince Milan to the Tsar at Livadia in Oct. 187: marked a turn in favour of Russia. Milan, a man of real ability, but a neurasthenic, lacking in morals or powers of endurance, failed to win the affection of the nation, preferred the amusements of Paris or Vienna, and saw his dynasty steadily losing ground. The Bosnian insurrection of 1875 (whose leaders aimed at union with their kinsmen in Serbia and Montenegro), and the resultant European crisis aroused intense excitement in Serbia, and the prince would have risked his throne had he left the insurgents to their fate. In May 1876 the Liberal cabinet concluded an alliance with Montenegro, and answered the Porte’s refusal to entrust Milan with the administration of Bosnia-Hercegovina, by declaring war. But the Serbian army, though swelled by Russian volunteers and led by a Russian general, was ill prepared and unable to resist the Turks, whose victory at Aleksinac forced the prince to appeal to the tsar’s protection. Turkey only consented to grant Serbia an armistice after Russia had addressed an ultimatum to the Porte (October) and Serbia’s position remained in suspense during the Conference of Constantinople (December), but after its failure she found it necessary to conclude peace with Turkey on the basis of the status quo (March I, 1877) and thus was reduced to a passive rôle throughout the critical period of the Russo-Turkish War. On Dec. 15, five days after the fall of Plevna, Milan again declared war upon Turkey, but was coldly received by the Russians, who were now much more interested in Bulgaria than in Serbia. Hence the Treaty of San Stefano. impose d by vactorious Russia on Marth 3, 1878; provided a purely “Big Bulgarian” solution of the Balkan problem; Serbia acquiring only Niš and Pirot, and Bosnia-Hercegovina being reserved. for special autonomy. The opposition of the Great Powers prevented

the Porte’s approval before returning. The leading-oligarchs. were the enforcement of San Stefano, and the Congress of Berlin decided the fate of the Balkans for another generation. Serbia

saw her Bosnian kinsmen, for whom she had unsuccessfully

1400-1900]

345

SERBIA

waged war, assigned by European mandate to Austria-Hungary, who also obtained the right of garrisoning the Sanjak of Novipazar, thereby securing her strategic line of advance upon Salonica and separating Serbia from Montenegro. Serbia herself obtained only the recognition of full independence, and the right to annex Niš, Pirot and Vranje, Austria vetoing her possession of Kosovo and “Old Serbia,” and Russia not merely opposing her exaggerated claim to Vidin, but wishing to assign Niš to Bulgaria. The Russian delegates at Berlin, Gorchakov and Shuvalov, received Ristić with indifference and urged him to come to terms with Austria-Hungary. Ristić, completely disillusioned at the failure of a Russophil policy, resigned office in 1880, and Milan henceforth looked to Vienna.

month veteran Ristić, with Generals Protić and Belimarković. A treaty secret the renewed Milan Serbia, from wing before withdra d, it with Austria-Hungary for another six years: as redrafte ly especial , dynasty ić Obrenov the protect to latter the pledged in and gro,” Montene from directed ns against “hostile incursio rial the event of a Balkan upheaval to support Serbia’s “territo “the extension” southwards. Her definition of this as meaning ” valley of the Vardar as far as circumstances shall permit, an Bulgari against as Serbian of ment endorse the to ed amount claims in Macedonia.

Serbia and Austria-Hungary.—On June 28, 1881, a secret alliance for ten years was signed between Serbia and AustriaHungary, by which the former undertook not to conclude any political treaty without Vienna’s previous consent, and to prevent on her territory any “political or religious agitation” against the Dual Monarchy. The latter, in return, promised to use “her

whole influence” in favour of the Obrenović, to recognise Serbia

as a kingdom, and in the event of fresh Balkan complications to sanction her expansion in the Vilayet of Kosovo and Central Macedonia, though not in Novipazar. Behind the back of the Premier Piroćanac, Milan gave a still more explicit personal pledge and offered Haymerle a secret declaration “in whatever terms you care to notify to me, and annulling completely the effect of? the Premier’s qualifying note. Milan’s dealings with the court of Vienna are among the most humiliating incidents in

aKing Alexander.—The regents, despite their owntheconsery Radical

tive leanings, found it necessary to entrust power to ty Party, under General Sava Grujić, which had a strong majori Serbian improve to was ment achieve first its and it: behind to finances, reducing the deficit from 14,000,000 dinars in 1889 4,000,000 in 1890 and to 686,000 in 1891. But internal progress was still delayed by the constant interference and public wrangling of Milan and Natalie, and even after the ex-king’s solemn renunciation had been endorsed by parliament (March 1892) he plotted in the background, with Austrian backing. The party struggle on between Radicals and Liberals had reached a deadlock, when ejected d’état coup sudden a by king, young April 14, 1893, the the regents, proclaimed himself of age and superseded the Liberal cabinet by one drawn from the moderate Radical wing. As, however, its first act was to impeach some of its predecessors, party feeling ran as high as ever, and turned into anti-dynastic lines. and Alexander, whose character bore traces of a hereditary taint

Serbian history. They culminated in May 1885 in a contingent offer to withdraw from Serbia in favour of the Habsburgs and a request that in the event of his own death Austria-Hungary should prevent his son Alexander from mounting the throne as a minor, and should take charge of his education, or if she could not obtain possession of his person, should occupy Serbia by force of arms. Neither Kalnoky nor Francis Joseph responded, rightly regarding the offer as the outcome of an unbalanced mind. Serbia Under King Milan.—On Feb. 22, 1882, the SkupStina proclaimed Serbia a kingdom. But the internal situation remained unsatisfactory. The compensation to Turkish landlords in the

new territory, and the building of railways, under the terms of the Berlin Treaty, necessitated foreign loans, and hence increased taxation. An attempt was made on Milan’s life in 1882, and in 1883 there was an abortive rising at Zajetar, which was used as a pretext for savage measures of repression against the newly formed Radical Party. Milan by his favouritism and personal policy envenomed the party struggle, and the scandals of his private life and his undignified quarrel with Queen Natalie undermined the prestige of the dynasty. Serbia’s rash and unprovoked in attack upon Bulgaria, after the union of Eastern Rumelia 1885, was mainly the work of Milan himself, who hoped to regain popularity by foreign conquest and regarded Bulgarian unity as a blow to the Balkan balance of power. The Serbian advance on Sofia was suddenly arrested by Prince Alexander’s victory at Slivnita: the Bulgarian army in its turn invaded Serbia and thanks to unpreparedness, bad leadership and panic on the Serbian side, would probably have entered Belgrade, had not Austria-Hungary threatened armed intervention. Kálnoky explained to his German ally, who feared increased Austro-Russian

friction, that he had acted not for the sake of Serbia or Milan,

but on account of the moral effect upon Serbia’s kinsmen inside

the Dual Monarchy. The Treaty of Bucharest (March 1886) restored the status quo, but Serbia’s prestige in Europe was effectually eclipsed for over two decades. King Milan’s personal situation was undermined, and the divorce scandals of 1888 were the last straw. In the winter of that year he initiated a new and more liberal constitution (Dec. 22, 1888—N.S. Jan. 5, 1889), which provided for an extended franchise, closer parliamentary control, irremovability of judges and liberty of the press. From

Milan's point of view this was devised as a beau geste, such as might rehabilitate the dynasty in popular favour. It was followed

by his abdication (March 1889) in favour of his only child

whose education had suffered fatally from his parents’ miscon1894 duct, grew up suspicious, callous and arbitrary. Early in his on and nts, amuseme Parisian he recalled Milan from his

advice suspended the constitution of 1889, reestablishing the more reactionary one of 1869. The Radicals went into violent opposiunder tion, but the situation was temporarily saved by a cabinet was position whose ić, Novakov Stojan leader ive the Progress however undermined by the King’s refusal to sanction his project of constitutional reform, on a two-chamber basis, and also by

friction with Austria-Hungary, the secret treaty with whom lapsed in 18ọ5. At the elections of 1897 the Radicals maintained their

majority, but Alexander refused to call them to power and formed a Cabinet under Dr. Vladan Gjorgjevi¢, the doctor and intimate friend of King Milan, and known as a pronounced Russophobe. d Milan was appointed commander-in-chief, and though he increase his the army by one-third, and worked hard at its reorganization, methods of favouritism did much to introduce the spirit of faction life and conspiracy into the officers’ corps. An attempt on his all in 1899 was used as a pretext for drastic measures against were proof, serious without whom, of some the Radical leaders, sentenced to banishment or hard labour.

The End

of the Obrenovié

Régime—Dr.

Gjorgjević’s

efforts to secure the succession by finding Alexander a wife from some reigning dynasty were checkmated by the King’s rash decision in the summer of 1900 to marry his mistress Draga MaSin (née Lunjevica), the widow of a Czech engineer, a woman much older than himself. This decision led to a final breach between Alexander and Milan, who ended his dissolute existence resign at Vienna early in 1901: it led the Gjorgjevié cabinet to the in resented keenly was it step: a suicidal out of protest at so from country and isolated the dynasty in Europe. Emancipated flung his father’s influence in foreign policy, Alexander now himself into the arms of Russia and in return induced the Tsar

to stand sponsor at his marriage. But at home he, was the object of universal aversion, and only made matters worse by dabbling in illegal political experiments. In April r90r he promulgated a new constitution, based on an adaptation of the Novaković project, establishing a second chamber and guaranteeing liberty of he the press and of association. But in the winter of 1902 Marković Cincar General appointed reverted to open reaction, premier, and in April 1903 suddenly suspended his own Constitu-

tion, ‘removed all the officials and senators appointed under ‘it, dissolved both Chambers and then declared the Constitution’ to once more valid. In June new elections were conducted’ under

be terrorism that the whole opposition held aloof. The ‘Alexander, then ‘only 13: and a regency ‘was formed by the such official

346

SERBIA

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a

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i = Se

npr

ce on

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a

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ares

i

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[THE WAR ERA

excitement in Serbia became intense, and the wilder -o clamoured for war against the Dual Monarchy. After a

pted by this untenable situation, | secret session of the Skupština, the Foreign Minister, Dr. Milope

asaid

and on June ro, | vanovic, undertook a mission to the courts of Europe and pressed

in the palace of ;Serbia’s claim for the cession of a strip of territory linking up

heleneia ae a circumstances. Draga’s two | Serbia with Montenegro and with the Adriatic and securing the eae ooo sodthe Minister of War shared the same |much needed independence for ris a ae

i of tbe plot had been worked out in fate. The details i a well- - | had never aban doned eee the hope of union wieee Serbs o snia, known café in Vienna, and there is reason to believe that both | but the Governmen retaine n i a and Russian the Austro-Hungarian i Governments were aware of į mands wi thin the : limits of : the possible. ie heAustria-Hungary, hed eet how.al

ir course. ever, though while annexing Bosnia she had simu ously srs e E a 8lo a, régime | evacuated the Sanjak (partly to prevent Italy from claiming was heid in such universal odium in Serbia that the removal of compensation under Clause 7 of her alliance) resolutel y refused

its last representative, and hence of the old and grievous dynastic | any territorial concession to Serbia, declining also to enter an feud, was greeted with relief rather than horror. The regicides | international Congress until the Powers stood committed to at once formed a cabinet representing all parties, reestablished the | endorse the annexation. Serbia received encouragement from constitution of 1901 and convoked parliament for June 15. It| Russia, one aspect of the crisis being the acute rivalry between unanimously elected Prince Peter Karageorgevic, son of the| the two Foreign Ministers, Aehrenth al and Izvolsky, who regarded

ex-Prince Alexander to the vacant throne, and then restored the | himself as having been duped at their Buchlau meeting in Sepconstitution of 1889, acknowledged as the most liberal of all those tember 1908. In January 1909 Milovanović declared in the under which Serbia had been governed. Thus the shortlived senate Skupština that the Bosnian question was one of European disappeared, the franchise was extended, and the practice of | interest, that Austriatampering with such fundamental institutions as the bench, the | that she must not driveHungary s Balkan mission was ended and Serbia to despair. The war fever grew, press and the right of assembly received a salutary check. The AustriaHungary mobilised and a very dangerous situation had new king found bimself in a position of extreme delicacy, for | arisen when the regicides were at first all-powerful politically. Austria- | the annexatio Russia, yielding to a German ultimatum, recognised n and advised Serbia to submit. On March 31, 1909, Hungary and Russia, indeed, at once congratulated him on his | on the collective advice of the Triple Entente and Italy, she accession, but in Dec. 1903 all the Powers represented at Belgrade | addressed a Note to Vienna, recognising the fait accompli protested against the Government’s weak attitude towards the | created in Bosnia” as “in no way affecting her rights.” A few negickdes, and it was not till 1906 that a British Minister was | days appointed to retum to Belgrade, The smister incident of | war earlier Crown Prince George, who had been the soul of the party, abdicated his right of succession, owing to the report the murder of the Novakovié brothers in the Belgrade state | that he had mortally injured his valet in a fit of passion: his prison caused a reaction of feeling against the regicides, and the | younger brother Alexander thus became Heir Apparent. Radical y, ad Since the murder, split into two | (R. W. S.-W.) sections, the Old and ibe Youngthe , former evolving steadily| towards extreme conservatism ‘Their chief merit was a further| THE WAR ERA weborm the Smenees ..o >-in.x9 fg03 there had been a deficit | The Balkan League.—The annexation of Bosnia marked a 11,500,000 dinars, in r904 and 1005 there were surpluses of of turning-point in Serbian history. Henceforth public opinion , sup§,s0a002 and 4,700,000. Under Dr. Patu as fmance minister ported by promin ent statesmen in every party, was practically comfidesce xevived both at home and abroad. unanimous in regarding a conflict with Austria-Hung iy feweigh policy the Radicals concluded in June 1905 2 ary as sooner convention with Bulgaria, which was intended to lead to a customs or later inevitable. Aehrenthal’s policy inevitably strengthened political the tendencies towards the creatio aiience ahd common. action in the Ba . But it was pre- these were accelerated by the politicn of a Balkan League, and al unrest evoked throughout aterely. Gisclosed iberate design of Prince the Balkan peninsula by the Young Turk revolution. At first the inclusion of Turkey in such a league was openly advocated by Russia, and favoured by Milovanovié and Venizelos. ‘But the increasing chauvinism of the Young Turks in Macedonia led ‘Venizelos to discuss with Bulgaria measures of common defence against-a possible Turkish attack. N egotiations followed between rts, Fhe. result was a prolonged | Belgrade sed political influence of the ance were concludedin the winter of 1912. Secret treaties of allion March 13, 1912, between Serbia and nd their desire:to. prevent Bulgaria and on May 29 between Bulgaria and Greece. There CoA . ROC EE was ‘BO actual treaty binding Serbia and Greece , while the Serbo‘Montenegrin treaty, concluded Sept. r9r2,.was less political than. military, and provided for. separate though By the first of ‘these each State was bound . parallel action. with all its forces. in the event. of an. attack, to assist the other and in. particular in the event of any Great, Power trying to annex any portion of finding fresh markets, e.g., in Furkey’s Balka terif, war her foreign trade only in Turkey, eithen possessiops.--If internal troubles ‘should, ;arise r ally might, initiate bed by 300,000 dinars, in 1907 it had again . Increased and any, point upon: which. agree proposals for military -action, by 16,000,000 dinars, and after a, dropin ment. was mot reached shoul toed, .Russią for decision. ; Special provision. d inferior to the pre-war. figure, it continued1908, which was. still then be referr was to. grow steadily, made for, possible. conquests, Serbi Pace a IMDreved a recognizing Bulgaria’s rights J Euy y RE 5 , over the terri tory. lying.east of „the Rhodope. mount The Bosnian “Pig War” touched every Serbian ains and: the Struma river, and. peasant in his pocket, and was a heavy blow similarly recognizing Serbia’s. rights to such Austrophil >

sentiments as still ing

read.’ Friction. hetwe

er Serbia and Austria: when in October r908 Baron Aehrepthal proclaimed the annexation of Bosnia-Hercegovina, without consulting the other

signatef. ori thees, Treaty of Berlin, on which

7

ational. erisis. that.: followed (Oct. Igo8-March

perth and west of the Sar mountains; The distri cts lying between these. limits, the Aegean -and

the Lake of Okhrida were to form “a. distinct autonomous Province,” but, should their partition prove inevitable, then Serbia under yonda line drawn. from the. Lake of took to make no claim beOkhri ka on the old ‘Furco-Bulgarian fronti da to near Kriva Palaner. and including. Skoplje, but not Manastir, Prilep, or Veles. In the event of a dispute the 4

THE WAR

ERA]

SERBIA

tsar was to act as arbitrator, and Bulgaria undertook to accept the more southerly line as its new frontier with Serbia if the tsar should decide in its favour. In the event of war Bulgaria undertook to place at least 200,000, Serbia at least 150,000 men in the field against Turkey. If either Turkey or Rumania attacked

Bulgaria, Serbia was to send 100,000 men to her aid, while she on her part must provide 200,000 men in support of Serbia in the event of an attack by Austria-Hungary. Internal disorder spread rapidly throughout Turkey-in-Europe after 1911; and the repressive policy adopted by the Committee of Union and Progress towards all non-Turks culminated in a reign of terror at the parliamentary elections of 1912, a recrudescence of Komitadji activities and a fresh Albanian rising. The premature death of Milovanović on July 1: both deprived Serbia of her ablest modern statesman, and removed one of the few restraining influences in any Balkan capital. On Sept. 12 Pašić, who placed almost unreserved reliance on Russian support, became premier at the head of a purely Old Radical cabinet. Nothing could now have arrested the growing anarchy in Turkey. Public opinion in Belgrade and Sofia was roused by a massacre of Bulgarians at Kočana on Aug. r. By the middle of the month Skoplje, and the entire district recognized by the secret treaty as Serbian, were in the hands of the insurgent Albanians. The proposals for reform put forward by Count Berchtold on Aug. 20 prompted the Balkan Allies to hasten their preparations, and before the Powers had taken any collective action, they mobilized almost simultaneously (Oct. 1). At the last moment the Porte announced its intention to enforce the Vilayet Law of 1880, which had from the first remained on paper. Soon after, the Powers addressed a conciliatory Note to Constantinople and simultaneously warned the Allies that even in the event of their victory no change in the territorial status quo would be tolerated. The four allies decided to precipitate events, and before any further Note could reach them, the King of Montenegro, by an act of undoubted collusion, declared war upon Turkey. On Oct. 13 the other three Balkan Governments presented to the

Porte a series of far-reaching demands, culminating in racial autonomy for all the nationalities of the Ottoman Empire; and four days later the Turks, without even deigning to answer the note, declared war on Serbia and Bulgaria (see BaALKAN Wars). The First War.—The rapid and overwhelming success of the Allies radically transformed the situation. By the end of Nov. Turkish rule in Europe was restricted to the Chatalja lines, the Gallipoli Peninsula and the three fortresses of Adrianople, Janina and Scutari. The Serbs in particular, after the victories of Kumanovo and Monastir, were in actual occupation of all Macedonia west of the Vardar and had reached the Adriatic at Durazzo and Medua. Kumanovo was much more than an ordinary victory.

It re-

stored to Serbia that self-confidence which had been so gravely shaken by the rebuffs and scandals of the previous 30 years; and throughout the Yugoslav provinces of Austria-Hungary it was hailed as an atonement for Serbia’s downfall on the field of Kosovo and as a pledge of her new mission as the Southern Slav Piedmont. Austria-Hungary at first adopted a waiting attitude, but as the Serbs approached the Adriatic she suddenly ordered a general mobilization, and suppressed all public expressions of feeling, while the official press of Vienna and Budapest adopted a menacing tone towards Serbia. Great prominence was given to the alleged insults offered to Prochaska, Austro-Hungarian Consul at Prizren, and for some weeks public opinion was allowed to believe that he had been shamefully mutilated by Serbian officers.

It only transpired long after that Prochaska had been entirely unmolested by the invaders, but had received definite instructions from Vienna. to create an “incident” such as might provide a pre-

347

status quo, exercised a moderating influence over Vienna in connection with the fourth renewal of the Triple Alliance (Dec. 7). Meanwhile, the success of the Balkan Allies, and the general

relief with which public opinion hailed the downfall of Turkish rule in Europe, led the Powers to accept the accomplished fact. The Turks, seeing themselves isolated in Europe, made overtures of peace as early as the rrth to King Ferdinand, who was not willing to consider them until his troops had been checked before Chatalja. The Conference of London.—The armistice of Dec. 3 was followed by a peace conference in London on Dec. 16, at which Serbia was represented by Novaković, Nikolić and Vesnić. After a month of fruitless negotiations, complicated by a revolution in Constantinople, the Balkan Delegates broke off the negotiations on Jan. 28. The Council of Ambassadors initiated by Sir Edward Grey continued to sit in London, and devoted especial attention to the Albanian problem and to the friction produced between Albanians and Serbs by the latter’s presence on the Adriatic. When war was resumed on Feb. 3 the brunt fell upon Buigaria, and the Serbs, being complete masters of Macedonia, were free to contribute 47,000 men anda siege train of 38 guns to the opera-

tions against Adrianople, which held out until March 26. The dispute which arose as to whether Shiikri Pasha had surrendered to the Bulgarians or to the Serbs was in itself quite unprofitable but was a symptom of the friction which was daily increasing between the two allies. The final phase of the war concentrated round Scutari, which Montenegro and Serbia made desperate efforts to reduce. Even the announcement that the Council of Ambassadors had definitely assigned Scutari to the new Albanian state, only strengthened the resolve of King Nicholas to create a fresh fait accompli. But Austria-Hungary upheld her veto, and on March 20 addressed a severe note to Montenegro and ‘dis-

patched a strong naval squadron to the Southern Adriatic. Realizing the danger of Austro-Hungarian intervention, the Powers on March 31 joined Vienna in ordering Montenegro to cease hostilities, and on her refusal established a naval blockade of her strip of coast. On April 23 Scutari surrendered to the Montenegrins, but the Powers, after a crisis of some weeks, eventually compelled the Montenegrins to surrender it to Admiral Burney, as commander of the international fleet. | Negotiations were resumed in London on May 20. By the Treaty of London (May 30, 1913) Turkey ceded to the four allies conjointly the island of Crete and all territory lying to the west of the Enos-Midia line, while the settlement of Albania and the Aegean Islands was referred to the Great Powers.

The Second Balkan War.—The Balkan Allies were now faced

by the thorny problem of dividing the spoils. Macedonian autonomy, which the treaty had laid down as the ideal solution, was, from the first abandoned by all parties. Between Bulgaria and Greece there was no territorial bargain, and no obvious means of reaching one, while Serbia as early as Jan. 23 formally raised the question of a revision of the Serbo-Bulgarian treaty. She claimed compensation for four reasons: (1) that she had furnished her ally with military support far in excess of her bargain; (2) that, she had absolved Bulgaria from her military obligations in Macedonia; (3) that she had loyally continued the war three months after her own work was done; and (4) that the acquisition of Adrianople by Bulgaria radically modified the basis upon which

the bargain rested. But if her attitude can be justified, 1t must be on the broader ground that Austria’s veto on her obtaining a,

port in Northern Albania had upset her whole basic calculation, leaving the Vardar valley her only possible alternative outlet; and this involved her retention of Veles, Prilep, Monastir and Okhrida

as well as the “disputed zone.”

E

E

, While Russia strained, every effort to avert a conflict, Bulgaria

text for action. The Austro-Hungarian Chief of Staff and War was encouraged by the openly Serbophobe tone of the official. press. Minister, Generals Conrad and Auffenberg, are known to have in Vienna and Budapest; and King Ferdinand had already ordered,

favoured a radical solution of the Southern Slav question by im-

General Savov to hasten. the. transference of the army from the

the emperor. and Francis Ferdinand .were averse to. war, and Germany, finding Italy restive as to any change in.the Balkan

resignation of the pacific GveSov. His successor Danev opposed the

mediate war with Serbia; and similar views were held by the lead- ‘Thracian to the Macedonian front, when on May 27, Pagic, under ing Ballplatz officials, Macchio, Kanya, and Forgács. But both pressure from the Serbian Opposition, publicly committed his

Government to the demand for treaty revision. This hastened the

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348

that the Premiers should meet at St. Petersburg, concontended that Russia had already prejudged the case by even ary. a-Hung Austri upon ingly increas relied and n, revisio g siderin y Serbia and Greece, realizing the danger, concluded first a militar convention, and then a definite treaty of alliance for ten years y (June 1). While the first of these provided for mutual militar support in case of a Bulgarian attack upon either ally, the second extended the casns foederis to an attack bya third Power. Both the wording and tbe events of the moment make it clear that the intenion

tion was to guard against an Austro-Hungarian attack upon Serbia. The tsar’s personal appeal to thekings of Serbia and Bulgaria in the name of “the Slav Cause,” fell on deaf ears (June 3). On

June 13 Bulgaria rejected the proposal of the Powers in favour of parallel demobilization, and her attitude stiffened still further after the speech of the new Hungarian premier, Count Tisza, who emphasized the right of the Balkan States to settle differences in their own way—ever by war—and declared that Austria-Hungary

could net allow any other Power to acquire special prerogatives in the Peninsula (June 19). Danev rejected Russia’s fresh proposals for a compromise and reiterated the demand for the joint occupation of Macedonia. With Sazonov’s sharp reply bidding Bulgaria to expect nothing

more from Russia, St. Petersburg’s influence over Sofia ended. On the night of June 29, without previous declaration of war, the Bulgarian armies made an almost simultaneous attack upon the Serbs and Greeks in the bope of seizing and holding the coveted districts of Macedonia until the foreign intervention which King Ferdinand believed to be imminent settled the dispute on a basis of besti possidentes. This is borne out, not merely by captured dispatches, but by the fact that when Putnik’s forces everywhere held their own, Savov on July 1 telegraphed the order to stop

hostilities. But that very afternoon the Serbian counter-offensive opened, and after a desperate struggle of nine days on the Bregalnica front (July 1-9), the Bulgarians were obliged to abandon the whole Oviéepolje, the strategic key to central Macedonia. The Treaty of Bucharest—By July 17 the Serbs had forced

back the Bulgarians at all points to the frontier of 1912, and could henceforth adopt a mainly defensive attitude, while Greeks, Rumamians and Terks continmed to advance. The appeals of Sofia

to the Powers tọ enforce upon Turkey respect for a treaty condaded under their anspices were disregarded; and Western public pinion was not inclined to save Bulgaria from the consequences

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trated The Albanian Conflicts.—Austria-Hungary now concen acute more still ed render y thereb and a, Albani her attention upon ns adthe :elations between Serbs and Albanians. The summoawal of withdr dressed to Belgrade by the Great Powers for the trouble. the Serbian troops (Aug. 19) was a signal for further the and rising, an Albani ble formida a was there Sept. Late in and forced Serbia to , Okhrida even insurgents seized Dibra and peremptory remobilize. In October the Serbs, in response to a but sent demand from Austria-Hungary, withdrew their troops, enjoin to them g beggin , an effective Note to the Great Powers created rs frontie the for respect a s protégé an Albani upon their ; for their benefit. y was territor new the in n situatio the 1913 as Christm By to be much left tration adminis its rapidly becoming normal, but of desired, and the closing of Bulgarian schools, the expulsion Moslem the against excesses l occasiona and Exarchist clergy population caused serious unrest and discontent. The Pašić administration became absorbed in defending itself against the increasingly violent onslaughts of the Opposition, which on March against alleged , IQI4, withdrew from the Chamber as a protestbudget matters. in Government the of nal action ea But though the tension was increased by the activities of a powerful military society known colloquially as “The Black Hand,” and by the seizure of its club premises by the Minister of the Interior, Protić, the Government was still in office in the summer. The visit of Crown Prince Alexander and Pašić to St. Petersburg early in February had given rise to rumours of a new Balkan League under Russian auspices; but the return of Radoslavov to power in Sofa had really made any such plan impracticable. Murder of the Archduke.—On June 24 King Peter, incapacitated by ill-health, appointed Prince Alexander as regent, and simultaneously dissolved parliament, Pašić having in April pledged himself to the elections for a “Great Skupština” for constitutional changes. Only four days later the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife at Sarajevo revived the latent Austro-Serbian conflict in an acuter form than ever.

The authors

of the crime, Princip and Cabrinovié, belonged to a group of Bosnian Serb students, mostly under the age of 20, who gave ter-

rorist expression to the universal discontent aroused by Austro-

Hungarian repression throughout her Yugoslav provinces. The victories of Serbia during the Balkan Wars and the openly hostile policy pursued towards her by Vienna and Budapest had assured

to her in the eyes of public opinion the position of a Yugoslav Piedmont. Though the initiative unquestionably rested with the Balkan activities of any outside Power and was determined to Bosnians. themselves, it was proved that the assassins had been pen, compensation, and Germany, who feared the loss of in Belgrade and had been secretly smuggled across the Drina into unig fer the Triple Alliance and the consequent derangement Bosnia, after receiving hand grenades and revolvers from the military balance in Europe. Italy indeed made it clear to Serbian Komitadjis Major Tankosić and Ciganović. On these Vienna’ that she would not recognize the casus foederis of the facts the Ballplatz sought to establish the complicity, or at least Triple Alliance as applicable to such a case; and the combined the foreknowledge, of the Serbian Government, yet despite the pressure © ome and Berlin, coupled with the certainty of Rus- compromising admissions of Ljuba Jovanovié, the theory is imsian aid toSerbia, again averted war at the last moment. Bulgaria probable. The country itself was exhausted by two wars; the Alwas forced to sign an armistice on July 3r and to open peace banian campaign in the previous autumn had shown the reluctance of the peasant soldiers to return to the colours, and it was now the negotiations at Bucharest with her four Christian neighbours. By theTreaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10) Serbia acquired all Mace- eve of harvest. Military stocks were alarmingly low; the young donia west of the Vardar, and to the east the districts of Štip Prince had only just assumed the reins of government: the posi(istib) and Kočana: Bulgaria retained possession of a dangerous tion of the Cabinet was shaky, and a fierce electoral campaign salient at Strumnica, which enabled her to threaten Serbia’s only was opening. Delicate negotiations with Montenegro for a cusrailway connection with the Aegean, The Treaty of Constan- toms and military union, and perhaps even a dynastic arrangetinople, which was concluded between Bulgaria and Turkey (Sept. ment, were still pending. Serbia had every conceivable motive for 29) and deprived the former of the greater part of Thrace, did not avoiding aggressive action. After the tragedy, it is difficult to see directly concern Serbia; but the indifference shown by her and what other course her Government could have pursued; its one her new allies, and still more by Britain and Russia, to Turkey’s grave omission was failure to offer a thorough inquiry, without violation of a treaty which was their joint work, and indeed was waiting for any suggestion from Vienna. morally binding upon them, was to be dearly paid for by Bul- _ Ultimatum to Serbia.—The secret of the ultimatum was garia’s attitude in the World War. The treaties marked a new jealously guarded, and the long delay created, as was intended, a orientation inthe Near East. Slav co-operation was replaced by false sense of security in some quarters. Its delivery at Belgrade,

of ber own act. Meanwhile Austria-Hungary was held back from rT

ee tox by both her allties—Italy,

who viewed with alarm

the

mutual hatred, which threw defeated Bulgaria into the arms of which took ‘place at 6 p.m. on July 23, was carefully timed for Turkey and predisposed both for alliance with Berlin; Rumanid’s the moment after President Poincaré’s departure from St. Peters-

ties with the Triple Aliance were sensibly loosened, while’ Greece burg after his state visit; the object being to disorganize the diplowas drawn in two directions by dynastic attractions and party macy of the allies. The ultimatum; after reminding the Serbian ramcours.-

Government’ of ‘its formal undertakings of March

31, 1909,

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charged itwith “culpable tolerance” of terrorist propaganda directed against Austria-Hungary, and accused Serbian officers and

functionaries of planning the Sarajevo murders. It therefore demanded that the Narodna Odbrana and any similar society guilty ! of anti-Austrian propaganda should be dissolved, that objectionable passages should be expunged from Serbian educational works, that all officers or officials whom Austria-Hungary might name as guilty of propaganda should be dismissed, and that the Belgrade Government should not merely arrest certain specified persons charged with complicity, but should order the trial of others, allow Austro-Hungarian delegates to take part in the inquiry and accept the collaboration of Austro-Hungarian officials “in the suppression of the subversive movement.” The general impression produced by this document upon European opinion is best summarized in the words of Sir E. Grey, who telegraphed the next day to Sir M. de Bunsen that he “had never before seen one State address to another independent State a document of so formidable a character.” The fifth demand in particular, that of collaboration, he pointed out, “would be hardly consistent with the maintenance of Serbia’s independent sovereignty.” None the less, Serbia in her reply actually consented to “such collaboration as agrees with the principle of international law, with criminal procedure and with good neighbourly relations.” Only on one point did she reply definitely in the negative—the share of Austro-Hungarian officials in the actual inquiry would, it was argued, be a violation of the Constitution and the criminal code; but even this could be met by “communications in concrete cases.” As a final proof of sincerity, Serbia offered to submit any outstanding points to the decision of The Hague Tribunal or even to the Great Powers which had imposed upon her the declaration of March 31, 1909. Thus Serbia for the third time in six years offered to submit herself to the verdict of The Hague (the two previous occasions being the Bosnian crisis and the Friedjung trial), and each time Austria-Hungary rejected the proposal. Austria-Hungary had left a period of 48 hours for either reply or mediation. The official documents published in Berlin and Vienna since the war make it abundantly clear that the Ballplatz deliberately couched the note in such terms as to be unacceptable. They also reveal that even William II. (to judge from his marginal notes) was impressed by the moderation of the Serbs, regarded Vienna’s essential wishes as fulfilled and expressed the view that Gies] ought to have remained in Belgrade. His ministers, however, had failed to support Sir E. Grey’s proposal for a prolongation of the time limit, and were thus responsible for bringing Russia into action. On July 27 the tsar replied to a despairing appeal of the prince regent for assistance to Serbia by a telegram strongly urging him to “neglect no step which might lead to a settlement,” but conveying the assurance that “Russia will in no case disinterest herself in the fate of Serbia.” On July 28 Austria-Hungary formally declared war upon Serbia. Henceforward the Austro-Serbian quarrel is merged in the larger diplomatic conflict between Alliance and Entente; and the reader may be referred to the special articles dealing with that subject. Opening of the World War.—When Baron Giesl presented the ultimatum, Pašić had been absent electioneering in the provinces; but he at once returned to Belgrade, and on July ‘25 mobilization was ordered, and the seat of government and the archives were hastily transferred to Niš. In view of so grave a crisis elections became impossible, and as parliamentary sanction was more than ever necessary, the Government was forced to ignore the fact of dissolution and to call the previous SkupStina once more into existence. At its first meeting in Niš on Aug. I, the entire Opposition endorsed the Government's action, and for

the moment party life was in abeyance. But after Serbia’s early military successes, the enforced evacuation of Belgrade (Nov. 29) brought the latent political crisis to a head. On Dec. 13 the purely

349

This was the first public step of Serbia in favour of Yugoslav unity. The brilliant offensive initiated on Dec. 2 by General Mišić and the I. Army cleared Serbian soil for the third time from invaders, and an enormous booty was captured. But the enemy left deadly infection behind him, and by the early spring of 1915 exhausted Serbia was immobilized by a typhus epidemic which is estimated to have caused about 300,000 deaths among the civil population. Serbia’s negative réle during 1915 was due not only to exhaustion but to considerations of high policy. Meanwhile the Entente was eagerly working for the intervention of Italy and of Bulgaria, neither of whom could receive adequate satisfaction save at the expense of Serbian aspirations. During the winter pressure was repeatedly brought to bear upon Niš to make territorial concessions to Bulgaria in Macedonia; but the one and only condition upon which Serbia could safely have considered this— namely, that the Allies should guarantee Yugoslav unity in the event of victory—was precluded by their parallel negotiations with Italy, whose official policy it was to prevent, not to further Yugoslav unity, and to whom by the Treaty of London, concluded on April 26, 1915, no less than 700,000 Yugoslavs were assigned. The fact that the concealment of this treaty from Serbia was made an absolute condition by Rome did not tend to diminish the reserve of Belgrade, which almost immediately learned the essential facts through St. Petersburg. The Serbs were more conscious than ever of the value to them of the Vardar valley, which would form part of any serious concessions to Bulgaria, whom they also believed to be tied to Vienna and Berlin by a secret compact. They were further handicapped by the attitude of Greece, who in the autumn of 1914 exercised her right of veto, under the Serbo-Greek Treaty, upon any cession of territory to Bulgaria and was prepared to demand Monastir as compensation. After the Dardanelles failure Bulgaria leaned increasingly towards Germany, and the concrete proposals addressed to Sofia by the Entente on May 28, over Serbia’s head, came two months too late.

The Conquest of Serbia.—On Sept. 6 Bulgaria concluded a

secret alliance with the Central Powers. Meanwhile the Serbian Government was unduly optimistic as to Greek and Rumanian intervention, and its disbelief in a German invasion was encouraged by Allied military opinion, which clung obstinately to the illusion that Bulgaria might enter on the Entente side, and therefore vetoed the Serbian general staff’s plan for an Immediate attack upon Sofia before the Bulgarian army was ready (Sept. 27). Next day Sir Edward Grey in the House of Commons announced that in the event of Bulgaria’s aggression, “our friends in the Balkans’? would receive help “without reserve and without qualification.” Relying on the fulfilment of this pledge, the Serbs devoted their main effort to checking the Austro-German advance and remained on the defensive towards Bulgaria. The danger was increased by King Constantine’s repudiation of Greece’s treaty obligations towards Serbia and the overthrow of Venizelos. That statesman, however, had inquired of the Allies as early as Sept. 23 whether, if Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, and if Greece asked Serbia to supply the 150,000 men stipulated by the SerboGreek Treaty for such a contingency, France and Britain would assume Serbia’s obligation for her; and an affirmative answer was received within 48 hours. On Oct. 6 the rupture with Bulgaria was complete. The fatal delays in sending the promised troops, coupled with Allied in-

sistence that the Serbs should hold back Mackensen to the last moment, belong to military history; but their results were eminently political. At the critical moment of the Bulgarian menace to the Nig-Salonika railway there were at Salonika not 150,000 Allied troops ready for action, but 35,000 French and 13,000 British, the latter under strict injunctions from London not to

cross the frontier into Serbia (see General Sarrail, Mon ComRadical cabinet was succeeded by a Coalition Government, in mandement en Orient, p. 27). Niš was decorated to welcome which Pašić remained Premier, but the leaders of all parties save Allies who never came. The whole Serbian plan of campaign the Liberals received portfolios. It was, however, in this blackest week that the Skupština unanimously endorsed the Government’s declaration that its foremost war aim was “the liberation and union of all our Serb, Croat and Slovene brethren not yet set free.”

collapsed, and the armies, losing control of the railway .south-

wards, retired precipitately through the passes leading to the plain of Kosovo. General Sarrail, informed: that he maust. not expect reinforcements, was forced to arrest his belated, offensive

350

SERBIA

northwards (Nov. 12) and soon to withdraw to the west of the Vardar. The Serbs were thus cut off from Allied help, lost Skoplje and only just escaped being cut off between the converging Austro-~German and Bulgarian armies. The final retreat of the Serbian Army and Government across the inhospitable snowy mountains of Albania and Montenegro stands out as one of the great tragedies of the war. After dreadful sufferings the fugitives were conveyed by Allied transports to Corfu, which for the remainder of the war became the seat of the Serbian Government and a base for the convalescence and reorganization of the army. Notable assistance was rendered by British voluntary units, and some idea of the generous response

of the British public to Serbia’s need may be gathered from the fact that the Serbian Relief Fund from first to last collected over £1,000,000, in money and material, and employed over 700 workers in Serbia, Albania, Corfu, Salonika, Corsica, Biserta and France: while the Scottish Women’s Hospitals, under Dr. Elsie Inglis, performed notable services for the Serbs both on the Balkan and the Russian fronts. Conquered Serbia was divided for administrative purposes between Ausiria~-Hungary and Bulgaria; all that remained to the Serbs was a fragment of territory south of Monastir. Bulgaria, officially declaring the Serbian State to have ceased to exist, enrelied all men of military age throughout the occupied territory,

amd in Feb. 1917 extended this to include the whole male population. It refused to recognize the Serbian Red Cross and seized the Serbian Legation in Sofia; all Serbian schools, law courts and inscriptions were Bulgarized, libraries and collections were either destroyed or removed to Bulgaria, the Serbian clergy were evicted or executed. A formidable rising in the mountains behind Kursemlje was brutally repressed, with over 2,000 executions (March

1917). The war aims now repeatedly avowed by Sofia were the annexation not only of Macedonia, but of Kosovo, Prizren and the whole upper Morava and Timok valleys; a common frontier with Humgary; and the prevention of Yugoslav unity. Radoslavov

more than once proclaimed Bulgaria’s resolve to keep all her con-

quests (see Vossische Zeitung, Oct. 10, 1916), and his official exgans declared that Serbia’s reconstitution, “no matter under what form, would be a perpetual menace to Balkan peace.” Austria-Hungary showed much greater reserve, airing from time to time various alternative schemes for a vassal Southern Slav State wader the Habsburgs, keeping Prince Mirko of Montenegro as a possible candidate for His throne and employing agents in Switzerland te saw dissension among the exiles. The Serbs in Exile.—Soon after the establishment of the Sertian Government at Corfu party rivalries began to revive. The deputies were scattered, an Independent press was impossible and regular Allied subsidies made the Government virtually immune from serious democratic control. The supersession of the Voivode

7

and almost alf his staff caused great indignation; and

tbough the whole Serbian Coalition must bear the responsibility, it was known to be the work of Pašić and his colleague Protić,

then still out of office. In Aug. 1916 an attempt is alleged to have been made upon the life of the prince regent at the front, and the

Government proceeded in the winter--while the joint advance

under Sarrail was crowned by the capttixe of Monastir from the

Bulgarians—to order numerous arrests on a charge of conspiracy

and murder. The conspiracy trial which opened in Salonika’ in Jan. 1927, and was conducted behind the shelter of a strict

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|Cabinet, and its reconstruction on a purely Old Radical basis under Pašić and Protić. The last occasion when all parties co-operated was on July 20, 1917, when the Declaration of Corfu, drawn up between Trumbić for the Yugoslav Committee and Pašić for tbe Serbian Government, met with unanimous approval. It affirms that the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes constitute a single nation, and demands complete national unity under the Karagjorgjević dynasty, a constitutional democratic and parliamentary monarchy and the reference of all details to a Constituent Assembly after tbe war. Pašić, having strengthened his position abroad by a visit to Paris and London, declined to convoke parliament for four months after the legal period had expired. At last, as the result of a direct appeal of its president to the Crown, it met in Corfu on Feb. 12, 1918, and the Government resigned, but after weeks of fruitless negotiation for a Coalition Ministry was allowed to resume office. In April, the Opposition, which numbered 60 as against 64 Old Radicals, withdrew in a body from the Chamber, thus leaving the Government without the quorum of 84 required by the Serbian Constitution. During the spring and summer of 1918 there was acute tension among the rival Serbian groups, and the real initiative in the Yugoslav question and in the political campaign against AustriaHungary passed to Trumbić, Beneš, Lansing and the Allies and to the leaders of the movement inside the Dual Monarchy. On April 8, 1918, a “Congress of the Oppressed Nationalities of Austria-Hungary” was opened in Rome, based on the agreement reached a month earlier in London between Trumbić, om behalf of the Yugoslav Committee, and Andrea Torre, representing an influential committee of Italian deputies and senators. The result was immediate in two directions. The propaganda organized on the Italian front by the various national committees led to wholesale defections from the Austro-Hungarian army, and contributed materially, according to the high command’s own admission, to the failure of the last Piave offensive in June. Meanwhile the Roman Congress was deliberately imitated inside the Dual Monarchy by an imposing Congress at Prague: it was attended by Czech, Polish, Rumanian, Slovak and Yugoslav delegates—among the latter Radic and Pribicevi¢é—and adopted a pledge of mutual support in the cause of unity and independence. During 1918 the initiative among the Yugoslavs of the Monarchy fell more and more into the hands of the Slovenes, led by Father KoroSec. The official recognition accorded to the Pact of Rome by Lansing in the name of America (May 31) was a fresh encouragement; and Korošec, after constituting a Yugoslav National Council for the furtherance of unity, convoked a new Slav Congress at Ljubljana on Aug. 18, at which the Catholic hierarchy and ‘clergy took a prominent part. In the early autumn, at the Emperor Charles’s instance, Count Tisza visited Zagreb, Sarajevo and Dalmatia with the object of promoting a Hungarian solution of the Southern Slav question, but met everywhere with a blank

refusal.

After the surrender of Bulgaria (Sept. 30) the Czech

and Yugoslav spokesmen in the Reichsrat were still less conciliatory and insisted on separate representation at the peace negotiations and the absolute right to decide their own future state allegiance.

The Collapse of Austria-Hungary.—Events now followed

each other with lightning speed. On Oct. 4 Austria-Hungary in a note to America accepted President Wilson’s speeches as a basis military censorship, resulted in a death sentence upon nine Ser- ef discussion, and on the 8th Baron Hussarek admitted that the bian officers, and notably of Colonel Dimitrievié (¢.v.), bead of Monarchy’s internal structure must be modified and “full-grown the “Black Hand.” There is no doubt that Dimitrievié favoured nations” determine their own future. This only precipitated the a military conp d'état against his Radical enemies, and that he had collapse, and while Count Tisza voiced Hungarian public opinion bis band in the Sarajevo murder; but the evidence for a plot in declaring the basis of the Dual system to be shattered, the against Prince Alexander was clearly inadequate, and he was the Yugoslav National Council was transplanted from Ljubljana to

victim of rival military and political cliques. This- trial revived` Zagreb and. strengthened by the inclusion of representatives of

all the old party dissensions: the reactionaries had triumphed on

the very eve of the collapsè of their chief support, the Tsarist . Government. Pašić found himself between two fires—the need for a more democratic restatement of foreign policy, and the demand

allparties’ (Oct. 10). On the 16th the Hungarian Government declared in favour of Personal Union, and next day Hussarek pub-

lished an Imperial Proclamation, dated Oct. 16, dividing Austria:

(not Austria-Hungary) into four federal units (German, Czech, of the Young Radical and ive parties for á revision of Yugoslav and Ukrainian), and leaving the Poles to make their own the Salonika trial. Refusal led to their withdrawal from the decision, Korošec, in the name of the Czech and Yugoslav Clubs

SERBIAN

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CAMPAIGNS

that the unreservedly rejected this stillborn project and claimed m which only future of both nations was an international proble the Peace Conference could solve. Henceforth the Yugoslavs acted independently of both Vienna

t Wiland Budapest; and when on Oct. 21 the news of Presiden g to (refusin Note Peace final Buridn’s Count to son’s answer lovak and negotiate save on the basis of a recognition of Czechos the old Yugoslav national claims) became generally known,

took régime vanished almost as if by magic. Extraordinary scenes badges place in many towns, the troops tearing off their military National with the Habsburg arms and trampling them underfoot.

Bosnia, which councils were speedily formed in Dalmatia and northwards arranged for the disarmament of the troops pouring As early as the fronts. nian Macedo and n Albania broken the from d the Magyar 23rd a Croat regiment stationed in Fiume disarme the 24th Count militia and took possession of the town. On but the machinery Andrassy was appointed Joint Foreign Minister, n and Hungarian Austria the both and work, to of State had ceased Cabinets were in statu demissionis. over its On the 28th, the military command in Zagreb handed proDiet the day next and , Council al authority to the Nation ry and assumed claimed the independence of Croatia from Hunga Cattaro were already control of Fiume. The arsenals of Pola and or Charles, in the Emper the and nts; in the hands of the insurge in Zagreb hope either of winning the favour of the new régime Entente, the and it n betwee discord of apple an ng or throwi Austro-Hunsigned a decree on Oct. 31 making over the whole interpreted was garian fleet to the Yugoslav State—a step which on between Zagreb by the Italian Nationalists as a proof of collusi and Vienna. me Council in On the other hand, the action of the Supre

eme Council, Much of the blame falls upon the Supr allaying friction of means ive effect only the from which shrank disputed zone, pending the immediate Allied occupation of the decision of the Peace Conference. Entente towards The Union.—The equivocal attitude of the ment of the fulfil a upon ence insist the new State, and Italy’s union. On of ss proce Treaty of London, naturally hastened the union of the aimed procl il Counc nal Natio b Nov. 23 the Zagre a and Serbi of oms kingd the with ol the territories under its contr t of Serbia to assume regen e princ the d invite and , negro Monte ion (passed with only the regency of the new State. This decis Stephen Radić, the pily, unhap one dissentient voice, but that, r, when Prince Alexpeasant leader) took formal effect on Dec. from Zagreb, proates deleg 24 of st reque l ander, at the forma edly convoked hurri a 26 Nov. on claimed the union. Meanwhile

and Fiume.

proclaimed the deposition National Assembly at Podgorita had the union of Montenegro and ty dynas his and of King Nicholas first Yugoslav Cabinet The State. with Serbia in the new united and Korošec as Viceer Premi as ć Proti under d itute was const er; other portfolios Minist gn Forei e becam ić Premier; Trumb Serbia and the new en betwe y were divided more or less equall (X.) ories. territ

chte der Serben (to 1537, Berrocrarnmy.—General: C. Jireček, Geschischaft im miéttelalterlichen Gesell 2 vol. z913 and 1917), and Staat und geburt des serbischen Staates Serbien: S. Novaković, Die Wieder résurrection de la Serbie (2nd (1912); G. Yakshitch, L'Europe et la Serbia (1917); Jovan ed, 1919); H. W. V. Temperley, History of Jovanović, DefendSlobodan ; (1919) balkanique Cvijić, La Péninsule Milos and Michael of Reign d Secon The Constitution, ers of the , King Milan (1927); Z. (1923), The Reign of Prince Milan (1925) vols. 1923-25) (the five latter (4 Serbia of y Histor cal Politi vié, Zivano Diplomaticus, Nationalism and in Serbian). On the Balkan Wars see Seton-Watson, The Rise of War in the Near East (1925)3 R. W. Immanuel, Der Balkankrieg s (1917); Balkan Nationality in the of Treaty Secret Brégalnttsa (1913). Paris in prescribing the frontier line of the ; H. Barby, Les victoires serbes (1913) ands of To-Day (ed. J Austro-Hungarian (1913) history see Yugoslavia in The Nation avia (1923). recent London as the line of occupation under the On as a breach with Buchan 1923) and H. Baerlein, The Birth of Yugosl Armistice was keenly resented by the Yugoslavs R. W. Seton-Watson, The d that the insiste ly proper On the movement for Jugoslav unity see ed German edition 1913); very Allies The les. Wilsonian princip enlarg much (1911; on but before this could Southern Slav Questi ieg (1928, fleet must be surrendered into their hands, nd, Die siidslawische Frage und der Weltkr Pola harbour, the L. von Siidla awen um Freiheit in ed Siidsl der occurr nt Kempf incide Der , able Wendel deplor a nn place Herma ; take phil) ed survey, and Aus dem mine, with a Yugo- Austro und Einheit (1925), an admirable andOndetail ‘“Viribus Unitis” being blown up by an Italian the murder and the Black y . frankl (1920) o’s Sonnin imento Risorg Baron n Italy In wische südsla slav admiral and crew on board. ; 5. Stanojević, Die the Pact of Rome Hand see R. W. Seton-Watson, Sarajevo (1926) t anti-Slav attitude threw Signor Orlando and to prevent Yugo- Ermordung des Erzherzogs (1923); B. Jevtic, Sarajevski Atenta hard of Sarajevo (1924); Tajna into the shade; and the Consulta worked (1924); Ljuba J ovanović, Tke Murderminutes of Black Hand Trial), zacija (Salonica 1918, slavia’s recognition by the Allies. war origins see A. F. Prihad not already For Serbia’s relation to the question of Rival Programmes.—tThat this recognition 1879-1914 (2 vol, Harngary ia-Hu Austr of was es l Powers began bram, The Secret Treati German‘ diplomatic and an I Austri been accorded before the collapse of the Centra of tions collec war lves. Pašić, free vard) ; the postH. Kanner, Kaiserdue to disunion among the Yugoslavs themseparliamentary con- documents; R. W. Seton-Watson, Sarajevo (1926);vić, Kriegsursachen all Bogiče from M. and ; on (1922) coaliti a k of politi nts rophen restrai the from y liche ;Katast (1925) and J. M. Baernsteadil iege and Weltkr oint, im standp ki rb Iswols Pan-Se l Stieve, F. origina (1919) trol, had reverted to his ches, ed. J. Redlich (1928) Yugoslav basis. , Fragmente eines politischen anTagebu declined to reconstruct his Cabinet on a wider Serbian Cabinet reither relations. See also 3 ‘articles ‘by -Serbi Austro for ance import first of y’s Balkan Policy,” “Italy and Trumbić on his part could not enter a purely ”). riots in Seton-Watson in Slavonic Review (‘“Ital

of his compat without prejudicing that freedom of choice case of the Yugoslavs Dual Monarchy upon which the moral

Policy and “Wiliam I.s B the Secret Treaty of London” Southe rn Slav Library (8 pamphlets see The

For the war period the , Ceux dont on dismissal of the Yugoslav Committee 1915-18); '¥. Kuhne par eux-mêmes peints depended. A series of incidents, such as PaSic’sfor their Yugoslav publishedle by es Bulgar Les and (1911) martyre ignore (Zagreb, Serbian Ministers in London and Washington be not merely per- Go) ; F. Barac, Croats and Slovenes Friends of the Entente Paulov a, to k Milada outloo also ; of ents) nce docum differe l the origina proved ant import ent, sentim contains officially rec- 1919, ovensk r authoritative account of, the Balfou an 9 1923, Aug. b, on (Zagre When Odbor i ental. Jugosl sonal but fundam avia l as “trustees of the exiles and their policy) and Seton-Watson, Fhe Making of Yugosl ognized the Czechoslovak National Counci , in Serbian only). See also Zagreb , a Evropa Nova extend in to s article ready of was (series future Czechoslovak Governmen 2? he (ed: H. W. V. Temperley,*vol. 4). but as a preliminary History of the Peace Conference (R W. S.-W)», . ' similar recognition to the Yugoslav cause, g L a unanimity between 1914 operaThe ). -1915 (1914 S. condition he very reasonably insisted upongroups of . Yugoslavs. AIGN SERBIAN CAMP rival the ent below, repres to described are d rors in claime Serbia of. est those who together was unavail- tions and the conqu operations in Macedonia, d Allie the of But every effort to bring Pašić and Trumbić given is nt accou an rival statesmen moved while uest of, Serbia, under the. heading ing, and when in the last week of Oct. the recognition before the 1915-8, and of the reconq mg! av Yugosl Snog Woga of hope all Paris, to n Londo from ing in the SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS. .

stiffen Peace Conference had vanished, owing to the T a Su attitude of Italy.

rnment urgently ‘To meet the impending danger, the Zagreb Gove during the

invited. the assistance of the Serbian army, which

T. 1914 CAMPAIGN , i

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them and the Italians most dangerous situation arose between partially mitigated very in Istria and Dalmatia, which was ‘only to Trieste

forces by the dispatch of American military and naval

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plans of concentration. he first plan, in Alternative Austro-Hungarian Plans.—T ion t Serbia and Montenegro, called Concentrat case of war agains

352

SERBIAN

CAMPAIGNS

B (Balkan), involved the employment of seven corps. The second in-chief bad greatly underestimated the military value of the pian, in case of war with Russia and Serbia, called Concentration forces opposed to him, while, on the Serbian side, Putnik’s manR (Russia), involved the employment against Russia of nine agement of his forces and his choice of the moment and place corps; against Serbia and Montenegro of a minimum group of of counter-attack were masterly. Syrmian Operation, and Drina Battle——Meanwhile, no three corps and the formation of a reserve (four corps) which could be directed as required towards the Russian frontier or those events had taken place on the northern front east of Obrenovac other than the evident withdrawal of the Austrian IT. Army. of Serbia and Montenegro. Convinced at first that they would have to deal only with the Putnik decided to throw his I. Army across the Sava into Syrmia southern Slavs, Austria~-Hungary ordered, on July 26, the partial in order to secure the line Mitrovica-FruSka range—Danube to mobilization required for Concentration B; but, owing to com- Semlin and Belgrade. This would enable the Serbs to invade plications with Russia, general mobilization was proclaimed on Bosnia without fear of a sudden attack on their north flank and July 31. To avoid confusion, the Austro-Hungarian staff decided rear. After making good crossings on the night of Sept. 5-6, the to allow Concentration B to be completed before withdrawing I. Army occupied Semlin and was progressing towards its objecthe reserve provided for in plan R. Serbian Mobilization.—The Serbian general mobilization, tive when the situation on the Drina front caused its recall. For, ordered on July 25, yielded 490,000 men at the outset, and some on the Austrian side, Potiorek was reorganizing his forces for a 43,000 more between August and September. Montenegro de- new thrust across the Drina. His VIII., XIII., XV. and the major clared war on Austria-Hungary on Aug. 5, 1914. Her forces part of his XVI. Corps bordered the Drina from the Sava to amounted to about 50,000 militia with very little artillery, and Ljubovija. Potiorek’s second offensive opened on the night of Sept. 7-8. were of no direct assistance to Serbia, though they occupied the attention of three Austrian mountain brigades. Circumstances In the north the VIII. Corps only succeeded in securing a bridgecompelled Serbia to adopt a purely defensive strategy. Her army, bead at Parašnica, but in the south the IV. and the right of the commanded by the Crown Prince Alexander, with Voivode Putnik XIII. Corps crossed in force between Zvornik and Ljubovija, as chief of staff, was therefore concentrated in a central position driving back the Serbian left. By the 11th, the situation was enabling it to operate either towards the Sava and Danube or serious enough to compel Serbian G.H.Q. to order the transfer of towards the Drina. the I. Army from Syrmia to Valjevo-Pecka. On the 13th, the After the withdrawal according to Concentration R of the Austrian XIII. Corps threatened to cut the Serbian line in two, Austrian II. Army, the Serbs bad a superiority not only in num- į but, on Sept. 16, a strong counter-attack was launched by the I. bers but also in quality, go% of them having fought in the 1912—13 Army against the Austrian right. Even so, the Serbs barely sucwars, and three-quarters of their guns being better than the ceeded in holding up the invaders, whom they failed to drive back Austrians’. On the other hand, Austria’s equipment and resources over the rivers. Meanwhile the UZice Army and the Montenegrins in ammunition were far superior. had successfully undertaken a series of operations designed to preJadar Operations, and Cer Battle: Aug. 16-24.—North pare the way for the offensive over the Drina, but, being foreSerbia is a mountainous country, devoid of good communications, stalled by the Austrian attack, they had no practical results. particularily in the northwest, whilst the actual frontier was Kolubara and Rudnik Operations.—The Serbs suffered formed on the north by the formidable obstacle of the Danube severely from the unfamiliar conditions of trench warfare and a and Sawa, on tbe west by the Drina, a river not very broad but shortage of ammunition, and Potiorek decided to make a third swift and difficult to bridge. The plan for the invasion of Serbia, attack, although winter was near at hand. The new offensive drawn up by Conrad von Hötzendorf and Moltke in consulta- opened with an attack in the Matva, which drove back the Serbs tion, involved a concentric advance from all fronts, but was to the line Dobrava-Cer ridge. The main Austrian attack, how! vitiated by the withdrawal of the IT. Army. Potiorek, however, ever, again took place in the Zvornik area, where the Serbian who feared an advance of the Serbs over the Drina to excite centre had to be withdrawn. Putnik, after attempting to cover insurrection among their kinsmen in Bosnia, launched, on his Valjevo, decided to try and hold up the Austrian advance on the own responsibility, a preventive offensive. so-called “Kolubara line.” The weather was terrible, but the AusOn the night of Aug. 11-12, the Austrian V. Army (VIII. and trians, pushing along the Maljen ridge, attacked on the 17th, and XIM. Corps} and elements of IV. and EX. Corps from the II. drove the Serbs off that ridge. The Austrian left made good the Army began to cross on a wide front from Drenovac on the Sava passage of the Lower Kolubara by the 25th. to Ljubovija on the Middle Drina, successfully driving back the Putnik now resolved to give up Belgrade and to fight for time Serbian frontier detachments. The Serbians moved to oppose so as to last out until the arrival of ammunition enabled him to the enemy, and by the evening of the zsth their IL. Army occu- launch a counter-offensive. He therefore withdrew his forces paed positions on a Hne south of Šabac, across the Cer and Iverak during the night of Nov. 29-30 to a line with its flanks resting at mdges and the Jadar valley, connecting with their ITI. Army who Obrenovac and on the Lower Morava, its centre on the Rudnik had moved forward from Valjevo to Zavlaka and Krupanj, Their Massif. The Austrians entered Belgrade on Dec. x. I.Army had taken over the whole northern front as far as On the arrival of mumitions Putnik undertook a counter-offenObrenovac. i sive; it opened on Dec. 3 with an attack of the I. Army under On the 16th, after severe fighting, the Austrian XIII. Corps MiSic, which drove a deep wedge in the enemy lines.. Further drove HI. Army, cap- |} north the II. and ITI. Armies made little À back the left and centre of the Serbian progress at first, the | behind road Valjevo-Osetina the threatening and Krupanj turing Serbian right being seriously threatened by a counter-attack the Serbian pesitions. On the right of the II. Army the Serbs | oe ay effected by Krauss’s and VIII. Corps. In the south, were also forced to give way, but im the centre a local counter- | However, MiSic’s Army swept the Austri j attack secured for the Serbs tbe important position of Kosanin- | and Užice o with such success that, e on the oth, Potiorek ordered a grad (Aug. 18). This enabled the II. Army Commander Stepa- |general retreat on Belgrade, Sabac and Loznica. All the Serbian novic, to launch on the roth a counter-stroke along the Cer and armies then took up the pursuit, but mud and exhaustion preIverak ridges, which swept the Austrian VIII. Corps down in and vented them from turning the Austrian retreat into a rout. By over the Drina. The Ausirian right wing (VI. Army), which had Dec. 16, concentrated around Vingrad, less hard pressed, and better organ- Bajina Belgrade had been re-occupied, while Sabac, Loznica and BaSta--had been retaken. Putnik’s decisive victory gave ized for mountain warfare, retired in good order, but by the Serbia peace for a few months, but her losses had been very rah the laa front was again occupied by the Serbs. The heavy—69,000 killed or died of sickness, 18,000 wounded and iustrian IT. y fared no better, losing prisoners and i some 15,000 prisoners. their retreat over the Sava. chi

By the 24th the first invasion ‘of Serbia was ended, with a loss

ef about 50,000 men to the Austrians. The Austrian commander-

Il. THE CONQUEST OF SERBIA, 1915 The third expedition having ended in failure, Potiorek was

SERBIAN

353

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, village and peasant life. The founder of this school in Serbia was Among the Slovenes practically nothing had been done from M. Glišić. He is excelled in artistry by L. Lazarević whose gifts the days of P. Trubar (1508-86), a Protestant writer, till the late of observation and composition made him one of the greatest of 18th century, when V. Vodnik (1758—281q) laid the foundations of Serb writers. J. Veselinovié is a master of lyrical descriptions of modern Slovene literature. The formation of the Illyrian Prov- nature. Conditions of life in Croatia offered more material for inces (1809) under Napoleon tended to revive the national spirit. the larger canvas of the novel. L. Babié Gjalski may be considered ‘The 19th Century saw the consolidation of efforts to establish the founder of the realistic novel of psychological interest, a field \ A ~

358

SERENA—SERER (D. Sv.)

in which be was followed by Borislavi¢, V. Novak and others. Among the Slovenes important names are J. Kersnik, whose

siidslavischen Literaturen (Leipzig, 1908).

acter, and I. Tavčar, who was particularly interested in philosophi-

s m. from the sea. Pop. (1920) 15,240. It lighted and well-paved streets, tramway service and several small industries, including brewing and the making of fruit conserves. The annual rainfall is only 5-6 in. and its mean annual temperature is 59-2° F. Its railway connections include a line to Coquimbo (9 m.), its port, one to the Tamaya copper mines, and a narrow-gauge line up the valley of the Elqui to Guanta, through a region celebrated for its fruit. It is also in direct railway communication with the national capital via the “longitudinal” system. Serena was founded by Juan Bohén in 1544, on the opposite side of the river, and was named after Pedro Valdivia’s birthplace in Estremadura, Spain. It was destroyed by the Indians soon after, and was rebuilt on its present site in 1549 by Francisco de Aguirre. SERENUS “of Antissa,” Greek geometer, probably not of Antissa but of Antinoeia or Antinoupolis, a city in Egypt founded by Hadrian, lived most probably in the 4th century, between Pappus and Theon of Alexandria. Two treatises of his have survived, viz., On the Section of the Cylinder and On the Section of the Cone, the Greek text of which was first edited by Edmund Halley along with his Apollonius (Oxford, 1710), and is now available in a definitive critical edition by J. L. Heiberg (Sereni Antissensis Opuscula, Leipzig, 1896). A Latin translation by Commandinus appeared at Bologna in 1566, and a German translation by E. Nizze in 1860-61 (Stralsund). Besides these works Serenus wrote commentaries on Apollonius, and in certain mss. of Theon of Smyrna there appears a proposition “of Serenus the philosopher, from the Lemmas” to the effect that, if a number of rectilineal angles be subtended, at a point on a diameter of a circle which is not the centre, by equal arcs of that circle, the angle nearer to the centre is less than the angle more remote. The book On the Section of the Cylinder states as its primary object the correction of an error on the part of certain geometers of the time who supposed that the transverse sections of a cylinder were different from the elliptic sections of a cone. When this has been done, Serenus shows (Prop. 20) that “it is possible to exhibit a cone and a cylinder cutting one another in one and the same ellipse.” Other propositions naturally deal with subcontrary and other circular sections of a scalene cylinder or cone. The treatise On the Section of the Cone, though Serenus claims originality for it, is unimportant. (T. L. H.)

SERENA or La Serena, a city of Chile, capital of the prov-

river about powers were especially shown in the delineation of female char- ince of Coquimbo, on the south bank of thehasCoquimbo a good water supply,

cal problems. Apart from novelists, two Yugoslav writers, Lj. Nenadović of Serbia and Lj. Vuličević of Dalmatia, must be mentioned as excellent examples of the best modern prose. Poetry is overshadowed by the novel and story during this period. The most distinguished poet was the Serb, V. Tlic, a disciple of Pushkin. Among the Croats an original lyric vein is displayed by S. Kranjéevic, whose themes were freedom and patriotism, whilst the Slovene A. Askerc was a vigorous writer of ballads and romances. A less known field of Yugoslav literature to which attention has only recently been directed is the popular poetry of the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The 20th Century has witnessed a closer rapprochement between the different sections of Yugoslav literature and in particuler between Serbia and Croatia. A close association between the different authors, an interchange of literary contributions and the co-operation between the Royal Academies of Belgrade (founded in 1886) and Zagreb and the Slovene “Matica” (1864) at Ljubljana are all symbols of approaching unity, though it is teo soon to speak of ome and the same “Serbo-Croat,” still less of one and the same “Yugoslav” literature. In the matter of Hterary influences, that of Russia has tended

te decrease, being supplanted in Serbia by that of France, and im Croatia and Slovenia by the “Moderna” movement which unites to French symbolism Scandinavian influences with Ibsen and

Strindberg and German with Hauptmann and H. Bahr. In poetry the new fashion among the Croats was introduced by V. Vidrić. The patriotic poetry of V. Nazor entitles him to be considered their greatest modern lyrist. Of Serbian poets the most representative are J. Dučić, M. Rakić and S. Corović. Since Prešern the greatest interest in Slovene poetry attaches to O. Župančić. Croatia bas continued to maintain its supremacy in the field of the wovel and the drama with Gjalski and I. Vojnović, and newcomers are J. Kosor, M. Begović, M. Ogrizović and S. Tucić.

The Serbs have given proof of their proficiency in the writing of

shomies ty the work of B. Stanković, P. Kočić and M. Uskoković. ‘Phe only names of importance in drama are B. Nušić and V. Jovanovic. In Slovene literature the outstanding figure is the novelist I. Cankar. A notabie feature of the realistic period was a steady developSERENUS, SAMMONICUS, Roman savant, author of a ment of literary criticism, especially among the Serbs. In the ‘gos Lj. Nedić; educated in Germany, broke with the old formalism, didactic medical poem, De medicina praecepta (probably incomand Introdaced a criticism free from bias and convention. Among plete). The work (1,115 hexameters) contains a number of popthe Cronts and Slovenes, the union of creative and critical facul- ular remedies, borrowed from Pliny and Dioscorides, and various ties im the same ‘weiter is more frequent, as exemplified in Mark- magic formulae, amongst others the famous Abracadabra (g.v.), ovi, Levstik and Stritar. Under French influence, there is a as a cure for fever and ague. It concludes with a description of marked advance in subtlety of judgment, leading often to hyper- the famous antidote of Mithradates VI. of Pontus. It is uncererificism. The scope of criticism has also widened so as to embrace tain whether the author was the famous physician and polymath social amd political problems. J..‘Skerié (d. 1914) held the first who was put to death in AD. 212 at a banquet to which he had place as a many-sided critic in Serbia, and exercised a profound been invited by Caracalla, or his son, the tutor of the younger ufuence on the movement towards Yugoslav uñity.- B. Popovič Gordian. The father, who was one of the most learned men of his represents in Serbia the school of Sainte-Beuve and Faguet, and age, wrote upon a variety of subjects, and possessed a library of bis brother P. Popović bas made a name as a literary historian. 60,000 volumes, bequeathed to ‘his son. The. editio princeps (éd. Sulpitius Verulanus, before 1484) is very S. Jovanović, thè historian and sociologist, ranks as one of the ` best stylists in Yugoslav Iiterature. A development of fairly re- rare; later ed. by J..G. Ackermann (Leipzig, 1786) and E. Bahrens Latini minores, iii,; see also A. Baur, Quaestiones Sammoniceae cent date is the increasing number of women poets, story writers, Poetae (Giessen, `1886); M. Schanz, der rimischen Literatur, essayists and critics; e.g., Isidora Sekplié among the Serbs, Z. ti. (1896); W; S. Teufel, Hist.Geschichte of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., Kveder among = Croats. De oN 1900), 374, 4, and 383'E. BretioerarHy.—For Serbian literature see the w 3 ič SERER, a vigorous, coarse-featured people of Senegal. They J. Skerié and A. Gavrilović; for Croatian eee Gf getihng speak a language that is related to' Wolof and Fulani, and were V. Vodnik and D. vic; for Slovene I. Grafenauer and I. for long subject ‘to the Wolof, but with a paramount chief for Prijatelj. A brief survey of the three literatures is given by P.

their own race in the Sme country. ‘The upper land-owning class lends or hires land to the lower class, slavery being’ unknown. the ‘Fhe Slavenit’ Review (London: School of There Is no artisan caste amongst the Serer, but there is a caste Sia Studies pubbshed.varticles on Serbion Traditional Folk Poetry by D. P. Subotié, and.a.Survey of Modern ‘Slovene Literature of Musicians and singers. Descent is patrilineal, the paternal J. Vidmar, The Heroic Ballads of Serbia, trans. by G. R. Noyes uncle being head of the family. Marriage is endogamous. The Popović in Jugoslovenska Književnost (1918); M. S. Stanojevic, Early Yugoslav Literature, vol. i.a. 1100-1800 (1922); is at present

and L. Bacon (Boston, rgr3) ani the Ballads of Marko Kraljevié by Serer are cultivators and. cattle-raisers, and their villages aré Hi. Lew (1922) give brief accounts of Serbian popular poetry. subdivided. into different quarters): The dead are buried outside For. the eariy period consult M. Murko, Gesckickte der dltern the ‘village and ‘provided with arms’ ahd

‘gtave-furnitute. ‘The

SERES—SERFDOM

359

bodies of griots are wrapped in cloth and placed iin hollow baobab | slaves, but their condition was closely bound up with the cultivatrunks. The people are animists, believe in sorcery, and practise tion of the estates where they lived. The regulation by the state the ordeal by redwood and red-hot i irons. of the duties and customary status of peasants on government See Bérenger-Feraud, Les Peuplades de la Sénégambie (1879); A. domains turns out to be one of the roots of serfdom in the Roman Hovelacque, Les NV égres de lVAfrique Sus-Equatoriale (1889); Dr. Las- world, which in this respect as in many others follows on the lines net, Une mission au sénégal (1900). laid down by Hellenistic culture. It is important for our purpose SERES, the chief town of the Séres province of Greek Mace- to notice that the condition of colonz was developed as a result of donia, 43 m. by rail N.E. of Salonica. Pop. about 40,000, almost historic necessity by the working of economic and social agencies wholly Greek immigrants settled after 1922. A very few Bul- in the first centuries of the Roman empire and was made the subgarians remain. In 1912 only 30% of the population was Greek. ject of regular legislation in the 4th and sth centuries. In the

Séres is built in a district so fertile as to have borne among the Turks the name of Altin Ovassi, or Golden Plain. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop and patriarch. It consists of the old town, Varosh, situated at the foot and on the slope of the hill crowned by the old castle, and of the new town built in the European fashion on the plain, and forming the commercial centre. There is a large trade in rice and cereals, and the other exports include tobacco, cotton and hides. Séres is the ancient Sirrhae, mentioned by Herodotus in connection with Xerxes’s retreat, and by Livy as the place where Aemilius Paulus received a deputation from Perseus. In the r4th century, when Stephen Dushan of Serbia assumed the title emperor of Serbia, he chose Sirrhae as his capital; and it remained in the hands of the Serbians till its capture by Sultan Murad IT. (14211451). In 1913 the city was looted and largely burnt by Bulgarian troops during the Greek advance up the Struma valley. It later fell into Greek territory but was occupied by the Bulgarian army in 1916 until Oct. 1918. It suffered severely from bombardment but has been largely rebuilt since. It is now the administrative centre for the control of refugee settlements in the Struma valley.

enactments of Justinian, summing up the whole course of development (C.J. xi, 48, 23), two classes of coloni are distinguished— the adscriptici, representing a more complete state of serfdom, and the free coloni, with property of their own. But the whole class, apart from minor variations, was characterized by the idea that the peasants in question were serfs of the soil on which they were settled, though protected by the laws in their personal and even in their praedial status. Thus the ascription to the soil, although originally a consequence of ascription to the tributes (adscriptio censibus), became the mark of the legal status of serfdom. The emperors actually tried in their legislation to prevent the landowners from evicting their coloni and from raising their rents. In this way fixity of tenure and service was aimed at and to a certain degree enforced by the state. With the break-up of the Roman empire, the weak governments which took the place of imperial authority were not able to maintain the discipline and judicial power which would have been necessary to guarantee the tenure and status of the serfs. And yet serfdom became the prevailing condition for the lower orders during the middle ages, custom and economic requirements producing SERFDOM. The notion of serfdom is distinct from those of checks on the sway of masters. The direction of events towards freedom and of slavery. The serf is not his own master: to perform the formation of serfdom is already clearly noticeable in Celtic services for other persons is the essence of his status, but he is not communities. In Wales and Ireland the greater part of the rural given over to his lord to be owned as a thing or an animal—there working classes was reduced not to a state of slavery, but to serf-

are legal limits to the lord’s power.

Serfdom is very often con-

ceived as a perpetual adherence to the soil of an estate owned by a lord, but this praedial character is not a necessary feature of the condition. Hereditary serfdom may sometimes assume the shape of a personal relation between servant and master. Serfdom will be formed naturally in cases when one barbarous community conquers another, but is not able to destroy entirely the latter or to treat its members as mere chattels, but this mitigated form may be brought about as well by the paucity or comparative weakness of the victors as by the difficulty for them to draw income from pure slaves. In a state of backward agriculture and natural economy it will sometimes be more profitable for the conquerors as well as for the conquered to leave the dependent population in their own households and on their own plots, at the same time taxing them heavily in the way of tribute and services. Such an arrangement clearly obtained in several of the agricultural states of ancient Greece. The Penestae of Thessaly appear as a remnant of a distinct tribe settled on the confines of Macedonia and at the same time as a class of tributary. peasants serving Thessalian aristocrats. The Mnoitae, Klarotae and: Aphamiotae of Crete were more or less in the same position. Even in the case of the Helots of Sparta, who were made to perform services to any Spartiate who. might require them to do so, features of a similar tributary condition are apparent. The chief work of the Helots was to provide a certain quantity of corn, wine and oil for the lords of the shares on which they were settled; personal services to other Spartiates were exceptional. Pollux in ‘his account of the Helots places them distinctly in an intermediate position between free men and slaves., The fact that in these instances governments had a good, deal to say. in the regulation of the status of such serfs is well worth-noting:,it explains: te a great extent the legal limitations :of the pewer of; the lords. Even. downright slaves: belonging to,the state er to some great temple corporation avers avai pee

ter. than private slaves,by.the.Greeks..)

+>»

dom. The male slave (W. caeth) does not play an important part in Celtic economic arrangements: there is not much room for his activity as a completely dependent tool of the master. The female slave (cumal) was evidently much more prominent in the household. Prices are reckoned out in numbers of such slaves and there must have been a constant call for them both as concubines and as household servants. As for male workmen, they are chiefly tacogs

in Wales, that is half-free bondmen with a certain though, base standing in law. Even these, however, could not be said to form the social basis for the existence of an upper free class. The latter was numerous, not wealthy as a rule, and had to undertake directly a great part of the common work, as may be seen. from

the extent of the free and servile tenures on the estates carved out for English conquerors in Wales and Ireland. Anyhow, the taeog class of half-free peasants stands by the side of.the smaller tribesmen as subjected to heavier burdens in the way of taxation anid services in kind. In Wales they are distributed into gavells and gwelys, like the free tribesmen themselves and thus connected with the land, but there is nothing to show that this. connection was deemed a‘servitude of the glebe. The tie with the lord is atter all a personal one. The Germanic tribes moved on' similar. lines. The. slaved had their separate households, while the masters exacted tribute from them in the shape of corn, cattle or clothes, and the serfs had to

obey to the extent of rendering such tribute (Tacitus, Germania, 21). This means, of course, that it was im the interest of the mas-

ter to levy tribute and not to organize slave labour. After thé conquést of the provinces by the Germanic invaders the Roman stock of coloni naturally combined with German tributary, ‘peasants to form. mediaeval serfdom. ‘A half-free group is marked: off in the early laws under the designation of litt, lazzi, aldiones..:. But

in process of time this group was merged with freedmen, Settled slaves. (servi casaté) and small freedmen into the numerous class of serfs (servi, rustici, villani), which appears undėr; different

.tWe shallinot' be astonished to find, therefore; in.’“ane Hellenistic

names in all western European countries. The customary: regula:

the. great estates: of the Seleucid kings. They were certainly not

tury) : serfs settled on the estates ofthe church: have to work,

states of-Asia-a populatiow ofpeasants who seem to. have been in 4 tions .of the duties of an important group of this’.class in regard condition: of,hereditary; stibjection and, adherent to: the glebe..on to their lords are clearly expressed in the Bavarian.law (7th centoy

}

-

360

SERFDOM of

as a rule, three days in the week for their masters and are sub-

or less powerful neighbours. The first legislative measures

tion, although entered in a legal text, are not a legislative enact-

class similar to the Roman coloni fall into the first years of the 17th century (a.D. r601, 1606) and consist in enactments against

ject to divers rents and payments in kind. The regulations in ques-

ment but the result of a slow process of adjustment of claims between the ecclesiastical landowners and masters on one side and their rural dependents on the other. There can be no doubt that they were largely representative of the conditions prevailing on Bavarian estates belonging not only to the church but also to the duke and to lay lords. The old English Rectsiudsmes . personerum. (11th century) present other variations of the same customary arrangements. The rustic class appears in them to be differentiated into several subdivisions—the geneats performing riding duties and occasional services, the gebsrs burdened with week work and the cotsets holding cottages and performing light work in the shape of one day in the week and serv-

ices to match (see VILLENAGE). Of these various groups that of the gebirs corresponds more closely to the continental serfs (colons, Hérige, unfreie Hintersassen). The dualism characteristic of mediaeval serfdom, its formation out of debased freedom and rising servitude, may be traced all through the history of the middle ages. French jurists of the 13th century, ¢.g., lay stress on a fundamental difference in law between the complete serf whose very body belongs to his lord

(cf. the German Leibeigenschaft)} and the villein or roturier, who is only bound to perform certain duties and ought not to be further oppressed by the landowners on whose soil he is settled

(Beaumanoir, Coutume de Beauvaoisis). But the same texts which draw the Ime between the two classes make it clear that there were no other guarantees to the maintenance of the rights of the superior rustics than the moral sense and the self-interest of their masters. It must be added, however, that even in the darkest times, economic forces provided some protection for the peasants who had lost the means of appealing to legal remedies. Lerds whe did not wish to see their estates deserted had to submit to the rule of custom in respect of exactions. And the screen of rural custom proved sufficient to allow of the growth of some property in the hands of the toiling class, a result which in itself rendered possible further emancipation. i very instructive example of the formation of serfdom is presented by the history of Russia. Personal slavery in the sense im which it existed in the West was practised in ancient Russia {kholopt) and arose chiefly from conquest, but also from voluntary subjection in cases of great hardship and from the redemptien of fines and debts (cf. the O. Eng. wite-theow). The great mass ef the peasantry was originally free. Even when landowner-

ship was appropriated by the crown, the ecclesiastical corporations

anid tbe nobles, ‘the tillers of the land retained their personal freedom and were considered to be farmers holding their plots under contracts. They. weré free to leave their farms provided they were able to effect a settlement in regard to all outstanding

rent arrears and debts. The custom of the country gradually took the shape of a simultaneous resettlement of all conditions of

rural occupation about St. George’s day (Nov. 24), that is after the gathering of the harvest and the practical winding up of rural work. Such was the legal state of affairs up to the end of the 16th century. Å great change supervened, however, through the slow working of economic and political causes. The peasants settled under the sway of nobles and churches could very seldom produce a clean bill in regard to their money relations with the landlords. ‘Thus, they gradually lapsed into a state of perpetual subjection from which they could not emancipate themselves by legal means. On the other hand, the growth of the Muscovite state with its fiscal governmental requirements involved a watchful repartition

the Moscow rulers directed towards the establishment of a servile

landowners depriving their neighbours of the tillers of their estates, But matters were clearly ripe for a wider application of the view that the peasant ought to stick to the soil, and the restoration of the Muscovite empire under the Romanovs brought

with it the consolidation of all rural arrangements around this principle. Peter the Great regularized and completed this evolution by effecting a comprehensive cadastre and census of the rural population. The ultimate result was, however, not only the fixity of peasant tenures, but the subjection of the entire peasant population as a separate class (Krepostrie) to the personal sway of the landowners. The state insisted to a certain extent on the public

character of this subjection and drew distinctions between personal slavery and serfdom. In the midst of the peasants themselves there lived a consciousness of their special claims as to tenant right. But, in fact, serfdom naturally took the form of an ugly ownership of live chattels on the part of a privileged class. Emancipation was brought about in the 19th century by economic causes as well as by humanitarian considerations. Private enterprise and the free application of capital and labour were hindered in every way by the bondage of the peasant class. Even such a necessary measure as that of moving cultivators to the rich soil of the south was thwarted by the adherence of the northern peasantry to the glebe. After several half-hearted attempts directed in the course of Nicholas I.’s reign to face the question while safeguarding at the same time the rights and privileges of the old aristocracy, the moral collapse of the ancien régime during the Crimean war brought about the Emancipation Act of Feb. 19, 1861, by which some 15 millions of serfs were freed from bondage. The most characteristic feature of this act was that the peasants, as distinct from household servants, received not only personal freedom but allotments in land in certain proportions to their former holdings. The state indemnified the former landowners, and the peasants had to redeem the loan by yearly payments extending over a number of years. If we turn back from this course of development to the history of serfdom in the West striking contrasts appear. As we have already noticed, mediaeval serfdom in the West was the result of a process of customary feudal growth hardly interfered with by central governments. The loosening of bondage is also, to a great extent, prepared by the working of local economic agencies. Villeins and serfs in France rise gradually in the social scale, redeem many of the onerous services of feudalism and practically acquire tenant-right on most of the plots occupied by them. Tocqueville has pointed out that already before the revolution of 1 789 the greater part of the territory of France was in the hands of small peasant owners, and modern researches have confirmed Tocqueville’s estimate. Thus feudal overlordship in France had resolved itself into a superficial dominion undermined in all directions by economic realities. The fact that there still existed all kinds of survivals of harsh forms of dependence, e.g. the bondage of the serfs in the Jura Mountains, only rendered the contrast between legal conditions and social realities more pointed. The night of Aug. 4, 1789 put an end to this contrast at one stroke and the further history of rural population came to depend entirely on the play of free competition and free contract. In the evolution of serf dom in Germany the regulating influence of government made itself felt to a greater extent, especially in the

east. The colonization of the eastern provinces and the struggle against the Slavs necessitated a stronger concentration of aristocratic power, and the reception of Roman law during the 15th and 16th centuries hardened the forms of subjection originated by customary conditions, It may be said in a general way that Germany occupied In this respect, as in many others, an intermediate position between the west of Europe and Russia. Emancipation followed also a middle course, being brought about chiefly

of burdens among the population and led ultimately to a system of collective liability in which the farms were considered chiefly as the sources of taxable income. The government was directly interested in maintaining their efficiency and in preventing migrations and desertions which led to a weakening of the taxpaying communities. A third aspect of the question must also not be dis- by governme ntal measures, although the ground was to a great regarded, namely, the keen competition between landowners try- extent prepared by social evolution. The reforms of Stein and ing to attract settlers to their estates at the expense of their needy Hardenbe rg in Prussia, of the French and of their clients in South

361

SERGE—SERGIYEVO Germany, opened the way for a gradual redemption of the peasantry. Personal serfdom (Letbeigenschaft) was abolished first, hereditary subjection (Erbunterthdétigkeit) followed next. Emanci-

pation in this case was not connected with a recognition of the full tenant-right of the peasants; they had to part with a good deal of their land. To the last the landowners were not disturbed in their economic predominance, and succeeded very well in working their estates by the help of agricultural labourers and farmers. In the West the small peasant proprietorship had a better chance, but it arose in the course of economic competition rather than through any general recognition of tenant-right. On the whole serfdom appears as a characteristic corollary of feudalism. It grew

up aS a consequence of customary subjection and natural husbandry; it melted away with the coming in of an industrial and commercial age. i AvuTHORITIES—Wallon,

Histoire

de Pesclavage

dans

Vantiquité:;

Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopädie des klassischen Altertums, s.v. “Coloni”; Fustel de Coulanges, Recherches sur quelques problèmes a’histoire; Institutions politiques de la France (L’alleu et le domaine

rural); F. Seebohm, English Village Community (1883); P. Vinogradoff, The Growth of the Manor (1905) ; G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (1844, ff.); P. Viollet, Histoire du droit français (3rd ed., 1905); Engelmann, Geschichte der Leibeigenschaft in Russnd; Kluchevsky, Lectures on the History of Russia (in Russian), ii. (1906); G. Hansen, Die Aufhebung der Leibeigenschaft in Schleswig und Holstein (1861); G. F. Knapp, Die Bauernbefreiung in Preussen (1887) ; Handwérterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, ed. by Conrad and Lexis s.vv. “Bauernbefreiung,” “Unfreiheit,” “Grundherrschaft.” (P. Vz.; X.)

SERGE.

A general term denoting several varieties of worsted

twill fabrics, but more particularly that employed for men’s suitings and women’s costume, dress and coating fabrics. Serge fabrics are produced with a distinct twill weave and are of a coarser and somewhat rougher texture than the lighter grades of worsted fabrics. They are usually based on the even-sided regu-

lar twill weaves, as the four-end two-and-two (5) twill, and the

six-end three-and-three (*-,) twill weave, according to the character of texture required and the purpose for which it is intended. Thus, serge of lighter and medium textures suitable for women’s wear, are usually based on the two-and-two twill weave, whilst the three-and-three twill weave is better suited for serge of heavier, closer and stronger textures, as this weave, by permitting of a relatively freer interlacement of the warp and weft threads thereby allows of the employment either of coarser and stronger yarn or else of a greater number both of warp and weft threads per inch being inserted in the fabric produced.

Serge fabrics are usually woven from Botany worsted yarns of

counts ranging from 2/30’s down to 2/18’s, and with the number of warp threads and picks per inch varying according to the counts of yarn employed, and the weight and character of texture required, and of which there are innumerable grades and qualities ranging between extreme limits chiefly according to the particular use for which they are intended. Worsted yarn for the warp and woollen yarn for the weft, or else all worsted yarn both for warp and weft, of the better grades of wool, are employed in the superior qualities of serge fabrics. So-called silk serges are used for women’s dress and coating fabrics, while lighter grades of silk serge are used for coat and dress linings and also for umbrella covers. The description of “serge” is also applied to many other varieties of fabrics having the general textural features and other characteristics of serge fabrics. (H. N.)

SERGEANT: see SERJEANT. SERGIPE, a small Atlantic State, north-eastern Brazil (origi-

nally Sergipe d’el-Rey). Its area is 8,319 sq.m. Its population in 1920 was 477,064, three-fourths of which were half-castes and ne-

groes. The Sado Francisco forms its northern boundary, and the drainage of the northern part of the State is northward and east-

rough open country, called agrestes. There is a sandy belt along the coast, and the western frontier is slightly mountainous. The intermediate lands are highly fertile, especially in the forested region, where the rainfall is abundant. Further inland the year is divided into wet and dry seasons with occasional prolonged droughts. These districts are pastoral. The lower fertile lands are cultivated for sugar, cotton, maize, tobacco, rice, beans and mandioca—sugar being the principal product. Rubber and some other natural products are exported. There is a railway which runs from Aracajú northward to Capella, and one running southward to Bahia. The only manufacturing industries of importance are cotton-mills, sugar factories and distilleries, one of the largest sugar usines in Brazil being located at Riachuelo near Laranjeiras. The capital of the State is AracajG (pop. 37,440), on the lower course, or estuary, of the Cotinguiba river, near the coast. The bar at the entrance to this river is exceptionally dangerous, and the port is frequented only by coasting vessels of light draught. The town stands on a sandy plain, and there are sand dunes within the city limits. The public buildings are a large plain church with unfinished twin towers, the Government palace, the legislative halls, a normal school and public hospital. The other principal towns are Estancia (pop. 1920, 15,868); Laranjeiras (12,661); Capella (19,563); Lagarto (26,084); Sao Christovao, formerly Sergipe d’el-Rey (14,093), and Maroim (7,998).

SERGIUS, ST., usually associated with St. Bacchus, one of

the most celebrated martyrs of Christian antiquity. His festival is on Oct. 7, and the centre of his cult was Resafa, or Rosafa, in Syria. This town, also called Sergiopolis, acquired importance as a place of pilgrimage, and became a bishop’s see (Le Quien, Oriens Christ. ji. 951). According to their Acta (which, however, have little authority), SS. Sergius and Bacchus were soldiers. „See Acto sanctorum Xiv. 373—395-

(October), ii. 833-883; Analecta Bollandiana

SERGIUS, the name of four popes.

Sercius I., pope from 687 to 701, came of an Antiochene family which had settled at Palermo. He was elected after a fierce struggle between two other candidates, Paschal and Theodore. In the second year of his pontificate he baptized King Ceadwalla of Wessex at Rome. For rejecting certain canons of the Trullan

(Quinisext) council of 692, Justinian II. commanded his arrest and transportation to Constantinople, but the militia of Ravenna and the Pentapolis forced the imperial protospatharius to abandon the attempt to carry out his orders. Sergius was followed by John VI. as pope. i Sercius IIL., pope from 844 to 847, a Roman of noble birth, elected by the clergy and people to succeed Gregory IV., was forthwith consecrated without waiting for the sanction of the emperor Lothair, who accordingly sent his son Louis with an army to punish the breach of faith. A pacific arrangement was ultimately made, and Louis was crowned king of Lombardy by Sergius. In this pontificate Rome was ravaged, and the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul robbed, by Saracens (August 846). Sergius was succeeded by Leo IV. ; Sercius III., elected pope by one of the factions in Rome in 898, simultaneously with John IX., was expelled from the city by his adversaries. He reappeared in 904, seized the two claimants, Leo V. and Christopher, who were disputing the succession of Benedict IV., and had them strangled. His adherents rallied round the vestiarius Theophylact, a powerful Roman functionary, and his wife, Theodora. Sergius is reputed to have been the lover of Theodora’s daughter Marozia, by whom he is said to have had

a son, who became pope as John XI. Sergius was very hostile to the memory of Pope Formosus, and refused to recognize any of the ordinances celebrated by him, thus causing grave disorders.

He also affected to consider as anti-popes, not only John IX.,

but also his successors down to and including Christopher.. He

however, slopes through a numIrapiranga, the for short dis-

restored the Lateran basilica, which had fallen down in 897. He died on April 14, g1z, and was succeeded by Anastasius TI...

forested lands near the coast, and back of this a higher zone of

of Moscow, in 56° 23’ N., 38° 5” E. It grew up around the

ward to that river. The southern half of the State, eastward and is drained directly into the Atlantic ber of small rivers, the largest of which are the Real and the Cotinguiba. These are navigable

Sercrus IV., pope from 1009 to ro12, originally bore the name

of Bucca porca (Os porci). He was a mere tool in the hands of tances, but are obstructed by sand-bars at their mouths. The sur- the nobility of the city; he was succeeded, by Benedict VIII. SERGIYEVO (Sergiev), a town of Russia in the province face of the State resembles in part that of Bahia, with a zone of

362

SERI—SERIES

monastery or javura of Troitsko-Sergiyevskaya, one of the most important architectural and historic relics of the Russian Middle Ages. It was formerly greatly venerated in Russia and visited by thousands of pilgrims; the inhabitants (31,413 in 1900) were renowned for their carved and painted ikons and wooden souvenirs sold to the visitors. After the 1917 revolution it was converted into a museum. The electro-technical academy of the Red Army has been located in the town and a textile artel has been formed. The population in 1926 was 21,391. A small wooden church erected by the monk Sergius was burned by the Tatars in 1391, and the cathedral of the Trinity (Troitsk) built in the Vladimir Suzdal style in 1422 stands on the site. It contains a number of ikons, including one by Rublev. The Uspensky (Assumption) cathedral was erected in 1585 and in the southern part of the monastery is the church of Sergius, beneath which are the spacious rooms where in pre-revolution times dinners were distributed gratis to pilgrims. The bell tower of the monastery, 320 ft. high has a bell weighing 64 tons. Several monasteries of lesser importance existed in the neighbourhood. The monasiery acquired so much wealth that walls 25 to 50 ft. in height and fortified by nine towers were erected in 1 513 and within them were the two cathedrals, several churches, buildings for the monks and pilgrims, including a hospital, and a theological academy. Ivan the Terrible made the Sergiyevo monastery the centre of the ecclesiastical province of Moscow in 1561.

SERI, a tribe of Tiburon island and adjacent parts of Sonora,

thus 1;-+-t4-+-3-+ ---,aresaid toformaseries.

If the sum of the

first n terms of the series, u--u2+us+ --- -+t%,, is denoted by Sn, the study of the series is the study of the Sequence 5, So,

S3,°-+. If the number of terms is unlimited the series is said to be an infinite series. The series itself may be denoted by Eim.

If s, tends to a finite limit S, as z tends to infinity, the series is

said to be convergent and S is said to be its sum. Such a series is often said to converge to S. If s, tends to infinity, positive or negative, the series is said to be divergent and to diverge to +œ or to —©, as the case may be. When the symbol © is written alone, it denotes +o. If s, oscillates between two numbers a and 6, the series is said to oscillate finitely. If s, may assume positive or negative values, increasing numerically without limit,

the series is said to oscillate infinitely. In modern writings all series which are not convergent are usually called divergent, the distinction being specified if necessary. The chief problem connected with an infinite series is to discover whether it is convergent. The formal necessary and suffcient test for convergence is that, e being any arbitrary small itive number, it is possible to find an integer v, such that ie o, and if

u%;—>o and never increases we must have nu,—>o. The first shows at once that a series in which u, is x*sin nf, cannot be convergent

reputed one of the most primitive in America. Alone among al] their neighbours they are non-agricultural, subsisting on shell-fish, unless |z|o. Since it is generally statement needs authentication. Although sometimes reckoned impossible to appeal directly to s,, tests have to be conam independent stock, they form part of the larger Hokan group structed which depend on xu. It may be said at once that com(g.v.), and seem to be specially related to the Yuman peoples pletely general tests, both necessary and sufficient, have not been (g.v.). See W. J. McGee, Bur. Am. Eihn. Rep. XVII. (1898). nor are likely to be found. Series can be constructed to defy any SERIEMA or CARIAMA (Cariama cristata), a South test, however delicate. But tests exist which are adequate to American bird, belonging to the family Cariamidae, allied to the deal with nearly all such series as are likely to occurin applications. Series of

cranes neck,

(g.v.)

and

Positive Terms. The Ratio Tests.—There is an important difference between series in which all the terms, at least after some stage, are all of one Sign and those in which

trumpeters, |

aeoe

an

heak and legs are red, the phm- ir | neath

the eyes.

with binish skin

the terms persist in being of variable sign. If the terms are all

positive the terms of the sequence s, are steadily increasing and

round

Tt inhabits the COMPOS

k E”

AA

LA vy

ef Brazil, extend inlan ing d as far VE

it is not only a necessary but also a sufficient conditi on for Sp to tend to a limit that a number A can be found, such that s,00 . A series of positive terms cannot oscillate. If the terms are of

Ý

fj

@s the Maito Grosso, living in UNAI

variable sign, the condition |s,|ün/m> B.

In this way, convergence of Eu, can be deduced from that of a series 2a,, whose convergence or divergence is readily . established.

Thus Za" is convergent if D{n(n+ 1)}— is convergent. But if so that Zu, is SERIES. The following notations will be used freely throug conver gent-a nd flitref ere Zn is convergent. If Un/ 0—0, then hout this article. The modulus of x, denoted by |z|, means ifnt, Do,is convergent, but both series may be the ab- 2m is cohveige solute numerical value of x, when x is real; and when z iscomplex divergent. (Ef ma ‘and, mymay have variable signs, the existence of of the form a+sb, it means the positive square root of ait Br a Timitlfor 1/2, is no indication that the convergence of Dv, The expression f(x)—], s+, means that f(x) tends to a limit /, implies that of Duz,,. SEA E e d asx tends to ¢ in any manner; if we write x—>a-+ „In most series of positive terms required, rE or s—a— in applicátions the this means that as x tends to a it always remains greater terms tend tọ-zer o;:steadily diminishing. :Toisuch. series we can than a or less than a respectively. W= faianta). SwRI (n+ r), and Si>I,

apply a-test-called. Cauchy's: condensation: If « is a positive test, :viz.5 that 2d(n) means that f(n} tends to the Emit Z as 7 tends integer f{(n)—1 is Converif: gen 2a"t, to infinity (a") is; convergent, @.béing. any positive . The symbol O(t) means “of the order of x.” The symbol = means integer. . We. have: also, Maclaurin’s test, viz thatjif Un = eln),

greater than or equal to” and the symbol S means “less than td ro od or equal to.” Logarithms, wherever mentioned, f p{(x)dx—s, tends to.a finite limit;-s are to the base that o e. .the conv erge nce or A set of numbers t, tis ts, ` -> correspond i r’ 2 J

to the set of positive integers r, 2,3, >

3

a *

a

ing unequivocally is calleda sequence

g

‘

à

toe

3

oe

eke

ooo ae

S

st

t

"y

7

nd

“HGF

hy

oy

t

H lio

t

`

i

;

y no mA ` divergence of 2$(n) occurs with ‘that. ‘of f glada. By either The terms of Onder, with the sign of addition betwe a sequence, written in en every adjacent’ two, test we show readily that the seriés R E

(see NoumBER SEQUENCES).

,

*

D

EA

he

2

t?

PT

r:

ol,

|

at

ay

2

ey

¥

nt

fafat veg hard

:

Ta

x

a

aA

SERIES zn”,

In(log n)-?,

Xx log x{log(log n)}-?,

and so on, are each convergent if >1 but divergent if Sr. A series of tests, called the ratio-tests, applicable only to series in which „~o steadily, is of great historical as well as of

great practical interest.

The more elaborate of them are asso-

ciated with the names of A. De Morgan, A. Cauchy, J. Bertrand and others and can be proved by means of the comparison test and the convergence or divergence of the series just mentioned. They are most readily established by means of a general theorem associated with the names of Dini and Kummer, which is as follows: If a function f(z) can be found such that

or, if not tending to a limit, is always greater than some fixed positive number, the series Zu, is convergent. If, moreover, +

—f(n+1)-ll < I, Or never

exceeds unity, Buniis divergent. If /=1, nothing is settled unless Unf Un

always remains

(x) If tn | eas I, OF Un/t%n41 is always greater than some

fixed number >1, Dw, is convergent.

4

vergent, but the series > {satan 2)a lamas logan — BED} 4n—2

fn) = —f(n-+1)—1>0,

Z{f(n)}— is divergent, then, if f,(n)

363

Uytue

b+ te.

It follows that, if Dw, is convergent and a, is steadily increasing

or steadily decreasing to a finite limit, then 2c,u, is convergent.

It follows also that, if |z-++-w#.-+----+,| is always less than

as D’Alembert’s test. If this fails we may proceed to the next test, known as Raabe’s test.

some fixed number independent of n, and än decreases steadily to zero, then Dann, is a convergent series. A particular case is that, if a, decreases steadily to zero, the series Da, cos (m8 +a)

gentif/ 1, diver-

test.

(3) Tf {n(ten/tUnu—1)—1} logn—/, then Zu, is convergent if

If Zu, is a convergent series and u,/v, tends to a limit J,

different from zero, it cannot be inferred, if «, and 2, are not always of the same sign, that Zu, is also convergent. It may The following rule will cover most cases. If n/n} can be however happen that the convergence or divergence of the expressed in the form 1-+y/n+O(n—), A>1, then Eun is con- series 2(u4,—lv,) can be readily established. If this series is convergent, then Zun is convergent. If it is not convergent, then vergent if u>1, divergent if yS r. Alternative forms of the second and third tests are as follows: Eün is not convergent. For example, if vn=(— 1) tm ?, then Tf 2log(t,/tmir)—1, or log nlog{nlog(tn/tn+1)}—1, the series is Evn is convergent, if pis positive. If um =(— 1)4 {n+ (— 1) },

_ b>, divergent if 1, divergent if / NV, any assigned integer, however great. Hence the series is not uniformly convergent in any interval which as Canchy’s product, are (x) Cauchy's theorem. If Eu, and Xn, converge absolutely to includes zero. One of the most important properties of a function defined the sums UY and V respectively, then Sw, converges absolutely by a convergent infinite series of functions of a variable is that it te UY. (2) Merien’s theorem. If Du, converges absolutely to U and is continuous in any interval (or region) in which the series is uniformly convergent. If the series has a discontinuity at any Ea, converges, but not absolutely, to V, then Dz, conver ges point,

it cannot be uniformly convergent throughout any interval

to UY.

(3) Abel's theorem. If Eu, converges to U and Zo, converges containing that point. It does not however follow that nonuniform convergence necessarily involves discontinuity. te V and Zw, is convergent, then Dw, converges to UY. If Sn(x) =2/(r-+-nx), the sum of the series for all values of x, 4a) G. H. Hardy's theorem. If Du, converges to U zero and So,

uverges

CMAVErves

to ¥ and |rw.| Rev. des deux Mondes (1848), treats Servetus as a pan followed by Menendez Pelayo, Los Heterodoxos espanoles (1880, vol. Marrus), (or MAURUS S, HONORATU SERVIUS ii.}, and by R. Willis, Servetus and Calvin (1877, cf. A. Gordon, Theol. Roman grammarian and commentator on Virgil, fourished at the Rev., April and July 1878). Of Servetus’s personal character the best vindication is Tollin’s Cheracterbild M. Servets (1876); see also A. end of the 4th century A.D. He is one of the interlocutors in the Dide, M. Servet et Calvin (1907); W. Osler, Michael Servetus (N.Y., Saturnalia of Macrobius, and allusions in that work and a letter 1909); J. van der Erde, Af. Serve (Amsterdam, 1909); A. Gordon, from Symmachus to Servius show that he was a pagan. He was The Personality of M. Servetus (1910), and Serveius and the Spanish one of the most favourable examples of the Roman “grammatici” Inquisition (1925). His story has been dramatized by Max Ring, Die and the most learned man of his time. He is chiefly known for Genfer (1850), by José Echegaray, La Muerte en los Labios (1880), by Albert Hamann, Servet (1881), and by Prof. Shields, The Reformer his commentary on Virgil, which has come down to us in two (A. Go.; X) distinct forms. The first is a comparatively short commentary, of Geneva (1897).

), Canadian definitely attributed to Servius in the superscription in the mss. SERVICE, ROBERT WILLIAM (1874poet and novelist, was born at Preston, England, on Jan. 16, 1874, and by other evidence. A second class of mss. (all going back and educated at Hillhead public school, Glasgow. He went in to the roth or rith century) presents a much expanded comrgos to Canada and settled for a short time in Vancouver island. mentary, mostly clearly of ancient origin. The real Servian commentary practically gives the only comHe entered the Canadian Bank of Commerce in Victoria, B.C., and was afterwards transferred first to White Horse in the Yukon plete extant edition of a classic author written before the deand then to Dawson. In all he spent eight years in the Yukon struction of the empire. It is constructed very much on the prinand travelled widely. During his last years with the bank he wrote ciple of a modern edition, and is partly founded on the extensive verse describing life in the North, notably Songs of a Sourdough Virgilian literature of preceding times, much of which is known (1907) and Ballads of a Cheechako. In 1910 appeared a novel only from the fragments and facts preserved in the commentary. The Trail of ’98 giving a vivid description of men and conditions The notices of Virgil’s text supply valuable information concernin the Klondike. During the Balkan War of 1912-13 Service was ing the ancient recensions of Virgil. Besides the Virgilian war correspondent to The Toronto Siar and served this paper commentary, other works of Servius are extant: a collection of im the same capacity during the World War, in which he spent notes on the grammar (Ars) of Aelius Donatus; a treatise on two years as an ambulance driver in the Canadian Army Medical metrical endings (De finalibus); and a tract on the different Corps. He described his war experiences in Rhymes of a Red metres (De centum metris). Cross Man (1916). After the War he devoted himself to literary werk in Paris. His other works include Rhymes of a Rolling Stone (2913); Ballads of a Bokemian (1920); Poisoned Paradise, a novel of Monte Carlo (1922); The Roughneck (1923).

SERVICE STRIPE: see STRIPE. SERVICE TREE (Pyrus domestica), a native of the Mediterranean region, not infrequently planted in southern Europe for its frat. It has been regarded as a native of England on the evidence of a single specimen, which has probably been planted, now existing m the forest of Wyre. The tree is seldom productive till it has arrived at a goodly size and age. The fruit has a peculiar acid flavour, and, Hke the medlar, is fit for use only when kept till it has become “bletted,” £.¢., partially rotten. There is a pear-shaped variety, pyriformés, and also an apple-shaped variety, maliformis, both of which may be propagated by layers, and, better, by grafting on seedling plants of their own kind. The fruit is sometimes brought to market in winter. The service is nearly allied to the mountain ash, Pyrus Aucuparia, which it resembles in having regularly primate leaves. P. żorminalis is the wild service, a small tree occurring in woods and hedges from Lancashire southwards; the fruit is sold in the country markets. SERVITES or “SERVANTS OF MARY,” an order under the rule of St. Augustine, founded in 1233. In this year seven merchants of Florence, recently canonized as “the seven holy Founders,” gave up their wealth and position, and with the bishop’s sanction established themselves as a religious community on Monte Senario near Florence. They lived an austere life of

penance and prayer, and being joined by others, they were in 1240 formed into an order following the Augustinian rule supplemented

by constitutions borrowed from the Dominicans. Soon they were able to establish houses in various parts of Italy, France, Germany and Spain. The most illustrious member of the order and

its chief propagator and organizer was St. Filippo Benizi, the fifth

Editions of the Virgilian commentary by G. Fabricius

(1551); P.

Daniel, who first published the enlarged commentary (1600) ; and G. Thilo and H. Hagen (1878-1902). See E. Thomas, Essai sur Servius (1880); O. Ribbeck’s Virgil (1894-95); Journal of Philology, x. (1882); W. A. Baehrens, Cornelius Labeo (Leipzig, 1918). The smaller works are in Keils Grammatici Latini, vol. iv.

SERVIUS TULLIUS, sixth legendary king of Rome (578534 B.C.). According to one account he was the son of the household genius (Lar) and a slave named Ocrisia, of the housekold of Tarquinius Priscus. He married a daughter of Tarquinius and succeeded to the throne by the contrivance of his mother-inlaw, Tanaquil, who was skilled in divination and foresaw his greatness. Another legend, alluded to in a speech by the emperor Claudius (fragments of which were discovered on a bronze tablet dug up at Lyons in 1524), represented him as an Etruscan soldier of fortune named Mastarna, who attached himself to Caeles

Vibenna (Caelius Vivenna), the founder of an Etruscan city on the Caelian Hill (see also Tacitus, Annals, iv. 65). An important event of his reign was the conclusion of an alliance with the Latins, whereby Rome and the cities of Latium became members of one great league. His reign of forty-four years was ended

by a conspiracy headed by his son-in-law, Tarquinius Superbus.

Servius was regarded as the originator of a new classification of

the people, which laid the foundation of the gradual political

enfranchisement of the plebeians (for the constitutional altera-

tions with which his name is associated, see Rome: Ancient History; for the Servian Wall, see Rome: Archaeology).

For a critical examination of the story see Schwegler, Römische Geschichte, bks. xvi., XV. 5 Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of early Roman History, ch. xi.; W. Ihne, History of Rome, i; E. Pais, Storia di Roma, i. (1898); and Ancient Legends of Roman History (Eng. trans., 1906); C. Pascal, Fatti e legende di Roma antica (Florence, 1903) ; also O. Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadi Rom im Altertum (1883-85), and J. B. Carter, The Religion of Numa (1906), on the reorganization of Servius.

SESAME—SESTINA SESAME, the most important plant of the genus Sesamum

377

SESSA AURUNCA, a town and episcopal see of Campania,

(family Pedalineae), iis that which is used throughout India and other tropical countries for the sake of the oil expressed from its seeds. S. indicum is a herb 2 to 4 ft. high, with the lower leaves on long stalks, broad, coarsely toothed or lobed. The upper leaves are lanceolate, and bear i in their axils curved, tubular, two-lipped

Italy, in the province of Rome, on the extinct volcano of Rocca Monfina, 27 Caserta and 204 m. E. of Formia by Sparanise, 666 ft. above sea-level. Pop.

flowers, each about 3in. long, and pinkish or yellowish iin colour.

Suessa Aurunca, on a small affluent of the Liri. The town contains many ancient remains, notably the ruins of an ancient bridge in brickwork of twenty-one arches, of substructures under the church of S. Benedetto, of a very large cryptoporticus, belonging probably to a gymnasium, and of an amphitheatre. The Romanesque cathedral is a basilica with a vaulted portico and a nave and two aisles begun in 1103, a mosaic pavement in the Cosmatesque style, a good ambo resting on columns and decorated with mosaics showing traces of Moorish influence. The ancient chief town of the Aurunci, Aurunca or Ausona, is believed to have lain on the narrow south-western edge of the extinct crater of Rocca Monfina (3,297 ft.). Here some remains of Cyclopean masonry exist; but the area enclosed is too small for anything but a detached fort of a time prior to Roman supremacy. In 337 B.c. the town was abandoned in favour of the site of the modern Sessa. In 313 a Latin colony under the name Suessa Aurunca was founded here.

The four stamens are of unequal length, with a trace of a fifth stamen, and the two-celled ovary ripens into a two-valved pod with numerous seeds. The plant has been cultivated in the tropics from time immemorial and is supposed to have been derived from the Indian archipelago, but at present it is not known with certainty in a wild state. The colour of the flower, and that of the seeds, ranges from light yellow or whitish to black. Sesame oil, otherwise known as gingili or til (not to be confounded with that derived from Guizotia [family Compositae], known under

Z Y N A V = \ N i

Y Va

AG

NA Ve Za} LA

It is situated on the site of the ancient

SESSION,

the period or time that a legislature, court or

council meets for business, whether for the day or for the full term. A session of the British parliament is reckoned from its assembling till prorogation; usually there is one session each year. The Congress of the United States similarly meets ordi-

very largely used for the same purposes as olive oil, and al-

though less widely known, is com-

narily once a year, the so-called long session beginning in Decem-

mercially much more important.

SESIA, a river of northern Italy, rising below Monte Rosa,

(commune).

See G. Tomassino, Sessa Aurunca e i suot avanzi archeologici (1925).

the same vernacular name), is

The seeds and leaves are used by the natives as demulcents and for other medicinal purposes. The soot obtained in burning the oil is said to constitute one of the ingredients in Indian or Chinese ink. For further details see G. Watt, Dictionary of Economical Products of India (1893).

21,488

south-west slope of the m. by rail W.N.W. of the branch railway to (1921) 19,202 (town),

ber of the odd-numbered years and adjourning whenever Congress so decides, generally in the early summer, and the short session beginning in December of: the even-numbered years and

FROM

KOEHLER,

SESAME

“MEDICINAL

(SESAMUM

PLANTS”

INDICUM)

A. Flower removal of corolla and ay B. after Longitudinal section of:

lowar. C. & D. Seeds of white and black varieties. E. Ripe fruit

passes Alagna (a favourite mountain resort) and Varallo (g.v.) and leaves the mountains at Romagnano; then flows past Vercelli (g.v.) and soon falls into the Po. SESOSTRIS, the name of a legendary king of Egypt. According to Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus (who calls him Sesoosis) and Strabo, he conquered the whole world, even Scythia and Ethiopia, divided Egypt into administrative districts or nomes, was a great lawgiver, and introduced a system of caste and the worship of Serapis. He has been considered a compound of Seti I. and Rameses II., belonging to the XIXth Dynasty. In Manetho, however, he occupied the place of the second Senwosri (formerly read Usertesen) of the XIIth Dynasty, and his name is now usually viewed as a corruption of Senwosri. So far as is known no Egyptian king penetrated a day’s journey beyond the Euphrates or into Asia Minor, or touched the continent of Europe.

The kings of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties were the greatest

ending on the succeeding March 4. The president may call an extraordinary session at any time. The term is applied to the sittings of various judicial courts, especially criminal. ‘The sittings of the justices of the peace or magistrates in Great Britain are “sessions of the peace,” i, e. quarter sessions or “petty sessions.” In the United States a court of general or special sessions is a.Jocal criminal court for lesser offences. The supreme court of Scotland is termed the “court of session.” The name is also given in the Presbyterian Church to the lowest ecclesiastical court.

SESTETT, the name given to the second division of a sonnet,

which must consist of an octave, of eight lines, succeeded by

a sestett, of six lines. In the usual course the rhymes are arranged abe |abc, but this is not necessary. Early Italian sonnets, and in particular those of Dante, often close with the rhyme-arrangement abc |cba. In the quatorzain, there is properly speaking uo sestett, but a quatrain followed by a couplet, as in the case of Shakespeare’s so-called “Sonnets.” Another form of sestett has only

two rhymes, ab | ab | ab; as in Gray’s sonnet “Qn the Death of

Richard West.” The sestett should mark the turn of emotion in the sonnet; as a rule it may be said that the octave having been more or less objective, in the sestett reflection should make its appearance, with a tendency to the subjective manner.

Wordsworth and Milton are both remarkable for the dignity with which they conduct the downward wave of the sestett in their sonnet. The French sonneteers of the 16th century, with Ronsard at their head, preferred the softer sound of the arrange-

conquerors that Egypt ever produced, and their records are clear on this point. Senwosri III. raided south Palestine and Ethiopia, ment aab | ccb |. and at Semna beyond the second cataract set up a stela of conSESTINA, a most elaborate form of verse, employed by the quest that in its expressions recalls the stelae of Sesostris in mediaeval poets of Provence and Italy, and occasionally used by Herodotus: Sesostris may, therefore, be the highly magnified por- modern poets. The scheme was the invention of the troubadour, trait of this Pharaoh. Khian, the powerful but obscure Hyksos Arnaut Daniel (d. 1199), who wrote many sestinas in the lingua - king of Egypt, whose prenomen might be pronounced Sweserenré, di si. Dante, a little later, wrote sestinas in Italian, above all is perhaps a possible prototype, for objects inscribed with his that beginning “Al poco giorno ed al gran cerchio d’ ombra.” In name have been found from Baghdad to Cnossus. Sesostris is evi- the Dé vulgari Eloguio, Dante admits that he imitated Arnaut; dently a mythical figure calculated to satisfy the pride of the “et nos eum secuti sumus,” he says. The sestina, in its pure Egyptians in their ancient achievements, after they had come into mediaeval form, consists of six stanzas of six lines each of blank contact with the great conquerors of Assyria and Persia. verse: hence the name. The final words of the first stanza appear Herodotus ii. 192-111; Diod. Sic. i. 53-59; Strabo xv. p. 687; see in varied order in all the others, the order laid down by the Proalso article Ecyrt; and ‘Kurt Sethe, “Sesostris,” ‘7900, in his Unters, vencals being:—abcdef, faebdc, cfdabe, ecbfad, deacfb, bdfeca. z. Gesch. u. Altertumskunde Agyptens, tome ii.

SESTRI

378

LEVANTE— SETON

On these stanzas follawed a tornada, or envoi, of three lines, in which all the six key-words were repeated in the following order: —b-¢, d-c, f-a. What symbolism, if any, this rigid form concealed, has been lost. Petrarch cultivated a slightly modified sestina, but later the form fell into disuse, until it was revived by the poets of the Pléiade, in particular by Pontus de Tyard. In the 19th century, it was assiduously cultivated by the Comte de Gramont, who, between 1830 and 1848, wrote a large number of examples, included in his Chant du passé (1854). The earliest sestina in English was published in 1877 by Edmund Gosse; this was in the style of Daniel. Since that time it has been frequently employed by English and American writers, particularly by Swinburne, who has composed some beautiful sestinas on the French patiern; of these, that beginning “I saw my soul at rest upon a day” is perhaps the finest specimen in English. His astonishing tour de force, “The Complaint of Lisa,” is a double sestina of 12 verses of 12 lines each. The sestina was cultivated in Germany in the 17th century, particularly by Opitz and Weckherlin. In the roth century an attempt was made, not without success, to compose sestinas in dialogue, or even double sestinas.

SESTRI LEVANTE, seaport of Liguria, Italy, in the prov-

ince of Genoa (anc. Segesta Tiguliorum), from wbich it is 28$ m. distant by rail, 33 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921) 11,333, town; 14,444, commune. It is both a summer and a winter resort, with fme views. Part of the town is situated on a promontory (230 ft.) between two bays. Here the roads for Borgotaro and Spezia tum inland. There is an important shipbuilding yard at Riva Trigoso, in a sheltered bay 3 m. to the south. From this point to Spezia (25 m.) the coast is so precipitous that the railway traverses 46 tunnels with a total length of over 184 m. SESTRI PONENTE, a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, 4 m. W. of that town on the coast. Pop. (1921) 26,026, town; 28,269, commune. It has important shipbuilding yards and iron-works, with factories for railway carriages, tanneries, etc., and, in the vicinity, alabaster quarries. A mile and a half west is Pegli, with beautiful walks and fine villas.

SETH or, more correctly, SHETH, was according to the ” tradition the firstborn son of Adam and Eve, Genesis

¥. 3 (cf.alsoI. Chron. i. 1, Luke iii. 38). The main tradition of the Yabwist, on the other hand, makes Cain the firstborn'son. But a secondary stratum within this tradition, Genesis iv.25, agrees with the priestly genealogy, and provides for the name an etymology. In the R.V. margin of Numbers xxiv. 17 the Moabites are called “sons of Sheth”; this may be due to confusion with the Sutin. of. the cuneiform records, a nomad people of the North Sysan desert. Seth is much more prominent in Jewish tradition than in tbe Old T and many fancies gathered round the name (see Josephus, Ané. Lii.3). Ecclesiasticus xlxix.16 couples him with Shem as “glorified among men.” There was an heretical Jewish sect known as the Sethites, whose doctrines were taken over by a Christian Gnostic sect similarly named.

SETH, (1836-

ANDREW (Anprew Sera PRINGLE-PATTISON) ), Scottish philosopher, was born ii Edinburgh and

educated at Edinburgh high school and university.

In 1898 he

assumed the name of Pringle-Pattison when he succeeded to Haining estate. He became assistant professor of logic and metaphysics at Edinburgh university in 1880. the foundation of the University college of Cardiff in 1883 he was appointed professor of logic and philosephy, holding a similar post at St. Andrews from

1887 to 1891, and at Edinburgh from 1891 to 1919. In 1g2r he was appointed Hibbert lecturer, and from 1921 to 1923 was Gifford

lecturer at Edinburgh university.

His many publications on philosophical subjects include: The Development from Kant to Hegel (1882); Man’s Place in the Cosmos (1897, enlarged ed. 1902); and many lectures and essays.

SETIA (mod. Sesze, 44 m. by rail S. E. of Rome), an ancient

town ofLatium. (adjectum), Italy, on the south-west edge of the

Volscian mountains, overlooking the Pomptine Marshes, 1,047 ft. above sea-level, and over goo ft. above the plain. It was an ancient Volscian town, which became a Latin colony in 382 B.C.,

Sulla in 82 B.c. Under the empire it was well known for its wine, which Augustus preferred even to Falernian. Considerable remains of the city walls exist, built of large blocks of limestone in the polygonal style. This style may also be seen in several terrace walls belonging to a later date. The modern town, occupying the ancient site, has a much-restored 13th-century Gothic cathedral. Pop. (1921) 6,683, town; 12,391, commune. At the foot of the hill on which the town stands are considerable remains of Roman villas.

Here is the railway station, at which the new line from

Rome via Cisterna is joined by the old one via Velletri. See H. H. Armstrong in American Journal of Archaeology (1915), 34. (T. A.)

SET-OFF, in law, a statutory defence to the whole or to a

portion of a plaintiffs claim. It was created for mutual debts only by 2 Geo. II. ch. 22 for the relief of insolvent debtors. By the rules of the supreme court (O. XIX. r. 3) a defendant in an

action may set off or set up any right or claim by way of counterclaim against the claims of a plaintiff, and such set-off or counterclaim has the same effect as a statement of claim in a cross-action. (See PLEADING.) The word “compensation” as used in many foreign codes has substantially the same meaning.

SETON

(Family).

The Scottish family of Seton, Seyton or

Seatoun, claims descent from a Dougall Seton who lived in the reign of Alexander I. The family honours include the earldoms

of Wintoun (cr. 1600) and Dunfermline; of Eglinton through marriage with the Montgomeries; and through alliance with a Gordon heiress a Seton became the ancestor of the earls and marquesses of Huntly and dukes of Gordon. The Setons were connected by marriage with the royal family of Scotland, and also with the Dunbars, Lindsays, Hays and Maitlands. Sir Christopher Seton, son and heir of John de Seton, a Cumberland gentleman, and his wife Erminia Lascelles, was born probably in 1278, and came into his inheritance in 1299. He had married about 130r Christian Bruce, sister of King Robert, who was possibly his second cousin. He was present at his brother-in-law’s coronation at Scone in 1306, and saved his

life at the battle of Methven later in the same year. According to Dugdale he shut himself up in Lochdoon Castle in Ayrshire,

and on the surrender of that castle was hanged as a traitor at

Dumfries by order of Edward I. He left no heirs. His widow

was in March 1307 in receipt of three pence a day from Edward I. for her support at the monastery of Sixhill in Lincolnshire. She was afterwards placed in the custody of Sir Thomas de Gray. His Cumberland estates, with the exception of his mother’s ‘dower, were given to Robert de Clifford. Another Seton, John de Seton, described as having no lands or chattels, was hanged for helping in the defence of Tibbers Castle, and for aiding in the murder of John Comyn, with other prisoners of war, at Newcastle in August 3306. Sir Alexander Seton (d. c. 1360) was probably the brother

of Sir Christopher. He received grants of land from King Robert

Bruce, and was one of the signatories of the letter addressed by the Scottish nobles to the pope to assert the independence of Scotland. He was twice sent on embassies to England, and in 1333 he defended the town of Berwick against the English. He agreed with the English to surrender the town on a certain date unless he received relief before that time, giving his eldest surviving son Thomas as a hostage. On the refusal of the Scots to surrender at the expiry of the term Thomas Seton was hanged in sight of the garrison. This incident is related by Fordun and Boece, but with inconsistencies that have rendered it suspect. An elder son, Alexander, had perished in 1332 in opposing the landing of Edward Baliol; according to some authorities the third son, William, was hanged with his brother, but he is generally said to have been drowned during the siege; his daughter Margaret married Alan de Wintoun. The tragic death of young Thomas Seton was the subject of a ballad of “Seton’s.Sons,” printed:in Sheldon’s Minstrelsy of the Scattish Border ; of a.tragedy, The Siege of Berwick (1794, printed 1882) by Edward Jexningham,: and: of another by

oily à a, eas Miller (1824). and, owing to the strength ofits position as a frontier fortress, is James ‘Sir William: Seton of Seton .(f.:1371-1393) is said to have frequently mentioned in military history. It, was. captured’ by been ennobled with tle title of Lord Seton, and his heirs laid fot #'

i

ws eR

ene OH Bees

q

SETON-WATSON—SETTEMBRINI claim that the barony of Seton was the oldest in Scotland. By his wife Catherine Sinclair he had eight children. John succeeded him; Alexander married Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of Sir Adam de Gordon, by whom he became the ancestor of the Gordons of Huntly.

Sir John of Seton (d c. 1441) was taken prisoner at Homildon Hill in 1402. He was hostage in England for the earl of Douglas in 1405, and again in 1423 for James I. He married Lady Janet Dunbar, daughter of the roth earl of March. His son Sir William was killed at Verneuil, fighting on the French side, leaving as heir GEORGE (d. 1478), rst Lord Seton, who was created a lerd

of parliament in 1448 as Lord Seton. By his first marriage with Margaret, daughter of John Stewart, earl of Buchan, he bad a son John, who died during his father’s lifetime. He was succeeded by his grandson GEORGE, 2nd Lord Seton (d. 1508), who was a scholar of St. Andrews and Paris, and in common report a necro-

mancer. He was captured by the Flemings, and on his release fitted out and maintained a ship for the purpose of harassing Flemish travellers. His son GEORGE, 3rd Lord Seton, was killed at Flodden in 1513.

He redeemed estates which his father had

sacrificed to support his enterprises against the Flemings. By his marriage with Janet, daughter of Patrick Dunbar, 1st earl of Bothwell, he left a son GrorcE, 4th Lord Seton (d. 1549), who allowed Cardinal Beaton to escape from custody in 1543, and

received considerable grants of land in the sequel. The castle and church of Seton were burnt by Hertford in revenge for the part he had taken against the English in 1544.

George, 5th Lord Seton (15307-1585), was a Catholic and a firm friend of Mary, queen of Scots. He was present at her marriage with the dauphin in 1557, and three years later he was again in France. When Mary returned to Scotland he became privy councillor and master of the household, but four years later he again found it advisable to retire to France. Mary and Darnley spent their honeymoon at Seton Palace, and Mary found

a retreat there after the murder of Rizzio and again after the murder of Darnley. She spent the night before Carberry Hill under Seton’s roof, and he was waiting for her on her escape from Lochleven in May 1568. He took her to his castle at Niddrie, Linlithgowshire, and thence to Hamilton. A week later he was taken prisoner at Langside. He was set free after the assassination of the regent Moray, and made his way to Flanders, where he was said to have made his living as a wagoner. He was, in fact, entrusted by Mary’s supporters with a mission to the duke of Alva, and sought in vain to secure for service in Scotland two regiments of Scots then in Spanish pay. He returned home in 1571, being apparently reconciled with the government, but he retained his Catholicism and his friendship for Mary, who wrote to Elizabeth in 158z. desiring a passport for Lord Seton that he might alleviate her solitude. In 1581 he was one of Morton’s judges, and in 1583 he was sent as ambassador to France, where he sought interference on Queen Mary’s behalf. He died soon after his return on Jan. &, 1585. The sth Lord Seton figures

379

6th earl of Eglinton; the fourth, Thomas, was the ancestor of the Setons of Oliveston. GEORGE, 4th earl of Wintoun (1640-1704), succeeded his grandfather, George Seton, 3rd earl, in 1650. He saw some service in the French army, and fought against the Covenanters at Pentland and at Bothwell Bridge. By his second marriage, with Christian Hepburn, he had a son George, who quarrelled with his father and is said to have been working as a journeyman blacksmith abroad when he succeeded to the title in 1704. In 1715 the 5th earl joined Kenmure with 300 men at Moffat, but it was against his advice that the Jacobite army invaded England. He was lying in the Tower under sentence of death when he succeeded in making his escape, and proceeding to the continent, he became well known in Rome, where he was grand master of the Roman lodge of freemasons. He died there in 1749. With him the earldom became extinct, but it was revived in 1840 in favour of the earls of Eglinton. AvurHorirres—Sir Richard Maitland, History of the House of Seton, continued by A. Seton, rst Viscount Kingston (mod. ed., Glasgow 1829, and Edinburgh 1830); G. Seton, The History of the House of Seton (2 vols., 1896); Sir R. Douglas, Scots Peerage, new ed. by Sir J. B. Paul; Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland in the “Rolls” series; and G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage.

SETON-WATSON, ROBERT WILLIAM

(1879-

+),

English historian, was born on Aug. 20, 1879. He was educated at Winchester and at New college, Oxford, afterwards studying at Berlin, Paris and Vienna universities. He made a special study of the history of Austria-Hungary and of the Balkans, and in 1915 became lecturer in East European history at King’s college, London. He made many contributions on his subject to various periodicals, and in 1916 founded the New Europe, of which he was joint-editor until 1920. In 1922 he was appointed Masaryk professor of Central European history in the University of London. He has published a number of volumes dealing with European history and politics, among which may be mentioned Maximilian

I. (1902); The Future of Austria-Hungary (1907); The Southern Slav Question (1911); Roumania and the Great War (1915); The Balkans, Italy and the Adriatic (1915); German, Slav and Magyar (1916); The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans (1917); Europe in the Melting-pot (1919); The New Slovakia (1924); Serajévo (1926).

.

SETTEE, a long upholstered seat, usually high-backed an

with arms at each end. Its ancestors were the settle and the chair—it has alternately resembled the one and the other. Ii is broadly distinguished from the many varieties of sofa by being intended for sitting rather than reclining—its seat is of the same height as that of a chair; its arms and much of its detail are chair-like. It dates from about the middle of the 17th century, but examples of that early period are exceedingly ‘rare. There is a famous one at Knole, made about midway between the restoration of Charles. II. and the revolution of 1688. By that time the settee had acquired the splendid upholstery and conin Sir Walter Scott’s Abbot. He was succeeded by his second voluted woodwork which adorned the end of the Stuart period. and eldest surviving son, Robert, who became 6th Lord Seton Early in the 18th century the conjoined double or triple chair and rst earl of Wintoun. His third son, Sir John Seton of Barns, form became fashionable. The form was artless, and the absence was a gentleman of the bedchamber to Philip II. of Spain. He of upholstery, save on the seat, produced a somewhat angular was recalled to Scotland by James VI., and served as lord of effect. As the taste for carved furniture waned these sturdy settees session from 1587 to 31594. . were replaced by lighter ones, often graceful enough in outline Mary Seton, one of the “Four Maries” attendant ,on the queen, but partaking more and more of the “stuffed-over” character. Its is supposed, to have been the 5th Lord Seton’s. half-sister. She modem varieties are many, but in all of them the frame, once had been educated with, Queen ‚Mary in France, being about a year so lavishly ornamented, is almost concealed by upholstery. (See Patt older than her, mistress, with whom she returned to Scotland in INTERIOR DECORATION: English.) . SETTEMBRINI, LUIGI (1813-1877), Italian man: of 1561. She helped. Mary -to. escape from Lochleven by assuming her clothes. .Later on she joined her at Carlisle,,and remained letters and politician, was born in Naples. At the age of twenty> with. her in -her ‘various:prisons, until. 1583, when prison life had two. he was appointed professor of. eloquence at Catanzaro, and’ undermined :her health.and spirits.. She died ‚in; poverty at the married Raffaela Luigia Faucitano (1835). He carried om,pnopay

ganda. for Italian’ unity,.and in 1839 was arrested, , Although a abbey:; of, St« Bierse.at Reims.in.1614.00 spe oe ton PROBERR:SETON, esear, respecting the Book of advanced yet farther up the Elbe to meet him, and the two armies SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE, THE, a collective met at Lobositz (opposite Leitmeritz) on the morning of Oct. 1. The battle began in a thick fog, rendering dispos name for certain sages who flourished c. 620-5 50 B.C, itions very diffiThe generally cult, and victor

accepted list is Bias, Chilon, Cleobulus, Periander, Pittacus, Solon,

y fell to the Prussians, principally tenacity displayed by their infantry in a series of owing to “the disconnected

SEVEN

MILITARY OPERATIONS]

389

YEARS’ WAR

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local engagements.

The nature of the ground rendered pursuit

impossible, and the losses on both sides were approximately equal —viz. 3,000 men—but the result sealed the fate of the Saxons,

who after a few half-hearted attempts to escape from their entrenchments, surrendered on Oct. 14, and were taken over bodily into the Prussian service. Prussian administrators were appointed to govern the country, and the troops took up winter quarters. The coalition had undertaken to provide 500,000 men against Prussia, but at the beginning of the year only 132,000 Austrians stood ready for action’ in northern Bohemia. Against these the king was organizing some 250,000, 45,000 of whom were paid for by British subsidies and disposed to cover Hanover from a French attack. After leaving detachments to guard his other frontiers, Frederick was able to take the field with nearly 150,000 men, but these also were scattered to guard a frontier some 200 m. In length—the left wing in Silesia under Schwerin and the duke of Brunswick-Bevern, the centre and right under the king. In April the operations began. Schwerin and Bevern crossed the mountains into Bohemia and united at Jung Bunzlau, the Austrians falling back before them and surrendering their magazines. “The king marched from Pirna and Prince Maurice of Dessau from Zwickau on Prague, at which point the various Austrian commands were ordered to concentrate. Battle of Prague,—On the morning of May 5the whole army, except a column under Field Marshal Daun, was united here under Prince Charles of Lorraine, and the king, realizing the impossibility of storming the heights before him, left a corps under Keith and a few detachments to watch Prague and the fords across the river, and marched during the night upstream and, crossing: above the Austrian right, formed his army (about 64,000) for attack

20

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40

at right anges čo t he Auw tiaan frmot Tee ground had not been recmnmnoitred , amd iin thae raomæig mist tm.any~ mistakes in the deploynnent: had beeen mace, bit a Dacmvevs kwown.to be but 20 daenging ats dront to meet m. ayvay anci thee Anutmin ancy ws the unexpected atteack, thee Kimmy tohewavceaution to the winds and sending @icteen vevith his cavavalrye7by~ awerile déoun-ts cover his left, the mest savage battles he ordered tthe 2M and 1F must be

'

“Y

SEXTANT—SEYCHELLES

420

Death-rate 1920-22. Country.

England & Wales .

Mee ge Netherlands Norway Sweden. Switzerland

Females.

13°3

r1°6

deaths to 1,000 female deaths 1,146 1,088 1,082 1,000 1,106 1,100 1,060 1,017

14°38 14°6 Irs

Scotland Belgium Denmark

Males,

Ratio of male

tae. os S. te om

I5°7 15°4 17°6 Ir°7 12°4 12:8 13°7

It will be seen that in Sweden alone the deaths among an equal number of males and females show a slight advantage on the male side, that in Denmark the sex mortality was equal,

through the unsilvered half, while the light from the sun or a star

S may be reflected from the index glass C to the silvered half of

E and thence through F to the observer's eye.

If CD has been

moved so as to make the image of a star or of the limb of the sun coincide with that of the horizon, it is seen that the angle

SCH (the altitude of the star or solar limb) equals twice the angle BCD. The limb AB is graduated so as to avoid the necessity of

doubling the measured angle, a space marked as a degree on AB

being in reality only 30’, If the sextant is used on land an “artificial horizon” is required instead of the sea-horizon. This consists of a trough containing a shallow layer of mercury, which gives a truly horizontal reflecting surface. The telescope F is now pointed downwards so as to view the sun’s image reflected in the mercury trough; an image of the sun reflected by the sextant mirrors appears as before, and the two images are made to touch. The reading now gives the angle between the sun and its image in the mercury

trough, which is double the angle between the sun and the horizon. In the air, however, the visible horizon is of no use, since its

while in all the other countries the male mortality showed excess “dip” (below the truly horizontal direction) is large and unknown. in varying degree, In England and Wales, Finland and Germany The mercury trough is obviously unsuitable for use in an aerothe excess is very heavy indeed. Going outside Europe, it may plane. Hence some form of “bubble sextant”? (see AERIAL NAVIbe mentioned that in Chile the ratio of male to female deaths in GATION) is used, in which a spirit level is reflected into the field equal numbers for the same period was 1,060, in Japan 978, in of view in such a way that the centre of the bubble indicates the British India 1,082. In the United States for the year 1924 the true horizon, ratio was 1,144, a figure almost identical with that shown for SEXUAL SELECTION: see SELECTION: Sexual Selection. England and Wales in the foregoing table. It may be as well to SEYCHELLES (sa-shél), an archipelago in the Indian say that the rates and ratios given in this section of this article ocean, islands and islets—situated between 3° 38’ and 5° 45’ S., are calculated on the census populations of the census taken at and 52° 55’ and 53° 50’ E. Together with the Amirantes, Costhe end of 1920 or early in 192r. (S, DE J.) moledo, Aldabra and other islands they form the British colony of SEXTANT, a sixth part of a circle. The name is applied Seychelles. The outlying islands lie south-west of the Seychelles especially to an optical instrument for measuring angular dis- group and between that archipelago and Madagascar. The islands tances, invented by John Hadley in 1731. Hadley’s original in- under the Seychelles government have a total area of 156 sq.m. strument was, strictly, an octant, employing a graduated arc of

one-eighth of a circle. The arc was enlarged to one-sixth, to meet the needs of navigation, by Capt, Campbell in 1757. The instrument is mainly used at sea, and the angle that is measured is the altitude of the sun (or a star) above the horizon

(see NAVIGATION).

A, familiar sight on an ocean steamer is the

officer on the bridge “shooting the sun” at noon, in order to de-

termine his latitude. The officer is looking through a small telescope straight at the sea horizon; rf | but he sees also an image of the sun (dimmed by an interposed dark glass) which has been reflected into his field of view by an arrangement of mirrors described below, He is slowly moving an arm which turns one of

the mirrors until the solar image

within the bounds of the colony, The Seychelles lie, with two exceptions, towards the centre of

a large submarine bank and are all within the so fathoms line. Mahé, the largest and most central island, is 6090 m. north-east of the northernmost point of Madagascar, The other chief islands form two principal groups: (i,) Praslin, with La Digue, Félicité, Fast Silver, West Silver, Curieuse and Aride; (ii,) Silhouette, and North Island. The most easterly island is Frigate, the most southerly Platte; on the northern edge of the reef are Bird and Denis islands. Mahé is 17 m. long, and from 4 to 7 broad and of highly irregular shape. There are small areas of lowlands, chiefly at the mouths of the rivers but most of the island is mountainous, and in general the hills rise abruptly from the sea. The highest peaks are Morne Seychellois, 2,993 ft., and Trois Fréres, 2,390 ft. The main ridge runs north and south and from the heights descend many torrents, the whole island being well watered. The principal harbour, Port

appears just tọ touch the seahorizon. The figure shows the construc-

Victoria, is on the north-east coast and is approached by a deep channel through the coral reef which fringes the entire eastern side of the island. Of the small islands close to Mahé the chief are St. Anne and Cerf, off the east, and Conception and Thérése off the west coast. Praslin island is 8 m, long and from 1 to 3 m. broad and its highest point is 1,260 ft.; La Digue covers 4 sq.m., and its greatest

tion of the sextant. ARC is a light framework of brass in the shape

of a sector of 60°, the limb AB haying a graduated arc of silver inlaid. It is held in the hand by a small handle at the back, either

vertically in a position in front of the eye to measure the alti-

There are in addition 40,000 to 50,000 sq.m. of coral banks

—

~2.,

tude of an object, or in the plane passing through two objects the angular distance of which is to be found. It may also be mounted on a stand, CD is a radius movable round C, where a smal] plane mirror of silvered plate-glass (called the “index glass”) is fixed perpendicular te the plane of the sextant and in the line CD. At D is a vernier read through a microscope, also a clamp and a tangent screw for giving the arm CD a slow motion. At E is another mirror “the horizon glass,” also perpendicular to the plane of the sextant and parallel to CB. F is a small telescope fixed across CB, and pointed to the mirror E. As only the lower half of E is silvered, the observer can see the horizon in the telescope

height is 1,175 ft.; Silhouette, roughly circular, covers 8 sq.m. and culminates in Mon Plaisir, 2,473 ft. None of the other islands exceeds 14 sq.m.

Geology.—Most of the islands are of granite (hornblende or hornblende-biotite variety) in places fringed by coral reefs; Silhouette and Long islands are of typical syenite whilst there are dykes and sheets of a younger vogesite, dolerite, porphyrite suite. Bird and Denis islands are of coral limestones while the basement

rocks are represented by clay slates on Silhouette island and hornstones on Stag’s island. The group is probably a detached and

partially submerged portion of Gondwanaland. cate a recent uplift of about 200 ft.

Inland cliffs indi-

Climate.--The climate is healthy and equable, and the tem-

perature varies on the coast from about 68° to 88° F, falling at

SEYCHELLES night in the higher regions to 60° or 55° F. The mean coast temperature exceeds 79° F. The south-east monsoon blows from May to October, which is the dry season, and the west-north-west monsoon from December to March. During April and November the winds are variable. The average annual rainfall on the coast is 100-8 in.; it increases to about 120 in. at a height of 600 ft. and at heights exceeding 2,000 ft. is about 150 in. The Seychelles lie outside the track of the hurricanes which occasionally devastate Réunion and Mauritius. The public health is good. Flora and Fauna.—Both flora and fauna include species and

genera peculiar to the Seychelles. Of these the best known is the Lodoicea sechellarum, a palm tree indigenous only in Praslin island, but since introduced into Curieuse—noted for its fruit,

the so-called Maldive double coco-nut or coco de mer. Another tree found only in the islands is the capucin (Northea sechellarum), now ravaged by an introduced green beetle. Characteristic of the forests of the coastal belt are the mangrove and

Pandanus, and, a little inland, thè banyan (Ficus), Pisonia and Hernandia. The cocò-nut is a characteristic feature of the coast. The forests of the granitic land have the characteristics

of a

tropical moist region, paltns, shrubs, climbing and tree ferns growing luxuriantly, the trees on the mountain sides, such as the Pan-

danus sechellarum sending down roots over the rocks and boulders from 70 to 100 ft. Of timber trees the bois gayac has disappeared, but bois de fer (Stadimannia sideroxylon) and bois de natte (Maba sechellarum) still flourish on Silhouette Island. Besides cutting for building, the jungle was largely cleared for the plantation of vanilla; while a multitude of other tropical plants have been introduced. The most important of the trees introduced since rgoo are various kinds of rubber, including Para (Hevea Brasiliensis), which grows well. For other introduced plants see below, Industries.

The indigenous fauna resembles that of Madagascar. The only varieties of mammals are the rat and bat. The dugong, which formerly frequented the waters of the islands, does so no longer. The reptiles include certain lizards and snakes; the crocodile, orice

common, has been exterminated. Land tortoises have also disappeared; a freshwater tortoise (Sternothaerus sinuatus) is still found. The giant tortoise, Testudo elephantina, is found only in the Aldabra Islands; and the adjacent seas contain many turtles.

Three coecilians, three batrachians (including a mountain-frequenting frog) and three fresh-water crustaceans are also indig-

421

coco-hut palm—copra, soap, coco-nut oil and coco-nuts—the mangrove bark industry, the collection of guano, the cultivation of rubber trees, the preparation of banana flour, the growing of sugar canes, and the distillation of rum and essential oils. The tortoiseshell and calipee fisheries and the export of salt fish are important

industries. Minor exports are cocoa, coco-de-mer and béche-demer. From the leaves of the coco-dé-mer aré made baskets and hats.

The imports consist chiefly of cotton goods and hardware, rice, sugar, flour, boots and shoes, wires and beer, tobacco, machinery. The imports in 1925 wete £129,541 and exports £167,169. The bulk of the trade is with the countries of the British Empire. The

medium of exchange is the Indian rupee (~16d.), with the sub-

sidiary coinage of Mauritius.

The only town of any size is the capital, Port Victoria (or Mahé), picturesquely situated at the head of an excellent harbour. Many of the houses are built of massive coral, Porites gaimardi, hewn into square building blocks which at a distance glisten like white marble. The port is a coaling station of the

British navy and is connected by telegraphic cables with Zanzibar and Mauritius. All the islands are well provided with metalled

roads. The government employ steam vessels for passenger and mail services between the islands and there are large numbers of sailing craft belonging to the islanders; there is communication

with Gteat Britain, France, India and South Africa. Government and Revenue.—Seychelles is a crown colony administered by a governor, assisted by nominated executive and legislative councils. In 1925 revenue was £51,384, expenditure £43,801 and debt of £6,886. Education is free but not compulsory. History.—The Seychelles ate marked on Portuguese charts dated 1502. The first recorded visit to the islands was made in 1609 by an English ship. The second recorded visit, in 1742, was made by Captain Lazare Picault, who, returning two years later, formally annexed the islands to France. Picault, who acted as agent of Mahé de la Bourdonnais, governor of Mauritius, named the principal island Mahé and the group Îles de la Bourdonnais,

a style changed in 1756, when the islands were renamed Moreau de Séchelles, at that time contrôleur des finances Louis XV. The first permanent settlement was made about when the town of Mahé was founded. Soon afterwards

after under 1768, Pierre

Poivre, intendant of Île de France, seeing the freedom of the

Seychelles archipelago from hurricanes, caused spice plantations to be made there, with the object of wresting from the Dutch the monopoly of the spice trade they then enjoyed. The existence of these plantations was kept secret, and it was with that object that Inhabitants.—The Seychelles were uninhabited when first vis- they were destroyed by fire by the French on the appearance in ited by Europeans. The islands were colonized by Mauritian and the harbour in 1778 of a vessel flying the British flag. The ship, Bourbon creoles; the white element, still prevailingly French, has however, proved to be a French slaver which bad hoisted the Union been strengthened by British families. The first planters intro- Jack fearing to find the British in possession. The islands were duced slaves from Mauritius, and the negro element has been in- occupied in 1810 by the British, to whom they were ceded by the creased by the introduction of freed slaves from East Africa. treaty of Paris in 1814. J. B. Quéau de Quincy (1748-1827), There has been also an immigration of Chinese and, in larger governor under the Monarchy, the Republic and the Empire, was numbers, of Indians (mainly from the Malabar coast). An of- appointed by the British agent-civil. In all he governed the islands ficial report issued in roro stated that the greater part of the 38 years, dying in 1827. The over-dependence placed on vanilla valuable town property had passed into the hands of Indians, caused waves of depression to alternate with waves of prosperity, and that Indians and Chinese had the bulk of the rétail trade. and the depression following the fall in the price of vanilla was A rude creole patois, based on French but with a large admixture aggravated by periods of drought, “agricultural sloth and careless of Indian, Bantu and English words, is in general use. The Sey- extravagance.”? But during 1905~r0 successful efforts were made chellois are excellent sailors. On Dec. 31st 1925 the population to broaden the economic resources of the colony. Since that date was Officially estimated at 26,185. The pure white population is direct telegraphic communication with Mauritius, Zanzibar, Aden, less than 1,000. About two-thirds of the inhabitants are Roman and Colombo has been installed and a Government wireless telephone service was opened in 1926 between Victoria and the Prashin Catholics. Agriculture, Industries, Towns and Communications.— islands. Dependencies.—-The outlying islands forming part of the The most important occupations are fishing and agticulture. Before 1850 the islands produced spices, cotton, coffee, tobacco, sugar, colony of Seychelles consist of several widely scattered groups. maize, rice, bananas, yams, coco-nut oil, timber, fish and fish oil The Amirante archipelago is situated on a submarine bank west and tortoise-shell. Whaling is carried on, chiefly by Americans and south-west of the Seychelles, the nearest island being about and French, in the neighbouring seas. Subsequently cocoa was rzom. from Mahé. The archipelago consists of a number of cultivated extensively, and from about 1890 vanilla largely super- coral islets and atolls comprising the African islands (4), the St. seded the other crops. Owing to increased competition, and to Joseph group (8), the Poivre islands (9) and the Alphonso enous, and about twenty-six species of land shells. The islands are the home of a large number of birds, including terns, gannets and white egrets.

careless harvesting, the Seychellois, though still producing vanilla in large quantities, pay greater attention to the products of the

group (3). Farther south and within 170m. of Madagascar is IColonial Reports .. . Seychellés (tg07).

422

SEYDLITZ—SEYMOUR

the Providence group (3) formed by the piling up of sand on a surface reef which is of crescent shape. The Farquhar islands lie to the south of these. The Cosmoledo islands, which are 12 in number, lie some 210m. W. of Providence island, while 70m. farther west are the Aldabra islands (g.v.). Assumption island lies to the south of the Aldabra. The chief island in the Cosmoledo group is 9m. long by 6m. broad. South of this group of islands lies Astove. Coetivy (transferred from Mauritius to the Seychelles in 1908) lies about room. S.S.E. of Platte. The majority of the outlying islands are extremely fertile, coco-nut trees and maize growing luxuriantly. Several of the islands contain valuable deposits of guano and phosphate of lime, and their waters are frequented by edible and shell turtle. Like the Amirantes, all the other islands named are of coral formation.

OF SUDELEY

before his death that they met again. Seydlitz died at Ohlau on Aug. 27, 1773.

See Varnhagen von Ense, Das Leben des Generals von Seydlits (Berlin, 1834); and Bismarck, Die kg. preussische Reiterei unter

Friedrich dem Grossen

SEYMOUR

(Karlsruhe, 1837).

or St. Maur, the name of an English family in

which several titles of nobility have from time to time been created, and of which the duke of Somerset is the head. See HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF; and SOMERSET, EARLS AND

DUKES OF. SEYMOUR,

. (1810-1886), American statesHORATIO man, was born in Pompey, Onondaga county (N.Y.), on May

31, 1810. He studied at Geneva academy (afterwards Hobart college) and at a military school in Middletown (Conn.), and secretary See A. A. Fauvel, Unpublished Documents on the History of the was admitted to the bar in 1832. He was military Seychelles Islands Anterior to r8ro, with a bibliography (Mahé 1909) ; to Governor W. L. Marcy in 1833~39, was a member of the New Ancient Maps of Seychelles Archipelago (Mahé 1909). See also the York Assembly in 1842, in 1844, and in 1845, and was speaker annual reports on the Seychelles issued by the Colonial Office. For mayor of Utica in 1843, and in 1852 was elected governor the dependencies see R. Dupont, Report on a Visit of Investigation to in 1845; sale St. Pierre, Astove, Cosmoledo, Assumption and the Aldabra Group of New York State. He vetoed in 1854 a bill prohibiting the of intoxicating liquors, which was declared unconstitutional almost of the Seychelles Islands (Seychelles, 1907). t in 1855, and in consequence he SEYDLITZ, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, FREIHERR VON immediately after its re-enactmen as governor. Seymour was a re-election for 1854 in defeated was (1721—1773), Prussian soldier, one of the greatest cavalry generals of history, was born on Feb. 3, 1721 at Calcar, in the duchy of Conservative on national issues, and supported the administrations Cleve. At the age of thirteen he went as a page to the court of of Pierce and Buchanan; he advocated compromise to avoid secesthe margrave of Schwedt, who had been his father’s colonel. Here sion in 1860-61; but when war started he supported the Union. he acquired a superb mastery of horsemanship, and many stories In 1863-65 he was again governor of New York State. His opposition to President Lincoln’s policy was mainly in reare told of his feats, the best known of which was his riding between the sails of a wind-mill in full swing. In 1740 he was com- spect to emancipation, military arrests and conscription. Although missioned a cornet in the margrave’s regiment of Prussian cuiras- he responded immediately to the call for militia in June, he siers. He served through the first and second Silesian wars, and thought the Conscription Act unnecessary and unconstitutional in 1753 became lieutenant-colonel of the 8th cuirassiers. Under and urged the President to postpone the draft until its legality his hands this regiment soon became a pattern to the rest of the could be tested. During the draft riots in July he proclaimed the army. The Seven Years’ War gave Seydlitz his opportunity. . In city and county of New York in a state of insurrection, but in a 1757, regardless of the custom of keeping back the heavy cavalry speech to the rioters adopted a tone of conciliation—a political in reserve, he took his regiment to join the advanced guard; at error which injured his career. He was defeated as Democratic Prague he nearly lost his life in attempting to ride through a candidate for governor in 1864. In 1868 he was nominated presimarshy pool, and at Kolin, at the head of a cavalry brigade, he dential candidate by the Democratic national convention, but distinguished himself in checking the Austrian pursuit by a carried only eight States (including New York, New Jersey, and brilliant charge. Two days later the king made him major-general Oregon), and received only 80 electoral votes to 214 for Grant. and gave him the order pour le mérite. In reply to Zieten’s con- He died on Feb. 12, 1886, in Utica. The Public Record of Horatio Seymour (1868) includes his speeches gratulations he said: “It was high time, Excellency, if they wanted more work out of me. I am already thirty-six.” Four times in the and official papers between 1856 and 1868. SEYMOUR, a city of Jackson county, Indiana, U.S.A., 60 dismal weeks that followed the disaster of Kolin, Seydlitz asserted his energy and spirit in cavalry encounters, and on the morning of m. S. by E. of Indianapolis, near the East Fork of the White Rossbach Frederick, superseding two senior generals, placed river; on Federal highways 31 and so, and served by the BaltiSeydlitz in command of the whole of his cavalry. The result of more and Ohio, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, the battle was the complete rout and disorganization of the enemy, the Pennsylvania and electric railways, and by motor-bus lines and in achieving that result only seven battalions of Frederick’s in all directions. The population was 7,348 in 1920 (97% native army had fired a shot. The rest was the work of Seydlitz and his white) and was 7,508 in 1930 by the Federal census. Seymour was 38 squadrons. ‘The same night the king gave him the order of the laid out about 1850, incorporated as a town in 1864, and chartered Black Eagle, and promoted him lieutenant-general. Seydlitz was as a city in 1867. wounded, but rejoined the king in 1758, and at the battle of ZornSEYMOUR OF SUDELEY, THOMAS SEYMOUR, dorf his cavalry again won the victory. At Hochkirch with 108 Baron (c. 1508-1549), lord high admiral of England, was fourth squadrons he covered the Prussian retreat, and in the great dis- son of Sir John Seymour of Wolf Hall, Wiltshire, and younger aster of Kunersdorf he was severely wounded in a hopeless attempt brother of the Protector Edward Seymour, 1st duke of Somerset. to storm a hill held by the Russians. During his convalescence His sister Jane Seymour became the third wife of Henry VIII. in he married Countess Albertine Hacke. In 176z he reappeared at 1536, and another sister, Elizabeth, married Thomas Cromwell’s the front. He now commanded a wing of Prince Henry’s army, son. Seymour was employed in the royal household and on dipcomposed of troops of all arms, and many doubts were expressed lomatic missions abroad. He was for a short time in command of as to his fitness for this command, as his service had hitherto the English army in the Netherlands. In 1544 he received the been with the cavalry exclusively. But he answered his critics by post of master of the ordnance for life, becoming admiral of the his conduct at the battle of Freyburg (Oct. 29, 1762), in which, fleet a few months later, in which capacity he was charged with leading his infantry and his cavalry in turn, he decided the day. guarding the Channel against French invasion. In 1547 he was After the peace of Hubertusburg he was made inspector-general created Baron Seymour of Sudeley and appointed lord high of the cavalry in Silesia, where eleven regiments were permanently admiral. From this time forward he was mainly occupied in stationed and whither Frederick sent all his most promising officers intrigue against his brother the Protector; and he aimed at proto be trained by him. In 1767 he was made a general of cavalry. curing for himself the position of guardian of the young king, But his later years were clouded by domestic unhappiness. His Edward VI. The lord high admiral tried to secure the princess wife was unfaithful to him, and his two daughters, each several (afterwards queen) Elizabeth in marriage; and when this project times married, were both divorced, the elder once and the younger was frustrated he secretly married the late king’s widow, Cathtwice. His formerly close friendship with the king was brought to erine Parr. He ingratiated himself with Edward, and proposed an end by some misunderstanding, and it was only a few weeks a marriage between the king and the Lady Jane Grey. He

SEYNE

SUR

MER-—SFORZA

entered into relations with pirates on the western coasts, whom it was his duty as lord high admiral to suppress, with a view to securing their support; and when the Protector invaded Scotland in the summer of 1547 Seymour fomented opposition to his authority in his absence. On the death of his wife in September of the next year he made renewed attempts to marry the princess Elizabeth. Somerset strove ineffectually to save his brother from ruin, and in January 1549 Seymour was arrested and sent to the Tower; he was convicted of treason, and executed on March 20, 15409. See Sir John Maclean, Life of Sir Thomas Seymour (London, 1869); Chronicle of Henry VIII., translated from the Spanish, with notes by M, A. S, Hume (London, 1889); Literary Remains of Edward VI., with notes and 1857); Mary A. E. Green, Great Britain to the Close 1846). See also SOMERSET, authorities there cited.

memoir Letters of the EDWARD

by J. G. Nichols (2 vols., London, of Royal and Illustrious Ladies of Reign of Mary (3 vols., London, SEYMOUR, ist DUKE OF, and the

SEYNE SUR MER or LA SEYENE, industrial suburb of Toulon, France, south-west of that port, connected with it by rail and steamer. Pop. (1926) 18,339. It has a large shipbuilding trade with fine shipbuilding yards.

SFAX, a city of Tunisia, 78 m. due S. of Susa, on the Gulf of Qabes (Syrtis Minor) opposite the Kerkenna islands, in 34° 43 N., 10° 46 E. The town consists of a European quarter, with streets regularly laid out and fine houses, and the Arab town, with its kasba or citadel, and tower-flanked walls pierced by three gates. Many of the private houses, mosques and zawias are good specimens of native art of the 17th and 18th centuries. Sfax is the market for the phosphates of the Qafsa region, with which it is connected by a railway; other railways and good roads link it also with Susa and Tunis on the one hand and with Qabes on the other. Olive oil is manufactured, and the fisheries are important, notably those of sponges and of octopuses (exported to Greece). The prosperity of the town is largely due to the export trade in phosphates, esparto grass, oil, almonds, pistachio nuts, sponges, wool, etc. There is, in the Gulf of Qabes, a rise and fall of 5 ft. at spring tides, which is rare in the Mediterranean. A harbour, to which a channel, 3 km. long and 22 metres wide, gives access, was built 1895-97, and has since been deepened at different times. The phosphates company of Qafsa has built huge stores there; the loading of ships is effected by apparatus with endless chains worked by electricity. Sfax has the greatest tonnage of any Tunisian port; its trade exceeds two million tons (especially phosphates). It is also an important fishing port. The population of the town itself is 27,723, of whom 17,574 are Muslims, 3,265 Jews and 6,884 Europeans (3,237 French and 2,590 Italians). One must add 44,000 natives, who live in the outskirts and in the gardens in the neighbourhood of Sfax, which brings the total population of Sfax to more than 70,000. The local museum. contains mosaics and other antiquities from Thaenae (mod. Thyra, marked by a lofty lighthouse), 8 m. south-west. Sfax is on the site of a Roman settlement called Taparura, of which few traces remain. Many of its Arab inhabitants claim descent from Mohammed. The Sicilians under Roger the Norman took it in the r2th century, and in the 16th the Spaniards occupied it for a brief period. The bombardment of the town in 1881 was one of the principal events of the French conquest of ‘Tunisia.

SFORZA, the name of a famous Italian family. They were

descended from a peasant condottiere, Giacomo or Muzio (sometimes abbreviated into Giacomuzzo) Attendolo, who was born at Cotignola in the Romagna on June 10, 1369, gained command of a band of adventurers by whom he had been kidnapped, took the name of Sforza in the field, became constable of Naples under Joanna II., fought bravely against the Spaniards, served Pope Martin V., by whom he was created a Roman count, and was drowned on Jan. 4, 1424 in the Pescara near Aquila while engaged in a military expedition. His natural son FRANCESCO (1401-1466) served the Visconti against the Venetians and then the Venetians against the Visconti; he attacked the pope, deprived

him of the Romagna, and later defended him; he married in 1441 Bianca, the only daughter of Filippo Maria Visconti, duke

of Milan, and received Pontremoli and Cremona as dowry and the promise of succession to the duchy of Milan. The short-lived

423

Ambrosian republic, which was established by the Milanese on the death of Visconti (1447), was overthrown by Francesco, who made his triumphal entry as duke of Milan on March 2s, 1450. His court, filled with Italian scholars and Greek exiles, speedily became one of the most splendid in Italy. His daughter Ippolita was renowned for her Latin discourses. Francesco left several sons, among whom were Galeazzo Maria, Lodovico, and Ascagnio, who became a cardinal. GALEAZzZO Marta, who succeeded to the duchy, was born in 1444, and was a lover of art, eloquent in speech, but dissolute and cruel. He was assassinated at the porch of the cathedral on Dec. 26, 1476 by three young Milanese noblemen desirous of imitating Brutus and Cassius. His daughter Caterina is separately noticed. GIAN GALEAZzo (1469~1494), son of Galeazzo, succeeded to the duchy under the regency of his mother, Bona of Savoy, who was supplanted in her power (1481) by the boy’s uncle, Lodovico the Moor. Gian Galeazzo married Isabella of Aragon, granddaughter of the king of Naples, and his sudden death was attributed by some to poiscn administered by the regent. His daughter, Bona Srorza (1493-1557), married King Sigismund of Poland in 1518. On the death of her husband she returned to Italy and was poisoned (1557) by her paramour Pappacoda.

Lopovico THE Moor [Lodovico il Moro] (1451—1508), who is famed as patron of Leonardo da Vinci and other artists, had summoned Charles VIII. of France to his aid (1494) and received the ducal crown from the Milanese nobles on Oct. 22, in the same year, but finding his own position endangered by the French policy, he joined the league against Charles

VIII., giving his

niece Bianca in marriage to Maximilian I. and receiving in return imperial investiture of the duchy. Lodovico was driven from Milan by Louis XII. in 1499, and although reinstated for a short time by the Swiss he was eventually delivered over by them to the French (April 1500) and died a prisoner in the castle of Loches. Francesco, the son of Gian Galeazzo, was also taken to France by Louis XII., became abbot of Marmoutiers, and died in r511. The two sons of Lodovico, MASSIMILIANO and FRANCESCO MARI, took refuge in Germany; the former was restored to the duchy of Milan by the Swiss in 1512, but after the overwhelming defeat of his allies at Marignano (1515) he abandoned his rights to Francis I., and died at Paris in 1530; the latter was put in possession of Milan after the defeat of the French at La Bicocca in 1522. His death (Oct. 24, 1535) marked the extinction of the direct male line of the Sforza. The duchy went to Charles V. The dukes of Sforza-Cesarini and the counts of Santa Fiora are descended from collateral branches of the Sforza family. See A. Segre, “Lodovico Sforza, duca di Milano,” in R. Accad. d. Sci. Atti, vol. 36 (Turin, r90z); G. Clausse, Les Sforza et les arts en Milanais, 1450-1530 (1909); F. Malaguzzi Valeri, La corte di Lodovico il Moro (2 vols., 1913-15). There is a critical bibliography by Otto von Schleinitz in Zeitschrift fir Bücherfreunde, vol. v. (Bielefeld, r901).

SFORZA, COUNT

CARLO

(1872—

), Italian states-

man, knight of the Annunziata, was born at Lucca. He entered the diplomatic service, was secretary of embassy in London, then minister at Peking (1911), at Belgrade (1916), Italian high commissioner in Turkey (1918), and under secretary for foreign affairs (1919). In that year he was created senator. He became minister of foreign affairs in the Giolitti cabinet of June 16, 1920, was present at Spa (July, 1920), and negotiated the treaty of Rapalio between Italy and Yugoslavia (Nov. 12, 1920). He remained foreign minister until the formation of the Giolitti cabinet on July 4, 1921, and in February, 1922 was appointed ambassador in Paris. On Mussolini’s accession to power he resigned, and became one of the chief leaders of the anti-Fascist opposition in the senate. He is a member of the Order of the Annunziata.

SFORZA,

CATERINA

(1463-1509),

countess

of Forli, (See

was an illegitimate daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza,

above.) In 1473 she was betrothed to Girolamo Riario, a son of Pope Sixtus IV., who was thus able to regain possession of Imola, that city being made a fief of the Riario family. After a triumphal entry into Imola in 1477 Caterina Sforza went to Rome with her

424

SGAMBATI—SHADOW

husband, who, with the help of the pope, wrested the lordship of Forli from the Ordelafi. Riario, by means of many crimes, for which his wife seems to have blamed him, succeeded in accumu-

lating great wealth, and on the death of Sixtus in August 1484, he sent Caterina to Rome to occupy the castle of St. Angelo, which she defended gallantly until, on Oct. 25, she surrendered it by his order to the Sacred College. They then returned to

their fiefs of Imola and Forli, where they tried in vain to win the favour of the people. Riario’s enemies conspired against him

with a view to making Franceschetto Cybd, nephew of Pope Innocent VIIL, lord of Imola and Forh in his stead.

Riario

his compositions, which, though poetical and generally effective, are often slight in style. He died at Rome on Dec. 15, IQT4.

SGRAFFITO.

A form of ornamental plastering, originating

in Italy, sgrafito being Italian for scratched. The essence of the method lies in applying two coats of plaster of different colours laid one upon the other, and then scratching through the outer ; coat to reveal the inner coat and thus producing a design. A first rough coat is applied to give a fair surface in the ordinary way. Then follows the colour coat, the plaster being coloured with pigments such as umber, ochre, bone-black or Indian red.

This colour coat may be in bands or patches to suit the designer.

thereupon instituted a system of persecution, in which Caterina The final coat, which may be white or cream or coloured, is then was implicated, against all whom he suspected of treachery. In thinly applied. The design is then transferred by pricking. By 1488 he was murdered by three conspirators, his palace was working upon this outline, the outer coat is scratched away to sacked, and his wife and children were taken prisoners. The castle reveal the inner coloured coat. The effects obtained are often of Forli, however, held out in Caterina’s interest, and every in- very beautiful, and it is perhaps surprising that the method has ducement and threat to make her order its surrender proved not found more favour outside Italy. Some of the examples useless; having managed to escape from her captors she penetrated found in Lombardy are very fine. The method is successfully into the castle, whence she threatened to bombard the city, refus- used for both internal plastering and outdoor stucco, ing to come to terms even when the besiegers threatened to SHACKLETON, SIR ERNEST HENRY (1874-1922), murder her children. With the assistance of Lodovico il Moro British explorer, was born in Kilkee, Ireland, on Feb. 15, 1874. she regained possession of all her dominions; she wreaked ven- Educated at Dulwich college, he entered the mercantile marine geance on those who had opposed her and re-established her service. In Scott’s Antarctic expedition of 1901-04 Shackleton power. She had several lovers, and by one of them, Giacomo acted as lieutenant, but had to return home on account of illness.

Feo, whom she afterwards married, she had a son. Feo, who made

himself hated for his cruelty and insolence, was murdered before the eyes of his wife in August 1495; Caterina had all the conspirators and their families, including the women and children, massacred. She established friendly relations with the new pope, Alexander VI, and with the Florentines, whose ambassador, Giovanni de Medici, she secretly married in 1496. Giovanni died in

1498, but Caterina managed with the aid of Lodovico il Moro and of the Florentines to save her dominions from the attacks of the Venetians. Alexander VI., however, angered at her refusal to agree to a union between his daughter Lucrezia Borgia and her son Ottaviano, and coveting her territories as well as the rest of Romagna for bis son Cesare, issued a bull on March 9, 1499, declaring that the house of Riario had forfeited the lordship of Imola and Forli and conferring those fiefs on Cesare Borgia. Cesare attacked her with his whole army, reinforced by 14,000 French troops and by

Louis XII. Caterina placed her children in safety and took strenuous measures for defence. The castle of Imola surrendered (December 1499) with the honours of war. Caterina absolved the citizens of Forli from their oath of fealty, and defended herself in the citadel. Finally when the situation had become untenable and having in vain given orders for the magazine to be blown up,

she surrendered to Antoine Bissey, bailli of Dijon, entrusting herself to the honour of France (January 12, 1500). She was afterwards taken to Rome and held a prisoner for a year in the castle

-of St. Angelo, whence she was liberated by the same bailli of Dijon

to whom she had surrendered at Forli. She took refuge in Florence until the death of Alexander VI. in 1503, when she attempted without success to regain possession of her dominions, She died

in A eee of Annalena on May 20, 1509. ee

Buriel,

Vita di Caterina Sforza-Riari

.

Oliva, Vita di C. Sforza, etet di PN E D Desiderio Pesolini Dall’ Onda, Caterina Sforza (Rome, 1893) ; English translation by P. Sylvester (1898).

SGAMBATI, GIOVANNI

(1843-1914), Italian composer,

was born in Rome on May 28, 1843, of an Italian father and an English mother. In 1860 he took up the work of winning acceptance for the best German music, which was at that time Neglected in Italy. His compositions of this period (1864-1865) included a quartet, two piano quintets, an octet, and an overture. He conducted Liszt’s Dante symphony in 1866, and made the acquaintance of Wagner’s music for the first time at Munich, whither he travelled in Liszt’s company. His first symphony and a piano concerto were performed in the course of his first visit to England in 1882; and at his second visit, in 1891, his Sinfonia

epitalamio was given at the Philharmonic. His largest work, a Requiem Mass, was performed in Rome rgoz. His influence on

Italian musical taste has been perhaps greater than the merits of

On Jan. 1, 1908 he sailed from New Zealand in the “Nimrod” in

command of an expedition which reached a point about 97 m. from the South Pole (see Antarctic Recions). On his return in 1909 he was knighted and received the C,V.O. On Aug, 1, 1914, he sailed from, England on “Endurance” in command of the expedition of 1914~17 with its unfortunate outcome. Finally, in Sept. 1921 he set out a third time, in the “Quest,” On Jan. 5, 1922, off South Georgia island, he succumbed to an attack of angina pec-

toris following influenza. He was buried on South Georgia island. Shackleton gave an account of the 1907-09 expedition in Heart of the Antarctic (1909); and of the 1914-17 expedition in South 1919), l Se

R. Mill, The Life of Sir Ernest Shackleton (1923, new ed.

1924). SHAD (Alosa), the name of a genus of fishes of the herring family, with the upper jaw notched in front, found in the Medi terranean and on both sides of the north Atlantic. They enter rivers to breed, generally from April to Jume, and the fry live for a year or two in fresh water. The Allis shad, A. alosa, of the coasts of Europe has very numerous, long and slender gill-rakers; it attains a length of 30 in. and a weight of 8 Ib. The twaite shad (A, finta) is smaller, and has the gill-rakers much fewer and shorter; the Mediterranean form (A. f. nilotica) is distinct from that of the Atlantic, and the species also includes some wellmarked forms permanently resident in fresh water, one from Killarney, two from lakes in northern Italy. The American shad (A. sapidissima) is a valued food-fish, and has been successfully introduced on the Pacific coast. The shad of the Black and Caspian seas (Caspialosa) have teeth on the vomer, like the herring. Another important related genus of anadromous fishes is Hilsa, with six species, ranging from east Africa to China.

SHADDOCK

(Citrus maxima, C. decumana, or C. grandis),

a tree, 20-40 ft. in height, allied to the orange and the lemon,

presumably native to the Malay and Polynesian islands. The leaves are like those of the orange, but downy on the under surface, as are also the young shoots. The flowers are large and white, and are succeeded by very large globose fruits like oranges, but paler in colour, and with a more pungent flavour. The name “shaddock” is asserted to be that of a captain who introduced the tree to the West Indies. The fruit is also known under the name of pommelo. See also GRAPEFRUIT.

For further details, see R. Hume, Florida Agric. Expt. Stat. Bull, (1901), and Citrus Fruits and theiy Culture (1918)3 S, Coit, Citrus Fruits (1935).

SHADOW.

When an opaque body is placed between a screen

and a luminous source, it casts a “shadow” on the screen, Tf the squrce be a point, the outline of the shadow is to be found by drawing straight lines from the luminous point so as to

SHADWELL

425

envelop the opaque body. These lines form a cone. The points of contact form a line on the opaque body separating the illuminated from the non-illuminated portion of its surface. Similarly, when these lines are produced to meet the screen, their points of intersection with it form a line which separates the illuminated from the non-illuminated parts of the screen. This line is called the boundary of the geometrical shadow, and its construction is based on the assumption that light trav-

in the former case becomes the fully illuminated portion, and vice

els (in homogeneous media) in

nated portions from different sources gradually overlap; and when the hole becomes a window we have no indications of such a picture except from a body (like the sun) much brighter than

straight lines and suffers no deviation on meeting an obstacle. But a deviation, termed diffraction, does occur, and consequently the complete theory of shadows involves considerations based on the nature of the rays themselves; this aspect is treated in LIGHT. When there are more luminous

versa. The penumbra remains the penumbra, but it is now darkest where before it was brightest, and vice versa. Thus we see how, when a small hole is cut in the windowshutter of a dark room, a picture of the sun, and bright clouds

about it, is formed on the opposite wall. The smaller the hole (so far at least as geometrical optics is concerned) the less confused will the picture be. As the hole is made larger the illumi-

the other external objects. Here the picture has ceased to be one of the sun, it is now a picture of the window. But if the wall could be placed 100 m. off, the picture would be one of the sun. To prevent this overlapping of images, and yet to admit a good deal of light, is one main object of the lens which usually Uy

DUIN

AN

\\

points than one, we have only to draw separately the geometri- FIG. 1.—SHADOW OF DISC CAST BY cal shadows due to each of the FOUR EQUALLY LUMINOUS POINTS ARRANGED AS CORNERS OF A sources, and then superpose them. SQUARE A new consideration now comes in. There will be, in general, portions of all the separate geometrical shadows which overlap one another in some particular regions of the screen. In such regions we still have full shadow; but around them there will be other regions, some illuminated by one of the sources alone, some by two, etc., until finally we come

forms part of the camera.

(See PHotocrapHy: Apparatus.)

The formation of pictures of the sun in this way is well seen on a calm sunny day under trees, where the sunlight penetrating through small chinks forms elliptic spots on the ground. During a partial eclipse of the sun, the images formed by such chinks, or by truly plane spots on a glass window pane (which act as chinks) take the form of crescents that are images of the partly obscured disc of the sun. (See also Nature, 89, 1912, p. 216.) Another curious phenomenon may fitly be referred to in this connection, viz., the phantoms which are seen when we look at two parallel sets of palisades or railings, one behind the other, or look through two parallel sides of a meat-safe formed of per-

forated zinc. The appearance presented is that of a magnified

to the parts of the screen which are illuminated directly by all set of bars or apertures which appear to move rapidly as we slowly

the sources. There will still be a definite boundary of the parts wholly unilluminated, i.e., the true shadow or umbra, and also a

definite boundary of the parts wholly illuminated. The region between these boundaries—i.e., the partially illumined portion— is called the penumbra. Fig.”1 represents the shadow of a circular disk cast by four equal luminous points arranged as the corners of a square—the disk being large enough to admit of a free overlapping of the separate shadows. The amount of want of illumination in each portion of the penumbra is roughly indicated by the shading.

The separate shadows are circular, if the disk is parallel to the

screen. If we suppose the number of sources to increase indefinitely, so as finally to give the appearance of a luminous surface as the source of light, it is obvious that the degrees of darkness at different portions of the penumbra will also increase indefinitely;

i.e., there will be a gradual increase of brightness in the penumbra

from total darkness at the edge nezt the geometrical shadow to

full illumination at thè outer edge.

Thus we see at once why the shadows cast by the sun or moon are in general so much less sharp than those cast by the electric

arc. For, practically, at moderate distances the arc appears as a mere luminous point. But if we place a body at a distance of a foot or two only from the arc, the shadow cast will have as

much of penumbra as if the sun had been the source. The breadth of the penumbra when the source and screen are nearly equidistant from the opaque body is equal to the diameter of the luminous source. The notions of the penumbra and umbra are important in considering eclipses (g.v.). When the eclipse is total, there is a real geometrical shadow—very small compared with the penumbra (for the apparent diameters of the sun and moon are nearly equal, but their distances are as 370:1); when the eclipse is annular, the shadow is all penumbra. In a lunar eclipse the earth is the shadow-casting body, and the moon is the screen, and we observe things according to our first point of view. Suppose, next, that the body which casts the shadow is a large one, such as a wall, with a hole in it. If we were to plug the hole, the whole screen would be in geometrical shadow. Hence the illumination of the screen by the light passing through the hole is precisely what would be cut off by a disk which fits the hole, and the complement of fig. 1, in which the light and shade are

interchanged, would give therefore the effect of four equal sources of light shining on a wall through a circular hole. The umbra

walk past. Their origin is the fact that where the bars appear nearly to coincide the apparent gaps bear the greatest ratio to the

dark spaces; że., these parts of the feld are the most highly illuminated. The exact determination of the appearances in any given case is a mere problem of convergents to a continued frac-

tion. But the fact that the apparent rapidity of motion of this phantom may exceed in any ratio that of the spectator is of impörtance—enabling us to see how velocities, apparently of impossible magnitude, may be accounted for by the mere running along of the condition of visibility among a group of objects no one of

which is moving at an extravagant rate.

SHADWELL,

THOMAS

(c. 1642—1692)

English play-

wright and miscellaneous writer, was born about 1642, at Santon Hall, Norfolk, according to his son’s account. He was educated at Bury St. Edmund’s School, and at Caius College, Cambridge, where he was entered in 1636. He then joined the Middle Temple. Shadwell’s best plays are Epsom Wells (1672), for which Sir Charles Sedley wrote a prologue, and the Squire of Alsatia

(1688). For fourteen years from the production of his first comedy to his memorable encounter with Dryden, Shadwell produced a play nearly every year. These productions display a genuine hatred of shams, and a rough but honest moral purpose. They are disfigured by indecencies, but present a vivid picture of contemporary manners.

Shadwell is chiefly remembered—rather unjustly—as the unfortunate Mac Flecknoe of Dryden’s satire, the “last great prophet of tautology,” and the literary son and heir of Richard Flecknoe :— The rest to some faint meaning make preterice, But Shadwell never deviates into sense.

Dryden had furnished Shadwell with a prologue to his True Widow (1679), and in spite of momentary differences, the two had been apparently on friendly terms. But when Dryden joined the court party, and produced Absalom and Achitophel and The Medal, Shadwell became the champion of the true-blue Protestants, and made a scurrilous attack on the poet in The Medal of John Bayes: a Satire against Folly and Knavery (1682). Dryden immediately retorted in Mac Flecknoe, or a Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S. (1682), in which Shadwell’s personalities were returned with interest. A month later he contributed to

Nahum Tate’s continuation of Absalom and Achitophel satirical portraits of Elkanah Settle as Doeg and of Shadwell as Og. In

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SHAFI‘I—SHAFTESBURY

sufficient diameter and suitable mate1687 Shadwell attempted to answer these attacks in a version of |requirement is a matter of placed close

the tenth satire of Juvenal. At the Whig triumph in 1688 he superseded his enemy as poet laureate and historiographer royal. He died at Chelsea on Nov. 19, 1692.

A complete edition of Shadwell’s works was published by his son Sir John Shadwell in 1720. But see the modern critical edition, The Complete Works of Thomas Shadwell (§ vols., 1928), edited by Montague Summers.

SHAFI‘I [Mahommed ibn Idris ash-Shafii] (767-820), the

founder of the Shafitite school of canon Jaw, was born in A.H. 150 (AD. 767) of a Koreishite (Quraishite) family at Gaza or Ascalon, and was brought up by his mother in poor circumstances at Mecca. There, and especially in intercourse with the desert tribe of Hudhail, he gained a knowledge of classical Arabic and old Arabian poetry for which he was afterwards famous. About 170 he went to Medina and studied canon law (fiqh) under Malik ibn Anas. After the death of Malik in 179 legend takes him to Yemen, where he is involved in an ‘Alid conspiracy, carried prisoner to Baghdad, but pardoned by Hiariin al-Rashid. He was certainly pursuing his studies, and he seems to have come to Baghdad in some such way as this and then to have studied under Hanifite teachers. He had not yet formulated his own system. After a journey to Egypt, however, we find him in Baghdad again, as a teacher, between 195 and 198. There he had great success and turned the tide against the Hanifite school. His method was to restore the sources of canon law which Abii Hanifa had destroyed by inclining too much to speculative deduction. Instead, he laid equal emphasis upon the four—Koran, tradition, analogy, and agreement. See further, under MOHAMMEDAN Law. In 198 he went to Egypt in the train of a new governor, and this time was received as the leading orthodox authority in law of his time. There he developed and somewhat changed the details of his system, and died in 204 (A.D. 820). He was buried to the south-

east of what is now Cairo, and a great dome (erected c. A.D. 1240) is conspicuous over his tomb.

See F. Wiistenfeld, Schaji‘iten, 31 ff.; M. J. de Goeje in ZDMG. xlvii. 106 ff.; C. Brockelmann, Geschichie, i. 178 ff.; M'G. de Slane’s transl. of Ibn Khallikan, ii. 569 ff., Fikrist, 209, Nawawi’s Biogr. Dict. s6 Ë. (D. B. M.)

rial, generally a good class of steel, and bearings enough together, especially where there is a heavy lateral pull. The frictional difficulty is not troublesome with only two bearings located close together, but when a shaft is long, and the bearings . are numerous, alinement is not always easy to ensure or maintain alter to bearings cause ons foundati and s building in nts Settleme their position. Wedges or other adjusting devices are therefore necessary, while a swivel fitting with ball-and-socket action allows the bearings to float and automatically adjust themselves to the shaft.

The three classes of shaft bearings (g.v.) are the journal, or peripheral, the thrust or end pressure type, and the footstep, which sustains the bottom end of a vertical shaft, such as that of a water turbine. When it is necessary to drive a spindle at different heights, as with the rolling-mills, the shaft connection must be made with a universal coupling, permitting the varying angular positions. Much greater flexibility occurs in the small flexible shafts, which are so constructed that they will bend freely in any direction and transmit the power. These are utilized for driving portable tools for drilling, reaming, grinding, polishing, boiler-tube expanding and so on. Special machinery is laid down for the manufacturing of shafting, which may be rolled, drawn or finished accurately, by turning or grinding. To make up lengths as required from stock sizes couplings are used, or if frequent disconnection should be desired a clutch is fitted instead. To a considerable extent shafting has been eliminated in many factories, machines being driven by selfcontained electric motors, so that overhead lighting is improved, a and costs for installations and the frictional losses are SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, rst EARL oF (1621-1683), son of Sir John Cooper and Anne, the

daughter of Sir Anthony Ashley, Bart., was born at Wimborne St. Giles, Dorset, on July 22, 1621. His parents died before he was ten years of age, and he inherited extensive estates in Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, much reduced, however, by litigation in Chancery. He married Margaret, daughter of Lord Coventry, with whom he and his wife lived at Dur-

SHAFT. In architecture shaft is the part of a column be- ham House in the Strand and at Canonbury House in Islington. tween the base and the capital (g.v.). The word is also used Though still a minor, he was elected for Tewkesbury in 1640, but of any long, slender, cylindrical or polygonal form of generally he took no part in parliamentary proceedings. In 1640 Lord columnar shape, as in the expression vaulting shaft for a colon- Coventry died, and Cooper then lived with his brother-in-law at nette or moulding attached or applied to a pier in a mediaeval Dorchester House in Covent Garden. For the Long Parliament, church to carry, or give the appearance of carrying, a vaulting rib. which met on Nov. 3, 1640, he was elected for Downton, In the classic and Byzantine styles the shafts are usually tapered Wiltshire, but the return being disputed, he did not take his seat with a curved taper known as entasis (g.v.) and may also be until the last days of the Rump. He was present as a spectator fluted with concave channels. (See FLuTe.) Occasional late Roman at Nottingham on Aug. 25, 1642; and in 1643 he appeared openly examples are spiralled. Romanesque shafts are usually cylindrical on Charles’s side in Dorsetshire, where he raised at his own and without taper, but occasional polygonal examples are found expense a regiment of foot and a troop of horse, of both of and in certain late Romanesque styles, especially the English which he took command. He was also appointed governor of Norman, and the Italian Romanesque, the shafts are decorated Weymouth, sheriff of Dorsetshire for the king and president of with grooves or even richly moulded. Particularly rich are the the king’s council of war in the county. In January 1644, how13th century Italian Romanesque shafts, spirally fluted and ever, he resigned his governorship and commissions and went moulded, with geometric glass mosaics of the type known as over to the parliament, because, as he explained to a committee Cosmati work (see Mosaic) inlaid in the flutes; e.g., the cloisters of the two Houses, he saw danger to the Protestant religion in of S. John Lateran in Rome (in the early 13th century). the king’s service. In July 1644 he went to Dorsetshire on mili(T. F. H.) tary service, and on Aug. 3, received a commission as field-marSHAFT, DRIVING, is a bar of steel revolving in bearings shal general. He assisted at the taking of Wareham, and shortly and part of a mechanical power transmission system. It drives afterwards compounded for his estates by a fine of £500 from a machine or a set of machines, and is distinguished from which he was afterwards relieved by Cromwell. On Oct. 25, he was a spindle which is incorporated in the machine itself (e.g., a drill- made commander-in-chief in Dorsetshire; in November he took spindle} to carry some tool or appliance, and from an axle, which Abbotsbury, the house of Sir John Strangways; and in December carries road wheels. The shaft is necessary to transmit power from he relieved Taunton. His military service terminated at the time a hand drive, or a power unit, and may be located overhead in a of the Self-denying Ordinance in 1645; and as he had associated factory, or on the ground or below it. Some machines have several himself with the Presbyterian faction, he was not included in the shafts incorporated in the construction, conveying power by means New Model. For the next seven or eight years he lived in comof belts, couplings, clutches or gears. Overhead shafting is parative privacy, only carrying out his duties as high sheriff of usually chosen as a matter of convenience for driving several Wiltshire (1646-48). Upon the execution of Charles, Cooper machines by means of belts. Two essentials apply to all shafts: took the Engagement, and was a commissioner to administer it (x) sufficient rigidity to withstand twisting and bending under in Dorsetshire. In 1652 he was named on the commission for law load, and (2) running with the minimum of friction. The first reform, of which Hale was the chief and on March 17, 1653, he

SHAFTESBURY was pardoned of all delinquency and thus at last made capable of sitting in parliament. He sat for Wiltshire in the Barebones Parliament, where he supported Cromwell against the extreme section, was appointed on the council of thirty, and on the resignation of this parliament he became a member of the council of state named in the “Instrument.” In 1654 he left the privy council, and henceforward is found with the Presbyterians and Republicans in opposition to Cromwell. Cooper was again elected for Wiltshire in 1656, but Cromwell refused to allow him, with many others of his opponents, to sit. In the parliament of 1658, however, he took his seat, and was active in opposition to the new constitution of the two Houses. He also led the opposition in Richard Cromwell’s parliament, especially on the matter of the limitation of the power of the protector, and against the House of Lords. In 1659 Cooper was arrested on a charge of corresponding with the leader of the Cheshire rising, but he was unanimously acquit-

ted by the Council. In the disputes between Lambert at the head of the military party and the Rump in union with the council of State, he supported the latter, and upon the temporary supremacy of Lambert’s party worked indefatigably to restore the Rump. He co-operated with Monk, whom he assisted to the post of commander-in-chief of the forces, was instrumental in securing the Tower for the parliament, and in obtaining the adhesion of Admiral Lawson and the fleet. On the restoration of the parliament Cooper was one of the commissioners to command the army, and was made one of the new council of State. On Jan. 7, 1660, he took his seat on his election for Downton in 1640, and was made colonel of Fleetwood’s regiment of horse. He secured the admission of the secluded members, was again one of the fresh council

of State, consisting entirely of friends of the Restoration, and accepted from Monk a commission to be governor of the Isle of ‘ Wight and captain of a company of foot. He now steadily pursued the design of the Restoration, and was one of the 12 commissloners who went to Charles at Breda to invite him to return. In the Convention Parliament he sat for Wiltshire. Cooper was at once placed on the privy council, receiving also a formal pardon for former delinquencies. In the discussions regarding the Bill of Indemnity he was instrumental in saving the life of Haselrig, and opposed the clause compelling all officers who had served under Cromwell to refund their salaries. He was one of the commissioners for conducting the trials of the regicides, but was himself attacked by Prynne for having acted with Cromwell. He was named on the council of plantations and on that of trade. At the coronation in April 1661 Cooper had been made a peer, as Baron Ashley of Wimborne St. Giles, in recognition of his services at the Restoration; and on the meeting of the new parliament in May he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and under-treasurer. He opposed the persecuting acts now passed —the Corporation Act, the Uniformity Bill, against which he is said to have spoken three hundred times, and the Militia Act. He is stated also to have influenced the king in issuing his dispensing declaration of Dec. 26, 1662, and he zealously supported a bill for the purpose of confirming the declaration. He was himself the author of a treatise on tolerance. He was now recognized as one of the chief opponents of Clarendon and the High Anglican policy. On the outbreak of the Dutch War in 1664 he was made treasurer of the prizes, being accountable to the king alone for all sums received or spent. He was also one of the grantees of the province of Carolina and took a leading part in its management. On the death of Southampton, Ashley was placed on the commission of the treasury, Clifford and William Coventry being his principal colleagues. He appears to have taken no part in the attempt to impeach Clarendon on a general charge of treason. The new administration was headed by Buckingham, whose toleration and comprehension principles Ashley shared to the full. An able paper written by him to the king in support of these

principles, on the ground of their advantage to trade, has been preserved. He excepts, however, from toleration Roman Catholics and Fifth Monarchy men. His attention to all trade questions was close and constant; he was a member of the council of trade and plantations appointed in 1670, and was its president from

427

1672-76; he also co-operated in the design of legitimizing Monmouth as a rival to James. In the intrigues which led to the infamous treaty of Dover he had no part, for as a Protestant he could not be trusted with the knowledge of the clause binding Charles to declare himself a Catholic. In order to blind the Protestant members of the Cabal a sham treaty was arranged in which this clause did not appear, and under this misunderstanding he signed the sham Dover treaty on Dec. 31, 1670. This treaty, however, was kept from public knowledge. He opposed the “Stop of the Exchequer,” the responsibility for which rests with Clifford, but in the other great measure of the Cabal ministry, Charles’s Declaration of Indulgence, he concurred. He was rewarded by being made earl of Shaftesbury and Baron Cooper of Pawlett by a patent dated April 23, 1672. It is stated too that he was offered, but refused, the lord treasurership. On Nov. 17, 1672, however, he became lord chancellor, in which position he offended the House of Commons by issuing writs to fill the vacant seats. This, though grounded on precedent, was regarded as an attempt to fortify Charles. The writs were cancelled, and the principle was established that the issuing of writs rested with the House itself. It was at the opening of parliament that Shaftesbury made his celebrated ‘“‘delenda est Carthago” speech against Holland, in which he urged the Second Dutch War, on the ground of the necessity of destroying so formidable a commercial rival to England, excused the Stop of the Exchequer which he had opposed, and vindicated the Declaration of Indulgence. On March 8, he announced to parliament that the declaration had been cancelled, and for affixing the great seal to this declaration he was threatened with impeachment by the Commons. The Test Act was now brought forward, and Shaftesbury, who appears to have heard how he had been duped in 1670, supported it, with the object probably of getting rid of Clifford. He now began to be regarded as the chief upholder of Protestantism in the ministry; he lost favour with Charles, and on Sept. 9, 1673, was dismissed from the chancellorship. Among the reasons for this dismissal is probably the fact that he opposed grants to the king’s mistresses. Charles soon regretted the loss of Shaftesbury, and endeavoured, unsuccessfully, as did also Louis, to induce him to return. He now became the popular leader against the measures of the court, and may be regarded as the intellectual chief of the opposition. At the meeting of parliament on Jan. 8, 1674, he carried a motion for a proclamation banishing Catholics to a distance of to m. from London. During the session he organized and directed the opposition in their attacks on the king’s ministers. On May 19 he was dismissed from the privy council and retired to Wimborne, where he continued to urge the necessity of a new parliament. He was in the House of Lords, however, in 1675, when Danby brought forward his famous Non-resisting Test Bill, and headed the opposition during this session with ability, supporting the right of the Lords to hear appeal cases, even where the defendant was a member of the Lower House. Parliament was prorogued for 15 months until Feb. 15, 1677, but the opposition maintained that a prorogation for more than a year was illegal. In reply Shaftesbury, with three others, was sent to the Tower.

In June Shaftesbury applied for a writ of habeas corpus, but was only released on Feb. 26, 1678, after his letter and three petitions to the king. Being brought before the bar of the House of Lords he made submission as to his conduct in declaring parliament dissolved by the prorogation, and in violating the Lords’ privileges by bringing a habeas corpus in the King’s Bench. The outbreak of the Popish Terror in 1678 provided an opportunity for Shaftesbury to attack the government by fanning the popular frenzy. Under his advice the opposition made an alliance with Louis whereby the French king promised to help them to ruin Danby on condition that they would compel Charles, by stopping the supplies, to make peace with France, doing thus a grave injury to Protestantism abroad for the sake of a temporary party advantage at home. Upon the refusal in November of the Lords to concur in the address of the Commons requesting the removal of the queen from court, he joined in a protest and was foremost in all the violent acts of the session. He urged on the bill by which

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SHAFTESBURY

House of ParliaCatholics were prohibited from sitting in either pointment when disap of sions expres his in bitter was and

ment, against whom the Commons passed a proviso excepting James, A new parliathe bill was especially aimed, from its operation. hile warned meanw had sbury Shafte 1679. 6, March on ment met

be no peace the king that unless he followed his advice there would upon the with the people. On March 25, he made a striking speech tantism Protes to s danger the upon ally especi , state of the nation He was susand the misgovernment of Scotland and Ireland. the advice of pected, too, of fostering a reyolt in Scotland. By g a new privy Temple, Charles now tried the experiment of formin were incouncil in which the chief members of the opposition member a cluded, and Shaftesbury was made president, being also however, change of the committee for foreign affairs. He did not, ing of Prohis opinions or his action, and opposed the compell of Roman d require oath the take to ts formis Noncon testant

again promCatholics. The question of the succession was now forward inent, and Shaftesbury hastened bis fall by putting of his number large a ing alienat thus e, nomine his as uth Monmo and that when and, Bill, on Exclusi the on supporters. He pressed trial of the inquiry into the payments for secret service and the tion, hbe the five peers were brought to an end by a sudden proroga heads the have would he that aloud d is reported to have declare Before the of those who were the king’s advisers to this course. Habeas Corprorogation, however, he saw the invaluable Act of the royal receive ent, parliam h throug pus, which he had carried Shaftesbury assent. In pursuance of his patronage of Monmouth, suppress now secured for him the command of the army sent to was sbury Shafte 1679, r Octobe In the insurrection in Scotland. , and dismissed from the presidency and from the privy council

as when applied to by Sunderland to return to ofice he made conditions the divorce of the queen and the exclusion of James. With other peers he presented a petition to the king in November, praying for the meeting of parliament, of which Charles took no notice. In April, upon the king’s declaration that he was resolved to send for James from Scotland, Shaftesbury advised the popular leaders to leave the council, and they followed his advice. In March we find him unscrupulously eager in the prosecution. of the alleged Irish Catholic plot. On June 26, accompanied by fourteen others, he presented to the grand jury of West-

minster an indictment of the duke of York as a Popish recusant. The Exclusion Bill, having passed the Commons, was brought up to the Lords, and an historic debate took place, on Nov. 15, in which Halifax and Shaftesbury were the leaders on opposite sides. The bill was thrown out, and Shaftesbury signed the protest against its rejection. The next day he urged upon the House the divorce of the queen, and on Dec. 7, he voted for the condemna-

tion of Lord Stafford. He continued to advocate exclusion but all opposition was checked by the dissolution of parliament. A new parliament was called to meet at Oxford, to avoid the influences of the city of London, where Shaftesbury was popular. Shaftesbury, with fifteen other peers, petitioned the king that it might as usual be held in the capital. At this parliament, which lasted but a few days, he again made a personal appeal to Charles, which was re~jected, to permit the legitimizing of Monmouth. The king’s ad-

visers now urged him to arrest Shaftesbury; he was seized on

July 2, 1681, and committed to the Tower, the judges refusing his petition to be tried or admitted to bail. This refusal was twice repeated in September and October, the court hoping to obtain evidence sufficient to ensure his ruin. In October he wrote offering to retire to Carolina if he were released. On Nov. 24, he was indicted for high treason at the Old Bailey, but was released on bail on Dec. 1. In 1682, however, Charles secured the appointment of Tory sheriffs for London; and, as the juries were chosen by the sheriffs, Shaftesbury felt that he was no longer safe from the vengeance of the court. Failing health and the disappointment of his political plans led him into violent courses. He appears to have entered into treasonable consultation with Monmouth and others, and after lying concealed in London, he fled to Harwich, and reached Amsterdam in the beginning of December. Here he was made a citizen of Amsterdam, but died there on Jan. 21, 1683. His body was sent in February to Poole, in Dorset, and was

buried at Wimborne St. Giles. sbury. Dryden satirFew politicians have been so abused as Shafte e did much to reised him, Macaulay condemned him, but Christi r, should be read with habilitate him. Christie’s Life (1871), howeve the series of “English caution. Finally, in his monograph (1886) in scales equally. He makes Worthies,” H. D. Traill professes to hold the of Shaftesbury’s place in an interesting addition to our conception the first great party English politics, by insisting on his position as of modern parliamenleader in the modern sense, and as the founder tary oratory.

COOPER, SHAFTESBURY, AN THONY ASHLEY London, on 3RD EARL OF (1671-1713), Was born at Exeter House, friend of (the earl first the of on grands was He Feb. 26, 1671. Lady was mother His earl. Locke), and son of the second d. At the Rutlan of earl John, of er daught s, Manner y Doroth guardianship age of three the boy was made over to the formal superinof his grandfather, and Locke was entrusted with the to the ing accord ted conduc was This on. educati his of tendence ion. Educat ning concer ts Though s principles enunciated in Locke’ ’s In 1683 his father entered him at Winchester as a warden and ns opinio the with d taunte ntly consta and shy boarder. Being fate of his grandfather, he appears to have been miserable, and travel. to have left Winchester in 1686 for a course of foreign

In 1689, the year after the Revolution, Ashley returned to

England, and for nearly five years led a studious life. In 1695 he entered parliament as M.P. for Poole. Though a Whig by descent, by education and by conviction, Ashley could by no means be s depended on to give a party vote; he supported any proposal the and subject the of liberty the promote to appeared which

independence of parliament. On the dissolution of July 1698, ill health compelled his retirement from parliamentary life. He spent a year in Holland, where he met Le Clerc, Bayle, Benjamin Furly, the English Quaker merchant, at whose house Locke had resided during his stay at Rotterdam, and probably Limborch and the rest of the literary circle of which Locke had been an honoured member nine or ten years before. To the period of this sojourn must probably be referred the surreptitious publication, by Toland, of an edition of the Inquiry concerning Virtue, from a rough draught, sketched when he was 20 years of age. Ashley succeeded his father as earl of Shaftesbury in 1699. He took an active part, on the Whig side, in the general election of 1700-01, and again, with more success, in that of the autumn of r7ox. William III. offered him a secretatyship of state, which he declined for reasons of health. After the accession of Anne, Shaftesbury, who had been deprived of the vice-admiralty of Dorset, returned to his retired life, but retained a keen interest in politics. In 1703 he again went to Rotterdam for a year, living as he says in a letter to his steward Wheelock, at the rate of less than £200 a year, and yet having much “to dispose of and spend beyond convenient living.” From this time forward he was engaged in writing or revising the treatises afterwards included in the Characteristics. In 1709 he married Jane Ewer. His only child and heir, the fourth earl, to whose manuscript accounts we are indebted for the details of his father’s life, was born on Feb. 9, 1711. With the exception of a Preface to the Sermons of Dr. Whichcote, the Cambridge Platonist, published in 1698, Shaftesbury printed nothing till 1708. About this time repressive measures were proposed against the French Camisards (g.v.). Shaftesbury maintained that fanaticism was best encountered by “raillery” and “good-humour”; he wrote a letter Concerning Enthusiasm (anon. 1708) to Lord Somers, dated Sept. 1707, which provoked several replies. In May 1709 he returned to the subject in Sensus Communis, an Essay on the Freedom of Wit and Humour. In the same year appeared The Moralists, a Philosophical Rhapsody; in 1710, Soliloguy, or Advice to an Author, and in 1711 Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times (3 vols.), all pub-

lished anonymously. These volumes contain in addition to the four treatises already mentioned, Miscellaneous Reflections, now first printed, and the Inguiry concerning Virtue or Merit, de-

scribed as “printed first in the year 1699.”

In July 1711 Shaftesbury set out for Italy in search of health. He spent a year in Naples, where he prepared a second edition (1713) of the Characteristics, the little treatise (afterwards

SHAFTESBURY included in the Characteristics) entitled A Notion of the Historical Draught or Tablature of the Judgment of Hercules, and the letter concerning Design. “Medals, and pictures, and antiquities,” he writes to Furly, “are our chief entertainments here.” His conversation was with men of art and science, “the virtuosi of this place.” Shaftesbury died on Feb. 4, 1713 and was buried at St. Giles’s, the family seat in Dorsetshire. Shaftesbury’s philosophical importance is due mainly to his ethical speculations, in which his motive was primarily the refutation of Hobbes’ egoistic doctrine, He continually laid stress on the importance of beauty and harmony in the daily life of the individual and of society, and declared virtue to be the sub-

ordination of the self-regarding to the social affections. Just as there is a faculty which apprehends beauty in the sphere of art, so there is in the sphere of ethics a faculty which apprehends the beauty or deformity of actions. This faculty he described (for the first time in English thought) as the Moral Sense (see HuTCHESON, FRANCIS) or Conscience (see BUTLER, JosEPH). In

its essence, it is primarily emotional and non-reflective; in process of development it becomes rationalized by education and use.

The emotional and the rational elements in the “moral sense” Shaftesbury did not fully analyse (see Hume, Davi). From this principle, it follows (1) that the distinction between right and wrong is part of the constitution of human nature; (2) that morality stands apart from theology, and the moral qualities of actions neither depend upon the arbitrary will of God nor

upon custom, fancy or will; (3) that the ultimate test of an action is its tendency to promote the general harmony or welfare; (4) that appetite and reason concur in the determination of action; and (5) that the moralist is not concerned to solve the problem of freewill and determinism. From these results we see that Shaftesbury, opposed to Hobbes and Locke, is in close agreement with Hutcheson, and that he is ultimately a deeply

429

(Michael Ainsworth), already mentioned, were first published in 1716.

The Letter on Design was first published in the 1732 edition of the Characteristics, Besides the published writings, there are the Shaitesbury papers in the Record Office. BIBLioGRAPHY.—The edition of the Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times, by J. M. Robertson (2 vols., 1900), includes prac-

tically the whole of Shaftesbury’s writings, See also L. Stephen, Essays on Freethinking, etc. (1873); B. Rand, The Life (by his son),

unpublished letters and philosophical regimen of Shaftesbury (1900); J. J. Martin, Shaftesburys und Hutchesons Verhältnis in Hume (Halle, 1905); C. F. Weiser, Shaftesbury und das deutsche Geistesleben

(1916); V. Schonfeld, Die Eihik Shaftesburys (Budapest, 1920).

SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, 7TH Ear OF (1801-1885), son of Cropley, 6th earl (a younger brother of the sth earl; succeeded 1811), and Anne, daughter of the 3rd duke of Marlborough, was born on April 28, 1801. He was educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, and entered parliament in 1826. He succeeded his father as earl in 1851. Although giving a general support to the Conservatives, his parliamentary conduct was greatly modified by his intense interest in the improvement of the social condition of the working classes,

his efforts in behalf of whom have word. He opposed the Reform Bill of Catholic emancipation, and his of resistance to the abolition of the

made his name a household of 1832, but was a supporter objection to the continuance Corn Laws led him to resign

his seat for Dorset in 1846. In parliament his name, more than any other, is associated with the new factory legislation. He was a lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel (1834-35), but on being invited to join Peel’s administration in 1841 refused, having been unable to obtain Peel’s support for the Ten Hours’ bill. Chiefly by his persistent efforts a Ten Hours’ bill was carried in 1847, but its operation was impeded by legal difficulties, which were only removed by successive acts, instigated chiefly by him, until the law was consolidated by the Factory Act of 1874.

The part which Shaftesbury took in the legislation bearing on

religious thinker, inasmuch as he discards the moral sanction of coal mines was equally prominent. In 1846, after the resignation public opinion, the terrors of future punishment, the authority of his seat for Dorset, he explored the slums of the metropolis, of the civil authority, as the main incentives to goodness, and and not only gave a new impulse to the movement for the estabsubstitutes the voice of conscience and the love of God. These lishment of ragged schools, but was able to make it more widely two alone move men to aim at perfect harmony for its own sake beneficial. For 40 years he was president of the Ragged School in the man and in the universe. Union. He was also one of the principal founders of reformatory The main object of the Moralists is to propound a system of and refuge unions, young men’s Christian associations and worknatural theology, and to vindicate, so far as natural religion is ing men’s institutes. He took an active interest in foreign misconcerned, the ways of God to man. His scheme of natural sions, and was president of several of the most important philanreligion was popularized in Pope’s Essay on Man, several lines thropic and religious societies of London. He died on Oct. 1, 1885. of which, especially of the first epistle, are simply statements By his marriage (1830) to Lady Emily (d. 1872), daughter of the from the Moralists done into verse. Whether, however, these sth earl Cowper, he left a large family, and was succeeded by his were taken immediately by Pope from Shaftesbury, or whether eldest son Anthony, who committed suicide in 1886, his son (b. they came to him through the papers which Bolingbroke had 1869) becoming goth earl. prepared for his use is uncertain. Shaftesbury’s ethical system See J. L. and B. Hammond, Lord Shaftesbury (1923)3 and J. W. was reproduced, though in a more precise and philosophical form, Bready, Lord Shaftesbury and Industrial Progress (1926). by Hutcheson, and from him descended, with certain variations, SHAFTESBURY, a market town and municipal borough in to Hume and Adam Smith. Nor was it without effect even on the northern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, Butler. Of the so-called deists Shaftesbury was probably the 193 m. W.S.W. from London by the S. railway ‘(Semley station), most important, as he was certainly the most plausible. No Pop. (1931) 2,366. It lies high on a hill above a rich agricultural sooner had the Characteristics appeared than they were welcomed district. Although there are traces of both British and Roman by Le Clerc and Leibnitz. In 1745 Diderot adapted the Inquiry occupation in the immediate neighbourhood, the site of Shaftesconcerning Virtue in what was afterwards known as his Essai bury (Caer Palladur, Caer Septon, Seaftonia, Sceafstesbyrig, sur le Mérite et la Vertu. In 1769 a French translation of the Shafton) was probably first occupied in Saxon times; Matthew whole of Shaftesbury’s works, including the Letters, was pub- Paris speaks of its foundation by the mythical king Rudhudibras, lished at Geneva; in 1776-79 there appeared a complete German while Asser ascribes it to Alfred, who made his daughter Etheltranslation of the Characteristics. Hermann Hettner says that geofu the first abbess. Itis probable that a small religious house not only Leibnitz, Voltaire and Diderot, but Lessing, Mendelssohn, had existed here before the time of Alfred, and that it and the

Wieland and Herder, drew the most stimulating nutriment from

Shaftesbury. Herder, in the Adrastea, pronounces the Moralists to be in form well-nigh worthy of Grecian antiquity, and in content

almost superior to it. Most of Shaftesbury’s writings have been already menticned. In addition, fourteen letters from Shaftesbury to Molesworth were edited

by Toland in 1721; some letters to Benjamin Furly, his sons and his clerk Harry Wilkinson, included in Original Letters of Locke, Sidney

and Shaftesbury, were published by Mr. T. Forster in 1830 and 18473 three Jetters to Stringer, Lord Oxford and Lord Godolphin appeared, for the first time, in the General Dictionary; and lastly a letter to Le Clerc, in his recollections of Locke, was first published in Netes and Queries, Feb. 8, 1851. The Letters to a Young Man at the University

town were destroyed by the Danes, being both rebuilt about 888, The site of the Saxon abbey and nunnery was excavated between 1907 and rgz0. In 980 Dunstan brought St, Edward’s hody here from Wareham for burial, and here Canute died in 1035. In 1252 the burgesses received their first charter from Henry III. There is no evidence that Elizabeth granted Shaftesbury a charter as has been asserted, but she confiscated the common lands in 1585, the town only recovering them by purchase. This probably led to the granting of a new charter by James I, in 1604,

Yet another charter was granted to the town in 1684, Shaftes-

bury returned two members to parliament from 1294 to 1832,

430

SHAFT-SINKING

when the representation was reduced to one, and it was lost in

‘7885. See Charles Hubert Mayo, The Municipal Records of the Borough of Shaftesbury (Sherborne, 1889) ; Victoria County History of Dorset II. pp. 72 to 79.

SHAFT-SINKING

is an important mining operation for

reaching and working mineral deposits situated at a depth below the surface, whenever the topography does not admit of driving adits or tunnels (g.v.). Sbafts are also often sunk in connection with certain civil engineering works, e.g., at intervals along the line of a railway tunnel for starting intermediate headings, thus securing more points of attack than if the entire work were carried on from the end headings only. Sundry modifications of shaft-sinking are adopted in excavating for deep foundations of heavy buildings, bridge piers and other engineering structures. If in solid rock carrying but little water, shaft-sinking is a comparatively simple operation. But when the formation penetrated comprises unstable, watery strata, special forms of lining are necessary and the work is slow and expensive. Mine shafts are often very deep, notably in the Witwatersrand, South Africa; at Bendigo, Australia; and in some of the coal fields of Europe. Several inclined shafts in Michigan approximate 8,600 ft. at an inclination of 39° to the horizontal. Shape of Shafts.—vVertical shafts may be either rectangular or cylindrical; when inclined they are always rectangular. In Europe shafts are generally cylindrical, sometimes of elliptical cross-section, lined with masonry, concrete, cast iron or steel. In the United States and elsewhere rectangular sections are the rule for sinking in rock, the shaft walls being supported by timbering, occasionally by steel framing. For sinking in loose, water-bearing soils, the cross-section is almost invariably circular to resist crushing or caving of the shaft walls. The cheaper timber or steellined, rectangular shaft, however, is generally appropriate in rocky strata, In view of the temporary character of mining operations. Rectangular shafts are usually divided longitudinally into compartments; one or more of these are for the cages or skips, which run in guides bolted to the shaft timbering or by wire ropes stretched from top to bottom (see MINING, METALLIFERous); another is provided for a ladder- and pipe-way and for ventilation. When much water is encountered a separate pump compartment is desirable. Cylindrical shafts may be similarly divided. The cross-sectional area of shafts depends mainly on the size of the cages or skips. Rectangular shafts of one or two compartments measure, inside of timbers, say 4 by 6 ft. to 7 by 12 ft.; larger shafts of three compartments, from 5 by 12 ft. to 8 or ro ft. by 20 ft. Shafts of four to seven compartments, as in the deeplevel mines of the Witwatersrand, range from 6 by 20 ft. to 6 or 8 by 30 ft., and for some of the Pennsylvania colliery shafts, up to 13 by 52 ft. Cylindrical shafts rarely have more than two hoisting compartments and vary from ro to 21 ft. diameter. Sinking in Rock.—TIf the rock be overlaid by loose soil carrying little water, excavation is begun by pick and shovel, and after the rock is reached is continued by drilling and blasting. The plant usually comprises a small hoist and boiler, several buckets or a skip, one or more sinking pumps according to the quantity of water, occasionally a ventilating fan and a timber derrick or head-frame over the shaft mouth. In some cases a portion of the permanent hoisting plant is erected for sinking. For very hard rock or for rapid work, machine drilling is advisable, a compressor and additional boiler capacity being then required. Many shafts in South Africa and the United States have been sunk at a speed of from 200 to 250 ft. per month. Inclined shafts when nearly vertical can be sunk about as fast as vertical shafts; but for inclinations between 75° and 30° to the horizontal, inclines are generally slower, due to the greater inconvenience of carrying on excavation and timbering. Very flat shafts can be sunk faster, unless there is much water. The highest speed on record for a flat incline (10°) is 267 ft. in one month (Howard shaft, South Africa). The speed of sinking depends mainly on the time required to hoist out the broken rock and therefore generally diminishes with increase of depth. Furthermore, omitting shafts of small area, the cost per foot of depth does not increase pro-

portionately to the cross-sectional dimensions. For the same rock the rate of advance in wet formations is always much slower than in dry and the cost greater. A round of holes is drilled, usually 3 to 4 ft. deep if by hand, or 5 to 8 ft. if by machine (see BLASTING). A common mode of placing machine drill holes in shown in fig. 1. The holes are charged with dynamite and fired preferably by electricity, as the

EHE.

aoo

o

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

O Ww ll

ELEVATION FIGS.

men may have to After the smoke compressed air if drilling resumed. machine drills are

H

1 AND

2

be hoisted a long distance to a place of safety. has cleared away, hastened by sprays or by available, the broken rock is hoisted out and In rectangular shafts not over 6 or 8 ft. wide, usually mounted on horizontal bars stretching

across from wall to wall; in wider or cylindrical shafts, on tripods

or special sinking-frames. Small quantities of water are bailed but when the inflow is large, a sinking pump is employed (see MINING, METALLIFEROUS). Shaft Lining.—For rectangular vertical shafts under normal conditions the excavation through surface soil is commonly lined with cribbing, inside of which a concrete curb is sometimes built

to dam out surface water. After reaching rock the lining is generally of horizontal sets of 8 by 8 in. to r2 by r2 in. squared timber, wedged against the walls by smaller pieces, with lagging, put behind the sets. In firm rock lagging may be omitted. Each set (fig. 2) consists of two long timbers (wall-plates) W, W, two shorter pieces (end-plates) E, E, and one or more cross pieces (dividers or buntons) D, D, to form the compartments, strengthen the sets and support the cage guides, G, G. The sets are 4 to 6 ft. apart, with vertical posts (studdles) S, S, between them. At intervals of 80 to 120 ft., longer timbers (bearers) are notched into the walls under a set to prevent displacement of the lining. A series of shaft BF} sets, with their posts, are either built up 4 from a bearing-set, or suspended from the latter by hanger-bolts. In firm rock, a coni S Aminin A siderable depth of shaft may be sunk and NZ WUER ASENA UTAH: Ar then timbered; generally it is safer to put Ste

47 7 (ee

Dearne erag agaang aae aaa

OEC

E enge a na angana

i

ea

2A

N

in a few sets at a time as sinking advances. Inclined shafts in solid ground are often timbered as described above, though sometimes longitudinal rows of posts support F NEATE A, Z AET UUAU

j

NYNNE

A L222

the roof and divide the shaft into compartments.

A cylindrical shaft of any importance is lined with masonry, concrete or cast-iron

“tubbing.”

Linings are generally built in

FIG. 3 sections, as sinking advances, each section being based on a walling-crib AB, CD (fig. 3). The thickness of the walling depends on the pressure anticipated; it is usually from 13 in. to 2 ft. Such linings shut out much of the water present in the surrounding rock. Iron tubbing is employed when the inflow of water is large. It consists of cast-iron flanged rings, cast in segments bolted together. To permit the rings to adjust themselves to the pressure, the horizontal joints are rarely bolted; they are best packed with sheet-lead or thin strips of dry pine, any leaks appearing subsequently being stopped with wedges. The space

SHAFT-SINKING between the tubbing and the rock is filled with concrete or cement grouting. The lowermost tubbing ring is based upon a “‘wedgingcrib.” This is a heavy ring of cast-iron segments bolted together, and set on a projecting shelf of rock, carefully dressed. The space behind the crib is driven full of wooden wedges, which expand on becoming water-soaked and make a water-tight joint. By using this method very little pumping is necessary, so the cost is materially reduced.

Cost of Shaft Sinking.—In rock the cost varies greatly with

the size and depth of the shaft, inflow of water and character of rock. Under favourable conditions, in 1927, small, shallow shafts cost £12 to £20 per ft.; larger, deep shafts, £25 to £40. Under unfavourable conditions costs may range from £50 per ft. up. Costs in soft, watery soil are always relatively higher.

The Kind-Chaudron process of sinking in rock, introduced in 1852, has been confined to Europe. Many shafts have been sunk thus, some to depths of 1,000 ft. or more, without one

instance of failure. It is applicable only to firm rock and was devised for cases where the quantity of water is too great to be pumped out while excavation is in progress; that is, for inflows greater than 1,000 or 1,200 gal. per min. This system is most successful when the water-bearing rocks rest on an impervious stratum, overlying the mineral deposit. The entire excavation is carried on under water. Instead of ordinary tools, massive trepans are employed, consisting of a heavy iron frame, in the lower edge of which are set a number of separate cutters. Shafts not exceeding about 8 ft. diameter are bored in one operation; for larger diameters an advance bore is usually made with a small trepan and afterwards enlarged to full size; or the small and large

trepans may be used alternately, the advance being kept 30 to 60 ft. ahead of enlargement. An 8-ft. trepan weighs about 12 tons; those of 14 or 15 ft., 25 to 30 tons. The trepan is attached to a heavy rod, suspended from a walking-beam operated by an engine on the surface. A derrick is erected over the shaft, with a hoisting engine for raising and lowering the tools. Average rock is bored at a speed of about 14 ft. per 24 hours. The advance bore is cleaned of debris at intervals by a bailer similar to that used for boreholes (g.v.). The enlarging trepan is so shaped that the cuttings, assisted by the agitation of the water, run into the advance bore. Owing to the difficulty of bailing, the advance bore is sometimes omitted even for large shafts, the debris being removed by a special dredger. For rather loose rock another somewhat similar system of drilling, the Pattberg, has been satisfactorily employed (see Coll. Guardian, Nov. 14, 1902). When the shaft has passed through the watery strata the cast-iron lining (cc, dd) is bolted together at the shaft mouth and lowered through the water (fig. A 4). Sometimes, the first two a Ae rings (aa, bb) are designed to Roe enasi N telescope together with dry moss m packed between their flanges. are When the lowermost ring reaches the bottom, the weight of the ; ry

Cpe

=

NAA

a AN

Se eee Ty SSS peng

NETO Cre GN Q

A5

;

i

lining compresses the moss and forces it against the surrounding rock, making a tight joint. The lining is suspended from the surface by threaded rods, and to reduce its weight while it is being lowered the bottom may be

closed by a diaphragm (f), in

ra

SS SSS

A m

ar.

Soo CTT Aot TCE eee

FIG. 4

the centre of which is an open pipe (g). This pipe is provided with cocks for admitting enough water to overcome buoyancy. Finally, concrete is filledin behind the lining, the diaphragm removed and the completed shaft pumped out. The moss-box is now usually omitted, the concreting being relied on to make the lining watertight. The cost of this method (generally £50 to £80 per ft.), as well as the speed, compares favourably with results obtainable under the same conditions by other means; in many cases it is the only practicable method.

431

Sinking in Unstable Soils.—Unstable or watery soils often cause serious engineering difficulties. Shaft sinking is then accomplished by: (1) spiling, vertical or inclined; (2) drop-shaft; (3) caisson and compressed air; (4) the freezing process. Vertical spiling consists in driving series of spiles around the sides of the excavation, each series supported by horizontal timber cribs. When the first spiles have been driven, and the enclosed soil removed, a second set follows inside, and so on. Steel sheet spiling is also used for small depths in silt, quicksand and other very watery soil. Inclined spiling (fig. 5) is limited to small depths. Cribs are put in every few feet; around them, driven ahead of the excavation, are short planks, sharpened to a chisel edge. The spiles incline outward, being driven inside of one crib and outside of that next below. The shaft bottom also may have to be sheathed with planking, FIG. 5 which is braced against the lowest crib and advanced to new positions as sinking of the shaft progresses. Drop-shafts have been used for depths of nearly 500 ft. A heavy timber, iron or concrete lining (usually cylindrical) is sunk through the soil, new sections being successively added at the surface, while excavation goes on inside. In quite soft soil the drop-shaft sinks with its own weight; when necessary, added weights of pig-iron, rails, etc., are applied at the top. If the first lining refuses to sink farther a second is lowered inside of it. The drop-shaft rests on a massive wooden or iron shoe, generally of triangular cross-section, which cuts into the soil as the weight of the structure increases and the excavation proceeds. When the drop-shaft is built of concrete, its great weight may become unmanageable in very soft soil, and it is hung from a framework on the surface. For deep shafts the lining must be of iron or steel, as wood is too weak and concrete too heavy. When only a reasonable amount of pumping is required, the soil is excavated by hand; otherwise dredging is resorted to. The leakage of water under the shoe may be stopped by concreting the shaft bottom or by various other methods. There are many modifications of the drop-shaft which cannot here be detailed. Sinking with caisson (qg.v.) and compressed air is rarely adopted except in civil engineering operations where deep foundations are necessary; e.g., bridge piers. Watery soil in which a shaft is to be sunk is sometimes artificially frozen and excavated like rock. A number of drivepipes are put down (see Borrxc), usually 6 to 8 in. diameter and about 3 ft. apart, in a circle whose radius is, say, 3 ft. greater than that of the shaft, and reaching to bed-rock or other firm formation. Each pipe is then plugged at the lower end and within it is placed an open pipe, 14 in. in diameter, extending nearly to the bottom. Or, preferably, after the drive-pipes are down and cleaned out, a slightly smaller pipe, closed at its lower end, is inserted in each drive-pipe, the latter being afterwards pulled out. The inner 14-in. open pipes are then inserted. The outer and inner pipes are connected with a refrigerating machine (see REFRIGERATION) and brine at a temperature of o° is passed down the inner pipes and up through the outer pipes. The cold solution rising in the large pipes absorbs the heat from the surrounding watery soil, freezing concentrically round each pipe. The frozen masses finally join (in say 3 to 4 weeks), forming an unbroken wall. The enclosed soft soil may then be excavated by dredging. Generally freezing is continued until the solidification reaches the centre and to some distance beyond the circle of pipes, after which the frozen ground is drilled and blasted and the shaft is lined. This process has been successfully employed in stages to depths of about 2,c00 ft. Nearly roo shafts have been sunk by this process. In 1924 two shafts were sunk in Belgium by freezing to 2,025 ft. at a cost, including lining, of £230 per foot.

A rn

SHAGALL—SHAH JAHAN

432 The cementation process

(grouting)

is applicable for both

fissured rock and soft ground carrying much water, and has been used successfully in sinking a number of shafts, chiefly in Great Britain, Belgium and South Africa, Some of this work has been at depths of 1,200 to 1,600 ft. The process consists in injecting cement grout, under pressures of 1,000 to 3,000 Ib. per sain., through boreholes into the watery strata. The cement on setting

consolidates the ground, which is then drilled and blasted with little trouble from water. Two methods are employed: (z) the boreholes are put down inside of the perimeter of the projected shaft; (2) the boreholes are outside of the perimeter, as for the freezing process. In the first method the ground is treated to a

predetermined depth, the shaft being sunk and lined to that depth, after which another set of holes is drilled from the shaft bottom to a greater depth and the process repeated. BIBLIOGRAPHY, Sinking in Rock.—Peele’s Min. Engrs? Handbook, and ed. (1927) sec. 7; Coll. Guardian, Feb. 12, 1926 and May 28, 1926; Trans. Insin. Min. & Met., vol. xv., p. 333 and vol. xxx., p. 2435 Trans, Amer. Inst. Min. Engs., vol. xlvi. p. 151; North of England Inst. Min. & Mech. Engs. (1927); U.S. Bur. of Mines, Tech. Paper, 276; Coli. Eng’r, vol. ili. (Aug--Nov., 1926); Coal Age, Sept. 13, 1923, p. 397; Eng. & Min. Jour., Mch. 26, 1921, p. 537, May 21, 1921, p. 862, Oct, 23, 1926, p. 657, Feb. 10, 1923, p. 265; E. O. F. Brown, Vertical Shaft Sinking (1927) ; South African Practice for Deep Shaft, Min. & Sci. Press, Apr. 26 and May 3, 1913. Kind-Chaudron Process: Proc. Instn. Civ. Engs., vol. lxxi, p. 178; North of England Inst. M. & M. Engs., vol. xx., p, 187; Rev. Univ. des Mines, Oct. 1902. Sinking in Watery Strata-J, Riemer, Shaft Sinking Under Dificult

Conditions

(transl by Corning and Peele); Min. Engrs,” Hand-

book, 2nd ed., sec. 8 (1927); Bull. Soc. de PInd. Min. (1903); Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Engs., vol. xx., p. 188. Drop Shafts: Coll. Eng’r., Jan. 19153 Eng. & Min. Jour., Sept. 29, 1923, p. 535. Freezing

Process: Coal Age, June 5, 1924, p. 831; Coll. Guardian, Sept. 28, 1917,

Feb, 4, 14 and 18, 1927; Instn. Min. Engs. Jan, 1917. Cementation

Process: Chem,, Met. & Min. Soc. of So. Africa, vol. xviil., p. 256 and vol. xvix., p. 145; Instn. Min. Engs., 1925; Coll. Guardian, Mch. 2 and 9, 1917; Ann. des Mines, vol. xvii., p. 379. R. Pe.)

SHAGALL, MARC (1888-

_), Russian painter, was born

in Vitebsk, of a family of Jewish artisans. He became a pupil of Leon Bakst in St. Petersburg. He went to Paris in 1910, where he exhibited in the “Salon des Indépendants.” Under the influ-

ence of cubism he painted a series of fantastic pictures, in which

he showed extraordinary gifts for colour. He was in Russia from 1914 to 1922, when he went to Berlin and later settled in Paris. He engraved a cycle of prints entitled “My Life,” and made a series of 100 etchings to illustrate Gogol’s Dead Souls. Exhibitions of Shagall’s work have been held in Paris, Berlin and other

to secure the rough, granular surface is as follows. The seeds of a plant, usually some species of Chinopodium, are embedded in the skin while soft; the surface is then shaved down and soaked in

water, when the edges of the indentations swell up. The is then dyed, green being a favourite colour. Shagreen commonly made of the skins of sharks and rays; the scales of the shark skin giving the necessary roughened Shagreen is used as an ornamental leather for making books, small cases and the like, and for the handles of daggers, etc.

leather is now piacoid surface. pocketswords, ace

SHAHABAD, a district of British India, in the Patna division

of Bihar and Orissa; area, 4,373 8Q-m.; pop. (1921) 1,816,821. To the north is an alluvial flat constituting about three-fourths of the district, closely cultivated and thickly populated. The southern portion is occupied by the Kaimur hills, a branch of the great Vindhyan range. These hills consist of an undulating plateau largely covered with jungle, about 800 sq.m. in area; at Rohtasgarh they attain a height of 1,490 ft. above sea-level. The chief rivers are the Ganges and the Son, which unite in the northeastern corner of Shahabad, and the Karamnasa, which divides it from the United Provinces. The chief crops are rice, millets, wheat, pulses, oilseeds, and sugar-cane. Shahabad is protected against drought by a system of canals which obtains its supply of water from the Son at Dehri, where a weir or antcut, 24 m. long, has been built across the broad bed of the river; the irrigated area averages about 500,000 acres. The district is traversed by the main line of the East Indian railway, by the Grand Chord line which crosses the Son at Dehri-on-Son, and by two light railways, one connecting Arrah and Sasaram, the other Dehri and Rohtasgarh. The northern part of Shahabad is known as Bhojpur, which has

given its name to a dialect of the Bihari language. Its inhabitants, the Bhojpuri, were formerly notorious for turbulence and predatory habits. Before 1857 they were recruited largely for the army, and during the Mutiny they broke out into a rebellion which was not put down till the end of 1858. There was an outbreak of lawlessness among the Hindus of this area in 1917, when they attacked their Mohammedan neighbours, pillaged 139 villages and were only checked by the use of military force. The administrative headquarters are at Arrah.

SHAH ALAM (1728-1806), Mogul emperor of Delhi, son of Alamgir II., was born on June 15, 1728, and was originally known as the Shahzada Ali Gohar. Being proclaimed a rebel by his father, he fled to Shuja-ud-Dowlah, wazir of Oudh, and on the

German cities and New York.

death of his father in 1759 assumed the name of Shah Alam. He

SHAGIA (SuHarcra, SHAIKivEH), a tribe of Semitic origin living on both banks of the Nile from Korti to the Third Cataract, and in parts of the Bayuda desert and partly nomad, partly agricultural, They claim descent from one Shayig Ibn Hamaidan. of the Beni Abbas, and came from Arabia at the conquest of

at the battle of Buxar, he sought British protection. In 1765 he granted the diwani (superintendence of the revenue) of Bengal to Lord Clive for the East India Company in return for a payment of 26 lakhs a year. In 1771 he fell into the power of the Mahrattas, was installed emperor of Delhi, and lost the British subsidy. In 1788 the Rohilla chief Ghulam Kadir seized Delhi and put out Shah Alam’s eyes. Sindhia restored him to the throne, and after the Mahratta war of 1803 he was again taken under British protection. He died on Nov. ro, 1806. (See also INDIA:

Egypt in the 7th century. Settled originally south of their present country they moved northward after 1772. For their services in the suppression of the Ja‘alin revolt (1822), they obtained lands

joined Shuja-ud-Dowlah against the British, but after his defeat

between Shendi and Khartum. At that time they were far more civilized than the neighbouring tribes. They had schools in which History.) all Muslim science was taught, and were rich in corn and cattle. i W. Francklin, History of the Reign of Shah Alam (Calcutta, Their fighting men, mounted on horses of the Dongola breed, were 1798). feared throughout the eastern Sudan. Their chiefs wore coats of SHAH JAHAN (f. 1627-1658), Mogul emperor of Delbi, mail and carried shields of hippopotamus or crocodile skin. Their the fifth of the dynasty. After revolting against his father

arms were lance, sword or javelin. The Shagia are divided into twelve clans. They speak Arabic and generally preserve the

Semitic type, though they are obviously of very mixed blood.

The typical Shagia has a sloping forehead, aquiline nose and

receding chin. They gash the chests of their children.

See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen Keane, Riksoloey of the Egyptian Sudan (1884).

SHAGREEN.

(190s); A. Tea an

Ai species of untanned leather with a rough-

Jahangir, as the latter had revolted against Akbar, he succeeded to the throne on his father’s death in 1627. It was during his reign that the Mogul power attained its greatest prosperity. The chief events of his reign were the destruction of the kingdom of

Ahmadnagar (1636), the loss of Kandahar to the Persians (1653), In 1658 he fell ill, and was confined by his son Aurangzeb in the citadel

H, and a second war against the Deccan princes (1655).

of Agra until his death in 1666. The period of his reign was the golden age of Indian architecture. Shah Jahan erected many Schagrm, Fr. chagrin, Ital. gagrin, zigrino; these are usually splendid monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal referred to Turkish and Persian seghri, lit, the back of a horse, at Agra, built as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal; while the and so applied te leather made from this part, The skin of the Pearl Mosque at Agra and the palace and great mosque at Delhi wild ass was especially used. The method of preparing the skins. also commemorate him. The celebrated “Peacock Throne,” said

ened, granular surface. The word is the English form; cf. Ger,

SHAHJAHANPUR—SHAKESPEARE to have been worth £6,000,000, also dates from his reign; and he was the founder of the modern city of Delhi, the native name of which is Shahjahanabad.

SHAHJAHANPUR, a city and district of British India, in

the Bareilly division of the United Provinces. The city is on the left bank of the river Deoha, and is a military cantonment. Pop. (1921), 72,616. It was founded in 1647 during the reign of Shah Jahan, whose name it bears, by Nawab Bahadur Khan, a Pathan. His mosque is the only building of antiquarian interest. The District oF SHAHJAHANPUR has an area of 1,726 sq.m. It consists of a long and narrow tract running up from the Ganges towards the Himalayas, and is for the most part level. The principal rivers are the Gumti, Khanaut, Garai and Ramganga. To the north-east waste and forest preponderate over cultivated land. Between the Gumti and the Khanaut the country varies from a rather wild and unhealthy northern region to a densely inhabited tract in the south, with a productive soil cultivated with sugar-cane and other remunerative crops. From the Ramganga to the Ganges in the south is a continuous low country of marshy patches, alternating with a hard clayey soil that requires much irrigation in parts. In r92z the population was 839,115. Shahjahanpur was ceded to the English by the nawab of Oudh in 1801.

SHA-HO, BATTLE OF THE. This was the second of the

three great battles which marked the main advance of the Japanese armies in Manchuria during the Russo-Japanese War, and is described under that heading. It was the only one in which the Russians succeeded in taking the offensive. The real battle was joined on Oct. 11, 1904, and ended on the 13th, with Kuropatkin’s suspension of the Russian offensive, but fighting continued until the 18th as the Russians were first pressed back, then attempted a fresh offensive, and abandoned their effort after heavy losses.

SHAHPUR,

a town and district of British India, in the

Punjab. The town is near the left bank of the river Jhelum. The district of Shahpur has an area of 4,476 sq.m. Its most important physical subdivisions are the Salt range in the north, the valleys of the Chenab and Jhelum, and the plains between those rivers and between the Jhelum and the Salt range. In 192r the popula-

tion was 719,918. The chief commercial centre is Bhera. The district is traversed by two branches of the North-Western railway. Shahpur passed into the hands of the English along with the rest of the Punjab in 1849. Since the introduction of irrigation from the Lower Jhelum Canal in 1901 the character of the district south of the Jhelum has entirely altered and the headquarters of the district has been transferred to the Colony town of Sargodha

(pop. 17,728).

SHAH SHUJA (17807-1842), king of Afghanistan, was the

son of Timur Shah, and grandson of Ahmad Shah, founder of the Durani dynasty. After conspiracies that caused the dethronement of two brothers, Taman Shah and Mahmud Shah, he became king in 1803. He was, however, in his turn driven out of Afghanistan in 1809 by Mahmud Shah, and found refuge and a pension in British territory. Distrusting the attitude of the Amir Dost Mahommed towards Russia, Lord Auckland in 1839 attempted to restore Shah Shuja to the throne against the wishes of the Afghan people. This policy led to the disastrous first Afghan War. After the retreat of the British troops from Kabul, Shah Shuja shut himself up in the Bala Hissar. He left this retreat on April 5, 1842, and was immediately killed by the adherents of Dost Mahommed and his son Akbar Khan.

SHAIKIA: see Arass. SHAKERS, an American

celibate and communistic

sect,

known as “The United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing” and as “The Millennial Church.” Some of the leaders prefer the name “Alethians,” for they consider themselves children of the truth. The society had its beginning in a Quaker revival in England (1747) which resulted in the organization of a sect of which Jane and James Wardley were the leaders. They were succeeded by Ann Lee. The distinctive merit of celibacy became an original tenet of the Shakers in England. They did not prohibit marriage but refused to accept it as a Christian institution and considered it less perfect than the celibate state.

4.33

Under stress of persecution and in response to a revelation, “Mother” Ann led a band of six men and two women to America. They arrived in New York city on Aug. 6, 1774, and after two years’ stay there, settled in the woods of Watervliet, not far from Albany, N.Y. In 1780 there was a religious revival in New Lebanon, N.Y., and some of the converts became disciples of Ann Lee. At this place, in 1787, the first Shaker society in the United States was organized; the society at Watervliet organized immediately afterwards. Ann Lee went from place to place preaching her new doctrine and became known as a faith-healer. At the time of her death (1784) she had disciples in New York, Massachusetts and Connecticut. A group of Shakers came out of the Kentucky revival of 1800-02. The community at Mount Lebanon, N.Y. sent three of their number to Kentucky to bear witness to the people. Though at first bitterly opposed, these Shaker preachers made a sufficient number of converts to found five societies, “two in Ohio, two in Kentucky and one in Indiana.” In 1894 the Mount Lebanon Society, N.Y., founded a colony at Narcoosee, Fla., called the Union Village Society. In xoro it went into the hands of a receiver. The Shakers held that God was both male and female, that Adam, having been created in the image of God, had in him the nature of both sexes, that even angels and spirits are both male and female. Christ, they believe, was one of the superior spirits and appeared in Jesus, the son of a Jewish carpenter, representing the male principle. In Mother Ann, daughter of an English blacksmith, the female principle in Christ was manifested, and in her the promise of the Second Coming was fulfilled. Christ’s kingdom on earth began with the establishment of the Shaker Church. The practical ideals of the community are the common possession of property, a life of celibacy, confession of sin, without which no one can become a member of the community, power over physical disease, and separation from the world. Disease they regard as a sin against God. Their separateness from the world is indicated by their manner of living in families of 30 to go individuals. Each family has its own house, the storeys being divided between the men and women. They make no room for adornments in the way of pictures or other works of art. In their prescribed mode of dress for men and women, they also protest against the fashions of a vain world. For a time they made their own clothing and wove their own cloth. They made leather in New York for several years; but were more successful in selling herbs and garden seeds, and in making apple sauce, weaving linen and knitting underwear. Many of them, however, considered it a mistake to have left agriculture and entered into manufacturing. In 1874 there were 58 Shaker communities with 2,415 souls, owning 100,000 ac. of land; in 1905 the membership was reduced to about 1,000. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—John P. MacLean, A Bibliography of Shaker Literature with an Introductory Study of the Writings and Publications Pertaining to Ohio Believers (Columbus, O., 1905), and his Sketch of the Life and the Labors of Richard McNemar (Franklin, O., 1905) : C. E Robinson, A Concise History of the United Society of Believers, called Shakers (1893); Anna White and Leila S. Taylor, Shakerism, Its Meaning and Message (1905) ; F. W. Evans, Shakers: Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules and Regulations, Governments and Doctrines of the United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing (1858), often elsewhere under other titles; C. E. Sears, compiler, Gleanings from Old Shaker Journals (1916); F. H. Noyes, History of American Socialisms (1870); C. Nordhoff, The Communistic Societies of the United States (1878). (G. W. Ri.)

SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616), English poet, player and playwright, was baptized in the parish church of Stratford-on-Avon in Warwickshire on April 26, 1564. The exact date of his birth is not known. Two 18th-century antiquaries, William Oldys and Joseph Greene, gave it as April 23, but without quoting authority for their statements, and the fact that April 23 was the day of Shakespeare’s death in 1616 suggests a possible source of error. In any case his birthday cannot have been later than April 23, since the inscription upon his monument is evidence that on April 23, 1616, he had already begun his 53rd year. His father, John Shakespeare, was a burgess of the recently constituted corporation of Stratford, and had already filled certain

434

SHAKESPEARE

minor municipal offices. From 1561 to 1563 he had been one of the two chamberlains to whom the finance of the town was entrusted. Aubrey (1681) called him a butcher and Rowe (1709) a wool-dealer, but it is clear from formal documents that by occupation he was a glover, although he appears to have dealt from time to time in various kinds of agricultural produce, such as barley, timber and wool. He is also described as a yeoman, and it is possible that he combined a certain amount of farming with the practice of his trade. He was living in Stratford as early as 1552, in which year he was fined for having a dunghill in Henley street, but he does not appear to have been a native of the town, in whose records the name is not found before his time; and he may reasonably be identified with a John Shakespeare of Snitterfield, who administered the goods of his father, Richard Shakespeare, in 1561. Snitterfield is a village in the immediate neighbourhood of Stratford, and here Richard Shakespeare had been settled as a farmer since 1529. He may have come from Hampton Corley in Budbrooke, where a Richard Shakespeare is on the subsidy roll for 1525. It is probable that John Shakespeare carried on the farm for some time after his father’s death, and possible that by 1570 he had acquired a small holding called Ingon in Hampton Lucy. But the Snitterfield farm seems to have passed subsequently to his brother Henry, who was buried there in 1596. There were also at Snitterfield a Thomas Shakespeare and an Anthony Shakespeare, who seems to have moved to Hampton Corley; and these may have been of the same family. A John Shakespeare, who dwelt at Clifford Chambers, another village close to Stratford, is clearly distinct. Strenuous efforts have been made to trace Shakespeare’s genealogy beyond Richard of Snitterfield, but so far without success. Certain drafts of heraldic grants of the Shakespeare arms speak, in one case of John Shakespeare’s grandfather, in another of his great-grandfather, as having been rewarded with Jands and tenements in Warwickshire for service to Henry VII. No such grants, however, have been traced, and even in the 16th century statements as to “antiquity and service” in heraldic preambles were looked upon with suspicion. The name “Shakespeare is extremely widespread, and is spelt in an astonishing variety of ways. The verdict of competent palaeographers is to the effect that Shakespeare himself, in the extant examples of his signature, generally wrote “Shakspere” in full or in an abbreviated form, but possibly, in the main signature to his will, “Shakspeare.” In the printed signatures to the dedications of his poems, on the title-pages of nearly all the contemporary editions of his plays that bear his name, and in many formal documents it appears as Shakespeare. This may be in part due to the martial derivation which the poet’s literary contemporaries were fond of assigning to his name, and which is acknowledged in the arms that he bore. Certain forms often used at Stratford, however, such as Shaxpere and Schackspere, suggest

a short pronunciation of the first syllable, and thus tend to support Dr. Henry Bradley’s derivation from the Anglo-Saxon personal name, Seaxberht. It is interesting, and even amusing, to record that in 1487 Hugh Shakspere of Merton college, Oxford, changed his name to Sawndare, because his former name vile reputatum est. ‘The earliest record of a Shakespeare that has yet been traced is in 1248 at Clapton in Gloucestershire. The name also occurs during the 13th century in Kent, Essex and Surrey, and during the 14th in Cumberland, Yorkshire, Cheshire, Nottinghamshire, Essex, Warwickshire and as far away as Youghal in Ireland. Thereafter it is found in London and most of the English counties, particularly those of the midlands; and nowhere more freely than in Warwickshire. There were Shakespeares in Warwick and in Coventry, as well as around Stratford; and the clan appears to have been very numerous in a group of villages about 12 miles north of Stratford, which includes Baddesley Clinton, Wroxall, Rowington, Haseley, Hatton, Lapworth, Packwood, Balsall and Knowle. William was in common use as a personal name, and Williams from more than one other family have from time to time been confounded with the dramatist. Many Shakespeares are upon the register of the gild of St. Anne at Knowle from about 1457 to about 1526. Amongst these were +

[EARLY LIFE

Isabella Shakespeare, prioress of the Benedictine convent of Wroxall, and Jane Shakespeare, a nun of the same convent. Shakespeares are also found as tenants on the manors belonging to the convent, and at the time of the Dissolution in 1534 one Richard Shakespeare was its bailiff and collector of rents. Conjectural attempts have been made on the one hand to connect the ancestors of this Richard Shakespeare with a family of the same

name who held land by military tenure at Baddesley Clinton in

the 14th and rsth centuries, and on the other to identify him with the poet’s grandfather, Richard Shakespeare of Snitterfield. But Shakespeares are to be traced at Wroxall nearly as far back as at Baddesley Clinton, and Richard the bailiff seems to have retired to a farm at Haseley, which he had held since 1523. Probably he died there about 1558. It is not likely that he had also since 1529 been farming land at Snitterfield. With the breaking of this link, the hope of giving Shakespeare anything more than a grandfather on the father’s side must be laid aside for the present. On the mother’s side he was connected with a family of some distinction. Part at least of Richard Shakespeare’s land at Snitterfield was held from Robert Arden of Wilmcote in the adjoining parish of Aston Cantlow, probably a cadet of the Ardens of Parkhall, who counted amongst the leading gentry of Warwickshire. Robert Arden married his second wife, Agnes Hill, formerly Webbe, in 1548, and had then no less than eight daughters by his first wife. To the youngest of these, Mary Arden, he left in 1556 a freehold in Aston Cantlow consisting of a farm of about 50 or 60 acres in extent, known as Asbies. It is possible that he had already settled upon her other property in Wilmcote. At some date later than Nov. 1556, and probably before the end of 1557, Mary Arden became the wife of John Shakespeare. In Oct. 1556 John Shakespeare had bought two freehold houses, one in Greenhill street, the other in Henley street. The latter, known as the wool shop, was the easternmost of the two tenements now combined in the so-called Shakespeare’s birthplace. The western tenement, locally regarded as the birthplace proper, may have been already in John Shakespeare’s hands, as he seems to have been living in Henley street in 1552. It has sometimes been thought to have been one of two houses which formed a later purchase in 1575, but there is no evidence that these were in Henley street at all. William Shakespeare was not the first child. A Joan was baptized In 1558 and a Margaret in 1562. The latter was buried in 1563 and the former must also have died young, although her burial is not recorded, as a second Joan was baptized in 1569. A Gilbert was baptized in 1566, an Anne in 1571, a Richard in 1574 and an Edmund in 1580. Anne died in 1579; Edmund, who, like his brother, became an actor, in 1607; Gilbert in 1612; Richard in 1613. Tradition has it that a relative of Shakespeare’s used to visit London in the ryth century as quite an old man. One form of this makes him a brother, which is impossible. . During the years that followed his marriage, John Shakespeare became prominent in Stratford life. In 1565 he was chosen as an alderman, and in 1568 he held the chief municipal office, that of high bailiff. This carried with it the dignity of justice of the peace. John Shakespeare seems to have contemplated the assumption of arms, and usually appears in corporation documents as “Mr.” Shakespeare, whereby he may be distinguished from another John Shakespeare, a “corviser” or shoemaker, who dwelt in Stratford about 1586-92. In 1571 as an ex-bailiff he began another year of office as chief alderman.

One may think, therefore, of Shakespeare in his boyhood as

the son of one of the leading citizens of a not unimportant pro-

vincial market-town, with a vigorous life of its own, spite of the dunghills, was probably not much unlike a similar town to-day, and with constant reminders of the shape of the stately buildings formerly belonging

which, in the life of its past in to its college and its gild, both of which had been suppressed at the Reformation. Stratford stands on the Avon, in the midst of an agricultural country, throughout which in those days enclosed orchards and meadows alternated with open fields for tillage, and not far from the wilder and wooded district known as the Forest of Arden. The middle ages had left it an heritage in the shape of a

THE DRAMATIST]

SHAKESPEARE

free grammar-school, and here it is natural to suppose that William Shakespeare obtained a sound enough education, with a working knowledge of “Mantuan” and Ovid in the original, even though to such a thorough scholar as Ben Jonson it might seem no more than “small Latin and less Greek.” In 1577, when Shakespeare was about 13, his father’s fortunes began to take a turn for the worse. He became irregular in his contributions to town levies, and’had to give a mortgage on property of his wife at Wilmcote as security for a loan from her brother-in-law, Edmund Lambert. Money was raised to pay this off, partly by the sale of a small interest in land at Snitterfield which had come to Mary Shakespeare from her sisters, partly perhaps by that of the Greenhill street house and other property in Stratford outside Henley street, none of which seems to have ever come into William Shakespeare’s hands. Lambert, however, refused to surrender the mortgage on the plea of older debts, and an attempt to recover the Wilmcote property by litigation proved ineffectual. John Shakespeare’s difficulties increased. He had long ceased to attend the meetings of the corporation, and as a consequence he was removed in 1586 from the list of aldermen. In this state of domestic affairs it is not likely that Shakespeare’s school life was unduly prolonged. The chances are that he was apprenticed to some local trade. Aubrey says that he killed calves for his father, and “would do it in a high style, and make a speech.” Marriage.—Whatever his circumstances, they did not deter him at the early age of 18 from the adventure of marriage. Rowe recorded the name of Shakespeare’s wife as Hathaway, and Joseph Greene succeeded in tracing her to a family of that name dwelling in Shottery, one of the hamlets of Stratford. Her monument gives her first name as Anne, and her age as 67 in 1623. She must, therefore, have been about eight years older than Shakespeare. Various small trains of evidence point to her identification with the daughter Agnes mentioned in the will of a Richard Hathaway of Shottery, who died in 1581, being then in possession of the farmhouse now known as “Anne Hathaway’s Cottage.” Agnes was legally a distinct name from Anne, but there can be no doubt that ordinary custom treated them as identical. The principal record of the marriage is a bond dated Nov. 28, 1582, and executed by Fulk Sandells and John Richardson, two yeomen of Stratford who also figure in Richard Hathaway’s will, as a security to the bishop for the issue of a licence for the marriage of William Shakespeare and “Anne Hathwey of Stratford,” upon the consent of her friends, with one asking of the banns. There is no reason to suppose, as has been suggested, that the procedure adopted was due to dislike of the marriage on the part of John Shakespeare, since, the bridegroom being a minor, it would not have been in accordance with the practice of the bishop’s officials to issue the licence without evidence of the father’s consent. The explanation probably lies in the fact that Anne was already with child, and in the near neighbourhood of Advent, within which marriages were prohibited, so that the ordinary procedure by banns would have entailed a delay until after Christmas. A kindly sentiment has suggested that some form of civil marriage, or at least contract of espousals, had already taken place, so that a canonical marriage was really only required in order to enable Anne to secure the legacy left her by her father “at the day of her marriage.” But such a theory is not rigidly required by the facts. It is singular that, upon the day before that on which the bond was executed, an entry was made in the bishop’s register of the issue of a licence for a marriage between William Shakespeare and “Annam Whateley de Temple Grafton.” Of this it can only be said that the bond, as an original document, is infinitely the better authority, and that a scribal error of “Whateley” for “Hathaway” is quite a possible solution. Temple Grafton may have been indicated in the licence as the place of marriage, although Worcester licences usually named the place of residence of the bride. There are no contemporary registers for Temple Grafton, and there is no entry of the marriage in those for Stratford-on-Avon. There is a tradition that such a record was seen during the roth century in the registers for Luddington, a chapelry within the parish, which are now destroyed. Shakespeare’s first child, Susanna, was baptized on May 26, 1583, and

435

was followed on Feb. 2, 1585, by twins, Hamnet and Judith. Departure from Stratford.—In or after 1584 Shakespeare’s career in Stratford seems to have come to a tempestuous close. An 18th century story of a drinking-bout in a neighbouring village is of no importance, except as indicating a local impression that a distinguished citizen had had a wildish youth. But there

is a tradition which comes from a double source and which there is no reason to reject in substance, to the effect that Shakespeare got into trouble through poaching on the estates of a considerable Warwickshire magnate, Sir Thomas Lucy, and found it necessary to leave Stratford in order to escape the results of his misdemeanour. It is added that he afterwards took his revenge on Lucy by satirizing him as the Justice Shallow, with the dozen white louses in his old coat, of The Merry Wives of Windsor. From this event until he emerges as an actor and rising playwright in 1592 his history is a blank, and it is impossible to say what experience may not have helped to fillit. Much might indeed be done in eight years of crowded Elizabethan life. Conjecture has not been idle, and has assigned him in turns during this or some other period to the occupations of a scrivener, an apothecary, a dyer, a printer, a soldier and the like. The suggestion that he saw military service rests largely on a confusion with another William Shakespeare of Rowington. Aubrey had heard that “‘he had been in his younger years a schoolmaster in the country.” The mention in Henry IV. of certain obscure yeomen families, Visor of Woncote and Perkes of Stinchcombe Hill, near Dursley in Gloucestershire, has been thought to suggest a sojourn in that district, where indeed Shakespeares were to be found from an early date. Ultimately, of course, he drifted to London and the theatre, where, according to the stage tradition, he found employment in a menial capacity, perhaps even as a holder of horses at the doors, before he was admitted into a company as an actor and so found his way to his true vocation as a writer of plays. Malone thought that he might have left Stratford with one of the travelling companies of players which from time to time visited the town. Later biographers have fixed upon Leicester’s men, who were at Stratford in 1586-87, and have held that Shakespeare remained to the end in the same company, passing with it on Leicester’s death in 1588 under the patronage of Ferdinando, Lord Strange and afterwards earl of Derby, and on Derby’s death in 1594 under that of the lord chamberlain, Henry Carey, Lord Hunsdon. This theory hardly takes sufficient account of the shifting combinations and recombinations of actors, especially during the disastrous plague years of 1592 to 1594. It is not possible to- establish a continuity between Strange’s company and Leicester’s, and while the names of many members of Strange’s company in and about 1593 are on record, Shakespeare’s is not amongst them. It is at least possible, as will be seen later, that he had about this time relations with the earl of Pembroke’s men, or with the earl of Sussex’s men, or with both of these organizations.

Earliest Writings.—What is clear is that by the summer of 1592, when he was 28, he had begun to emerge as a playwright,

and had evoked the jealousy of one at least of the group of scholar poets who in recent years had ‘claimed a monopoly of the stage. This was Robert Greene, who, in an invective on behalf of the play-makers against the play-actors which forms part of his Groats-worth of Wit, speaks of “an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tygers heart wrapt in a Players hide, supposes he is as well able to bumbast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes fac totum, is in his owne conceit the onely Shake-scene in a countrie.” The play upon Shakespeare’s name and the parody of a line from Henry VI. make the reference unmistakable. The London theatres were closed first through riots and then through plague, from June 1592 to April 1594, with the exception of about a month at each Christmas during that period; and the companies were dissolved or driven to the provinces. Even if Shakespeare had been connected with Strange’s men during their London seasons of 1592 and 1593, it does not seem that he travelled with them. Other activities may have been sufficient to occupy the interval. The most important of these was prohably an attempt to win

4.36 a reputation in the world of non-dramatic

SHAKESPEARE poetry.

Venus and

Adonis was published about April 1593, and Lucrece about May 1594. The poems were printed by Richard Field, in whom Shakespeare would have found an old Stratford acquaintance; and each has a dedication to Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton, a brilliant and accomplished favourite of the court, still in his nonage. A possibly super-subtle criticism discerns an 1ncreased warmth in the tone of the later dedication, which is supposed to argue a marked growth of intimacy. The fact of this intimacy is vouched for by the story handed down from Sir William Davenant to Rowe (who published in 1709 the first regular biography of Shakespeare) that Southampton gave Shakespeare £1,000 “to enable him to go through with a purchase which he heard he had a mind to.” The date of this generosity is not specified, and there is no known purchase by Shakespeare which can have cost anything like the sum named. The mention of Southampton leads naturally to the most difficult problem which a biographer has to handle, that of the Sonnets. But this will be more conveniently taken up at a later point, and it is only necessary here to put on record the probability that the earliest of the sonnets belong to the period now under discussion. There is a surmise, which is not in itself other than plausible, and which has certainly been supported with a good deal of ingenious argument, that Shakespeare’s enforced leisure enabled him to make of 1593 a Wanderjahr, and in particular that the traces of a visit to northern Italy may be seen in the local colouring of Lucrece as compared with Venus and Adonis, and in that of the group of plays which may be dated in or about 1594 and 1595 as compared with those that preceded. It must, however, be borne in mind that, while Shakespeare may perfectly well, at this or at some earlier time, have voyaged to Italy, and possibly Denmark and even Germany as well, there is no direct evidence to rely upon, and that inference from internal evidence is a dangerous guide when a writer of so assimilative a temperament as that of Shakespeare is concerned. Connection with the Chamberlain’s Company of Actors. —From the reopening of the theatres in the summer of 1594 onwards Shakespeare’s status is in many ways clearer. He had certainly become a leading member of the Chamberlain’s company by the following winter, when his name appears for the first and only time in the treasurer of the chamber’s accounts as one of the recipients of payment for their performances at court; and there is every reason to suppose that he continued to act with and write for the same associates to the close of his career. The history of the company may be briefly told. At the death of the lord chamberlain on July 22, 1596, it passed under the protection of his successor, George, 2nd Lord Hunsdon, and once more became “the Lord Chamberlain’s men’’ when he was appointed to that office on March 17, 1597. James I. on his accession took this company under his patronage as grooms of the chamber, and during the remainder of Shakespeare’s connection with the stage they were “the King’s men.” The records of performances at court show that they were by far the most favoured of the companies, their nearest rivals being the company known during the reign of Elizabeth as “the Admiral’s,” and afterwards as “Prince Henry’s men.” From the summer of 1594 to March 1603 they appear to have played almost continuously in London, although they undertook a provincial tour during the autumn of 1597, when the London theatres were for a short time closed owing to the interference of some of the players in politics. They travelled again during 1603 when the plague was in London, and during at any rate portions of the summers or autumns of most years thereafter. In 1594 they were playing at Newington Butts, and probably afterwards at the Cross Keys in the city. It is natural to suppose that in later years they used the Theatre in Shoreditch, since this was the property of James Burbadge, the father of

their principal actor, Richard Burbadge. The Theatre was pulled down in 1598, and, after a short interval during which the company may have played at the Curtain, also in Shoreditch, Richard Burbadge and his brother Cuthbert rehoused them in the Globe on Bankside, built in part out of the materials of the Theatre. Here the profits of the enterprise were divided between

[THE DRAMATIST

the members of the company as such and the owners of the build-

ing as “housekeepers,” and shares in the “house” were held by Shakespeare and some of his leading “fellows.” About 1608 another playhouse became available for the company in the “pri-

vate” or winter house of the Blackfriars.

This was

also the

property of the Burbadges, but had previously been leased to a company of boy players. A somewhat similar arrangement as to

profits was made. Shakespeare is reported by Aubrey to have been a good actor, but Adam in As You Like It, and the Ghost in Hamlet indicate the type of part which he played. Asa dramatist, however, he was the mainstay of the company for at least some 15 years, during which Ben Jonson, Dekker, Beaumont and Fletcher, and Tourneur also contributed to their repertory. On an average he must have written for them about two plays a year, although his rapidity of production seems to have been greatest during the opening years of the period. He sometimes took his plots from earlier plays, but any theory which represents him as largely a “patcher” of the work of other men, or of his own, is open to grave doubt. Similarly, while the texts of his plays contain some theatrical

interpolations, there is no reason to suppose that they were substantially revised by other hands before the Restoration. Occa-

sionally he may have entered into collaboration, as, for example, at the end of his career, with Fletcher. Stratford Affairs—In a worldly sense he clearly flourished, and about 1596, if not earlier, he was able to resume relations as a moneyed man with Stratford-on-Avon. There is no evidence to show whether he had visited the town in the interval, or whether he had brought his wife and family to London. His son Hamnet

died and was buried at Stratford in 1596. During the last ten years John Shakespeare’s affairs had remained unprosperous. He incurred debts, partly through becoming surety for his brother Henry; and in 1592 his name was included ina list of recusants dwelling at or near Stratford-on-Avon, with a note by the commissioners that in his case the cause was believed to be the fear of process for debt. There is no reason to doubt this explanation, or to seek a religious motive in John Shakespeare’s abstinence from church. William Shakespeare’s purse must have made a considerable difference. The prosecutions for debt ceased, and in 1597 a fresh action was brought in Chancery for the recovery of the Wilmcote property from the Lamberts. Like the last, it seems to have been without result. Another step was taken to secure the dignity of the family by an application in the course of 1596 to the heralds for the confirmation of a coat of arms said to have been granted to John Shakespeare while he was bailiff of Stratford. The bearings were or on a bend sable a spear or steered argent, the crest a falcon his wings displayed argent supporting a spear or steeled argent, and the motto Non sanz droict. The grant was duly made, and in 1599 there was a further application for leave to impale the arms of Arden, in right of Shakespeare’s mother. No use, however, of the Arden arms by the Shakespeares can be traced. In 1597 Shakespeare made an important purchase for £60 of the house and gardens of New Place in Chapel street. This was one of the largest houses in Stratford, and its acquisition an obvious triumph for the ex-poacher. Presumably John Shakespeare ended his days in peace. A visitor to his shop remembered him as “a merry-cheekt old man” always ready to crack a jest with his son. He died in 1601, and his wife in 1608, and the Henley street houses passed to Shakespeare. Aubrey records that he paid annual visits to Stratford, and there

is evidence that he kept in touch with the life of the place. The correspondence of his neighbours, the Quineys, in 1598 contains an application to him for a loan to Richard Quiney upon a visit to London, and a discussion of possible investments for him in the neighbourhood of Stratford. In 1602 he took, at a rent of 2s. 6d. a year, a copyhold cottage in Chapel lane, perhaps for the use of his gardener. In the same year he invested £320 in the purchase of an estate consisting of 107 acres in the open

fields of Old Stratford, together with 20 acres of pasture and common rights; and in 1605 he spent another £440 in the out-

standing term of a lease of certain tithes in Stratford parish, which brought in an income of about £60 2 year.

SHAKESPEARE

THE DRAMATIST]

London

headquarters.

Associations—Meanwhile

London

remained

his

Here Malone thought that he had evidence, now

lost, of his residence in Southwark as early as 1596, and as late

as 1608. It is known that payments of subsidy were due from him in 1597 and 1599 in the parish of St. Helen’s, Bishopsgate, and that an arrear was ultimately collected in the liberty of the Clink. He had no doubt migrated from Bishopsgate when the

Globe upon Bankside was opened by the Chamberlain’s men. There is evidence that about 1604 he “lay,” temporarily or permanently, in the house of Christopher Mountjoy, a tire-maker of French extraction, at the corner of Silver street and Monkwell street in Cripplegate. A note by Aubrey, if it really refers to Shakespeare (which is almost certain), is of value as throwing light not only upon his abode, but upon his personality. Aubrey seems to have derived it from William Beeston the actor. It is as follows: “The more to be admired q[uod] he was not a company keeper, lived in Shoreditch, wouldn’t be debauched, & if invited to court; he was in paine.” Against this testimony to the correctness of Shakespeare’s morals are to be placed an anecdote of a tiringhouse amour picked up by a Middle Temple student in 1602 and a Restoration scandal which made him the father by the hostess of the Crown tavern at Oxford, where he baited on his visits to Stratford, of Sir William Davenant, who was born in Feb. 1606. His credit at court is implied by Ben Jonson’s references to his flights “that so did take Eliza and our James,” and by stories of the origin of The Merry Wives of Windsor in Elizabeth’s desire to see Falstaff in love, and of an autograph letter written to honour him by King James. It was noticed with some surprise by Henry Chettle that his “honied muse” dropped no “sable tear” to celebrate the death of the queen. Southampton’s patronage may have introduced him to the brilliant circle that gathered round the earl of Essex, but there is no reason to suppose that he or his company were heid personally responsible for the performance of Richard II. at the command of some of the followers of Essex as a prelude to the disastrous rising of Feb. 1601. The editors of the First Folio speak also of favours received by the author in his

lifetime from William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, and his brother

Philip Herbert, earl of Montgomery. He appears to have been on cordial terms with his fellows of the stage. One of them, Augustine Phillips, left him a small legacy in 1605, and in his own will he paid a similar compliment to Richard Burbadge, and to John Heminge and Henry Condell, who afterwards edited his plays. His relations with Ben Jonson, whom he is said by Rowe to have introduced to the world as a playwright, have been much canvassed. Jests are preserved which, even if apocryphal, indicate considerable intimacy between the two. This is not inconsistent with occasional passages of arms. The anonymous author of The Return from Parnassus (and part: 1602), for example, makes Kempe, the actor, allude to a “purge” which Shakespeare gave Jonson, in return for his attack on some of his rivals in The Poetaster.) It has been conjectured that this

purge was the description of Ajax and his humours in Troilus and Cressida. Jonson, on the other hand, who was criticism incarnate, did not spare Shakespeare either in his prologues or in his private conversation. He told Drummond of Hawthornden that “Shaksperr wanted arte.” But the verses which he contributed to the First Folio are generous enough to make all amends, and in his Discoveries (1623-37), while regretting Shakespeare’s excessive facility and the fact that he often “fell into those things, could not escape laughter,” he declares him to have been “honest and of an open, and free nature,” and says that, for his own part, “I lov’d the man and do honour his memory (on this side idolatry) as much as any.” According to 2 memorandum-book (1661-63) of the Rev. John Ward (who became vicar of Stratford in 1662), Jonson and Michael Drayton, himself a Warwickshire poet, had been drinking with Shakespeare when he caught the fever of 1Kempe (speaking to Burbadge), “Few of the university men pen plays well. They smell too much of that writer Ovid and that writer (sic) Metamorphosis, and talk too much of Proserpina and Jupiter. Why here’s our fellow Shakespeare puts them all down; aye, and Ben Jonson too. O that Ben Jonson is a pestilent fellow. He brought up Horace giving the Poets a pill, but our fellow Shakespeare hath given him a purge that made him beray his credit.”

437

which he died; and Thomas Fuller (1608-61), whose Worthies was published in 1662, gives an imaginative description of the wit combats, of which many took place between the two mighty contemporaries, Contemporary Reputation.—Of Shakespeare’s literary reputation during his lifetime there is ample evidence. He is probably neither the “Willy” of Spenser’s Tears of the Muses, nor the “Aetion” of his Colin Clout’s Come Home Again. But from the time of the publication of Venus and Adonis and Lucrece honorific allusions to his work both as poet and dramatist, and often to himself by name, come thick and fast from writers of every kind and degree. Perhaps the most interesting of these from the biographical point of view are those contained in the Palladis Tamia, a kind of literary handbook published by Francis Meres in 1598; for Meres not only extols him as “the most excellent in both kinds (7.e., comedy and tragedy) for the state,” and one of “the most passionate among us to bewaile and bemoane the perplexities of Love,” but also takes the trouble to give a list of 12 plays already written, which serves as a starting-point for all modern attempts at a chronological arrangement of his work, It is moreover from Meres that we first hear of “‘his sugred sonnets among his private friends.” Two of these sonnets were printed in 1599 in a volume of miscellaneous verse called The Passionate Pilgrim. This was ascribed upon the title-page to Shakespeare, but probably, so far as most of its contents were concerned, without justification. The bulk of Shakespeare’s sonnets remained unpublished until 1609. About 1610 Shakespeare seems to have left London, and entered upon the definite occupation of his house at New Place, Stratford. Here he lived the life of a retired gentleman, on friendly if satirical terms with the richest of his neighbours, the Combes, and interested in local affairs, such as a bill for the improvement of the highways in 1611, or a proposed enclosure of the open fields at Welcombe in 1614, which might affect his income or his comfort. He had his garden with its mulberry tree, and his farm in the immediate neighbourhood, His brothers Gilbert and Richard were still alive. His sister Joan had married William Hart, a hatter, and in 1616 was dwelling in one of his houses in Henley street. Of his daughters, the eldest, Susanna, had married in 1607 John Hall (d. 1635), a physician of some reputation. They dwelt in Stratford, and bad one child, Elizabeth, born in 1608. The younger, Judith, married Thomas Quiney, a vintner, also of Stratford, two months before her father’s death, At Stratford the last few of the plays may have been written, but it is reasonable to suppose that Shakespeare’s connection with the king’s company ended when the Globe was burnt down during a performance of Henry VIII. on June 29, 1613. Certainly his retirement did not imply an absolute break with London life. In 1613 he devised an impresa, or emblem, to be painted by Richard Burbadge, and worn in the tilt on Accession day by the earl of Rutland, who had been one of the old circle of Southampton and Essex. In the same year he purchased for £140 a freehold house in the Blackfriars, near the Wardrobe, once a gate-house to the lodging of the prior of Blackfriars. This was conveyed to trustees, apparently in order to bar the right which his widow would otherwise have had to dower. In 1615 this purchase involved Shakespeare in a lawsuit to obtain the surrender of the

title-deeds. Richard Davis, a Gloucestershire clergyman of the end of the 17th century, reports that the poet “died a papist,”

and the statement deserves more attention than it has received

from biographers, “There is indeed little to corroborate it; for an alleged “spiritual testament” of John Shakespeare is of doubtful origin, and Davis’s own words suggest a late conversion rather than an hereditary faith. On the other hand, there is little to refute it beyond an entry in the accounts of Stratford corpora-' tion for drink given in 1614 to “a preacher at the Newe Place.” Will.—Shakespeare made his will on March 25, 1616, apparently in some haste, as the executed deed is a draft with many erasures and interlineations, There were legacies to his daughter Judith Quiney and his sister Joan Hart, and remembrances to friends both in Warwickshire and in London; but the real estate was left to his daughter Susanna Hall under a strict entail which

4.38

SHAKESPEARE

points to a desire on the part of the testator to found a family. Shakespeare’s wife, who had of course dower in most of the real estate, is only mentioned in an interlineation, by which the “‘sec-

ond best bed with the furniture” was bequeathed to her. Much nonsense has been written about this, but it seems quite natural. The best bed was an important chattel, which would go with the house. The estate was after all not a large one.. Aubrey’s estimate of its annual value as £200 or £300 a year sounds reasonable enough, and John Ward’s statement that Shakespeare spent £1,000 a year must surely be an exaggeration. The sum-total of his known investments amounts to £960. Sir Sidney Lee calculates that his theatrical income must have reached £600 a year, but this is a considerable overestimate; it can hardly have been more than about £200. It must be remembered that the purchasing value of money in the 17th century was many times greater than at present. Shakespeare’s interest in the “houses”? of the Globe and Blackfriars probably determined on or before his death. A month after his will was signed, on April 23, 1616, Shakespeare died, and as a tithe-owner was buried in the chancel of the parish church. Some doggerel upon the stone that covers the grave has been assigned by local tradition to his own pen. A more elaborate monument, with a bust by the sculptor Gerard Jobnson, was in due course set up on the chancel wall. Anne Shakespeare followed her husband on Aug. 6, 1623. The family was never founded. Shakespeare’s granddaughter, Elizabeth Hall, made two childless marriages, the first with Thomas Nash of Stratford, the second with John, afterwards Sir John, Barnard of Abington Manor, Northants. His daughter Judith Quiney had three sons, all of whom had died unmarried by 1639. There were, therefore, no direct descendants of Shakespeare in existence after Lady Barnard’s death in 1670. Those of his sister, Joan Hart, could, however, still be traced in 1864. On Lady Barnard’s death the Henley street houses passed to the Harts, in whose family they remained until 1806. They were then sold, and in 1847 were bought for the public. They are now held with Anne Hathaway’s Cottage at Shottery as the Birthplace Trust. Lady Barnard had disposed of the Blackfriars house. The rest of the property was sold under the terms of her will, and New Place passed, first to the Cloptons, who rebuilt it; then to the Rev. Francis Gastrell, who pulled it down in 1759. The site now forms a public recreation-ground, and hard by is a memorial building with a theatre (recently burnt, but to be replaced) in which performances of Shakespeare’s plays are given annually in April. Both the Memorial and the Birthplace contain museums, in which books, documents and portraits of Shakespearian interest, together with relics of greater or less authenticity, are stored. No letter or other writing in Shakespeare’s hand can be proved to exist, with the exception of three signatures upon his will, one upon a deposition (May 11, 1612) in a lawsuit with which he was remotely concerned, and two upon deeds (March ro and Ir, 1613) in connection with the purchase of his Blackfriars house. A copy of Florio’s translation of Montaigne (1603) in the British Museum, a copy of the Aldine edition of Ovid’s Metamorphoses (1502) in the Bodleian, and a copy of the 1612 edition of Sir Thomas North’s translation of Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romaines in the Greenock Library, have all been put forward with more or less plausibility as bedring his autograph name or initials, and, in the third case, a marginal note by him. Aubrey records that he was “a handsome, well-shap’t man,” and the lameness attributed to him by some writers has its origin only in a too literal interpretation of certain references to spiritual disabilities in the Sonnets. The Plays.—A collection of Mr. William Shakespeare’s Comedies, Histories and Tragedies was printed at the press of William and Isaac Jaggard, and issued by a group of booksellers in 1623. This volume is known as the First Folio. It has dedications to the earls of Pembroke and Montgomery, and to “the great Variety of Readers,” both of which are signed by two of Shakespeare’s “fellows” at the Globe, John Heminge and Henry Condell, and commendatory verses by Ben Jonson, Hugh Holland, Leonard Digges and an unidentified ILM. The Droeshout engraving forms part

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of the title-page. The contents include, with the exception of Pericles, all of the 37 plays now ordinarily printed in editions of Shakespeare’s works. Of these 18 were here published for the first time. The other 18 had already appeared in one or more separate editions, known as the Quartos. The following list gives the date of the First Quarto of each such play, and also that of any later Quarto which differs materially from the First. The Quarto Editions A Midsummer Nighi’s Dream (1600). 2 Henry VI. (1594). The Merchant of Venice (1600). 3 Bay VI. (1595). Much Ado About Nothing (1600). 7 Richard II. (1597, 1608). The Merry Wives of Windsor Richard III. (1597). Romeo and Juliet (1597, 1599). (1602). Hamlet (1603, 1604). Love’s Labours Lost (1598).

Titus Andronicus (1594).

rı Henry IV. (1598).

2 Henry IV. (1600). Henry V. (1600).

King Lear (1608).

Troilus and Cressida (1609). Othello (1622).

Entries in the Register of copyrights kept by the Company of Stationers indicate that editions of As You Like It and Antony and Cleopatra were contemplated but not published in 1600 and 1608 respectively. The Quartos differ very much in character. Some of them contain texts which are practically identical with those of the First Folio; others show variations so material as to suggest that some alteration, generally by way of shortening for stage purposes, took place. A group of First Quartos, including Romeo and Juliet, Henry V., The Merry Wives of Windsor and Hamlet, are generally known as the “Bad” Quartos, and to these should possibly be added King Lear, and almost certainly 2, 3 Henry VI., entitled in this form The Contention betwixt the two Famous Houses of York and Lancaster. These are mostly shortened versions. They are also textually corrupt, and have probably a “surreptitious”

origin in “reports” of playhouse performances, printed without the consent of the theatrical companies who owned the plays. Some scholars have supposed that the reporting was done by shorthand, but in most cases a memorized reconstruction by an actor or prompter seems more likely. There are those who also believe that they represent “early versions” of the plays. A similar desire to exploit the commercial value of Shakespeare’s reputation probably led to the appearance of his name or initials upon the title-pages of Locrine (1595), Sir John Oldcastle (1600), Thomas Lord Cromwell (1602), The London Prodigal (1605), The Puritan (1607), A Yorkshire Tragedy (1608) and Pericles (1609). It is not likely that, with the exception of the last three acts of Pericles, he wrote any part of these plays, some of which were not even produced by his company. They were not included in the First Folio of 1623, or in a reprint of it in 1632, known as the Second Folio; but all seven were appended to the second issue (1664) of the Third Folio (1663) and to the Fourth Folio of 1685. Shakespeare is named as joint author with John Fletcher on the title-page of The Two Noble Kinsmen (1634), and with William Rowley on that of The Birth of Merlin (1662); there is no reason for rejecting the former ascription or for accepting the latter. Late entries in the Stationers’ Register assign to him Cardenio (with Fletcher), Henry I. and Henry IJ. (both with Robert Davenport), King Stephen, Duke Humphrey and Iphis and Ianthe; but none of these plays is now extant. Modern conjecture has attempted to trace his hand in other plays, of which Arden of Feversham (1592), Edward III. (1596), Mucedorus (1598) and The Merry Devil of Edmonton (1608) are the most important; it is quite possible that he may have had a share in Edward III. A play on Sir Thomas More, which has been handed down in manuscript, contains a number of passages interpolated in various handwritings; and a theory that one of those is in that of Shakespeare, and gives indications of his orthography and methods of composition, has been the subject of much recent discussion. There is much to be said for it, but it can hardly be regarded as securely established.

Chronology.—Unfortunately the First Folio does not give the

dates at which the plays contained in it were written or produced; and the endeavour to supply this deficiency has been one

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SHAKESPEARE

of the main preoccupations of more than a century of Shakespearian scholarship, since the pioneer essay of Edmund Malone in his An Attempt to Ascertain the Order in which the Plays of

Shakespeare were Written (1778). The investigation is not a mere piece of barren antiquarianism, for on it depends the possibility of appreciating the work of the world’s greatest poet, not as if it were an articulated whole like a philosophical system, but in its true aspect as the reflex of a vital and constantly develop-

ing personality. A starting-point is afforded by the dates of the Quartos and the entries in the Stationers’ Register which refer to them, and by the list of plays already in existence in 1598 which is inserted by Francis Meres in his Palladis Tamia of that year, and which, while not necessarily exhaustive of Shakespeare’s pre-1598 writing, includes The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Comedy of Errors, Love’s Labouy’s Lost, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, The Merchant of Venice, Richard II., Richard II., Henry IV., King John, Titus Andronicus and Romeo and Juliet, as well as a mysterious Love’s Labour’s Won, which has been conjecturally iden-

tified with several plays, but most plausibly with The Taming of the Shrew. There is a mass of supplementary evidence, drawn partly from definite notices in other writings or in diaries, letters, account-books and similar records, partly from allusions to contemporary persons and events in the plays themselves, partly from parallels of thought and expression between each play and those

near to it in point of time, and partly from considerations of style, including the so-called metrical tests, which depend upon an analysis of Shakespeare’s varying feeling for rhythm at different stages of his career. The total result is certainly not a demonstration, but in the logical sense an hypothesis which serves to colligate the facts and is consistent with itself and with the known events of Shakespeare’s external life. The following table is an attempt to arrange the original dates of production of the plays according to the theatrical seasons, from autumn to autumn, in which they may have fallen. It is framed on the assumption that, as indeed John Ward tells us was the case, Shakespeare ordinarily wrote two plays a year; but some slackening of production in the later years seems probable. It will be understood that neither the order in which the plays are given nor the distribution of them over the years lays claim to more than approximate accuracy. CHRONOLOGY

1590-91

(1, 2) 2, 3, Henry VI. I59I-92

OF THE

PLAYS

1600-01

(22) Twelfth Night. (23)

Hamlet.

(3) 1 Henry VI. 1592-93

1601-02 (24) Troilus and Cressida.

(4) Richard ITI. (5) Comedy of Errors.

1602-03 (25) All’s Well that Ends Well.

1593—94 (6) Titus

Andronicus.

(7) Taming of the Shrew.

1604-05 (26) Measure for Measure.

(27) Otkello.

1594-95

1605-06

(8) Two Gentlemen of Verona. | (28) Macbeth.

(9) Love’s Labours Lost.

(29) Lear.

(10) Romeo and Juliet. 1606-07 1595-96 (30) Antony and Cleopatra. (11) Richard II. 1607-08 (12) Midsummer Night’s Dream. | (31) Coriolanus, (32) Timon of Athens.

1596-97

(13) John. (14) Merchant of Venice.

1597-98 (15, 16) 1, 2 Henry IV. 1598-09

(33) Pericles.

1608-09

1609-10 (34) Cymbeline. 1610-11

(17) Much Ado About Nothing. | (35) Winter's Tale. (18) Henry V. 1499-1600

1611-12 (36) Tempest.

(19) Julius Caesar. (20) Merry Wives of Windsor. (21) As You Like it.

1612-13 (37) Henry VIII. (38) Two Noble Kinsmen.

4.39

Composition.—A more detailed account of the individual plays may now be attempted. The figures here prefixed correspond to those in the table above. 1, 2. The relation of The Contention of York and Lancaster to 2, 3 Henry VI. and the extent of Shakespeare’s responsibility for either or both works have long been subjects of controversy. The extremes of critical opinion are to be found in a theory which regards Shakespeare as the sole author of 2, 3 Henry VJ. and The Contention as a shortened and surreptitious version of the original plays, and in a theory which regards The Contention as written in collaboration by Marlowe, Greene and possibly Peele, and 2, 3 Henry VI. as a revision of The Contention written, also in collaboration, by Marlowe and Shakespeare. A comparison of the two texts leaves it hardly possible to doubt that the differences between them are to be explained by reporting rather than by revision; but the question of authorship is more difficult. Greene’s parody, in the “Shakescene” passage of his Groats-worth of Wit (1592), of a line which occurs both in The Contention and in 3 Henry VI., while it clearly suggests Shakespeare’s connection with the plays, is evidence neither for nor against the participation of other men, and no sufficient criterion exists for distinguishing between Shakespeare’s earliest writing and that of possible collaborators on grounds of style. But the blank verse style of 2, 3 Henry VI. may quite well be an earlier stage of that found more fully developed in Rickard III., and it is difficult to assign to any one except Shakespeare the humour of the Jack Cade scenes. Views which exclude Shakespeare altogether may be left out of account. Henry VI. is not in Meres’s list of his plays, but its inclusion in the First Folio is an almost certain ground for assigning to him some share in the work. 3. A rather different problem is afforded by 1 Henry VJ., and here it is difficult, in view of the variety of style in the play, and the poor level of much of it, to hold by Shakespeare’s sole responsibility. The Temple Gardens Scene (ii. 4), which is that most obviously his, was probably a later addition. Thomas Nashe refers to the representation of Talbot on the stage in his Pierce Penilesse, his Supplication to the Divell (1592), and it is probable that 1 Henry VI. is to be identified with the “Harey the vj.” recorded in Henslowe’s Diary to have been acted as a new play by Lord Strange’s men, probably at the Rose, on March 3, 1592. If so, it is a reasonable conjecture that 2, 3 Henry VI. were originally written at some date before the beginning of Henslowe’s record in the previous February, and that 1 Henry VI. was added later as an introduction to them. 4. The Henry VI. series can only be intended to lead directly up to Richard III., and this relationship, together with its style as compared with that of the plays of 1594—96, suggests the short winter season of 1592—93 as the most likely time for the production of Richard JIT, There is a difficulty in that it is not included in Henslowe’s list of the plays acted by Lord Strange’s men during that season. But it may quite well have been produced by the only other company which appeared at court during the Christmas festivities, Lord Pembroke’s. The mere fact that Shakespeare wrote a play, or more than one play, for Lord Strange’s men during 1592-94 does not prove that he never wrote for any other company during the same period; and indeed there is plenty of room for guesswork as to the relations between Strange’s and Pembroke’s men. The latter are not known to have existed before the latter part of 1592, and many difficulties would be solved by the assumption that they originated out of a division of Strange’s, who had amalgamated with the Admiral’s, and may have found their numbers too much inflated to enable them to undertake as a whole the autumn tour of that year. If so, Pembroke’s probably took over the Henry VJ. series of plays, since part of The’ Contention, under the name of the True Tragedy of Richard

Duke of York, was published as performed by them, and completed it with Richard III. at Christmas. It will be necessary to return to this theory in connection with the discussion of Titus Andronicus and The Taming of the Shrew. The principal hbistorical source for Henry VI. was Edward Hall’s The Union of the Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York (1542), and for Richard II1.,as for most of Shakespeare’s later historical plays,

SHAKESPEARE

440

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the second edition (1587) of Raphael Holinshed’s Chronicles of| this theory has no substantial foundation. The origins of the play, England, Scotland

and Ireland

(1577).

An earlier play, The | which is to be classed as a farce rather than a comedy, are to be

True Tragedy of Richard the Third (1594), seems to have contributed little if anything to Richard IIT. , 5. To the winter season of 1592—93 may alsa be assigned with

fair probability Shakespeare’s first experimental comedy, The

Comedy of Errors, and if his writing at one and the same time for Pembroke’s and for another company is not regarded as beyond the bounds of conjecture, it becomes tempting to identify this with “the gelyous comodey” produced, probably by Strange’s men, for Henslowe as a new play on Jan. 5, 1593. The play contains a reference to the wars of succession in France which would fit any date from 1589 to 1594. The plot is taken from the Menaechmi and to a smaller extent from the Amphitruo of Plautus. Wilkam Wamer’s translation of the Menaechmi was entered in the Stationers’ Register on June 10, 1594. A performance of The Comedy of Errors by “a company of base and

common fellows” (including Shakespeare?) is recorded in the Gesta Grayorum as taking place in Gray’s Inn hall on Dec. 28, 1594. 6. Titus Andronicus is another play in which many scholars have refused to see the hand of Shakespeare, but the double testimony of its inclusion in Meres’s list and in the First Folio makes it unreasonable to deny him some part im it. This may, however, only have been the part of a reviser, working upon the dialogue rather than the structure of a crude tragedy of the school of Kyd.

found ultimately in widely distributed folk-tales, and more immediately in Ariosto’s Z7 Suppositi (1509) as translated in George Gascoigne’s The Supposes (1566). It may have been Shakespeare’s first task for the newly established Chamberlain’s company of 1594 to furbish up the old farce. Thenceforward there is no reason to think that he ever wrote for any other company. 8. No very definite evidence exists for the date of The Two Gentlemen of Verona, other than the mention of it in Palladis Tamia. It is evidently a more rudimentary essay in the genre of romantic comedy than Tke Merchant of Venice, with which it has other affinities in its Italian colouring and its use of the interrelations of love and friendship as a theme; and it may be roughly assigned to the winter of 1594-95. The plat is drawn from various examples of contemporary fiction, especially from the story of the shepherdess Filismena in Jorge de Montemayor’s Diana

(1559). A play of Felix and Philiomena had already been given

at court In 1585.

9. Love’s Labour’s Lost has often been regarded as the first of Shakespeare’s plays, and has sometimes been placed as early as 1589. There is, however, no proof that Shakespeare was writing so soon. The characters of Love’s Labour’s Lost are evidently suggested by Henry of Navarre, his followers Biron, Longueville and D’Aumont, who has probably been confused with the Catholic League leader, the duc de Maine. These personages would have In fact a stage tradition is reported by Edward Ravenscroft, a been familiar at any time from 1591 onwards, but Navarrese hislate 17th century adapter of the play, to the effect that Shake- tory of 1578 has also been drawn upon, and the channel of transspeare did no more than give a few “niaster-touches” to the work mission to Shakespeare is unknown. The absence of the play from of a “private author.” The play was entered in the Stationers’ the Hsts in Henslowe’s Diary does not leave it impossible that it Register on Feb. 6, 1594, and was published m the same year with should have preceded the formation of the Chamberlain’s coma title-page setting out that it had been acted by the companies pany, but certainly renders this less likely; and its lyric character of Lords Derby (i.¢., Strange, who had succeeded to his father’s perhaps justifies its being grouped with the other lyric plays of title on Sept. 25, 1593), Pembroke and Sussex. It is natural to 1594-96. No entry of the play is found in the Stationers’ Registake this st as indicating the order in which the three companies ter, and it is quite possible that the present First Quarto of 1598 named had to do with it, but it is probable that only Sussex’s had was not really the first edition. ‘The title-page professes to give the played the extant version. Henslowe records the production by play as “corrected and augmented” and as given at the Christthis company of Titus Andronicus as a new play on Jan. 23, mas of 1597. It was again revived for that of 1604. No literary 1594, only a few days before the theatres were closed by plague. source ts known for its incidents. For the purposes of Henslowe’s financial arrangements with the 10. Romeo and Juliet, which was published in 1597 as played company a rewritten play may have been classed as new. Fwo by Lord Hunsdon’s men, was probably produced somewhat before years eather he had appended the same description to a play of A Midsummer Night’s Dream, as its incidents seem to have sugTittus and Vespacia, produced by Strange’s men on April 11, gested the parody of the Pyramus and Thisbe interlude. An at1592. At first sight the title suggests a piece founded on the lives tempt to date it in 159r is hardly justified by the Nurse’s referof the emperors Titus and Vespasian, but there are some grounds, ence to an earthquake ¥z years before and the fact that there was although far from conclusive, for supposing the play to bave been a real earthquake in London in 1580. The text of the First an early version of Titus Andrenicus. It is difficult to explain the Quarto is surreptitious, and was “corrected, augmented and company names on the title-page unless there had been some ver- amended” in the Second Quarto of 1599. There had been an sion earlier than that of 1594. Pembroke’s men are known from earlier play on the subject, but the immediate source used by a letter of Henslowe’s to have been ruined by Aug. £593, and it is Shakespeare was Arthur Brooke’s narrative poem Romeus and to be suspected that Sussex’s, who appeared in London for the first Juliet (1562). time at the Christmas of 1593, acquired their stock of plays and 11. Richard II. can be dated with some accuracy by a comtransferred these to the Chamberlain’s men, when the companies parison of the two editions of Samuel Daniel’s narrative poem on were again reconstituted in the summer of 1594. Whatever work The Civil Wars Between the Two Houses of Lancaster and York, Shakespeare did on Titus Andronicus may have been accomplished both of which bear the date of 1595 and were therefore issued bein the interval between these two transactions. The Chamber- tween March 25, 1595, and March 24, r596, of the modern recklain’s men were apparently playing Andronicus in June. The oning. It is possible that a performance was given before Sir stock af Pembroke’s men probably included, as well as Titus and Robert Cecil in Dec. 1595. The second of these editions, but Vespasian, both Henry VI. and Richard IFI., which also thus not the first, contains some close parallels to the play. From passed to the Chamberlain’s company. The source of the plot is the first two quartos of Rickard II., published in x 597 and 1598, unknown; there are only slight hints for it in Byzantine the deposition scene was omitted, although it was clearly part chronicles. of the original structure of the play, and its removal leaves an 7. An old play of The Taming of a Shrew, which can be traced obvious mutilation in the text. There is some reason to suppose back as far as 1589, was published as acted by Pembroke’s men in that this was due to a popular tendency to draw seditious par1594. In June of that year it was being acted by the Chamber- allels between Richard and Elizabeth; and it became one of the lam’s, but more probably in the version by Shakespeare, which charges against the earl of Essex and his fellow-conspirators in bears the slightly altered title of The Taming of the Shrew. This the abortive émeute of Feb. 1601, that they had procured a peris a much more free adaptation of its original than had been at- formance of a play on Richard’s fate in order to stimulate their tempted in the case of Henry VT., and the Warwickshire allusions followers. As the actors were the Lord Chamberlain’s men, this in the Induction are noteworthy. Some critics have doubted, prob- play can hardly have been any other than Shakespeare’s. The depably with justice, whether Shakespeare was the sole author of osition scene was not printed until after Elizabeth’s death, in The Shrew, and others have assigned him a share in A Shrew, but the Third Quarto of 1608.

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12. A Midsummer Night’s Dream, with its masque-like scenes of fairydom and the epithalamium at its close, has all the air of having been written less for the public stage than for some courtly wedding; and the compliment paid by Oberon to the “fair vestal throned by the west” makes it possible that it was a wedding at which Elizabeth was present. Many more or less plausible occasions have been suggested. The wedding of Mary countess of Southampton with Sir Thomas Heneage on May 2,

sumably Fastolf had no titled descendants alive in 1598. 17. A note in the Stationers’ Register during Aug. 1600 shows that Much Ado About Nothing was in existence, although its publication was then directed to be “stayed.” It may plausibly be regarded as the earliest play not included in Meres’s list. In 1613 it was revived before James I. under the alternative title of Benedick and Beatrice. Dogberry is said by Aubrey to have been taken from a constable at Grendon in Buckinghamshire. There is no very definite literary source for the play, although some of 1594, would fit the May-day setting of the plot; but a widowed countess hardly answers to the “little western flower’ of the its incidents are to be found in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso and allegory, and there are allusions to later events and in particular Bandello’s novelle, and attempts have been made to establish to the rainy weather of 1594~95. The wedding of William Stanley, relationships between it and two early German plays, Jacob earl of Derby, brother of the lord Strange for whose players Ayrer’s Die Schöne Phaenicia and the Vincentius Ladiszlaus of Shakespeare had written, and Elizabeth Vere, daughter of the Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick. 18. The completion of the Lancastrian series of histories by earl of Oxford, which took place at Greenwich on Jan. 26, 1595, would meet the conditions. But that of Thomas Berkeley and Henry V. can be safely placed in or about 1599, since there is an Elizabeth Carey, granddaughter of the company’s patron Lord allusion in one of the choruses to the military operations in IreHunsdon, on Feb. 19, 1596, is at least as likely. It has been land of the earl of Essex, who crossed on March 27 and returned fancied that Shakespeare was present when “certain stars shot on Sept. 28, 1599. The First Quarto, which, in spite of the fact madly from their spheres” in the Kenilworth fireworks of 1575, that the play was “stayed” with Much Ado About Nothing, was but if he had any particular recorded entertainment in mind it published in 1600, is a surreptitious text, and does not include is more likely to have been the more recent one given to Elizabeth the choruses. A genuine version was first published in the First : by the earl of Hertford at Elvetham in 1591. There appears to be Folio. 19. That Julius Caesar also belongs to 1599 is shown, not only no special source for the’play beyond Chaucer’s Knighi’s Tale by its links with Henry V. but also by an allusion to it in John and the widespread fairy lore of western Europe. 13. King John has no very clear indications of date, but 1596 Weever’s Mirror of Martyrs, a work written two years before seems likely, on account of its style, in spite of the a priori im- its publication in 1601, and by a notice of a performance on probability of a play on an independent subject drawn from Eng- Sept. 21, 1599, by Thomas Platter of Basle in an account of a lish history being interpolated in the middle of the Lancastrian visit to London. This was the first of Shakespeare’s Roman plays, series. It would seem that Shakespeare had before him an old and, like those that followed, was based upon Plutarch’s Lives as play of the queen’s men, called The Troublesome Reign of King translated from the French of Jacques Amyot and published by John. This was published in 1591, and again, with “W. Sh.” on Sir Thomas North in 1580. 20. It is reported by John Dennis, in the préface to The Comithe title-page, in 1611. For copyright purposes King John appears to have been regarded as a revision of The Troublesome Reign, cal Gallant (1702), that The Merry Wives of Windsor was writand in fact the succession of incidents in the two plays is much ten at the express desire of Elizabeth, who wished to see Falstaff the same. Shakespeare’s dialogue, however, owes little or nothing in love, and was finished by Shakespeare in the space of a fortnight. A date at the end of 1599 or the beginning of 1600, to that of his predecessor. 14. The Merchant of Venice, certainly earlier than July 22, shortly after the completion of the historical Falstaff plays, would 1598, on which date it was entered in the Stationers’ Register, and be the most natural one for this enterprise, and with such a date possibly inspired by the machinations of the Jew poisoner the evidence of style agrees. The play was entered in the StaRoderigo Lopez, who was executed in June 1594, shows a con- tioners’ Register on Jan. 18, 1602. The First Quarto of the same siderable advance in comic and melodramatic power over any year gives a surreptitious text, which was replaced by that of the of the earlier plays, and is assigned by a majority of scholars to First Folio. The Windsor setting makes it possible that The about 1596. The various stories of which its plot is compounded Merry Wives was produced within the castle, and perhaps with are based upon common themes of folk-tales and Italian novelle. the assistance of the children of Windsor chapel in the fairy It is possible that Shakespeare may have had before him a play parts. The plot has its analogies to various incidents in Italian l called The Jew, of which there are traces as early as 1579, and novelle and in English adaptations of these. 21. As You Like It was one of the plays “stayed” fróm publiin which motives illustrating “the greedinesse of worldly chusers”’ and the “bloody mindes of usurers” appear to have been already cation in 1600, and cannot therefore be later than that year. Some combined. Something may also be owing to Marlowe’s play of trifling bits of evidence suggest that it is not earlier than 1599. The plot is based upon Thomas Lodge’s romance of Rosalynde The Jew of Malia, 15, 16. The first part of Henry IV. was published in 1598, (1590), and this in part upon the pseudo-Chaucerian Tale of the second not until 1600, but both parts must have been in ex- Gamel-yn. 22. Twelfth Night may be placed about 1600-o1, since it istence before the entry of the first part in the Stationers’ Register on Feb. 25, 1598, since Falstaff is named in this entry, and a slip quotes part of a song included in Robert Jones’s First Book of in a speech-prefix of the second part, which was not entered in the Songs and Airs (1600), and is recorded by John Manningham to Register until Aug. 23, 1600, betrays that it was written when the have been seen by him at a feast in the Middle Temple hall on character still bore the name of Sir John Oldcastle. Richard Feb. 2, 1602. The principal source of the plot was Barnabe James, in his dedication to The Legend of Sir John Oldcastle Riche’s “History of Apolonius and Silla” in his Farewell to Miliabout 1625, and Rowe in 1709 both bear witness to the substitu- tary Profession (1581). 23. A play of Hamlet was performed, probably by the Chamtion of the one personage for the other, which Rowe ascribes to the intervention of Elizabeth, and James to that of some de- berlain’s men, for Henslowe at Newington Butts on June 9, 1594. scendants of Oldcastle, one of whom. was probably Lord Cobham. There are other references to it as a revenge-play, and it seems

There is an allusion to the incident and an acknowledgment of the to have been in existence in some shape as early as 1589. It was wrong done to the famous Lollard martyr in the epilogue to 2 doubtless on the basis of this that Shakespeare constructed his Henry IV. itself, Probably Shakespeare found Oldcastle, with tragedy. There is an allusion in Hamlet to the rivalry between very little else that was of service to him, in an old play called the ordinary stages and the private plays given by boy actors, The Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth, which had been acted which points to a date not earlier than the revival of the plays by Tarlton and the queen’s men at least as far back as 1588, and at Paul’s, which was probably in 1599, and another, to an inhibiof which an edition was printed in 1598. Falstaff himself is a tion of plays on account of a “late innovation,” may also somewhat libellous presentment of the 15th century leader, Sir be explained by the revival rather than by the Essex rising of John Fastolf, who had already figured in Henry VJ.; but pre- 1601, since the play is mentioned in a manuscript note by Gabriel

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Harvey, probably written before the death of Essex. The play was entered in the Stationers’ Register on July 26, 1602. The First Quarto was printed in 1603 and the Second Quarto in 1604. These editions contain texts whose differences from each other and from that of the First Folio constitute one of the most diffcult of Shakespearian problems. The First Quarto is certainly surreptitious. Its title-page records performances in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge and elsewhere, as well as in London. The ultimate source of the plot is to be found in Scandinavian legends preserved in the Historia Danica of Saxo Grammaticus, and transmitted to Shakespeare or his predecessor through the Histoires Tragiques (1570) of François de Belleforest (see HAMLET). 24. Few of the plays present so many difficulties as Troilus and Cressida, and it cannot be said that its literary history has as yet been thoroughly worked out. A play of the name, “as yt is acted by my Lord Chamberlens men” was entered in the Stationers’ Register on Feb. 7, 1603, with a note that “sufficient authority” must be got by the publisher, James Roberts, before he printed it. This can hardly be any other than Shakespeare’s play; but it must have been “stayed,” for the First Quarto did not appear until 1609, and on Jan. 28 of that year a fresh entry had been made in the Register by another publisher. The text of the Quarto differs in certain respects from that of the Folio, but not to a greater extent than the use of different copies of the original manuscript might explain. Two alternative title-pages are found in copies of the Quarto. On one, probably the earliest, is a statement that the play was printed “as it was acted by the Kings Maiesties seruants at the Globe”; from the other these words are omitted, and a preface is appended which hints that the “grand possessors” of the play had made difficulties about its publication, and describes it as “never staled with the stage.” Attempts have been made, mainly on grounds of style, to find another hand than Shakespeare’s in the closing scenes and in the prologue, and even to assign widely different dates to various parts of what is ascribed to Shakespeare. But the evidence does not really bear out these theories, and the style of the whole must be regarded as quite consistent with a date in 1601. It has been thought that the description of Ajax and his humours in the second scene of the first act is Shakespeare’s “purge” to Jonson in reply to the Poetaster (1601), alluded to, as already mentioned, in the Return from Parnassus, a Cambridge play acted probably at the Christmas of 1601-02. It is tempting to conjecture that Troilus and Cressida may have been played, like Hamlet, by the ChamberJain’s men at Cambridge, but may never have been taken to London, and in this sense “never staled with the stage.” The only difficulty of a date in 1601 is that a parody of a play on Troilus and Cressida is introduced into Histriomastix (c. 1599), and that in this Troilus “shakes his furious speare.” But Henslowe had produced another play on the subject, by Dekker and Chettle, in 1599, and probably, therefore, no allusion to Shakespeare is really intended. The material for Troilus and Cressida was taken. by Shakespeare from Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde, Caxton’s Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, and Chapman’s Homer. 25. It is almost wholly on grounds of style that ARs Well that

Ends Well is placed by most critics in or about 1602, and, as in the case of Troilus and Cressida, it has been argued, though with

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27. A performance at court of Othello on Nov. 1, 1604, is noted in the same list as that recording Measure for Measure, and the play may be reasonably assigned to the same year. An alleged performance at Harefield in 1602 certainly rests upon a forgery. The play was revived in 1610 and seen by Prince Louis of Wiirttemberg at the Globe on April 30 of that year. It was entered in the Stationers’ Register on Oct. 6, 1621, and a First

Quarto was published in 1622. The text of this is less satisfactory than that of the First Folio, and omits a good many lines found therein and almost certainly belonging to the play as written. It also contains some profane expressions which have been modified in the Folio, and thereby points to a date for the original production earlier than the Act to Restrain Abuses of Players passed in the spring of 1606. The plot, like that of Measure for Measure, comes from the Hecatommitht (1566) of Giraldi Cinthio. 28. Macbeth cannot, in view of its obvious allusions to James I., be of earlier date than 1603. The style and some trifling allusions point to about 1605 or 1606, and a hint for the theme may have been given by Matthew Gwynne’s entertainment of the Tres Sibyllae, with which James was welcomed to Oxford on Aug. 27, 1605. The play was revived in 1610 and Simon Forman saw it at the Globe on April 20. The only extant text, that of the First Folio, bears traces of shortening, and has been interpolated with additional rhymed dialogues for the witches by a second hand, probably that of Thomas Middleton. But the extent of Middleton’s contribution has been exaggerated; it is probably confined to act ili. sc. 5, and a few lines in act. iv. sc. 1. A ballad of Macdobeth is mentioned in the Stationers’ records during 1596, but is not known. It is not likely that Shakespeare had consulted any Scottish history other than that included in Raphael Holinshed’s Chronicle; he may have gathered witchlore from Reginald Scot’s Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584) or King James’s

own Demonologie (1599). 29. The entry of King Lear in the Stationers’ Register on Nov.

26, 1607, records the performance of the play at court on Dec. 26, 1606. This suggests 1605 or 1606 as the date of production, and this is confirmed by the publication in 1605 of the older play, The True Chronicle History of King Leir, which Shakespeare used as his source. Two Quartos of King Lear were published in 1608, and contain a text rather longer, but in other respects less

accurate, than that of the First Folio.

The material of the play

consists of fragments of Celtic myth, which found their way into history through Geoffrey of Monmouth. It was accessible to Shakespeare in Holinshed and in Spenser’s Faerie Queene, as well as in the old play. 30. It is not quite clear whether Antony and Cleopatra was the play of that name entered in the Stationers’ Register on May 20, 1608, for no Quarto is extant, and a fresh entry was made in the Register before the issue of the First Folio. Apart from this entry, there is little external evidence to fix the date of the play, but it is in Shakespeare’s later, although not his last, manner and may very well belong to 1606. It is possible that it motived some changes introduced by Samuel Daniel into a new edition of his

Cleopatra issued in 1607. 31. In the case of Coriolanus the external evidence available is

even scantier, and all that can be said is that its closest affinities little justification, that parts of the play are of considerably are to Antony and Cleopatra, which in all probability it directly earlier date, and perhaps represent the Love’s Labour’s Won re- followed in order of compositio n. Both plays, like Julius Caesar, ferred to by Meres. The story is derived from Boccaccio’s an upon the Lives of Plutarch as translated by Sir Thomas Decameron through the medium of William Paynter’s Palace o f orth.

Pleasure (1566). 32. There is no external evidence as to the date of Timon o f 26. Measure for Measure was played at court on Dec. 26, Athens, but it may safely be grouped on the strength of its in1604. The evidence for this is a list of plays in one of the account- ternal characteristics with the plays just named, and there is a books of the Office of the Revels. This was formerly thought to clear gulf between it and those that follow. It may be placed prohave been forged, but is now satisfactorily rehabilitated. The visionally in 1607, although some critics put it next after Lear. play was probably produced when the theatres were reopened The extraordinary incoheren cies of its action and inequalities of after the

plague in 1604. The plot is taken from a story already its style have prevented modern scholars from accepting it as a used by George Whetstone, both in his play of Promos and Cas- finished production of Shakespeare, but there agreement ceases. sandra (1578) and in his prose Heptameron of Civil Discourses It is sometimes and perhaps most reasonably regarded as an in(1582), and borrowed by him from Giraldi Cinthio’s Hecatom- complete draft for an intended play; sometimes ag a Shakespearmithi (1566). ian fragment worked over by a second hand either for the stage

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THE POET]

or for printing in the First Folio; sometimes, but not very plausibly, as an old play by an inferior writer which Shakespeare had partly remodelled. It does not seem to have had any relations to an extant academic play of Timon which remained in manuscript until 1842. The sources are partly in Plutarch’s Life of Marcus Antonius, partly in Lucian’s dialogue of Timon or Misanthropos, and partly in William Paynter’s Palace of Pleasure (1566). 33. Similar difficulties, equally unsolved, cling about Pericles. It was entered in the Stationers’ Register on May 20, 1608, and published in 1609 as “the late and much admired play’’ acted by the king’s men at the Globe. The title-page bears Shakespeare’s name, but the play was not included in the First Folio, and was only added to Shakespeare’s collected works in the Third Folio, in company with others which, although they also had been printed under his name or initials in quarto form, are certainly not his. In 1608 was published a prose story, The Painful Adventures of Pericles Prince of Tyre. This claims to be the history of the play as it was presented by the king’s players, and is described in a dedication by George Wilkins as “a poore infant of my braine.”’ The production of the play is therefore to be put in 1608 or a little earlier. It can hardly be doubted on internal evidence that Shakespeare is the author of the verse-scenes in the last three acts, with the exception of the doggerel choruses. It is probable, although it has been doubted, that he was also the author of the prosescenes in those acts. To the first two acts he can at most only have contributed a touch or two. It seems reasonable to suppose that the non-Shakespearian part of the play is by Wilkins, by whom other dramatic work was produced about 1607. The prose story quotes a line or two from Shakespeare’s contribution, and it follows that this must have been made by 1608. The close resemblances of the style to that of Shakespeare’s latest plays make it impossible to place it much earlier. But whether Shakespeare and Wilkins collaborated in the play, or Shakespeare partially rewrote Wilkins, or Wilkins completed Shakespeare, must be regarded as yet undetermined. Unless there was an earlier Shakespearian version now lost, Dryden’s statement that “Shakespeare’s own Muse her Pericles first bore” must be held to be an error. The story is an ancient one which exists in many versions. In all of these except the play, the name of the hero is Apollonius of Tyre. The play is directly based upon a version in Gower’s Confessio Amantis, and the use of Gower as a “presenter” is thereby explained. But another version in Laurence

Somers in 1609, was published about Oct. 1610, and this or some other contemporary narrative of Virginian colonization probably furnished the hint of the plot. 37. It may now be accepted as a settled result of scholarship that Henry VIII. is the result of collaboration, and that one of the collaborators was Fletcher. There is no good reason to doubt that the other was Shakespeare, although attempts have been made to substitute Philip Massinger. The inclusion, however, of the play in the First Folio must be regarded as conclusive against this theory. There is some ground for suspicion that the collaborators may have had an earlier work of Shakespeare before them, and this would explain the reversion to the “history” type

of play which Shakespeare had long abandoned. His share appears to consist of act i. scc. 1, 2; act ii. scc. 3, 4; act ili. se. 2, Il. 1-203; act v. sc. r. The play was probably produced in 1613, and originally bore the alternative title of All is True. It was being performed in the Globe on June 29, 1613, when the thatch caught fire and the theatre was burnt. The principal source was Holinshed, but Hall’s Union of Lancaster and York, Foxe’s Acts and Monuments of the Church, and perhaps Samuel Rowley’s play of When You See Me, You Know Me (1605), appear also to have contributed. 38. The tale of the First Folio dramas is now complete, but an analysis of The Two Noble Kinsmen leaves no reason to doubt the accuracy of its ascription on the title-page of the First Quarto of 1634 to Shakespeare and John Fletcher. This appears to have been a case of ordinary collaboration. There is sufficient resemblance between the styles of the two writers to render the division of the play between them a matter of some difficulty; but the parts that may probably be assigned to Shakespeare are acts i. scc. 1—4; li. 1; iii. 1, 2; v. 1, 3, 4. Fletcher’s morris-dance in act iii. sc. 5 is borrowed from that in Beaumont’s Mask of the Inner Temple and Gray’s Inn, given on Feb. 20, 1613, and the play may perhaps be dated in 1613. It is based on Chaucer’s Knight’s Tale. THE

POET

Shakespeare’s writings outside the field of drama are not numerous. The narrative poem of Venus and Adonis was entered in the Stationers’ Register on April 18, 1593, and 17 editions, dating from 1593 to 1675, are known. The Rape of Lucrece was entered in the Register on May 9, 1594, and the nine extant editions range from 1594 to 1655. Each poem is prefaced by a Twine’s Patterne of Painefull Adventures (c. 1576), of which a dedicatory epistle from the author to Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton. The subjects, taken respectively from the Metanew edition appeared in 1607, may also have been consulted. 34. Cymbeline shows a further development than Pericles in morphoses and the Fasti of Ovid, were frequent in Renaissance the direction of Shakespeare’s final style, and can hardly have literature. It was once supposed that Shakespeare came from come earlier. A description of it is in a note-book of Simon Stratford-on-Avon with Venus and Adonis in his pocket; but it is Forman, who died in Sept. 1611, and describes in the same book more likely that both poems owe their origin to the comparative other plays seen by him in 1610 and 1611.

But these were not

leisure afforded to playwrights and actors by the plague-period of

1592-94. In 1599 the stationer William Jaggard published a volume of miscellaneous verse which he called The Passtonate must be an interpolation by another hand. This play also is based Pilgrim, and placed Shakespeare’s name on the title-page. Only upon a widespread story, probably known to Shakespeare in two of the pieces included herein are certainly Shakespeare’s, and Boccaccio’s Decameron (day 2, novel ọ), and possibly also in an although others may quite possibly be his, the authority of the English book of tales called Westward for Smelts. The historical volume is destroyed by the fact that some of its contents are without doubt the work of Marlowe, Sir Walter Raleigh, Richard part is, as usual, from Holinshed. 35. The Winter’s Tale was seen by Forman on May 15, 1611, Barnfield and Bartholomew Griffin. In 1601 Shakespeare conand as it clearly belongs to the latest group of plays it may well tributed The Phoenix and the Turtle, an elegy on an unknown enough have been produced in that or the preceding year. A docu- pair of wedded lovers, to a volume called Love’s Martyr, or ment amongst the Revels Accounts, also now cleared of the impu- Rosalin’s Complaint, collected and mainly written by Robert tation of forgery, gives Nov. 5, 1611, as the date of a performance Chester. The Sonnets.—The interest of all these poems sinks into inat court. The play is recorded to have been licensed by Sir George Buck, who began to license plays in 1607. The plot is significance beside that of one remaining volume. The sonnets from Robert Greene’s Pandosio, the Triumph of Time, or Doras- were entered in the Register on May 20, 1609, by the stationer tus and Fawnia (1588). Thomas Thorpe, and published by him under the title Skake36. The wedding-masque in act iv. of The Tempest has suggest- speares Sonnets, never before Imprinted, in the same year. In ed the possibility that it may have been composed to celebrate the addition to 154 sonnets the volume contains the elegiac poem A marriage of the princess Elizabeth and Frederick V., the elector Lover’s Complaint. If this is Shakespeare’s, which is very doubtpalatine, on Feb. 14, 1613. But the document amongst the ful, it probably dates from the Venus and Adonis period. In Revels Accounts gives the precise date of Nov. 1, 1611, for a per- 1640 the sonnets, together with other poems from The Passionate formance at court. Sylvester Jourdan’s A Discovery of the Ber- Pilgrim and elsewhere, many of them not Shakespeare’s, were mudas, containing an account of the shipwreck of Sir George republished by John Benson in Poems Written by Wil. Shakenecessarily new plays, and Cymbeline may perhaps be assigned conjecturally to 1609.

The masque-like

dream in act v. sc. 4

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speare, Gent. Here the sonnets are arranged in an altogether dif-

ferent order from that of 1609 and are declared by the publisher to “appeare of the same purity, the Authour himselfe then living avouched.” No other Shakespearian controversy has received so much attention as that concerning itself with the date, character and literary history of the sonnets. This is intelligible enough, since upon the issues raised depends the question whether these poems do or do not give a glimpse into the intimate depths of a personality which otherwise is at the most only imperfectly revealed through the plays. On the whole, the balance of authority is in favour of regarding them as in a very considerable measure autobiographical. This view has undergone the fires of much destructive argument. The authenticity of the order in which the sonnets were printed in 1609 and even Shakespeare’s authorship of some of them have been doubted; and their subjectmatter has been variously explained as being of the nature of a philosophical allegory, of an effort of the dramatic imagination, or of a heartless exercise in the forms of the Petrarchan convention. This last theory rests upon the false psychological assumption, which is disproved by the whole history of poetry and in particular of Petrarchan poetry, that the use of conventions is inconsistent with the expression of unfeigned emotions; and it is hardly to be set against the direct conviction which the sonnets carry to the most finely critical minds of the strength and sincerity of the spiritual experience out of which they were wrought. This conviction makes due allowance for the inevitable heightening of emotion itself in the act of poetic composition; and it certainly does not carry with it a belief that all the external events which underlie the emotional development are capable at this distance of time of inferential reconstruction. But it does accept the sonnets as reflecting a part of Shakespeare’s life during the years in which they were written, and as revealing at least the outlines of a drama which played itself out for once, not in his imagination but in his actual conduct in the world of men and women. There is no advantage to be gained by rearranging the order

of the r609 volume, even if there were any basis other than that of individual whim on which to do so. Many of the sonnets are

obviously linked to those which follow or precede them; and although a few may conceivably be misplaced, the order as a whole does not jar against the sense of emotional continuity, which is the only possible test that can be applied. The last two sonnets, however, are merely alternative versions of a Greek epigram, and it is a hazardous assumption that all of the rest have a common subject-matter. On this assumption, however, they have generally been interpreted somewhat as follows. There are two series, which are more probably parallel than successive. The shorter of these (cxxvii—clii.) appears to be the record of the poet’s relations with a mistress, a dark woman with raven brows and mourning eyes. In the earlier sonnets he undertakes the halfplayful defence of black beauty against the blond Elizabethan ideal; but the greater number are in a more serious vein, and are filled with a deep consciousness of the bitterness of lustful passion and of the slavery of the soul to the body. The woman is a wanton. She has broken her bed-vow for Shakespeare, who on his side is forsworn in loving her; and she is doubly forsworn in proving faithless to him with other men. His reason condemns her, but his heart has not the power to throw off her tyranny.

Her particular offence is that she, “a woman

coloured ill,” has

cast her snares not only upon him, but upon his friend, “a man right fair,” who is his “better angel,” and that thus his loss is

double, in love and friendship.

The longer series (i—cxxvi.) is

written to a man, appears to extend over a considerable period of time, and covers a wide range of sentiment. The person addressed is younger than Shakespeare, and of higher rank. He is lovely, and the son of a lovely mother, and has hair like the auburn buds of marjoram. The series falls into a number of groups, which are rarely separated by any sharp lines of demarcation. Perhaps the first group (i—xvii.) is the most distinct of all. These sonnets are a prolonged exhortation by Shakespeare to his friend to marry and beget children. The friend is now on the top of happy hours, and should make haste, before the rose

[THE POET

of beauty dies, to secure himself in his descendants against devouring time. In the next group (xviii—xxv.) a much more personal note is struck, and the writer assumes the attitudes, at once of the poet whose genius is to be devoted to eternizing the beauty and the honour of his patron, and of the friend whose absorbing affection is always on the point of assuming an emotional colour indistinguishable from that of love. The consciousness of ad‘vancing years and that of a fortune which bars the triumph of public honour alike find their consolation in this affection. A period of absence (xxvi—xxxii.) follows, in which the thought of friendship comes to remedy the daily labour of travel and the sorrows of a life that is “in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes” and filled with melancholy broodings over the past. Then (xxxiii.~ xlii.) comes an estrangement. The friend has committed a sensual fault, which is at the same time a sin against friendship. He has ‘been wooed by a woman loved by the poet, who deeply resents the treachery, but in the end forgives it, and bids the friend take all his loves, since all are included in the love that has been freely given him. It is difficult to escape the suggestion that this. episode of the conflict between love and friendship is the same as that which inspired some of the “dark woman” sonnets. Another journey (xliii-lii.) is again filled with thoughts of the friend, and its record is followed by a group of sonnets (liii—lv.) in which the friend’s beauty and the immortality which this will find in the poet’s verse are especially dwelt upon. Once more there is a parting (lvi-Ixi.) and the poet awaits as patiently as may be his friend’s return to him. Again (lxii—Ixv.) he looks to his verse to give the friend immortality. He is tired of the world, but his

friend redeems it (Ixvi—Ixviii.). Then rumours of some scandal against his friend (lxix—Ixx.) reach him, and he falls (lxxilxxiv.) into gloomy thoughts of coming death. The friend, however, is still (lxxv—-Ixxvii.) his argument; and he is perturbed (Ixxviii—Ixxxvi.) by the appearance of a rival poet, who claims to be taught by spirits to write “above a mortal pitch,” and with “the proud full sail of his great verse” has already won the coun-

tenance of Shakespeare’s patron. There is another estrangement (lxxxvii—xc.), and the poet, already crossed with the spite of fortune, is ready not only to acquiesce in the loss of friendship, but to find the fault in himself. The friend returns to him, but the relation is still clouded by doubts of his fidelity (xci.—xciii.) and by public rumours of his wantonness (xciv.-xcvi.). For a third time the poet is absent (xcvii—xcix.) in summer and spring. Then comes an apparent interval, after which a love already three years old is renewed (c.—civ.), with even richer praises (CV.—Cviii.). It is now the poet’s turn to offer apologies (cix.—cxii.) for offences against friendship and for some brand upon his name apparently due to the conditions of his profession. He is again absent (cxiii.) and again renews his protestations of the imperishability of love (cxiv.—cxvi.) and of his own unworthiness (exvii.—cxxi.), for which his only excuse is in the fact that the friend was once unkind. If the friend has suffered as Shakespeare suffered, he has “passed a hell of time.” The series closes with a group (cxxii.—cxxv.) in which love is pitted against time; and an envot, not in sonnet form, warns the “lovely boy” that in the end nature must render up her treasure. Mystery of “Mr. W. H.”—Such an analysis can give no adequate idea of the qualities in these sonnets, whereby the appeal of universal poetry is built up on a basis of intimate self-revelation. The human document is so legible, and at the same time so incomplete, that it is easy to understand the strenuous efforts which have been made to throw further light upon it by tracing the identities of those other personalities, the man and the woman through his relations to whom the poet was brought to so fiery an ordeal of soul, and even to the borders of self-abasement. It must be added that the search has, as a rule, been conducted with more ingenuity than judgment. It has generally started from the terms of a somewhat mysterious dedication prefixed by the publisher Thomas Thorpe to the volume of 1609. This runs as follows :—“To the onlie begetter of these insuing sonnets Mr. W. H. all happinesse and that eternitie promised by our ever-living poet wisheth the well-wishing adventurer in setting forth T. T.” The natural interpretation of this is that the inspirer or “begetter” of

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RECORDS]

the sonnets bore the initials W. H.; and contemporary history has accordingly been ransacked to find a W. H. whose age and circumstances might conceivably fit the conditions of the problem

which the sonnets present.

It is perhaps a want of historical

perspective which has led to the centring of controversy around

two names belonging to the highest ranks of the Elizabethan nobility, those of Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton, and William Herbert, earl of Pembroke. There is some evidence to connect

Shakespeare with both of these.

To Southampton

he

dedicated Venus and Adonis in 1593 and The Rape of Lucrece in 1594, and the story that he received a gift of no less than £1,000 from the earl is recorded by Rowe. His acquaintance with Pembroke can only be inferred from the statement of Heminge and Condell in their preface to the First Folio of the plays, that Pembroke and his brother Montgomery had “prosequuted both them and their Authour living, with so much favour.” The personal beauty of the rival claimants and of their mothers, their amours and the attempts of their families to persuade them to marry, their relations to poets and actors, and all other points in their biographies which do or do not fit in with the indications

of the sonnets, have been canvassed with great spirit and some erudition, but with no very conclusive result. It is in Pembroke’s favour that his initials were in fact W. H., whereas Southamptoni’s can only be turned into W. H. by a process of metathesis; and his champions have certainly been more successful than Southampton’s in producing a woman, a certain Mary Fitton, who was a mistress of Pembroke’s, and was in consequence dismissed in disgrace from her post of maid of honour to Elizabeth. Unfortunately, the balance of evidence is in favour of her having beet blond, and not “black.” Moreover, a careful investigation of the sonnets, as regards their style and their relation to the plays, renders it almost impossible on chronological grounds that Pembroke can have been their subject. He was born on April 9, 1580, and was therefore much younger than Southampton, who was born on Oct. 6, 1573. The earliest sonnets postulate a marriageable youth, certainly not younger than 18, an age which Southampton reached in the autumn of r591 and Pembroke in the spring of 1598. The writing of the sonnets may have extended over many years, but it is impossible to doubt that as a whole it is to the years 1593—98 rather than to the years 1598-1603 that they belong. There is not, indeed, much external evidence available. Francis Meres in his Palladis Tamia of 1598 mentions Shakespeare’s “sugred sonnets among his private friends,” but this allusion might come as well near the beginning as at the end of the series; and the fact that two, not of the latest, sonnets are in The Passionate Pilgrim of 1599 is equally inconclusive. The only reference to an external event in the sonnets themselves, which might at first sight seem useful, is in the following lines (cvii.}:— The mortal moon hath her eclipse endured,

And the sad augurs mock their own presage;

Incertainties now crown themselves assured,

And peace proclaims olives of endless age.

This has been variously interpreted as referring to the death of Elizabeth and accéssion of James in 1603, to the relief caused by the death of Philip IT. of Spain in 1598, and to the illness of Elizabeth and threatened Spanish invasion in 1596. Obviously the “mortal moon” is Elizabeth, but although “eclipse” may well mean “death,” it is not quite so clear that “endure an eclipse” can mean “die.” Nor do the allusions to the rival poet help much. “The proud full sail of his great verse” would ft, on critical grounds, with Spenser, Marlowe, Chapman and possibly Peele, Daniel or Drayton; and the “affable familiar ghost,” from whom the rival is said to obtain assistance by night, might conceivably be an echo of a passage in one of Chapman’s dedications. Daniel imscribed a poem to Southampton in 1603, but with this exception none of the poets named is known fo have written either for Southampton or for Pembroke, or for any other W. H. or H. W., during any year which can possibly be covered by the sonnets.

Two very minor poets, Barnabe Barnes and Gervase Markham,

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445

addressed sonnets to Southampton in 1593 and 1595 respectively, and Thomas Nashe composed improper verses for his delectation. But even if external guidance fails, the internal evidence for 1593-98 as approximately the sonnet period in Shakespeare’s life is very strong indeed. It has been worked out in detail by

two

German

scholars, Hermann

Isaac

(now

Conrad)

in the

Shakespeare-Jahrbuch for 1884, and Gregor Sarrazin in William Shakespeares Lehrjahre (1897) and Aus Shakéspeares Meéisterwerkstatt (1906). Conrad’s work, in particular, has hardly received enough attention even from recent English scholars, probably because he makes the mistakes of taking the sonnets in

Bodenstedt’s order instead of Shakespeare’s, and of beginning his whole chronology several years too early in order to gratify a fantastic identification of W. H. with the earl of Essex.

This,

however, does not affect the main force of an argument by which the affinities of the great bulk of the sonnéts are shown, on the ground of stylistic similarities, parallelisms of expressioti, and parallelisms of theme, to be far more close with the poems and with the range of plays from Love’s Labour’s Lost to Henry IV., than with ariy earlier or later section of Shakespeare’s work. This dating has the further advantage of putting Shakespeare’s sonnets in the full tide of Elizabethan somnet-production, which began with the publication of Sidney’s Astrophel and Stella in 1591 and Daniel’s Delia and Cotistable’s Diana in 1592, rather than during years for which this particular kind of poetry had already ceased to be modish. It is to the three volumés named that the influence upon Shakespeare of his predecessors car most clearly be traced; while he seems in his turn to have served as å modeł for Drayton, whose sonnets to Idea were published in a series of volumes in 1594, 1599, 1602, 1605 and r619. It does not of course follow that because the sonnets belong to 1597-08 W. H. is tó be identifed with Southampton. On geniéral grounds he is likely, even if above Shakespeare’s own rank, to have been somewhat nearer that rank than a great earl, some young gentle-

man, for example, of such a family as the Sidneys, or as the

Walsinghams of Chislehurst. It is possible that there is an allusion to Shakespeate’s romance in a poern called “Willobie his Avisa,” published in 1594 as from the pen of otie Henry Willoughby, appareritly of West Knoyle, in Wiltshire. In this Willoughby, enamoured of an itmkeeper’s wife, apparently at Sherborne, takes counsel with “his familiar friend

W. S. who not long before had tryed the curtesy of the like passion, and was now newly recovered of the like infection.” But there ig nothing outside the poem to connect Shakespeare with a

family of Willoughbys or with the neighbourhood of West Knoyle or Sherborne. Various other identifications of W. H. have been

suggested, which rarely rest upon anything except a similarity of initials. There is little likelihood in a theory broached by Sir

Sidney Lee, that W. H. was not the friend of the sonnets at all, but a certain William Hall, who was himself a printer, and might, it Is conjectured, have obtained the “copy” of the sonnets for

Thorpe.

Rather more plausible is Sir William Harvey, the third

husband of Southampton’s mothér. But, although it is just possible that ‘“begetter” might mean, not “inspirer,” but “procurer for the press,” thé interpretation is shipwrecked ón the obvious

identity of the persón to whom Thorpe “wishes” eternity with the person to whom the poet “promised” that eternity. The external history of the sonnets must still be regarded ag an utisolved problem; the most that cam be said is that their subject may just possibly be Southampton, and cannot possibly be Pembroke. The Evidence on Record.—In order to obtain a glimmering of the man that was Shakespeare, it is necessary to consult all the

records and to read the evidence of his life-work in the plays, alike in the light of the simple facts of his external career and in that of the suddén vision of his passionate and dissatisfied

soul preserved in. the sonnets. By exclusive attention to any one of these sources of information it is easy to build up a cofisistent and wholly false conception of a Shakespeare; of a Shakespeare struggling between his setises arid his conscience in the artistic Bohemianism of the London taverns; of a skeek, bourgeois Shakespeare to whom his art was no more than a ready way to a position of respected and influential competence in his native town;

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of a great objective artist whose personal life was passed in detached contemplation of the puppets of his imagination. Any one of these pictures has the advantage of being more vivid, and the disadvantage of being less real, than the somewhat elusive and enigmatic Shakespeare who glances at us for a perplexing moment, now behind this, now behind that, of his diverse masks. It is necessary also to lay aside Shakespeareolatry, the spirit that could wish with Hallam that Shakespeare had never written the sonnets, or can refuse to accept Titus Andronicus on the ground that “the play declares as plainly as play can speak, ‘I am not Shakespeare’s; my repulsive subject, my blood and horrors, are not, and never were his.” The literary historian has no greater enemy than the sentimentalist. In Shakespeare we have to do with one who is neither beyond criticism as a man nor impeccable as an artist. He was for all time, no doubt; but also very much of an age, the age of the later Renaissance, with its instinct for impetuous life, and its vigorous rather than discriminating appetite for literature. When Ben Jonson said that Shakespeare lacked “art,” and when Milton wrote of his “native wood-notes wild,” they judged truly. The Shakespearian drama is magnificent and incoherent; it belongs to the adolescence of literature, to a period before the instrument had been sharpened and polished, and made unerring in its touch upon the sources of laughter and of tears. Obviously nobody has such power over our laughter and our tears as Shakespeare. But it is the power of temperament rather than of art; or rather it is the power of a capricious and unsystematic artist, with a perfect dramatic instinct for the exposition of the ideas, the characters, the situations, which for the moment command his interest, and a perfect disregard for the laws of dramatic psychology which require the patient pruning and subordination of all material that does not make for the main exposition. This want of finish, this imperfect fusing of the literary ore, is essentially characteristic of the Renaissance, as compared with ages in which the creative impulse is weaker and leaves room for a finer concentration of the means upon the end. There is nearly always unity of purpose in a Shakespearian play, but it often requires an intellectual effort to grasp it and does not result in a unity of effect. The issues are obscured by a careless generosity which would extend to art the boundless freedom of life itself. Hence the intrusive and jarring elements which stand in such curious incongruity with the utmost reaches of which the dramatic spirit is capable; the conventional and melodramatic endings, the inconsistencies of action and even of character, the emotional confusions of tragicomedy, the complications of plot and subplot, the marring of the give-and-take of dialogue by superfluities of description and of argument, the jest and bombast lightly thrown in to suit the taste of the groundlings, all the flecks that to an instructed modern criticism are only too apparent upon the Shakespearian sun. It perhaps follows from this that the most fruitful way of approaching Shakespeare is by an analysis of his work rather as a process than as a completed whole. His outstanding positive quality is a vast comprehensiveness, a capacity for growth and assimilation, which leaves no aspect of life unexplored, and allows of no finality in the nature of his judgments upon life. It is the real and sufficient explanation and justification of the pains taken to determine the chronological order of his plays, that the secret of his genius lies in its power of development and that only by the study of its development can he be known. He was nearly 30 when, so far as we can tell, his career as a dramatist began; and already there lay behind him those six or seven unaccounted-for years since his marriage, passed no one

knows where, and filled no one knows with what experience, but assuredly in that strenuous Elizabethan life with some experience kindling to his intellect and formative of his character. To the woodcraft and the familiarity with country sights and sounds

which he brought with him from Stratford, and which mingle so oddly in his plays with a purely imaginary and euphuistic natural history, and to the book-learning of a provincial grammar-school

boy, and perhaps, if Aubrey is right, also of a provincial schoolmaster, he had somehow added, as he continued to add throughout his life, that curious store of acquaintance with the details of the most diverse occupations which has so often perplexed and so

[RECORDS

often misled his commentators. It was the same faculty of acquisition that gave him the extensive range of his varied , vocabulary. His first group of plays is largely made up of essays in conventions of stage-writing which had already achieved popularity. In the Yorkist trilogy he takes up the burden of the chronicle play, in Tke Comedy of Errors that of the classical school drama and of the page-humour of Lyly, in Titus Andronicus that of the crude revenge tragedy of Kyd, and in Rickard III. that of the Nemesis motive and the exaltation of the Machiavellian. superman which properly belong to Marlowe. But in Richard II. he begins to come to his own with the subtle study of the actor’s temperament which betrays the working of a profound interest in the technique of his chosen profession. The style of the earliest plays is essentially rhetorical; the blank verse is stiff and little varied in rhythm; and the periods are built up of parallel and antithetic sentences, and punctuated with devices of iterations, plays upon words, and other methods of securing emphasis, that derive from the bad tradition of a popular stage, upon which the players are bound to rant and force the note in order to hold the attention of a dull-witted audience. During the plague-vacations of 1592 to 1594, Shakespeare tried his hand at the ornate descriptive poetry of Venus and Adonis and Lucrece; and the influence of this exercise, and possibly also of Italian travel, 1s apparent in the next group of plays, with their lyric notes, their tendency to warm southern colouring, their wealth of decorative imagery, and their elaborate and not rarely frigid conceits. Rhymed couplets make their appearance, side by side with blank verse, as a medium of dramatic dialogue. It is a period of experiment, in farce with The Taming of the Shrew, in satirical comedy with Love’s Labour’s Lost, in lyrical comedy with A Midsummer Night’s Dream, in lyrical tragedy with Romeo and Juliet, in lyrical history with Rickard II., and in romantic tragicomedy with The Two Gentlemen of Verona and with the masterpiece of this singular genre, The Merchant of Venice. It is also the period of the sonnets, which have their echoes both in the phrasing and in the themes of the plays; in the black-browed Rosaline of Love’s Labour’s Lost, and in the issue between friendship and love which is variously set in The Two Gentlemen of Verona and in The Merchant of Venice. But in the latter play the sentiment is already one of retrospection; the tempest of spirit has given way to the tender melancholy of renunciation. The sonnets seem to bear witness, not only to the personal upheaval of passion, but also to some despondency at the spite of fate and the disgrace of the actor’s calling. This mood too may have cleared away in the sunshine of growing popularity, of financial success, and of the possibly long-delayed’ return to Stratford. Certainly the series of plays written during the next few years are light-hearted plays, less occupied with profound or vexatious searchings of spirit than with the delightful externalities of things. The histories from

King John to Henry V. form a continuous study of the conditions of kingship, carrying on the political speculations begun in Richard II. and culminating in the brilliant picture of triumphant efficiency, the Henry of Agincourt. Meanwhile Shakespeare develops the astonishing faculty of humorous delineation of which he had given foretastes in Jack Cade, in Bottom the weaver, and in Juliet’s nurse; sets the creation of Falstaff in front of his vivid pictures of contemporary England; and passes through the half-comedy, half melodrama of Much Ado About Nothing to the joyous farce of The Merry Wives of Windsor, and to his two perfectly sunny comedies, the sylvan comedy of As You Like It and the urban comedy of Twelfth Night.

There then comes

a change of mood,

already heralded by

Julius Caesar, which stands beside Henry V. as a reminder that efficiency has its seamy as well as its brilliant side. The tragedy of political idealism in Brutus is followed by the tragedy of intellectual idealism in Hamlet; and this in its turn by the three bitter and cynical pseudo-comedies: All’s Well That Ends Well, in which the creator of Portia, Beatrice, Rosalind and Viola drags

the honour of womanhood in the dust—Troilus and Cressida, in

which the ideals of heroism and of romance are confounded in the portraits of a wanton and a poltroon—and Measure for Measure,

SHAKESPEARE

CRITICISM]

in which the searchlight of irony is thrown upon the paths of Providence itself. Upon the causes of this new perturbation in the soul of Shakespeare it is perhaps idle to speculate. The evidence of his profound disillusion and discouragement of spirit is plain enough; and for some years the tide of his pessimistic thought advances, swelling through the pathetic tragedy of Othello to the cosmic tragedies of Macbeth and King Lear, with their Titan-like indictments not of man alone, but of the heavens by whom man was made. Meanwhile Shakespeare’s style undergoes changes no less notable than those of his subject-matter. The ease and lucidity characteristic of the histories and comedies of his middle period give way to a more troubled beauty, and the phrasing and rhythm often tend to become elliptic and obscure, as if the thoughts were hurrying faster than speech can give them utterance. The period closes with Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, in which the ideals of the love of woman and the honour of man are once more stripped bare to display the skeletons of lust and egoism, and in the latter of which signs of exhaustion are already perceptible; and with Timon of Athens, in which the dramatist whips himself to an almost incoherent expression of a general loathing and detestation of humanity. Then the stretched cord suddenly snaps. Timon is apparently unfinished, and the next play, Pericles, is in an entirely different vein, and is apparently finished but not begun. At this point only in the whole course of Shakespeare’s development there is a complete breach of continuity. One can only conjecture the occurrence of some spiritual crisis, an illness perhaps, or some process akin to what in the language of religion is called conversion, which left him a new man, with the fever of pessimism behind him, and at peace once more with Heaven and the world. The final group of plays, the Shakespearian part of Pericles,

Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale, The Tempest, all belong to the class of what may be called idyllic romances. They are happy dreams, in which all troubles and sorrows are ultimately resolved into fortunate endings, and which stand therefore as so many symbols of an optimistic faith in the beneficent dispositions of an ordering Providence. In harmony with this change of temper the style has likewise undergone another change, and the tense structure and marmoreal phrasing of Antony and Cleopatra have given way to relaxed cadences and easy and unaccentuated rhythms. It is possible that The Winter’s Tale and The Tempest, Shakespeare’s last plays, with the unimportant exceptions of his contributions to Fletcher’s Henry VIII. and The Two Noble Kinsmen, were written in retirement at Stratford. At any rate the call of the country is sounding through them; and it is with no regret that in the last pages of The Tempest the weary magician drowns his book, and buries his staff certain fathoms deep in the earth. ( E. K. C.) TEXTUAL

CRITICISM

447

the results of the older learning and almost became a textus receptus. The new scholarship is bibliographical. In 1908 W. W. Greg proved from the technical evidence of water-marks, devices and type, that nine quartos—Tke Merchant of Venice and A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Roberts, “1600”), King Lear (Butter. “1608”), Henry V. (“1608”) Pericles and The Merry Wives (“1619”), and the spurious Whole Contention, A Yorkshire Tragedy, and Sir John Oldcastle—were printed by William Jaggard in 1619. In Shakespeare Folios and Quartos (1909) A. W. Pollard rounded off the evidence with a new classification of the Quartos into “Good” and “Bad,” showing that Heminge and Condell in compiling the copy for the First Folio replaced the “Bad Quartos” by good playhouse texts, used independent mss. of four plays, but otherwise sent to press the texts of the “Good” First Quartos or of later editions of these then on the market. The authoritative text for each play was thus accurately determined. The significance of the old rhetorical punctuation was shown by Percy Simpson in Shakespearian Puuctuation (1911) and A. W. Pollard in King Richard II.: A New Quarto (1916). In Shakespeare’s Fight with the Pirates (1917) A. W. Pollard showed the possibility that the “Good Quartos,” some of which were printed from prompt-copies, were set up from Shakespeare’s autograph. Palaeography came in with Sir Edward Maunde Thompson’s Shakespeare’s Handwriting (1916). He identified as Shakespeare’s the handwriting of one scene in the Book of Sir Thomas Mare (Harley ms. 7368, folios 8, 9). The evidence was restated alid amplified in Shakespeare’s Hand in the Play of Sir Thomas More, edited by A. W. Pollard (1923). In this book J. Dover Wilson classified the peculiar spellings of the “Good Quartos,” showed that misprints in them were misreadings of the English script which Shakespeare wrote, and produced parallels from the scene in the play. Sir Edward’s claim has been criticized, but only one critic, Samuel A. Tannenbaum, in Problems in Shakespeare’s Penmanship (1927), has attempted to tackle the handwriting. (P. Sr.) THE BACON-SHAKESPEARE THEORY The thesis that the plays and poems ascribed to Shakespeare were the work of Francis Bacon appears to have been first thrown out in The Life and Adventures of Common Sense (1769) by Herbert Lawrence, without attracting critical attention. It emerged again in 1848, in J. C. Hart’s The Romance of Yachting (N.Y.), taking stronger shape later in an article, “Who Wrote Shakespeare?” in Chambers’ Journal (Aug. 5th, 1852). In all forms it appears to proceed upon a priori belief that the “Stratford actor” could not have possessed the scholarly and other qualifications supposed to be revealed in the works ascribed to him. This primary negative position is taken for granted alike in the merely negative ‘“anti-Stratfordian” polemic of latere years, and in the series of recent theories which undertake to supersede the claim for Bacon by similar claims made for the earls of Rutland, Derby and Oxford, successively. The negative position would appear to have been originally suggested by the hyperbolical accounts given of the playwright by quite orthodox Shakespearians, as an accomplished classical scholar and a trained lawyer, abreast of all the philosophy and science of his time. The definite claim for Bacon’s authorship was first fully set forth by William Henry Smith, who published in 1856, in the form of a letter to Lord Ellesmere, what appeared in 1857 in extended form, but still as a small book, under the title, Bacon and Shakespeare: An Enquiry Touching Players, Playhouses and Play-Writers in the Days of Elizabeth. Smith’s procedure was to

The early editors were concerned with two points—to produce an eclectic text and to cure verbal difficulties by conjecture. Pope (1723—25) made the text “correct” and regular. Theobald (1733) reduced the “science of criticism” to three points, “the emendation of corrupt passages, the explanation of obscure and difficult ones, and an inquiry into the beauties and defects of composition.” He collated the early texts and made some famous emendations, e.g., “a’ babbled of green fields” in Henry V., II. iti. 17. Warburton’s uncritical method was satirized by Thomas Edwards (1747). On the resort to conjecture Dr. Johnson finely said (1765): “It has been my settled principle that the reading of the ancient books is probably true, and therefore is not to be disturbed for the sake of elegance, perspicuity, or mere improvement of the sense.” Capell (1768) was scholarly. The Johnson-Steevens text of insist: (x) on the scantiness of our knowledge of Shakespeare’s 1773 was re-issued in 1786 by Isaac Reed. Edmund Malone life, and at the same time to assume (2) that we know he cannot (1790, 1821) exposed the corruption caused by misprints, igno- have possessed the culture required for the composition of the rance of Shakespeare’s phraseology, and ignorance of the texts plays; noting further (3) that Bacon had the necessary culture; Shakespeare used; and he discussed critical problems such as the taking for granted (4) that he had all the requisite poetic and genuineness of the Henry VI. plays. Of later editors Alexander dramatic faculty; and assuming (5) that there need be no difficulty Dyce was sound and careful. But the Cambridge Shakespeare (by in believing that during 20 years he was secretly producing plays W. G. Clark, John Glover and Aldis Wright, 1863-66; re-issued by for Shakespeare’s company at the risk of discrediting himself as a Wright, 1891-93) gathered up in a complete critical apparatus serious statesman. (6) For the rest, parallel passages (mostly

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SHAKESPEARE

irrelevant) in Bacon’s works and the Folio are cited to suggest

that the plays really came from Bacon's pen, though Smith did not claim to have proved this. ; The later evolution of the Baconian case involved the ascription to Bacon of the works of Marlowe and most of the other Elizabethan dramatists; the theorists, from Smith onwards, having, in general, no perception of the nature of versification; and to the list were further added Lyly’s Euphues, Spenser’s poems, the Arte of English Poesy ascribed to Puttenham, the whole works of Nashe, and Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy. As students may discover for themselves, the phraseology supposed at first to have been special to the works of Bacon and Shakespeare is normal in Elizabethan literature. Accordingly, when “Baconian” phrases were found in Florio’s translation of Montaigne, Ignatius Donnelly ascribed that translation to Bacon; and Sir Edwin Durning Lawrence rounded the theory by the larger inference that Bacon was the real author of Montaigne’s Essais in the original, having composed them as a youthful exercise in French. Started in England, the Baconian campaign was, for a time, specially furthered in the United States by the work of Judge

[PORTRAITS

declared to be quite inapplicable.to the playwright, but applicable to Bacon as an inferior Latinist.) The further claim for the playwright as exceptionally skilled in legal technicalities was possible only through inattention to the contemporary drama. Students can see for themselves that in three or four plays of Jonson and Chapman, though neither was a lawyer, there is much more parade of technical legal knowledge

than is to be found in the entire Folio. Such parade was, in fact, a common feature of the drama, poetry and prose literature of the age. All the “anti” theories, finally involve the assumption that the plays and poems could be more or less widely known to be the secret work of one or another aristocrat, while Jonson, the most widely associated literary man of the age, knew nothing about it. Thus a kind of thesis which finds its motive in the assumed improbability of the possession of abnormal literary genius by an actor who had left school at 14, has accumulated through all its variants a mass of improbabilities not to be matched in speculative research on any other field. It is, in fact, only as an extraordinary growth of critical extravagance that the BaconShakespeare movement and its sequelae can hold literary attention.

Nathaniel Holmes on The Authorship of Shakespeare (1866-86).

Lhe literature of the Bacon-Shakespeare debate and BIBLIOGRAPHY.—

cipher (The Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon, 1900) was an

for the Defendant (1875); Mrs. C. C. Stopes, The Bacon-S. Question (rev. ed, 1889); E. Marriott, Bacon or S. An Historical Enquiry (1879); L. Schipper, S. und dessen Gegner (Münster, 1895); W. C. Devecmon, of the Maryland bar, In re S’s “Legal Acquirements”

speculation runs to many hundreds of volumes in various Later, I. Donnelly contributed in his large work, The Great Cryp- kindred languages, and a multitude of articles in periodicals. In addition togram (1888), the theorem that Bacon had embedded in the to the pro-Baconian arid other works above cited may be named:— plays a cipher narrative declaring his authorship. That claim, ' Delia Bacon, The Philosophy of the Plays of S. unfolded (1857, anti-S. which was met by the demonstration that on Donnelly’s methods but not definitely Baconian); The Promus of Formularies and any narrative could be extracted from any book of sufficient size, Elegancies by Francis Bacon, edited by Mrs. Henry Pott (1883, from previously unpublished mss.); W. H. Wyman, Bibliography of the was rejected even by many Baconians. But Donnelly’s simpler Bacon-S. Controversy (Cincinnati, 1884, 255 entries) ; R. M. Theobald, precedure of deducing identity of authorship from use of really S. Studies in Baconian Light (rep. 1901); G. C. Bompas, The Problem common words arid phrases was accepted and acclaimed by Lord of the S. Plays (1902); Edwin Borman, Francis Bacon’s Cryptic Penzance (On the Bacon-Shakespeare Controversy, 1902) who Rhymes, and the Truth they Reveak (1906) ; Sir E. Durning-Lawrence, Bacon is S. (1910); H. C. Batchelor, Francis Bacon wrote S. dismissed the cipher. The summary of the movement is that, Bt., (1912); W. T. Smedley, The Mystery of Francis Bacon (1912); whereas it originated in a comprehensive ignorance of Elizabethan Parker Woodward, Sir Francis Bacon, Poet-Philosopher-Statesmanliterature apart from Bacon and Shakespeare, the extension of Lawyer-Wit (1920); E. W. Smithson, Baconian Essays with introd. knowledge forced upon its adherents has led to the ascription by and two essays by Sir G. G. Greenwood (1922). The last named writer has produced several “anti-Stratfordian” but non-Baconian them of practically the whole literature to Bacon. works, of which the chief are The S. Problem Restated (1908) and Though the extravagances and the exposures of the procedure Fs there a Shakespeare Problem? (1916). presumably checked acceptance of the theory, it was diligently Among’ anti-Baconian works may be named:—William S. not an developed until recent years, and is still represented by a Bacon Impostor, By an English Critic (J. G. H. Townsend, 1857}-—the King, Bacon versus S., a Plea Society and its periodical, Baconiana. Mrs. E. W. Gallup’s first rejoinder in book form; T. D.

enterprising advance on Donnelly’s;, but when it was pointed out that the cipher had made Bacon employ Pope’s.future transla-

tion of Homer, faith was chilled; and the “anti-Stratfordian” temper found new outlets. In 1912 appeared the work of Prof. Celestin Demblon, of Brussels, Lord Rutland est Shakespeare, ascribing the authorship of the plays to Roger Manners, 15th earl of Rutland. This appears to have been suggested by the previous German work of Karl Bleibtreu, Der wahre Shakespeare (1907). In r919 came the rival theory of Prof. Abel Lefranc of the Collège de France, Sous le masque de “William Shakespeare”; William

(1899);

Judge Willis, The S.-Bacon

Controversy .(1902),

and

The

Baconian Mint (1903); Charles Crawford, The Bacon-S. Question, in and series of his Collectanea (1907); Dean Beeching, William S., Player, Playmaker and Poet: A Reply to Mr. George Greenwood (x908); Andrew Lang, S., Bacon and tke Great Unknown (1912); J. M. Robertson, The Baconian Heresy, a confutation (1913). (J. M. R)

THE PORTRAITS

OF SHAKESPEARE

Stanley, VIe Comte de Derby, introducing a third claimant; | The mystery that surrounds much in the life and work of and in 1920 a fourth was presented by J. Thomas Looney, in his | Shakespeare extends also to his portraiture. The fact that the Shakespeare Identified in Edward de Vere, the Seventeenth Earl only two likenesses of the poet that can be regarded as carrying of Oxford. Since that date there has been a lull in the production the authority of his co-workers, his friends, and relations—yet of claimants. Each of the works cited negates the others, though neither of them a direct life-portrait—differ in certain essential all a that the Stratford actor cannot possibly be the true points, has opened the door to controversy and encouraged the author. advance and foolish acceptance of numerous wholly different The theories, advanced by Baconians, proceed thus from a nega- ‘types. The result has been a swarm of portraits which may be tive supposition. For instance, there is no proof that any of the classed as follows: (x) the genuine portraits of persons not four peers, above mentioned, ever wrote a line of blank verse. Shakespeare but not altogether unlike the various conceptions of Fhe “Shakespearean” reply to the Baconian theories may be him; (2) memorial portraits often based on one or other of acstated. It is asserted by the orthodox authorities that Bacon- cepted originals, whether those originals are worthy of acceptance ians merely evade the incontrovertible evidence for the author- er not; (3) portraits of persons known or unknown, which have ship by “Shaxper” or Shakespeare of the poems published by him been fraudulently “faked” into a resemblance of Shakespeare; and as his work, and the bulk of the contents of the folio volume of (4) spurious fabrications made for imposition upon the public. plays published as his, though criticism has Iong recognized that The two portraits which can be accepted without question as a number are adaptations or collaborations. Over and above other authentic likenesses are—the Bust (really a half-length statue)

contemporary tributes to the actor-author, we have insuperable testimony in the poems by Ben Jonson prefixed to the Folio, wherein the “orthodox” claim for Shakespeare as a trained classi-| cal scholar is forestalled by the friendly avowal that he had “small Latin and less Greek.” (This testimony W. H. Smith

with its structural wall-monument in the choir of Holy Trinity

Church, Stratford-on-Avon, and the copper-plate engraved by Martin Droeshout as frontispiece to the First Folio of Shake-

speare’s plays (and used for three subsequent editions) published in 1623, although first printed in the previous year.

PLATE

SHAKESPEARE

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OF THE SHAKESPEARE BY COURTESY OF (f, 4) THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON, (3) THE GOVERNORS (8) HAROLD BAKER GEO. M. CUSHING, (11) COPR. THE GARRICK CLUB; PHOTOGRAPHS, (2) DONALD MCLEISH,

BIRTHPLACE

AND

PORTRAITS

edition l. The “Droeshout Print” of Shakespeare, prefixed to the first folio of his plays in 1623

2. The birthplace of Shakespeare, in Stratford-on-Avon 5 as TET called the ii“Droeshout original,” in the Shake3. The “u“Flower Portrait”Museum, Stratford-on-Avon speare Memorial a : 4. The “Chandos” portrait attributed to Richard Burbage, from a painting `

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in the National Portrait Gallery, London

5. The “Cosway Zuccaro” copied in miniature by Charlotte Jones in 1823. The miniature is in England but the portrait is in America

6. The “Boston Zuccaro,” or “Joy Portrait,” now in Boston, U.S.A. picture has been attributed to an artist of the Flemish school

The

MEMORIAL

OF WILLIAM

THEATRE,

(5) M. H. SPIELMANN,

STRATFORD-ON-AVON,

(6)

SHAKESPEARE

7. Marble statue of Shakespeare Germany, in 1904

@. Bust and monument

by Prof. O. Lessing

of Shakespeare

erected

erected

in Weimar,

in the north wall of the

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Castle,

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by Frederick W. MacMonnies,

in the Library of Congress,

Washington, D.C., executed in 1898

1l. Bust by Augusto Possaglio of Florence, presented to the Garrick Club, London, in 1876

PORTRAITS]

SHAKESPEARE

The Stratford bust and monument must have been erected on the north wall of the chancel or choir within, at most, the six years that followed Shakespeare’s death in 1616, as it is mentioned in the prefatory memorial lines by Leonard Digges in the First Folio: probably, three or four years earlier. The design in its general aspect was one often adopted by the “tombe-makers” of the period, though not originated by them, and according to Dugdale was executed by a Fleming resident in London since 1567,

Garratt Johnson (Gerard Janssen), a denizen. The bust is believed to have been commissioned by the poet’s son-in-law, Dr. John Hall, and, like the Droeshout print, must have been seen by and likely enough had the approval of Mrs. Shakespeare, who did not die until August 1623. It is thought to have been modelled from either a life or death mask, and inartistic as it is has the marks of facial portraiture and is not a generalization such as was common in funereal sculpture. According to the practice of the day, especially at the hands of Flemish sculptors of memorial figures, the bust was coloured; this is sufficient to account for the technical summariness of the modelling and of the forms. Thus the eyebrows are but slightly indicated by the chisel, and a solid surface represents the teeth of the open mouth: the brush was evoked to supply effect and detail. To the colour, as poorly reapplied after the removal of the white paint with which Malone had had the bust covered in 1793, must be attributed a good deal of the wooden appearance which is now a shock to many. The bust is of soft stone, but a careful examination of the work reveals no sign of the alleged breakage of the nose and repair to which some writers have attributed the apparently inordinate length of the upper lip. This appearance is to a great extent an optical illusion, the result partly of the smallness of the nose and, mainly, of the thinness of the moustache that shows the flesh above and below. Some repair was made to the monument in 1649, and again in 1748, but there is no mention in the church records of any meddling with the bust itself. Owing, however, to the characteristic inaccuracy of the print by one of Hollar’s assistants in the

illustration of Dugdale’s Antiquities of Warwickshire (1656), certain writers have been misled into the belief that the whole monument and bust were not merely restored but replaced by others which we see to-day. As other prints in the volume are known to depart grossly from the objects represented, and as Dugdale, like Vertue, was at times equally loose in his descriptions and presentments, there is no reason to believe that the bust and the figures above it are other than those originally placed in position. Moreover, in style, they are strictly of their period. Other engravers, following the Dugdale print, have further stultified the original, but as they differ among themselves, little impor-

tance need be attached to the circumstance. A warning should be uttered against many of the so-called “casts” of the bust. George Bullock took a cast in 1814 and Signor A. Michele another about forty years after, but those attributed to W. R. Kite, W. Scoular, and others, are really misleading copies. Mention should here be made of the ‘“‘Kesselstadt Death Mask,” now at Darmstadt, as that has been claimed as the true deathmask of Shakespeare, and by it the authenticity of other portraits has been gauged. In three places on the back of it is the inscrip-

449

the print; Ben Jonson extolled it—his dedicatory verses, however should be regarded in the light of conventional approval. An authentic portrait, since lost, must necessarily have been the basis of the engraving. Sir George Sharf, judging from the contradictory lights and shadows in the head, astutely concluded that the original must have been a shadowless limning which the youthful engraver attempted to put into chiaroscuro with but partial success. That this is truly the case is shown by the so-called “unique proof” discovered by Halliwell-Phillipps, and now in Mr. H. C. Folger’s collection in America. Another copy is in the Bodleian Library. In this plate the head is far more human, and the bony structure corresponds. In the “proof,” moreover, there is a thin, wiry moustache, afterwards widened in the print as used;

and in several other details there are divergencies. In this engraving by Droeshout the body is too small for the head, and the dress is out of perspective: an additional argument that the unpractised engraver had only a drawing of a head to work from, for while the head shows the individuality of portraiture the body is as clearly guesswork. The “first proof” is conclusive evidence against the contention that the “Flower Portrait” at the Shakespeare Memorial Museum, Stratford-on-Avon—too boldly entitled the “Droeshout original”—is the original painting from which the engraving was made and is, therefore, the actual life-portrait for which Shakespeare sat. We find that several details in the

proof—the incorrect illumination, the small moustache (such as we see, at the same period, in Isaac Oliver’s miniature of Shakespeare’s contemporary, Richard Sackville, 3rd earl of Dorset, dated 1616), the shape of the eyebrow and of the deformed ear, etc.—have been corrected in the painting, in which further improvements are also imported. The conclusion is therefore irresistible. It is possible that the picture may be the earliest painted portrait of the poet—probably executed in the earlier half of the 17th century; but the inscription—Wailli Shakespeare, 1609— is suspect on account of being written in cursive script, the only known example at the date to which it professes to belong. The most interesting parallel to this portrait is perhaps that by William Blake, now in the Manchester Corporation Art Gallery; and one of the cleverest imitations of an old picture in the “Buttery” or “Ellis portrait,” acquired by an American collector in 1902. It is curious that the “Thurston miniature” done from the Droeshout print gives the moustache of the “proof,” —the same moustache as appears in the late Sir James Fergusson’s oil portrait of Shakespeare. Two other portraits of the same character of head and arrangement are the “Ely Palace portrait” and the “Felton portrait.” The “Ely Palace portrait” was discovered in 1845 in a broker’s shop, and was bought by Thomas Turton, bishop of Ely, who died in 1864. It bears the inscription “A 39-+1603,”’ and it shows a moustache and a right eyebrow identical with those in the Droes-

hout “proof.” Some hailed it as the original of the print; others

dismissed it as a “make-up”: at the same time it has not been proved a fraud. The “Felton portrait,” which made its first appearance in 1792, had the championship of the cynical Steevens and other authorities, as the original of the Droeshout print, while a few of those who believed in the “Chandos portrait” denounced tion, -+-A°D;, 1616, and this is the sole actual link with Shake- it as “a rank forgery.” On the back of the panel was traced in a speare. The cast first came to light in 1849 when Dr. Becker florid hand “Gul. Shakespear 1597 R.B.” (by others read “R.N.”). bought it in a broker’s rag shop in Mainz and coolly assumed it If R. B. were correct, it is contended the initials indicate Richard to be the unnamed “plaster of Paris cast” which had appeared Burbage, Shakespeare’s fellow-actor. (Boaden’s copy, made in in the death-sale at Mainz of Count Kesselstadt in 1847. Upon 1792, repeating the inscription on the back, has “Guil. Shakspeare this an ill-judged theory has been elaborated, but nothing has been 1587 R.N.”) The spelling of Shakespeare’s name—which in suc~ carried beyond the point of bare conjecture, while the arguments ceeding ages has been governed by the fashion of the day—has a against the authenticity of the cast are strong and cogent. The distinct bearing on the authenticity of the panel. At the first aphandsome and refined aspect of the mask accounts for much of pearance of the “Felton portrait” in a London sale-room it was bought by Samuel Felton of Drayton, Shropshire, for five pounds, the favour in which it has been held. The “Droeshout print” derives its importance from its having along with a pedigree which carried its refutation along with it. been executed at the order of Heminge and Condell to represent, Nevertheless, it bears evidence of being an honest painting of as a frontispiece to the Plays, and put forth as his portrait, the somebody done from life. Richardson, the printseller, issued man and friend to whose memory they paid the homage of their fraudulent engravings of it by Trotter and others (by which it is adventure. The volume was to be his real monument, and the best known) adding a body in the Droéshout costume and then work was regarded by them as a memorial erected in a spirit of maintaining that the work was the original of the Droeshout print love, pride, and veneration. Mrs. Shakespeare must have seen | and therefore a life-portrait of Shakespeare.

450

SHAKESPEARE

[PORTRAITS

The “Janssen” or “Somerset portrait” is in many respects the | It is thinly painted and scarcely looks the age that is claimed for most interesting painted likeness called “Shakespeare,” as it is it; but it is an interesting work which, in 1875, entered the collecundoubtedly the finest of all the paintings in the series. It is tion of the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts and has since passed to certainly a genuine as well as a very beautiful picture, and bears America. :

the inscription —© 46—but doubt has rightly been expressed whether the 6 of 46 has not been tampered with, altered from o to fit Shakespeare’s age. It was first truly revealed in the photograph of the original published in r909 (in Tke Connoisseur) by permission of the owner, the late Lady Guendolen Ramsden, daughter of the duke of Somerset, the previous possessor. Charles Jennens, the eccentric amateur editor of King Lear issued in 1770,

was the first known owner; he shrank from the challenge to produce the picture. It is more than likely that Janssen was the painter of it at his best; but it is idle to claim it as a likeness of Shakespeare. A number of good copies of it exist, all but one made in the 18th century: the “Croker Janssen” now lost, unless it be Lord Darnley’s; the “Staunton,” the “Buckston,” the ‘“Marsden Janssen,” and the copy in the possession of the duke of Anhalt. These are all above the average merit of such work. The portrait which has made the most popular appeal is that called the “Chandos,” successively known as the “d’Avenant,” the “Stowe,” and the “Ellesmere;” it is now in the National Portrait Gallery. Tradition, tainted at the outset, attributes the authorship of it to Richard Burbage, who is alleged to have given it to his fellow-actor Joseph Taylor, who bequeathed it to Sir William d’Avenant, Shakespeare’s godson. As a matter of fact, Taylor died intestate. Thenceforward, whether or not it once belonged to d’Avenant, its history is clear. At the great Stowe sale of the effects of the duke of Buckingham and Chandos (who had inherited it) the earl of Ellesmere bought it and then presented it to the nation. Many serious inquirers have refused to accept this romantic, Italian-looking head here depicted as a likeness of Shakespeare of the Midlands, if only because in every important physiognomical particular, and in face-measurement, it is contradicted by the Stratford bust and the Droeshout print. Oldys, indifferent to tradition, attributed it to Janssen, an unallowable ascription. That it has not been radically altered by the restorer is proved by the fine copy painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller, and by him presented to John Dryden. D’Avenant had died in 1668, and so could not, as tradition contends was the case, have been the donor. In Malone’s time the picture was already in the possession of the earl Fitzwilliam. This at least proves the esteem in which the Chandos portrait was held by some so far back as the end of the r7th century, only 70 years after Shakespeare’s death. From among the innumerable copies and adaptations of the Chandos portrait a few emerge as having a certain importance of their own. That which Sir Joshua Reynolds is traditionally said to have made for the use of Roubiliac, then engaged on his statue of Shakespeare for David Garrick (now in the British Museum), and another alleged to have been done for Bishop Newton, are now lost. One by Ranelagh Barret was presented in 1779 to Trinity College Library, Cambridge. Dr. Matthew Maty, principal librarian of the British Museum, presented his copy, almost certainly by Roubiliac, to the museum in 1760. There are also the smooth but rather original copy (with drapery added) belonging to the

earl of Bath at Longleat; the Warwick Castle version; the Lord

St. Leonards; another copy in coloured crayons, formerly in the Jennens collection, afterwards belonging to Lord Howe, by van der Gucht; the Shakespeare Hirst picture, based on Houbraken’s engraving, and the Baverstock portrait. The full-size chalk drawing by Ozias Humphry, R.A., at the Birthplace, Malone guaranteed to be a perfect transcript. The “Lumley portrait” represents a heavy-jowled man with pursed-up lips, and with something of the expression but little of the vitality of the Chandos, the original of which George Rippon, when its owner, declared it to be (c. 1848). It was claimed to have belonged to John, Lord Lumley, of Lumley Castle, Durham,

who died in 1609, but the evidence wholly fails. When in Rippon’s

possession the picture was so superbly chromo-lithographed by

Vincent Brooks that copies of it, mounted on old panel or canvas,

and varnished, have often changed hands as Original paintings.

To Frederigo Zuccaro are attributed three of the more impor-

tant portraits now to be mentioned; upon him also have been foisted several of the more impudent fabrications herein named. The “Bath” or “Archer portrait” —it having been in the possession of the Bath Librarian, Archer, when attention was first drawn

to it in 1859—is worthy of Zuccaro’s brush. It is Italian in feeling and in type, with an inscription (““W. Shakespeare”) in an Italian but apparently more modern hand, and it is curious that in certain respects it bears some resemblance not only to the Chandos, and to the Droeshout and Janssen portraits, but also to the “deathmask”; yet it differs in essentials from all. If this refined and dandified and beautifully-painted portrait represents Shakespeare at about the age of 30, that is to say in 1594, the actor-dramatist had made astonishing progress in the world; but Zuccaro came to England in 1574, and as his biographers state “did not stay long.” The conclusion appears to be definite. It is another of the

Baroness Burdett-Coutts’s portraits which have been acquired in America.

Stronger objection applies to the “Boston Zuccaro” or “Joy portrait,” now in Boston, U.S.A—a picture with a not wholly convincing pedigree, and tradition. It is in very fair condition and appears to be a good picture of the Flemish school; but the declaration that it was found in the Globe Tavern which was frequented by Shakespeare and his associates must be held subject to the circumstance that no such tavern is known with any certainty ever to have existed. The “Cosway Zuccaro” portrait is also in America; but the reproduction of it exists in England in the miniature of it by Cosway’s pupil, Charlotte Jones, painted in 1823, as well as in the rare mezzotint by Hanna Greene. Somewhat resembling Shelley in caricature, it suggests an unusual portrait (if authentic) of Shakespeare. The inscription on the back, “Guglielm: Shakespear,” with its mixture of Italian and English, resembles in wording and spelling that adopted in the case of several pictures, the reliability of which is disputed. Wivell attributed it to Lucas Franchois. Of the “Burdett-Coutts portrait” (the fourth interesting portrait of Shakespeare formerly the possession of the Baroness and then of Mr. Burdett-Coutts) there is no history whatever to record. The picture is admirably executed, but the face is weak and is the least satisfactory part of it. Shakespeare’s shield, crest, with red mantling, and the figure “37” beneath it, appear on the background, in the manner adopted in 17th century portraits. From this picture the “Craven portrait” seems to have been derived. ' Equally striking is the “Ashbourne portrait,” well known through G, F. Storm’s mezzotint of it. It is sometimes called the “Kingston portrait” as the first known owner of it was the Rev. Clement U. Kingston, who issued the engraving in 1847. It is an important three-quarter length, representing a refined, fair-haired Englishman, in black, standing beside a table at the corner of which is a skull whereon the figure rests his right forearm, It is an acceptable likeness of Shakespeare, in the manner of Paul von Somer. The inscription “AETATIS SVAE. 47. A° 161 1,” and the suspect decoration of cross spears on a book held by the right hand, are also raised from the ground, so that it would be injudicious to decide that these arẹ not later additions. In 1928 it passed into American possession. More famous, but less reputable, is the “Stratford” or “Hunt portrait,” in the Birthplace at Stratford. It had been in the Hunt family for many years and represented a black-bearded man. Collins, the picture cleaner, removed the top figure from the dilapidated canvas with spirit and found beneath it the painted

version of the Stratford bust. Then Collins (always a suspect in this matter) proceeded with the restoration, and by treatment of the hair made the portrait more than ever like the bust; and the picture thereupon was clainied to be the original from which the bust was made, although the style of the painting suggests a date not later than the latter half of the 18th century. The “Duke

of Leeds portrait,” for Many

years at Hornby

PORTRAITS]

SHAKESPEARE

451

castle, but without a history, slightly recalls the Janssen por- trait” and the “Challis portrait.” The “Countess of Zetland’s trait. There is nothing but the “wired band” to connect it with portrait,” which had its adherents, was destroyed by fire. There is a class of honestly produced memorial paintings in Shakespeare. Much the same may be said of the “Welcombe porearnest attempts have been made to reconstitute the face which trait,” which was bought by Mark Phillips of Welcombe and came the best and most into the possession of the late Sir George Trevelyan. It is a and form of the poet, combining within them The most successportraits. earliest the of features characteristic “Boston the to resemblance some fairly good picture, having Those Manchester. in Brown, Madox Ford by that is these of ful Zuccaro” with something of the Chandos. Two other portraits at take lower rank. R.A., Howard, Henry and R.A., Rigaud, F. J. by por“Venice the named: be should Memorial the Shakespeare publicity in Stratford, trait,” which was bought in Paris and is said to have come from The “Booker portrait,” which gained wide by P. Krämer and Venice, bearing on the back an Italian undecipherable inscription— might be included here as well as the heads Germany. in executed those among are which Rumpf, “Jacob the and Shakespeare; it seems to have no connection with Unproved portraits have been at times as ardently accepted Tonson portrait,” 1735, which was probably executed for Tonson’s as those with some solid claim to consideration. The “Shake4th edition of Shakespeare, but not used. It isa genuine The “Soest portrait” (often called Zoust or Zoest), formerly speare Marriage picture” was discovered in 1872. out money in the foreweighing wife and man of picture Dutch por“Clarges the or Kaye” “Lister the Douglas,” “the as known door Shaketrait,” according to the owner of the moment, was for many years a public favourite, mainly through J. Simon’s excellent mezzotint. Soest was not born until 1637, and according to Granger the picture was painted in Charles II.’s reign. A number of copies exist, two of which are at the Shakespeare Memorial. Of the “Charlecote portrait,” which was exhibited publicly at Stratford in 1896, the chief resemblance to Shakespeare lies in his baldness, and wired band. The fact that it was once in the possession of the Rev. John Lucy-lent it a sort of reputation, although he bought it in 1853. Similarly, the “Hampton Court portrait” derives such interest as it possesses from the fact that William IV. bought it as a portrait of Shakespeare, and lodged it in the Palace. Similarly unacceptable is the “H. Danby Seymour portrait” which was lent to the National Portrait Exhibition of 1866 (said to be still in the possession. of that family). It is a fine three-quarter length in the Miervelt manner. The “Lytton portrait,” a gift made to a former Lord Lytton after it had emerged from Windsor Castle, is mainly interesting as having been copied by Miller in his original profile engraving of Shakespeare. The “Rendelsham” and “Crooks” portraits also belong to the class of capital paintings representing some one other than Shakespeare; and the same may be said of the “Grafton” or “Winston” portrait, the “Sanders,” the

“Gilliland” (an old man’s head absurdly advanced by Wivell), the striking “Thorne Court portrait,” the “Aston Cantlow,” the

“Burn,” the “Gwennet,” and the “Wilson” portraits, and others. Miniature-painting has assumed a certain importance in relation to the subject. The “Welbeck Abbey,” or “Harleian miniature,” is that which Walpole caused to be engraved by Vertue for Pope’s edition of Shakespeare (1723-1725), but which Oldys declared, incorrectly, to be a juvenile portrait of James I. According to Scharf, it belonged to Robert Harley, rst earl of Oxford, but whence it came is not known. It has been denounced as a piece of arrant sycophancy that Pope adopted this beautiful but unauthenticated portrait, simply in order to please the aristocratic patron of his literary circle. It measures 2 in. high; Vertue’s exquisite engraving, executed in 1721, enlarged it to 54 in., and became the “authority” for numerous copies,, British and foreign. The “Somerville” or “Hilliard miniature,” long owned by Lord ” and Lady Northcote, is claimed to have descended from Shakespeare’s friend, Somerville of Edstone, grandfather of the poet Somerville. It was first known in 1818 when in the possession of Sir James Bland Burges. It is certainly by Hilliard, but it hardly conforms to the appearance of the poet. The well-known ‘Auriol miniature,” now in America, is one of the least sympathetic and the least acceptable of the so-called Shakespeare miniatures. Before it came into the hands of the collector, Charles Auriol, its history is unknown. The other principal miniatures of interest, but lacking authority, are the “Waring,” the “Tomkinson,” the doubtful “Isaac Oliver,” the “Mackey” and “Glen” miniatures, and those presented to the Shakespeare Memorial by Lord Ronald Gower, T. Kite, and Henry Graves. These are all contemporary or early works. In this category are a number of

enamels by accomplished artists, the chief of them Henry Bone,

R.A., H. P. Bone, and W. Essex. Several recorded painted portraits have disappeared, other than

those already mentioned; these include the “Earl of Oxford por-

ground—a frequent subject—while through an open speare and, presumably, Ann Hathaway are seen going through the ceremony of handfasting. The inscription and the Shakespeare head (probably the whole group and open door) are unproved. The “Rawson portrait,” inscribed with the poet’s name, is unproved; it is really a beautiful little study of the Lord Keeper Coventry by Janssen. The ‘Matthias Alexander portrait” shows

a modern head on an old body. The “Belmount Hall portrait” with its pseudo-Garrick ms. inscription on the back, is in the present writer’s opinion, doubtful. In the early part of the roth century two clever “restorers,” Holder and Zincke, made a fairly lucrative trade of producing imaginary portraits of Shakespeare and others. Many of these impostures won acceptance, sometimes by the help of the fine engravings which were made of them. Such are the “Stace” and the “Dunford” portraits—so named after the dealers who put them forward: of the latter a copy is in existence known as the “Dr. Clay portrait.” The former is based upon the portrait of Robert Carr, earl of Somerset. There are the two “Winstanley portraits,” the “Bishop Newton,” the “Cygnus Avoniae,” the “Norwich” or “Boardman,” the “Bellows” or “Talma” portraits—most of them, as well as others, traceable to one or other or both of the enterprising restorers thus named. About a dozen are reinforced, as corroborative evidence, with verses supposed to have issued from the pen of Ben Jonson. These are all to be attributed to one ready pseudo-Elizabethan writer whose identity is known. With these pictures, apparently, should be ranged the composition, now in America, purporting to represent Shakespeare and Ben Jonson playing chess. The “fancy-portraits” are also numerous. The 18th-century small full-length “Willett portrait” is at the Shakespeare Memorial—a charmingly touched-in little figure. There are many representations of the poet in his study in the act of composition—

they include those by Benjamin Wilson (Stratford Town Hall),

John Boaden, John Faed, R.A., Sir George Harvey, R.S.A., C. Bestland, B. J. N. Geiger, and the painter of the Warwick Castle picture, etc.; others have for subject Shakespeare reading, either to the Court or to his family, by John Wood, E. Ender, R. Westall, R.A., etc.; or the infancy and childhood of Shakespeare, by George Romney (three pictures), T. Stothard, R.A., John Wood, James Sant, R.A.; and Shakespeare before Sir Thomas Lucy, by Sir G. Harvey, R.S.A., Thomas Brooks, A. Chisholme, etc. These, and kindred subjects such as ‘‘Shakespeare’s Courtship,” have provided infinite material for Shakespeare-loving painters. The engraved portraits on copper, steel, and wood number many hundreds. Vertue and Walpole speak of an engraved portrait by John Payne (fl. 1620, the pupil of Simon Pass and one of the first English engravers who achieved distinction); but no such print has been identified and its existence is doubted. Walpole perhaps confounded it with that by W. Marshall, a reversed and reduced version of the Droeshout, which was published as frontispiece

to the spurious edition of Shakespeare’s poems (1640). An en-

graving, to all but expert eyes unrecognizable as a copy, was made from it in 1815, and another later, by Swaine. William Fatthorne (d. 1691) is credited with the frontispiece to Quarles’s edition of “The Rape of Lucrece, by William Shakespeare, gent.” (1655). It was copied for Rodd by R. Sawyer and republished in 1819; It

represents the tragic scene between Tarquin and Lucrece, and

452

SHAKESPEARE

[PORTRAITS

American lover of the poet) erected, in 1912, in the south aisle of Southwark Cathedral. Among statues erected in the provinces are those by H. Pegram in the building of Birmingham University (1908) and by M. Guillemin for the Nottingham University duced into a pleasing composition. These, like Vertue’s earlier buildings. An imposing Shakespeare Monument by Sir Bertram prints, look to the left; subsequent versions are reversed. Per- Mackennal, has been erected in Melbourne. Several statues of importance have been set up in other counhaps the most popular and important up to that time is the lineengraving (to the right) by Houbraken, a Dutchman, done for tries. The bronze by M. Paul Fournier in Paris (presented by Birch’s “Heads of Illustrious Persons of Great Britain” (1747- an English resident) marks the junction of the Boulevard Hauss1752). This free rendering of the Chandos portrait is the parent mann and the Avenue de Messine (1888). The seated marble of the numerous engravings of “the Houbraken type.” Since that statue by Professor O. Lessing was erected in Weimar by the date many plates of a high order, from many of the principal German Shakespeare Society; and a seated statue in stone roughly portraits, have been issued, in the majority of cases being ex- hewn with characteristic breadth by the Danish sculptor, Louis Hasselriis, has for some years been placed in the apartment of tremely inaccurate. Numerous portraits in stained glass have been inserted in the the Castle of Kronborg, in which, according to the Danish tradiwindows of public institutions. Typical of them are the German tion, Shakespeare and his company acted for the king of DenChandos windows by Franz Mayer (Mayer & Co.) at Stationers’ mark; the present castle, however, was not built till a later period. Hall, and in St. Helens, Bishopsgate (Professor Blaim); that of America possesses some well-known statues. That by J. Q. A. the Droeshout type in the great hall of the City of London school, Ward is in Central Park, New York (1872). In 1886 W. O. and another by John R. Clayton in St. James’s, Shoreditch. The Partridge modelled and carved the seated marble figure for LinDroeshout window by Savill, in the Empire theatre, London, has coln Park, Chicago; and later, Frederick MacMonnies produced been removed to be placed, it is said, in the Drury Lane theatre. his very imaginative statue for the Library of Congress, WashingFord Madox Brown’s design is one of the best ever executed. ton, D.C. This is in some measure based on the Droeshout enWe now come to the sculptured memorials. After Gerrard graving. William R. O’Donovan also sculptured a portrait of Johnson’s bust no statuary portrait seems to have been executed Shakespeare in 1874. Undue consideration was given by some until 1740, when the statue in Poets’ Corner, Westminster Abbey, to the bust made by William Page of New York in preparation for was set up by public subscription, mainly through the activity of a picture of the poet he was about to paint. As he was no the earl of Burlington, Dr. R. Mead, and the poet Pope. It was sculptor the bust is. no more successful than the picture. The “Invented” by William Kent and carried out by Peter Schee- bust by R. S. Greenough, based in part on the “Boston Zuccaro” makers. It is technically good, and is interesting as being the first portrait, must be included here, as well as the romantic marble sculptured portrait of the poet based upon the Chandos picture. A bust by Augusto Possaglio of Florence (presented to the Garrick free repetition, reversed and with many changes of detail, is Club by the tragedian Salvini in 1876); the imaginative work by erected in a niche on the exterior wall of the town-hall of Strat- Altini (Duke of Northumberland, Alnwick Castle) and the busts ford-on-Avon. The marble copy, much simplified, in Leicester by F. M. Miller, E. G. Zimmermann, Albert Toft, J. E. Carew Square, is by Fontana, a gift to London by Baron Albert Grant. and P. J. Chardigny of Paris. The last named was a study made By L. F. Roubiliac is the statue which in 1758 David Garrick in 1850, for a proposed statue, roo ft. high. Attention has been commissioned him to carve and which he bequeathed to the accorded for several years past to the large pottery bust in high British Museum. Three terra-cotta models for the statue are in relief attributed to John Dwight’s Fulham Pottery (c. 1675); the Victoria and Albert Museum and in private hands; a marble the present writer, however, has established that it is by Lipsreproduction of it also exists. To Roubiliac also must be credited combe, in the latter portion of the 19th century. the celebrated “Davenant Bust” of blackened terra-cotta in the _ For the less significant sections of portraiture—the wood-carvpossession of the Garrick Club. This fine work of art derives ings (including the medallion traditionally said to have been cut its name from having been found bricked up in the old Duke’s by Hogarth and inset in the back of the “Shakespeare Chair” theatre in Portugal Row, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, which 180 years presented to Garrick) ; the medals, coins, and token-money; porcebefore was d’Avenant’s. The fine alto-relievo representation of lain and pottery—figures, busts, etc.; engraved gems; and nuShakespeare, by T. Banks, R.A., between the Geniuses of Paint- merous other items, space cannot here be found. The curious ing and the Drama, is now in the garden of New Place, Stratford- reader is referred to the article in the eleventh edition of this on-Avon. It is remarkable that Banks’s was the first British hand work for numerous details touching the whole subject. to model a portrait of the poet. Bre_ioGR above is inset an oval medallion, being a rendering of the Droes-

hout portrait reversed. Of the earliest engravings from the Chandos portrait, the first is by L. du Guernier (Arlaud type) and that by M. (father of G.) van der Gucht; they are intro-

In more recent times numerous attempts have been made to reconstitute the figure of Shakespeare in sculpture. One of the most ambitious of these is Lord Ronald Gower’s elaborate memorial group presented by himself to Stratford and set up outside the Memorial Theatre in 1888. In 1864 J. E. Thomas modelled the colossal group of Shakespeare with attendant figures of Comedy and Tragedy that was erected in the grounds of the Crystal Palace, and in the same year Charles Bacon produced his huge

APHY.—The

most important

books on Shakespeare

portraiture are as follows: G. Steevens, Proposals for Publishing the Felton Portrait, 1794, 8vo; J. Britton, On the Monumental Bust, 1816, 8vo; J. Boaden, Authenticity of Various Pictures and Prints offered as Portraits of Se 1824, 4to; A. Wivell, The Monumental Bust, 1827,

Svo, and Inquiry into the S. Portraits, 1840, 8vo; H. Rodd, The

Chandos Portrait [18491], Portrait, 1849, 8vo; J. Portraits, 1851, 8vo; C. 8vo; J. H. Friswell, Life

8vo; R. H. Forster, Remarks on the Chandos P. Collier, Dissertation upon the Imputed Wright, The Stratford Portrait of S., 1861, Portraits of W.S., 1864, 8vo; Sir G. Scharf,

Centenary Bust. The chief statues, single or in a group, in Lon- On the Principal Portraits of S., 1864, 12mo; E. T. Craig, S. and his Portraits, Bust and Monument, 1864 and 1886, 8vo, and S.’s Portraits don still to be mentioned are the following: that by H. H. Arm- bhrenologically considered, Philadelp 1875, 8vo; G. Harrison, The stead, R.A., in marble, on the southern podium of the Albert Stratford Bust, Brooklyn, 1865, 4to;hia, W. Page, Study of S.’s Portraits, Memorial; by Hamo Thornycroft, R.A. (1871), on-the Poets’ 1876, sm. 4to ; J. P. Norris, Bibliography of Works on the Portraits of Fountain in Park Lane; by Messrs. Daymond on the upper storey S., Philadelphia, 1879, 8vo; The Death Mask of S., 1884, and The Portraits of S., Phil., 1885, 4to (very inaccurate) ; Amédée Pichot, S., of the City of London School, on the Victoria Embankment; and les avec portraits authentiques (Revue Britannique), Paris, 1888; by F. E. Schenck, a seated figure, on the facade of the HammerBormann, Der S.-Dichter: wer war's und wie sah er aus, Leipzig,Edwin 1902 smith Public Library. The Droeshout portrait is the basis of the (Baconian); A. A. Bekk, Des Dichters Bild, Berlin, 1902, 8vo; John head in the bronze memorial by Professor Lantéri set into the Corbin, 4 New Portrait of S. (the “Ely Palace”), 1903, 8vo; M. H. Spielmann , The Portraits of S., 1907, 8vo, and The Title-page of the wall on the conjectural site of the Globe Theatre (1909) and of First Folio, 1924; W. B. Kempling, S. Memorials in London, 1923; Sir the excellent bust by Mr. C. J. Allen in the churchyard of St. G. Greenwood, The Stratford Bust and the Droeshout Engraving, 1925 Mary the Virgin, Aldermanbury, in memory of Heminge and (anti-S”); M. C. palaman, S. n Pictorial Art (The Studio, 1926). Condell (1896). A recumbent statue, with head of the Droeshout See also Jaggard’s S. Bibliography (Stratford, 1911) ; Cat. of Portraits of W.S. (Grafton Galleries, London, 1917); and, for an account of type, executed by H. McCarthy, was, through the efforts of the portraits in the Barton Collectn.,

Dr. R. W. Leftwich and the generosity of Mr. S. Saltus (an Knapp in their S. Cat. (1880).

Boston

Pub. Li

A. M.

eC HT S.)

SHALE GENERAL CLASSIFIED BIBLIOGRAPHY The following classified list is an attempt to indicate the more important books still valuable for study. For full lists see W. Jaggard’s Shakespeare Bibliography (Stratford, r91z), supplemented by the Jahrbuch of the German Shakespeare-Gesellschaft, which records later books, with articles in periodicals; also the annual Bibliography of the Modern Humanities Research Association, and the Year's Work in English Studies of the English Association.

I. TEXTS The chief Quartos are reproduced in S. Quarto Facsimiles (188389, Quaritch), and the First Folto in facsimiles of 1902 (Clarendon Press) and roro (Methuen), and a good reprint of 1862 (Booth). Eighteenth century learning from the editions of N. Rowe (1709), A. Pope (1723-25), L. Theobald (1733), W. Warburton (1747), S. Johnson (1765), E. Capell (1767), G. Steevens (1773), E. Malone (1790) and others is collected in the Third Variorum edition (1821), edited by J. Boswell from Malone’s papers. T. R. Lounsbury, The

First Editors of S. (1906) describes the beginnings of textual criticism. Of innumerable later editions the most important are, for textual collation the Cambridge (1863-66, 1891-93, ed. W. G. Clark, J. Glover

and W. A. Wright) and for general commentary the New Variorum (1871, etc., ed. H. H. Furness, in progress) and the Arden (1899-1924, various eds.). Less full, but handy for the ordinary reader, are the Eversley (1899-1903, ed. C. H. Herford), the Temple (1894-096, ed. I. Gollancz), and the Yale (New York, 1918-27, various eds.). The “New” Cambridge (1921 etc., ed. A. T. Quiller-Couch and J. D. Wilson, in progress) is interesting but speculative. The best un-

annotated one-vol. texts are the Globe (1874, etc., ed. W. G. Clark and W. A. Wright), the Oxford (ed. W. J. Craig) and the Cambridge (U.S.A. 1906, ed. W. A. Neilson); ascribed plays are in The Shakespeare Apocrypha (1908, ed. C. F. Tucker Brooke). The best separate editions of the Sonnets are by E. Dowden (1881); H. C. Beeching (1904); W. H. Hadow (1907); R. M. Alden (1916); T. G. Tucker (1924) ; and of the Poems by G. Wyndham (1898).

II. BIOGRAPHY Most of the documentary evidence is in J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, Outlines of the Life of S. (ed., 1898), and more briefly in D. H. Lambert, Cartae Shakespeareanae (1904) and C. F. T. Brooke, S. of

Stratford (1926). The fullest narrative Life is by Sir Sidney Lee (ed., 1925); that by F. Q. Adams (1923) is also useful. Contemporary notices and allusions are in J. J. Munro, S. Allusion Book (1909). Valuable studies are G. R. French, Shakespeareana Genealogica (1869); F. G. Fleay, Life and Work of S. (1886); C. C. Stopes, S’s Family (1901); S’s Environment (1914); C. I. Elton, W. S. his Family and Friends (1904); J Gray, S’s Marriage and Departure from Stratford (1905); E. Law, S. as Groom of the Chamber (1910). Conflicting views are in T. Carter, S. Puritan and Recusant (1897) and Father H. S. Bowden, Religion of S.

OIL

453

Text (1923); W. W. Greg, Merry Wives (1910), Two Elizabethan Stage Abridgements (1923); Studies in the First Folio (1924, by various hands); L. Kellner, Restoring S. (1925); and S’s script, especially in relation to Sir Thomas More, in E. M. Thompson,

S’s Handwriting

(1916); A. W. Pollard and others, S’s Hand in

the Play of S.T.M. (1923); S. A. Tannenbaum, The Bocke of S.T.M. (1927), Problems in S’s Penmanship (1927). Scepticism as to S. authorship takes an extreme form in J. M. Robertson, S. and Chapman (1917). Problem of Merry Wives (1917); Problem of Hamlet (1919), Hamlet once more (1923). The S. Canon (1922-25), with an Introduction (1924), Problems of the S. Sonnets (1926); and is criticized in E. K. Chambers, Disintegration of S. (1924). V. LITERARY APPRECIATION The best of the earlier criticism is in J. Dryden, Essays (1900, ed. W. P. Ker); D. Nichol Smith, Eighteenth Century Essays on S (x903), S. Criticism; a Selection (1916, including Lamb, Hazlitt, De Quincey); W. Raleigh, Johnson on. S. (1908); J. W. Mackail, Coleridge’s Literary Criticism (1908). Modern studies, from various standpoints are E. Dowden, S. his Mind and Art (1874); A. C. Swinburne, Study of S. (1880); G. G. Gervinus, S. Commentaries (1883); W. Pater, Appreciations (1889); B. Ten Brink, Five Lectures on S. (1895); G. Sarrazin, S’s Lehrjahre (1897), Aus S’s Meisterwerkstatt (1906); R. G. Moulton, S. as a Dramatic Artist (1897); S. as a Dramatic Thinker (1907); G. Brandes, W. S. (1898, 1900); F. R. Lounsbury, S. as a Dramatic Artist (1902); A. C. Bradley, Sn Tragedy (1905), Oxford Lectures in Poetry (1909); W. Raleigh, S. (1907); J. Masefield, W.S. (1911); A. T. Quiller-

Couch, S’s Workmanship (1917); R. M. Alden, S. (1922); B. Croce, Ariosto, S., and Corneille (1922); E. K. Chambers, S.: A Survey, (19253); H. Granville Barker, From Henry V. to Hamlet (1925). Prefaces to S. (1927); E. E. Stoll, S. Studies (1927).

VI. LANGUAGE

AND

VERSIFICATION

The best Glossary is that of C. T. Onions (1919), based on the Oxford English Dictionary, and the best Concordance that of J. Bartlett (1894). Special dictionaries are F. G. Stokes, Characters and Proper Names in S. (1924); E. H. Sugden, Topographical Dict. of

S. and his Fellow Dramatists (1925). Grammar, punctuation and metre are dealt with in E. A. Abbott, Sx Grammar (1888) ; W. Franz, S. Grammatik (3rd ed., 1924) ; P. Simpson, Sn Punctuation (1911);

C. M. Ingleby, S. the Man and the Book, Part it. (1881, with F. G. Fleay’s corrected statistics of metre); J. B. Mayor, Chapters on English Metre (1886); G. Konig, Vers in S’s Dramen (1888) ; D. L. Chambers, Metre of Macbeth (1903); B. A. P. Van Dam

and C. Stoffel, W. S. Prosody and Text (1900); A. Kerrl, Metrischen Unterschiede von S’s K. John and J. Caesar (1913); M. A. Bayfield, S’s Versification (1920). VII SOURCES AND KNOWLEDGE Sources of S’s plots are collected in W. C. Hazlitt, S’s Library

(18478); S. Classics (1903-13, by various eds.); W. G. Boswell Stone, S’s Holinshed (1896); W. W. Skeat, S’s Plutarch (1892); R. H. Carr, Plutarch’s Lives. His range of reading is studied in H. R. D. Anders, S’s Books (1904), and special aspects in R. Farmer, Essay on the (1861); and the genuineness of some suspected documents is estab- Learning of S. (1767) ; P. Stapfer, S. aud Classical Antiquity (1880) ; lished in E. Law, Some Supposed S. Forgeries (1g11) and More R. K. Root, Classical Mythology in S. (1903); M. W. MacCallum, about $. Forgeries (1913). S’s Roman Plays and their Background (1910); C. Wordsworth, S's Knowledge and Use of the Bible (4th ed., 1892); T. Carter, HI. ENVIRONMENT S. and Holy Scripture (1905); J. A. R. Marriott, English History Reference should be made to the general bibliographies for in S. (1918); J. M. Robertson, Montaigne and S. (1909); G. C. ENGLISH LITERATURE; ELIZABETHAN DRAMA and THEATRE. Here may Taylor, S’s Debt to Montaigne (1925); H. Green, S. and ithe Emblem be noted as of special value for the illustration of S.:—On the Writers (1870); R. Jente, Proverbs of S. (1926); and his experience drama, A. W. Ward, History of English Dramatic Literature (and of life in W. L. Rushton, S. a Lawyer (1858); Lord Campbell, ed., 1899); W. W. Greg, Henslowe’s Diary (1904-08), Henslowe S’s Legal Acquirements (1859); W. C. Devecmon, Im re S’s Legal Papers (1907); F. E. Schelling, English Drama, 1558-1642 (1908); Acquirements (1899); C. Allen, Notes on the Bacon S. Question W. Creizenach, Geschichte des neueren Dramas, vols. iv. v. (1909, (1900); J. C. Bucknill, Medical Knowledge of S. (1860); Mad Folk 1916); F. S. Boas, S. and his Predecessors (1896) ;—on the stage, of S. (1867); }. Moyes, Medicine and Kindred Arts in the Plays of S. J. T. Murray, English Dramatic Companies (1910); C. C. Stopes, (1896); W. Blades, S. and Typography (1872); E. W. Naylor, Burbage and S’s Stage (1913); A. H. Thorndike, S’s Theater (1916) ; S. and Music (1896); G. H. Cowling, Music on the S’n Stage J. Q. Adams, Sn. Playhouses (1920); E. K. Chambers, Elizabethan (1913); E. Noble, S’s Use of Song (1926); D. H. Madden, Diary Stage (1923); W. W. Braines, Site of the Globe Playhouse (1924); of Master William Silence (1907, on field sports); W. L. Rushton, T. W. Baldwin, Organisation and Personnel of the S. Company S. an Archer (1897); H. N. Ellacombe, S. as an Angler (1883); (1927); S. and the Theatre (1927, by various hands); on local Plant-lore and. Garden-Craft of S. (4rd ed., 1896) ; F. G. Savage, Flora conditions, T. F. Ordish, S’s London (1904); Sir S. Lee, Stratfordand Folk-lore of S. (1923); T. F. Dyer, Folk-lore of S. (1884); A. on-Avon (1907); E. I. Fripp, Master Richard Quyny (1924); Nutt, Fairy Mythology of S. (1900) ; J. E. Harting, Ornithology of S. Minutes and Accounts of the Corporation of Stratford-upon-Avon (18471); W. H. Seager, Natural History in S’s Time (1896); W. B. (Dugdale Soc., 1921, etc. in progress); and on contemporary Whall, S’s Sea Terms Explained (1910); A. B. Jameson, S’s Heroines civilization, S’s England (2nd ed., 1926). (2nd ed., 1879}; H. Martin, Some of S’s Female Characters (1885); A. M. Mackenzie, Women in S’s Plays (1924). (E. K. C.) IV. PROBLEMS OF THE TEXTS

(1899). The “Ireland” forgeries are discussed in E. Malone, Inquiry into the Authenticity of Certain Papers (1796); the “Collier” forgeries in C. M. Ingleby, Complete View of the S. Controversy

Much recent study on the nature and origination of the extant texts is summarized in C. H. Herford, Sketch of Recent S. Investigation . (1923). Bibliographical data are given in W. W. Greg, List af English Plays (1900); H. C. Bartlett, Mr. W. S. (1922). The

SHALE

OIL.

The sbale oil industry, although known

in France in the early part of the roth century, owes its existence in its present form to Dr. James Young, who, in 2850, obtained his well-known patent for producing paraffin oil and paraffin from relation of the Folios and Quartos, the possibilities of textual error, bituminous coal by slow distillation. This process was even worked and the production of “surreptitious” texts are discussed in A. W. Pollard, S. Folios and Quartos (1909); Rich. IT. a New Quarto in America until the discovery of petroleum. The industry (1916); S’s Fight with the Pirates (1917, 1920); Foundations of S’s has been centred im the Mid-Lothian area of Scotland since 1862

454

SHALLOT—SHAMASH

and an average of about three million tons of raw shale has been raised for many years. The oil shale of Scotland is dark grey with a laminated or horny fracture. Its specific gravity is about 1-75. The oil consists chiefly of paraffins and olefins. Shales are widely distributed throughout the world. The French industry is older than that of Scotland; the deposits in New South Wales are very much richer than those of Europe and yields of over roogal. per ton have been quoted; in Germany there are vast quantities of lignites and brown coals that are being worked vigorously; while in Colorado and Utah there is an immense potential wealth of this material. The world-wide exploitation of oil shale, however, is dependent entirely on the exhaustion of petroleum and there appears to be no immediate likelihood of any shortage in this direction. The world’s annual production of mineral oil is approximately 150 million tons.

Shale Oil Refining.—Originally, horizontal retorts similar to those in coal-gas manufacture were employed. The first step in advance was made by Henderson in 1873 when vertical retorts with a capacity of 18cwt. were arranged in groups of four and charged in rotation. The outlet for the oil vapours was at the lower end of the retort, and steam was blown in copiously to assist in the uniform heating of the shale and to remove oil vapours. The later Henderson retorts worked continuously and were gas-heated. The upper part was of cast iron and heated to about goo° F whilst the lower part was fireclay maintained to about 1,300° F. The charge in the retort travelled downwards owing to the periodical removal of spent shale at the bottom and no shale passed into the fireclay section until it had yielded all its oil, In the lower section the high temperature and the presence of steam brought about the removal of the nitrogen in the shale in the form of ammonia. The vapours from the retorts passed through air condensers in which ammoniacal liquor and crude oil were separated. The uncondensed gas was stripped of its light gasolene and used as fuel. Crude shale oil is dark in colour and has a specific gravity approaching o-890 and a setting point of about go° F. It contains about 80% of hydrocarbons together with pyridine bases and cresols. In the refining of shale oil, ample steam is used in the stills, which are continuous in operation. The various fractions are agitated with acid and soda and again redistilled into crude naphtha (up to 0-770 specific gravity) and to burning oil (up to 0-850 specific gravity) and into “heavy oil and paraffin” which is solid at ordinary temperature. The acid and soda treatment and redistillation is repeated on the lighter fractions, whilst the solid paraffin is separated by chilling and pressing from the lubricating oll base—so that finished naphtha, burning oil, solid paraffin and lubricating oils are ultimately obtained.

The following table gives an average yield:

Gasolene and naphtha . . Burning oils 0 a Intermediate and lubricating oils . Crude paraffin wax. . . . Los .

. .

. .

.

. .

6-90% 31-84% , 23-97% a 13:53% 24:57%

From the ammoniacal liquor ammonia is driven off by the application of heat and lime, the liberated gas is brought into contact with sulphuric acid and converted into ammonium sulphate, a by-product that has been of considerable importance in enabling the industry to hold its own against competition. (See

PETROLEUM: Gasolene.) (A. E. D.) SHALLOT (Allium ascalonicum) (family Liliaceae), a hardy

bulbous perennial, which has not been certainly found wild and is regarded by A. de Candolle as probably a modification of A. Cepa (the onion), dating from about the beginning of the Christian era. It is extensively cultivated and is much used in cookery and is excellent when pickled.

SHALMANESER

[Ass. Sulmanu-osarid, “the god Sulman

(Solomon) is chief”], the name of three Assyrian princes. SHALMANESER I., son of Hadad-nirari I., succeeded his father as king of Assyria about 1310 B.c. He carried on a series of

campaigns against the Aramaeans in northern Mesopotamia, annexed a portion of Cilicia to the Assyrian empire, and established Assyrian colonies on the borders of Cappadocia. According

to his annals, discovered at Assur, in his first year he conquered eight countries in the north-west and destroyed the fortress of Arinnu, the dust of which he brought to Assur. In his second year he defeated Sattuara, king of Malatia, and his Hittite allies, and conquered the whole country as far south as Carchemish. He built palaces at Assur and Nineveh, restored “the worldtemple” at Assur, and founded the city of Calah. SHALMANESER II. succeeded his father Assur-nazir-pal III. 858 B.c. His long reign was a constant series of campaigns against the eastern tribes, the Babylonians, the nations of Mesopotamia and Syria, as well as Cilicia and Ararat. His armies penetrated to Lake Van and Tarsus, the Hittites of Carchemish were compelled to pay tribute, and Hamath (Hamah) and Damascus were subdued. In 854 B.c. a league formed by Hamath, Arvad, Ammon, “Ahab of Israel” and other neighbouring princes, under the leadership of Damascus, fought an indecisive battle against him at Karkar (Qarqar), and other battles followed in 849 and

846. (See Jews § 10.) In 842 Hazael was compelled to take refuge within the walls of his capital. The territory of Damascus was devastated, and Jehu of Samaria (whose ambassadors are represented on the Black Obelisk now in the British Museum) sent tribute along with the Phoenician cities. Babylonia had already

been conquered as far as the marshes of the Chaldaeans in the south, and the Babylonian king put to death. In 836 Shalmaneser

made an expedition against the Tibareni (Tabal) which was followed by one against Cappadocia, and in 832 came the campaign in Cilicia. In the following year the old king found it needful to hand over the command

of his armies to the Tartan

(com-

mander-in-chief), and six years later Nineveh and other cities revolted against him under his rebel son Assur-danin-pal. Civil war continued for two years; but the rebellion was at last crushed by Samas-Rimmon or Samsi-Hadad, another son of Shalmaneser. Shalmaneser died soon afterwards in 823 p.c. He had built a palace at Calah, and the annals of his reign are engraved on an obelisk of black marble which he erected there. See V. Scheil in Records of the Past, new series, iv. 36-79.

SHALMANESER III. (or IV.) appears as governor of Zimirra in Phoenicia in the reign of Tiglath-pileser IV. (or III.) and is supposed by H. Winckler to have been the son of the latter king. At all events, on the death of Tiglath-pileser, he succeeded to the throne the 25th of Tebet 727 3B.c., and changed his original name of Ulula to that of Shalmaneser. The revolt of Samaria took place during his reign (see Jews § 15), and while he was besieging the rebel city he died on the 12th of Tebet 722 B.C. and the crown was seized by Sargon. For all these rulers see BABYLONIA AND Assyria, Sections V. and VIIL, and works quoted. (A. H. S.)

SHAMANISM, the name commonly given to the religion of

the Ural-Altaic peoples. The shaman or priest (Tungus saman, Altain Turk kama, cf. Russian kamlanie) is (a) priest, (b) medicine man, (c) prophet. Family Shamanism is connected with the domestic ritual. Professional shamans are not definitely attached to a social unit. A supernatural gift is everywhere a necessary qualification, and in some cases the office is hereditary—if a descendant shows a disposition for the calling. Each family possesses one or more drums, and when these are beaten some member tries to communicate with the spirits. The possession is assoclated with hysteria. It is obtained in various ways, by dreams, visions, and fasting. Consecration rites are lengthy and expensive. See M.A. Czaplicka, Aboriginal Siberia (1914).

SHAMASH

or šamas, the common Semitic word for “sun.”

In pre-Islamic times Samsu was regarded throughout Arabia as a goddess and often called da “goddess,” wife of the moon god Wadd, and mother of Athtar, the planet Venus. Her symbol in Arabia was a disk. Among the north Semitic races (Canaanitic and Aramaean) the name is Semes, SimSa, and always masculine. Traces of Canaanitish worship are found in the Old Testament, for which see II Kings 23, 11, where the horses and the chariots

of Canaanitish heathendom were removed by Josiah.

The sun-

god is symbolised by the horse in pre-Islamic Arabia also, and pillars called hammanim, bearing the sun disk, were set upon the altars of the Canaanitish Ba‘als. In Arabia this deity has the

SHAMMAI—SHANGHAIT epithet “Mistress of heat,” when she is the summer sun, and “Mistress of the distant region (south),” when she is the winter sun. When the Semites first appear in history in Babylonia they

identified their sun god (Sama) with the older Sumerian sun god, Utu, Babbar, and it is probable that this caused the change in gender throughout the north Semitic peoples. This contact of the Semite with the Sumerians occurred as early as 3200 B.C. He became here one of the great deities of ancient religion, and lost all earlier Semitic traces to be completely transformed into a Sumerian deity; as such his cult appears throughout Babylonian and Assyrian history and survived at various Syrian centres to a late period. The two chief centres of sun-worship in Babylonia were Sippara (Sippar), represented by the mounds at Abu Habba, and Larsa, represented by the modern Senkerah. At both places the chief sanctuary bore the name E-barra (or E-babbara) “the shining house”—a direct allusion to the brilliancy of the sun-god. Of the two temples, that at Sippara was the more famous, but temples to Shamash were erected in all large centres—as Babylon, Ur, Nippur and Nineveh. The attribute most commonly associated with Shamash is justice. Khammurabi attributes to Shamash the inspiration that led him to gather the existing laws and legal procedures into a code, and in the design accompanying the code the king represents himself in an attitude of adoration before Shamash as the embodiment of the idea of justice. Several centuries before Khammurabi, Ur-Nammu of the Ur dynasty (c. 2600 B.c.) declared that he rendered decisions “according to the just laws

of Shamash.” Together with Sin and Ishtar, Shamash forms a second triad by the side of Anu, Bel and Ea. The three deities, Sin, Shamash and Ishtar (q.v.), the sun, the moon and Venus form an astronomical triad corresponding to the same early Arabian triad. At times, instead of Ishtar, we find Adad (g.v.), the storm-god, associated with Sin and Shamash. In Sumero-Babylonian religion Shamash was regarded as the son of the moon god, Sin. The consort of Shamash was known as Aya. BrBtiocrarHy.—A. Schollmeyer, Sumench baliin Hymnen und Gebete an Šamaš (Paderborn, 1912). P. Jensen, Texte zur assyrisch-babylonischen Religion (Berlin, 1925), pp. 96-107. On symbols, C. Frank, Bilder und Symbole babylonisch-assyrischer Gétter (Leipzig, 1906), pp. 15-17, four pointed star, Maltese Cross, horse, winged disc. For the early Arabian deity, Handbuch der Altarabischen Altertumskunde, vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1927), pp. 224-228, etc.

SHAMMAI, a Jewish scribe of the time of King Herod, whom tradition almost invariably couples with Hillel (q.v.), with whom he stood in striking contrast, not merely in legal-religious decisions and discussions, but also in character and temperament. The “opposition between Shammai and Hillel was perpetuated by their respective schools, till, under Gamaliel II., the strife was decided at Jabneh in favour of the school of Hillel.

455

defenders were gradually subdued, Shamyl himself being captured in 1859. The rest of his life was spent in an easy captivity at Kaluga, St. Petersburg and Kiev. He died at Mecca during a pilgrimage in 1871. One of his sons took service in the Russian, the other in the Turkish army.

SHAN, a southern Mongoloid race, one of the most numerous and important of Asia, constituting a large proportion of the population of Assam, Burma, Siam and probably southern China. Their own name for themselves is Tai (Thai), “Free.” “Shan” is probably a Chinese term meaning mountaineer and the same word as Siam, where, however, the name for the race is Lao. In Assam they are called Ahom; Pat and Ngiou are other terms used in China and Burma. They seem to have come originally from the Kinlung mountains north of Szechwan, and to have fused with the Chinese, and with the leucoderm aborigines who survive all over the uplands between Tibet and the coast of Cochin-China. The expansion of the Shans towards the sea, at the expense of the MonKhmer nation, took place about the seventh century A.D. The Chinese invasion of Burma in the thirteenth century gave them the predominant position in Asra: Farther Asia, which they held till the sixteenth century. Assam they invaded in the thirteenth century and held until the eighteenth. They are widely diffused, and having amalgamated with other races are to be found in varying grades of culture, but although without political cohesion they display marked ethnical uniformity. Their written languages, based on the Devanagari script, may be also connected with the picture-writing system of the Lolo (g.v.). In the case of the Ahoms the language is virtually extinct, though many “putis”’—books written on strips of palm leaf—are extant. In religion the Shans are Buddhists, except in Assam where most of them have been Hinduized. The body is usually cremated, sometimes buried. They are notorious for gambling, but otherwise fairly industrious, growing cotton, tea and irrigated rice, breeding horses, catching elephants, mining for jade and amber. They are renowned for metal-work, swords in particular. The men tattoo their bodies as a rule and incise the skin for the insertion of precious stones as talismans. Their political organization is mostly in small states under princelings known as Tsawbwa. Polygamy is permitted, but monogamy is usual; and though the family is | patrilineal, the bridegroom frequently resides with the bride’s parents. They use a variation of the Chinese calendar system, reckoning by cycles of sixty years, each cycle containing five stems of twelve years each. Their language is highly tonal. See Colquhoun, Among the Shans (1885); Scott and Hardiman— Gasetieer of Upper Burma and the Shan States (x900); Cochrane, The Shans (1915). (J. H. H.)

SHANGALLA,

a name loosely applied by Abyssinians to

the non-Arab and non-Abyssinian tribes living in the fertile belt which bounds Abyssinia on the west. The principal tribes are SHAMOKIN, a borough of Northumberland county, Penn- the Legas, Bertat, Gumus, Kadalos and Sienetjo. In some, Galla sylvania, U.S.A., on Federal highway 120 and Shamokin creek, blood predominates: others are Negroids. SHANGHAI, the commercial metropolis of China and one 45 m. (in an air line) N. by E. of Harrisburg. It has an airport (Richardson field) on the transcontinental mail route, and is of the world’s greatest seaports (31° 15’ N., 121° 27’ E.). The served by the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways. Pop. geographical position of Shanghai in respect both to the natural (1920) 21,204 (89% native white); 1930 Federal census 20,274, arteries of trade in China and to its wider space relations with with 20,000 more in Coal township, immediately adjoining. It lies the chief commercial regions of the world is extraordinarily favourat an altitude of 700 ft., in the midst of beautiful mountain able. To a degree unparalleled in any other great country is the scenery. The mining, preparation and handling of anthracite foreign trade of China concentrated by geographical conditions constitute the principal industry. Shamokin was incorporated as a into a single sea-gate. The magnificent natural waterways, which borough in 1864. It took its name from that of the creek, which is form the drainage basin of the Yangtze kiang, give to the great probably a corruption of an Indian word meaning “full of eels.” port at its outlet to the Pacific a vast hinterland, characterised SHAMYL (c. 1797-1871), the leader of the tribes of the Cau- by the unique range of its production and the magnitude of its casus In the war against Russia. He was born about 1797 and, population, estimated at 180 millions. The hinterland of Shangeducated by the Mullah Djemaleddin, soon took a leading part hai is not indeed limited to the Yangtze basin, vast though that in preaching a holy war against the Russians. He was both the is, for the port gathers up a large share of the coastwise commerce spiritual and military leader of the tribes, who maintained the of the ports of Chekiang and Fukien, backed by the high ranges struggle for twénty-five years (1834-1859). Shamyl’s romantic of south-east China which hinder their communications with the fight for independence, making himasort of ally of England and interior; while a part of the north China plain is also more closely France at the time of the Crimean War (1853-55), earned him a connected with it than with any other outlet. It may be said that European reputation. But the capacity of the tribes for resistance about one-half of China, and economically the more important was already failing, and when at the close of the Crimean War half, is ultimately served by Shanghai; and its contribution to the Russia was able to employ large forces on the Caucasus, the revenue of the Maritime Customs is four times as great as that of

SHANGHAI

4.56

any other Chinese port. Its general world position is also extremely advantageous, It is the nearest port of China to Japan proper. It lies approximately midway along the rich monsoonal margin of Eastern Asia, from Malaya to Primorsk, while the fringing group of archipelagoes from the Philippines to Japan contribute greatly to the importance of the China seas. From a wider standpoint it is about equidistant, reckoned by shipping routes, from the two most developed industrial regions of the world, western Europe and eastern North America. The Port of Shanghai.—The native city of Shanghai, on the left or west bank of the Whangpoo branch of the Yangtze, is the nucleus of the vast urban agglomeration which now bears its name. Although a city of some antiquity and an outlet of the rich deltaic region, it had little more than local importance prior to the Treaty Port period. Its commerce was considerably less than that of Ningpo, on a deep-water harbour on the southern shore of Hangchow Bay, with a position relative to the Yangize delta comparable to that of Marseilles in relation to the Rhône. In the course of the naval operations during the frst Anglo-Chinese or “Opium” war the British realized the possibilities of Shanghai and at the Treaty of Nanking (1842) it was included among the five “Treaty”? ports opened to foreign trade. In the following year the English settlement was located to the north of the native city and was defined by the Soochow Creek on the north, the Yang-king canal on the south and the Whangpoo river on the east. Later the narrow strip between the Yang-king canal (now filled in) and the native city became the site of. the French settlement, while the American settlement grew up on the northern side of the Soochow creek. The local advantages of the site were a position on the estuary

as near to the sea as physical circumstances permitted a deep water port to be formed and the junction with the Whangpoo of the Soochow Creek, which linked it with one of the richest regions of the delta. To set against these advantages are certain drawbacks with which modern Shanghai is still contending, The first is the fact that the city is wholly built on the alluvial deposits of mud and silt with which the Yangtze has been gradually filling up the original basin that now constitutes its delta. The International Settlement stands on what was formerly a marshy swamp and, although by careful drainage it has been converted into a fairly healthy site, the soft character of the ground limits the height and weight of the buildings placed upon it. Thus, with the rapid growth of population, the city tends both to be congested with small buildings and to expand over a very large area. Hence a

dificult problem of regional planning has emerged. The second difficulty concerns the character

of the Whangpoo,

on which

Shanghai depends for its communications with the south channel

of the Yangtze and the open ocean. As ships began rapidly in draught the many shoals in the river and the of the water at its bar threatened to make Shanghai to large vessels. The problem has now to some extent

to increase shallowness inaccessible been solved

by the work of the Whangpoo Conservancy Board which derives

its authority directly from the Chinese Government and comprises the following officials: the Commissioner for Foreign Affairs for the Province of Kiangsu, the Shanghai Commissioner of Customs and the Shanghai Harbour Master. By means of a series of costly works, extending over a period of more than 20 years, the Whangpoo has been converted from an irregular creek, progressively silting up, into a good shipway with a minimum depth of 24 to 26 feet at the lowest tides and a high water depth of 30 to 42 feet available throughout the year. Continuous dredging is necessary to maintain these depths, which are not yet sufficient

and the largest liners do not enter the river but discharge passengers and cargo into tenders and lighters outside Woosung, where the Whangpoo enters the Yangtze, and which has become the recognized outport of Shanghai. At the present time, however, it is not so much the navigation of the Whangpoo as the entrance to

the Yangtze itself some 30 miles below Woosung,

sents the most serious engineering problem. The draught of ships has been so great in recent years navigation of the Yangtze bars difficult, and while Yangtze ports in general, it particularly concerns

which pre-

increase in the as to make the this affects the Shanghai as a

world port. The present position is that whereas having draughts of about 30 feet now arrive off the further increase of draught is inevitable, the depth channel of the Yangtze at the “Fairy Flats” is only

many river in the about

ships and a main 16 to

17 feet at extraordinary low water, 26 to 28 feet at neap high

water and 30 to 32 feet at ordinary spring high water. The deepening of one of the bars seems indispensable to the future welfare of the port of Shanghai but, owing to the great size of the bars, which are many miles in length, to the rapid changes produced by

tidal forces and the absence of solid foundations for training works, the task involved is of immense magnitude. The problem has been engaging the attention of the Whangpoo Conservancy Board for many years and in 1921 it convened a committee of harbour and river experts whose detailed report, made after a thorough investigation, is now being considered. The gist of the recommendations is that by means of the largest dredgers procurable a channel should be cut through the Fairy Flats, deepening it “gradually foot by foot to as great a width as required and as possible and to provide as soon as feasible a channel of 600 feet bottom width for the passage of ships drawing 33 feet at ordinary neap high water.” The committee further recommends the expansion of the existing Whangpoo Conservancy Board “into a new body, which might be known as the Shanghai Harbour Board, with more extended powers and more directly representing shipping and trade interests.” It is pointed out that “the inauguration of a strong harbour policy at the earliest possible moment is a sine gua now for the prosperity of the port, will strengthen the position of Shanghai as the principal transhipment and distributing centre, and will confer immense benefits upon the shipping and commerce of China.” Apart from its maritime and river communications Shanghai is an important railway centre.

(1). It is connected by the Shanghai-Nanking (Hu-Ning) rail-

way with Nanking (194 miles) at the apex of the delta, whence by ferry across the river it is linked by the Tientsin-Pukow railway with Peking, north China, the South Manchurian and TransSiberian railways, By the overland route Shanghai can be reached from Western Europe in about a fortnight. There is a local branch of the Shanghai-Nanking railway to the outport, Woosung.

(2). The Shanghai-Hangchow-Ningpo railway (Hu-Hang-Jung),

with a mileage of 178, connects the metropolis with the southern margins of the delta, the important districts round Hangchow Bay and the ancient emporium of Ningpo, with which it has very intimate commercial relations. Irade.—The chief function of Shanghai is to serve as the prin-

cipal entrepôt for the trade of central and much of north China and particularly to transact trans-oceanic business. The total tonnage using the port in 1926 was returned at 33,937,466, making it—on the criterion of tonnage—the premier port of the Far East and the fifth port of the world. Of this tonnage the share of the British Empire was 32-67%, of Japan 27-96%, of China 15-05% and of the United States of America 12-05%. Approximately half the total shipping is engaged on coastal and river trade, shared as follows: British Empire 37-98%, China 30-56%, Japan 21-19%, U.S.A. 1-75%,. _Of the total ocean shipping of Shanghai, Japan in 1926 claimed (in tonnage) 34-48%, the British Empire 27. 56%, and the United States 21-94%. About one-half of the shipping engaged on the trans-Pacific (northern) trade, which forms approximately 10% of the total, is owned by the United States and most of the remainder is shared between the British Empire and Japan. The general character of Shanghai’s trade is indicated by the following analysis: ye I924 Millions of Haikwan Taels.

(H.T.==3s.74$d. in 1924) Imports Foreign goods from foreign ports and Hongkong . Foreign goods from Chinese ports. .. a ; ji Chinese goods from Chinese ports 3II.0 Total Imports

SHANGHAI Exports

Foreign goods re-exported to foreign ports . Foreign goods re-exported to Chinese ports

: ; Imported Chinese goods re-exported to foreign ports Imported Chinese goods re-exported to Chinese ports Local Chinese produce exported to foreign ports Local Chinese produce exported to Chinese ports Total Exports

12.7 174.2 155.9 63.9 120.5 263.9 791.2

The table indicates the importance of the re-export business which forms about 40% of Shanghai’s gross trade. In 1926 Shanghai yielded no less than 41-81% of the total revenue of the Maritime Customs, a fair indication of her share of China’s foreign trade. Swelling the total volume of trade there is, moreover, which passes the future are is concerned,

a large importation of Chinese through the “native” customs. indicated by the fact that, so far China is still in its infancy and

products in junks The possibilities of as purchasing power the Yangtze valley

with its 180 millions imports less than Australia with six millions. The list of foreign goods imported into Shanghai is increasingly varied but considerably the most valuable items are cotton piece goods (grey, white or dyed, printed, etc.) and raw cotton (including thread and yarn) which in 1926 represented respectively about 87 and 89 million Haikwan Taels out of total imports valued at 596 millions. In 1926 Shanghai took over 80% of the total Chinese import of foreign cotton. Among other outstanding imports are tobacco, sugar, oils and soap, cereals and coal. Out of a total export trade in 1926 valued at about 362 million H.T. silk, silk materials and products accounted for nearly 154 millions, vegetable products (particularly bean and wood oil) 78 millions and textiles and textile products other than silk nearly 37 millions. An important and growing item is the export to Europe of frozen eggs, albumen and yolk. The chief participants in the import trade of Shanghai are the British Empire, supplying cotton piece goods, woollens, raw cotton (Indian) and machinery, the United States (machinery, tobacco, wheat and kerosene), Japan (cotton piece-goods and coal) and China itself (raw cotton, coal, metals, hides and skins). The United States is the chief foreign market for Shanghai, which is responsible for 33% of the total Chinese exports to America. No less than 65% of Shanghai’s exports to U.S.A. consists of raw silk and silk products.

Industrial Life.—Shanghai is not only China’s premier seaport and commercial metropolis, it is also incomparably the chief manufacturing centre of the country and the city where the new industrial activities and tendencies

are most conspicuously

displayed. This is the result of many causes, chiefly connected with its geographical position as the gateway of commercial China and the base of Western influences. Raw material reaches it from all parts of China and from many foreign sources. It lies in one of the most densely peopled regiotis of the country, with traditional skill in handicrafts. Fuel for power, although comparatively lacking in the immediate vicinity, is cheaply imported The main reliance is on coal imported chiefly from Japan, the Kaiping field of Hopeh (Chihli) via Chinwangtao, Fushun near Mukden in Manchuria and from the Shantung fields via Tsingtao, while further supplies from the interior coal basins of Shansi, Honan and Hunan reach it by the Yangtze from Hankow. Finally the immense opportunities for industrial development, the immunities hitherto enjoyed by the International Settlement and the relative security which it has offered, in contrast to the troubled conditions of the interior, have attracted not only foreign but Chinese capital. The rapid expansion of native industries in the Shanghai area is one of the most noteworthy features of recent years, especially during and since the World War (1914-18). This is strikingly shown by the increased importance of “Total Exports of local origin” in the returns of the Maritime Customs. In the decade preceding the War they ranged in value from about 70 to 95 millions of Haikwan Taels per annum. Since 1918 they have never been less than 200 and in 1924 reached 384 millions. Their value is now about half that of the net trade of the port. The major industries of Shanghai are concerned either with her primary activity as a sea-port, e.g., shipbuilding, for which there are now five yards, or with the large-scale manufacture of raw materials on modern factory lines. Of the latter the most out-

457

standing is the cotton industry whose development has been remarkably rapid. There are at present 58 cotton mills in Shanghai out of a total of 119 in China. They employ over half the total number of cotton operatives in the whole country and account for 60 per cent of the looms and 52 per cent of the spindles used in China. At first it was mainly a Western and Japanese industry but since the War there has been a steady advance in the Chinese ownership of mills. The present position is as follows :— 30 Japanese cotton mills employing . 24 Chinese cotton mills employing . 4 British cotton mills employing . Total, 58 . . : . f

;

3 s

; G

Labourers . 58,113 - 49,908 . 16,500 124,525

The four British mills are the only cotton factories of this nationality in China but 70% of the spindles used in Shanghai are of British origin. Other large industries of the same type include steam (silk) filatures—economically a very promising development for China— over 40 modern rice-hulling factories, leather factories and paper mills. Shanghai is one of the greatest centres of the engineering industry in the Far East. Among the largest enterprises of this kind are the Kiangnan Dock and Engineering works

(Chinese Government) (dock), the Shanghai Dock and Engineering Co., Ltd. (British) (5 docks), New Engineering and Shipbuilding Co., Ltd. (British), the Marine Motor Works (British), China Engineering Works (Chinese), Eastern Engineering and Shipbuilding Works (Sino-Japanese). There is also a great variety of miscellaneous industries, including cigarette factories, egg product plants, meat and fruit-canning establishments. Apart from factories fully equipped in western fashion there is a large number of small workshop handicraft industries of traditional type and intermediate establishments combining the old and the new features. Social Problems.—The rapid development of industrialism in Shanghai has created a city proletariat of a type new to China and much larger than in any other Chinese centre. A recent estimate places the number of industrial workers, disregarding wharf, ricksha and other transport coolies, at nearly 300,000. These include 66,000 cotton mill operatives, 15,300 iron workers and 14,000 workers in tobacco factories. They are drawn from 4 wide area, and many of them are men who have left their families in distant villages and speak a dialect different from that of Shanghai, which belongs to the Wu group. There is also a large element of female labour which is particularly employed in the steam filatures and hosiery mills. Although the conditions under which factory labour is carried on differ greatly from the traditional methods of native production, the Chinese artisans in Shanghai have earned the reputation of being good industrial workers, and, relative to the wages received, the standard of efficiency is high. Labour is abundant and the struggle for existence is tense. Until recently there were no regulations governing employment in factories. Under such circumstances the evils associated with the early days of the Industrial Revolution in England were certain to appear in an aggravated form. In the years succeeding the War

the social conditions of the Shanghai millworkers attracted widespread attention. In response to considerable agitation and following the example of Hongkong, a commission of enquiry into child

labour was appointed by the Shanghai Municipal Council.

The

report of the commission in July 1924 disclosed deplorable conditions, and the Municipal Council initiated regulations relating to child labour, designed within a period of four years to eliminate the employment in factories of all children under twelve years

of age. At the same time improvements with regard to the safe-

guarding of machinery and the general protection of workers be-

gan to be introduced.

The problems, however, still remain acute.

Tt has been quite definitely shown (see the impartial discussion in Dame Adélaide Andetrson’s “Humanity and Labour in China”) that as a whole the Western millowners have a good record and that the conditions in the British cotton mills are above the average. The problems, indeed, are inherent in the introduction of the Western industrial system into a country with an abundant labour supply, a low standard of comfort and an entirely different tradition of craftsmanship. In Shanghai the situation is much

458

SHANGHAI—SHANHAIKWAN

aggravated by the special housing difficulty arising out of the con- is represented by the large influx of men from Hangchow and ditions already mentioned. The International Settlement and its Ningpo, who maintain close relations with their own home towns immediate suburbs are already densely occupied with houses; and are said to number 400,000. There are also some 160,000 E land is dear and rents are high. Many of the unskilled workers, labourers from Canton and Swatow. Apart from native industrial establishments, Shanghai is the especially the men without families from distant parts, are therefore living under unhealthy conditions in wattle huts on the out- headquarters of many important Chinese organisations, such as skirts of the city beyond the boundaries of the Settlement, and the Y.M.C.A., and the centre of many modern movements of a culare completely cut off from the traditional sanctions of Chinese tural, religious and educational character. It contains a large numfamily life. Meanwhile labour under external influence has begun ber of colleges and higher-grade institutions, some maintained by to organize itself and all the phenomena of industrial unrest have missionary organisations (many of which have their headquarters been conspicuously displayed. In 1913 the National Labour Party in Shanghai) and some by the provincial (Kiangsu) or national was formed in Shanghai and the Federation of Labourers and government, as well as many private enterprises. There is in this Farmers in 1916. The first important strike of a modern type was great city, where perhaps more than in any other oriental centre that of the seamen in January 1922, which particularly affected East meets West, abundant opportunity for cultural interchange, Hongkong, and this was followed by many others and a great and in the sphere of religious and similar movements this has extension of the union movement. The strongest unions are those already been productive of good results. In the main, however, of the seamen, mechanics and textile workers but their funds are the Westem commercial communities in Shanghai have so far at present small and the membership uncertain. While the major- come little into contact with the Chinese apart from business relaity of the strikes seem to have been chiefly inspired by economic tions, chiefly transacted through compradores. The administration of Shanghai reflects the special circumgrievances, e.g., low wages or alleged ill-treatment, the industrial issues during recent years have been increasingly complicated by stances of its origin and growth and has no exact parallel elsepolitical questions affecting the status of foreign powers in China, where, Although it forms a single urban unit, there are three disparticularly siace the “Shanghai incident” of May 30, 1925. On tinct administrative areas: the International Settlement, the this occasion a demonstration organized by labour unions and French Concession, and the Chinese Greater Shanghai. The Interstudents to protest against the killing of a workman by a Japanese national Settlement, as such, dates from 1854 when the British, foreman culminated in the firing by the police of the International French and American consuls drew up a code of regulations applicSettlement on a crowd advancing on one of the police stations. able to the two concession areas which then existed, those of Great Many subsequent strikes were of a purely political character. In Britain and France. The concession subsequently obtained by the the most recent phase the organisation of the workers and the United States was included within the same jurisdiction in 1863, Union Movement have been largely directed by the Kuomintang but meanwhile (1862) France had withdrawn from the joint aror Nationalist Party. Many conflicting tendencies are visible but rangement, and ever since the French Concession has constituted there is a strong movement to prevent the development of class a distinct municipality. Other Treaty Powers, particularly Japan, warfare and it is the hope of some that the ancient Chinese guild have since entered the field and have adhered to the regulations system can be adapted to meet the requirements of the new indus- governing the International Settlement. It exercises complete trial situation. Much may depend on the degree of co-operation powers of self-government, including police control, and the effibetween the authorities of the International and French Settle- ciency of its administrative arrangements soon earned it the title

ments and those of the large areas outside under Chinese jurisdiction which are now known as Greater Shanghai. .Population and Administration.—The Shanghai urban agglomeration now consists of six main areas: (a) The Old City,

that of the French concession, are mainly residential in character, laid out in long avenues. But the “eastern” district of the International Settlement, following the southward bend of the Whangpoo below the Bund, and also both shores of the Soochow Creek for a distance of about seven miles, both within and beyond the Settlement’s limits, are completely industrialised and thickly studded with factories and warehouses. Of the same character are Pootung on the southern side of the Whangpoo and the suburb of Nantou, which is a westward outgrowth along the river

of “The Model Settlement.” The executive power is a Municipal Council, elected until recently entirely by the foreign ratepayers. The Settlements were originally intended only for foreign merchants, but at a very early period Chinese refugees and others were allowed to reside within their boundaries; and especially since the period of the Taiping Rebellion, which created great insecurity in the lower Yangtze region, they have constituted the immense majority of the population. As participants in the benefits of the Settlement administration they were required to pay municipal taxes, but until 1926 they had no voice in the conduct of its affairs. In that year, in deference to the rising demands of Chinese nationalism, the Municipal Council sanctioned the appointment of three Chinese members to the Council, which now consists of five British members, two American, two Japanese and three Chinese. Another important recent development is the Chinese scheme to unify the administration of the urban district outside the Settlements, including Chapei, Nantou, Pootung and Woosung, and a large area at present agricultural in character, into a new municipality or “Directorate of the Port of Shanghai and Woosung.” The conception of a Greater Shanghai involves the cooperation of the Settlement and Chinese authorities in a regional planning scheme and the adjustment of many difficult issues, such as the status and control of extra-concessional roads. The problems involved in the promised relinquishment of extraterritorial rights in China by the western Powers must also be particularly acute in the case of Shanghai.

of Greater Shanghai outside the International Settlement and the French Concession are estimated to cover about 2,800 acres. The total population of the Shanghai urban aggregation is well over one and a half millions and is rapidly increasing. The resident foreign population (on basis of five years’ residence) has been recently estimated as follows: Japanese, 14,230; British, 7,047 (including 1,177 British Indian subjects) ; Russians, 2,972; Americans, 1,800; Portuguese, 1,402; other nationalities, 3,034. The Chinese population is drawn from many areas, but a very important element

SHANHAIKWAN (“The Gate between mountain and sea”), an important Chinese garrison town (population about 30,000) in the extreme north-east corner of the province of Chihli (Hopeh) in 40° N. and 119° 47’ E. It occupies a notably strategic position, commanding the narrow coastal sill between the sea (Gulf of Liao-tung) and the outlying mountain ranges of Jehol, followed by the Great Wall, which was formerly continued to the actual coast. Its historic function has thus been that of a military post, guarding the crucial corridor communicating

dating from the eleventh century A.D. (b) The International Settlement. (c) The French Concession. (d) A northern outer suburb: Chapei. (e) An eastern suburb: Pootung. (f) A southem suburb: Nantou.

The city in the wider sense covers an immense area. The International Settlement, made up of the original British and American concessions and with boundaries extended in 1893, comprises 5,584 acres and has a population of 30,565 foreigners and 802,700 Chinese. The adjacent French concession, about 2,525 acres in extent, contains 7,811 foreigners and 289,261 Chinese. The settlements, and particularly the original British concession, form the central districts, comprising the. principal commercial quarter and the famous river front or Bund. Their hinterlands and especially

banks of the old native city of Shanghai.

The built-up portions

SHANGHAT, to drug and ship aboard a vessel needing hands.

SHANKARSETT—SHANNON between the plain of north China and that of south Manchuria, and so it has come into prominence at different periods—as at the time of the establishment of the Manchu dynasty in China, during the Boxer Rebellion, and the Sino-Japanese War.

SHANKARSETT,

JAGANNATH

(1800-1865),

the

recognized leader of the Hindu community of Bombay for more than forty years, was born in 1800 into a family of goldsmiths of the Daivadnya caste. He was one of the greatest benefactors of Bombay, a pioneer in the provision of schools both for boys and girls, and of higher education for men, and a generous donor to educational institutions. To Jagannath Shankarsett and his publicspirited friends, Sir George Birdwood and Dr. Bhau Daji, Bombay is also indebted for the reconstruction which, beginning in

1857, gradually changed a close network of lanes and streets into a spacious and airy city, adorned with fine avenues and splendid buildings. He was the first Indian to be nominated to the legislative council of Bombay under the Act of 1861. He died at Bombay on July 31, 186s.

SHANKLIN, a watering-place in the Isle of Wight, England, 83 m. S. of Ryde by rail. Pop. of urban district (1931) 5,072. It is beautifully situated on the cliffs bordering the south-east coast, and is sheltered west by high-lying downs. The old church of St. Blasius is Perpendicular. There are several modern churches and chapels, a pier and a lift connecting the town with the esplanade beneath the cliff. The picturesque winding chasm of Shanklin Chine breaches the cliffs south of the town. SHANNON, CHARLES HAZELWOOD (:386s— ), English artist, was born at Sleaford in Lincolnshire in 186 5, the son of the Rev. Frederic Shannon. He attended the Lambeth school of art, and was subsequently considerably influenced by his friend Charles Ricketts and by the example of the great Venetians. In his early work he was addicted to a heavy low tone, which he abandoned subsequently for clearer and more transparent colour. He achieved great success with his portraits and his Giorgionesque figure compositions, which are marked bya classic sense of style,

and with his etchings and lithographic designs. The Dublin Municipal gallery owns his circular composition “The Bunch of Grapes” and “The Lady with the Green Fan” (portrait of Mrs. Hacon). His “Study in Grey” is at the Munich gallery, a “Portrait of Mr. Staats Forbes” at Bremen, and a “Souvenir of Van Dyck” at Melbourne. His most remarkable pictures include “The Bath of Venus,” in the collection of the late Lord Northcliffe.

Other portraits are those of his friend Charles Ricketts and of

Lillah McCarthy in “The Dumb Wife.” Complete sets of his lithographs and etchings have been acquired by the British Museum and the Berlin and Dresden print rooms. He was awarded a first-class gold medal at Munich in 1895 andafirst-class silver medal in Paris in 1900. He was elected A.R.A. in r91z and R.A. in 1921, and is a member of the Society of Twelve, and Associate of the Société nationale des Beaux Arts. SHANNON, JAMES JEBUSA (1862-1923), Anglo-American artist, was born at Auburn, N.Y., in 1862, and at the age of eight was taken by his parents to Canada. When he was sixteen, he went to England, where he studied at South Kensington, and after three years won the gold medal for figure painting. He soon became one of the leading portrait painters in London. He was one of the first members of the New English Art Club, and in 1897 was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and R.A. in 1909. He died in London on March 6, 1923.

SHANNON, the principal river of Ireland. It flows with a

bow-shaped course from north to south and south-west, from the north-west part of the island to its mouth in the Atlantic on the south-west coast, with a length of about 240 m. and a drainage area of 4,544 sq.m. Rising in co. Cavan in some small pools at the foot of Cuilcagh Mountain, the Shannon crosses co. Leitrim, traversing Lough Allen (ọ m. in length), the first of a series of large lakes. It then separates co. Roscommon on the right (W.) bank from counties Leitrim, Longford, Westmeath and Offaly County on the left. In this part of its course it forms Loughs Boderg (7 m. long), Forbes (3 m.) and Ree (18 m.), and receives from the west the river Boyle and from the east the Inny, while in co. Longford it is joined by the Royal Canal.

459

It now separates co. Galway on the right from Offaly County and co. Tipperary; receiving the Suck from the west and the Brosna from the east, and forming Lough Derg (23 m.). Dividing co. Clare from counties Tipperary and Limerick, the Shannon reaches the city of Limerick and debouches upon an estuary 60 m. in length with a direction nearly east and west. This divides co. Clare on the right from counties Limerick and Kerry on the left. A wide branch estuary, that of the Fergus, joins from the north, and the rivers Mulkear, Maigne and Deel enter from the south. From Lough Allen to Limerick, where the Shannon becomes tidal, its fall is 144 ft. With the assistance of short canals the river is navigable for light vessels to Lough Allen, and for small steamers to Athlone; while Limerick is accessible for large vessels. The salmon-fishing is famous; trout are also taken in the loughs and tributary streams. Carrick-on-Shannon, Athlone, Killaloe and Castleconnel are favourite stations for sportsmen. The islands of the loughs are in several cases sites of early religious settlements, while of those on the river-banks the most noteworthy is that of the seven churches of Clonmacnoise. One of the first matters to engage the attention of the Government of the Irish Free State was the provision of cheap electrical power, and it was decided that power could be most economically produced by the construction of a central generating station capable of utilising the immense resources of the Shannon. Outline of the Scheme.—The scheme provided for the development of hydro-electric power from the Shannon in three stages —called the partial development, the further development and the full development respectively. In the partial development Lough Derg alone was to be used for storage, but the winter level would not be raised. In the further development the storage in Lough Ree and Lough Allen would be added; and in the full development the storage in Lough Derg would be increased by raising the level of the lake above winter high water level. The head race constructed for the partial development was to be the size necessary for the full development; but the tail race, which is mostly in rock, would be enlarged for the further development. In the Shannon the period of maximum flow coincides with that of maximum demand, thereby reducing storage requirements. On the other hand, as the fall from Lough Derg to the sea is gradual, it was necessary to construct a long head race in order to obtain an adequate fall. The Siemens-Schiickert project (constructional work began in 1925) utilises the total fall of too ft. between Lough Derg and Limerick in a single large step, by leading the water out of the river bed into an inlet canal, or head race, to leave the Shannon at Parteen, above O’Brien’s Bridge, and to extend a distance of about 64 m. to Ardnacrusha. Here, as an

initial installation, are three vertical Francis turbines each of 38,500 h.p. The water is conducted to the turbines by large steel pipes 20 ft. in diameter and 140 ft. long and carried back te

the Shannon in a tail race 14 m. in length. The electric energy produced in the power station is to be transmitted by means of a high tension network to most of the towns and villages of the Free State with a population of over 500. By means of a network radiating in a closed ring formation from the power-station, Dublin, Cork and Maryborough, all stations will be fed from two directions. A semi-public Board, known as the Electricity Supply Board, has been formed to control the distribution of current. The Board has extensive powers of acquiring existing undertakings and has already acquired the majority of such undertakings. Cost of the Scheme.—The revised estimate of the cost of the partial development is £5,835,000. The estimated costs of the further and full development are £7,700,000 and £8,000,000 respectively. Provision is made for the advance of £2,500,000 to the Electricity Supply Board for the purpose of constructing the low tension network, wiring houses, and acquiring existing undertakings. The price at which electricity can be supplied to the consumer will depend upon the density of population in the locality and upon the volume of demand. It is estimated that the wholesale price of electric power supplied in bulk at Dublin and Cork should be about o-6d. and at the end of the ro kv. lines about 25d. Ultimately the current might be supplied at a flat rate, in which case the wholesale price everywhere should be less than

460

SHANSI

was estimated rd. per unit. These figures are considerably less than the costs Chihli (Hopeh) and Honan. The total population in Taiyüan-fu of The bulk at 1922 at that 51,363. and 11,654,879, at the commencement, and the price might be expected continurural. ously to decrease with the growth in the demand for current. It of the population is therefore essentially The loess-basins along the Fên and Wei valleys were the homewas calculated that the scheme should return from 54 to 7% upon land of Chinese agricultural civilization. They offered not only the invested capital, provided out of public money. Benefits of the Scheme.—tThe success of the scheme will de- the intrinsic advantages of open unwooded country and a fertile pend largely upon the growth of effective demand for current. soil but also easy communication with the old oasis cultures of the At first the Free State was very backward in its use of electricity Tarim basin. It is suggested, indeed, that by way of Central both for industrial and domestic purposes. Both Siemens-Schiick- Asia indirect links may have existed with the oldest agricultural ert and the experts who advised on the scheme were of opinion centres of all, at Anau and in Babylonia, and the fact that the that the supply would create a very rapid growth in demand and cereals (wheat, barley and millet) which formed the basis of the this hope has been largely realized. Cheap light, heat and power agricultural system both in western Asia and in north-west China for domestic consumption would be provided; and also power for have been found in a wild state only in the former points to early large and small scale industry, particularly mills and creameries. cultural links between them. It seems probable that the early It was hoped that farmers would use the power to light their Chinese acquired first the art of pottery, always closely associated premises and to drive farmyard machinery, and that the growth with early agriculture, and later the knowledge of metal from the of manufacturing industries of an electro-chemical nature would west, by way of Central Asia. Whether the Wei or the Fên be stimulated. The electrification of the railway system, apart valley was the first to be involved in this early development is a from those suburban lines with heavy traffic, was not contem- debatable point, but the first dynasty, the Hsia (2205-1766 B.C.) is traditionally associated with the lower Fên-ho valley, and many plated. It remains to consider the effects which the Siemens-Schiickert of the oldest legends belong to it. The Fên-ho valley has thus Scheme will have on (a) the drainage, (b) the navigation and been under continuous cultivation for fully forty centuries. The (c) the fisheries of the Shannon. As regards drainage, it is conservation of water-supply has always been one of the essentials claimed that the partial development, in which the winter level of agricultural practice in Shansi due to the marginal rainfall and at Lough Derg will be maintained for about five months of the porous loess soil. An elaborate system of agreements between year, will by reason of the embankments to be erected, save from individual farmers in the same village and between villages in the 3,000 to 4,000 acres of land from annual flooding; and that the same valley has grown up in order to ensure an equitable dislater stages of development, in which the storage capacity will be tribution of the water-supply. This necessity hastened organincreased and the consequent embankment extended, will save a ization and contributed to the early development of civilizafurther large area. The drainage of the Shannon basin will there- tion in the loess-lands. The chief crops grown are those cereals— fore be improved by the scheme. As regards navigation, there wheat, barley and millet—able to subsist on comparatively small have been constructed two locks each 5o feet high to provide a supplies of moisture. It was these which formed the basis of the passage from the tail race to the head race. The complete pro- agricultural system in the very beginning, in the 3rd millennium tection of the fisheries from damage is admitted to be impos- B.C. Rice, which was not adopted by the Chinese until they had sible, but everything possible has been done or is being done spread out from their original home in the loess-lands into the to minimize the injury that will be inflicted; also provision Yangtze Valley, is cultivated only where the supply of water is has been made in the scheme for compensation to fishery in- sufficiently plentiful to permit the flooding of the fields. terests. Shansi was not only the home of Chinese agriculture but the Brptrocraray.—Fuill particulars of the Shannon Scheme are to be centre of the most intense coal-mining activity and the site of found in The Elecirtfication of the Irish Free State; The Shannon the most famous iron industry of the Old China. The greater Scheme Developed by Siemens-Schiickert and The Report of the Ex- part of south Shansi consists of a vast coalfield which, though perts appointed by the Government Stationery Office, Dublin; Dail buried underneath loess and sandstone in the centre, crops out in Eireann, Debates, Oficzal Report, vol. 10 and 1x. See also Electrical the terraces of the Tai-hang-shan edge, which Richthofen named Industries (Aug. 29, 1928); Annual accounts of the Shannon Power Development Fund, and annual reports and accounts of the Electricity the “Anthracit-Terrasse.” The main seam is here on the average Supply Board. (G. O’B.) 18 ft. thick and at the base of the coal measures iron ores are SHANSI, an upland province in the interior of north China. interbedded. It is a link in the girdle of loess-lands which wrap around the From the “Anthracit-Terrasse” there developed an extensive edges of the Mongolian plateau and which in effect constitute a trade not only in lump anthracite with the adjacent parts of belt intermediate between arid pastoral Mongolia and the great the north China plain but also in pig iron and manufactured iron plain of north China, one of the foci of Chinese agricultural goods, which supplied the whole of the north China market. The population. The Shansi plateau rises abruptly from the alluvial two most famous iron-working centres were Pingting and Tsechow. plain (relative to which it constitutes the “western mountains” In modern China the arterial routes of communication with as opposed to Shantung, the “eastern mountains”) in the broken but one exception skirt the edges of but do not penetrate into limestone edge of the Tai-hang-shan, but passes by much easier the province of Shansi, and its old industrial importance has been gradations into the Mongolian tableland beyond. The plateau lessened by coal-mining nearer the coast and by the importasurface is not, however, uniform. A series of ridges, arranged in tion of foreign iron, But in the future Shansi is likely to be the form of an arc, convex to the north-west, obtrudes from penetrated by more railways than the single line at present in beneath the loess-mantle and, while almost buried in south Shansi, existence (the branch to Taiyiian-fu from the Peking~Hankow becomes increasingly conspicuous northwards so that in north railway) and, although its iron industry may never revive, its Shansi the loess-cover is restricted to basins between high moun- coalfields are the most valuable in all China and will once again tain ranges. Let down below the general level of the plateau in be the focus of coal-mining activity. This relative removal, howsouth Shansi is a chain of alluvial-floored basins strung along the ever, at the present day from the turmoil along the main routes valley of the Fén-ho and continuous with the Wei-ho valley in has facilitated the gradual transformation of the province which central Shansi. The largest of the Shansi basins lies at the head has been effected by Yen Hsi-shan who alone among the provincial of the Fén-ho valley in the very heart of the province and con- governors has remained in office since the 1911 Revolution and tains ‘Falyiian-fu, the capital. These basins, being the foci of has thus been able to carry out a continuous policy. He is known drainage, are better watered than the porous loess of the pla- as the “model governor” and Shansi as the “model province.” teau above. As the rainfall of Shansi as a whole is marginal The chief agency in the transformation of the people is the (being under 20 inches) and liable to fail, this distinction be- school and Shansi comes nearer than any other province to attaintween basin and plateau is of great importance and the population ing compulsory school attendance. Over six hundred miles of is mainly concentrated either in the central belt of basins or on roads have been built, hill-tops have been planted with saplings, the terraces of the Tai-hang-shan which sink into the plains of partly for-the sake of their timber and partly in order to regularize

SHAN the flow of river-water, and the cultivation of several remunerative commercial crops has been encouraged with considerable success. The most important of the latter are cotton, cultivated chiefly in the Fén-ho valley, and the mulberry, which has been planted especially in the south-east overlooking the Hwang Ho plain.

SHAN STATES, a collection of semi-independent states on

the eastern frontier of Burma inhabited by the Shan or Tai race. The Shan States had an area of 56,311 sq.m. and a pop. (1921) of 1,433,542. On Oct. 1, 1922 a scheme came into effect for the Federation of the Shan States, along lines proposed by Sir Reginald Craddock. -Under this the control of the Federated Shan States is vested solely in the governor and its financial arrangements are separated from those of the province generally. The administration is in the hands of a council of chiefs or Sawbwas, with a British commissioner. The Federation is financed partly by a fixed contribution from Government, partly by contributions from the chiefs. The Federation includes the former three divisions of the Northern Shan States (N.S.S), Southern Shan States (S.S.S.) and Karenni. There are besides several Shan States in other parts of Burma and a number beyond the border of Burma, which are tributary to China, though China exercises only a nominal authority. The British Shan States were tributary to Burma and came under British control on the annexation of Upper Burma. They rank as British territory, not as native states. The civil, criminal and revenue administration of each state is vested in the chief, subject to the restriction specified in the sanad or order of appointment granted to him.

Physical Features.—The shape of the Shan States is roughly

that of a triangle, with its base near the plains of Burma and its apex on the Mekong river. The Shan plateau is properly only the country between the Salween and Irrawaddy rivers. On the west it is marked by the line of hills running from Bhamo to the plains of Lower Burma. On the east it is defined by the rift of the Salween. The average height of the plateau is between 2,000 and 3,000 ft., but it is seamed and ribbed by mountain ranges, which split up and run into one another. On the north the Shan States are barred across by ranges following the line of the Namtu. The huge mass of Loi Ling, 9,000 ft., projects south from this and from each side of it and to the south is the wide plain extending to Mong Nai. The highest peaks are in the north and the south. Loi Ling is the highest point west of the Salween, and in Kokang and other

STATES

401

lating and polytonic. It possesses five tones, a mastery of which is a sine qua non if the language is to be properly learnt. It is exhaustively described in the works of Dr. Cushing. The Shans are a peaceful race, fond of trading. During the past 25 years the trade with Burma has increased very largely, especially after the construction of the Lashio and Heho railways. The huge silver-lead-zinc mines of the Burma Corporation at Bawdwin lie in the Northern Shan States. The cultivation of wheat and potatoes in the South States promise them wealth also when a railway furnishes them means of getting the produce out of the country. Since 1893 the peace of the Shan States has been practically undisturbed. See Ney Elias, Introductory Sketch of the History of the Shans in Upper Burmah and West Yun-nan (Calcutta, 1876); Cushing, Shan Dictionary (Introduction); Bock, Temples and Elephants; Sir A. Phayre, History of Burmah; A. R. Colquhoun, Across Chrysé (London, 1883), and Amongst the Shans (1885) ; Diguet, Étude de la langue Thai (Paris, 1896).

The Southern Shan States number 36 with a total area of 36,154 square miles and a population in 1921 of 836,220. The largest is Tiing Kéng (12,400 sq.m., pop. 208,755); the smallest has an area of only 14 sq.m. The Northern Shan States are six in number:—Hsipaw (4,400 sq.m., pop. 131,410); Tawngpeng

(778 sq.m., pop. 41,255); North Hsenwi (6,335 sq.m., pop. 222,ror); South Hsenwi (2,281 sq.m., pop. $4,141); Mangltin (2,800 sq.m., pop. 57,318); Méng Mit (3,561 sq.m., pop. 56,498). For the Karen States, see KARENNI. Among the Southern group of States the following are the more important: Tonc Kénc is the most extensive of the Shan States in the province of Burma. The state is known to the Chinese as Méng Kéng, and was frequently called by the Burmese “the 32 cities of the Gén” (Hk6én), Ting Kéng has expanded considerably since the establishment of British control, by the inclusion of the districts of Hsen Yawt, Hsen Mawng, Mong Hsat, Mong Pu, and the cis-Mekong portions of Kéng Cheng, which in Burmese times were

separate charges. The “classical” name of the State is Khemarata

or Khemarata Tungkapuri. About 63% of the area lies in the basin of the Mekong river and 37% in the Salween drainage area. Some peaks rise to over 7,000 ft.; the elevation is nowhere much below 5,000 feet. There are successive parallel hill ranges running north and south. Mountainous country predominates. The chief parts of north Hsenwi there are many peaks above 7,000 ft. rivers, tributaries of the Salween, are the Nam Hka, the Hwe The majority of the intermediate parallel ranges have an average Léng, Nam Pu and the Nam Hsim. The first and last are considof between 4,000 and 5,000 ft. with peaks rising to over 6,000. erable rivers. Rocks and rapids make both unnavigable, but The country beyond the Salween is a mass of broken hills, ranging much timber goes down the Nam Hsim. Teak forests exist in Ming Pu and Méng Hsat, and also in the in the south towards the Menam from 2,000 to 3,000 ft., while in the north towards the Wa states they average from 5,000 to 7,000. Mekong drainage area in the south of the State, but there is only Several peaks rise to 8,000 ft., such as Loi Maw (8,102). From a local market for the timber. Rice, as elsewhere in the Shan December to March it is cool everywhere, and 10° of frost are States, is the chief crop. Next to it is sugar-cane. Earth-nuts experienced on the open downs. The hot season temperature is and tobacco are the only other field crops in the valleys. On the 80° to 90°, rising to 100° in the Salween valley. The annual rain- hills, besides rice, cotton, poppy and tea are the chief crops. The fall varies from 60 in. in the broader valleys to 100 on the higher tea is carelessly grown, badly prepared, and only consumed locally. Much garden produce is raised in the valleys. The State is rich mountains. Race and Language.—In 1921 there were 1,017,987 Shans in cattle, and exports them to the country west of the Salween. in Burma. The Thai or Tai, as they call themselves, were first As in all parts of the Shan States, there are huge areas awaiting known to the Burmese as Tardks or Tarets. The original home of development. Ting Kéng, the capital, is surrounded by a brick wall and moat the Thai race was §8.W. China. It is probable that their first settlement in Burma proper was in the Shweli valley, and that about 5 m. round. Only the central and northern portions are from this centre they radiated at a comparatively recent date much built over. Mone Nar is second in size among the Southern States (3,100 north, west and south-east, through Upper Burma into Assam. It is supposed that the Thai race boasts of representatives across sq. m., pop. [1921] 55,647), and lies with Mong Pan and Mawkmai the breadth of Indo-China; that it numbers among its members in the south-west. Mone Pan ranks next to Ting Kéng and Mong Nai in size not only the Shans proper, the Laos and the Siamese, but also the Muongs of French Indo-China, the Hakas of S. China, and the Li, among the Southern Shan States, with an area of 2,988 sq.m., and the inhabitants of the interior of the far Eastern island of Hainan a pop. (1921) of 21,728. The main State lies, except for a few insignificant circles, entirely west of the Salween. The only con« in the China seas. The Thai language may be divided into two sub-groups, the siderable area of flat land is round the capital, which lies in a large North and the South. The South includes Siamese, Lao, Li: and and fertile plain, marking roughly the centre of the State. From Hkiin; the North, the three forms of Shan, namely North-Bur- this plain rise low hills covered with scrub jungle, sloping up to mese Shan,-South-Burmese Shan and Chinese Shan with Hkamti ranges of about 5,000 ft. on nearly every side. Rice is the only and Ahom. The vernacular of the people who are directly known crop, irrigated where possible; elsewhere dry cultivation prevails. in Burma as Shan is South-Burmese Shan. This language is iso- The State has valuable teak forests, which cover a considerable

462

SHANTUNG

but undetermined area. The general altitude of the valleys is about 2,000 feet. The capital is small, and has only about 200 houses. LAWKSAWK has an area of 2,362 sq.m. and a pop. of 28,010 and ranks fourth in size among the States of the southern division. The crops are rice, sesame, cotton, ground-nuts and oranges. The State is mountainous. To the north the country falls away to the Nam Tu (Myit-ngé), where there are teak forests, as well as along the Nam Lang and Nam Et, which with the Zawgyi form the chief rivers. Most of them disappear underground which makes the extraction of timber impossible except for local use. Lawksawk is the capital. The old brick walls and the moat are falling into decay. Mone Par (called Mobyé by the Burmese), is the most southwesterly of the Shan States. It has an area of 73 sq.m., and a pop. (1921) of 20,996. The country is hilly, rising westwards from the chief stream, the Nam Hpilu or Balu. This is navigable for native boats throughout the year to the point where it sinks underground in Karen-ni. The chief cultivation is rice, with about

|Shans and Kachins predominate, and are nearly equal in numbers.

LAsuHio, the chief town of the northern Shan States, lies in the state of North Hsenwi, situated in 22° 56’ N. and 97° 45’ E. at an altitude of 3,100 ft., on a low spur overlooking the valley of the Nam Yao. It is the terminus of the Mandalay-Kun Léng

railway and of the government cart road from Mandalay, from which it is 178 m. distant.

Hsrpaw

or Turpaw

is called by the Shans, and officially,

Hsipaw, and also frequently Ong Pawng (the name of an old capital). The chief plain land is in the valley of the Nam Tu (Myit-ngé), near Thibaw town, and the valley or strath of the Pyawng Kawng, Nawng Ping neighbourhood. Elsewhere the valleys are insignificant. The hills on the Mong Tung border reach their highest elevations in the peaks Loi Pan (6,848 ft.) and Loi Htan (6,270 ft.). To the north-west of Thibaw town, on the Tawng Peng border, Loi Lam rises to 6,486 ft. The valley of the Nam Tu marks the lowest point in the State at Thibaw town, about 1,400 ft., and rises on the east in Mong Tung to a plain level of about 2,500 ft., and on the west in Mong Ling to two acres of dry or hill rice to one of wet bottom. The hill fields a mass of hills with an average height of 4,500 ft., broken up by are left fallow for ten years after two years’ cultivation. the Nam Yawn and Nam Kaw valleys, which are about 3,000 ft. Other States in the southern group with an area of more than above sea-level. 1,000 sq.m. include: Mawkmai (2,200 sq.m.), Méng Nawng The chief river is the Nam Tu or Myit-ngé. Between Thonzé (1,646), Mong King (1.593), Lai Hka (1,560), Yawnghwe and Lawksawk (Yatsauk) it flows through a gorge between cliffs (1,302) and Loilong (1,084). 3,000 to 4,000 ft. high. At the gorge of Gékteik the Nam Htang TauNG-GyI is the chief town of the Shan States and the meet- and the Nam Pasé unite to form the Nam Kiit, which passes into ing place of the Council of Chiefs. It is situated in 96° 58’ E. and the ground at the natural bridge where the Mandalay-Lashio rail20° 47’ N., at an altitude of about 5,000 ft., in a depressed plateau way crosses the gorge, and reappears to join the Nam Tu. The bed of the Nam Kiit is about 1,500 ft. below the general level of on the crest of the Sintaung hills. It is in the State of Yawnghwe, a few miles by motor road from the present terminus of the the country. Coal of poor quality is found at various places. Southern Shan States railway which joins the main Rangoon- The average maximum temperature at the beginning of April is Mandalay line at Thazi. The five-day bazaar is the trading place about 96°, and the minimum about the same period 65°. The of the natives. A special quarter contains the temporary resi- rainfall averages about 70 in. The chief crops are rice, cotton, dences of the chiefs when they visit headquarters, and there is a sesame, tea in the hills, and thanat, the leaf of a tree used for the wrapper of the Burma, or “green” cheroot. Cotton cloth was school for their sons. Among the northern group of States, of which North and South formerly much more generally manufactured than it now is, and a coarse country paper is also made. The government cart road Hsenwi, Hsipaw and Mang Lin are the chief. Hsenwi or THEINNI is better known by the Burmanized to Lashio passes through the centre of the State, and the Mandaname of Theinni. The northern part of North Theinni is a mass lay-Lashio railway also passes through the capital. Teak forests of hills, in the valleys between which are numerous tracts under exist along the banks of the Nam Tu and in the Mang Lin rice cultivation. The southern portion has much more flat land, States, but both have been practically exhausted, and will have along the line of the Nam Tu, its tributaries the Nam Yao and the to be closed for many years. Nam Nim, and the Nam Yek flowing into the Salween. This was Mane Lon, is the chief state of the Wa or Vii tribes, some of formerly thickly populated, and still remains the most valuable whom are or were till very recently head-hunters, and Mang Lon is portion of the State. Both north and south of the Nam Tu there the only one which as yet has direct relations with the British are many peaks which rise to 6,000 ft., and several over 7,000 government. The State extends from about 21° 30’ to 23° N., feet. The northern portion (about 4,000 ft.) might be called a or for roo m. along the river Salween. Its width varies from a plateau. It has large, grassy, upland downs. This part of the mile or even less on either side of the river to perhaps 40 m. at its State has fallen almost entirely into the hands of the Kachins. broadest part near Taküt, the capital. It is divided into East. and The Shans are found in the Nam Mao (Shweli or Lung Kiang) West Mang Lön, the boundary being the Salween. There are no valley, and in the Nam Tu and other valleys in the southern part Wa in West Mang Lön. Shans form the chief population, but of the State. South Theinni is bisected by the huge mass of Loi’ there are Palaungs, Chinese and Yanglam, besides Lahu. The bulk Ling, nearly 9,000 ft. above sea-level. Apart from this it con- of the population is Wa, but there are many Shans and Lahu. The sists of broken hill-country or downs, the latter chiefly in the only flat land is along the banks of streams in the valleys. Here eastern half of the State. It is watered by numerous streams, of the Shans are settled. There are prosperous settlements and which the chief is the Nam Pang, an affluent of the Salween. Con- bazaars at Nawng Hkam and Möng Kao in West Mang Lön. The siderable deposits of coal, or rather of lignite, exist in both North Wa of Mang Lön have given up head-hunting, and many profess and South Theinni, but have as yet been little worked. Gold is Buddhism. The capital, Taküt, is on a hill-top 6,000 ft. above seawashed in many of the streams in a fitful way. No valuable tim- level. The sawbwa is a Wa, and has control over two sub-states, ber exists to any considerable extent. Pine forests cover some of Mot Hai to the north and Maw Hpa to the south. the ranges, but, as elsewhere in the Shan States, varieties of the See under Burma, also the Report on the Administration of oak and chestnut are the commonest forest trees. The climate as the Shan and Karenni States (annual) . a whole is temperate. The average rainfall is about 60 in. yearly. SHANT UNG, a northern maritim e province of China, conIt has regained much population since the British occupation in sisting of a mountainous peninsula of much indented coastline 1888, and especially since the opening of the Mandalay Lashio projecting eastward into the Yellow sea, but separated from the Railway and the Burma Corporation’s mine and smelting works. other highland s of China by the wet alluvial plain of the Hsenwi, the capital of North Hsenwi, stands near the north Hoang-ho. That river has changed its course many times. Prior bank of the Nam Tu. The ruins of the old capital lie at a short to 1851 it reached the sea south of the highland of Shantun g; distance, and show it to have been a large and well-built town. since about 1853 it has flowed north of the highland, but not Mong Yai is the capital of South Hsenwi, with a population of always in the same bed. The province includes a considerable belt about 2,000. The races found in Hsenwi comprise Shans, Kachins, of the alluvial plain west and north of the highland, but less of Chinese, Burmese, Lihsaws, Wa, Palaungs and Vanglam. The it on the south. The main direction of the mountain lines is

SHANTUNG—SHAPUR west-south-west to east-north-east, as in Liaotung, and siliceous schists form a great part of the masses concerned, while in the granite and gneiss, the direction N. 30° W.-S. 30° E. is more evident. The Tai-shan, on the north side of Shantung, west of Chefoo, gives a steep coast facing the Gulf of Pe-chih-li. These hills are marked off from those of the south-east coast by a relatively low line from Chefoo to Tsingtao. At the base of the peninsula, hill lines, in which both directions are exemplified, gather around the Tai-shan, the culmination of which is 5,060 ft. above sea-level. This mountain is one of the chief centres of

pilgrimage in China, and has been famed in this way from

immemorial antiquity. It was von Richthofen’s opinion that Shantung was very early occupied by cultivators spreading from the Wei valley, and that here, once the barbarians were subdued, they had opportunities of defence as well as of economic development; in this way he thinks Shantung came to play a’ special rôle in Chinese life, a rôle greatly enhanced by the fact that Confucius (551-479 B.c.) and Mencius were natives of the province. The Tai-shan has sanctuaries of many kinds, and pilgrims visit them, especially in spring. The Tai-shan is divided from the mountains of the peninsula by the low line of the Kiau-ho; the other rivers of the highland region are mostly short, but across the plain to the north there run several streams which interlace to some extent; the largest is called Wei-ho. South-west of the mountain system runs the Grand canal, which receives the I-ho from the Tai-shan. The rainfall at Chefoo is about 29 in. per annum, the autumn being driest; the mean monthly temperature here varies from 25-3° in January to 80° in August. The climate on the slopes facing south-east is considerably warmer. The heights still shelter wild boars and wolves, and the trees in the colder regions include pines, oak, poplar, willow, with some cypress. The valleys in the mountain region are often fertile, but the hills themselves are barren. Millet, wheat, barley, sorghum, maize, peas, cotton, hemp and poppies are, or have been, cultivated, with castor-oil and rice in the south. Fruit trees are numerous and specially rich in parts of the south. The wax tree grows in the east, and the wax insects are placed on it for the summer, being taken indoors in the autumn to void the substance whence wax is prepared. They are protected indoors during the winter. Shantung produces both ordinary silk and the silk made by a caterpillar which lives on oak leaves. There are many mules and horses, as well as sheep, cattle, goats, etc. The province is famed for its minerals. Coal occurs at I-chow-fu (south), I-hien

(south-west), Lao-fu

(centre), and Wei-hien

(north).

About

two million tons of bituminous coal were produced in 1922 in the province, and there are considerable reserves of the material. Production of iron ore has been small, but there are large reserves, estimated to yield some 14 million tons of iron when worked. Gold is produced here and there, and there is some copper, lead, etc. The area of the province is estimated at 56,000 sq.m., and its population at anything between 25 and 38 million. Britain obtained a lease of Wei-hai-wei, near the eastern end of the peninsula, and Germany a lease of Kiao-chow (port Tsingtao) in 1898. The Japanese captured the latter in 1914 and it was returned to China in 1922. Negotiations for the return of Weihai-wei were begun in 1921. The towns of Shantung include Chinan (Tsi-nan) at the northern foot of the Tai-shan, the capital and largest city; ‘Tsaochow, in the south-west; Tsining, on the Grand canal; I-chow, in the south; Wei-hien, in the north; and Chefoo, the treaty port, on the north coast, all: probably above the 100,000 line in population. The lowland portions of the province are among the most densely-peopled regions in China. The railways of the province include a long section of the Tientsin-Pukow main line, while a railway, originally German, leaves this line at Chinan and goes to Tsingtao; there are also branch lines and others are planned. The province under the empire was divided into ten prefectures. See F. von Richthofen, China, vol. ii. (1882) ; L. Richard, Géographie de Empire de Chine (Shanghai, 1905) ; Anon., The Christian Occupation of China (Shanghai, 1922); ed. H. G. W. Woodhead, The China Year Book, Tientsin and London, annual; ed, S. Cooling, Encyclopaedia Sinica (1918).

463

Political History.—The province of Shantung obtained an international reputation during the years immediately following the World War, owing to the difficulties attending the rendition of the Kiao-Chow territory seized by Germany in 1897. The territory remained in the hands of the Germans, who spent large sums of money improving and developing the colony, until Nov. 1914, when it was captured by the Japanese. The Treaty of Versailles confirmed Japan in the possession of the territory, but the Chinese were thoroughly dissatisfied with the decision. At the time of the Washington Conference Japan agreed to hand back

her holdings to China, under conditions, however, which still gave the Japanese an acknowledged interest in the province. During the recent civil war banditry has been rife. In 1928 Japanese troops clashed with the Chinese Nationalist forces in Tsinanfu and a tense situation developed which up to 1929 had been only partially relieved. See Forsyth, Shantung ference (1922).

(1902) and Willoughby, China at the Con-

SHANTUNG. A plain silk fabric of light texture originally produced in the Chinese province of that name from a variety of native silk known as “pongee” silk obtained from the cocoons of wild silkworms that feed on oak leaves. Hence, “pongee” is of a strong and rough type of silk with a light tan natural colour and a coarser filament structure than that produced by cultivated silkworms that are fed on mulberry leaves.

Japanese “pongee” is also a type of wild silk of a similar character to Shantung silk, but of a smoother and more even filament structure than that of Chinese “pongee.” ‘The word “pongee” is said to correspond with “homespun,” “hand-spun,” and “hand-woven,” as it is chiefly conducted on a very large scale as a home or domestic industry both in China and Japan, although “pongee” silk or Shantung is now woven on power looms. “Tusser” silk is the name applied to a type of low grade fabric produced from silk spun by a species of wild native silkworms of India, and possessing characteristics similar to those of Chinese “pongee” silk. Fabrics produced from “pongee” or other types of wild silk partake of the physical characteristics

of such silk and feel somewhat harsh and rough, although the better qualities of these wild silks are said to be of a more durable character and to wear better than silk fabrics produced from the products of cultivated silkworms. Shantung silk fabrics are also sometimes sold under the tradename of “Ninghai.” (H. N.)

SHANTY or CHANTY, a song of the class of labour songs

which sailors on merchant ships sing as they pull ropes to hoist yards and sails, raise anchors or work pumps. The word “shanty,” however it is spelt, is usually thought to be the British sailor’s corruption of the French word “chanter” and to come from the French Canadian lumbermen, who sing as they haul their logs; Sir Richard Terry derives it from the West Indian negroes, who move their huts or “shanties” with ropes and sing as they work, with a shantyman as soloist and leader. On board ship there are two kinds of shanties, one for pulling ropes, and one for winding the capstan. The former kind provides in the tune points for collective pulls (or a simple final pull on the last note, as in “bunting” a sail), the latter for continuous rhythmical movement. Among the best known tunes are those of “Shanadar” (or Shenandoah), “Rio Grand,” “Clear the track, let the bullgine run,” “Knock (or ‘blow’) the man down,” “A-roving,” “Heave away my Johnnie,” “O Johnny come to Hilo,” and “Whoop (or ‘whip’) Jamboree,” to name but a few. See Cecil Sharp, English Folk-Chanteys; R. R. Terry, Shanty Book (2 vols.), and Grove’s Dictionary of Music.

SHAPING MACHINES: see PLANING MACHINES. SHAPUR

(Pahlavi, Shahpuhre, “son of the king’; Greek

Sapores, commonly Sapor), the name of three Sassanian kings. I. SHAPUR I. (A.D. 241—272), son of Ardashir I. The Persian legend which makes him the son of an Arsacid princess is not historical. Ardashir I. had towards the end of his reign renewed the war against Rome; Shapur conquered the Mesopotamian fortresses Nisibis and Carrhae and advanced into Syria; but he was driven back by C. Furius Timesitheus, father-in-law of the

SHARES

4.64

young emperor, Gordianus III., and beaten at Resaena (243). Shortly afterwards Timesitheus died, and Gordianus (q.v.) was

in the E. by nomad tribes, among whom the Chionites rolonged struggle they were forced to coneen After a * king, Grumbates, accompanied Shapur their and peace, clude a

murdered by Philip the Arabian, who concluded an ignominious peace with the Persians (244). When the invasion of the Goths and the continuous elevation of new emperors after the death of Decius (251) brought the

some other fortresses in the next year.

Roman empire to utter dissolution, Shapur resumed his attacks. He conquered Armenia, invaded Syria and plundered Antioch. At last the emperor Valerianus marched against him, but suffered

defeated and made an ignominious peace, by which the districts

near Edessa the fate of Crassus (260). Shapur advanced into Asia Minor, but was beaten by Ballista; and now Odaenathus (Odainath), prince of Palmyra, rose,in his rear, defeated the Persian army, reconquered Carrhae and Nisibis, captured the royal harem, and twice invested Ctesiphon (263-265). Shapur was unable to resume the offensive; he even lost Armenia again. But according to Persian and Arabic traditions, which appear to be trustworthy, he conquered the great fortress of Hatra in the Mesopotamian desert; and the great glory of his reign was that a Roman emperor was by him kept prisoner to the day of his death. In the valley of Istakhr (near Persepolis), under the tombs of the Achaemenids at Nakshi Rustam, Shapur is represented on horseback, in the royal armour, with the crown on his head; before him kneels Valerian, in Roman dress, asking for grace. The same scene js represented on the rocks near the ruins of the towns Darabjird and Shapur in Persis. Shapur left other reliefs and rock inscriptions: one, at Nakshi-Rajab near Persepolis, is accompanied by a Greek translation; here he calls himself “the

Mazdayasnian (worshipper of Ahuramazda), the god Sapores, king of kings of the Aryans (Iranians) and non-Aryans, of divine descent, son of the Mazdayasnian, the god Artaxares, king of kings of the Aryans, grandson of the god-king Papak.” Another long in-

in the war against the Romans. Shapur now conquered Amida

after a siege of seventy-three days (359), and took Singara and

In 363 the emperor Julian, at the head of a strong army, advanced to Ctesiphon, but was killed. His successor Jovian was

on the Tigris and Nisibis were ceded to the Persians, arid the

Romans promised to interfere no more in Armenia.

In the rock-

sculptures near the town Shapur in Persis (Stolze, Persépolis, pl. 141) the great success is represented; under the hoofs of the king’s horse lies the body of an enemy, probably Julian, and a suppliant Roman, the emperor Jovian, asks for peace. Shapur now invaded Armenia, took king Arsaces II. (of the Arsacid race), the faithful ally of the Romans, prisoner by treachery and forced him to commit suicide. He then attempted

to introduce Zoroastrian orthodoxy into Armenia. But the Armenian nobles resisted him successfully, secretly supported by the

Romans, who sent King Pap, the son of Arsaces III. into Armenia. The war with Rome threatened to break out again; but Valens sacrificed Pap and caused his assassination in Tarsus, where he

had taken refuge (374). Shapur had conducted great hosts of captives from the Roman territory into his dominions, most of whom were settled in Susiana. Here he rebuilt Susa, after having killed her rebellious inhabitants, and founded some other towns. He was successful in the east, and the great town Nishapur in Khorasan (E. Parthia) was founded by him. 3. SHaPuR III. (383-388), son of Shapur II., elevated to the throne by the magnates against his uncle, Ardashir II., and killed by them after a reign of five years. He concluded a treaty with

scription at Hajjiabad (Istakhr) mentions the king’s exploits in Theodosius the Great. (Ep. M.) archery in the presence of his nobles. SHARES, A share is tangible evidence of the fact that the _ From his titles we learn that Shapur I. claimed the sovereignty holder has invested money in a given company, and is also the over the whole earth, although in reality his domain extended means of defining the extent of his holding as against those of his little farther than that of Ardashir I. Shapur built the great fellow-shareholders. In England, a share always has a definite . town Gundev-Shapur near the old Achaemenian capital Susa, nominal or face value, such as “one pound,” “ten shillings,” or „and increased the fertility of this rich district by a barrage through even “one shilling.” The size of a man’s holding is measured in \he Karun river near Shushter, which was built by the Roman “so many shares,” and shares are issued, bought and sold by syisoners and is still called Band-i-Kaisar, “the mole of the number. This is the vital distinction from stock (qg.v.) which is caesar.” Under his reign the prophet Mani, the founder of always measured by its nominal or face value. Thus a holding of Mnichaeism (g.v.) began his preaching in Persia, and the king stock is described, for example, as “£100 stock”; a holding of himiself seems to have favoured his ideas.

shares as “roo £r shares.” Furthermore, stock is dealt in in odd

-Fěr the monuments and inscriptions cf. Sir R. Ker Porter, Travels;

Blaridin and Coste, Voyage Journal

en Perse; Stolze, Persépolis; Thomas,

R. Asiat. Soc., new

der * iranischen

Philologie,

series, iii., 1868:

West

ii. 76 f.; Dittenberger,

in Grundriss

Orientis

Graeci

inser. 1, No. 434. A gem with the portrait of the king is in the museum of Gotha, ct. Pertsch, Zeiisch. d. deutschen morgenl. Ges. xxii.

280.

2. SHAPUR IT. (310-379). When King Hormizd II. (302-310) died, the Persian magnates

killed his eldest son, blinded the

amounts, é.g., ‘‘100.38.4d. stock”; shares must always be dealt in in multiples of a share—thus a sale of “ share” or “ror4 shares” is not permitted. Interest or dividend payable on shares is expressed in one of

two ways—‘“a dividend of sixpence (or other sum) per share,” or “a dividend of 5 (or so much) %,” the latter meaning a dividend

equivalent to the percentage narned on the face value of each share. If the shares are £1 shares, 5% is equivalent to rs. per

second, and imprisoned the third (Hormizd, who afterwards ae but if they are ros. shares, 5% is equivalent to 6d. per escaped to the Romans); the throne was reserved for the unborn share. child of one of the wives of Hormizd. This child, named Shapur, The market value of shares has no connection with their nomwas therefore borr king; the governament was conducted by his inal value. It is governed by price, which is always expressed in mother and the magnates. But when Shapur came of age, he so many pounds, shillings or pence per share. Thus:— turned out to be one of the greatest monarchs of the dynasty. 334 means £3.58. cash per share. Under his reign the collection of the Avesta was completed, 11/6 , «1s.6d.,, ,, heresy and apostasy punished, and the Christians persecuted. /6 7 ôd. 7 ” ; This was the natural oriental reaction against the transformation of the Roman empire into a Christian empire by Constantine. In This is the usual stock exchange way of publishing prices. The 337, just before the death of Constantine, Shapur broke the presence of fractions and the absence of the stroke implies pounds; peace concluded in 297 between Narses and Diocletian, which otherwise it is shillings and pence. A company increases its capital by issuing additional shares. had been observed for forty years, and a war of twenty-six years (337-363) began. Shapur attempted with varying success They may be issued either free as a complete bonus to shareto conquer the great fortresses of Roman Mesopotamia, Singara, holders (¢.g., two bonus shares for every three held), or at a price Nisibis (which he invested three times in vain), Amida (Diar- below their current market price as a partial bonus to sharebekr). The emperor Constantius II. was always beaten in the holders (¢.g., if the market price of outstanding £r shares is A; field. Nevertheless Shapur made scarcely any progress; the mili- they may be issued at 24, each holder of two shares being entitled tary power of his kingdom was not sufficient for a lasting occu- to buy one new, or to sell his right in the market to anyone who pation of the conquered districts. At the same time he was will buy it), or at the full market price direct to the public, Con-

SHARI— SHARK versely, if the capital of a company has to be written down—-.e., reduced, this is done by reducing the nominal value of each share, e.g., a company with shares of £1 each might write them down

to ten shillings each. Occasionally shares are “split”—7.e., a company whose shares were originally of £10 each might split each

share into ten of £1 each, thus increasing the saleability of the shares. Shares usually represent capital as opposed to loans and debentures. (See Stocks.) They take three main forms: preference, ordinary, and deferred. Kinds of Shares.—Preference shares usually receive only a fixed rate of dividend, although occasionally they share with the ordinary shares in any further profits. They are then called “‘particlpating preference shares.”” Usually in this case, the ordinary shares get a definite dividend for themselves, and the participating preference shares only receive a share of what is left. In all cases, preference shares rank ahead of ordinary and deferred shares, both as to dividend and as to repayment in the event of liquidation. Thus, if a company earns £100,000 and the preference dividend (say 5% on 2,000,000 £1 preference shares) requires the full £100,000, the holders of the ordinary shares get nothing. If preference shares are “cumulative” any arrears of dividend on them are carried forward and accumulated until a profit is earned. Then all the arrears must be paid off, before anything is paid on the ordinary shares; otherwise, once a preference dividend is not paid, the shareholders have no claim in respect of that dividend upon any future profits.

Ordinary shares rank after preference shares, but whereas the preference shareholder (unless “participating’’) is only entitled to a fixed dividend and to the return of the nominal value of his shares in the case of liquidation, in both cases the ordinary shareholder receives “what is left.” If, however, the company has also issued deferred shares, the ordinary shareholder only gets a fixed rate of dividend, perhaps with participating rights, and the deferred shareholder receives “what is left.” It is not usual for a company to issue all three kinds of shares. Usually it only issues two of the three kinds. When the first and

third are issued, they are often called “preferred ordinary” and “deferred ordinary.”

In no case are directors bound to declare

any dividend, even if profits have been earned. (See also INVESTMENTS; STOCKS; TRANSFERS.) (N. E. C.) United States.__In the United States the term “stock” is used to denote the ownership or owned capital in a business, just as the word “shares” is used in England, and the term “share” is reserved to denote one of the units or divisions of this ownership. For a full discussion of American usage see STOCK.

SHARI, a river of North-Central Africa, carrying the drain-

age of a large area into Lake Chad. Its headstreams rise on the watersheds between the Chad basin and those of the Nile and Congo. The principal headstream, known generally as the Wam, rises, in about 6° 30’ N., 15° E., in mountainous country forming the divide between the Chad system and the basin of the Sanga affluent of the Congo. From the source of the Wam to the mouth is a distance, following the windings of the stream, of fully 1,400 m. The Wam flows east and then north and in about 7°: 20’ N., 18° 20’ E. is joined by the Fafa, a considerable stream rising east of the Wam. The upper course of the Wam is much obstructed by rapids, but from a little above the Fafa confluence it becomes

navigable. Below the confluence the river, now known as the Bahr

Sara, receives three tributaries from the west. In about 9° 20’ N., 18° E., it is joined by the Bamingi, which is formed by the junction of the eastern headstreams of the Shari. One of its branches, the Kukuru, rises in about 7° N., 21° 15’ E. Some 99 m. from its source the Bamingi becomes navigable, being 12 ft. deep and flowing with a gentle current. In 8° 42’ N. it receives on the west bank the Gribingi, a river rising in about 6° 20° N. It is narrow and tortuous with rocky banks and often broken by rapids. It flows in great part through a forest-clad country. A few miles above its confluence with the Bahr Sara the Bamingi receives on the right hand another large river, the Bangoran, which rises in about 7° 45’ N. and 22° E., ina range of hills which separates the countries of Dar Runga and Dar Banda, and, like the Bamingi, flows through

465

open or bush-covered plains with isolated granite ridges.

Below the junction of the Bahr Sara and the Bamingi the Shari, as it is now called, becomes a large river, reaching, in places, a width of over 4 m. in the rains; while its valley, bordered by elevated tree-clad banks, contains many temporary lakes and back-waters. In 9° 46’ N. it receives the Bakare or Awauk (Aouk) from the east, known in its upper course as the Aukadebbe. This, like the Bahr es Salamat, which enters the Shari in ro° 7 N, traverses a wide extent of arid country in southern Wadai, and brings no large amount of water to the Shari. In 10° 17 a divergent branch, the Ergig, leaves the main stream, only to rejoin it in 11° 30’. In 12° 15’ N. and 15° E. the Shari receives on the west bank its largest tributary, the Logone, the upper branches of which rise far to the south between 6° and 7° N. The principal headstreams are the Pende and the Mambere. Its system is connected with that

of the Benue (see Nicer) by the Tuburi Swamp, which sends northward a channel joining the Logone in about 10° 30’ N. Below the Logone confluence the Shari, here a noble stream, soon splits up into various arms, forming an alluvial delta, flooded at high water, before entering Lake Chad. The existence of the Shari was made known by Oudney, Denham and Clapperton, the first Europeans to reach Lake Chad (1823). In 1852 Heinrich Barth spent some time in the region of the lower Shari and Logone, and in 1872-1873 Gustav Nachtigal studied their hydrographical system and explored the Gribingi, which he called the Bahr el Ardhe. But the most prominent explorers have been Frenchmen. In 1896 Emile Gentil reached the Bamingi and in a small steamer passed down the river to its mouth.

In 1907 an expedition under Captain E. Lenfant followed

the Wam-Bahr Sara from its source to the confluence with the Bamingi and showed it to be the true upper course of the Shari. The same expedition also discovered the Pende tributary of the Logone. From the mouth of the Shari in Lake Chad there is a current towards the Bahr-el-Ghazal channel at the south-eastern end of that lake (see Crap). This channel has been supposed to be a dried-up affluent of the lake. Investigations by the French scientists E. F. Gautier and R. Chudeau led Chudeau to the conclusion that the Shari did not end in Lake Chad, but, by way of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, passed between Tibesti and Ennedi and ended in some shat in the Libyan desert. The major part of the Shari basin is in French Equatorial Africas some of the western affluents are in the Cameroons. See the works of Barth, Nachtigal and other travellers, especially i La Découverte des grandes sources du centre de l'Afrique

1909).

SHARK, the name generally given to the larger kinds of Selachians (g.v.) of the order Pleurotremi, the smaller kinds being known as dog-fishes. Typical sharks are active and piscivorous, swimming near the surface in warm seas, and are generally bluish or greyish in colour; the body is of the normal fish shape, the snout pointed, the crescentic mouth placed on the under side of the head, and there is a series of separate gill-openings on each side; the teeth are often sharp-edged and triangular; the fins are pointed and the end of the tail is strongly upturned. Owing to the position of the mouth a shark may have to turn over to

seize a man swimming at the surface, but this’ is not its normal

method of feeding. Some large pelagic sharks have minute teeth and feed on plankton, and among those that live at the bottom there are many divergences from the type described above; they are generally less active, and have rounded fins and the end of the tail less upturned; some are stout and blunt-headed, others flattened, others eel-like; many are spotted, banded or marbled. The mouth of these bottom-living forms is often transverse, and their teeth are often smali and cuspidate, but cutting, piercing and crushing teeth occur. The spiracles, vestigial gill-openings

placed behind the eyes, are small in pelagic sharks, but larger in the bottom-living forms, in some (Squatina, Orectolobus) as large as in the rays. To the family Lamnidae belong several large pelagic sharks, widely distributed in warm seas. One of the largest, swiftest, and most voracious is the great white shark or man-eater (Carcharo-

466

SHARON—SHARP

don), which reaches a length of 4o ft.; this is somewhat similar in form to a tunny, the body being stout and rounded, the snout pointed, and the tail slender and keeled on each side; the mouth

is crescentic, and the teeth are large, triangular, with sharp serrated edges; on each side five separate gill-openings appear in front of the large, falcate pectoral fins; the first dorsal fin is moderate, the second small and opposite the anal; the powerful caudal fin is lunate, the lower lobe being nearly as large as the upper, which is supported by the upturned end of the tail. This shark feeds on fishes and other marine animals; a young sealion, weighing 100 lb., was found in the stomach of one 30 it. long. Teeth found fossil in tertiary strata, and others dredged in the Pacific ocean indicate the former existence of a Carcharodon

about go ft. long. The porbeagles (Lamna) are similar in form to the great white shark, but have narrower piercing teeth. The thresher (Alopias) is more slender, and is remarkable for the great length of the upper lobe of the tail-fin; it swims near the surface and feeds on fishes, and has been observed to strike them with blows from the tail. The family Lamnidae also includes the basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus), which takes its name from its habit of basking at the surface. It is distinguished by the large mouth, minute conical teeth and very wide gill-clefts, the inner openings of which are guarded by series of long, slender gillrakers. It reaches a length of 4o ft., but is quite harmless, feeding on minute organisms. Formerly it was hunted by harpooning off Ireland, for the sake of the oil from the liver. The numerous species of the Carchariidae are mainly tropical, pelagic and piscivorous sharks, with sharp triangular teeth, distinguished from the Lamnidae by having the last one or two gillopenings above the pectoral fin. The tiger shark (Galeocerdo tigrinus) is one of the largest and most dangerous. The hammerheads (Sphyrna) are peculiar in having the front part of the head produced outwards on each side, with the eyes at the ends of these

extensions. The topes (Galeus) and hounds (Mustelus) are small bottom-living Carchariids with small teeth, which are serrated in the topes, blunt and forming a pavement in the hounds; both genera are represented in British seas. The Scyliorhinidae include the dog-fishes, most of which are small bottom-living fishes, spotted, marbled or banded, with rounded fins and with small cuspidate teeth; they are distinguished from the Lamnidae and Carchariidae in that they are not viviparous, but lay large heavily-yolked eggs enclosed in oblong horny cases, with threads at each corner that serve for attachment. The Orectolobidae are distinguished by a pair of grooves running through the upper lip and connecting the nasal sacs with the mouth. Orectolobus of Australia and Japan includes species with a broad, flat head, margined with skinny flaps, much as in the angler (Lophius); most of the other species are bottom-living and have the appearance of dog-fishes, but one is pelagic and is the largest of all sharks, for it is said to reach a length of 70 feet.

This shark (Rhinodon) known as the whale-shark, or at the Seychelles as the “chagrin,” has the same numerous small teeth and long gill-rakers as the basking shark, which it resembles in habits. A small group of sharks is distinguished by having six or seven gill-openings on each side, and a single dorsal fin, opposed to the anal. The six-gilled shark (Hexanchus griseus) is said to attain a length of over 25 ft.; there are a few records from British seas. The frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) is an eel-shaped shark known from deep water off Japan and in the North Atlantic.

The third group of sharks has five gill-openings (six in Pliotrema), and two dorsal fins, each of which is typically preceded by a spine; most of these are bottom-living forms. The genus Heterodontus includes about seven species from the Indian and Pacific oceans, distinguished by having small teeth in the front of the jaws and large blunt teeth, suitable for crushing shell-fish, at the sides; the egg-case is conical, with spiral ridges. H. philippi is the Port Jackson shark. The piked dog-fishes (Squalus) inhabit the north and south temperate zones; they have no anal fin; the Points of the small teeth are deflected laterally, so that the inner margin forms a cutting edge. Squalus acanthias is very abundant in British waters, and off the Atlantic coast of North America; it

reaches a length of 4 ft.; it is a great nuisance to fishermen, eating fish caught in lines or in nets. All the Squalidae are vivi-

parous; two noteworthy species of this family, both without finspines, are the spiny shark (Echinorhinus), a large bulky shark

with spiny tubercles on the skin, and the Greenland shark (Somniosus) of the Arctic seas, which reaches a length of 25 ft., has

conical teeth in the upper jaw and cutting teeth in the lower,

and is active and voracious, often attacking whales. Many Squalidae (Centrina, Centrophorus, etc.) are inhabitants of deep water, and off Portugal are caught by long lines at depths of 400

or 500 fathoms. Closely related to the Squalidae are the sawsharks, Pristiophorus of the Indo-Pacific and Plotrema of South Africa, with the snout produced into a flat blade bearing a series of teeth on each side. Also related to the Squalidae are the angelfishes or monks (Squatina) with flattened body, large wing-like pectoral fins, and terminal mouth with conical teeth; about ten species of this genus are known, mainly from temperate seas. Few sharks are valued as food, but the dried fins are used by the Chinese for the preparation of gelatine, and for culinary purposes. Shagreen, used for polishing wood, is the skin of those kinds that are covered with numerous close-set pointed denticles. In recent years extensive fisheries for sharks have developed, starting in Carolina, and spreading to Africa, Australia, etc. The skins are made into leather of high quality; the oil obtained from the liver is said to be excellent, and the rest of the shark is used in the preparation

SELACHIANS;

of products

such as glue, meal, etc.

Ray.)

(See

(C. T. R.)

SHARON, a city of Mercer county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on

the Shenango river, 6o m. N.N.W. of Pittsburgh and 15 m. N.E. of Youngstown, O. It is served by the Erie and the Pennsylvania railways, and for freight also by the New York Central and the

Pittsburgh and Lake Erie.

Pop. (1920), 21,747

born white); 1930 Federal census 25,908.

(19% foreign-

Sharon, together with

the borough of Farrell (g.v.) adjoining it on the south, the borough of Sharpsville, 2 m. N.E. (pop. 4,674 in 1920), and other neighbouring communities, constitute an important unit of the Youngstown industrial district. The manufactures include iron, steel castings, automobile frames and accessories, steel hoops and barrels, tin plate, gas engines, oil tanks, tank cars, car wheels, steel rails, fire-brick, electrical transformers and many other articles. The aggregate product of the factories within the city limits in 1927 was valued at $27,564,501. Sharon was settled in 1795, but it remained small until coal-mining was begun in 1836. It was incorporated as a borough in 1841 and as a city in 1978.

SHARP,

CECIL

JAMES

(1859-1924),

British musician

and writer, was born in London Nov. 22, 1859. He was educated at Uppingham and at Clare College, Cambridge, and, in 1883 went to South Australia where he founded a school of music at Adelaide. He was principal at the Hampstead Conservatoire, London, from 1896-1905, and director of the English Folk-Dance Society which he founded in r9z1. His valuable work in collecting and arranging English folk-songs and dances, in lecturing on the subject revived interest in English national music. During a visit to America he discovered in the Appalachian Mountains interesting survivals of old national melodies. He died in London June 23, 1924. Sharp’s works include: A Book of British Song (1902); with

C. L. Marson, Folk Songs from Somerset, series 1-5 (1904-109) ; Songs for use in Schools sets 1-10; English Folk Songs from Southern Appalachians (1917); American English Folk Songs, English Folk Songs, 2 vol. (1921); Posthum. with A. P. Oppé,

Dance, an Historical Survey

of Dancing in Europe

Winifred A. S. Shaw, Cecil Sharp, an Appreciation

SHARP,

GRANVILLE

(1924).

(1925).

Folk the etc.; The

See

(1735-1813), English philanthro-

pist, was born at Durham, the son of Thomas Sharp (1693-1758), a theological writer and the biographer of John Sharp, archbishop of York. Granville was apprenticed to a London draper, but in 1758 he entered the Government ordnance department. A diligent student of Greek and Hebrew, he published several treatises on biblical criticism, one of which, Remarks on the Uses of the definitive article in the Greek Text of the New Testament, gave rise to a controversy on account of the proposition, known as “Granville Sharp’s canon,” which it contained, His fame rests, ¥

4

SHARP however, on his untiring efforts for the abolition of slavery. In 1767 he became involved in a law suit with a slave owner in which

it was finally laid down that a slave becomes free the moment he sets foot on English territory. Sharp advocated the cause of the American colonies, supported parliamentary reform at home and the legislative independence of Ireland, and agitated against press gangs. In 1797 he founded a society for the abolition of slavery, and he was a joint founder of the British and Foreign Bible Society, and of the Society for the Conversion of Jews. Sharp died on July 6, 1823, and a memorial to him was erected in Westminster abbey. See Prince Hoare, Memoirs of Granville Sharp (London, 1820), which contains observations by Bishop Burgess on Sharp’s biblical criticisms; Sir James Stephen, Essays im Ecclesiastical Biography (London, 1860) ; Thomas Clarkson, History of the Rise, Progress and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade by the British Parliament (London, 1839).

SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679), Scottish divine, the son of William Sharp, sheriff-clerk of Banffshire, was born in Banff Castle on May 4, 1618. In 1633 he went to King’s College, Aberdeen, where he graduated in 1637. On the outbreak of the Covenanting War he visited Oxford, and perhaps Cambridge, becoming acquainted with the principal English divines. On his return he was chosen (1643) one of the “regents” of philosophy in St. Leonard’s College, St. Andrews, and in 1648 was appointed minister of Crail in Fifeshire. In the great schism of Resolutioners and Protestors he took active part with the Resolutioners, and in March 165: was taken prisoner by Cromwell, but subsequently liberated on parole. In 1657 he went to London to counteract the influence with the Protector of Archibald Johnston, Lord Warriston. He was again sent to London in Feb. 1660, to watch over the interests of the Resolutioners at the time of Monk’s march to London. He was favourably received by Monk, who sent him to the king at Breda. He certainly regarded himself equally as the emissary of the Scottish kirk; he was also the bearer of a secret letter from Lauderdale to the king. There can be little doubt that he was finally corrupted by Charles and Clarendon, and decided that the interests of the Kirk should not imperil his own chances. He returned to Scotland in May 1660, and, while successfully stopping all petitions from Scottish ministers to the king, parliament or council, was at pains to allay the suspicions of his loyalty to the Kirk which had been aroused by his attitude in London. A letter of his (preserved in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries, Edinburgh) dated May 21, 1661, from London, to Middleton the high commissioner, whose chaplain he now was, shows that he was in confidential communication with Clarendon and the English bishops; that he was cooperating in the restoration of Episcopacy in Scotland: that he was aware that Middleton, with whom he had held conferences,

had all along intended it; and that he drew up the quibbling proclamation of June 10, whose sole purpose was “the disposing of minds to acquiesce in the king’s pleasure.” The mask at length dropped in August when Episcopacy was restored and Sharp was rewarded with the archbishopric of St. Andrews, Leighton, Fairfoul and Hamilton being consecrated bishops at the same time. On April 8 the new prelates entered Scotland, and on April 20 Sharp preached his first sermon at St. Andrews. Sharp had kept on good terms with Lauderdale, and avoided acting against him on the occasion of the Billeting Plot concocted in Sept. 1662 by Middleton. When Lauderdale’s supremacy was established he cooperated in passing the National Synod Act in

1663, the first step in the intended subjection of the church to the crown. In 1664 he obtained the grant of a new church commission. Gilbert Burnet made a written protest against the oppressive conduct of Sharp and other bishops, but Sharp failed to obtain a sentence of deprivation and excommunication against him. Sharp now placed himself in opposition to the influence of Lauderdale, in alliance with Rothes, Hamilton, Dalyell, and others but in 1665, he suffered, in London, a complete humiliation at the hands of Lauderdale, well described by Burnet. The result of their system of violence and extortion was the rising of the Covenanters, during which Sharp showed, according to Bellenden, the utmost fear, only equalled by his cruelty to the prisoners

407

after the rout of Pentland. When the convention of estates met in January 1667 Hamilton was substituted for him as president, and he now wrote grovelling letters to Lauderdale, who extended him a careless reconciliation. For a time he helped to restrain his brethren from complaining to London of Lauderdale’s conciliation policy. On July 10, 1668, an abortive attempt to shoot him was made by James Mitchell in Edinburgh. After a visit to London Sharp assisted in December to carry out Tweeddale’s tolerant proposals for filling the vacant parishes with some of the “ousted” ministers. In the debates on the Supremacy Act, by which Lauderdale destroyed the autonomy of the church, Sharp’s reluctance gave way upon the first pressure, but he actively opposed Leighton’s endeavour, as archbishop of Glasgow, to carry out a comprehensive scheme. From this time he was completely subservient to Lauderdale, who had now finally determined upon a career of oppression, and in 1674 he was again in London to support this policy. In this year Mitchell, who had shot at him six years before, was arrested, and Sharp obtained from him privately a full confession by a promise of pardon which he afterwards repudiated. It was, however, confirmed by the entry of the act in the records of the court. Mitchell was finally condemned, and Sharp refused to support the appeal for a reprieve. On May 3, 1679, while driving with his daughter Isabel to St. Andrews, he was set upon by nine men, and murdered in revenge. The place of the murder, on Magus Muir, now covered with fir trees, is marked by a monument erected by Dean Stanley, with a Latin inscription recording the deed. Unless otherwise mentioned the proofs of the statements article will be found in vols. i, and ii. of the Lauderdale

in this Papers

(Camden Society) and in two articles in the Scottish Review (July

1884 and Jan. 1885).

SHARP,

WILLIAM

(1749-1824), English line-engraver,

was born at London on Jan. 29, 1749. He was originally apprenticed to what is called a bright engraver, and practised as a writing engraver, but gradually became inspired by the higher branches of the engraver’s art. He died at Chiswick on July 25, 1824. In his youth, owing to his hotly expressed adherence to the politics of Paine and Horne Tooke, he was examined by the privy council on a charge of treason. Mesmer and Brothers found in Sharp a staunch believer; and for long he maintained Joanna Southcott at his own expense. As an engraver he achieved a European reputation, and enjoyed many foreign honours. Among his earlier plates are some illustrations, after Stothard, for the Novelists’ Magazine. He also engraved the “Doctors Disputing on the Immaculateness of the Virgin” and the “Ecce Homo” of Guido Reni, the “St. Cecilia” of Domenichino, the “Virgin and Child” of Dolci and the portrait of John Hunter of Sir Joshua Reynolds.

SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905), Scottish poet and man of letters, was born at Paisley on Sept. 12, 1856. His was a double personality, for during his lifetime he was known solely by a series

of poetical and critical works of great, but not of outstanding merit, while from 1894 onwards he published, with elaborate precautions of secrecy, under the name of “Fiona Macleod,” a series of stories and sketches in poetical prose which made him perhaps the most conspicuous Scottish writer of the modern Gaelic renaissance. His early life was spent chiefly in the W. highlands of Scotland, and after leaving Glasgow University he went to Australia in 1877 in search of health. After a cruise in the Pacific he settled for some time in London as clerk to a bank, became an intimate of the Rossettis, and began to contribute Mall Gazette and other journals. In 1885 he became the Glasgow Herald. He spent much time abroad, in Italy, and travelled extensively in America and Africa.

to the Pall art critic to France and In 1885 he married his cousin, Elizabeth Amelia Sharp, who helped him in much of his literary work and collaborated with him in compiling the Lyra Celtica (1896). His volumes of verse were The

Human Inheritance (1882), Earth’s Voices (1884), Romantic Ballads and Poems of Fantasy (1886), Sospiri di Roma (1891), Flower o’ the Vine (1894), Sospiri d’ Italia (1906). William Sharp was the general editor of the “Canterbury Poets” series. He was a discriminating anthologist, and his Sonnets of the Cen-

SHARP—SHAUGHNESSY

468

tury (1886), to which he prefixed a useful treatise on the sonnet, ran through many editions. This was followed by American Sonnets (1889). Sharp wrote biographies of Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1882), of Shelley (1887), of Heinrich Heine (1888), of Robert Browning (1890), and edited the memoirs of Joseph Severn (1892). The most notable of his novels was Silence Farm (1899). During the later years of his life he was obliged for reasons of health to spend all his winters abroad. The secret of his authorship of the “Fiona Macleod” books was faithfully kept until his death, which took place at the Castello di Manlace, Sicily, on Dec. 12, 1905. As late as the 13th of May 1899 Fiona Macleod had written to the Athenaeum stating that she wrote only under that name and it was her own. She began to publish her tales and sketches of the primitive Celtic world in 1894 with Pharais: A Romance of the Isles. They found only a limited public, though an enthusiastic one. The earlier volumes include The Mountain

Lovers (1895), The Sin-Eater (1895), The Washer of the Ford and other Legendary Moralities (1896), etc. In 1897 a collected

edition of the shorter stories, with some new ones, was issued as Spiritual Tales, Barbaric Tales and Tragic Romances. Later volumes are The Dominion of Dreams (1899); The Divine Adventure: Iona: and other Studies in Spiritual History (1900), and Winged Destiny (1904). See a memoir by his wife (1910).

SHARP, in music, the sign #, signifying the raising of the note to which it is attached by a semitone, the direction holding good to the end of the bar. Or, if placed at the beginning of the stave, as part of what is called the key signature, it governs the note in question throughout the composition unless contradicted. A double sharp (3) raises a note two semitones. (See ACCIDENTALS; CLEF: MUSICAL NOTATION.)

SHARPSBURG,

a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsyl-

vania, U.S.A., on the Allegheny river, opposite the north-eastern part of Pittsburgh;-served by the Pennsylvania railroad. Pop. (1920) 8,921; and it was 8,642 in 1930. It is a manufacturing suburb, with iron and steel works, and factories making varnish, lubricating oil, oil-cans, glass and various other articles. There are coal mines and oil wells in the environs. Sharpsburg was settled in 1826 and incorporated as a borough in 1841. It was named after the original proprietor of the land, James Sharp. SHARQAT, BATTLE OF, 1918. This is the name given to the final battle, Oct. 1918, in which the British in Mesopotamia, under General Marshall, overthrew the Turkish force which was covering Mosul, the last important centre then remaining in the

hands of the Turks. (See MESOPOTAMIA, OPERATIONS IN.) SHASI, a city in the province of Hupeh, central China, in latitude 30° 26’ N. and longitude 112° 5’ E., with an estimated Chinese population of 190,500. It is situated on the left bank of the Yangtze about 120 miles directly west of Hankow, though

much farther distant by the river-route.

It is admirably placed

as an entrepot centre in the low-lying cotton region amid a network of canals, one of which gives it direct with Hankow. These canal facilities have done much the development of Shasi as a river-port. Before the

of Hupeh connection to restrict opening of

Ichang (higher up the river) as a treaty port in 1895, Shasi was the usual transhipment centre for the Szechwan trade, but it subsequently lost much of its trade to Ichang. Shasi was opened to foreign trade by the treaty of Shimonoseki (1896) but only within the last 10 years has its total trade made really appreciable advances, due to a steadily growing export trade, chiefly

in raw cotton. The annual increase was maintained in 10926, despite civil war in Hupeh and Hunan. sd

1926

Haikwan Taels 3/8

Net Foreign imports Net Chinese imports Exports Total

i

:

3,044,700 5,614,281 24,133,311

32,792,292

The value of the total trade was in 1904, Hk, Taels 1,956,371; IQII, 2,948,656; 1924, 23,594,654. Shasi is a distributing centre

for salt, fibres and nutgalls, from Szechwan; the import of salt averaging about 400,000 bags, and nutgalls about 100,000 chests annually. The foreign import trade is chiefly in cotton piece goods, kerosene oil, and refined sugar. The basis of an active export trade is raw cotton, which was shipped to the amount of 650,000 piculs in 1926. Seeds, especially rape and cotton seeds, are also exported. In 1913 a contract was signed for the construction of a railway from Shasi, via the Yuan-kiang valley, south-westward to Kwei-yang, capital of Kweichow province. Work on this scheme was, however, held up by the World War. The construction of a railway westward from Hankow into Szechwan (via Shasi) is one of the railway projects most likely to materialize in the near future.

SHASTA.

This Indian group, of Hokan speech stock, lived Culturally

on and south of Klamath river, east of Mt. Shasta.

they stood intermediate between the north-western tribes, such as the Yurok and Hupa (g.v.) and the Maidu (g.v.) and other central Californians. Originally numbering 2,000, they have

dwindled to a few dozen scattered households.

See R. B. Dixon, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. History, vol. xvii. (1907).

SHASTA, MOUNT, a peak at the northern extremity of the

Sierra Nevada range in Siskiyou county, California, U.S.A. It is the cone of an extinct volcano rising to a height of 14,161 ft. above sea-level. Its deep-fluted sides show that it has been considerably lowered and wasted by ice action. The remaining glaciers, which extend down to within 9,500 ft. of sea-level, are but a remnant of their former greatness. A sulphurous fumarole just below the extreme summit and another on its north slope still show vestiges of volcanic activity. See John Muir, The Mountains of California (oth ed., 1911) and Spirit Leveling in California 1896-1923 (1925), which is Bulletin No. 766 of the United States Geological Survey.

SHATT-AL-ARAB, a river in Mesopotamia formed by the junction of the Tigris and the Euphrates (qqg.v.). There is reason to believe that the stream is not of great. antiquity. (See MesoPOTAMIA: Ancient Geography.) The Shatt-al-Arab may be said to extend from Qurna to the bar at Fao, and the effect of the tide reaches up to the former point, where formerly the Euphrates discharged. It is 123 miles long. The importance of the Shattal-Arab is restricted to its lower reach from Basra to Fao, the railway from Baghdad having its terminus at Basra. Between Basra and Mohammera, the Persian port at the junction of the Karun with the Shatt-al-Arab, the river has an average breadth of 600 yards. At the actual point of junction the river widens out to half a mile and at Fao, 49 m. down stream, it is a mile

broad. Below Fao the river rapidly widens and flows through interminable sandbanks and mudflats to the Persian Gulf. The utility of the river for navigation is restricted by the bar at Fao, which allows only vessels of under rr ft. draught to pass at low water. Sir Arnold Wilson has computed that the silt coming down the river annually is about half a million tons; the amount deposited in the main channel would be insignificant if, after dredging, a channel of 24 ft. at low water were maintained. Beyond the bar there is a depth of 30-40 ft. except in two places, the bar at Mohammera at the confluence of the Karun being the only other serious restriction to navigation.

Rawlinson suggests that there are three main facts to be considered in the history of the Shatt-al-Arab. First the coast line at the mouth of the Shatt-al-Arab advanced very slowly until, at the end of the 18th century, the Karun forced its way into the Shattal-Arab. When this happened the Shatt-al-Arab began to enlarge its bed and began to cut the great bend between Mohammera and Abadan. After this islands began to form at the mouth of the

Shatt-al-Arab.

(See also MESOPOTAMIA, and BASRA.)

Brstiocrapay.—Sir W. Willcocks, The Irrigation of Mesopotamia (1911) ; Memorandum respecting the Navigation of the Tigris and the Euphrates (1913); Sir A. Wilson, “The Delta of the Shat-al-Arab and Proposals for Dredging the Bar,” Geographical Journal, Ixv., p. 225 (1925) ; Colonial Office annual Reports.

SHAUGHNESSY,

THOMAS

GEORGE

SHAUGH-

NESSY, rst Baron, cr. 1916 (1853-1923), Canadian railway

magnate, was born at Milwaukee Oct. 6, 1853. He began railway service at the age of 16, and in 1882 joined the staff of the

SHAW Canadian Pacific Railway as general purchasing agent. In 1891 he was appointed a vice-president and from 1899 to 1918 he was president and chairman of the board of directors, and director of all the allied lines. He died in Montreal on Dec. 10, 1923. SHAW, ANNA HOWARD (1847-1919), American reformer, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne on Feb. 14, 1847. When she was a small child, her parents moved to the United States. From 1872 to 1875 she studied at Albion college (Mich.), and in 1878 graduated from the theological school of Boston university. The district conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church granted her a local preacher’s licence, but the New England Conference of the M.E. Church refused to ordain her because of her sex, and the refusal was upheld by the General Conference at Cincinnati in 1880. The same year she was ordained in the Methodist Protestant Church. While preaching she had studied medicine and received the degree of M.D. from Boston university in 1885. She was associated after 1886 with the National American Woman Suffrage Association in various capacities, from 1904—15 as president. In 1917 she was chairman of the woman’s committee of the Council of National Defence. She died at Moylan (Pa.), on July 2, r9r9 |

SHAW, GEORGE BERNARD

(1856—

_), Irish drama-

tist, was born in Dublin on July 26, 1856. His father, George Carr Shaw, a younger son of Bernard Shaw, high sheriff of Kilkenny, was an impoverished and humorously helpless member of what, in England, would have been called the middle class, but in Ireland is still called the gentry. He was first employed by the Government in the Four Courts, then the Dublin Law Courts, and when his office was abolished in 1850 compounded his pension for a lump sum, with which he became a member of the Dublin Corn Exchange, engaging in a business of which he was totally ignorant, that of a corn merchant. He married Lucinda Elizabeth Gurly, who was the daughter of Walter Bagenal Gurly, a landed proprietor in County Carlow. Three children were born of the marriage, Lucinda Frances, Elinor Agnes and George Bernard. The financial affairs of the Shaw family did not prosper, but the young wife, who had a mezzo soprano voice of remarkable purity, became known as an amateur singer. There was then in Dublin a gifted conductor and teacher of singing, named George John Vandaleur Lee, with whose work Mrs. Shaw became associated. In this way the Shaw children, despite their father’s financial straits, acquired a considerable musical culture which was extended to the theatre by her amateur operatic performances. Her son, after a private grounding in Latin grammar from his uncle, the Rev. William George Carroll, vicar of St. Bride’s, Dublin, who was reputed to be the first minister of the Church of Ireland to proclaim himself a Home Ruler, was like many other Church of Ireland children, sent to the Wesleyan Connexional School, later known as Wesley college, in Dublin, and was “generally near or at the bottom of his classes.” At home, however, he acquired an extensive acquaintance with the works of composers of music, so that before he was 15, “he knew at least one important work by Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi and Gounod from cover to cover.” He studied pictures in the National Gallery of Ireland, and at 15 “knew enough of a considerable number of painters to recognize their work at sight.” In 1871, when he was 15 and had no hope of going to a university, he received, through the influence of his uncle, Frederick Shaw, an appointment in the office of a Dublin land agent, Charles Uniacke Townshend, at a commencing salary of £18 per annum. At the end of a year, when he was 16, the important post of cashier unexpectedly became vacant, and he was temporarily

469

deliver their gospel. After he had heard it he wrote a letter, signed “S,” and dated April 3, 1875, to Public Opinion, in which he asserted, to the horror of his pietistic relatives, that if this sort of thing was religion then he, on the whole, was an atheist. The first nine years of his life in London were passed in poverty and oppressed to some extent by a sense of failure. His literary earnings in that time amounted to six pounds. “When people reproach me,” he wrote in 1896, “with the unfashionableness of my attire, they forget that to me it seems like the raiment of Solomon in all his glory by contrast with the indescribable seedi- ness of those days when I trimmed my cuffs to the quick with scissors, and wore a tall hat and soi-disant black coat green with decay.”’ In those nine years, 1876-85, he “devilled” for a musical critic; began a passion play in blank verse which he did not finish; wrote an article for One and All, of which George R. Sims was editor, the payment for which was rss., wrote an article on patent medicines for £5, and a verse for a school prizebook for 5s., and composed five novels. He was supported during these nine years by his mother, and by his father, who was still struggling with his dwindling business on the Dublin Corn Exchange. On a few occasions he endeavoured “to earn an honest living,” the last occasion being in 1879, when, for a few months, he was in the service of a company formed in London “to exploit an ingenious invention by Mr. Thomas Alva Edison.” Thereafter he insisted on following the bent of his mind. “I did not throw myself into the struggle for life: I threw my mother into it. I was not a staff to my father’s old age: I hung on to my father’s coat tails. .. . Callous as Comus to moral babble, I steadily wrote my five pages a day and made a man of myself (at my mother’s expense) instead of a slave.” Such glimpses of London society as he obtained he owed to the possession of a suit of evening clothes and to his being a sufficiently sympathetic accompanist to be tolerated as an amateur in musical circles. Between 1879 and 1883 the five novels were written—one each year. The first was, “with merciless fitness,” called Immaturity.

It was declined hy all the publishers, including Chapman and Hall, whose reader, George Meredith, wrote “No” on it. The manuscript was thrown aside and nibbled by mice, but “‘even the mice failed to finish it.” The Irrational Knot, Love Among the Artists, Cashel

Byron’s Profession and An Unsocial Socialist proved equally unacceptable, and it was riot until after he had made many friends in advanced political and humanitarian circles that they were printed as padding in propagandist magazines. In 1882, when Bernard Shaw was 26 and the author of four unpublished books, he attended a public meeting at the Memorial Hall, Farringdon street, London, which was addressed by Henry George on the subject of land nationalization. George believed that the social ills of mankind would be cured by the nationalization of land, or single tax; all other forms of capital could safely be left in private possession. Shaw resolved to join in George’s campaign, but he did not long remain in it, for, on proceeding from a study of George’s Progress and Poverty to Marx’s Capital

he became a Socialist and demanded the nationalization of all

forms of capital, a demand which was repugnant to George. In this campaign Shaw made a number of firm friendships—with James Leigh Joynes, Sydney Olivier (later Lord Olivier), Henry Hyde Champion, the Rev. Stewart D. Headlam, Henry S. Salt and his wife, William Morris, Annie Besant, Edward Carpenter and Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Propaganda magazines inevitably followed in the trail of these friends, and in one of them, printed by Champion and called To-day, An Unsocia] Socialist and Cashel Byron’s Profession were serialised. To-day died, and was succeeded by Our Cérner, published by Mrs. Besant, with whom Shaw had become acquainted appointed to it. He filled it so ably that he was confirmed in it, about’ the time that he joined the Fabian Society, a society of and his salary, then £24 per annum, was doubled. In 1876, no Socialists founded in 1884. The Irrational Knot and Love Among longer able to endure employment which had always irked him, the Artists were serialised in this magazine. It, too, died. Cashel he withdrew from it and joined his mother, who, some years Byron’s Profession had an artistic, but not a popular success. earlier, had settled in London and become a professional teacher Stevenson was enraptured by it, and Henley wanted to make a of music. But before he did this he made his first communication play out of it. Shaw himself, some years afterwards, burlesqued to the Press. The American evangelists Moody and Sankey had it for the stage under the name of The Admirable Bashville, in arrived in Dublin to conduct a revival, and he went to hear them excellent blank verse.

470

SHAW

The first of these plays was finished in 1892, seven S eas It was abundantly clear in these novels, written after the style aw, of the 18th century authors, that narrative was mot the form in | it had been begun in collaboration with William Archer. which Shaw could best express himself. He ran to dialogue it seemed, could write “incomparable” dialogue, but “construction rather than to description or to narrative, and his characters on was not his strong point”; Archer “could not write dialogue a any or no provocation uttered long speeches that read like plat- bit, bit . . . considered himself a born constructor.” They agreed form deliveries rather than conversation. The story was always to pool their abilities and make a play. Archer constructed “a a poor one when there was any story at all; the author was not twaddling cup-and-saucer comedy . . . to be called Rhinegold.” fastidious about the peg on which he hung his opinions.

He

shared with Shakespeare a willingness to use any plot that would

But Shaw held that plot was the curse of fiction, literary or dra-

matic; and Archer was the apostle of plot and construction. Consequently the plot, in Shaw’s hands, underwent such a change that Archer retired from the collaboration, nor did he ever ex-

serve his purpose. But he could not continue to use a form which was intractable in his hands, and so, after many diversions and adventures in search of a suitable instrument, he turned to the pect to see the play completed. Seven years later, to help the stage. It may here be said, however, that the novels were a prep- Independent theatre out of an emergency, Shaw finished the play aration for the plays. Much of what is in the former, was re- —a treatise on slum-property—and it was performed for’ the used in the latter. The hatred of hypocrisy and pretentious re- first time under the management of Mr. J. T. Grein at the Royspectability and irrational social cleavages and stupefying poverty alty theatre in London in Dec. 1892. Shaw was then in his thirtyand every kind of organised priestcraft, whether of the law or the seventh year. Archer, writing in The World, earnestly endeavchurch or of medicine or of politics, which he acquired in Dublin oured to dissuade Shaw from following a career as a dramatist, as a boy and a youth, was poured into his novels and distilled “for which he has no special ability, and some constitutional disfrom them into his plays. Ann Whitefield, who takes the initia- abilities.” In 1893 he wrote The Philanderer, a topical comedy tive in the sex duel with John Tanner in Man and Superman, is on Ibsenism and the “new woman,” for the same theatre, but the: descended from Madge Brailsford who hunts down Owen Jack in piece proved technically unsuitable for Mr. Grein’s company. To Love Among the Artists. The conclusion of Love Among the replace it Mr. Shaw wrote Mrs. Warren’s Profession, which was Artists, as Julius Bab has pointed out, is almost identical in refused a license by the Lord Chamberlain and was not presented situation and words with the conclusion of Candida. until Jan. 5, 1902, when it was privately given by the Stage His fortunes now began to mend. He criticised books for the Society at the New Lyric theatre. When it was played in New Pall Mall Gazette and pictures for The World. He was appointed York by the late Arnold Daly’s company in 1905 the actors musical critic of the Ster, under the pseudonym of “Corno di were prosecuted. These three plays were classed by the author Bassetto,” but he presently transferred himself in the same ca- as “unpleasant plays” in the printed version. Arms and the Man pacity to The World, in which he made his initials G.B.S. familiar was produced at the Avenue theatre (April 21, 1894) by Miss to the public. Later on he acted as dramatic critic of The Saturday Florence Farr, who was experimenting on the lines of the IndeReview. During this period of critical activity, however, he was pendent theatre, and by Mr. Richard Mansfield at the Herald arduously engaged in his political propaganda. Henry George’s Square theatre, New York (Sept. 17, 1894). The scene was laid Progress and Poverty diverted his attention from the so-called in Bulgaria, the piece being a satire on romanticism, a destructive controversies between science and religion to political economy, criticism on military “glory.” Candida was written in 1894 and to which he devoted several years of study; Karl Marx’s Das won a decisive success in Germany with Agnes Sorma as Candida; Kapital, which he read in French, completed his disillusion with but the London managers would have none of it. It won Shaw capitalistic civilisation. He took up public speaking and inces- many friends as a vindication of the woman in the home. santly addressed “audiences of every description, from university He had found no regular English audience when he published dons to London washerwomen.-: From 1883 to 1895, with virtually Plays Pleasant and Unpleasant (2 vols.), in 1898, and his pieces no exception, he delivered a harangue with debate, questions, and first became well known to the ordinary playgoer by the performso on every Sunday—sometimes twice or even thrice—and on a ances given at the Royal Court theatre under the management of good many weekdays. This teeming and tumultuous life was passed T. E. Vedrenne and Harley Granville-Barker. Man and Superman on many platforms, from the British Association to the triangle (published in 1903) was produced there on May 23, 1905, in a at the corner of Salmon’s lane in Limehouse.” He was now a most necessarily abridged form, with Granville-Barker in the part of active member of the Fabian Society, which he joined in 1884, John Tanner, the author of the “Revolutionist’s Handbook and and was the author of its second and third tracts. Pocket Companion,” printed as an appendix to the play. A great In 1898 Shaw’s health yielded under the weight of his work. success was John Bull’s Other Island, dealing satirically with IreHe recovered after his marriage in that year to Charlotte Payne- land, as she was before receiving autonomy. Major Barbara Townshead, but did not resume his former incessant activity on (Court theatre, Nov. 1905), announced as a “discussion in three the platform. He became, instead, a co-opted member of the acts,” placed the Salvation Army on the stage. The last of the Vestry -of St. Pancras, now the St. Pancras Borough Council. To plays, Saint Joan, was written in 1923. It will be seen, then, that his six years’ work on that body we owe his Common Sense of the bulk of Shaw’s dramatic work was done after he had passed Municipal Trading. He contested the County Council seat; but his 4oth birthday, and that half of it was done after he had reached the result confirmed his conviction that the Conservatives would the age at which Shakespeare died. It will also be seen that the vote against him and none of the Liberals for him. This was his three plays which are now considered to be his greatest, Heartonly open candidature for popular election. His chief political break House, Back to Methuselah and Saint Joan, were written work was done in the committees of the Fabian Society. By this when he was well over 60 years of age. Three of the plays, Mrs. time he was well known as a brilliant and witty critic and debater, Warren’s Profession, The Shewing-up of Blanco Posnet, and Press but was hardly known at all as an author, although, in addition to Cuttings were banned by the censor, but the ban was subsequently his novels, he had written The Sanity of Art (1908), a reply to lifted from them. Passion, Poison and Petrifaction is a burlesque Dr. Max Nordau’s Degeneration; The Perfect Wagnerite (1898); melodrama written for the benefit of the Actors’ Orphanage. The The Quintessence of Ibsenism (1891); and four plays. Interlude at the Playhouse is a topical prologue quoted at length But from 1894 his rise to world fame was steady and swift. He in the Daily Mail, Jan. 29, 1907, and not otherwise published. now definitely was a dramatist, publishing his plays for general His political writings, in addition to a number of Fabian tracts

reading (then an innovation in London) with elaborate prefaces on political, social and finally on religious and biological questions, which were quite independent of the plays to which they were attached. Thus he became known ‘as an unacted dramatist before he was conclusively accepted on the London stage after 1904.

His vogue as an acted dramatist began in New York and Ġer-

many about six years earlier.

and pamphlets, include Common Sense about the War, Peace Conference Proposals, and The Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Soctalism and Capitalism. The plays vary from exposure of social wrongs, as for example

slum ownership in Widowers’ Houses and prostitution in Mrs. Warren’s Profession, to philosophical and religious disquisitions, as in Misalliance and Androcles and the Lion, Heartbreak H ouse,

SHAW—SHAWINIGAN metabiological prophecies, as in Back to Methuselah, and dramatised historical chronicle, as in Caesar and Cleopaira and Saint Joan, Shaw has ranged through a great variety of scenes in his plays—America, Bulgaria, Egypt, England, France, Germany and Ireland, and he is always careful to make the settings as picturesque and romantic as possible. He goes to extraordinary lengths to introduce oddity into his work, as when he makes Captain Shotover, in Heartbreak House, live in a house shaped

like a ship, and causes one of the characters in the play to wear the clothes of an Arab chief in the evening. At first, his work seemed to express an absolute determinism—not man, but his environment, was at fault—but in his later plays he insists, in Macbeth’s phrase, that man “still has judgment here,’ and expresses what may be called a neo-Protestant belief. Mankind, in Back to Methuselah, reaches through creative evolution a state of longevity which resembles eternal life. Joan of Arc protests that no one shall stand between God and her, The general religious belief expressed in the plays may be briefly summarised as follows: God, or the Life Force, is an imperfect power striving to become perfect. If He were omniscient and omnipotent, He would not allow certain horrors to exist in the lives of His creatures, any more than an ordinary father would tolerate disease in his children if he could prevent it. The whole of time has been occupied by God in experiments with instruments invented to help Him in His attempt to perfect Himself. When He found that these instruments were either useless or no longer serviceable He scrapped them. In this way the disappearance from the world of mammoth beasts, among other creatures, is explained. God eventually found that all His instruments suffered from a common defect, that they were incapable of apprehending His purpose and unable to help overcome their circumstances and bodily limitation. He thereupon created a new instrument, Man, who is still on probation. Shaw warns the world that if we, too, fail to achieve God’s purpose He will become impatient and scrap mankind as He scrapped the mammoth beasts. “You should live so that when you die God is in your debt.” He was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1926, but immediately handed over the money, amounting to more than £7,000, to the Anglo-Swedish Foundation for spreading a knowledge of Swedish literature in English-speaking countries. Brsuiocraruy.—Holbrook Jackson, Bernard Shaw (1907); Julius Bab, Bernard Shaw (Berlin, 1910) ; G. K. Chesterton, George Bernard

Shaw

(1910);

E. Wagenknecht,

Guide

to Bernard Shaw

(1929).

Edward Shanks, Bernard Shaw (1924); J.S. Collis, Shaw (1925). See also chapters in the following: G. K. Chesterton, Heretics (1905) ; Ashley Dukes, Modern Dramatists (1911) ; St. John Ervine, Some Impressions of My Elders (1922). (Sr. J. E.)

SHAW,

HENRY

WHEELER

(1818-1885),

American

humorist, known by the pen-name of “Josh Billings,” was born of

Puritan stock at Lanesborough (Mass.), April 2r, 1818. He left Hamilton college to go West, where he worked on steamboats, farmed, and was an auctioneer. In 1858 he settled in Pough-

keepsie (N.Y.), as a land agent and auctioneer, and began writing, especially for the Poughkeepsie Daily Press. His “Essa on the Muel bi Josh Billings” (1860) in a New York paper won him an audience he could not secure by more conventionally spelled articles and was followed by many similar contributions, chiefly in the New York Weekly and the New York Saturday Press, and by several popular volumes, among which are Josh Billings: His Sayings (1866); Josh Billings on Ice and Other Things (1868); Josh Billings: His Works, Complete (1876); Trump Kards (1877); Old Probabilities (1879); Josh Billings’ Spice-Box (1881), and his burlesques of the familiar almanacs, issued annually for the decade beginning 1870, and collected into a volume in 1902 under the title Josh Billings’ Old Farmers’ Allminax. He died in Monterey (Calif.), Oct. 14, 1885. He was his best in the humorous aphorism and displayed a shrewd philosophy, especially in his contributions to the Century Maga-

_ gine under the name of Uncle Esek. See Life and Adventures of Josh Billings (1883), by F. S. Smith.

SHAW, JOHN BYAM

(1872-1919), English painter, was

born at Madras on Nov. 13, 1872. He came to England in 1878 and after studying at the St. John’s Wood school of art, entered

FALLS

471

the Royal Academy schools in 1889. His picture, “Rose Mary,” was hung in 1893. One of his best known works was “Love the Conqueror” (1899). He illustrated many books, including Browning’s Poems (1898); Tales from Boccaccio (1899); Pilgrim’s Progress (1904); Edgar Allan Poe’s Tales (1909), etc. In 1921 he established with Rex Vicat Cole (b. 1870), a school of art at Kensington. He died in London on Jan. 26, I19I9. SHAW, LEMUEL (1781-1861), American jurist, was born at Barnstable, Mass., Jan. 9, 1781. He graduated at Harvard college in 1800, and was admitted to the bar in 1804. In 1805 he began to practise law in Boston. He was a prominent Federalist and was a member of the Massachusetts house of representatives in 1811-14, in 1820 and in 1829, and of the State senate in 1821~-22, a delegate to the State constitutional convention of 1820-21, and chief justice of the supreme court of the State from 1830 to 1860. He presided over the trial in 1850 of Prof. John White Webster (1793-1850) for the murder of Dr. George Parkman. His opinion in Cary v. Daniels (8 Metcalf) is the basis of the present law in Massachusetts as to the regulation of water power rights of riparian proprietors. He died in Boston, March 30, 1861. See the address by B. F. Thomas in Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, x. 50-79 (Boston, 1869).

SHAW, RICHARD NORMAN (1831-1912), British architect, was born in Edinburgh on May 7, 1831. At the age of sixteen he was apprenticed in London to William Burn. He also attended the architectural schools of the Royal Academy, where, in 1854, he gained the gold medal and two years’ travelling studentship. On his return in 1856 he published the drawings made during his two years abroad, Architectural Sketches from the Continent. He then entered the office of G. E. Street, and presently became his chief assistant. In 1863, after sixteen years of severe training, he began to practise. He went into partnership with W. E. Nesfield, who had worked with him in Burn’s office, and even when the partnership was dissolved the two men occupied the same office for some time. In 1872 Shaw was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and a full member in 1877; he joined the “retired” list towards the end of r901. He died at Hampstead on Nov. 7, 1912.

Characteristic examples of Shaw’s work are Preen Manor, Shropshire; New Zealand Chambers, Leadenhall Street; Pierrepont, Wispers, and Merrist Wood, in Surrey; Lowther Lodge, Kensington; Adcote, in Shropshire; his houses at Kensington, Chelsea and at Hampstead; Flete House, Devonshire; Greenham Lodge, Berkshire; Dawpool, in Cheshire; Bryanstone, in Dorsetshire; Chesters, Northumberland; New Scotland Yard, on the Thames Embankment; besides several fine works in Liverpool and the neighbourhood. Shaw broke away from the academic tradition in which he was held, to adopt the characteristic style which entirely changed English domestic architecture. Shaw’s style has been vulgarized by the imitations of the speculative builder, but the houses he himself designed were admirable in proportion and in their adaptation to their purpose. They were the outcome of much enthusiastic and intelligent study of old examples, and were based directly on old methods and traditions. As his powers developed, his buildings gained in dignity, and had an air of serenity and a quiet homely charm which were less conspicuous in his earlier works; the “half timber’? was more sparingly used, and finally disappeared entirely. His planning is invariably fine and full of ingenuity. Adcote (a beautiful drawing of which hangs in the Diploma Gallery at Burlington House) is perhaps the best example of the series of his country houses built between 1870 and 1880. The elements are few but perfectly proportioned and combined, and the scale throughout is consistent. The Great Hall is the keynote of the plan, and is properly but not unduly emphasized. New Scotland Yard is undoubtedly Mr. Shaw’s finest and most complete work. Unfortunately no great public rebuilding scheme in London was ever entrusted to him, but his spirit and

his enthusiasm for his art inspired many of the younger men. SHAWINIGAN FALLS, a pulp, paper and power centre in St. Maurice county, Quebec, Canada, on the St. Maurice river, 21m. N. of Three Rivers, and on the Canadian National and

Canadian

Pacific railways.

It is the site of the Shawinigan

472

SHAWL—SHEBOYGAN

Water and Power Company. which carries the highest voltage line in operation in Canada. It is also a centre for the pulp and paper industry in Canada, an industry which has grown since 1900 from a gross value of production of less than $10,000,000

to more

than $250,000,000.

Shawinigan Falls itself contains

manufactures with the gross value of $16,381,429.

Pop. (1931),

15,345. SHAWL. A square or oblong article of dress worn in various ways dependent from the shoulders. The term is of Persian origin (skál), and the article itself is most characteristic of the natives of north-west India and central Asia; but in various forms, and under different names, the same piece of clothing is found in

and died at Sparta, N.Y., on Sept. 29, 1825. See J. T. Adams, New England in the Republic 1776-1850, pp. 146166 (Boston, 1926).

SHEARER, THOMAS, English 18th-century furniture designer and cabinet-maker. The solitary biographical fact known is that this distinguished craftsman was the author of most of the

plates in The Cabinet Maker's London Book of Prices and Designs of Cabinet Work, issued in 1788 “For the London Society of Cabinet Makers.” The majority of these plates, republished separately as Designs for Household Furniture, exhibit simplicity of design, delicacy of proportion and originality. There can be

little doubt that Shearer exercised considerable influence over Hep-

most parts of the world. The shawls made in Kashmir occupy a

plewhite.

pre-eminent place among textile products; and it is to them and to their imitations from western looms that specific importance attaches. The Kashmir shawl is characterized by the elaboration of its design, in which the “cone” or “mango” pattern is a prominent feature, and by the glowing harmony, brilliance, depth and enduring qualities of its colours. The basis of these excellences is found in the very fine, soft, short, flossy under-wool, called pashm or pashmina, found on the shawl-goat, a variety of Capra hircus inhabiting the elevated regions of Tibet. There are several varieties of pashm, but the finest is a strict monopoly of the maharaja of Kashmir. Inferior pashm and Kirman wool—a fine soft Persian sheep’s wool—are used for shawl weaving at Amritsar and other places in the Punjab, where colonies of Kashmiri weavers are established. Of shawls, apart from shape and pattern, there are only two principal classes: (1) loom-woven shawls called tiliwalla, tilikar or kani kar—sometimes woven in one piece, but more often in small segments which are sewn together with such precision that the sewing is quite imperceptible; and (2) embroidered shawls—amlikar—in which over a ground of plain pashmina is worked by needle a minute and elaborate pattern.

Adam.

SHAWM

or SHALM,

the mediaeval forerunner of the

Shearer, in his turn, owes something to the brothers

It is probable that he worked at his craft with his own

hands and that he was literally a cabinet-maker—so

far as we

know, he never made chairs. Much of the elegance of Shearer’s work is due to his graceful and reticent employment of inlays of satinwood and other foreign woods.

SHEARING MACHINES:

see PUNCHING AND SHEARING

MACHINES.

SHEARWATER, Pufinus pufinus, family Procellariidae, a sea bird with a wide distribution in the North Atlantic, though rarely resorting to land, except in the breeding season. The Manx shearwater is the only one that breeds in Britain. It is a plainlooking bird, black above and white beneath, and about the size of a pigeon. Its flight is graceful as it skims close over the waves. Shearwaters are widely distributed pelagic birds, spending the greater part of their lives on the ocean. The shearwater lays its

single white egg in a hole underground.

The young are thickly

clothed with long down and are extremely fat. In this condition they are thought good eating, and enormous numbers are caught in some localities, especially of P. brevicaudus, which frequents islands off Australia, where it is known as the “Mutton bird.”

SHEATHBILL (Chionis alba), a bird so-called from the horny case which ensheaths the basal part of its bill. SHAWNEE. This Algonkin tribe lived, when discovered in The Sheathbill is about the size of a pigeon; its plumage is the 17th century, in two wholly separated portions, one on Cum- pure white, its bill somewhat yellow at the base, passing into pale berland river in Tennessee and Kentucky, the other on Savannah pink towards the tip. Round the eyes the skin is bare and beset river in South Carolina. Liké their relatives the Sauk, Fox and with cream-coloured papillae, while the legs are bluish-grey. The Kickapoo, they were restless and inclined to wander. Toward second eastern species, C. minor, is smaller, with a dark bill and the end of the 17th century the eastern division moved north legs and a differently shaped “sheath.” The western species gathinto Pennsylvania, and early in the 18th the other began to ers its food, consisting of sea-weeds and shell-fish, on rocks at low drift north-westward across the Ohio. The two divisions united, water; but it is also known to eat birds’ eggs. Though most for the first time in the historic period, about 1750 in eastern abundant as a shore-bird, it is frequently met with far out at sea. Ohio. They fought the British or Americans until 1795, then It is not uncommon on the Falkland Isles, where it breeds. C. variously joined the Cherokee or Creek or withdrew to Indiana minor inhabits Kerguelen Land, Prince Edward Island, Marion and even Missouri. Those in Indiana were again defeated at Island, and the Crozets. The eggs of both species are not unlike Tippecanoe in 18zrz. Portions of the tribe lived for a time in those of oyster-catchers, The sheathbills constitute the family Texas and Kansas, and they are now gathered in Oklahoma, Chionidae of the plovers (Charadriiformes), though in several districts. They number 1,490. SHEBOYGAN, a city of eastern Wisconsin, U.S.A., on Lake SHAWNEE, a city of Pottawatomie county, Oklahoma, Michigan at the mouth of the Sheboygan. river, 52 m. N. of MilU.S.A., on the North Canadian river, 38 m. E.S.E. of Oklahoma waukee; a port of entry and the county seat of Sheboygan county. City, at an altitude of 1,006 ft.; served by the Oklahoma City- It is on Federal highway 141, and is served by the Chicago and Ada-Atoka, the Rock Island and the Santa Fe railways. Pop. North-western and the Milwaukee Electric railways and lake (1920) 15,3485 im 1930, 23,283. It is the trading centre and steamers. Pop. 30,955 in 1920 (27% foreign-born white) and was shipping point for a farming and stock-raising country; has cotton 39,251 Federal census 1936. There is a good harbour, open gins and compresses, cottonseed-oil mills, a large meat-packing throughout the year, which in 1928 had traffic amounting to plant, railway shops and other manufacturing industries, with an 448,226 tons, valued at $7,532,100. The city ships 80,000,000 Jb. output in 1927 valued at $5,716,284; and is the seat of the of cheese in a year, and millions of gallons of its mineral waters. Oklahoma Baptist University (1910). The site of Shawnee was in It has a large fishing industry, and its manufactures are the territory of the Pottawatomie Nation. The city was founded extensive. Chairs, enamel-ware, desks and bookcases varied and are among in 1895 and incorporated in 1896. the leading products. The aggregate factory output In 1927 was SHAYS, DANIEL (1747-1825), American soldier, the valued at $31,034,062. The city’s assessed valuation of property leader of Shays’s Rebellion, 1786-87 (see MassAcHusetts: His- for 1927 was $51,977,171. About 1820 a trading post was estabtory), was born in Hopkinton, Mass., in 1747. In the Reyolu- lished at the mouth of the Sheboygan river, and in 1834 a sawtionary War he served as second lieutenant in a Massachusetts mill was built at the first rapids, 2 m. above. Settlers came in regiment from May to Dec. 1775, and became captain in the sth rapidly ; a great city was laid out on paper; and the village was Massachusetts Regiment in Jan. 1777. He took part in the battle Incorporated in 1846. It was chartered as a city in 1853, and in of Bunker Hill, and in the expedition against Ticonderoga, partici1860 had a population of 4,262. The decade 1880-90 was a period pated in the storming of Stony Point and fought at Saratoga. In of rapid growth, From 1845 to 1848 a wooden double-reed wind-instrument now called the oboe (g.v.).

1780 he resigned from the army. After the collapse of Shays’s Rebellion he escaped to Vermont. He-was pardoned in June 1788,

Fourierist community of ten families (the Spring Valley Association) successfully farmed 30 ac. of land several miles S.W. of Sheboygan, dissolving by

SHECHEM—SHEEP

473

mutual agreement because they lost interest in the experiment.

likely that the mouflon played the major part and the urial a minor part in producing our farm flocks, it is by no means certain

mod. Nablus.

that other species, such as the argali (Ovis ammon) were not con-

SHECHEM, an ancient town of Palestine, 6 m. S. of Samaria, The modern town lies in the valley between Ebal

and Gerizim in a beautiful situation: pop. in 1922, 15,947 (145 cerned. Dr. Keller’s theory, however, which derived the turbary Samaritans and 700 Christians). The Samaritan quarter is in the sheep from the arui or udad (Ammotragus) of northern Africa south-west of the city and contains their synagogue. Nablus is has been shown to be quite untenable. (See also ARGALI, Mour(J.A. S. W.) connected by rail with the Haifa-Damascus line at Afuleh, and Lon, Upap.) with the Lydda-Haifa line at Tulkarem.

History.—The site was occupied in patriarchal times by Hivites (Gen, xxxiv., 2). There Jacob and his family settled for a time (Gen. xxxiii., 18). It was set apart as a city of refuge (Josh. xx., 7). Abimelech, son of Gideon, was for a space ruler in Shechem (Judges viii., 31). Rehoboam’s foolish speech there set the northern kingdom on fire; and Jeroboam made it his headquarters (I Ki. xii.). The rise of Samaria (q.v.) threw Shechem into the shadow and it disappears from history during the latter part of the Hebrew monarchy. The rise of the Samaritan community from the colonists settled by Sargon and Ashurbanipal, and the downfall of Samaria contributed to its resurrection. To Josephus it was Neapolis (whence modern Nablus) or Flavia, so called to commemorate its restoration by Titus Flavius Vespasian. A bishopric was set up at Neapolis and a Samaritan attack on him (A.D. 474) was punished by Zeno, who gave Gerizim (g.v.) to the Christians. Captured by crusaders (1099), it was lost to Saladin- (1184), the church the crusaders had built being converted into a mosque. The soldiery of Ibrahim Pasha pillaged the town in 1834. On Sept. 21, 1918, it was occupied by British troops. Archaeology.—Shechem is the traditional site of the tomb of Joseph. One and a half miles on the way to Jerusalem is the well of Jacob, an identification most probably authentic.

The

“sacred oak” (Gen. xxv., 4) has been sought at El "Amid, and at Balata less than a mile from the town to the east. Excavations now in progress (1928) at Balata have revealed a blunt topped

pyramid, 131 ft. square and 16 ft. high, part evidently of a tower in the fortifications. Near to it were found cubical cellars resembling corn granaries such as were found at Pithom in Egypt. Below the fortifications are traces of an older city dating from 1700 B.C. It was seemingly destroyed in 1300 8.c. The Balata site is now identified with Migdal-Schechem (‘‘tower of Shechem,” Judges ix., 49). Other discoveries there include the remains of a palace (18th century B.c.), a temple (to Baal-Berith?) and two cuneiform tablets, one containing a list of witnesses and the other a letter. (E. Ro.)

SHEE, SIR MARTIN

ARCHER

(1770-1850), Irish por-

trait painter, was born in Dublin on Dec. 23, 1770. He studied in the Academy schools, became A.R.A. in 1798, and R.A. in 1800. Besides his many excellent portraits, he painted various subject and historical works. He succeeded Lawrence as president of the Academy in 1830. He died on Aug. 13, 1850.

SHEEP.

Little is known with certainty about the origin of

domesticated sheep. The earlier writers assumed a hypothetical wild ancestor having a long tail and certain other characteristics that distinguish the majority of domesticated breeds from the existing wild species; but none of these characters is of real significance, and the more probable view is that the ancestors of our modern sheep belonged to species that still survive. Dr. J. U. Duerst, from evidence collected on the site of the

Characteristics of Sheep.—Sheep belong to the family of hollow-horned ruminants or Bovidae (g.v.). Practically they form a group impossible of definition, as they pass imperceptibly into the goats. Both sexes usually possess horns, but those of the females are small. In the males the horns are generally angulated, and marked by fine transverse wrinkles; their colour being greenish or brownish. They are directed outwards, and curve in an open spiral, with the tips directed outwards. Although there

may be a fringe of hair on the throat, the males have no beard on the chin; and they also lack the strong odour characteristic of goats. Usually the tail is short; and in all the wild species the outer coat takes the form of hair, though beneath lies a short

undercoat of fine wool, which has been developed into the fleece of domesticated races. Like goats, sheep have narrow upper molar teeth, very different from those of the oxen, and narrow hairy muzzles. Between the two middle toes, in most species, is lodged a deep glandular bag having the form of a retort with a small external orifice, which secretes an unctuous and odorous substance. This, tainting the herbage or stones over which the animal walks, affords the means by which, through the powerfully developed sense of smell, the neighbourhood of other individuals of the species is recognized. The crumen or suborbital face-gland, which is so largely developed and probably performs the same

office in some antelopes and deer, is present, although in a comparatively rudimentary form, in most species, but is absent in others. Wild sheep attain their maximum development, both in respect of number and size, in Central Asia. They associate either in large flocks, or in family-parties; the old males generally keeping apart from the rest. Although essentially mountain animals, sheep generally frequent -open, undulating districts, rather than the precipitous heights to which goats are partial. It may be added that the long tails of most tame breeds are, like wool, in

all probability the results of domestication. Varieties and Distribution.—The Pamir plateau, on the confines of Turkistan, at an elevation of 16,000 ft. above the séalevel, is the home of the magnificent Ovis pol, named after the celebrated Venetian traveller Marco Polo, who met with it in the 13th century. It is remarkable for the great. size of the horns of the old rams and the wide open sweep of their curve, so that the points stand boldly out on each side, far away from the animal’s head, instead of curling round nearly in the same plane, as in most of the allied species. A variety inhabiting the Thian Shian is known as O. poli karelini, and other racial forms occur in the mountains and lower ground of Turkistan, and in Central Asia. An even larger animal is the argali, O. ammon, typically from

City of Anau in Turkistan, believes that the urial (Ovis vignez)

BY COURTESY OF NATURAL HISTORY

was domesticated there, and he considers that the earliest domesticated European type (Ovis aries palustris) was directly derived from this stock. The latter animal, known as the turbary sheep,

THE OVIS POLE REMARKABLE FOR OF THE HORNS

appeared in Europe in neolithic times and it survives, but little

changed, in the Biindnerschaf or Nalperschaf of the Grisons. It is a small, slender limbed sheep, black faced, and with long, sharpedged and rather goat-like horns. In the Copper age a new breed (Ovis aries studeri) with massive spiral horns, appeared in Europe, and Duerst has shown that this was almost certainly derived in

part at least from the wild mouflon (Ovis musimon). In Sardinia, as has been known since the time of Pliny, the mouflon interbreeds freely with domesticated sheep. The bulk of our modern breeds

are obviously much more closely related to the sheep of the Copper age than to the earlier turbary type; while it thus seems

AMERICAN

OF THE

MUSKUM

OF

TURKISTAN, GREAT SIZE

the Altai, but represented by one race in Ladak and Tibet (O. ammon hodgsoni), by a second in eastern Mongolia and by a third in the Desert of Gobi. Al-

though its horns are less extended laterally than those of O. poli, they are grander and more massive. In their short summer coats the old rams of both species are nearly white. Ovis sairensis from the Sair mountains and O. littledalet from -Kulja are closely allied forms. In the Stanovol mountains and neighbouring districts of E. Siberia and in

Kamchatka occur two sheep which have been respectively named O. borealis and O. nivicola.

They are, however, so closely allied

to the so-called bighorn sheep of N. America, that they can scarcely be regarded as more than local races of O. canadensis, or O. cervina, as some naturalists prefer to call the species. These bighorns are characterized by the absence of face-glands, and

474

SHEEP

the comparatively smooth front surface of the horns of the old | proach most nearly to the wild mouflon or urial in colour, but the chestnut extends over the whole of the underparts and flanks;

rams, which are thus very unlike the strongly wrinkled horns of the argali group. The typical bighorn is the khaki-coloured and white-rumped Rocky Mountain animal; but on the Stickin river there is a nearly black race, with the usual white areas (O. canadensis stonei), while this is replaced in Alaska by the nearly pure white O. c. dalli; the grey sheep of the Yukon (O. c. fannini) being perhaps not a distinct form. Other geographical races of the bighorn, distinguished chiefly by the colour of the coat, include the mountain sheep of Mexico, of Lower California, of

domestication having probably led to the elimination of the white belly and dark flank band, which are doubtless protective characters. The feeble development of the horns is probably also a feature due to domestication. In Angola occurs a breed of this sheep which has probably been crossed with the fat-tailed Malagasy breed; while in Guinea there is a breed with lappets, or wattles, on the throat, which is Upper Missouri, and of the Kenai Peninsula. Returning to Asia, probably the result of a cross we find in Ladak, Astor, Afghanistan and the Punjab ranges, a with the lop-eared sheep of the sheep whose local races are variously known as urin, urial and same district. The Guinea lopshapo, and whose technical name is O. vignei. It is a smaller eared breed, it may be mentioned, animal than the members of the argali group, and approximates is believed to inherit its drooping to the Armenian and the Sardinian wild sheep or mouflon (Ovts ears and throat wattles from an orientalis and O. musimon). (See Mourton.) We have in Tibet infusion of the blood of the the bharal or blue sheep, Ovis (Pseudois) bharal, and in N. Africa Roman-nosed hornless Theban the udad or aoudad, O. (Ammotragus) lervia, both of which have goat. (See Goat.) Hairy longno face-glands and in this and their smooth horns approximate to A SARDINIAN MOUFLON SHEEP legged sheep are also met with in goats. (See BHARAL and Upap.) The sheep was domesticated in Asia and Europe before the Persia, but are not pure-bred, being apparently the result of a dawn of history, though unknown in this state in the New World cross between the long-legged Guinea breed and the fat-tailed until after the Spanish conquest. It has now been introduced by Persian sheep. The maned hairy sheep (Ovis jubata), which appears to be conman into almost all parts of the world where agricultural operations are carried on, but flourishes especially in the temperate

fined to the west coast of Africa, takes its name

from a mane

regions of both hemispheres. The variations of external characters

of longish hair on the throat and neck; the hair on the body seen in the different breeds are very great. They are chiefly mani- being also longer than in the ordinary long-legged sheep. This fested in the form and number of the horns, which may be in- breed is frequently black or brown and white; but in a small creased from the normal two to four or even eight, or may be sub-breed from the Cameroons the general colour is chestnut or altogether absent in the female alone or in both sexes: in the foxy red, with the face, ears, buttocks, lower surface of tail and shape and length of the ears, which often hang pendent by the under-parts black. The most remarkable thing about this Camside of the head; in the peculiar elevation or arching of the nasal eroon sheep is, however, its extremely diminutive size, a fullbones in some eastern races; in the length of the tail, and the grown ram standing only 19 in. at the withers. development of great masses of fat at each side of its root or in In point of size this pigmy Cameroon breed comes very close the tail itself; and in the colour and quality of the fleece. to an exceedingly small sheep of which the limb-bones have been On the west coast of Africa two distinct breeds of hairy sheep found in certain ancient deposits in the south of England; and the are indigenous, the one characterized by its large size, long limbs question arises whether the two breeds may not have been nearly and smooth coat, and the other by its inferior stature, lower related. Although there are no means of ascertaining whether build and heavily maned neck and throat. Both breeds, which the extinct pigmy British sheep was clothed with hair or with have short tails and small'horns (present only in the rams), were wool, it is practically certain that some of the early European regarded by the German naturalist Fitzinger as specifically distinct sheep retained hair like that of their wild ancestor; and there from the domesticated Ovis aries of Europe; and for the first is accordingly no prima facie reason why the breed in question type he proposed the name OQ. should not have been hairy. On the other hand, since the solomgipes and for the second O. jucalled peat-sheep of the prehistoric Swiss lake-dwellers appears bata. Although such distinctions to be represented by the existing Graubiinden (Grisons) breed, may be doubtful (the two Afriwhich is woolly and coloured something like a Southdown, it may can breeds are almost certainly be argued that the former was probably also woolly, and hence descended from one ancestral: that the survival of a hairy breed in a neighbouring part of form), the retention of such Europe would be unlikely. The latter part of the argument is names may be convenient as a not very convincing, and it is legitimate to surmise that in the provisional measure. 7 small extinct sheep of the south of England we may have a possible The long-legged hairy sheep, relative of the pigmy hairy sheep of west Africa. which stands a good deal taller Fat-rumped sheep, Ovis steatopyga, are common to Africa and than a Southdown, ranges, with Asia, and are piebald with rudimentary horns, and a short hairy a certain amount of local varia- BY COURTESY OF THE CANADIAN NATIONAL coat, being bred entirely for their milk and flesh. In fat-tailed tion, from lower Guinea to the RAILWAYS sheep, on the other hand, which have much the same distribution, Cape. In addition to its long THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN BIGHORN the coat is woolly and generally piebald, Four-horned sheep are CANADENSIS), A WILD SHEEP limbs, it is characterized by its (OVIS YHAT HAS NEVER BEEN DOMES- common in Iceland and the Hebrides, and in early historic times Roman nose, large (but not TICATED ; they occurred frequently in the sheep flocks then present in lowdrooping) ears, and the presence of a dewlap on the throat and land Scotland. There is another four-horned breed, distinguished chest. The ewes are hornless, but in Africa the rams have very by its black (in place of brown) horns, whose home is probably short, thick and somewhat goatlike horns. On the other hand, in S. Africa. In the unicorn sheep of Nepal or Tibet the two horns the west Indian breed, which has probably been introduced from of the rams are completely welded together. In the Himalayan Africa, beth sexes are devoid of horns. The colour is variable. In and Indian hunia sheep, the rams of which are specially trained the majority of casesiit appears to be pied, showing large blotches for fighting, and have highly convex foreheads, the tail is short of black or brown on a white ground: the head ‘being generally at birth., Most -remarkable of all is the so-called Wallachian white with large black patches on the sides, most of the neck and sheep, or Zackelschaf (Ovis strepsiceros), represented by several the fore-part of the body black, and the hind-quarters white with more or less distinct breeds in eastern Europe, in which the long large coloured blotches. Om the other hand, these sheep may be upright horns are spirally twisted in a manner similar to those of uniformly yellowish white, reddish brown, greyish brown or even the markhor wild goat. black. The uniformly reddish.or ‘cHestnut-brown specimens apFor the various breeds of wild sheep see R. Lydekker, Wild Oxen,

PLATE I

SHEEP

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PLATE II

SHEEP

SHEEP Sheep and Goats (1898), later papers in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London and The Sheep and its Cousins (London, 1912). Also Rowland Ward, Records of Bzg Game (sth ed., 1906). (R. Ly.; J. RI)

MODERN BRITISH BREEDS OF SHEEP The sheep native to the British Isles are commonly grouped into longwool, shortwool and mountain breeds. Longwools receive their name because of their long lustre wool; they are white-faced (except the Wensleydale) and hornless; their mutton tends to become rather fat, but this quality makes them useful for crossing with lean fleshed breeds, e.g., the Merino. The longwool breeds are the Leicester, Border Leicester, Wensleydale, Cotswold, Lincoln, Devon Longwool, South Devon, Roscommon and Kent or Romney Marsh. The Shortwools include the Down breeds all of which are hornless and have dark faces and legs, short dense wool of fine quality, and very good mutton. They are the Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk, Hampshire Down, Dorset Down and Oxford Down. The other Shortwool breeds are the Dorset Horn, Western or Wiltshire Horn, Ryeland, Devon Closewool, Kerry Hill and Clun Forest. The Mountain breeds are relatively small hardy sheep which produce mutton of fine quality. They are the Scotch Blackface, Swaledale, Lonk, Rough Fell, Derbyshire Gritstone, Cheviot, Welsh Mountain, Herdwick, Exmoor Horn, Dartmoor and Shetland. The Leicester is of high interest. It was the breed which in Robert Bakewell, the pioneer stock improver, took in hand and skill his of exercise the by d develope and the r8th century, judgment. In past times Leicester blood was extensively employed in the improvement or establishment of other longwool breeds of sheep. The Leicester, as seen now, has a white wedgewith shaped face with a few dark spots, the forehead covered and short trunk, the towards full neck ears; wool; thin mobile level with the back; width over the shoulders and through the heart; a full broad breast; fine clean legs standing well apart; deep round barrel and great depth of carcass; firm flesh, springy pelt, and pink skin, covered with long, fine, curly, lustrous wool. and The breed is now chiefly centred in east and north Yorkshire Durham, but its chief value is for crossing, when it is found to promote maturity and to improve the fattening propensity. The Border Leicester originated after the death in 1795 of Bakewell, when the Leicester breed, as it then existed, diverged still into two branches. The one is represented by the breed the known in England as the Leicester. The other, bred on Cheviot of e admixtur early an possibly with Borders, Scottish

475

a medium quality of mutton. With a greater proportion of Lincoln blood in the mixed flocks of the world there is a growing tendency to produce finer mutton by using Down rams, but at the sacrifice of part of the yield of wool. The Devon Longwool is a breed locally developed in the valleys of W. Somerset, N. and E. Devon, and parts of Cornwall. It originated in a strong infusion of Leicester blood amongst the old Bampton stock of Devonshire. The South Devon was developed from an old local breed by crossing with the Leicester. The animals are large and hardy and their mutton is said to be superior to the average longwool quality; they produce a heavy, valuable fleece. The Roscommon—the one breed of modern sheep native to Ireland—is indebted for its good qualities largely to the use of Leicester blood.

The Kent or Romney Marsh is native to the rich tract of grazing land on the S. coast of Kent. They are hardy, shortlegged, thickly-made, white-faced sheep, with a close-coated longwool fleece. They were gradually, like the Cotswolds, improved from the original type of slow-maturity sheep by selection in preference to the use of rams of the Improved Leicester breed. With the exception of the Lincoln, no breed has received greater distinction in New Zealand, where it is in high repute for its hardiness and general usefulness. When difficulties relating to the quantity and quality of food arise the Romney is a better sheep to meet them than the Lincolns or other longwools. The Oxford Down is a modern breed which owes its origin to crossing between Cotswolds and Hampshire Downs and Southdowns. Although it has inherited the forelock from its longwool ancestors, it approximates more nearly to, the shortwool type, and is accordingly classified as such; it is the largest and heaviest of the Down breeds. The rams are largely used for crossing in Scotland, particularly with Border Leicester-Cheviot ewes. The Southdown, from the short close pastures upon the chalky soils of the South Downs in Sussex, was formerly known as the Sussex Down. In past times it did for the improvement of the shortwool breeds of sheep very much the same kind of work that the Leicester performed in the case of the longwool breeds. A pure-bred Southdown sheep has a small head, with a light brown or brownish grey (often mouse-coloured) face, fine bone, and a symmetrical, well-fleshed body. The legs are short and neat, the animal being of small size compared with the other Down sheep. The fleece is of fine, close, short wool, and the mutton is excellent. “Underhill” flocks that have been kept for generations in East Anglia, on the Weald, and on flat meadow land in other parts of the country, have assumed a heavier type than the original “upperdown” sheep. It was at one time thought blood, acquired the name of Border Leicester. requirements of not to be a rent-paying breed, but modern market The Wensleydales take their name from the Yorkshire dale category. that within well it brought have which Thirsk is the centre. They are longwool sheep, derived The Shropshire is descended from the old native sheep of the from the old Teeswater breed by crossing with Leicester rams. Salopian hills, improved by’ the use of Southdown blood. Though body the of ` They have a tuft of wool on the forehead. The skin Shropshire resembles is heavier in fleece and a bulkier animal, the is sometimes blue, whilst the wool has a very bright lustre, the latter, howfrom shed distingui As n. rams an enlarged Southdow curled in small distinct pirls, and is of uniform staple. The brown as a rule, blackish face, darker a has re Shropshi the ever, are in much favour in the N. of England for crossing with ewes with very neat ears, whilst its head is more massive, and is better of the various black-faced horned mountain breeds to produce covered with wool on the top and at the sides. The Shropshire to a Great mutton of superior quality and to use the cross-ewes to breed is the most popular mutton sheep in the corn belt and ram. Down a es - pure longwool or sometim States. United e Lakes regions of the The Cotswold is an old-established breed of the Gloucestershir The Hampshire Down—Early in the 1oth century the old crossed slightly but was It hire. Oxfords into thence coat of hairy hills, extending its Wiltshire white-faced horned sheep, with a scanty for improvement by the Dishley Leicesters and has retained roamed over the downs of their Knot, e Berkshir the and wool, g crossin for characteristic type for generations. They are useful by blending these hardy. native counties, and the Hampshire was evolved purposes to impart size, and because they are exceptionally Wiltshire horned The wn. Southdo the of types with the blood The Lincolns are descended from the old native breed of y and great size maturit Early breed. pure a as survives still sheep Lincolnshire, improved by the use of Leicester blood. They are have been the objects aimed at and attained, this breed, more, the largest and most massive British breed and they are quite perhaps than any other, being identified with early maturity. One hardy. Breeders of Lincoln rams like best a darkish face, with reason for this is the early date at which the ewes take the ram. a sheep a few black spots on the ears; and white legs. The wool has Whilst heavier than the Shropshire, the Hampshire Down broad staple, and is denser and longer, and the fleece heavier, is less symmetrical. It has a black face and legs, a big head with the than in any other British breed. For this reason it has been broad level back for Roman nose, darkish ears set well back, and a breed most in favour with breeders in all parts of the world filled in with lean meat. nicely s) shoulder the over lly (especia a is of mating with Merino ewes and their crosses. The progeny The Dorset Down or West Country Down, “a middle type only good general-purpose sheep, giving a large fleece of wool but

470

SHEEP

Down sheep pre-eminently suited to Dorsetshire,” is a local , less, longwool, white-fleeced sheep, with a long mottled face. It variety of the Hampshire Down breed, separated by the forma- has been attracting attention in recent years. It is intermediate in type between a mountain and a Longwool breed. tion of a Dorset Down sheep society in 1904. The Exmoor is a horned breed of Devonshire moorland, one The Sufolk is another Down, which took its origin about 1790 in the crossing of improved Southdown rams with ewes of the of the few remaining remnants of direct descent from the old old black-face Horned Norfolk. The characteristics of the latter forest breeds of England. They have white legs and faces and are retained in the black face and legs of the Suffolk, but the black nostrils. The coiled horns lie more closely to the head than horns have been bred out. The fleece is moderately short, the in the Dorset and Somerset Horn breed. The Exmoors have a wool being of typical Down quality. Owing to its fine quality of close, fine fleece of short wool. They are very hardy, and yield tton of choice flavour. mutton the Suffolk competes very strongly with the best mutton The Swaledale is one of the larger sized breeds of the Blackface breeds—e.g., the Southdown—in carcass competitions; it has secured notable successes at Smithfield and at the Scottish National or heath type; it is native to Yorkshire. It is horned; its face is dark with a light or “mealy” nose. | Fat Stock Show. The Rough Fell is a Westmorland breed belonging to the BlackThe Dorset Horn is an old west-country breed of sheep. This is a hardy breed, in size somewhat exceeding the Southdown. face heath group. The ewes are frequently crossed with the WensThe special characteristic of the breed is that the ewes take the leydale and the cross-breeds form valuable feeding sheep for poor ram at an unusually early period of the year, and cast ewes are and exposed conditions. in demand for breeding house lamb for Christmas. The Ryeland The Derbyshire Gritstone is a hornless breed with black and breed is so named from the Ryelands, a poor upland district in white mottled face and legs; it is native to the hills and dales of Herefordshire. It is a hardy grassland breed which is neither the millstone grit formation. The animals are hardy and their very quick maturing nor particularly prolific. wool is the finest and closest of any heath breed. The mutton The Clun Forest is a local breed in west Shropshire and the is typical of hill sheep being lean and of fine flavour. adjacent part of Wales. It is descended from the old Tan-faced The Shetland is a small sized sheep which is found in the islands sheep. It is now three parts Shropshire, having been much crossed whose name it bears. The colours are variable, white, black and with that breed. rich brown all being common. The animals are very hardy and The Western or Wiltshire Horned sheep is an old breed that can subsist on poor fare. The outstanding quality of the breed is has recently been revived. It is not unlike the Dorset Horn but its extraordinary fine soft wool which has a very high value. The it has even stronger horns in both sexes and is peculiar in that it breed is slow to mature and very thin fleshed. carries practically no wool. The skin shows a considerable numOther Breeds of Sheep.—The Merino is the most widely disber of small black spots. The sheep are very hardy and they are tributed sheep in the world. The breed is indigenous to Spain but useful for grassland farms where it is undesirable to apply the the modern Merino has been largely developed and improved in intensive system of management customary with Down flocks. Australia and the United States. The breed suits countries with a The Devon Closewool was originated in North Devon by blend- relatively small rainfall, although it is adapted to a wide variety ing the blood of Devon Longwools with Exmoor Horns. The size of climatic conditions. The outstanding product of the Merino is is intermediate between the parent breeds and the animals are its very fine close wool. The mutton is palatable and nutritious short in the leg and thickly made. The sheep are very well suited but the carcasses average less plump and fat than those of mutton to commercial purposes on land of intermediate quality. type sheep such as the Downs and Longwools. While pure Merinos The Kerry Hill is a brown and white speckled faced breed are kept in the poorest and driest districts abroad, on better found along the Welsh border. Kerry hills are hardy grass sheep; land the flocks are frequently crossed with Longwools, thereby the ewes are often crossed with Shropshires to produce fat lambs, greatly improving the quality of the carcass without seriously while on the other hand the rams are often used for crossing with injuring the value of the wool. On still better land Down breeds Welsh Mountain ewes. are bred to the Merino-Longwool crosses and give a very good The Cheviot is a hardy sheep with straight wool, of moderate mutton carcass fit for exportation. length and very close-set. Put to the Border Leicester ram the The Merino is white-faced and has a flesh-coloured nose; its Cheviot ewe produces the Half-bred, which as a breeding ewe is wool has no coloured fibres. The illustration shows a modern type unsurpassed as a rent-paying, arable-land sheep. of Australian Merino. There are in fact a number of well recogThe Scotch Blackface breed is chiefly reared in Scotland, but nized types varying from small, thin-fleshed animals with very it is of N. of England origin. Their greater hardiness, as com- wrinkled skins and extra fine wool to relatively large, smooth pared with the Cheviots, has brought them into favour upon the sheep producing barely such fine wool but possessing better mutton higher grounds of the N. of England and of Scotland, where qualities. they thrive upon heather hills and coarse and exposed grazing The Corriedale is a Lincoln-Merino cross which in New Zealand lands. The colour of face and legs is well-defined black and white, has been fixed as a pure breed. It combines a splendid fleece with the black predominating. The spiral horns are low at the crown, a good constitution and a good commercial mutton carcass. with a clear space between the roots, and sweep in a wide curve, Lowland Sheep-breeding and Feeding.—A Shropshire sloping slightly backwards, and clear of the cheek. The fashion- flock of about 200 breedin g ewes is here taken as a typical example able fleece is down to the ground, hairy and strong, and of uniform of the numerous systems of managing sheep on a mixed farm of quality throughout. grazing and arable land. The ewes lamb from early in January The Lonk has its home amongst the moorlands of N. Lancashire till the end of February. The lambs have the shelter of a lamband the W. Riding of Yorkshire, and it is the largest of the ing shed for a few days. When drafted to an adjoining feld mountain breeds of the N. of England and Scotland. run in front of their mothers and get a little crushed oats they and The Herdwick is the hardiest of all the breeds; it thrives upon linseed cake meal, the ewes receiving kail (kale) or roots and the poor mountain land in Cumberland and Westmorland. The hay to develop milk. Swedes gradually give place to mangolds, rams generally have small, curved, wide horns; the ewes are horn- rye and clover before the end of April, when shearing of

less.

flock begins,

the ewe

to be finished early in May. At this time unshorn The Welsh Mountain is a small, active, soft-woolled, white- lambs are dipped and may be dosed with medicine to destro y faced breed of hardy character. The legs are often yellowish, interna l parasites. The operation is repeated in September. The and this colour may extend to the face. Horns occur only in the lambs are weaned towards the end of June and the ewes run on males. The mutton is of excellent quality. The ewes, althoug h the poorest pasture till August to dry off their milk. In August dificult to confine by ordinary fences, are in high favour in the ewes are culled and the flock made up to its full number s by lowland districts for breeding fattening lambs to Down and other selected shearling ewes. All are assorted and mated to suitable early maturity rams. rams. Most of the older ewes take the ram in September, but The Dartmoor, a hardy local Devonshire breed, is a large hornmaiden or yearling ewes are kept back till October. During the

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(separating wool from pelts) in New Zealand bales of wool in a woo! store In Canterbury of a freezing works in New Zealand filled with sheep carwill be frozen thoroughly for export

SHEEPSHEAD—SHEEP rest of the year the ewes run on grass and receive hay when necessary, with a limited amount of dry artificial food daily, $ Ib. each, gradually rising as they grow heavy in lamb to r lb. per day. Turnips before lambing, if given in liberal quantities, are an unsafe food. To increase the number of doubles, ewes are sometimes put on good fresh grass, rape or mustard a week or two before

SHEARING

MACHINES

477

up 31% of those enumerated by breeds; Rambouillets, 27; Merinos, 15; Hampshires, 13; Oxfords and Lincolns, each 4; Dorsets and Southdowns, each 2. The remaining 2% included Cheviots, Leicesters and Suffolks. Romneys, Cotswolds, Corriedales and

Karakuls are bred in the United States but are comparatively few

and were not enumerated by breeds, Shropshires are most numerous in the corn belt and Great Lakes regions; Rambouillets in the western range States, although they are also bred in some farm States, especially Ohio and Michigan. of any of the lowland breeds should produce and rear thirty Merinos are most numerous in Ohio, West Virginia, Pennsyllambs, and the proportion can be increased by breeding from ewes vania and Michigan, but they are also bred in other parts of the with a prolific tendency. The period of gestation of a ewe is country, especially Oregon, California, New Mexico and Texas, between 21 and 22 weeks, and the period of oestrum 24 hours, Hampshires are most numerous in the western range country but If not settled the ewe comes back to the ram in from 13 to 18 are also important in farm States, notably New York, Pennsyl(usually 16) days. To indicate the time or times of tupping vania, Michigan, Missouri, Kentucky and Virginia. Oxfords are (breeding) three colours of paint are used. The breast of the found in the North-Central States; Lincolns in the Mountain and ram is rubbed daily for the first fortnight with blue, for a similar Pacific States; Dorsets in the Middle Atlantic and East NorthCentral States; Southdowns in Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virperiod with red, and finally with black, Fattening tegs (sheep approximately one year old that have ginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York; Cheviots in New York; never been sheared) usually go on to soft turnips in the end of Leicesters principally in the North-East and North-Central States. September or beginning of October, and later on to yellows, Romneys, Cotswolds, Corriedales, Suffolks and Karakuls are green-rounds and swedes and, in spring and early summer, man- sparsely distributed in both farm and range areas. Through selection these breeds have been modified to suit golds. The roots are cut into fingers and supplemented by an allowance of concentrated food made up of a mixture of ground American conditions, Cross-breeding is also practised, especially cakes and meal, 4 Ib. rising to about. 4 Jb.; and 4 Ib. to x Ib. of in the western range country where forage is sufficiently abundant hay per day. The dry substance consumed per too Ib, live weight for finishing lambs by weaning time without grain. Under such in a ration of 4 lb, cake and corn, 12 lb. roots and xıIb. hay daily, conditions Rambouillet ewes are often bred to Lincoln or Hampwould be 164 Jb, per week, and this gives an increase of nearly shire rams and Lincoln~-Rambouillet cross-bred ewes tọ Hampshire 2% live weight or 1 lb. of live weight increase for 84 lb. of dry rams for the preduction of market lambs. Lincoln-Rambouillet food eaten. Sheep finishing at 135 lb. live weight yield about 53% cross-bred sheep are proving well adapted to this kind of range sheep production and the U.S. Department of Agriculture has of carcass or over 70 Ib. each, Management of Mountain Breeds,—Ewes on natural pas- been endeavouring since 1912 to establish this type by mating the tures receive no hand feeding except a little hay when snow cross-bred ewes to the cross-bred rams. The progress made is deeply covers the ground. The rams come in from the hills on encouraging and this type is now known as the Columbia, CorJan. 1 and are sent to winter on low ground. Weak ewes, not safe riedales are the result of interbreeding Lincoln-Merino cross-breds to survive the hardships of spring, are brought in to better pasture in New Zealand and they have been bred in the United States during February and March. Ewe hogs (ewe lambs or yearlings since 1914. While they are smaller than the Columbia they are that have never been sheared) wintered on grass in the low coun- similar in type and produce lambs and wool of excellent quality.

the tups (breeding rams) go out——a ram to 6o ewes Is a usual proportion, though with care it is possible to get a stud ram to settle twice that number. With good management 20 ewes

try from Nov. 1 are brought home in April, and about the middle of April on the average mountain ewes begin to lamb. One lamb at weaning time for every ewe is rather over the normal amount of produce. Cheviot and cross-bred lambs are marked, and the males are castrated, towards the end of May.

Nearly a month

later Blackface lambs are marked and the eild (mature) sheep are shorn—the shearing of milch ewes (ewes nursing lambs) being delayed till the second week of July. Towards the end of

July sheep are all dipped to protect them from maggot flies (which are generally worst during August) with materials containing arsenic and sulphur. Fat wethers for the butcher are drafted from the hills in August and the two succeeding months, Lamb sales are most numerous in August, when lowland farmers secure their tegs to feed in winter. In this month breeding ewes recover condition and strength to withstand the winter storms, Ram auctions are on in September and draft ewe (a less desirable ewe sold from a stud flock) sales begin and continue through October. Early this month winter dipping is done at midday in dry weather.

Early in November stock sheep having lost the distinguishing

Karakuls are bred for their famous lamb skins of tight, lustrous curls. (D. A. S.)

Seé D. Low, Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the British Isles

(1842, illustrated, and 1845); R. Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great Britain (1923); and the Flock Books of the various breed societies; C. S. Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm Animals; Watson and More, Agriculture: The Science and Practice of British Farming (1928); W. C. Coffey, Productive Sheep Husbandry; D, A. Spencer and others,

The Sheep Industry, in US. Department. of Agriculture Yearbook 1923, pp. 229-310,

SHEEPSHEAD, one of the large species of the genus Archosargus. These fishes possess two kinds of teeth: one, broad and flat, like incisors, in a single series in the front of the jaws; the ac other, semiglobular and molarlike, in several series on the sides of the jaws. The genus belongs 1 to the acanthopterygian family 4 Sparidae which includes the seabreams. The common sheepshead occurs in abundance on the Atlantic coasts of the United States,

COURTESY OF THE N.Y. “buist” put on at clipping time with a large iron letter dipped in BYSOCIETY hot branding fluid, have the distinctive paint or kiel mark claimed SHEEPSHEAD (ARCHOSARGUS PRO- from Cape Cod to Florida, and is by the farm to which they belong rubbed on the wool. The rams BATOCEPHALUS), A FOODFISH one of the most valued foodare turned out to the hills between Nov. 15 and 25, Low- FOUND ALONG THE EASTERN COAST fishes of North America. It may land rams put to breed half-bred and cross lambs receive about OF NORTH AMERICA attain a length’of 3o0in. and a rı Ib: of grain daily to prevent their falling off too rapidly in weight of rs5lb. Its food consists of shellfish, which it detaches condition, as they would do if exclusively supported on mountain with its incisors, then crushing them with its powerful molars. fare. (R. Wa.; J. A. Mo.) it may be distinguished from allied species by its seven or eight American Sheep.—The established breeds of sheep in North dark cross-bands, The term “‘sheepshead” is also given in some America are of British, Spanish and French origin. The British parts of North America to a freshwater sciaenoid, Corvina oscuia. breeds predominate in Canada and constitute considerably more SHEEP SHEARING MACHINES. In countries where than half of the pure-bred sheep in the United States, Mexico has individual flocks of sheep are large or where wages are high, shown more interest in Merinos and Rambouillets, which are of | mechanical aids to hand clipping are employed in order to lower Spanish and French origin respectively. According to the 1920 the cost or to speed up the work. In the pastoral districts of census of pure-bred sheep in the United States, Shropshires made Australia, New Zealand and South America mechanical shearing

4.78

SHEEP

SORREL—SHEETS,

IRON AND

STEEL

is almost universal. In Great Britain, although hand clipping is low water. Sheerness has some trade in corn and seed, and in still widely practised, the use of shearing machines is gradually supplying shipping. There is steamboat connection with Port extending. Hand-shearing leaves the clipped surface in ridges Victoria, on the opposite side of the Medway; with Southend, on

whose evenness and symmetry are an indication of the skill of the opposite side of the Thames; and with Chatham and London,

the operator while the machine leaves the surface level. It is and the town is in some favour as a seaside resort. A small fort claimed that the machine clips a heavier fleece than hand shears; was built at Sheerness by Charles II., which, on July 10, 1667, , but the result depends largely on the comparative skill of the was taken by the Dutch fleet under De Ruyter. SHEETS, IRON AND STEEL. The production of rolled operators. The essential components of a shearing machine are a comb sheet iron dates back before 1620 in Bohemia and was introduced which is guided by hand over the body of the animal, a cutter in Wales in 1720. (See TIN-PLATE AND TERNE PLATE.) Most of with sharp edges which shears the wool by passing backwards the rolling was done by hand, and great skill was required. The and forwards across corresponding edges on the comb, a recipro- sheets were usually made of puddled or wrought iron. Upon the cating device for actuating the cutter, a flexible or universally development of the Bessemer (g.v.) process and the open hearth jointed coupling for driving the cutter, and the hand wheel or (g.v.) process, steel was produced more rapidly and cheaply and power unit. The moving parts of the actuating mechanism are practically replaced iron. However, steel sheets showed shorter protected so as to prevent them becoming entangled in the wool. service life under corrosive conditions, and interest in sheet iron Hand machines are usually mounted on a metal stand and can reawakened. Metallurgists found methods of manufacturing it in be easily carried by one man. They are driven by a chain or belt larger quantities and less laboriously. To-day iron sheets are genfrom a wheel to which the handle is attached, and require two erally available and marketed at prices not greatly different from persons to operate them, one to turn the handle and the other those of steel sheets. Production.—In the production of sheets, the first part of the to clip the sheep. These machines are suitable only for small flocks. When large numbers of sheep have to be clipped, the process is much the same as that employed for plates, sections machines are invariably power driven. A long shed may be spe- and other products. The metal is refined, teemed into ingot moulds, cially adapted for shéaring: shafting is then mounted along one heated again in soaking pits, and the ingots reduced in the bloomside to which several shearing machines are connected: an in- ing (or cogging) mill. The “bloom” is reduced in size and internal combustion engine or other motive power is used to drive creased in length by its passage through rolls in the bar mill. The the shafting. Portable shearing outfits are also common and en- slabs that come from the blooming mill are cut up into bars of able the machine to be taken to the flock. The power unit the proper length, which length becomes the width of the sheet (usually an internal combustion engine) is mounted on a suitable to be later rolled from these bars. The bars are usually produced transport truck and the shearing units are either connected to a in two widths: 12 in. and 8 inches. The thickness in the bar portable shafting or to separate points on the truck itself. Elec- governs the gauge of the sheet it will make. tric drive has been found to be ‘the most satisfactory for shearing “Roughing down” the bars is the next step. They are put machines and it is not unusual to employ an internal combustion through roughing mills to reduce them to the proper gauge to go engine to drive a dynamo which in turn is used to operate sepa- into the finishing mills. This laborious work has been eliminated rate motors for driving the shearing units. in some plants by the “continuous process.” This process, introHorse clipping machines do not differ materially from sheep duced in 1923, makes it possible to roll the slabs as they come shearing machines but special combs and cutters are used. As a from the blooming operation. As they go from one mill to anrule shearing machines can be ‘used for clipping either sheep or other, each succeeding mill turns slightly faster and rolls the metal horses by merely changing the combs and cutters. thinner. Along the route are heating furnaces designed to keep (B. J. O.; H. G. R.) the slabs at proper temperatures for rolling. The development SHEEP SORREL (Rumes Acetosella), a small annual plant of the continuous process makes possible a reduction of the ingots of the buckwheat family (Polygonaceae), native to Europe and to sheets approximately -o6 in. thick without the metal being Asia, and found in gravelly soil manipulated by hand. The iron is converted into a long, thin strip in the British Isles. It is widely which is coiled while still hot as it comes from the mill. The naturalized in North America, coiled material is cut into lengths that correspond exactly to the often becoming a pestiférous roughed down sheet. The sheets are then matched and placed in weed in pastures, meadows and another furnace for reheating in advance of finishing. Some of fields. It grows usually less than the new type furnaces contain slowly moving conveyors that bring 1 ft. high, with smooth acid herbthe sheets through for withdrawal at one end. They are then passed age, the leaves narrowly, lancebetween the finishing rolls, the top one driven by friction against shaped or halberd-form. The the bottom roll, which is coupled into the “roll train” drive. small dioecious flowers, which apHeavy sheets and light plates are rolled in what is usually known pear in spring, are borne in a naras a “jobbing mill.” There are no essential differences between row terminal cluster (panicle). it and a sheet mill except that the former handles sheets and plates SHEERNESS, a „garrison from 16 gauge to $ inch. town and naval seaport in the Annealing and Pickling —After the sheets come from the Faversham parliameniary divifinishing rolls, it is necessary to anneal them because the grain sion of Kent, England, in the Isle structures have been very much disarranged. Box annealing, or of Sheppey, on the right bank of open or blue annealing, is used. In the first, the sheets are stacked the Medway estuary at its juncon cast steel plates and covered with an iron cover to exclude the tion with the Thames, with a SHEEP SORREL, A HARDY SUMMER air, then placed in large ovens under known temperatures and for goods station cn the S.R. Pop. WEED OF THE TEMPERATE ZONE definite periods of time, depending upon the kind of treatment (1931), 16,721. Blue Town, the older part, with' the dockyard, is desired. In the open annealing process, the sheets are passed defended by strong modern-built fortifications, especially the under a brick hood open at both ends. As they are conveyed forts of Garrison, Point and Barton’s Point, commanding the en- through this furnace, they are subjected to the open flame that trance of both the Thames and the Medway. The dockyard, comes in at the sides of the furnace. The controlling factors in chiefly used for naval repairs, covers about. 60 ac., and consists this process are the varying temperatures in different parts of the of three basins and large docks, the depth of water in the basins furnace, and the speed of the different sections of the conveyor ranging down to 26 feet. Within the yard there are extensive drive. The purpose of the pickling in diluted acid is to remove nayał stores and barracks. Outside the dockyard are the resi- all dirt and scale. In some of the newer mills, the sheets are dences of the admiral of the home fleet and other. officers, and stitched or spot welded together and sent through the annealing barracks. The harbour is spacious, sheltered and deep even at furnaces very slowly so that they receive the necessary heat treat-

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and goes through a continuous pickling process in the same manner,

Galvanizing.—If the sheets are to be galvamized they are coated with zinc in galvanizing pots. (See GALVANIZED IRON AND

STEEL.) The speed of the exit rolls and the temperature of the zinc control the weight of coating. Zinc makes a very good coating for iron and steel because it forms an alloy bond with the iron. Coating.—Paint is often used to cover galvanized iron. Best results are secured when the zinc is allowed to weather several months. A quicker way to prepare the zinc is to brush it with a special priming coat for painting, a dilute solution of acetic acid or vinegar, rinsing with water and allowing to dry. Bitumastic or asphalt coatings are also employed. They are especially valuable where erosion is encountered.

Special Finish Sheets.——Many sheets are not galvanized, but are given special finishes. They are cold rolled between highly polished or ground rolls to secure a high or smooth finish. They are often cold rolled to as much as one-third their previous thickness. In case the sheets are required to be absolutely flat, they are stretcher-levelled, being placed in large grips under hydraulic pressure and pulled from both ends to a point just beyond the “yield point.” Uses.—To name the industries that use iron and steel sheets would be to list practically every industry of importance. In general, galvanized sheets are used in exposed situations where corrosion is a factor. One of the largest uses is roofing and sheet metal work. Ungalvanized sheets are sold as black sheets and blue annealed. These are used in many fabricated products such as

tanks, pipe, locomotive jackets and car siding. (See Tin-PLATE AND TERNE PLATE; GALVANIZED IRON AND STEEL.) (B. CHA.)

SHEFFIELD,

a city, county and parliamentary borough

in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 1584 m. N.N.W. of London, 424 m. S.E. of Manchester and 53 m. S.W. of York. It is served by the L.M.S. and L.N.E. railways and has connection with all the principal towns in the North of England. Pop. (1931) 511,742. It is situated in the extreme south of the county at the foot of the Pennines and at the junction of the Don with its tributaries the Sheaf, the Porter, the Rivelin and the Loxley. These valleys provide easy routes N.W., W. and S.W. into the Pennines.

At the time of the Domesday

Survey, Sheffield (Escafeld)

was unimportant, forming with the manors of Grimesthorpe, Hallam and Attercliffe what is now the borough of Sheffield. Of these four manors Hallam was the most important, and gave

its name to the shire. In 1296, a grant was made, to Hallamshire, of a market every Tuesday and an annual fair lasting three days, and in the following year the inhabitants were given a charter granting them the privileges as burgesses, of holding a court baron every three weeks, and of freedom from toll. By the end of the 14th century Sheffield had become more important than Hallam, partly no doubt on account of the castle built there in the 13th century. In the reign of Edward VI. certain property in the town which had been left to the burgesses in trust for charities was forfeited to the crown under the act for the suppression of colleges and chantries, but on their petition it was restored in 1554 by Queen Mary, who, at the same time, incorporated the town under the government of twelve capital burgesses. The town trust for the administration of property belonging to the town dates from the 14th century, and in 1681 the number and manner of election of the “town trustees” was definitely settled by a decree of the Court of Chancery. Additional powers were conferred on the trustees by an act passed in 1874. The town first returned members to parliament in 1832. In 1885 the representation was increased from two to five members, and since 1918, seven members have been returned. The county borough was created in 1888, in 1893 the town became a county borough and the title of Lord Mayor was conferred on the chief magistrate in 1897. Manufactutres.—Sheffield owes its prosperity to the manu-

479

probably by the Romans at Templeborough, and certainly at the time of the Norman Conquest. Later, water power was used to drive bellows for the provision of artificial draught and for this the upland streams which converge on Sheffield were important. The town had become famed for its cutlery by the 14th century and was a strong rival of London; local iron contained too much phosphorus and the cutlery trade throve chiefly on imported iron from Sweden and Spain. The Cutlers Company was formed in 1624. Local hard stone provided grinding wheels and even to-day much grinding is done by individual workers. In the 18th century, iron smelting was on the verge of ruin, owing to the exhaustion of local timber supplies, and outcrop coal from the South Yorkshire coalfield gave the industry a new lease of life. Coke replaced charcoal, clay and gannister were found locally, and gradually, as steam power superseded water power,

the steel industry concentrated in the lower parts of the valley and the town of Sheffield grew'rapidly. In early times, cutlery was made of blister or bar steel, later shear steel was used, but in 1740, Benjamin Huntsman introduced the manufacture of cast steel and upon this achievement many subsequent steel making discoveries have been based. It was with the aid of Sheffield capital that Henry Bessemer founded his pioneer works to develop the manufacture of his invention, and so revolutionised the industry by cheapening its production. Large quantities of Bessemer steel are still made in Sheffield. Further improvements in steel were made in 1858 and in 1882 manganese steel was introduced. Progress lagged until rgoo when it seemed America would capture the market. A still better type of high speed steel was then produced and the position of Sheffield was maintained. The trade in heavy steel has kept place with that in other branches and armour plates, large castings for engines and ocean liners, hydraulic presses, rails, tyres, axles, stoves and grates, steel shot and steel for rifles are produced. Modern works dealing with heavy steel goods are located in the Don valley between its elbow and the town of Rotherham, near the easiest route to and from Sheffield, while cutlery and lighter metal goods are made on the higher sites to S. and W. The cutlery trade embraces almost every variety of instrument and tool—spring and table knives, razors, scissors, surgical and mathematical instruments, edge tools, saws, engineering and agricultural tools, etc. The art of silver-plating was introduced in 1742 and specimens of

early Sheffield plate are highly prized.

Among other industries

of the town are tanning, confectionery, cabinet making, bicycle manufacture, iron and brass founding, manufacture of paper (due to the purity of the streams), printing and bookbinding, and making of optical instruments, brushes, horsehair cloth, railway fittings, chemicals and paint and varnish. The most recent developments are the manufacture of gramophones and needles, and nickel-silver cooking utensils which were introduced to England by a Sheffield firm in rọrọ. By acts of 1883-88, the Cutlers’ Company exercises jurisdiction in all matters relating to the registration of trade marks, over all goods composed in whole or in part of any metal, wrought or unwrought, and also over all persons carrying on business in Hallamshire and within 6 m. thereof. Communications.—Sheffield lies on no great lowland route or natural highway. To N.W. and S. the valleys lead only to Pennine dales and lofty moorlands. In 1732, improvements were made in the Don navigation to help the trade of Sheffield and in 1793 the Don was joined to the Trent by the Stainforth and Keadby canal. The original Midland railway main line passed direct from Chesterfield to Rotherham and for more than 40 years Sheffield was reached only by a branch line. The main line through Sheffield was not built until 1870 after the tunnelling of the Sheaf-Rother watershed. Long tunnels connect

Sheffield by rail with the west and even now relatively little of the trunk traffic of England passes through the town. | The University of Sheffield began as the Firth college founded by Mark Firth, an eminent steel manufacturer, in 1879. It was enlarged in 1892. Although it provides ample opportuni-

facture of steel. In the valleys of the Don and its tributaries

ties for a broad cultural education, the university has especially

iron smelting from local ore by means of wood was carried on,

developed branches of study and research related with local

480

PLATE

SHEFFIELD—SHEFFIELD

industries, as, e.g., fuel and glass technology, geology and non-

SHEFFIELD

PLATE is the term applied to articles pro-

with silver by the process of fusion. ferrous metallurgy. It has also given prominence to dental surgery duced from copper and coated 1742 Thomas Boulsover, a Sheffield year the About History.— of university the with and pharmacology; and in conjunction the haft of a knife observed to repairs undertaking while cutler, Leeds maintains a laboratory for marine zoology at Robin Hood’s a piece of silver and the copper to heat of application the by that and engineering for laboratories research new two Bay. With fused and could be metallurgy and in its mining department, it is increasingly occu- which it accidentally adhered had become two metals behaved as one pied with research connected with local industries. Like the dealt with as one metal and that the

other universities in manufacturing districts it organises much extramural education amongst persons unable to be regular students of the university. The social interests of the students, both men and women, are well provided for, especially in their respective unions. Within recent years benefactions to an amount over £180,000 have been received. (See UNIVERSITIES.) Other educational institutions include the boys’ charity

school (1706), the free writing school (1715), the girls’ charity school (1786), the Wesley college, associated with London university, and Ranmoor college of the Methodist New Connexion. Sheffield has four voluntary hospitals and it was proposed in 1924 to amalgamate and extend them, utilising the old buildings as receiving wards and casualty stations and carrying on the main work in Norton Hall which was given for the purpose. A new wing of the Royal Infirmary was opened in 1925. In Meersbrook Hall is a fine Ruskin museum, containing Ruskin’s art, mineralogical, natural history and botanical collections and some original drawings and valuable books. These are in the custody of the corporation. Part of the manor house of Hallam, dating from the 16th century still remains, and in the south of the city is Broom Hall, a fine old half-timbered building. To the N.W. towards Penistone, ıs Wharncliffe, retaining many of the characteristics of an ancient forest, and overlooking the valley of the Don from bold rocky terraces and ridges. Until 1914, Sheffield was the seat of a suffragan bishop in the diocese of York; at that date it was created a diocese consisting of the archdeaconries of Sheffield and Doncaster with that part of the rural deanery of Dronfield which was within the city boundaries. The old parish church of St. Peter and St. Paul became the cathedral. It is a cruciform building, mainly Perpendicular, built on the site of a Norman edifice which is believed to have been burnt during the wars of Edward III. with the barons. The 14th century tower is the oldest part existing.

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when subjected to hammering. This caused him to experiment, with the result that he eventually produced buttons and boxes with a copper foundation coated with silver which had the appearance of being made entirely of the more precious metal. Joseph Hancock, who served his appren-

ticeship with a relative of the inventor, realized the wider possibilities of the discovery and was the first to apply the process to making saucepans, coffee-pots, candlesticks and other large articles for domestic service, closely resembling in their detail hall-marked silver specimens.

These pioneers were soon followed by

Cumio

BOULTON QB E

other cutlers who added the production of Sheffield Plate to their other undertakings. Two factors were necessary for the complete success of the new invention, viz., capital and skilled labour. The money required was readily obtained locally, but the highly trained assistance of London silversmiths was also essential and ulti-

mately when their services were enlisted the success of the undertaking was assured. MARKS FROM SPECIMENS The excellent appearance and relative OF SHEFFIELD PLATE cheapness of these plated productions caused a widespread demand. Henry Tudor (see Plate, fig. 3), a local gentleman, having realized the great possibilities of the invention, appears to have been the first to seek the assistance of a

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London silversmith, and about the year 1760 entered into partnership with Thomas Leader, and as Tudor and Leader they founded the first Sheffield plate and silver manufactory on an The great period of prosperity in the roth century led to great extensive scale. Boulsover apparently did not embark on this new crowding of population in the valleys and a later spread over phase of the industry, but turned to the rolling of metals, still the ridges between. The older parts of the town are still irregular however, carrying on his lucrative plated button manufactory. and overcrowded, but under the act of 1875 a great number of Hancock appears to have carried on the making of Sheffield improvements were effected and have been steadily continued. Plate from about the year 1750 until 1765. He then interested The latest suburb development is to the west, extending over himself chiefly in the production of plated materials required by the moors. The borough was enlarged by the inclusion of part manufacturers of the finished articles. Originally beaten out into of Tinsley in rorz, and part of Bradfield in 1914, and in 1920 sheets by hand the fused metal was subsequently manipulated by powers were sought to include a large area for purposes of a rollers turned by hand; the application of horse and water power bold scheme for regional devolution. The area of land incorporated followed, and eventually steam was employed to drive the mills. in 1921 included Handsworth and parts of Ecclesfield and BrinsThe establishment of Leader in Sheffield raisa the artistic worth, and a new ward of Handsworth was created. The old standard of the craft, and from being content at first to copy boards of guardians of Sheffield and Ecclesfield were dissolved contemporary London-made silver the Sheffield Plate workers in 1925 and a united board established. An exhaustive civic survey soon evolved a style of their own and found much inspiration has been carried out and a zonal town plan prepared; authority in the work of the brothers Adam and John Flaxman, particularly for applying the plan to an area of 5,909 ac. was obtained in in the construction of candlesticks. So cunningly devised were 1925. A village with a painted fabrics industry for ex-service some of their productions and so peculiarly marked (Plate I., men has been established at Coal Aston on the outskirts of the figs. 3-10) that in the year 1773, the London silversmiths were city. In connection with the Derwent valley water scheme, for successful in obtaining an injunction restraining the Sheffield utilising the water of the Derwent and Ashop rivers, of which plate makers from using marks on their wares. 25% will be used by Sheffield, the Howden reservoir was opened Prominent amongst men of local origin who assisted in the in 1912 and the Derwent reservoir and the service reservoir at advancement of design and workmanship in this new craft, and Ambergate were completed in 1926. who themselves built up lucrative businesses, were John Winter

SHEFFIELD,

a city of Colbert county, Alabama, U.S.A.,

on the south bank of the Tennessee river, opposite Florence, in the Muscle Shoals district of the north-western part of the State. It is on Federal highway 72, and is served by the Louisville and Nashville and the Southern railway systems and river steamers. Pop. (1920), 6,682 (29% negroes); 6,221 in 1930 py the Federal census, Sheffield is beautifully situated between the Government nitrate plants No. r and No. 2.

(Plate L, fig. 9), Thomas Law (Plate I., fg. 2), Richard Morton and Joseph Ashforth, whose marks are still to be found on Old Sheffield Plate made previous to 1773. By the year 1784, after much agitation the Sheffield platers were authorized to use marks once again, but it was enacted that such marks should bear the name of the maker together with a

distinctive device not used for silver. About the year 1790 the prominent manufacturers and designers were Samuel

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Thomas Law, 1765 2. Gadroon pattern candlestick by 1760 , Leader and Tudor by pot 3, Coffee 18th century 5. Russian samovar made in 1820 s by T. & J. Creswick, 1818 6. Epergne with five crystal glasse glass lining by J. Hoyland & Co., late with blue 7. Pierced sugar basket

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18th centu ed-in, heavily plated shleld for en&. & 11. Obverse and reverse of solder 1788 graving, by Nathaniel Smith & Co.,

labrum

by John Winter, 1772

9. Cande shield Co., 1810, with rubbed-in silver 10. Salver by Roberts, Cadman & by mount on gadro and shell leaf oak 12. Entrée dish and warmer with

Watson & Bradbury, 1812

SHEFFIELD Roberts, Nathaniel Smith, Daniel Holy, the Watsons, Bradburys and Creswicks. Birmingham played but a small part in the earlier history of the trade, being represented practically by one man, Matthew Boulton. Though his workmanship, in association with his partner John Fothergill, is excellent and dates from the period 1760, he had many other interests, and articles made by him from fused plate of the first period are somewhat scarce. In

PLATE

481

George Cadman in 1788. Previous to this the raw copper edges had been hidden with solder. The method consisted of drawing a hollow silver wire through a hole which corresponded in size exactly with the edges of the article it was intended to cover: at the same time this process shaped up the silver thread to a groove, thereby enabling the operation of soldering on these silver edges to be carried out more easily. Silver Shields for Engraving.—The method of rubbing in silver shields by applied heat was evolved about the year 1810. Previous to this in order to carry out the engraving of crests, etc., it had been necessary to solder in extra heavily plated sections of metal. This invention has been attributed to a man of the name of Wilks, who also improved the method of production of plated wire. Having hammered the surface on to which the shield was to be fixed, a piece of pure silver was cut suitable to the size of article to which it was to be made to adhere and heated lightly in a flame, it was flattened all over and chamfered on the edges, as thinly as possible. After being cleaned of impurities the shield was secured to the centre of the plate and heated till it adhered to the metal, then quickly rubbed with a burnish until it was definitely sealed to the under surface. The blank was subsequently hammered until both silver shield and fused plated sheet were brought to one level. With all these discoveries and inventions allied to their skill in technique and design, it is not surprising that early in the roth century the Sheffield platers then at the height of their prosperity led the fashion in production of domestic silver as well as Sheffield Plate. By the aid of steel dies in which the delicate tracery of their conceptions could be stamped, they continued to produce on an elaborate scale new designs with which the London silversmiths found it difficult to compete.

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the early part of the roth century he and his successors carried on an increasing business, and their device, the sun, is still to be found on many old Sheffield specimens. The manufacture of fused plate, though confined in England to Shefheld and Birmingham for many years, spread in the early part of the roth century to the continent of Europe, but the articles made in France, Russia and Central Europe never bore

comparison in quality or craftsmanship with those of the Sheffield makers.

Processes.—To

produce the plated metal sheets, ingots of

End of the Industry.—Having for close on a century held

the field for pre-eminence in design and workmanship, Sheffield Plate was gradually superseded by articles plated by the process of electro disposition; though even as late as the 18512 Exhibition

copper containing a slight alloy, 14” to 13” thick by 24” wide by 8” long, were cast, and the surfaces planed, then smoothed. A sheet of silver was cut to the size of the face of the ingot, about 4” thick, also smoothed on the surfaces. The two prepared surfaces were cleaned of all impurities, placed together and firmly pressed. A copper plate dres«sd with solution of chalk was placed upon the silver and all three firmly secured together, and bound with iron wire. The ingot was now placed in a furnace especially prepared, and most carefully watched until the silver melted slightly when it firmly adhered to the copper surface. After being withdrawn from the oven and allowed to cool, the copper plate and iron wires were removed from the ingot which after being well cleaned and trimmed was ready for the rolling mills. ABOVE: SECTION OF METAL BEFORE BEING DRAWN INTO WIRE; AND, At first plated on one side only, a new process was discovered BELOW: OLD BURNISHER USED IN FINISHING PLATED WIRE about the year 1765 which enabled the makers to produce the reports of the jurors were unfavourable to this new invention. sheets ‘with a coating of silver on “They desired to guard against being considered as expressing an both sides of the metal. The inopinion on the merit of the application of the electro process of genious craftsmen were now not silverplating to objects of domestic use.” far off realizing their ambition, By the year 1860 the firms in Sheffield which had declined to viz., to produce articles that were adapt themselves to this innovation were gradually dying out. indistinguishable from those Though the two processes had merged into each other gradually made in London of standard silby the year 1865, the older method of plating by fusion for ver. articles of domestic use had ceased to exist. The production of Plated Wire.—About the fused plated silver is still carried on for the making of buttons, year 1768, plated wire was init having been found that the rolling and hammering of the sheets troduced. A strip of fine silver is conducive of greater lasting properties for articles so continuay” thick was bent to fit 4 round SAUCEPAN OF ABOUT 1755, MARKED ously subjected to hard wear. copper rod 3” long by 1” diam- JOSEPH HANCOCK, SHEFFIELD Old Sheffield Plate.—About 30 years after its disappearance eter. The two metals wete then united by fusion and afterwards as a commercial commodity, the acquisition of what was by drawn continuously through a “whortle”’ until they assumed the then termed “Old Sheffield Plate” became a cult amongst colform of a wire. The repeated drawings brought the two silver lectors of antiques. It was evident that the process of manufacedges together almost as one piece. This eatly method was im- ture might be classed as a lost art. The superb workmanship could proved upon and superseded some years later, though the original not be disputed and was well nigh impossible of reproduction.

principle was adHered to in its general details.

Silver Edges.—The next feature that marked a great advance in manufacture was the addition of silver edges, invented by

Most of the older skilled craftsmen had by then passed away, and

the younger ones had adopted other callings. The demand soon began greatly to exceed the stipply. This state of affairs was

SHEIKH—SHEKINAH

482

followed by the appearance on the market of many imitations electro-plated on copper, which were dishonestly described as “Sheffield Plate.” To so great an extent were these spurious articles sold as Sheffield plate that in the year 1911 prosecutions were undertaken by the Sheffield Cutlers company, when it was established in court that the term “Sheffield Plate” could only legally be applied to articles made by the older method of plating by fusion. The tendency to-day has not been towards a general increase in values of all specimens of Old Sheffield Plate, but those of

individual who wields it. (For the Sheikh ul-Islam see Murtt.)

SHEKEL, originally a Jewish unit of weight (sly of a mina, and ly of a talent) and afterwards a coin of the same weight

(Heb. shakal, to weigh). The Biblical references to shekels must

refer to uncoined ingots. In the time of J osephus it seems that the

light shekel weighed from 210 to 210-55 grains; the heavy shekel

was twice that amount, corresponding to ts. 4$d. and 2S. od. re-

spectively in English silver. Jewish shekels were first coined by Simon the Hasmonean, probably in 139-138 B.c. These bear inscriptions in the archaic Hebrew and various emblems, such as the cup or chalice, the lily branch with three flowers, the candlestick, the citron and palm branch and so forth. They never bear

the portraits of rulers or figures of animals.

A later series of

shekels, belonging to the Roman period, are tetradrachms, ‘which

came from the mints of Caesarea and Antioch and were used as

blanks on which to impress Jewish types.” Hence in Matt. xvi. 24 the temple tax of half a shekel is called a didrachm (2 drams). In 2 Samuel xiv. 26 we read of “‘shekels after the King’s weight,” The Hebrews

divided the shekel into 20 parts, each

of which

was called a gerak. (See also NUMISMATICS.) See articles in Ency. Bibl. col. 4,442, and Hastings’ Dict. of the Bible, ii. 417 seq.; F. W. Madden, Coins of the Jews (1881); T. Reinach, Jewish Coins (1903).

SHEKINAH, a Hebrew word meaning “that which dwells,” or “the dwelling.” An expression used in the Targums in place of “God.” The word “Shekinah” is of constant occurrence in the

Targums (g.v.). Great care was taken by the scribes to mitigate the anthropomorphic expressions applied to God in the Scriptures, and, by paraphrase, to prevent such expressions from giving rise to erroneous views in the popular mind as to God’s personal manifestation. Thus, whenever any indication of local limitation or action

TWO INSTRUMENTS

ON THE RIGHT

COMPRISE THE

‘*MAUNDRILL'’

utility such as candlesticks, candelabra, waiters, trays, entrée dishes, tea services, salt cellars and mustard pots, coffee pots, and many original designs in pierced work have advanced greatly in value. For such articles in perfect condition almost as high a figure is occasionally paid as for contemporary hall-marked silver specimens. With regard to the large articles that, early in the rgth century, were so prominently displayed on sideboards and dining tables, these, under modern conditions of home life, are not now greatly in request, consequently they may frequently be purchased at a price which is under their original cost. With regard to the future of the industry, the modern demands for a cheaper class of goods has led to a deterioration of design generally associated with mass production. Possibly silver plated articles may eventually be superseded for domestic use by solid silver, which since the removal of duty in 1891 and decline in value of the raw metal has greatly grown in demand. Again, too, there has been a resuscitation of pewter for table use, which is treated more scientifically than formerly and bears a marked resemblance to

a standard silver. Pewter also has the advantage of practical immunity from tarnish, whilst the material is easily worked and very durable. The manufacturers of best quality plated goods are to-day more concerned with the production of wares suitable for hotels, restaurants, clubs and the shipping services, than for domestic utility. See SILVERSMITHS’ AND GotpsmiTHs’ Work.

of God was implied or expressed, in the Hebrew text, the Targumists were careful to substitute some expression involving the use of “Shekinah.” Thus Ex. xxix. 45 is rendered in the Targum (Onkelos) : “And I will cause my Shekinah to dwell,” etc. All expressions implying God’s local presence are similarly rendered: e.g., Habak. ii. 20 “Jehovah was pleased to cause His Shekinah to dwell.” “To see” God is similarly paraphrased. Thus Is. xxxiii. 17 is rendered “Thine eyes shall see the Shekinah of the king of the worlds.” So “hiding the face,” when used of God is regularly paraphrased “remove His Shekinah” (Is. lvii. 17, viii. 17, lix. 2). Closely connected with the idea of the Shekinah is that of ‘‘the glory of the Lord.” “Glory,” indeed, in this connection was conceived of as a property of the Shekinah (as, in fact, it is of God). For the divine “glory” as a property of the Shekinah, cf., €g., Is. vi. 5 which is rendered “mine eyes have seen the glory of the Shekinah of the King,” etc. This Shekinah-glory is several times denoted in the New Testament by doga. The most notable passage is Rom. ix. 4, where St. Paul, enumerating the list of Israel’s privileges, says: “whose is the adoption, and the glory” (i.e., the Shekinah-glory); cf., Luke

li. 9. There is also an obvious allusion to the Shekinah in the description of the theophanic cloud of the transfiguration-narrative (St. Matt. xvii. 5 and parallels) the same verb being used as in the lxx. of Exod. xl. 34, seg. There can be no doubt too, that the word rendered “tabernacle” (cxnvj) with the corresponding verb “to tabernacle” (cxnvodv) is used in St. John i. 14, and Rey. xii. 3, because of its likeness to the term “Shekinah.” In St. John i. 14, there is an allusion to the Word (the mēmrā of the Targums) the Shekinah, and the Shekinah-glory, all of which the

writer declares became incarnate in Jesus. Cf. also Heb. i. 3. It is remarkable that the mémré (Logos or “Word’”) of the Targums almost entirely disappears in the Midrashic literature and the Talmud, its place being taken by Shekinah. The Rabbis (F. Bra.) apparently dreaded the possibility of such terms becoming SHEIKH or SHAYKH, an Arabic title of respect. Strictly hypostasized into personal entities distinct from God. Against it means a venerable man, of more than 50 years of age. It is this they emphasized the Shekinah-idea. It is safe to say that specially borne by heads of religious orders, chiefs of tribes and wherever Shekinah is mentioned in Rabbinic literature it is God’s

headmen of villages. Every village, however small, every separate quarter of a town, has a sheikh in whom is lodged the executive power of government—a power loosely defined, and of more or less extent according to the personal character and means of the

direct action or activity that is thought of. Independent personality is never imputed to it. (Maimonides, however, regarded the Shekinah, like the mémrd and “the glory” as a distinct entity.) It is probable that the use of the term was often in Rabbinic

SHELBY—SHELLEY writings polemical (against Jewish Christians or gnostic sects).

483

LIAM, and SHELLEY, Percy Byssae. When she was in Switzerland

BrsriocrapHy.—See “Shekinah” in J. Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, 5 vols. (1900-04); Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels, 2 vols. (1906) and in I. Singer, Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols. (1901, 1925); also I. W. Weber, Judische Theologie (1897, pp. 185-190). For the Targums in English see W. J. Etheridge, The Targums on the Pentateuch, 2 vols. (1862); C. W. Pauli, The Chaldee Paraphrase of the Prophet Isaiah (1871). (G. H. B.)

with Shelley and Byron in 1816 a proposal was made that various members of the party should write a romance or tale dealing with the supernatural. The result of this project was that Mrs. Shelley wrote Frankenstein, Byron the beginning of a narrative about a vampyre, and Dr. Polidori, Byron’s physician, a tale named The Vampyre, the authorship of which used frequently in SHELBY, a city of North Carolina, U.S.A., the county seat past years to be attributed to Byron himself. of Cleveland county; in the foothills of the Blue Ridge. Pop. Frankenstein, published in 1818, when Mary Shelley was at the 10,789 in 1930 (Federal census). Mineral springs and the natural utmost twenty-one years old, is a very remarkable performance beauty of the region have made the city a health and pleasure for so young and inexperienced a writer; its main idea is that of resort, and since 1900 it has been developing rapidly as an indus- the formation and vitalization, by a deep student of the secrets of trial centre. Its textile mills had 76,000 spindles in 1928. The city nature, of an adult man, who, entering the world thus under was founded and incorporated in 1844. unnatural conditions, becomes the terror of his species, a halfSHELBYVILLE, a city of Indiana, U.S.A., 27 m. S.E. of involuntary criminal, and finally an outcast whose sole resource Indianapolis, on the Blue river; county seat of Shelby county. It is self-immolation. This romance was followed by others: Valis served by the Big Four and the Pennsylvania railways. Pop. perga, or the Life and Adventures of Castruccio, Prince of Lucca 10,618 in 1930. It was named after General Isaac Shelby of (1823), an historical tale written with a good deal of spirit, and Kentucky, was platted in 1822, incorporated as a town in 1850, readable enough even now; The Last Man (1826), a fiction of the and chartered as a city in 1860. final agonies of human society owing to the universal spread of SHELDON, GILBERT (1598-1677), archbishop of Canter- a pestilence—this is written in a very stilted style, but possesses a bury, was born at Stanton in the parish of Ellastone, Staffordshire, particular interest because Adrian is a portrait of Shelley; The and educated at Oxford. He was ordained in 1622 and was ap- Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck (1830); Lodore (1835), also bearing pointed chaplain to Thomas Lord Coventry (1578-1640). Four partly upon Shelley’s biography, and Falkner (1837). Besides years later he was elected warden of All Souls college, Oxford. these novels there was the Journal of a Six Weeks’ Tour, which In 1648 he was ejected from All Souls by order of parliament for is published in conjunction with Shelley’s prose-writings; and his royalist activities, and imprisoned for some months, but he Rambles in Germany and Italy in 1840-1842-1843 (which shows regained the wardenship in 1659. In 1660 he became bishop of an observant spirit, capable of making some true forecasts of the London and master of the Savoy, and the Savoy Conference was future), and various miscellaneous writings. held at his lodgings. He was consecrated archbishop of CanterAfter the death of Shelley, Mary in the autumn of 1823 returned bury in 1663. He was greatly interested in the welfare of Oxford to London. At first she had to live by her writings; but after a University, of which he became chancellor in 1667, succeeding while Sir Timothy Shelley made her an allowance, which would Clarendon (1609-74). The Sheldonian theatre at Oxford was have been withdrawn if she had persisted in a project of writing built (1669) and endowed at his expense. a full biography of her husband. In 1838 she edited Shelley’s SHELDRAKE or SHELD-DRAKE (Tadorna tadorna), works, supplying the valuable notes. She succeeded, by strenuous a bird -f the duck tribe, Anatidae, distinguished by its size and exertions, In maintaining her son Percy at Harrow and Camupright stature, and by its striking black, white, and bay plum- bridge; in 1840 his grandfather acknowledged his responsibilities age. The head and neck are a very dark glossy green and the and in 1844 he succeeded to the baronetcy. She died on Feb. speculum, or wing-spot, bronze-green. The bill, which bears a 21, 1851. fleshy knob at its base, is pale red. The female is smaller but See Richard Church, Mary Shelley (1928) ; and bibliography under very similar in coloration. The sheldrake inhabits sandy coasts Percy ByssHEe SHELLEY. in Europe, Asia and North Africa, penetrating inland in favourSHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE (1792-1822), English poet, able localities. The nest is made under cover, usually in rabbit- was born on Aug. 4, 1792, at Field Place, near Horsham, Susburrows; in the Frisian Islands the people supply artificial bur- sex. He was the eldest child of Timothy Shelley (1753-1844), rows to obtain the eggs and down for their own profit. The male M.P. for Shoreham, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Charles assists in incubation and care of the brood. Pilfold, of Effingham, Surrey. His father was the son and heir of The allied T. radjah of Australia, Papua, and the Moluccas is Sir Bysshe Shelley, Bart. (baptized Percy Bysshe; 1731-1815), less brightly coloured, and the head is white. Casarca rutila, the whose baronetcy (1806) was a reward from the Whig party for ruddy sheldrake, inbabits Barbary, south-eastern Europe and political services. Sir Bysshe’s father Timothy had emigrated to central Asia; it is an almost uniform bay, but with some black America, and he himself had been born in Newark, New Jersey; . and white markings and a green and purple speculum. Other but he came back to England, and did well for himself by marryspecies occur in various parts of Africa and Australia and also in ing successively two heiresses, the first, the mother of Timothy, New Zealand. being his cousin, Mary Catherine, daughter of the Rev. Theobald In 1850, in the London Zoological Gardens, a male T. cornuta Michell of Horsham. He was a handsome man of enterprising and mated with a female C. cana from Africa, the resultant offspring ambitious character, accumulated a large fortune, built Castle resembling the two Australasian species of Casarca. Goring, and lived in sullen and penurious retirement in his closing Related to the sheldrakes are the genera Chenalopex, including years. None of his talent seems to have descended to his son the Egyptian goose (C. aegyptiaca) and Plectropterus, the spur- Timothy, who, except for being of a rather oddly self-assertive winged goose of Africa. character, was undistinguishable from the ordinary run of comSHELL, originally a thin flake; the hard outside natural cover- monplace country squires. The mother of the poet, who was his ing of some fruits, seeds and animals (see articles on MOLLUSCA; father’s second cousin, is described as beautiful, and a woman of GASTROPODA; MALACOSTRACA, etc.). The word is also used of a good abilities, but not with any literary turn; she was an agreehollow projectile filled with explosives (see AMMUNITION: Shell; able letter-writer. The branch of the Shelley family to which the ORDNANCE; SHELL-MoNEY). poet Percy Bysshe belonged traces its pedigree to Henry Shelley, In architecture shell is used for a single dome, considered of Worminghurst, Sussex, who died in 1623. These Wormingas a structural entity rather than an architectural form. hurst or Castle Goring Shelleys are of the same stock as the SHELLAC: see Resins: Natural Resins. Michelgrove Shelleys, who trace up to Sir William Shelley, judge SHELLEY, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1797- of the common pleas under Henry VII., thence to a member of 1851), English writer, only daughter of William Godwin and his parliament in 1415, and to the reign of Edward I., or even to the wife Mary Wollstonecraft, and second wife of the poet Percy epoch of the Norman Conquest. The Worminghurst branch was Bysshe Shelley, was born in London on Aug. 30, 1797. For the a family of credit, but not of special distinction, until its fortunes

history of her girlhood and of her married life see Gopwimy, WiL-

culminated under the above-named Sir Bysshe.

4.84.

SHELLEY

In the character of Percy Bysshe Shelley three qualities became early manifest, and may be regarded as innate: impressionableness or extreme susceptibility to external and internal impulses of feeling; a lively imagination or erratic fancy, blurring a sound

estimate of solid facts; and a resolute repudiation of outer authority or the despotism of custom. These qualities were highly developed in his earliest manhood, were active in his boyhood, and no doubt made some show even on the borderland between childhood and infancy. At the age of six he was sent to a day school at Warnham, kept by the Rev. Mr. Edwards; at ten to Sion House School, Brentford, of which the principal was Dr. Greenlaw, while the pupils were mostly sons of local tradesmen; at twelve (or immediately before that age, on the 29th of July 1804) to Eton. The headmaster of Eton, up to nearly the close of Shelley’s sojourn in the school, was Dr. Goodall, a mild disciplinarian: it is therefore a mistake to suppose that Percy (unless during his very brief stay in the lower school) was frequently flagellated by the formidable Dr. Keate, who only became headmaster after Goodall. Shelley was a shy, sensitive, mopish sort of boy from one point of view—from another a very unruly one, having his own notions of justice, independence and mental freedom; by nature gentle, kindly and retiring—under provocation dangerously violent. He resisted the odious fagging system, exerted himself little in the routine of school-learning, and was known both as “Mad Shelley”

and as “Shelley the Atheist.”

Shelley was required to say whether he had written it or not. The

youth declined to answer the question, and was expelled by a written sentence, ready drawn up. Hogg was next summoned, with a result practically the same. The precise details of this transaction have been much controverted; the best evidence is that which appears on the college records, showing that both Hogg and Shelley

(Hogg is there named first) were expelled for “contumaciously refusing to answer questions,” and for “repeatedly declining to

disavow” the authorship.

Thus they were dismissed as being

mutineers against academic authority, In a case pregnant with the

suspicion—not the proof—of atheism; but how the authorities could know beforehand that the two undergraduates would be contumacious and stiff against disavowal, so as to give warrant for written sentences ready drawn up, is nowhere explained. Possibly the sentences were worded without ground assigned, and would only have been produced in terrorem had the young men proved more malleable. Harriet Westbrook.—Shelley and Hogg came up to London, where Shelley was soon left alone, as his friend went to York to study conveyancing. Percy and his incensed father did not at

once come to terms, and for a while he had no resource beyond

pocket-money saved up by his sisters (four in number altogether)

and sent round to him, sometimes by the hand of a singularly

pretty school-fellow, Harriet Westbrook, daughter of a retired and

Shelley’s first published work, a moderately rich hotel-keeper. Shelley, in early youth, had a some-

romance entitled “Zastrozzi” (1810), appeared shortly before he left Eton. This volume was followed quickly by “Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire” (1810) written in collaboration with his sister Elizabeth; and another romance “St. Irvyne or the Rosicrucian” (1811). In these early efforts Shelley played the sedulous ape to “Monk” Lewis, Ann Radcliffe, Rosa Matilda and other exponents of the “School of Terror,” but worthless though they may be intrinsically, they are not without interest as having been written by the same hand that gave us “Prometheus Unbound,” and “Hellas.” Oxford Life—Shelley entered University College, Oxford, in

April 1810, returned thence to Eton, and finally quitted the school at mid-summer, and commenced residence in Oxford in October.

what “priggish” turn for moralizing and argumentation, and a mania for proselytizing; his school-girl sisters, and their little Methodist friend Miss Westbrook, aged between fifteen and sixteen, must all be enlightened and converted to anti-Christianity. He cultivated the society of Harriet, being encouraged in his assiduity by her much older sister Eliza. Harriet fell in love with him; and he, though not it would seem at any time ardently in love with her, dallied along the pathway which leads to senti»

ment and a definite courtship. This was not his frst love-affair: for he had but a very few months before been courting his cousin Harriet Grove, who, alarmed at his heterodoxies, finally broke off

with him—to his no small grief and perturbation at the time. It seems that Shelley never indulged in any sensual or dissipated amour; and, as he advances in life, it becomes apparent that, though capable of the passion of love, and unusually prone to

Here he met a young Durham man, Thomas Jefferson Hogg, who had preceded him in the university by a couple of months; the two youths at once struck up a warm and intimate friendship. Shelley regard with much effusion of sentiment women who interested his had at this time a love for chemical experiment, as well as for mind and heart, the mere attraction, of 4 pretty face or an alluring poetry, philosophy and classical study, and was in all his tastes figure left him unenthralled, and bearing an enthusiast. He continued to write verse and pubAfter a while Shelley was reconciled to his father, revisited his lished at Oxford a small collection entitled “Posthumous Fragments family in Sussex and made the acquaintance of Miss Elizabeth of Margaret Nicholson” (1810). The title was suggested by Hogg Hitchener, a school-teacher at Hurstpierpoint with whom, for the and is the only touch of the burlesque in what otherwise is a space of one year he pursued an intimate and voluminous corfeeble attempt at serious poetry. Hogg was not an enthusiast, but responde nce. He then stayed with a cousin in Wales, from whence he was a steady and well-read classical student. In religious mat- he was recalled to London by Harriet, who wrote complaining of ters both were sceptics; whether Hogg, as the senior and more her father’s resolve to send her back to her school, in which she informed disputant, pjoneered Shelley into strict atheism, or was now regarded with repulsion as too apt a pupil of the atheist whether Shelley, as the more impassioned and unflinching specu- Shelley. He replied counselling resistance. “She wrote to lator, outran the easy-going jeering Hogg, is a moot point; we in- (these say” are the words of Shelley in a letter to Hogg, dating cline to the latter opinion. Certain it is that each egged on the the towards end of July 1812) “that resistance was useless, but other by perpetual disquisition on abstruse subjects, conducted would fly with me, and threw herself upon my protection.”that she partly for the sake of truth and partly for that of mental exercita- ley Shelreturned to London, where he found Harriet tion, without on either side any disposition to bow to authority or wavering agitated and stop short of extreme conclusions. The upshot of this habit was burgh, ; finally they agreed to elope, travelled in haste to Edinand there, on Aug. 28, were married with the rites that Shelley and Hogg, at the close of some five months of the of: happy Scottish Church. Shelley had by this time openly broken, not and uneventful academic life, got expelled from the university . Shelley—for he alone figures as the writer of the “little syllabus,” only with the dogmas and conventions of Christian religion, but with many of the institutions of Christian polity, although there can be no doubt that Hogg was his confidant and in especial and. with such as enforce and regulate marriage; coadjutor throughout—published anonymously a pamphlet he held—with William entitled Godwin—that marriage ought to be simply The Necessity of Atheism (1811), which he sent round to a bishops between a man and a woman, to be assumed voluntary relation and all sorts of people as an invitation or challenge to at joint option and discussion. terminated at the after-option of either party. If, therefore, he It amounted to saying that neither reason nor testimony is ade- had acted upon his personal conviction of the right, he would never quate to establish the existence of a deity, and that nothing short have wedded Harriet, whether by Scotch, English or any other a a personal individual self-revelation of the deity would be suf- law; but as they were married without cient. delay on their arrival in Edinburgh, it is probable that Harriet may The college authorities heard of the pamphlet, identif have consented to the ied Shelley elopment on the understanding that Shelley would marry her. as its author, and summoned him before them—our master, and Harriet Shelley was not only beautiful; she two or three of the fellows.” The pamphlet was produced, was amiable, acand comhmedating, adequately well educated and well bred. She liked

485

SHELLEY reading, and her reading was not strictly frivolous. But she could not (as Shelley said at a later date) “feel poetry and understand philosophy.” She appears to have been a simple-minded affectionate girl who did her best to respond to her husband’s somewhat

nebulous ideas on sociology and politics. For nearly three years Shelley and she led a shifting sort of life upon an income of £400 a year, one-half of which was allowed (after his first severe indignation at the mésalliance was past) by Mr, Timothy Shelley, and the other half by Mr. Westbrook. The couple left Edinburgh for York and the society of Hogg; broke with him upon a charge made by Harriet, and evidently fully believed by Shelley at the time, that, during a temporary absence of his upon business in Sussex, Hogg had tried to seduce her (this quarrel was entirely made up at the end of about a year); moved off to Keswick in Cumberland, where they received kind attentions from Southey, and some hospitality from the duke of Norfolk, who, as chief magnate in the Shoreham region of Sussex, was at pains to reconcile the father and his heir; sailed thence to Dublin, where Shelley was eager in the good cause of Catholic emancipation, conjoined with repeal of the union; crossed to Wales, and lived at Nant-Gwillt, near Rhayader, then at Lynmouth in Devonshire, then at Tanyrallt in Carnarvonshire. All this was between September 1811 and February 1813. Residence in Wales.—At Lynmouth an Irish servant of Shelley’s was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment, but released on his master’s recognizances, for distributing and posting up printed papers, bearing no printer’s name, of an inflammatory or seditious tendency—being a Declaration of Rights composed by the youthful reformer, and some verses of his named The Devil’s Walk.

At Tanyrallt Shelley was

(according to his own and Harriet’s

account, confirmed by the evidence of Miss Westbrook, the elder sister, who continued an inmate in most of their homes) attacked on the night of Feb. 26 by an assassin who fired three pistolshots. It was either a human assassin or (as Shelley once said) “the devil.” The motive of the attack was undefined; the fact of its occurrence was generally disbelieved, both at the time and by subsequent inquirers. A disclosure, some years later, proved that a shepherd close to Tanyrallt, named Robin Pant Evan, being irritated by some well-meant acts of Shelley in terminating the

24, Shelley had remarried Harriet in London, apparently with a view to strengthening his position in his relations with his father as to the family property; but, on becoming enamoured of Mary, he seers to have rapidly made up his mind that Harriet should not stand in the way. She was at Bath while he was in London. They had, however, met again in London and come to some sort of understanding before the final crisis arrived—Harriet remonstrating and indignant, but incapable of effective resistance—Shelley sick of her companionship, and bent upon gratifying his own wishes, which as we have already seen were not at odds with his avowed principles of conduct. For some months past there had been bickerings and misunderstandings between him and Harriet, aggravated by the now detested presence of Miss Westbrook in the house; more than this cannot be said, and it seems dubious

whether more will be hereafter known. Shelley, and not he alone, alleged grave misdoing on Harriet’s part—perhaps mistakenly. The upshot came on July 28, when Shelley aided Mary to elope from her father’s house, Claire Clairmont deciding to accompany them. They crossed to Calais, and proceeded across France into Switzerland. Godwin and his wife were greatly incensed, Though he and Mary Wollstonecraft had entertained and avowed bold opinions regarding the marriage-bond, similar to Shelley’s own, and had in their time acted upon these opinions, it is not clearly made out that Mary Godwin had ever been encouraged by paternal influence to think or do the like. Shelley and she chose to act upon their own responsibility—-he disregarding any claim which Harriet had upon him, and Mary setting at nought her father’s authority. Both were prepared to ignore the law of the

land and the rules of society. ©

The three young people returned to London in September. In the following January 1815 Sir Bysshe Shelley died, and Percy, who had lately been in great money-straits, became the immediate heir to the entailed property inherited by his father Sir Timothy. This entailed property seems to have been worth £6,000 per annum, or little less. He came to an understanding with his father and, giving up certain future advantages, he received henceforth a regular income of £1,000 a year. Out of this he assigned £200 a year to Harriet, who had given birth in November to a son,

lives of dying or diseased sheep, did really combine with two other Charles Bysshe (he died in 1826). Shelley, and Mary as well, shepherds to scare the poet, and Evan was the person who played were on moderately good terms with Harriet, seeing her from time the part of “assassin.” This was the break-up of the residence of to time. His peculiar views as to the relations of the sexes appear the Shelleys at Tanyrallt; they revisited Ireland, and then settled markedly again in his having (so it is alleged) invited Harriet to for a while in London. Here, in June 1813, Harriet gave birth to return to his and Mary’s house as a domicile; an arrangement her daughter Janthe Eliza (she married a Mr. Esdaile, and died which did not take effect. He had, undoubtedly, while previously in 1876). Here also Shelley brought out his first poem of any abroad with Mary, invited Harriet to stay in their immediate importance, Queen Mab; it was privately printed, as its aggressive neighbourhood, Shelley and Mary (who was naturally always tone in matters of religion and morals would not allow of publica- called Mrs. Shelley) now settled at Bishopgate; near Windsor tion. In July the Shelleys took a house at Bracknell near Windsor Forest; here he produced his first excellent poem, Alastor, or the Forest, where they had congenial neighbours, Mrs. Boinville and Spirit of Solitude, which was published soon afterwards (1816) her family. Early in the summer of 1814 Shelley paid his last with a few others. Thomas Love Peacock was one of his principal visit to Field Place (during the absence of his father), to see his associates at Bishopgate. With Byron in Switzerland.—In May 1816 the Shelleys left mother. Several attempts to arrive at a reconciliation with his father had failed, probably owing, among other circumstances, to England for Switzerland, together with Claire Clairmont, and their own infant son William. They went straight to Sécheron, near the officious intervention of the family solicitor. The Godwin Circle—The speculative sage whom Shelley Geneva; Byron, whose separation from his wife had just then especially reverenced was William Godwin (g.v.); in 1796 he had taken place, arrived there immediately afterwards. A great deal married Mary Wollstonecraft, authoress of The Rights of Woman, of controversy has arisen as to the motives and incidents of this who died shortly after giving birth, on Aug. 30, 1797, to a daughter foreign sojourn. The clear fact is that Claire Clairmont, who Mary. With Godwin Shelley had opened a volunteered corre- had a fine voice and some inclination for the stage, had seen spondence at the beginning of 1812, and he had known him per- Byron, as connected with the management of Drury Lane theatre, sonally since the winter which closed 1812. Godwin was then a early in the year, and an intrigue had begun between them in bookseller, living with his second wife, who had been a Mrs. London. Prima facie it seems quite reasonable to suppose that she Clairmont; there were four other members of the household, two had explained the facts to Shelley or to Mary, or to both, and of whom call for some mention here—Fanny Wollstonecraft, the had induced them to convoy her to the society of Byron abroad; daughter of the authoress and Mr. Imlay, and Claire (Clara Mary were this finally established as the fact, it would show no inconJane), the daughter of Mrs, Clairmont. Fanny committed suicide sistency of conduct, or breach of his own code, on Shelley’s part. in October 1816, being, according to some accounts which remain But documentary evidence shows that Mary was totally ignorant unverified, hopelessly in love with Shelley; Claire was closely of the amour shortly before they went abroad. Whether or not associated with all his subsequent career. It was towards May they knew of it while they and Claire were in daily intercourse 1814 that Shelley first saw Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin as a with Byron, and housed close by him on the shore of the Lake grown-up girl (she was well on towards seventeen); he instantly of Geneva, may be left unargued, The three returned to London fell in love with her, and she with him. Just before this, on March in September 1816, Byron remaining abroad; and in January 1817 ~”

486

SHELLEY

favourably in the eyes of her Platonic adorer—produced the transcendental love-poem of Epipsychidion in 1821. In Ravenna scheme of the quarterly magazine the Liberal was concerted —first that of Fanny Wollstonecraft (already referred to), and the and Shelley, the latter being principally interested in it Byron by second that of Harriet Shelley, who on Nov. g drowned herself in to benefiting Leigh Hunt by such an association with view a the Serpentine. The body was not found until Dec. to. The with Byron. coe have career Harriet’s d latest stages of the lovely and ill-starre Byron and Shelley were constantly together, having in Pisa In a formed she that seems It recorded. explicitly very been never at one time or another Shelley’s cousin and schoolconnexion with some man from whom circumstances or desertion their company Thomas Medwin (1788-1869), Lieutenant Edward Captain fellow her separated her, and that she was treated with harshness by (1793-1822) and his wife, to both of whom the Williams Elliker a had always had She father. their of illness sister during an attached, and Captain Edward John Trewarmly very was poet act. in out it propensity to the idea of suicide, and she now carried romantic seaman, who has left ims Shelley, then at Bath, hurried up to London when he heard of lawny, the adventurou and ces of this period. Byron adreminiscen interesting and portant terso which shock the of Harriet’s death, giving manifest signs and enthusiastic charunworldly generous, the highly very rible a catastrophe had produced on him. So far from Shelley mired on his writings; Shelley halfvalue some set and Shelley, of acter that probable than more is it mind his from subject g dismissin the anxious, but in some conthe memory of this tragedy was ever present to him, and especially worshipped Byron as a poet, and was junctures by no means able, to respect him as aman. In Pisa he so during his last days. of the pioneers of This was the time when Shelley began to see a great deal of knew also Prince Alexander Mavrocordato, one fired Shelley, cause glorious the freedom; and n insurrectio Leigh Hunt, the poet and essayist, editor of the Examiner; they Grecian magnificent its with (1821) Hellas of drama the wrote he and reputathe uphold to something did Hunt and friends, close were mankind. of future the for hope of breathing choruses all, for once tion of Shelley as a poet—which, we may here say Last Days.—The last residence of Shelley was the Casa Magni, scarcely obtained any public acceptance or solidity during his brief and exposed dwelling on the Gulf of Spezia. He and his bare a obstacle only the removed having lifetime. The death of Harriet to a marriage with Mary Godwin, the wedding ensued on Dec. 30, wife, with the Williamses, went there at the end of April 1822 to 1816, and the married couple settled down at Great Marlow in spend the summer, which proved an arid and scorching one. PeaBuckinghamshire. Their tranquillity was shortly disturbed by a cock describes Shelley as being disillusioned during his last days; Chancery suit set in motion by Mr. Westbrook, who asked for there is certainly a trace of melancholy in his later lyrics and the custody of his two grandchildren, on the ground that Shelley correspondence; a foreboding of some approaching fatality which, had deserted his wife and intended to bring up his offspring in his however, he appears to have attempted to divert. Shelley and own atheistic and anti-social opinions. Lord Chancellor Eldon Williams, both of them insatiably fond of boating, had a small delivered judgment on March 27, 1817. He held that Shelley, hav- schooner named the “Don Juan” (or more properly the ‘‘Ariel’’), ing avowed condemnable principles of conduct, and having fash- built at Genoa after a design which Williams had procured from a ioned his own conduct to correspond, and being likely to inculcate naval friend, but the reverse of safe. They received her on May the same principles upon his children, was unfit to have the charge 12, found her rapid and alert, and on July x started in her to Legof them. He appointed as their curator Dr. Hume, an orthodox horn, to meet Leigh Hunt, of whose arrival in Italy he had just army-physician, who was Shelley’s own nominee. The poet had to been notified. After doing his best to set things going comfortably pay for the maintenance of the children a sum which stood eventu- between Byron and Hunt, Shelley returned on board with Williams ally at £x20 per annum; if it was at first (as generally stated) on July 8. It was a day of dark, louring, stifling heat. Trelawny £200, that was no more than what he had previously allowed to took leave of his two friends, and about half-past six in the evening Harriet. This is the last incident of marked importance in the per- found himself startled from a doze by a frightful turmoil of storm. turbed career of Shelley; the rest relates to the history of his The “Ariel” had by this time made Via Reggio; she was not to mind, the poems which he produced and published, and his changes be seen, though other vessels which had sailed about the same of locality in travelling. The first ensuing poem was The Revolt time were still discernible. Shelley, Williams and their only comof Islam, referred to near the close of this article. panion, a sailor-boy, perished in the squall. The exact nature of Removal to Italy—In March 1818, after an illness which he the catastrophe was from the first regarded as somewhat disputregarded (rightly “or wrongly) as a dangerous pulmonary attack, able. The condition of the “Ariel” when recovered did not favour Shelley, with his wife, their two infants William and Clara, and any assumption that she had capsized in a heavy sea—rather that Claire Clairmont and her baby Allegra, went off to Italy, where she had been run down by some other vessel, a felucca or fishingthe short remainder of his life was passed. Allegra was soon sent smack. In the absence of any counter-evidence this would be supon to Venice, to her father, who, ever since parting from Claire in posed to have occurred by accident; but a rumour, not strictly Switzerland, showed a callous and unfeeling determination to see verified and certainly not refuted, exists that an aged Italian seaand know no more about her. In 1818 the Shelleys—always man on his deathbed confessed that he had been one of the crew nearly with Claire in their company—were in Milan, Leghorn, of the fatal felucca, and that the collision was intentional, as the the Bagni di Lucca, Venice and its neighbourhood, Rome and men had plotted to steal a sum of money supposed to be on the Naples; in 1819 in Rome, the vicinity of Leghorn and Florence “Don Juan,” in charge of Lord Byron. In fact there was a (both their infants were now dead, but a third was born late in moderate sum there, but Byron had neither embarked nor intended 1819, Percy Florence Shelley, who in 1844 inherited the baronetcy to embark. This may perhaps be the true account of the tragedy; and died in 1889); in 1820 in Pisa the Bagni di Pisa (or di San at any rate Trelawny, the best possible authority on the subject, Giuliano), and Leghorn; in 1821 in Pisa and with Byron in Ra- accepted it as true. He it was who laboriously tracked out the venna; in 1822 in Pisa and on the Bay of Spezia, between Lerici shore-washed corpses of Williams and Shelley, and who undertook and San Terenzio. the burning of them, after the ancient Greek fashion, on the shore The incidents of this period are but few, and of no great im- near Via Reggio, on Aug. 15 and 16. The great poet’s ashes were portance apart from their bearing upon the poet’s writings. In then collected, and buried in the new Protestant cemetery in Rome. Leghorn he knew Mr. and Mrs. Gisborne, the latter a once inti- He was, at the date of his untimely death, within a month of mate friend of Godwin; she taught Shelley Spanish, and he was completing the thirtieth year of his age. eager to promote a project for a steamer to be built by her son by Character.—The character of Shelley can be considered aca former marriage, the engineer Henry Reveley; it would have cording to two different standards of estimation. We can estimate been the first steamer to navigate the Gulf of Lyons. In Pisa the original motive forces in his character; or we can form an he formed an intimacy with the Contessina Emilia Viviani, a girl opinion of his actions, and thence put a certain construction upon who was pining in a convent pending her father’s choice of a hus- his personal qualities. We will first try the latter method. It canband for her; this ımpassioned but vague and fanciful attachment not be denied that his actions were in some considerable degree —which soon came to an end, as Emilia’s character developed less abnormal, dangerous to the settled basis of society, and marked oy Claire gave birth to his daughter named Allegra. The return of the Shelleys was closely followed by two suicides

SHELLEY

487

by headstrong and undutiful presumption. But it is remarkable | stituents, sublimity, beauty and the abstract passion for good. that, even among the censors of his conduct, many persons are Perhaps no outstanding English poet, and he was essentially an none the less impressed by the beauty of his character; and this English poet, has used a greater variety of forms and measures leads us back to our first point—the original motive forces in that. than Shelley. In the pure lyrics the rapture, the music and the Here we find enthusiasm, fervour, courage (moral and physical), emotion are in exquisite balance, and the work has often as much an unbounded readiness to act upon what he considered right prin- of delicate simplicity as of fragile and flower-like perfection. Great ciple, however inconvenient or disastrous the consequences to him- as Shelley’s fame is now, it should be remembered that it was self, sweetness and indulgence towards others, extreme generosity entirely posthumous. He practically received no encouragement (he appears to have given Godwin, though sometimes bitterly op- during his lifetime, and died believing that the world had rejected posed to him, between £4,000 and £5,000), and the principle of his poetry. Works.—Some of Shelley’s principal writings have already been love for humankind in abundance and superabundance. He respected the truth, as he conceived it, in spiritual or speculative mentioned above; we must now give a brief account of others. matters, and respected no construction of the truth which came Alastor (1816) was succeeded (1817) by The Revolt of Islam, a to him recommended by human authority. No man had more poem of no common length in the Spenserian stanza, preaching hatred or contempt of custom and prescription; no one had a more bloodless revolution; it was written in a sort of friendly competiauthentic or vivid sense of universal charity. The same radiant tion with Keats (who produced Endymion) and is amazingly fine, enthusiasm which appeared in his poetry as idealism stamped his but as a whole somewhat long-draw:. and exhausting. This transpeculation with the conception of perfectibility and his character scendental epic (for such it may be termed) was at first named Laon and Cythna, or the Revolution of the Golden City, and the with loving emotion. In person Shelley was attractive, winning and almost beautiful, lovers of the story were then brother and sister as well as lovers— but not to be called handsome. His height was nearly 5 ft. Ir; an experiment upon British endurance which the publishers would he was slim, agile and strong, with something of a stoop; his com- not connive at. The year 1818 produced Rosalind and Helen, a plexion brilliant, his hair abundant and wavy, dark brown but early comparatively weak poem, begun in England and finished in Italy, beginning to grizzle; the eyes, deep blue in tint, have been termed and Julian and Maddalo, a very strong one, written in the neigh“stag-eyes’—large, fixed and beaming. His voice was high-pitched bourhood of Venice—demonstrating in Shelley a singular power of and wanting in richness and suavity; his general aspect, though seeing ordinary things with directness, and at once figuring them extremely variable according as his mood of mind and his expres- as reality and transfiguring them into poetry. In each of these sion shifted, was on the whole youthful. The only portrait of two poems Shelley gives a quasi-portraiture of himself; and in the Shelley, from which some idea of his looks used to be formed, is latter one may perhaps trace a veiled description of Harriet’s that painted by an amateur, Miss Curran, in 1819; Mrs. Shelley, tragic end. The next year, 1819, was his culmination, producing later, pronounced it to be “in many things very like.” This is now as it did the grand tragedy of The Cenci and the sublime ideal in the National Portrait Gallery, together with a quasi-duplicate drama Prometheus Unbound, composed pärtly on the ruins of the of it painted by Clint, chiefly from Miss Curran’s likeness, and Baths of Caracalla in Rome. This last we have no hesitation in partly from a water colour (now lost) by Lieutenant Williams. calling his masterpiece. It embodies, in forms of surpassing In 1905 (Century Magazine) another portrait was brought for- imagination and beauty, Shelley’s deepest and most daring conward: a pencil sketch taken in the last month of the poet’s life by ceptions. Prometheus, the human mind and will, has invested an American artist, William E. West, followed by an oil-painting with the powers proper to himself Jupiter, the god of heaven, who founded on that sketch. The two works differ very considerably, thereupon chains and torments Prometheus and oppresses manand neither of them resembles Miss Curran’s portrait; yet we kind; in other words, the anthropomorphic god of religion is a creation of the human mind, and both the mind of man and man incline to believe that the sketch was really taken from Shelley. Place in European Literature.—If we except Goethe (and himself are enslaved as long as this god exercises his delegated leave out of count living writers, whose ultimate value cannot at but now absolute power. Prometheus, who is from of old wedded present be assessed), we must consider Shelley to be a supreme to Asia, or Nature, protests against and anathematizes the poet of the new era which, beginning with the French Revolution, usurper enthroned by himself. At last the anathema (although remains continuous into our own day. Victor Hugo shares his Prometheus has revoked it by an act of self-conquest) takes lofty poetic stature, and might for certain reasons be even pre- effect: Eternity, Demogorgon, dismisses Jupiter to unending ferred to him; Byron and Wordsworth also belong to the same nothingness. Prometheus is at once unbound, the human mind great period, and later, Tennyson and Browning. The grounds, is free; he is reunited to his spouse Nature, and the world of man however, on which Shelley’s eminence is based are mainly three. passes from thraldom and its degradation into limitless progresHe is unexcelled in his ideality, unexcelled in his music and unex- sion, or (as the phrase goes) perfectibility, moral and material. celled in his importance. By importance we here mean the di- This we regard as in brief the argument of Prometheus Unbound. rect import of the work performed, its controlling power over It is closely analogous to the argument of the juvenile poem Queen the reader’s thought and feeling, the contagious fire of its white- Mab, but so raised in form and creative touch that, whereas to hot intellectual passion, and the long reverberation of its appeal. write Queen Mab was only to be an ambitious and ebullient tiro, Shelley is emphatically the poet of the future. In his own day an to invent Prometheus Unbound was to be the poet of the future. alien in the world of mind and invention, and in our day but The Witch of Atlas (1820) is the most perfect work among all partially a denizen of it, he appears destined to become, in the Shelley’s longer poems, though it is neither the deepest nor the long vista of years, an informing presence in the innermost shrine most interesting. It may be rated as a pure exercise of roving of human thought. Shelley appeared at the time when the sublime imagination—guided, however, by an intense sense of beauty, and frenzies of the French revolutionary movement had exhausted the by its author’s exceeding fineness of nature. The elegy on Keats, Adonais, followed in 1821. The translaelasticity of men’s thought—at least in England—and had left them flaccid and stolid; but that movement prepared another in tions—chiefly from Homer, Euripides, Calderon and Goethe— which revolution was to assume the milder guise of reform, con- date from 1819 to 1822, and testify to the poetic endowment of quering and to conquer. Shelley was its prophet. As an iconoclast Shelley not less absolutely than his own original compositions; and an idealist he took the only position in which a poet could there are also prose translations from Plato. Shelley, it will be seen, was not only a prolific but also a versatile advantageously work as a reformer. To outrage his contemporaries was the condition of leading his successors to triumph and poet. Works so various in faculty and in form as The Revolt of of personally triumphing in their victories. Shelley had the temper Islam, Julian and Maddalo, The Cenci, Prometheus Unbound, of an innovator and a martyr; he united speculative keenness Epipsychidion, and the grotesque effusions of which Peter Bell and humanitarian zeal in a degree for which we might vainly seek the Third is the prime example, added to the consummate array his precursor. We have already named ideality as one of his of lyrics, have seldom to be credited to a single writer—one, more: leading excellences. This Shelleian quality combines, as its con- over, who died before he was thirty years of age. In prose Shelley

488

SHELLEY’S

CASE—SHELL-MOUNDS

the Cypraea moneta, or money-cowry (see Cowry). It is most abundant in the Indian Ocean, and is collected more particularly in the Maldive Islands, in Ceylon, along the Malabar coast, in Borneo and other East Indian islands, and in various parts of the African coast from Ras Hafun to Mozambique. It was formerly in familiar use in Bengal, where, though it required 3,840 The chief original authorities for the life of Shelley (apart from his to make a rupee, the annual importation was valued at about own writings, which contain a good deal of autobiography, if heed- £30,000. In western Africa it was, until past the middle of the fully sifted and collated) are—(1) the notices by Mrs. Shelley inter- roth century, the usual tender. The use of the cowry currency spersed in her edition of the Poems; (2) Hogg’s amusing, discerning and authentic, although in some respects exaggerated, book; (3) gradually spread inland in Africa, and about 1850 Heinrich Barth Trelawny’s Records; (4) the Life by Medwin; and (5) the articles found it fairly recognized in Kano, Kuka, Gando and even Timwritten by Peacock. Some other writers, especially Leigh Hunt, buktu. In the countries on the coast the shells were fastened tomight be mentioned, but they come less close to the facts. Among biographical books produced since Shelley’s death, by authors who gether in strings of 40 or 100 each, so that 50 or 20 strings did not know him personally, the leading work is the Life by Pro- represented a dollar; but in the interior they were laboriously fessor Dowden (2 vols., 1886), which embodies important materials counted one by one. The districts mentioned above received imparted by the Shelley family. The Real Shelley, by J. C. Jeaffreson their supply of kurdi, as they were called, from the west coast; (1885), is controversial in method and decidedly hostile in tendency, but the regions to the north of Unyamwezi, where they were in and tries a man of genius by tests far from well adapted (in our opinion) to bring out a right result; it contains, however, an ample use under the name of simbi, were dependent on Muslim traders share of solid information and sharp disquisition. The memoir by from Zanzibar. The shell of the land-snail, Achatina monetaria, W. M. Rossetti, prefixed to an edition of Shelley’s Poems in two forms cut into circles with an open centre, has been long used as coin of publication (1870 and 1878), was an endeavour to formulate in brief space, out of the then confused and conflicting records, an in Benguella, Portuguese West Africa. In parts of Asia Cypraea accurate account of Shelley—admiring, but not uncandidly one-sided. annulus, the ring cowry, was commonly used. In north Australia could be as admirable as in poetry. His letters to Thomas Love Peacock and others, and his uncompleted Defence of Poetry, are the chief monuments of his mastery in prose; and certainly no more beautiful prose—having much of the spirit and the aroma of poetry, yet without being distorted out of its proper essence— is to be found in the English language.

There is valuable material in Lady Shelley’s Shelley Memorials, and in Dr. Garnett’s Relics of Shelley; and the memoir by J. Addington Symonds, in the English Men of Letters series, is characteristic of the writer. Shelley in England by Roger Ingpen contains new facts respecting Shelley’s relations with his family, his expulsion from Oxford and some unpublished facts about Harriet’s death. One of the handiest editions of Shelley’s poems was edited by Thomas Hutchinson (Clarendon Press, 1905), which includes the emendations, &c., published by Mr. C. D. Locock (1903) from examination of the MSS. in the Bodleian Library. Mr. Locock edited in 1911 an excellent and fully annotated edition of the Poems, with some new material. A full edition of Shelley’s letters was edited by Roger Ingpen in 1909, reprinted with additions in 19zz and 1916. The most complete collection of Shelley’s Poems, Prose works and Correspondence is the Julian Edition edited by Roger Ingpen and W. E. Peck (1927-1929). France has by no means negtected Shelley. A. Koszul’s “La Jeunesse de Shelley” (1910), is a valuable study of the subject, while André Maurois has written a popular romance in his “Ariel ou la vie de Shelley” (1923). Mr. Buxton Forman’s earlier and excellent edition includes the writings in prose as well as in verse.

(W. M.R.; R

SHELLEY’S CASE, RULE IN, an important decision in

the law of real property. The litigation was brought about by the settlement made by Sir William Shelley (c. 1480-1549), a Judge of the common pleas, of an estate which he had purchased on the dissolution of Sion Monastery. After prolonged argument the celebrated rule was laid down by Lord Chancellor Sir Thomas Bromley, who presided over an assembly of all the judges to hear the case in Easter term 1580-81 (i. Coke’s Rep. 93 0.). The rule may be stated as follows: When an ancestor by any gift or conveyance takes an estate of freehold and in the same gift or conveyance an estate is limited, either mediately or immediately, to his heirs or the heirs of his body, in such a case the word “heirs” is a word of limitation and the estate of the ancestor is an estate in fee or an estate tail according to circumstances, (See also Van Grutien v. Foxwell, 1897. A.C. 658.)- This rule was abolished in England by the Law of Property Act 1925, by which date it had already been abolished in several colonies. It is said to have had its origin in the wish of the law to preserve to the lords their right of wardship. (See Burge’s Foreign and Colonial Laws, vol. iv. pt. II.) In the United States the rule in Shelley’s case is in operation as a part of the common law, but it has been repealed by statute in many States.

SHELL-MONEY, a medium of exchange common to many

primitive races, consisting of sea shells or pieces of them worked into beads or artificially shaped. Shell-money appears to have been almost universal, being found in America, Asia, Africa and Australia. The shell used by the Indians of Alaska and California was the Dentalium pretiosum, a species of tusk-shell. The ligua, the highest denomination of their coinage, consisted of twenty-five shells strung together, which from end to end made a total measurement of a fathom (6ft.) or thereabouts, equalling in English coinage about £50. But the shell most used by primitive peoples has always been

different shells were used, one tribe’s shell being absolutely value-

less in the eyes of another tribe.

In the islands north of New

Guinea the shells are broken into flakes. Two shells are used by

these Pacific islanders, one a cowry found coast, and the other the common pease shell. trade in the Solomon Islands was carried on age of shell beads, small shells laboriously required size by women.

on the New Guinea As late as 1882 local by means óf a coinground down to the

BrstLIocrRaPaY.—-H. Barth, Travels and Discoveries in Central Africa (1857~58); “Aboriginal Shell-money,” Proc. California Acad, of Science (vol. v., San Francisco, 1873) ; “Ethnoconchology: a Study of Primitive Money,” Smithsonian Report, pt. ii. (Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1887); B. Danks, “On the Shell-money of New Britain,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. (vol. xvii., 1888); W. E. Armstrong, “Rossel Island Finance,” Anthropology (Report No. 2) (Territory of Papua, Natives Taxes Ordinance 1917-22, Sydney, 1923); and “Rossel Island Money”; Econ. Journ. (1924). (

SHELL-MOUNDS or KITCHEN-MIDDENS Dan. Kjokken-médding), prehistoric refuse heaps or mounds, found in all quarters of the globe, which consist chiefly of the shells of edible molluscs mixed with fragments of animal bones, and implements of stone, bone and horn. They may sometimes, as in the Straits of Magellan, be seen in process of formation. Many, of prehistoric origin, have been examined, notably on the

eastern coast of Denmark. These were at first thought to be raised beaches, but a cursory examination at once proved their artificial construction. Further investigation proved these shellmounds to belong to the early part of the Neolithic age (g.v.).

They contained the remains of quadrupeds, birds and fish, the food of the prehistoric inhabitants. Among the bones were those of the wild bull or aurochs, beaver, seal and great auk, all now extinct or rare in this region. Moreover, shell-mounds contain full sized shells of the common oyster, which cannot live at present in the brackish waters of the Baltic except near its entrance, the inference being that the shores where the oyster at that time flourished were open to the salt sea. Thus also the eatable cockle, mussel and periwinkle abounding in the kitchen-middens are of full ocean size, whereas those now living in the adjoining waters are a third of full size, owing to the want of saltness. This extention of the North sea is called the “Littorina sea’; and it existed round about 4000-3000 B.C., the end of Brooks’s Maritime period. The débris is in some places toft. to zoft. thick.

The men of the kitchen-middens had seemingly no knowledge of agriculture, no traces of grain of any sort being found. The only vegetable remains were burnt pieces of wood and some charred substance, possibly a sea-plant used in the production of salt. Flat stones blackened with fire, forming hearths, were also found. That periods of scarcity must have been frequent is indi-

cated by the discovery of bones of the fox, wolf and other carnivora, which would hardly have been eaten from choice. The kitchen-middens of Denmark were not mere summer-quarters; the ancient fishermen appear to have stayed in the neighbourhood

SHELL

489

SHOCK—-SHEMAKHA

for two-thirds, if not the whole of the year, since by examination of the bones of the wild animals it is often possible to tell the time of year when they were killed. Thus the remains of the wild swan (Cygnus musicus), a winter visitor, leaving the Danish coast in March and returning in November, are found in abundance. Additional proof is afforded among the mammalian remains by two periodical phenomena, the shedding of the stag’s antlers and the birth and growth of the young. The flint implements found include flakes, axes, awls, sling-stones or net-weights, and rude lance-heads. A fragment of one polished axe was found, at Havelse, which had been worked up into a scraper. Small pieces of coarse pottery are also met with, the typical vessel having a pointed base. The Danish kitchen-midden men were not cannibals.

They seem to have resembled the Lapps, small men with heavy over-hanging brows and round heads. At Omori (Japan), in the Aleutian islands, in British Columbia, Oregon and California shell-mounds were explored, and always proved that the present populations had been preceded by ruder tribes of great antiquity. On the Atlantic coast of Brazil shellmounds, which must have taken thousands of years to accumulate, are now overgrown with dense forests. Shell-mounds also occur round the coasts of Britain, at Chark near Gosport, inland at Blashenwell farm, Dorset, at Harlyn bay in Cornwall and in Cork harbour, but there is no reason to suppose all these deposits to be contemporary. The shell-mounds on the west coast of Scotland are often associated with raised beaches.

pany. In the year 1902 negotiations were started with the Royal Dutch company for a reduction of the competition, which was then acute in the Far East, an amicable working arrangement which led to the closest possible amalgamation of interests in 1907. The Royal Dutch company, which had oil concessions in the Dutch East Indies from the Dutch Government, together with the Shell company formed a strong combination that afterwards extended into other areas. The Shell company in 1928 owned, in conjunction with their associates the Royal Dutch company, oil lands in the Dutch East Indies, Sarawak, Egypt, Rumania, Mexico, Venezuela, Trinidad, the United States, Argentine, etc. Starting with three tank steamers of about 4,500 tons capacity each (which were constructed for transporting general cargo on the return voyages from the Far East), the tonnage owned by the company in 1928 exceeded 1,000,000 tons. From an initial capital of £1,800,000, the authorised Shell capital in 1928 had risen to £43,000,000, the issued capital being over £26,500,000 valued in the open market at close on £100,000,000. (L. C. M.)

SHELTON,

THOMAS

(f. 1612-1620), English translator

of Don Quixote. In the dedication of The delightful history of the wittie knight, Don Quishote (1612-20) he explains to his patron, Lord Howard de Walden, afterwards 2nd Earl of Suffolk, that he had translated Don Quixote from Spanish into English some five or six years previously in the period of forty days for a “very dear friend’ who was unable to understand the original. Shelton did not use the original edition of Cervantes, BIBLIOGRAPHY.—P. Schumacher, K eee on the Northern Coast of America (Smithsonian Reports, 1873); E. Reclus, The but one published in Brussels in 1607. On the appearance of the Earth and its Inhabitants, vol. xix. (New York, 1890); D. G. Brinton. Brussels imprint of the second part of Don Quixote in 1616, he Artificial Shell-deposits of the United States (Smithsonian Reports, Washington, 1866); Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times (6th ed., 1900); translated that also into English, completing his task in 1620, and J. Wyman, “Freshwater Shell-mounds of Florida,” Memoirs of the printing at the same time a revised edition of the first part. His Peabody Academy of Sci. vol. i. oa Mass., 1875) ; Morse, Skell- performance has become a classic among English translations for mounds of Omori (Tokio, 1879); n Cushing, Ancient Key- its racy, spirited rendering of the original. It seems safe to Dwellers’ Remains (Philadelphia, ae H. Dall, Tribes of the identify the translator with the Thomas Shelton who wrote a Extreme North West: Sore to N. ae Ethnology, vol. i. sonnet prefixed to the Restitution of Decayed Intelligence (1605) (Washington, 1877); A. S. Macalister, A Text-book of European of Richard Verstegan. Archaeology, chap, x, cy

SHELL SHOCK.

A term which first arose during the early

period of the World War to describe the condition of certain soldiers who had been exposed to unusually heavy bombardment. These persons, In whom a more or less strong hereditary

nervous history was obtainable, suffered from various mental and physical disabilities, often of a very severe kind. As time passed the application of the term was extended to cover neurasthenia in its various forms arising under war conditions, and often was so loosely applied that it came to carry a suggestion of deception or malingering and often of lack of courage in the highest degree unjust to the real sufferers. The treatment was psychotherapeutic (see PsycHOTHERAPY) and usually was highly successful, but in some instances the mental condition of the patient underwent progressive deterioration and ended in insanity. (See NEURASTHENIA; MEDICINE, GENERAL.) “SHELL” TRANSPORT & TRADING CO., LTD, an oil company founded by the late Viscount Bearsted and his brother Samuel Samuel, M.P. The origin of the title “Shell” is

to be found in the fact that these two men, as Eastern merchants, gave special attention to the collection of marine shells, their _ cleaning, polishing, distribution, and sale for decorative and other purposes. In addition to their normal businesses they carried on a substantial trade in the shipment of Russian and American

kerosene, then packed in tins and cases, to the Far East. Prior to the actual registration of the Shell company M. Samuel & Co. had already established an organisation with various private firms in the East, which proved so successful that a much closer combination was made in 1897 by the formation of the Shell Transport & Trading Co., Limited. From these comparatively small beginnings the business expanded until, in 1928, it covered the production, transport, and distribution of crude petroleum and its products all over the world. Samuel & Co. acquired in 1895 a considerable territory in Dutch East Borneo and proceeded to exploit it for the production of mineral oil, its refining, shipment, and marketing. This investment was acquired, with other oil investments, by the new com-

The

1612

edition is available

in Fitzmaurice

Kelly’s

reprint

for

the Tudor Translations (1892); that of 1620 is reproduced in Macmillan’s “Library of English Classics” with an introduction by A. W. Pollard, who incorporates the suggestions made by A. T. Wright in his Thomas Shelton, Translator.

SHELTON, a city of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Housatonic river, opposite Derby and Ansonia; served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. Pop. (1920), 9,475 (30% foreign-born white); it was

10,113 in 1930. Shelton (formerly Huntington) rated in 1789, and the city was chartered in 1917.

was incorpo-

SHEM was the eldest of Noah’s three sons. In the Old Testament genealogical tables tracing the origins and connections of the various peoples we find among the descendants of Shem, in addition to the Hebrews, Elam, Assyria, Aram, Lud. From the name is derived the adjective Semitic (see SEMITIC LANGUAGES). The interesting statement in Genesis ix. 26 that Yahweh was “the God of Shem” suggests, what is indeed on other grounds probable, that Yahweh was worshipped by peoples akin to the Hebrews. Roughly speaking, the nations supposed to have descended from Shem lie geographically between the descendants of Japheth on

the North, and those of Ham JAPHETH.

SHEMAKHA,

on the South.

See also Ham,

a town of Russia in the Azerbaijan S.S.R.,

in 40° 38’ N., 48° 37 E. The population has declined from 20,000

to 3,631 (1926) owing to the terrible times following the 1917 revolution. Shemakha was the capital of the khanate of Shirvan, and was known to the Roman geographer Ptolemy as Kamachia. About the middle of the 16th century it was the seat of an English commercial factory, under the traveller Jenkinson, afterwards envoy-extraordinary of the khan of Shirvan to Ivan the Terrible of Russia. In 1742 Shemakha was taken and destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia, who, to punish the inhabitants for their

creed (Sunnite Mohammedanism), built a new town under the same name about 16 m. to the west at the foot of the main chain of the Caucasus. The new Shemakha was at different times a residence of the khan of Shirvan, but was finally abandoned, and

SHENANDOAH—SHENANDOAH

ago

the old town rebuilt. The Russians first entered Shirvan in 1723, but soon retired. In 1795 they captured Shemakha as well as Baku; but the conquest was once more abandoned, and Shirvan was not finally annexed to Russia until 1805.

AH

(shén’-an-dé’a), an anthracite-mining bor-

VALLEY

the war in the main theatre. The Valley operations in 1862 began by a retrograde movement on the part of the Confederates, for Jackson on March

12 retired from Winchester,

and Banks

at

the head of 20,000 men took possession. Banks pushed a strong detachment under Shields on to Strasburg a week later, and

SHENANDO ough of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 35 m. S.W. of Jackson then withdrew his small division (5,000) to Mt. Jackson.

Wilkes-Barre; served by the Lehigh Valley, the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways. Pop. (1920), 24,726 (31% foreign-born

white); 21,782 in 1930 by Federal census. It is an important mining and shipping centre in the Schuylkill region of the great anthracite fields. A log house was built here in 1835, but no further development took place until 1862, when the first colliery was

Banks, however, recalled Shields Washington, Jackson conceived Shields, and, when Shields stood 23, with 7,000 men, Jackson at was badly beaten.

in accordance with orders from that he was bound to follow at bay at Kernstown on March the head of 3,500 attacked and ; o.

The proof thus afforded by Jackson of his inability to contend with Shields seems to have been regarded by the Federal authoriSHENANDOAH VALLEY, in Virginia, U.S.A., begins at ties as an excuse for reversing their plans; Shields was reinforced the Potomac river and extends south-westward between the Blue by Williams’s division, and with this force Banks undertook to Ridge mountains on the east and the Alleghenies on the west, to drive Jackson from the Valley. A week after the battle of Kernsthe eminence of land between Staunton and Lexington. The valley town, Banks moved to Strasburg with 16,000 men, and a month is more than too m. long and varies in width from 20 to 30 m.; later (April 29) was at Newmarket, after much skirmishing with included within its area are Berkeley and Jefferson counties, Jackson’s rear-guard which burnt the bridges in retiring. MeanW. Va., and Frederick, Clarke, Warren, Shenandoah, Page, Rock- while Jackson had taken refuge in the passes of Blue Ridge, where ingham and Augusta counties, Va. Located within this region are he too was reinforced. Ewell’s division joined him at Swift Run a score of thriving towns and cities, the most populous of which Gap, and at the beginning of May he decided to watch Banks are Staunton, Winchester, Waynesboro, Woodstock, Ft. Royal, with Ewell’s division and to proceed himself with the remainder Luray and Berryville. The chief stream of the valley is the Shen- of his command to join Edward Johnson’s brigade, then beset by andoah river which unites with the Potomac in the picturesque Gen. Milroy west of Staunton. Secretly moving by rail through water gap at Harper’s Ferry. Rockfish Gap, Jackson united with Johnson and in a few days Agriculture, stock-raising and flour-milling have long been im- located Milroy at the village of McDowell. After reconnaissance portant industries of the region; in the lower valley are numerous Jackson concentrated his forces on Setlington Hill and proposed orchards of apples and peaches. In recent years dairy farming, to attack on the morrow (May 8), but on this occasion the Fedthe breeding of fine live stock and poultry farming have assumed erals (Milroy having just been joined by Schenck) took the initilarge proportions. The rugged water gap at Harper’s Ferry, the ative, and after a four hours’ battle Jackson was able to claim wooded hills and numerous grottoes and limestone caverns make his first victory. The Confederates lost 500 out of 6,coo men the Shenandoah valley attractive for tourists. and the Federals 250 out of 2,500 men. — The first white man to visit the valley was Louis Michelle, a Meanwhile the army under Banks, now at Strasburg, had been Frenchman, in 1707; he was followed in 1716 by Governor largely sent elsewhere. Jackson’s opportunity had come to destroy Spotswood and his Knights of the Horseshoe. The first settlers Banks’s force completely. The Confederates numbered 16,000, the to enter the region were Germans and Scottish-Irish who came in Federals only 6,000 men, Jackson availed himself of the Luray from Pennsylvania in the early 1730s. During the Civil War the Valley route on the eastern or “blind” side of the Massanutton valley was the scene of many bloody battles, especially those in range to surprise the post at Front Royal as a preliminary to fallwhich “Stonewall” Jackson participated. ing upon Banks. He captured the post, but failed to intercept See History of the Lower Shenandoah Valley (1890), ed., J. E. Banks who escaped northwards by the turnpike road and covered Norris; and J. W. Wayland, A Bird’s-Eye View of the Shenandoah his retreat across the Potomac by a rear-guard action at WinValley (1924). (X.) chester on May 25. On May 31 Frémont had reached Cedar SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS Creek. McDowell was at Front Royal and Jackson had retired to In the American Civil War (1861-65) the Shenandoah Valley Strasburg, where he was compelled to wait for a detachment to was often the scene of military operations; at two points in the come in. This rejoined on the evening of June r. , war these operations rose to the height of separate campaigns Ewell’s division held Frémont back until Jackson was on his possessing great significance in the general development of the way to Newmarket. McDowell had sent Shields up the Valley by war. From a military point of view the Shenandoah Valley was the Luray route. But Jackson gained Newmarket in safety and valuable to the army which controlled it as a requisitioning area, destroyed the bridge up to Port Republic by which Shields could for in this fertile region crops and cattle were plentiful. There emerge from the Luray Valley to join Frémont, who was left to were, Moreover, numerous mills and factories. For the Confed- cope with Jackson single-handed. Jackson’s rear-guard impeded erates the Valley was also a recruiting area. A macadamized road Frémont’s advance, although a week later (June 7) Frémont at from Lexington via Staunton and Winchester to Martinsburg gave Harrisonburg located his enemy at Cross Keys and next day he them easy access to Maryland and enabled them to cover Lynch- attacked with 10,500 men. Shields was still at Luray. Jackson burg from the north. By a system of railways which united at held Frémont with Ewell’s division (8,000) and with the reGordonsville and Charlottesville troops from Richmond and mainder moved to the left bank of the Shenandoah near Port Lynchburg were detrained within easy distance of five good passes Republic to await developments, for Shields had pushed forward over Blue Ridge, and as Strasburg in the Valley lies almost due a strong advanced guard under Tyler, whose vanguard (two west of Washington it was believed in the North that a Confed- squadrons) crossed the river while Frémont was engaged with erate army thereabouts menaced a city the protection of which Ewell. Tyler’s cavalry was driven back with heavy loss. Jackson was a constant factor in the Federal plan of campaign. retained possession of the bridge by which Tyler and Frémont In the spring of 1862 the immense army organized by Gen. could unite, and next day he crossed the river to attack Tyler’s McClellan advanced and threatened to sweep all before it. The two brigades. The engagement of June 9g is called the battle of Confederates, based on Richmond, were compelled to show a front Port Republic. Jackson with 13,000 men attacked Tyler with westward to the Alleghanies, northward to the Potomac and 3,000 men, and Tyler retired with a loss of some 800 men, leaving eastward to the Atlantic. The main armies were engaged on the as many Confederates hors de combat. | Yorktown peninsula and the other operations were secondary. Yet A few days later Jackson received orders to quit the Valley in one instance a Confederate detachment that varied in strength and join the main army before Richmond, and President Lincoln between 5,000 and 17,000 contrived to make some stir in the simultaneously discovered that he could not afford to keep the world and won renown for its commander. Gen. Thomas J. Jack- divisions of Frémont, Banks and McDowell engaged in operations son with small means achieved great influence on the course of against Jackson; so the Valley was at peace for a time. opened.

The borough was incorporated in 1866.

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FROM “MANUAL OF SEAMANSHIP” TIONERY OFFICE

VOL.

FIG. 7,—MIDSHIP

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longitudinals predominant, is an important feature of the structure of all large warships. The frame at the middle line—termed the vertical keel, is specially strengthened in order to resist the stresses undergone when the vessel is in dock. The transverse frames (spaced about 4 feet apart) are of minor importance and are

worked in short lengths between the longitudinals. Those shown

in the figure consist of angle bars and bracket plates stiffened at the edges and lightened by holes; in another system of construction frequently adopted the two brackets are replaced by a single plate lightened by holes which are long enough to permit access through them. Certain of the longitudinal and transverse frames are made watertight or oiltight so as to subdivide the double bottom into a number of cells, which are useful for stowage purposes, and, moreover, limit the ingress of seawater in event of the outer bottom being damaged. The upper deck is formed of steel plating sheathed with wood and supported by beams worked transversely and slotted through the longitudinal girders shown. These girders with the deck plating

(which is thickened amidships) are of great importance in connection with the longitudinal strength; and in some ships they have been increased in number and the beams correspondingly reduced. An interesting feature shown on the diagram is the bilge keel which is fitted in order to reduce the ship’s rolling in a seaway. At the ends of the vessel the system of construction is considerably modified, the principal framing being transverse and the double bottom being no longer worked. Adequate watertight subdivision is still provided by the watertight bulkheads and decks, of which the former are more closely spaced than amidships. In larger warships—battleships and battlecruisers—the system

of construction does not differ in principle from that described above for a cruiser. The thickness of plating is greater and the scantlings in general are heavier; and there are several decks which are supported by pillaring (or bulkheads), extending down from deck to deck to the inner bottom where the loads are finally balanced by the water pressure transmitted through the framing. The

armour instead of forming a portion of the structure (as in the cruiser shown) consists of separate hard plates bolted to the

SHIPBUILDING ship’s side, which is recessed for the purpose; the framing beneath is frequently strengthened in order to support the heavy localized weight. In other respects the structure of a battleship and that of a cruiser are generally similar.

Destroyer.—The destroyer construction is different from that

of a cruiser, for there is no double bottom and the important framing 1s worked transversely and closely spaced (about 21 inches). Owing to the disproportionate weight of machinery which these

BOILER ROOM VENTILATOR

BOILER BEARERS

VERTICAL KEEL FLAT INNER FLAT OUTER

KEEL, STRAKE KEEL. STRAKE

FLOOR PLATE FROM “MANUAL OF STATIONERY OFFICE

SEAMANSHIP"

VOL

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BY

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FIG. 8.—MIDSHIP SECTION OF A DESTROYER

vessels have to carry, the lower part of the framing is adapted to form supports to the boilers and engines; in the ship illustrated the ordinary frames are interrupted and replaced near the middle line by heavy floor plates. Deepened or “web” frames are worked at intervals in order to provide adequate transverse strength and stiffness. Each frame is connected to a beam supporting the deck above. The longitudinal frames, which are generally slotted over the transverses, are few in number; but they render valuable assistance to the general as well as the local strength by stiffening the thin plating in their vicinity and preventing it from buckling under a compressive load. They are of particular importance under the deck where they form an integral and valuable portion of the structure which would otherwise be too severely stressed in a seaway. The thickness of the shell plating amidships is in places as small as 0-17 inch; together with the deck, vertical keel and all parts contributing to the longitudinal strength it is made of special quality steel capable of withstanding high stress without injury. Sloop.—The structure of this well-known type of naval auxiliary craft generally resembles that of a light mercantile ship. The framing is transverse and closely spaced (21 inches). The thickness of the shell plating is about 4 inch. Submarine.—The structure of an “L” class submarine is designed primarily to resist the water pressure when submerged. Except for the vertical keel and the local supports to machinery, the framing is therefore wholly transverse and is fitted in the form of rings spaced about 21 inches apart. The thickness of the main hull plating is about 4 inch, and that of the ballast tanks 4 inch.

531

of bursting shell, as well as to provide against large damage due to running aground, or being struck by a torpedo or mine. For this reason fairly minute subdivision is required; the main transverse bulkheads (which in merchant ships constitute the whole, or nearly the whole, of the watertight partitions below the “‘freeboard deck”) are supplemented in warships by minor transverse and longitudinal watertight bulkheads; moreover in general, every

deck and flat is made watertight. By these means the buoyancy, as well as the stability of the ship is preserved; and if due care has been taken to maintain the watertightness of the various bulkheads, etc., a warship should be able to continue in action after being holed in a large number of places. It may happen that the injury to the ship, although insufficient to sink her, may lead to a large heel or trim, which would prevent the ship being manoeuvred in action or her guns being fired. To remedy this, means are provided for correcting heel and trim by flooding compartments on the opposite side or end of the ship; suitable compartments are selected for this purpose, and large valves fitted so that the spaces may be quickly flooded when desired. Information is also supplied to the commanding officer on the effect of flooding each compartment, so as to enable a rapid decision to be made in emergency as to any flooding that may be desirable. An important feature of the subdivision of warships is that the main transverse bulkheads are made as far as practicable intact. They are not pierced by doors or any other fittings except the necessary electric leads and power pipes, which are placed as high as possible, and, whenever it can be arranged, above the waterline. Ventilation.—The fittings of warships include those used in direct connection with the armament of the ship (see also ORDNANCE: Naval), the steering gear, the watertight hatches and doors, the arrangements for pumping, flooding, draining and fresh and salt water supply, the anchor and cable arrangements, the ventilation and many others. It is impossible in the space available to give even a brief description of these fittings or of the installations of which they form part, but the principles underlying the ventilation system of a modern warship will be outlined. In the living spaces of the ship, and in the ordinary storerooms, magazines, etc., it is of the greatest importance that a definite supply of fresh air should be available. On the other hand, in compartments such as washplaces, latrines, stores where food is kept, and auxiliary machinery compartments—in short in any spaces where foul or overheated air is generated—the first consideration is to remove this air directly overboard and not allow it to penetrate into other parts of the ship. This is effected by fans which exhaust from the spaces in question and deliver the exhausted air into the open. The air required to replace that exhausted is allowed to enter as it will through hatches or doors; although not usually fresh it is sufficiently pure for supply to the spaces for which this “exhaust” system of ventilation is adopted. In the main engine rooms a combination of both systems is employed; the heated air is removed by large exhaust fans and the fresh air supplied by smaller fans and also allowed to enter naturally through hatches. In the boiler rooms the supply of fresh air to the furnaces ventilates also the compartments themselves. In order to obviate the passage of air trunking as far as possible through watertight bulkheads a large number of small fans are required; in a modern cruiser about 70 fans are fitted for the ventilation of the ship (4.e., in addition to those for the main machinery spaces), and they are capable in the aggregate of supplying and exhausting about 100,000 cubic feet of air per minute, As regards the arrangements in the spaces themselves, experience has shown that the most successful method is to fit both supply and exhaust high up in the compartments. The fresh air,

The transverse strength is supplemented by the bulkheads fitted at intervals. Watertight Subdivision.—An efficient system of watertight owing to its greater density, sinks soon after entry, flows over the subdivision is particularly important in all classes of warships; floor of the space and finally drives out the lighter foul air which for without it any degree of damage below: the waterline would „has risen. A vigorous movement of air is required under tropical lead to the withdrawal of a ship from action, if not to its ultimate conditions, whereas in'cold climates the contrary is the case. This loss. In arranging the subdivision it is necessary to localize the difficulty is overcome by controlling the speed of the fans, so as influx of water due to small damage, ¢.g., perforation by fragments to vary the quantity of air they supply, and by providing means for

SHIPBUILDING

534

altering the direction and amount of the supply at any point. lated on the recommendations of a Committee appointed by the Steam heaters are also fitted near some of the fans, so that, when Board of Trade immediately after the sinking of the “Titanic” necessary, the air supplied may be warmed to a comfortable tem- in April 1912 with the loss of some 1,500 passengers and crew. perature before it is distributed in the ship. N atural ventilation by (See Surppinc: Registration, Classification and State Regulation.) cowls, windsails, etc., although used extensively in mercantile The determination of a suitable breadth in relation to the vessels is only used in warships for small spaces situated near the depth calls for some care, since upon this depends the stability of open and when required under tropical conditions as an auxiliary the vessel, a vital factor, since the stability must be sufficient for

to the ordinary ventilation.

(W. J. B.)

safety but must not be so excessive as to cause the ship to roll

Brsriocrapuy.—S. J. Tharle, Naval Architecture (2 vols., 1874) and uncomfortably in a seaway. Shipbuilding in Iron and Steel (4th ed. 1910) ; W. H. White, Manual Finally, regard must be paid to the various official regulations of Naval Architecture (sth ed. 1900) ; A. Campbell Holms, Practical Shipbuilding (2nd ed. 1908) ; T. H. Biles, Design and Construction of of the countries between which the ship is intended to trade. Ships, 2 vols. (vol. i., 1908; vol. ii. 2nd ed. 1923); D. W. Taylor, The designer will usually have, to guide him, the details of Speed and Power of Ships (New York, 1910-11) ; W. Hovgaard, War- some successful ship or ships previously built to fulfil the same ships: Structural Design (1915) and Warships: General Design (1920) ; N. J. McDermaid, Shipyard Practice as applied to Warship Construc- or similar conditions, and he will probably know what measure tion (2nd ed. 1917); E. L. Attwood and I. C. G. Cooper, Laying Off of success or popularity the respective features of such vessels (and ed. 1918); G. S. Baker, Shipform, Resistance and Screw Propul- have earned in service. The dimensions can in this event be readily sion (and ed. 1920); E. W. Blocksidge, Ships’ Boats (1920): S. N. fixed to provide the necessary speed and deadweight, stability and Barnaby, Marine Propellers (6th ed. 1921); T. Walton, Present-day seaworthines

Shipbuilding (and ed. 1921) ; E. L. Attwood, Theoretical Naval Architecture (1922); W. Pollock, Designs of Small Oil-engined Vessels (1927). See also Transactions of Institute of Naval Architects, N.E.

Coast Inst. of Engineers and Shipbuilders, Inst. of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, and the Society of Naval Architects and Marine

Engineers.

SHIPBUILDING: MERCANTILE, As a ship is a most complex engineering structure, the process of design requires considerable experience and skill, allied with sound judgment. When a shipowner orders a new vessel he must in the first instance have a clear idea as to the size and type and the other properties desired in order to suit the particular trade in which it will be engaged. These requirements will include the weight and space required for cargo, the number of passengers and type of accommodation for them, the speed to be attained, and the distance to be run without replenishing the fuel supply. One important factor which must not be omitted is the permissible draught of the ship, since the depth of water available in many harbours is limited. In addition it is desirable to decide in which Classification Society, if any, the vessel is to be classed, since this will determine the details of the scantlings to be employed. It is also necessary to decide whether the method of propulsion is to be by steam engines —either reciprocating or turbine or a combination of these—or by an oil engine. The choice of machinery depends upon many considerations, chiefly of an economic character, and it is by no means easy to decide which will be the most suitable to meet given conditions.

s, and the cost of the vessel determined. On the other hand, if the departures from previous vessels or from the usual

practice be very great, much will depend upon the designer’s skill and judgment. Outline drawings must first be prepared, based on dimensions which are considered suitable, and the various calculations made

for this assumed design. These calculations will include the vari-

ous factors to which reference has been made, and, if it is not intended to class the vessel with one of the recognized Classifica -

tion Societies, questions of strength will have to be considered. If, however, the vessel is to be so classed, it may be assumed that the scantlings required by the Rules of such Society will provide generally sufficient strength. If the calculations show that the dimensions assumed do not enable the required conditi ons to be fulfilled, the dimensions must be modified and the calcula tions repeated, the process being continued until a salisfa ctory result is obtained. As soon as the dimensions selected for the vessel are found to be appropriate, more complete drawings are put in hand and the final calculations pertaining to the displacement of hull and equipment, deadweight and capacity, centre, weights of grav-

UPPER Deck

With this information at his disposal, the shipbuilder is in

a position to prepare his preliminary designs and to determi ne the most suitable dimensions. The settling of the most suitable dimen-

sions is a task calling for considerable care, since the whole success of the ship will depend wpon the solution of this With given dimensions the Weight of the ship’s structu problem, re including hull, equipment and machinery can be calcula ted, and this weight together with the weight of the cargo to be carried (known as the deadweight) must not exceed the displac ement of the ship at the required draught. In addition, the depth of the vessel must be such that the

distance from the water line to the deck must not be less than that given in the Tables of Freeboard. This distance, known as the freeboard, varies with the size of the ship and the nature and

extent of the erections above the deck, and has been determined as

the result of many years observations and experi dimensions giving a suitable deadweight and freebo ence. When ard have been determined, the capacities of the various holds are calculated in order to ensure that there will be a sufficient volume to enable the cargo to be carried—for example, it will be clear that very different capacities will be required to house the same total weight of iron orè or of light piece goods. If the ship is intended to carry passengers , regard must also be paid to the requirements as to the effective subdi vision of the ship into watertight compartments, the objec t being to obtain a vessel: which will remain afloat if 1, 2 or somet imes even 3 compartments are laid open to the sea by damage throu gh collision or otherwise. The present offici

al British regulations on this subject were formu-

BY COURTESY

FIG.

OF THE

1.—MIDSHIP

INSTITUTE

OF

SECTION

NAVAL

OF

ARCHITECTS

AN

IRON

SAILI

NG VESSEL, ABOUT 1860 FIG. 2.—MIDSHIP SECTION OF AN IRON scREW STEAMER, ABOUT 1860

ity and trim, while metacentric diagrams and curves of stability are also made. In the case of the construction of large passenger vessels, complete drawings and specifications are prepared by the shipowners or by naval architects employed by them. In other cases, shipbuilders work in close connection with the shipowning companies and the business rélations are of a very simpl owner being content to send a note of the e character, the shipprincipal dimensions, deadweight, capacity and type of ship required and to stipulate that the ship shall receive the highest class of one of the recognised Classification Societies, leaving the determination of the details of the design in the hands of the builders.

SHIPBUILDING In any case complete design drawings and detailed specifications are necessary for the shipyard operations, and if not supplied must be prepared by the shipyard staff. The principal plans required are the sheerdraught and the profile and deck plans which show the general arrangement. The sheerdraught consists of an elevation showing the vessel’s longitudinal contour, the position of the decks, the water line or line at which she will float, and certain other lines parallel to this and equally spaced below it, which are also called water lines, and of a series of vertical lines equally spaced from stem to stern called square stations; of a body plan showing the sectional form of the ship at the square stations—supposing her to be cut by transverse planes at these stations; and of a half breadth plan showing the form of the ship at the several water lines, supposing her to be cut by horizontal planes at the level of these lines. The profile and deck plans show all the internal arrangements of the vessel, the holds and spaces set apart for cargo, the position of the engines and boilers, the accommodation provided for the passengers and crew, and all the principal fittings throughout the ship. The midship section shows the structural arrangements of the vessel and the dimensions—or scantlings—of the more important parts of the structure, The specification is a statement of all the particulars of the vessel, including what is shown on the drawings as well as what cannot be shown on them, The quality of the materials to be used is carefully defined, and it is clearly stated how items not manufactured by the shipbuilders are to be obtained.

Practical Shipbuilding—pPractical shipbuilding requires a

knowledge of the properties of materials used in the construction of ships, and also an acquaintance with the methods, means, and machinery by which, after delivery in the shipyard, the materials are brought to the required shapes, erected in their proper rela-

533

the general principles of construction remain very much the same

in all cases. The exterior parts—the bottom, sides and decks-— supply the strength required for the structure as a whole.

of the ship where special strength must be provided to support the structure against grounding and in dry dock, the frames are considerably increased in depth and

are known as floors. The tops of the floors are held upright in

OF

BY COURTESY ARCHITECTS

THE

INSTITUTE

OF

their correct relative positions by girders running lengthwise; one at the middle line being called the centre keelson, and others nearer the sides side keelsons. In all merchant vessels except those of small size an inner bottom is provided, the space between the inner and outer bot-

NAVAL

toms being utilised for carrying

FIG. 5.—MIDSHIP SECTION OF A either water ballast or oil fuel. CARGO STEAMER, ABOUT 1909 In such cases the centre keelson is called the centre girder and the side keelsons are called side

girders. The centre girder is made continuous, and the deep transverse plates forming the floors extend from the centre girder to the ship’s side. The side girders are fitted in pieces between the floors, and are said to be intercostal. Occasionally in large vessels one of the side girders is made continuous and the floors in that case are fitted imtercostally. In modern vessels it is the practice to fit solid plate floors on every second or every third frame only, the remaining floors being built up of bulb angle bars inside BRIDGE DECK

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tive positions, connected together and completed so as to form a structure which shall fulfil the intentions of the design. The varieties of ships are very great and are constantly changing, and thus

new problems are continually presented to the shipbuilder. There is also an ever increasing demand for rapid production which necessitates a constant search for simplification of methods of work, for labour-saving and time-saving machinery, for improved means of handling material in the shipyard, and for workshops which will more completely prepare and finish their products before dispatch to the shipyard. Whatever the size of the ship or the type to which she belongs,

SPARRING

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WIDE SPACED PILLAR ee

BY COURTESY OF THE INSTITUTE OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS

SHEERSTRAKE

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UPPER DECK

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bottom and sides are spoken of as the shell or outside plating and are, with the decks, kept to the proper shape by means of frames running across the ship like the rafters in a roof or the ribs of a body. These are called tramsverse frames where attached to the shell ar beams where they run under the decks. At the bottom

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MARGIN PLATE

PLATING

FIG, 6.—MIDSHIP SECTION OF A CARGO VESSEL, 1928 the outer bottom and under the inner bottom with short bracket plates between them, the bracket plates being attached to the centre and other fore and after girders by short angle bars, Floors built up in this way are called bracket floors. Where, however, special local stresses have to be met, as in the machinery space or at the forward end of the ship, solid plate floors are fitted on every frame.

The inner bottom is generally stopped short at the side of the

SHIPBUILDING

534

ship and drops nearly vertically, thus forming a convenient pocket |extends from the keel to the weather deck. In order to provide for drainage known as the bilge, the boundary plate of the double bottom being called the margin plate. The side frames outside the double bottom are attached to the margin plate by plate brackets called tank margin brackeis. Besides the ordinary framing, the transverse strength of the ship is much increased by the partitions fitted to divide up the internal spaces of the ship, which are called bulkheads, and which may be watertight or non-watertight as the circumstances of the case require. At the extreme ends of the ship the shell plating

for the expansion of the oil due to varying temperatures, an expansion trunk is provided usually by fitting a continuous fore and aft bulkhead between the upper deck and the deck below. The space between the expansion trunk and the ship’s side is known as the summer tank, and is used as an additional space for oil cargo when light oils are carried. Vessels of this type are nearly

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PERSPECTIVE OF A CARGO VESSEL

on the two sides is attached to forgings or castings which are

known as the stem at the fore end and the sternframe or sternpost at the after end. Towards the bow of the vessel particularly, additional supports are introduced to enable the ship to withstand the heavy blows of the sea in bad weather and are called panting stringers and panting beams, panting being the term applied to the movements which occur in the side plating if sufficient stiffness is not provided. At the stern a deep floor, called the transom, is attached to the upper part of the sternframe to form a base for the overhanging part of the stern which is known as the counter. To assist the beams in holding the decks in their correct position, vertical pillars are introduced in large numbers, but to avoid loss of space and inconvenience in handling cargo ordinary pillars are often dispensed with and a few strong pillars widely spaced with deep girders under the deck are fitted instead. The general spacing of the frames varies from about 20 inches in small ships to 36 inches in large vessels; 36 inches is however common in ships of moderate size. The whole tendency of modern shipbuilding is in the direction of simplifying the construction by redistributing the material, concentrating on the more important parts of the main structure, the remainder being treated largely on the basis of local considerations. The changes which have occurred over a period of years

will be appreciated by a study of the construction of typical vessels from 1860 to 1928. (Figs. 1 to 7.) The foregoing description may be regarded as covering mercantile vessels generally, with the exception of that large part of the mercantile marine devoted to the carriage of oil in bulk, a trade which has grown to such dimensions that in 1927 about 10% of the total world’s tonnage consisted of oil-carrying vessels. These

ships differ in many important particulars from ordinary cargocarrying vessels. The oil carrying space, which usually extends for about half the total length of the ship, is divided by transverse bulkheads into tanks about 30 feet long. These tanks are subdivided bv a continuous longitudinal centre line bulkhead which

SECTION

OF A CARGO

SHIP

all built on the longitudinal system of framing. In this system, designed by Sir Joseph Isherwood, instead of closely spaced transverse frames, deep frames formed of plates and angles known as transverses are fitted at intervals of about ro feet. The shell

and deck plating is supported by continuous longitudinal frames called longitudinals, which pass through slots in the transverses but are cut at the bulkheads, to which they are bracketed. The middle line and transverse bulkheads are stiffened in a similar manner, so that at each longitudinal there is a continuous horizontal girder right round the tank. The main features of this system will be clearly understood by reference to fig. 9, which shows the construction of a typical tanker. The Isherwood system has also been applied to ordinary cargo vessels. The success which has attended this system has led to introduction of designs on which the framing at the bottom and deck is longitudinal, while ordinary vertical framing is retained at the ship’s side. A number of ships have been built on this combination system and have proved satisfactory. The most recent development in ship construction has been

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FIG. 9.—INTERNAL VIEW OF AN OIL TANK STEAMER BUILT ON THE ISHERWOOD PRINCIPLE, FIG. 10.—INTERNAL VIEW OF AN OIL TANK STEAMER BUILT ON THE BRACKETLESS SYSTEM i

the introduction of the Isherwood bracketless system, which is a modification of the normal longitudinal framing in which the brackets attaching the longitudinals to the bulkheads are dispensed with. This has necessitated a rearrangement of the spacing of the

transverses and the provision of special strengthening of the shell and deck plating in the neighbourhood of the bulkhea ds, and results in a great simplification of the structure and of the work of erection (see fig. 10). Laying Off—This is the name given to the proces drawing the lines of a ship to full size in plan and elevat s of ion in

SHIPBUILDING

535

order to determine the exact dimensions of the more important the 8 inches is not less than about 20%. In addition to the parts of the ship’s structure, as the sizes of the various members tensile test, sample strips 2 inches in width are cut and are bent must correspond with one another in order that, when assembled, double by hammering or in a press until the bend is a semi-circle there may be no irregularity or unfairness in the surface of the the diameter of which is 14 times the thickness of the plate. ship. The process is carried out on a specially planed and black- As an additional test the strips are sometimes heated and plunged ened wooden floor of such a size as to take in the full depth of the into water to cool them suddenly before bending. The steel used for making rivets is similarly tested, and samship in its width. The room in which the floor is situated is called the mould loft, and is an important adjunct of the ship- ples of the finished rivets are also taken and are hammered into various shapes (some hot and some cold) to ensure that the metal yard drawing office. The principles of the methods of the projections of the various is soft and ductile and suitable for the work. The testing of ship steel is practically always carried out under lines and planes are exactly to those followed in practical solid the supervision of one of the Classification Societies, and their geometry, and do not call for any detailed explanation. In different localities and in the construction of different types principal requirements in this respect may be tabulated as of ships, the extent to which the process of laying off to full follows :— size is employed varies considerably. In some yards laying off British on a large scale on paper is relied on almost entirely, and very Bureau Lloyd’s corporaShip steel Santas register little full size work on the floor is considered necessary, particution

larly in the case of ships the lines of which have very little curva- | |—————_____[_{__|___ m —— 28—32 27—32 26-32 Plates ture over the greater part of their length. 26-32 28-33 27-32 Bars . The primary object in laying off a ship is to determine the 25-30 25—30 24-29 Rivets exact shape of each of the frames, and these are drawn down on (Figures given represent stress in tons per sq. in.) the scrieve board, which is an auxiliary mould loft floor constructed conveniently near the frame bending shop, which has The testing is carried out at the steel works, and if the material copied on it all the information necessary for the correct shaping is passed each plate and bar is stamped with the brand of the of the frames in the ship. All the frame lines are shown on the Classification Society and with an identification mark which would scrieve board, and the complete section of the frame surface for enable it to be traced back to its origin should it prove unsatisfacboth sides of the ship is shown for each frame. tory in course of being worked in the shipyard. Special wood moulds are prepared giving the spacing of the The stem and sternframe are generally made of forged iron, rivet holes in the frames and floors, while wood battens are pre- but are also made of cast steel. Castings are tested by being let pared on which are marked off the spacing of the rivet holes in the fall on hard ground and are then slung in chains and hammered floors and keelsons. all over, flaws being detected by the sound produced. To test Great progress has been made in recent years in the art of the quality of the steel in the casting, small pieces which are cast laying off, and wood moulds and battens can be prepared to suit on for the purpose are removed and tested in the same manner’ the requirements of the different deck and shell plates, frames and as the samples cut from the plates and bars; these test pieces beams so that it is possible to shape and punch the rivet holes in should have about the same tensile strength as those cut from about 90% of the material before the vessel’s keel is actually laid. plates, but a little less ductility may be permitted. On account of the sharpness of form at the ends of the ship it The last few years have witnessed the introduction of a new is usual to make a wooden pattern of the exact shape of the plates type of material known as Special Quality Steel, which possesses at these parts from the structure after the frames have been elastic properties superior to ordinary mild steel. This material erected, but in some instances even this has been unnecessary, and can withstand a stress of about 15 tons per sq. in. without suffering practically the whole of the material has been prepared in advance. any permanent deformation, as compared with a much lower figMaterials.—Ships of the present day are almost invariably ure—say 7 or 8 tons per sq. in. for mild steel. The superior propconstructed of the material known as mild steel, which consists of erties of the new material are obtained chiefly by exercising great iron with a small percentage of carbon, manganese, phosphorus care to see that in the course of manufacture the temperature of and sulphur, a typical mild steel containing the steel does not fall below a given critical temperature before the operation of rolling is completed. On account of its superior % properties certain reductions in scantlings are allowed, which reCarbon . . . «© « a "I7 sult in a saving of weight of steel in a moderate sized vessel of Manganese z $ ao w oo 48 about 10%. Several ships have been constructed of this material, With not more than Phosphorus we, she We. OG ec e e a, 03 and have proved quite satisfactory, although the experience and Sulphur . «eee 8 available does not yet permit of any definite conclusions. The sections of the steel bars in common use are named as Mild steel is very tough and ductile, and differs from the hard follows: a take not steel out of which tools are made in that it will A Angle D H-bar G Half round temper; i.e., if heated and plunged into oil or water the sudden cooling has very little effect upon it, whereas with tool steels a great change takes place—the steel becoming very hard and usually brittle. This quality of tempering depends chiefly on the amount of carbon in the steel, mild steel containing less than -25%. Before being accepted for use in shipbuilding, steel is required to be submitted to a tensile and to a bend test. For the purpose of the tensile test, strips are cut from the plates or bars and are machined to give a parallel part about 2 inches in width of at least 8 inches in length. Two marks are made, 8 inches

apart, and the strip is secured in a testing machine constructed so

B C

Tee Channel

E F

Bulb Plate Bulb Angle

H

Cope Iron

The vertical portion of the H, T, channel and bulb sections is called the web and varies from about 3 inches to 12 or even 17 inches in depth; the horizontal parts are called the flanges, this term being applied to both branches of an angle. The flanges of channels and bulb angles vary from 24 inches to 4 inches in breadth and in an angle bar from 24 inches to 8 inches. The thick-

ness varies from 4 inch to 4 inch. These dimensions taken together are known as the scantlings of the material. The thick-

that the ends of the strip can be gripped by strong jaws beyond nesses of the plates in common use generally lie between 4 inch the parallel parts. The jaws are then gradually pulled apart, the and x inch. Thinner or thicker plates or bars are obtainable, but amount of the pull required to break the strip being registered, are not often used. Plates are of varying sizes as required but in and also the extent to which the strip stretches in the length of general vary from about 4 feet to 8 feet in breadth and from 20 8 inches before breaking. The tensile strength varies between 26 to 30 feet in length, the actual size used depending upon the and 32 tons per square inch calculated on the original sectional dimensions of the ship and the facilities for working in the shiparea of the parallel part before breaking, and the elongation in yard. Bars are supplied in lengths of from 20 to 80 feet as re-

53

SHIPBUILDING

quired or as may be limited by the means of transport between result. : a . the steel works and the shipyard. The various plates and bars in A very important record kept during the building of the ship a ship are connected together by rivets. Types of rivets are dis- is the cost of materials and labour, a very careful account being tinguished by the names of the heads and points as follows: kept of the workmen’s time whether employed on piece or by’ the day. Many different systems are in vogue but the aim in all cases Countersunk head is to record the cost of the labour in each trade and the detailed Snap head cost of the various parts of the ship. , Pan head The first stage in the actual erection of the vessel is the laying Pan head with conical or swelled neck Countersunk point of the keel blocks, a task undertaken by the shipwrights assisted Rough hammered point by labourers. The blocks consist of several pieces of rough, recSnap point hand work tangular timber about 12 inches square and 4 to 6 feet in length, RQ EGO be Snap point machine work laid on top of each other to the height required. The top block The pan head rivet with swelled neck (D) is the most commonly is called the cap piece and is of oak. The spacing of the blocks used, as it is convenient to handle and gives sound work. The snap depends to some extent on the size of the ship, but is usually head (B) and the pan head (C), without cones under the heads, about 4 feet. It is essential that the ground under the keel are used only for small work, while the countersunk head is only blocks should be firm and hard, otherwise the blocks may sink employed where a flush surface is desired. The countersunk point when weight becomes concentrated on them during building (E) is used on the outside of the shell and other places where a and the keel may consequently droop from a straight line. The flush surface is required; elsewhere the rivet is finished off with a upper surface of the blocks must be at such a height from the rough hammered point (F). Where riveting is done by hydraulic ground that men, especially riveters, can do their work with machinery, rivets having snap heads (B) and snap points (H) facility under the bottom of the vessel and that when launched are used. Rivets vary in diameter from about š inch to r4 inch, the vessel may move down into the water without striking the depending on the thickness of the plates to be connected, the ground. The last named is a very important consideration, and diameter being usually about + inch more than the thickness of thus it happens that the first thing to be settled before the blocks the separate plates. The lengths of the rivets are as required to are laid is how the vessel is to be launched. The tops of the go through the total thicknesses of the plates and leave enough blocks are securely adjusted to a slope of about š inch per foot material properly to form the points. The distance from centre run from bow to centre of the rivets is spoken of as the pitch, and is usually ex- pare the uprightsto stern. The shipwrights at the same time prefor the staging and erect them in suitable posipressed in diameters. For connecting plating to framing or beams tions round the building berth. The platers begin to prepare the the pitch is usually 7 diameters; for securing edges which must keel, framing and bulkheads as soon as the material is delivered be watertight, the pitch is from 44 to z, or if the edges are to be and the laying off and mould making are sufficiently advanced for oiltight 34 diameters. In the butts and edges of shell plating the the purpose. pitch varies from 34 to 44 diameters. In some positions rivets like Details of Structure: Keels—The keels of small vessels the above cannot be drawn into place and properly hammered up; usually consist of a stout flat bar placed vertically and attached to resort is then made to rivets

which have screwed points, called the garboard strakes by through rivets, In larger ships the keel tap rivets. The rivet is screwed up by means of the square head usually consists of a wide horizontal plate running along the centre which is chipped off after the rivet is hove up tight. line of the bottom, the sides being turned up as necessary Course of Construction.—On the receipt at the shipya to follow rd of the shape of the bottom. the design drawings and specifications, steps are taken to put in Framin g.—The framing varies considerably with the size and hand the detailed drawings of the structural arrangements which

will enable materials for the various parts to be ordere d from

type of the ship. In small vessels a frame usually consists

angle bar, called a frame bar, extending from the centre of an the manufacturers and will provide information for the guidan line ce the gunwale. To the frame bar is riveted another angle called to of the workmen in the erection of the structure. a reversed bar, in such a way as to form a built up Z A wooden model of half the exterior surface of the bar, while at ship, called the bottom the frame and reversed frame are separated in order the half -block model, is immediately prepared from the sheer that both may be attached to the floor drawing, generally to a scale of 4 inch to the foot. plates which form deep On its surface girders across the bottom to give the are carefully drawn the main frames; the edges and butts of the vessel is resting either on the ground required strength when the shell plating, the positions of the decks, and other or on the keel blocks. The feature will influence the detailed arrangement of the framin s which usual procedure in constructing a complete frame and floor is as g and plat- follows: From the scrieve board the ing. The work on this model is carried out concur shape of the section of the laying-off of the ship so as to be complete by therently with the frame is transferred to the bending slabs, the outline being drawn time the latter in with chalk; the frame bar is drawn is sufficiently far advanced to enable full size from the furnace and while measurements of hot is bent to the required shape and given the necessary bevel. the breadth of the plates to be obtained. The lengths of the The reversed bar is prepared in the plates are then measured from the model and same way except that the the breadths from inner edge of the frame and floor must be worked to. The floor the mould loft floor (a small surplus on the net measur ements plate requires to be cut to shape. The frame, being allowed to provide for inaccuracies), and reversed frame and the whole of the floor all being prepared, shell plating is ordered from the steel works. are placed together in their respective position s over the outline of the frame on the scrieve For flat or nearly flat surfaces such as keel board, and decks, the detailed arrangements are made plate, bulkheads the final adjustments made, and rivet holes marked and punched on drawings from and the work secured and riveted up. In many instances which the dimensions are taken for orderi ng the material while frame is formed of a bulb angle, in which case the reversed the the drawings themselves constitute working bar plans which are issued is fitted only on the upper edge of the floor plate and does for general guidance in building the ship. not In additi on to these extend up the ship’s side. In vessels fitted with principal structural drawings a very large double bottoms plans showing the arrangement of passenger number of detailed the frame bar extends from the tank side margin plate to the and crew accom mogunwale but the general process of marking and bending dation, systems of piping and ventilation procee and ds numer ous other as described above. details are necessary, Very much of i the success achieved in Double Bottoms—There are a considerab actual building will depend upon the le number of variaefficiency of the drawing tions used in the construction and arrangement of doubl office, which must supply accurate and detai e botled worki ng plans, toms. At the centre line immediately which must be ready as soon as requi over the flat keel plates there red. Each firm has its is a verti cal girde Own system of work in these department r the full depth of the double bottom, s but experience shows to the flat keel connected that the more thorough and Systematic the work in the drawing by continuous plate and to the centre plate of the inner bottom office and its adjunct, the mould loft, double angle bars. This centre girder may or may the better the general not be watertight, according to the desired tank arra ngements.

SHIPBUILDING The floor plates, which extend from the centre girder to the margin plate, are provided on their edges with angle bars for attaching them to the outer and inner bottoms, to the centre girder and to the margin plate. As will be seen, the margin plate cuts

completely

through

the

transverse

frames,

and

special

brackets are fitted to maintain the transverse strength. The chief

advantages derived from cutting the frames at the margin plate are the ease with which watertight work is secured and the rapidity with which this part of the structure can be proceeded

with. Except where it is desired that the floors should be water-

tight, manholes are punched for the purpose of providing ready access to all parts of the bottom. Between the centre girder and the margin plate one or more intercostal girders are fitted, these girders consisting of plates fitted in short lengths between the floors, to which and to the inner and outer bottoms they are

attached by short pieces of angle bar. _ With a view to rendering the bottom more easily accessible it is now customary to fit plate floors at every second or third frame only, the intermediate floors being built up of angles or bulb

angles connected together by plate brackets. Such floors are known as bracket floors. Solid floors must be fitted on every frame under the machinery and at the forward end of the ship.

Decks.—The decks are very important parts of the structure from the point of view of both transverse and longitudinal strength, but their number and position necessarily vary considerably with the size and type of the vessel. In bulk cargo ships the number of decks is reduced to a minimum, and some ships having a depth of about 32 ft. have been built with one deck only, while in a similar passenger ship there might be three decks. Decks are supported primarily by the deck beams, which are usually formed of bulb angles and are attached to the side frames by a number of plate knees. The beams may be fitted either to every frame or to alternate frames, and are in turn supported by deck girders, the latter being carried by pillars which may be closely spaced, say at every second frame, or may be spaced as

much as 30 feet apart, The decks are generally completely plated over, the thickness of the plating being greatest on the top deck, and each deck being less in thickness than the one above. Thus

in a ship with three decks the top deck might be -50 inch in thickness and the two lower decks -40 inch and -30 inch respectively. The strake of deck plating next the ship’s side is called the stringer plate and is attached to the shell plating by an angle bar known as

the stringer angle. In passenger ships it is customary to sheathe the steel decks with wood, usually pitch pine 24 inches in thickness, where exposed to the weather, and to lay a composition of

which the principal ingredient is sawdust about 14 inches thick inside the passenger accommodation, In cargo ships the steel deck is left bare except in the crew’s accommodation. Shell or Outside Plating—The outside or shel] plating forms the watertight skin of the ship and also contributes the major part of the structural strength. The plating is arranged lengthwise in a series of strakes about 60 inches in breadth, the overlaps of ad-

jacent strakes being called seams, The plates are usually about 30 ft. in length and adjoining plates in the same strake are overlapped, these joints being known to shipworkers as butts. Thickness of the plating is governed by the necessity for providing sufficient structural strength, and this thickness is usually maintained for half the vessel’s length, from whence it is tapered off to the ends where the thickness is about two-thirds of the midship thickness. The mould loft supplies templates and battens for the different plates in each strake, and it is not uncommon for a very

large part of the shell plating to be shaped and punched before the framing is erected, Watertight Bulkheads—In regard to the general arrangement

and method of stiffening a watertight bulkhead, bulkheads are assembled on some

convenient flat surface and the rivet holes

marked in the plating and stiffeners, after which they are transferred piece by piece and erected in their proper positions in the ship.

Erection.—The system and order of erection of the vessel varies in different districts, but the following general description may be considered as typical. After the keel blocks have been

537

erected and faired, the flat plate keel is placed in position and the centre girder erected. The floors in the double hottom are then erected and the tank margin plate, the inner bottom plating and the outer bottom plating are attached to the floors. The side frames are then hoisted into position, and the deck beams, deck plating and side shell plating erected, The various parts of the ships are temporarily secured by bolts, great care in the meantime being taken to see that the correct form of the vessel is maintained. As each part of the work is completed by the platers it is ready for the riveters and caulkers, and these trades follow on without delay. Platers usually work in squads composed of three or four platers, a marker boy and a number of labourers or helpers, the number depending on the size or weight of the plates and also on the facilities of the yard for handling such material. On the work of a large vessel many such squads may be employed. The riveters also work in squads, a squad consisting of two riveters, a holder-on (whose duty it is to hold a large hammer against the head of the rivet while the point is being hammered down on the opposite side of the plate by the riveters), and a heater boy. Hand riveting is being largely supplanted by riveting executed by pneumatic hammers, while for those parts which can be riveted before being erected in position hydraulic riveting is employed. After the riveting is completed all watertight work is caulked, this process consisting of forming a shallow ridge along the edge of the plate to force this edge into close contact with the surface of the adjacent plate. A very important part of a caulker’s work is testing the various watertight double bottom compartments or oil bunkers by filling them with water. A pressure is applied by means of a stand pipe carried to an appreciable height above the surface of the tank. When the work on the hull is completed, the vessel is ready to be launched after being painted. It is usual to defer painting as long as possible so that the black mill scale on the plating may be exposed to the atmosphere and thus more readily removed. Red and white lead, oxide of iron and oxide of zinc form the basis of most of the paints used on steel ships. Vessels Carrying Oil in Bulk.—The vast expansion in the use of oil as a motive power in all branches of engineering has led to a corresponding increase in the amount of tonnage devoted to the transport of oilin bulk, and at the present time oil-carrying vessels form some 10% of the tonnage of the mercantile marine, In the early stages of the industry the oil was transported in barrels Or in special tanks fitted in the holds, but this system was found to be very uneconomical and vessels were accordingly designed to carry the oil in bulk, the first ship of this kind being the “Gluckauf,” built in 1886. The design of oil-carrying ships has passed through various phases, but for a considerable number of years past the great majority have been constructed on the longitudinal system of framing, more generally known as the Isherwood system. The oil is carried in tanks which form the structure of the ship, the boundaries of the tanks being formed by the skin of the ship, by transverse bulkheads spaced about 30 feet apart and by a middle line fore and aft bulkhead, which extends from the keel plate to the top deck. The second deck extends inwards from the ship’s side for about one-quarter the breadth of the vessel and is united to the upper deck by a continuous longitudinal bulkhead, the space between this bulkhead and the middle line bulkhead being known as the expansion trunk, which permits of the expansion of the oil due to variations in temperature and also restricts the amount of movement of the oil when the ship rolls. The spaces between the expansion trunk and the ship’s side, called summer tanks, are also used for cargo when oil of light density is carried. The form of the vessel between the transverse bulkheads is maintained by a continuous deep girder right round the ship called a transverse, the transverses being usually spaced about ro feet apart. The shell and deck plating is supported by channels and bulb angles called longitudinals, spaced about 30 inches apart and extending continuously between the transverse bulkheads, to which they are attached by plate brackets. The middle line and transverse bulkheads are stiffened in a similar

538

SHIPBUILDING

manner by strong vertical webs in association with bulb angle horizontal stiffeners. Several hundred vessels have been built on

this system and have proved very successful, the only trouble

experienced having been in the rivets attaching the longitudinals

to the bulkheads. To overcome this difficulty a new design, known as the bracketless system, has recently been introduced. The outstanding feature of this system is the entire elimination of the brackets attaching the longitudinals to the bulkheads, the discontinuity at the transverse bulkheads being compensated for by the fitting of local doublings on the shell plating. Motorships.—A revolutionary change in the mercantile marine was foreshadowed by the appearance in 1910 of the first oceangoing vessel to be driven by internal combustion engines. Progress in this direction was naturally retarded by the World War, and it was only about 1921 that the construction of motorships was commenced on a large scale. ‘Since then the development has been very rapid, and at the present time about 50% of new ships are of this type. Viewed from an economic standpoint, a comparison between motor-engined and steam driven vessels, the ship being the same in each case, indicates that— (a) there is an increased first cost; (b) the wage cost per ship tends to be less, while the cost of handling oil on the ship is much below that required for coal; (c) there is a greatly reduced consumption of fuel—which fuel, though costly, yet costs less in the aggregate than coal. (d) there is an increase in the deadweight available for cargo, due principally to the reduction in the weight of the fuel carried; (e) there is also an increase in the capacity of the space available for cargo. The actual differences must necessarily vary with the size and type of ship, but for a steamer carrying about 8,000 tons deadweight the coal consumption per day would probably be about 30 tons, whereas for a motorship oil would only be consumed at the rate of about 8 tons. Allowing an average weight of coal of 1,000 tons, which has to be deducted from the available deadweight of 8,000 tons, the coal-burning ship can only carry 7,000 tons, whereas the motorship carries about 7,750 tons, or about 10% more. The increase in the space available for cargo would amount to about the same percentage. In the early days of motorships trouble was necessarily ex-

perienced from mechanical defects in the machinery, due primarily

the surfaces of both the fixed and sliding ways are thickly covered with melted tallow; when this has hardened it is smeared with soft soap, after which the sliding ways and the various making up pieces of the cradle are replaced. Until the moment of launch-

ing, the sliding ways are locked to the ground ways by means of a dagger, one either side at the forward end. To launch the vessel the two daggers are released simultaneously, and the vessel usually commences to move of its own accord. When launched in open water the vessel is brought up when clear of the ways

by dropping an anchor.

When launched in a narrow river the

vessel must be stopped quickly before the stern strikes the opposite bank, and this is done by leading strong steel wires from the bow and attaching them to heavy piles of chain, the friction of the chain as it is dragged over the ground gradually bringing

the vessel to rest.

SHIPBUILDING: WORLD’S

(W.S. A.) STATISTICS. The ship-

building of the world during the last generation has undergone considerable changes. Statistics are not available in detail for more than some 30 years, dating back to the time when steam was definitely replacing sail. About 1880 there was as much sailing ship tonnage in existence as steam, but by the beginning of the present century the sailing ships were less than a quarter of the world’s total tonnage, and to-day they are a very rapidly decreasing quantity, being only about 3%. Tonnage statistics are generally given in gross tons, and for vessels which are of 100 gross tons and upwards. There are of course a large number of smaller vessels mainly engaged in the coasting trades which are below that size. Table I. gives the annual shipbuilding output of the principal maritime countries since 1894, and Table IT. gives the amount of motor ships built since the war. The motor ship began its practical existence in rorz, and in

1919 there were about # of a million tons in existence, whereas in 1928 the figure was probably about 44 million tons. It will be

TABLE I. The Gross Tonnage of Sea-Going Merchant Vessels of roo Tons Gross and Upwards Launched in the Principal Maritime Countries of the World for Each Year Since 1894 Year 1894 1895 1896

World|

Ger- France |y HolU.K. |U.S.A. many land

1298 | 1047 1172 | Qs1 1459 | 1160

45 | 120 42 88 78 | 103

20 20 45

15 8 12

Japan| 3 2 8

;

Italy 5 6 7

1897 to the high temperature of combustion of the gases in the engine 1277 | 952 34 | 140 49 20 7 13 1898 1828 | 1368 | Iro] x53 67 19 Ir 27 cylinders. Much patient research work has overcome these 1899 2042 | I417 146 | 212 90 34 7 49 troubles, and the fact that many of the largest modern liners have 1900 2158 | 1442 | 191 | 205 | x17 45 5 68 been fitted with motor machinery, and perform their voyages to IQOL 2441 | 1525 | 268 | 218 | 148 30 37 Or schedule without any question of breakdown, indicates that the 1902 2336 | 1428 | 223 | 214 | xo2 69 27 46 1903 IQŐI | IIQI motorship now occupies an established position and that these 2Ir | 184 93 50 35 50 i 1904 1935 | 1205 189 | 202 8x 55 33 ships will in all probability form an increasing percentage of the 30 1905 2316 | 1623 | 107 | 255 73 44 32 02 world’s tonnage. 1906 2638 | 1828 | 169 | 318 35 67 42 3X Launching.—When the steel work of the hull has been prac1907 2496 | 1608 | 217 | 275 62 69 66 45 tically completed the vessel is ready for launching. It will 1908 1678 | 930] 159] 208 83 59 60 27 be appreciated that the operation of transferring to the water a ship 1909 1472 | 99r 80 | 129 42 59 52 31 IQIO I792 | 1143 | 178 | xq 8x whose weight in the case of the largest vessels might amount 7I 30 23 to IQII 2570 | 1804 96 | 256 | r25 93 44 17 aS much as 17,000 tons requires considerable forethought 1912 2802 | 1739 | x94 | 375 | rrr and is 99 58 25 not unattended with some risk. The launching ways are 1913 3203 | 1932 | 228 | 465 | 176 erected 104, 65 50 at about one-third of the breadth of the ship on each side 1914 2790 | 1684 | 163] 387 | x14 | xx8 86 and 43 IQI5 1173 | Ó5Ir | x57 consist of two sets of ways, the fixed or ground ways ee 25 | 113 49 22 and the 1916 1560] 608] 383 sliding ways. The fixed ways commence near the bow and 43 | 180 | 146 57 extend 1917 =| 2733 | 1163 | 821r for the full length of the ship, being carried out as 19 | 149 | 350 | 39 1918 near low 4967 | 1348 | 2602 14 74 | 490 61 water mark as possible in order to ensure that there IQIQ 6589 | 1620 | 3580 shall be 33 | 137 | 612 83 ample depth of water—say from 3 to 6 feet—over 1920 | 5705 | 2056 | 2349 | .. the ends of 93 | 183 | 457 | 133 IQ2I 4320 | 1538 | 995 | 509 | azz the ways, to ensure a successful launch. These fixed | 232 | 227 165 ways consist 1922 2436 | 103I 97 | 526 | 185 | 163 of solid baulks of timber varying from 15 to 60 inches 83 | ror in breadth, 1923 1503 | 646| 96| 345 according to the size of the ship to be launched, and 97 66 72 67 1924 are laid on 2184 | 1440 90 | 175 80 64. 73 83 closely-spaced supporting blocks. The sliding ways, 1925 2129 | 1085 79 | 406 known as 76 70 56 | 142 the cradle, are laid on top of the ground ways, the 1926 1629 | 640] xrs | 180] rar 94. space between 52 | 220 1927 222I | 1226 | 124 | 290 the ways and the hull being filled up with timber 44 | 120 42 LOI neatly fitted 19 28 2693 | 1446 86 | 376 to the vessel’s shell plating. The ways are laid with 8r 167 104 59 | an inclination of about š inch per foot in order that the ship may The figures given (all from Lloyd’s Register Book) slide easily are in ro00’s of into the water. Two or three days before the launch, gross tons (000s omitted), and exclude vessels built on the Great Lakes. the cradle The particulars for Germany where shown blank were not which has been fitted in place temporarily is available. taken adrift and The shipbuilding output for Italy now includes Trieste.

eee

SHIPKA

PASS—SHIP

TABLE II. The Gross Tonnage of Motor Ships (Included in Table I.) which was Launched in the Years Shown

Ger- [France Hol,- | Japan| Italy Year |World) U.K. [U.S.A GeT 1920 IQ2I 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928

170 87 293 | 102 202 78 222 87 499 | 237 842 | 267 702 202 864 | 356 1180 | 428

20 32 2 13 2I 24

beg 33 47 47 96 270

e ie es 9 sa 24

16 39 .| 25

70 16 177

34 17 55

18 14 5 6 I5 32 55 86 85

x I 16 16 28 18 59

6 I4 IO 7 27 IOI 153 50 36

seen from Table IT. that although the motor ship is comparatively a recent introduction, the production, which was 170,000 gross tons in 1920 was no less than 862,000 in 1927. Motor ships are now being built by all the principal maritime countries, more particularly by Germany and Italy, Germany having launched more than the United Kingdom in 1925, and Italy having built 75% of that built in the United Kingdom in 1926. In 1927, however, the United Kingdom had about its proportionate share of motor shipbuilding. Although not included in the table, mention must be made of the specialization in Sweden and Denmark of the building of motor ships, Denmark having launched 64,000 tons, and Sweden 62,000 tons in 1927. Table I. which gives the total shipbuilding, shows a very great fluctuation in the tonnage launched from year to year. For example, the tonnage launched in 1897 was 1,277,000, whereas that launched in 1901 was 2,441,000. If another period be taken, the output in 1909 was 1,472,000, whereas the amount in 1913 was 3,263,000. The same kind of variation is observable with the United Kingdom, where the tonnage output for 1908 was 930,000, whereas that in 1913 was 1,932,000. It would thus appear that there is a great fluctuation in the demand for new ships, and it may roughly be stated that the maximum production of new ships is about twice the minimum production. It also appears that this variation from the maximum

to the minimum and back again occurs more or less regularly every 6-7 years. The war period r914—18 was, of course, very abnormal, and the statistics show that the special endeavours made to build merchant ships during the war were continued until about 1920-21, particularly in the United States. It will also be seen that, as a result of the war, the shipbuilding facilities of the world were doubled, whereas the actual demand for new ships in the world after the war period had not in 1928 reached pre-war requirements. The United Kingdom is the greatest shipbuilding country in the world. Whereas in 1894 the great majority of ships were built in the United Kingdom, yet other countries, particularly Germany, rapidly developed. For the 9 years 1905-13, the United Kingdom built nearly two-thirds of the world’s ships. In the 6 years ending 1927, which may very fairly be taken as the post-war period, the share of Great Britain had fallen to approximately 50%. This is due to the greater development of motor shipbuilding on the

continent of Europe, and to high costs.

(W. S. A.) SHIPKA PASS, in Bulgaria, a pass in the Balkans, celebrated as the scene of fierce fighting in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877—78. The main road from Rumelia to Bulgaria, leading from Sistova by Tirnova and Eski Zagra to Adrianople, crosses the Balkans near the village of Shipka, and this passage was of necessity an important point in the Russian plan of operations. The road does not pass between high peaks, but crosses the main ridge at the highest point; it is therefore not a pass in the ordinary sense of the word. Near the summit, running parallel, and close to the road is a series of three ridges, some 200 ft. high, and about 2 m. from north to south, which formed the position for a force holding the pass, It was originally held by a Turkish force of about 4,000 men with 12 guns, prepared to resist the Russian advance. On July 17 they repelled a feeble attack from the north, and the following day faced round and drove back an attack by

Gourko from the south. These attacks were to have been simul-

LANES

539

taneous, but Gourko, having met with unexpected resistance, was a day late. Though so far successful, the Turks evacuated their strong position, and it was occupied by the Russians on July 19. Suleiman Pasha, having concentrated with Reouf Pasha and driven Gourko across the Balkans at the end of July, moved to the Shipka on Aug. 21 and attacked. The Russian force there, including five battalions of Bulgarians, then numbered 5,000, but that day a regiment from Selvi brought their numbers to 7,500, and this force held the position against 30,000 Turks for three days, when heavy reinforcements arrived. The fighting continued till the morning of the 26th, when Suleiman, his troops being exhausted, and having lost 10,000 men, entrenched himself in the position he then occupied in a semi-circle round the southern end of the Russian position. Having called up more battalions from Yeni Zagra, after a four days’ artillery bombardment, he attacked on September 17 and was repelled with a loss of approximately 3,000 men. ” There was no more fighting on the Shipka till the general advance of the Russians after the fall of Plevna. Radetzky’s command of about 60,000 men advanced from Gabrova on Jan. 5, in three columns. Radetzky, with the central column, moved by the main road and attacked the Turks, who still faced the position on the summit, while Skobelev and Mirski, crossing by trails some 3 m. to the west and east of the Turkish position, attacked their reserves on the far side, about Shipka and Shenova, where Vessil Pasha (who had succeeded Suleiman in command) had formed an entrenched camp. These flank columns made their way over the mountains, deep in snow. Mirski attacked alone on Jan. 8, as Skobelev’s advance had been delayed, but the following day both columns attacked, and after fierce fighting the Turks surrendered. The force on the summit had that day repulsed, with heavy loss, a frontal attack by Radetzky, but they were included in the surrender. Their numbers were 36,000, including 6,000 sick and wounded, and 93 guns. The Russian losses were 5,500. Not only were the Turkish attacks on the Shipka unsuccessful, but they were made without object. At the end of July, when Suleiman forced Gourko back over the Balkans, the moral equilib-

rium and the plan of operations of the Russians had been upset by the second battle of Plevna, and the Shipka ceased to have any strategical importance for the time being. Had Suleiman at that time followed up Gourko and joined Mehemet Ali, or moving round acted with Osman against the Russian flank, the evacuation of the Shipka would have been compulsory. Suleiman, knowing nothing of strategy, preferred to act independently, and his action was supported by the still more ignorant ministers at Constantinople. The Shipka was merely a geographical point until the Russians were prepared to advance, but, fortunately for them, the Turks chose to waste an army in fighting for it throughout the critical period of the operations. Suleiman divided his forces and used up his troops in costly frontal attacks on Mt. St. Nicholas, the southern and strongest point of the position, whereas a well-supported flank attack would probably have met with success. The manner in which he sacrificed his men earned for him the name of the ‘“‘Shipka butcher.” (J. H. V. C.) The SHIP LANES OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC. sinking of the U.S. mail steamer “Arctic” in October 1854, by

collision with the French steamer “Vesta,” in a thick fog while

on passage from Liverpool to New York, resulted in a loss of

about 300 lives. This disaster inspired Lieutenant M. F. Maury, U.S. Navy, then superintendent of the “Depot and Observatory,” Navy Department, to include in his Sadling Directions published in 1855 a section on “Steam Lanes Across the Atlantic.” Therein he graphically depicted and recommended the establishment of a lane or strip of ocean for the steamers to go out and another for them to come in so that not only would the lability to danger

from collision between steamers, as well as between steamers and sailing vessels, be lessened, but a new resource upon the high seas would, in many cases of wreck and disaster, be afforded to

those in distress. The lane to Europe crossed the soth meridian of west longitude in latitude 42°, and was from 15 to 20 m. wide; the lane from Europe crossed the soth meridian of west longitude 200 m. to the northward and was from 20 to 25 m. wide, the lat-

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ter being made wider on account of the large percentage of fogs, the greatest width in both lanes being given where most fog was expected. The U.S. Hydrographic Office, Navy Department, established in June 1866, first called attention in 1872 to the necessity of lanes

across the North Atlantic ocean between U.S. ports and the region

south of Ireland and England. This was followed by successive endeavours principally presented to the maritime world through the monthly Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean. One of these

charts, issued in Dec.

1887, carried in addition to amended

Maury’s lanes the admonition that the dangers most in mind were fog, ice and the fishing fleet off the Grand Banks, and the Hydrographic Office strongly recommended for adoption the lanes shown. The International Marine Conference, held in Washington in 1889, attended by delegates from 26 maritime countries, provided: “Steamer lanes for trans-Atlantic navigation are not adopted, although the various steamship companies are urged to adopt regular routes for vessels of their own line.” In 189z at a conference between representatives of five of the principal trans-Atlantic steamship companies, the Cunard, White Star, Inman, National

and Guion lines, certain routes were formally adopted, to be Followed by all vessels of those lines.

The adoption of these safe and well-defined routes between Sandy Hook (and Boston) and the Fastnet could but be regarded

as most important in its bearing upon the safety of navigation in the North Atlantic ocean, and especially gratifying to the Hydrographic Office, as the most essential features of the tracks were exactly what had been recommended on the pilot charts for years. At the International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea, London, 1913-14, at which representatives of I4 maritime nations were represented, convened subsequent to the “Titanic ” disaster, the following was adopted: “The selection of the routes across the North Atlantic in both directions is left to the respon-

sibility of the steamship companies, nevertheless the High Con-

tracting Parties undertake to impose on these companies the obli-

gation to give public notice of the regular routes which they promake in them. The High Contracting Parties undertake, further, to use their influence to induce owners of all vessels crossing the Atlantic to follow as far as possible the routes adopted by the principal companies.” With but minor changes the routes used by the principal steamship companies before the London convention were continued to be used until 1924, when the companies working for a lantic track agreement adopted with but minor change North Ats the North Atlantic lane routes A, B, C, D and G, are shown on the accompanying chart, which routes are seasonal and provide for safety from danger of ice, fog and collision with fishing vessels on the Grand Banks. (C. S. K.) pose their vessels should follow, and of any changes which they

SHIP-MONEY, a tax, the levy of which by Charles I, of

England without the consent of parliament was one of the causes

of the Great Rebellion. The Plantagenet Kings of England had exercised the right of requiring the maritime towns and counties to furnish ships in time of war; and the liability was sometimes commuted for a money payment. Notwithstanding that several statutes of Edward I. and Edward III. bad made it illegal for the crown to exact any taxes without the consent of parliament, the prerogative of levying ship-money in time of war had never

fallen wholly into abeyance, and in x619 James I. aroused no

popular opposition by levying £40,000 of ship-money on London and £8,550 on other seaport towns. On Feb. rr 1628, Charles I.

issued writs requiring £173,000 for the provision of a fleet to

secure the country against French invasion and for the protection

of commerce, and every county in England was assessed for payment. This was the first occasion when the demand for shipmoney aroused serious opposition. Lord Northampton, lordlieutenant of Warwickshire, and the Earl of Banbury in Berkshire,

refused to assist in collecting the money; and Charles withdrew the writs, A further writ was issued in Oct. 1634 and directed to the justices of London and other seaports, requiring them to provide a certain number of ships of war of a prescribed tonnage and equipment, or their equivalent in money, and empowering them to assess the inhabitants for payment of the tax according to their substance, The distinctive feature of the writ of 1634 was that it was issued, contrary to all precedent, in time of peace. The citizens of London immediately claimed exemption under their charter, while other towns, demurred to the amount of their assessment; but no resistance on constitutional grounds appears to have been offered to the validity of the wri, and a sum of £104,000 was collected. On Aug. 4 1635, a second writ of shipmoney was issued, directed on this occasion, as in the revoked

writ of 1628, to the sheriffs and justices of inland as

well as of maritime counties and towns, demanding the sum of £208,000, which was to be obtained by assessment on personal as well as real

property, payment to be enforced by distress. This demand excited growing popular discontent, which now began it a determination on the part of the king to dispense to see in altogether with parliamentary government. Charles, therefore , obtained a written opinion, signed by ten out of 12 judges the effect that in time of national danger, of which theconsulted, to Crown was

the sole

judge, ship-money might legally be levied on all parts of the country by writ under the great seal. The issue writ of ship-money on Oct. 9 1636, made it evident of a third that the ancient restrictions, which limited the levying of the impost to themaritime parts of the kingdom and to times of war or

umroinent national danger, had been finally swept away, and that the King intended

to convert it into a permanen form of taxation without parliamentary sanction. t and general Payment Was,

541

SHIPPARD—SHIPPING

by W. Knowler (London, 1739) ; S. R. Gardiner, History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War,

tains, marshes and deserts, set definite limits to the range and volume of migration and intercourse by land. Even to-day, water transport is easier and cheaper than land transport for the carriage of heavy or bulky commodities over long distances, and in ancient times the advantages were still more decisively in its favour. So the earliest civilizations grew up on the sea coasts or on the banks of navigable rivers, and the development of shipping, as a means for exchanging the products of distant countries, and establishing contact between races of varied cultures, has been a prime factor in all subsequent progress. The Phoenicians.—Some scholars have believed that maritime intercourse between India and Chaldaea can be traced back so far as 3,000 B.C., and there is no doubt as to the great antiquity of Egyptian, Malay and Arabian navigation. The greatest seafarers

ments of the Puritan Revolution (London 3rd. Edition 1906).

fore Solomon chartered ships from Hiram of Tyre to bring him

refused by Lord Saye and by John Hampden (q.v.), a wealthy Buckinghamshire landowner. The case against the latter (Rex v. Hampden, 3 State Trials, 825) was heard before all the judges in the Exchequer Chamber, Hampden being defended by Oliver St John (q.v.) and Robert Holborne, and lasted for six months. Seven of the 12 judges, headed common pleas, gave judgment for den. In 1639 Charles ventured money, but for the comparatively

by Finch, chief justice of the the Crown, and five for Hampagain to issue a writ of shipsmall sum of £70,000. In 1641,

by an Act of the Long Parliament, introduced by Selden, the illegality of ship-money was expressly declared. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— See John Rushworth, Historical Collections, vols. I., II., III. (1659-1701); Strafford’s Letters

and Despatches, edited

vols. III., VI, VIL, VIII. (London, 1883-84); Constitutional Docu-

SHIPPARD,

ANDER

SIR

SIDNEY

GODOLPHIN

ALEX-

(1838-1902), British colonial administrator, was edu-

cated at King’s college school and Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1867. He was attorney-general of Griqualand West from 1873-7, when he was made acting recorder of the high court of Griqualand. From 1880-5 court of Cape Colony; and the Anglo-German commission of British subjects at Angra

he sat as a judge of the supreme he was British commissioner on in 1884~5 for settling the claims Pequena and other parts of the

south-west coast. Shippard, while at Oxford in 1878, had discussed with Cecil Rhodes the plan of the projected British advance in south central Africa. He saw in the German annexation of Damaraland and Namaqualand the first step in a design to secure for Germany territory stretching from ocean to ocean. Consequently when after the Warren expedition of 1885 he was chosen to organize the newly acquired British possessions in

Bechuanaland he saw in his appointment an opportunity for forestalling the Germans, and also the Boer adventurers who likewise sought to be beforehand with Britain in the countries north of the Limpopo. At the end of 1887 he went to Grahamstown to induce the

high commissioner

(Sir Hercules Robinson—afterwards

Lord

Rosmead) to sanction the conclusion of a treaty with the Matabele King Lobengula binding that ruler not to cede any territory to any other power than England. He failed, and then telegraphed to Cecil Rhodes at Kimberley to come and try the effect of his eloquence. Rhodes came, and by taking upon himself all pecuniary responsibility succeeded in obtaining the requisite sanction. The treaty was signed and British interests secured. Shippard thenceforth governed Bechuanaland with conspicuous success. He was administrator, chief magistrate and president of the Land Commission for British Bechuanaland, and resident commissioner for the Bechuanaland Protectorate and the Kalahari. He was created K.C.M.G. in 1887. In 1896 he played an un-

of the ancient world, however, were the Phoenicians.

Long be-

gold from Ophir, ivory, and apes and peacocks, they had begun to

plant trading depéts and colonies round the shores of the Mediterranean, and to distribute from their great emporiums, Tyre and Sidon, the products of Asia, collected by overland or coastal routes. The Phoenicians, indeed, although manufacturers as well as traders, were the first people whose greatness depended primarily on their shipping. Ezekiel’s lament for Tyre presents a graphic picture of a State deriving its prosperity, like 17th century Holland, from a highly developed carrying and entrepôt trade. The rise of Tyre and Sidon was due to their position at the

meeting point between East and West. By the 6th or yth century B.C., the overland route to the East had been supplemented by the development of a regular sea trade following the coastal routes from India to Egypt, Chaldaea and up the Tigris to Babylon. For many centuries the Levant remained the great focal centre of world commerce. The trade of the Mediterranean itself, in classical times, was shared by the Greeks with the great Phoenician colonies, such as Carthage and Utica in Africa and Gades (Cadiz) in Spain; but it was not till the pax Romana removed the impediments presented by perpetual wars and the scourge of piracy, that the Mediterranean era in the history of shipping could reach its full height. The Roman Empire.—For shipping, as for other branches of industry and commerce, the earlier empire was a golden age. The Roman legions, the Roman laws, and the Roman roads made possible the manufacture and exchange of goods on a greatly in-

creased scale, and the Roman fleets were strong enough to suppress or at least to curb, the activities of pirates. Imperial Rome itself depended, like Great Britain to-day, on oversea supplies of food-stuffs, and the annual import of 20,000,000 bushels of corn from Egypt, later supplemented by supplies from Africa, stimulated the activities of shipbuilders and shipowners. Ships were now capable of considerable voyages. So early as official part in the negotiations between Robinson and the the sth century B.C., the Carthaginian Hanno had explored the Johannesburg reformers after the Jameson Raid. He then re- west coast of Africa, and in Roman times the fleets of Juba of Numidia brought hunting dogs from the Canaries. The Phoeturned to England, where he died on March 29, 1902. SHIPPING, HISTORY OF. From the dawn of history all nicians of Gades pushed up to Cornwall and the Scillies, and that is adventurous and inventive in man has responded to the traded for tin with the inhabitants of Britain. Most important challenge of the sea. It was, no doubt, on inland waters that the of all, Hippalus, in the rst century A.D., observed the periodicity art of navigation had its birth, in the discovery that a fallen tree of the monsoons, and opened up the direct sea route from Egypt would bear a man’s weight down stream, and that, by the use of to India, with the result of a great increase in the traffic with the a pole or a rough paddle, he could check, accelerate and direct its East. The Romans, indeed, deliberately encouraged the sea trade course; but once equipped with the knowledge that what would with India, in order to avoid the payment of tolls to the Parthians float could also be propelled and steered, man was led irresistibly, on the overland route, and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea— by the quest for food and the instinct for discovery, to venture a combination of “sailing directions” and commercial guide-book —bears witness to the magnitude of the traffic. out upon the great waters. Shipping in classical times was already a well organized trade. The transition from the dug-out or the Egyptian reed-raft to the ship proper, from the river ferry service to the trading voyage, The rights of owners, shippers, and passengers were clearly defined the curtain on sea-going ships equipped with oars or sails as alternative means of propulsion and with some rudimentary form

by law. While the ship-owner was often also the owner of the cargo, it was equally common for merchants to charter a ship, or space for the carriage of their goods. Syndicates were formed

of steering gear; capable of repeated voyages, with cargo as well as with passengers, between port and port. Shipping, as an industry, is as old as civilization itself. Without shipping, indeed, civilization must have been still-born. Seas and straits, moun-

safety) were

was achieved in prehistoric times.

Recorded history rings up

to finance particular voyages. The laws relating (money borrowed for necessaries on the security of to general average (the contribution made by each sacrifice, such as jettison, incurred for the common

to bottomry the ship) and interest to a

542

SHIPPING

already taking shape.

Demosthenes pleaded in shipping causes.

The laws of the Rhodians as to average and contracts of affreightment were quoted by jurists in comparatively modern times. Under the empire, Carthaginian ship-owners had a regular agent at Ostia; port development was systematically undertaken. The carrying capacity of the larger ships frequently went up to 250 tons, and was much greater in some vessels employed for special purposes, such as the carriage of the Vatican obelisk to Rome. They were, however, bad sea-boats. Classical shipbuilding had developed along two lines. The galley, a long, narrow, oared craft, with great tactical mobility, was the man of war. The merchant ship was a broad, deep, sailing vessel, using sweeps only as auxiliaries, built for carrying capacity, but slow, clumsy, and incapable, owing to her very simple rig, of sailing near the wind. Winter voyages were almost unknown, and even in summer, ships seldom ventured far from land. The record passage from Rome to Egypt was nine days; the corn convoys probably took about 25 days on the direct voyage from Alexandria to Ostia; but about mid-July the Etesians, a strong north-westerly wind, stopped the direct traffic, and drove the corn ships to follow the inshore tracks along the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor. The voyages of St. Paul, with their frequent stoppages and search for

a safe harbour in which to winter, were typical of all early navigation. The direct sea-route to India was an exception due to the influence of the monsoon. It was by hugging the coasts that the Phoenicians came to Britain. Even if the ships had possessed greater sea-keeping capacity, the rudimentary state of navigational science, necessitating frequent landfalls, would have made long ocean passages impracticable. Mediaeval Shipping.—Between classical times and the beginning of modern history, there was little real progress. So long as the galley held her own as the ship of war and the merchantman was incapable of ocean voyages, the Mediterranean remained the natural centre of sea-power and commerce. After the decline of Byzantium, the Italian city States, Genoa, Pisa, and above all, Venice, dominated the trade routes with their galley fleets, and exploited them mainly with bluff apple-bowed sailingvessels that showed little improvement on the classical models. In the north, the Norsemen appear to have used the long-ship, or an adaptation thereof, for trading as well as for fighting, but the English, French and German merchantmen of the early middle ages were sailing vessels of the old type. The great stimulus to the development of northern shipping came from the fisheries, The importance of salt fish in mediaeval

times can hardly be over-estimated.

It was indispensable to

inland centres during the long Lenten fast; it was indispensable as a winter provision, and for the supply of armies. The Channel and North sea fisheries were the first school of English seamanship, and the rise of the federation of Hansa towns, during the 13th and r4th centuries, was largely due to their control of the great Scania herring fishery at the entrance to the Baltic. The Hanseatics did not themselves engage in the fishery; but they purchased and distributed the bulk of the catch. English shipping was confined, at first, to the fisheries and the short sea trades. The first impetus to longer voyages came with the third crusade, which introduced English seamen to the more advanced Mediterranean designs, and led to the promulgation of the Laws of Oléron, a codification of the existing customary law governing maritime affairs. Progress was hampered, however, by the fiscal policy of the Plantagenet kings which, aiming at

revenue rather than protection, invalved the grant of large con-

cessions to foreigners. The export of wool fell mainly into the hands of the Hansa; direct sea trade with the Mediterranean was mostly controlled by the Italians; and those who controlled the trade carried the goods. The demands on shipping for war service also impeded the development of trade. The galley never became really acclimatized in England, the king’s ships were few, and the bulk of the fleets were merchantmen serving on obligation of tenure, like the ships of the Cinque ports, or on requisition. With no strong standing navy, piracy was rampant, and private war as between the fleets of Yarmouth and the Cinque ports, not

uncommon.

Moreover, the hire of requisitioned ships was often

paid irregularly or not at all. Thus the prolonged wars of Edward III. were ruinous to ship-owners, and their complaints led, in the reign of Richard II., to the first abortive attempt at navigation laws, for the encouragement of English shipping. On the other hand, the French connection led to a brisk traffic with the English possessions, and the Bordeaux trade in Gascony wines and Toulouse woad was an invaluable nursery of seamen for the ocean

trades. The pilgrim traffic to the shrine of Santiago de Compostela in Spain also encouraged the building of larger ships. The Ocean Routes.—In the 14th and 15th centuries the art of shipbuilding made great strides. The carrying and sea-keeping capacity of the carrack, the speed and handiness of the caravel, gave an impetus to maritime enterprise, which was further stimulated by a great advance in the science of navigation. The compass had been introduced in the zr2th century; the cross-staff and astrolabe enabled the latitude to be calculated. The discovery of Greenland by the Norsemen in the roth century was the chance result of an Icelandic voyager being blown out of his course; but the exploring voyages of the Portuguese caravels down the west African coast were the product of the scientific school for navigation established by Henry the Navigator at Chagres. There is real significance in the fact that the mother of Henry the Navigator was an Englishwoman, the daughter of John of Gaunt, for his activities foreshadowed the decline of the Mediterranean and the rise of the oceanic Powers. Yet down to the last decade of the 15th century England was of small consequence at sea. The Italians, who had already developed marine insurance on modern lines as an aid to oversea commerce, dominated both the internal and the external trade of the Mediterranean. Through their grip on the Levant, they controlled the commerce with India

and the Far East. Genoese carracks and Venetian merchant gal-

liasses carried the trade with England and Flanders. In the north the Hansa had a strangle-hold on the Baltic trade, and carried its fish, grain, and timber as far west as Portugal. Hanseatic and | Flemish merchants shared with the Merchant Adventurers the export of half-made cloth from England to Flanders. Oil and

wine came to England from Spain mainly in Spanish bottoms.

Portugal monopolized the traffic with Guinea and the Atlantic islands. To English ship-owners remained the Gascony trade, and a share in the North sea fisheries and the voyage to Iceland for stock fish, Before the century was over the new era had begun. The greatness of Venice and Genoa rested on their control of the rich trade with the East. As shipping and navigation improved, the oceanic Powers turned their attention to the discovery of a sea route to India and Cathay. This was the real object of the Portu-

guese expeditions, after doubling the bus, seeking a new 1497 John Cabot, America.

and in 1498 Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut, Cape of Good Hope. Six years earlier, Colum-

route to Asia, discovered the West Indies. In with an English commission, landed in North

These discoveries, it must be remembered, represented voyages Into uncharted seas, peopled, in the imagination of the time, with devils and monsters. The science of navigation was still in its infancy, and an error of 600 miles in reckoning the longitude was nothing uncommon. Hygiene was yet more rudimentary, and

crews died like flies from scurvy and fever. Vet the spirit of adventure and the lure of trade triumphed over every obstacle. The early discoveries were followed up. In 1519-22 Magellan circumnavigated the globe. Colonization and regular trade followed hard on the heels of discovery. The opening of a direct sea route to India, and the discove ry

of gold and silver in America had momentous consequences. Venice, hampered by continental wars and the advance of the Turks, steadily declined. The silks and spices of the East, treasure of Mexico and Peru, poured into Spanish and Portugu the ese ports. The long Indian voyage, the colonial trade, and the traffic from Guinea to the colonies stimulated the buildin slave large ships, and after the union of the two crowns in 1581, g of Spain

stood out as Incomparably the greatest of maritim e Powers.

The Rise of England.—Meanwhile Henry VII. and Henry VIII. were nursing the development of English shipping by navi-

SHIPPING gation laws, strictly enforced in the vital Bordeaux trade, by wise commercial treaties, by laws for the encouragement of the fisheries, by the incorporation of the Trinity House in 1513, and by a bounty on the construction of large merchantmen. Henry VIII. created the first permanent navy of sailing warships. Under Elizabeth the pent up national energies burst forth.

Already Englishmen had traded, on sufferance and at peril, with Guinea and Brazil. The Spanish and Portuguese monopoly was now boldly challenged. Drake, at Cadiz, shattered the prestige of the galley. The Armada campaign revealed England as the predominant naval power. While English squadrons and privateers harried the Spanish trade, English merchantmen pushed into the Levant and along the Guinea coast. Drake’s voyage of circumnavigation (1577-80), and his capture of a carrack in 1587, with the secret papers of the East India trade, opened the way to the East. Attempts to find a north-east or a north-west passage to Asia led to the opening up of trade with Russia, and to the first British settlements in North America. The grip of the Hansa was roughly thrown off. The adoption of the galleon as the English ship of war led to the development of merchantmen far superior to the clumsy Hanseatic and Flemish hulks, or the antiquated Portuguese carracks. A bounty of 5/— a ton, on the construction of ships over 100 tons, stimulated shipbuilding. Insurance of English ships and cargoes passed from Italian to English hands. A return of 1560 (not quite complete) shows that England possessed 76 ships of roo tons and up, 21 of them owned in London. In 1582 London had 62, and the whole country 177, and there is little doubt that this number had greatly increased by the end of the reign. Most of the larger ships belonged to the great chartered companies—the East India Company, the Levant Company, the Muscovy Company, the Guinea Company and others— by whom the bulk of the foreign trade was carried on, or to individual members of those companies; but it is clear, from documents relating to the bounty system, that many ships were built by private speculators to be chartered to merchants. The age of Elizabeth was, nevertheless, something of a false dawn, so far as English shipping was concerned. Under the first two Stuart kings an inefficient fleet allowed Dunkirk and Barbary corsairs to swarm in the Channel, and a weak and corrupt administration hampered the development of the national energies. The Dutch as Carriets.—Meanwhile the sturdy Dutchmen, assisted by cheap capital and business-like methods, were constituting themselves the general carriers of the world’s trade. The Dutch herring fishery in the North sea had become prominent in the rsth century. At the beginning of the 17th, it employed from 1,500 to 2,000 sea-going busses every year. The import of salt for curing, and the export of the cured fish to the Baltic, and to the Catholic countries of southern Europe, employed many larger vessels, supplied Holland itself with grain, wine and shipbuilding materials, and laid the foundations of the carrying and entrepôt trade. No nation, perhaps, has been so exclusively maritime and commercial in its interests as 17th century Holland. Its industries, apart from the fisheries, were relatively unimportant; but it had succeeded to the position of the Hanseatic League as the entrepôt for the Baltic trade, and the products of central Europe came to its ports down the Rhine. Much of the Mediterranean trade had fallen into Dutch hands, and during the Spanish war, the Dutch had ousted the Portuguese from the East Indies, and effected settlements in the West Indies and Guiana. Contemporary English authors admit that English shipowners were everywhere losing

ground to competitors with better financial backing and lower working costs.

Until the strong government of the Commonwealth provided England with an efficient navy, Dutch predominance was never effectively challenged; but the East India Company, founded in 1599, still preserved a fair show of prosperity, and the political troubles in England had given a stimulus to oversea expansion.

By the middle of the 17th century New England, Virginia, Mary-

land, the Carolinas, the Bermudas and several West Indian islands had been at least partially settled, and the demand for slave labour

in the plantations foreshadowed a revival of the Guinea trade. A

543

great new field for trade and shipping was being opened, and the one fear was that this too would fall into Dutch hands.

The British Navigation Acts.—Commercial rivalry, combinéd with political animosity, found its expression in the Cromwellian and Stuart navigation laws of 1651 and 1660, which confined the plantation trade exclusively to English vessels, and for-

bade the import of goods from European countries except in English ships, or ships belonging to the country of origin, “or to such port where the said goods can only be or most usually are first shipped for transportation.” Three hard-fought wars left the British predominant at sea, and the restrictions of the navigation laws in full force. Their effect was an increase in the demand for English shipping, reflected in higher building costs and higher freights, with the result of increasing the severity of Dutch competition outside the reserved trades. At the end of the century, Sir William Petty estimated that nearly half the mercantile tonnage of Europe was under the Dutch flag, and so late as 1775, Adam Smith declared that the Dutch carrying trade was much greater than that of any other nation. On the other hand, the growing demands of the reserved colonial trade proved a powerful stimulus to English shipping. British tonnage is said to have doubled between the Restoration and the Revolution of 1688, and all through the 18th century it continued to grow. In 1700 the total clearances of British shipping at ports in Great Britain amounted to 270,000 tons; by 1770 they had risen to 700,000. In 1771 the slave trade alone employed 190 vessels. By this time Dutch shipping was beginning to decline, owing mainly to the exhaustion consequent on continental wars. French shipping, carefully fostered by Colbert and later Ministers, is said to have employed, in 1730, about 600 vessels in the West Indian trade, and goo in the traffic with Spain, Portugal and the Mediterranean, but it was always a somewhat artificial growth

and suffered ruinous losses in the English wars. Spain, depending on treasure rather than on trade, had sunk into lethargy. The 18th century was an era of colonization. Shipping created new markets for British goods, and the demands of those markets still further stimulated the activities of shipping. Some relaxations had to be made in the oppressive restrictions of the navigation laws, and the revolt of the United States made an irreparable breach in the whole colonial system; but British shipping continued to expand. The industry was becoming modernized. Except for the East India Company, the chartered companies had mostly faded out, leaving a clear field for the individual shipowner. The underwriters at Lloyd’s Coffee House made London the greatest marine insurance market in the world and systematized the collection of shipping intelligence. The ships themselves showed no fundamental difference from those of the 17th century, but the invention of the sextant in 1731 and of the chronometer in 1735 made navigation more reliable. Great explorers, such as Captain James Cook, built up a mass of information relating to coasts, winds and currents. Charts and sailing directions became more numerous and more reliable. The compulsory registration of shipping (1786), and a number of laws regulating marine insurance and passenger traffic, brought shipping under some measure of control by the State. Britain Becomes Predominant.—It was, however, the coincidence of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars with the Industrial Revolution that gave British shipping a clear pre-

dominance over all rivals. While the inventions of Arkwright

and Crompton gave an unprecedented stimulus to British commerce, the great manufacturing and trading centres of the Continent were paralysed by invasion; the French and Spanish flags were swept from the seas, and with her inclusion in the continental system, Holland finally lost her hold on the carrying trade. So great was the demand for British manufactures and colonial goods that, despite the loss of some 9,000 vessels by war risks alone, the tonnage on the register of the British empire increased from 1,540,000 tons in 1792 to 2,616,000 in 1814. The biggest ships, ranging up to 1,000 tons or over, were the East Indiamen. Protected by their monopoly, the Company spared no expense in the production of strong, handsome, well armed ships, capable of beating off privateers, and even French

SHIPPING

544 frigates, but too costly for any other trade. In trade, competition was keen, and a faster, more was produced, averaging from 250 to 300 tons. men went out one year and came back the next.

the West Indies economical ship The East IndiaThe West Indies

traders, 700 or 800 of which often cleared in a single year, made an average of one round voyage in the year, or slightly better. Ships engaged in the trade with the Mediterranean and the north of Europe were mostly smaller and the average of all ships engaged in the foreign trade proper works out, for the years 1793~ 1801, at 195 tons. The average tonnage of vessels in the Irish traffic—then counted as foreign—was 80. From northern and Scottish ports the whalers, sturdy vessels, often very long-lived, set out, to the number of 100 to 150 a year, for Greenland and the south seas, often to spend two, three or even four years abroad before their return. Among the cross-trades, those from the West Indies to North America, and from Newfoundland to Portugal with stockfish, were specially important. The coasting trade also reached great dimensions, especially the carriage of coals to London, which dated back to Plantagenet times, and gave employment to vessels larger than many of those employed in foreign trade. In 1798 the average size of colliers arriving in London was 228 tons. Origins of Steam.—tThe first years of the r9th century were marked by the emergence of a rival to challenge the universal dominion of sail. The first successful steamer ever constructed was the “Charlotte Dundas,” on the Firth and Clyde Canal, in 1802. In 1807 Fulton’s “Clermont” began a regular service between New York and Albany. In 1812 Bell’s passenger steamer “Comet” began to run on the Clyde. For some years, however, the use of steam was confined to tugs and river craft, and small passenger steamers constructed for short voyages, such as coasters

and cross-Channel packets. For ocean voyages, steam was regarded as, at most, an auxiliary to sail. Apart from the early experiments in steam, the first 30 or 40 years after the close of the Napoleonic wars saw little progress in British shipping. Now that British trade was worldwide in its scope, the navigation laws had become a clog on commerce, and a series of reciprocity treaties with various powers, beginning with Prussia and Denmark in 1824, made wide gaps in the system. The Jaws remained, nevertheless, in general operation, and under their protection, British shipping became lethargic and unenterprising. An obsolete system of tonnage measurement further hampered progress by penalizing breadth, and encouraging the building of deep, flat-sided, full-bottomed ships. American owners and builders were more progressive. The high profits and big risks of the neutral trade during the Napoleonic wars had stimulated them to the construction of fast-sailing and handy vessels, and after the war they were quick to realize that speed was an asset in the carriage of mails and passengers, with the result that the Atlantic packet trade fell entirely into their hands. Everywhere they were restlessly intent on improving on earlier designs, and in 1843 the “Rainbow,” the first extreme clipper ship, was turned out by a New York yard. By that year, however, the hard driven Yankee packets had a new competitor to face in the Atlantic. So late as 1835 a crossAtlantic steamer service had been declared a physical irnpossibility; but only three years later the “Great Western” and three other British ships made the passage to America under steam, and, in 1840, the British and North American Royal Mail Steam

Packet Company (now the Cunard S.S. Co.), having secured a

mail contract, began a regular fortnightly service, with four paddle steamers of about 1,150 tons.

From this date the sailing vessel was doomed, but few, at the

time, could read the warning aright.

The early steamers were

too extravagant in their fuel consumption to be used for general trade or on very long voyages, and even in the mail services they required to be lavishly subsidized. The competition of steam in the ocean trades was so restricted that it had little or no influence on the last great development of the sailing vessel, due to

the great gold discoveries of the mid-r9th century. In their haste

to be first at the diggings during the great Californian gold rush of 1849-56, people were ready to pay high for a quick passage. A

demand arose for fast ships with large passenger accommodation, and the American builders responded to it by producing the finest

sailing ships that had yet been seen. These Californian clippers,

like “Flying Cloud” and “Andrew Jackson,” were big ships for their day, with fine lines and a great spread of canvas, and there was nothing afloat that could live with them in strong winds. When the discovery of gold in Australia caused a rush of emigrants to Melbourne in 1851-56, it was from the American shipyards that British owners procured the big Australian clippers such as “Marco Polo” and “Lightning.” Navigation Laws Repealed.—Meanwhile

Great Britain was

moving towards free trade, and the final repeal of the navigation laws, in 1849, exposed British shipping, for the first time, to unrestricted competition in every sea. The arrival of the American

clipper “Oriental,” with the season’s first teas from China, stung British ship-owners into an acknowledgment of the palpable inferiority of their own vessels, and a stern determination to take up the challenge.

This new-born zeal for efficiency found an echo in parliament, and the repeal of the navigation laws was closely followed by the

passing of the Mercantile Marine Act in 1850 and the first Merchant Shipping Act in 1854. These laws, the parents of much subsequent legislation, were the first serious attempts to provide for the safety of life and goods at sea, and gave power to the Board of Trade to enforce reasonable standards of construction and equipment in the ships, and of competence and discipline in masters, officers and crews. Incidentally, the obsolete tonnage laws were superseded by a rational method of measurement.

Thus encouraged, and spurred on by competition, British shipowners rapidly renewed their fleets. In particular, they put into the China trade a series of beautiful little clippers, specially con-

structed to take advantage of every puff of wind in the light and baffling airs of the tropics. Probably no voyages have ever excited so much sporting interest as the annual race home with the new season’s teas, especially that of 1866, when “Ariel,” “Taeping” and ‘‘Serica” left Foochow on the same day and docked in London within a few hours of each other, 99 days out. The California and China clippers represent the apogee of the sailing vessel; but every year the menace of steam became more insistent. The “Great Britain” (1843) was the first screw steamer to cross the Atlantic. In 1858 Brunel’s monster, the “Great Eastern,” was launched. Measuring 18,914 tons gross, she was a failure commercially, but as an indication of possible development she was a portent. While she was still on the stocks, the compound engine was invented, which permitted great cconomy of fuel, and made long voyages under steam a commercial possibility. It was first applied to long distance steamers in 1865, by the original Holt liners, which astonished the world by a nonstop run of 8,500 miles from Liverpool to Mauritius. The real death-blow to the sailing-vessel, however, was the opening of the Suez canal in 1869, which not only shortened the steamer’s passage to India and the Far East, but lowered her costs, by giving her a route studded with bunker depéts at comparatively short. intervals. Against such competition the sailing vessel could not

live, at least in trades where speed was a greater object than

cost, and the later tea clippers, such as the famous “Cutty Sark” and “Thermopylae,” passed into the Australian wool trade, where

the steamer derived less advantage from the Suez route. Iron for Wood.—The transition from sail to steam was acconpanied by the transition from wood to iron. Iron canal barges had been in use since the first quarter of the roth century, and in 1825 an iron stearner began running on the Shannon; but it was not until the year 1837 that the first iron vessel was actually classed by Lloyd’s Register. The later tea clippers were mostly of composite construction, with iron frames and wooden planking; but during the ’6os, iron gained ground both for steamers and sailing vessels.

In 1870 over five-sixths of the tonnage under

construction in British yards was iron; three-quarters of the

tonnage consisted of steamships.

This double transition again placed Great Britain far ahead of all rivals. The clipper ship era in the United States had been succeeded, first by a great financial depression, and then by the

SHIPPING Civil War, which led to the transfer of 715 American ships to British register. After the war, the energies of the American people were directed mainly to the development of their own great internal resources, and American ship-owners clung, with a strange conservatism, to wood and sail. British owners were

greatly assisted by the fact that the coalfields, and the great centres of iron and steel production and engineering, were mostly within easy access to the ports, and they were quicker than any of their rivals to invest in iron and steam. In 1870 there were already 1,202,134 tons of steam shipping on British register;

the United States had only 192,544 tons registered for foreign

trade; France had 134,415 tons. No other country had so much as 100,000 tons.

From this point the decline of the sailing vessel was accentuated by the further change over, in the to steel as the material for shipbuilding. In 1870 the world’s tonnage consisted of steamers. By

was rapid, and "80s, from iron about 16% of 1890 the pro-

portion had risen to 46%, and by 1900 to 62%, and it must be remembered that each ton of steam was equal in annual carrying

capacity to three or four tons of sail. The iron wool clippers continued to struggle against the competition of steam in the Australian trade until the early ’90s; but by the beginning of the 2oth century sailing tonnage counted for little on ocean routes. The Steamship and Civilization.—This tremendous revolution in maritime transport has been a prime factor in the development of modern industrial civilization. The size, the speed, and above all, the reliability of the steamer have transformed oversea commerce. There were definite limits to the possible growth both of sailing and of wooden vessels, and the 16th century Portuguese carracks of 1,500 or 2,000 tons would have been regarded as big ships in 1850. The growth of the steel steamer is limited only by the capacity of the ports. The 50,coo-ton passenger liners of the north Atlantic trade are still exceptional; but the true successors of the clipper ships, ranging from 800 to 2,400 tons, are liners and freighters ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 tons. As regards speed, the record Atlantic passage by a sailing vessel was 12 days 6 hrs. in 1854, by the “James Baines,” Boston to Liverpool. The steamer record is the ‘“Mauretania’s” 4 days ro hrs. 41 min., Queenstown to New York; but the supreme quality of the steamer is her certainty. The American clipper “Lightning”

is said to have run 436 miles in 24 hours, an average of 18 knots; many cargo liners to-day are content with 12 knots. The sailing vessel, however, was at the mercy of the winds. To make her best speed she must sail at certain periods of the year, and even then her passage depended on her luck. In 1866 “Serica,” a crack racing ship, was home from Foochow in 99 days; in the following year she took 120. A whole fleet of homeward bound vessels might be detained for a fortnight or three weeks off the Scillies by contrary winds. The main advantage of the steamer is not a greater maximum speed, but the fact that, on the day she puts out from port, the date of her arrival can be fixed almost with the precision of a railway time-table. So great is the superiority of the steamer over a series of voyages that, while the tonnage on British register increased 150% in the half century between 1850 and 1900, its annual carrying-power was probably multiplied by seven. This vast increase in carrying power, coupled with certainty as to the arrival of cargoes, has had momentous consequences. In the first place it has helped to build up the populations of the

newer countries by permitting a huge expansion in emigration. In the ten years 1825-34 the average annual number of immigrants received by the United States was 32,000. In the last

decade before the World War it was 1,012,000. In the second place it has permitted the growth in the older industrial countries of massed populations dependent for their daily bread, and for the materials of the craft whereby they earn it, not merely on

the arrival of millions but on their arrival stream. Finally it has the outlook of people of goods on a vastly and communication.

of tons of imports in the course of a year, with absolute certainty in a steady daily raised the standard of living and broadened in all countries by permitting the exchange increased scale, and by facilitating travel

For good or ill, our present civilization is

545

the child of the steamship.

With the evolution of the steamer there came

also a change

in the organization of the shipping industry itself. In the 16th and

17th centuries the biggest ships were owned by the great

chartered companies, who alone could provide the strong armaments, oversea factories and quasi-diplomatic service required in the long distance

trades.

In the 18th century

the owners

were mostly individuals or small partnerships, who might or might not be merchants, lading as well as owning the ships. At the time when steam was coming in, there were many regular lines of sailing ships, owned by wealthy firms and employed in particular trades; but a large proportion of the ships were owned on the sixty-fourth principle, by a number of persons each having an interest of so many sixty-fourths, and choosing from among themselves someone with shipping experience to act as managing

owner. This system, owing to the greater cost of steamships, gradually gave way to the joint stock company, especially in the liner trades. Liners and Tramps.—The characteristic of the liner is that she trades regularly between the same ports, running on a scheduled time-table which governs also any intermediate stoppages. In order to maintain the regularity of her sailings, an extensive and costly organization is required, with branches or agencies at all ports of call, to arrange for the collection and shipment, or discharge of cargo, and for booking passengers, if carried. Hence the liner companies have tended more and more to become large concerns, with a big publicly subscribed capital, requiring financial ability as well as technical knowledge in their management. The “tramp,” “seeker” or “general trader? has no fixed itinerary, but can be chartered, either for a definite period or for a single voyage, to carry whatever her charterer requires, usually a whole cargo of some bulky commodity, such as grain, ore or timber, between ports of his choosing. No costly organization is required; each voyage is a separate venture; each ship is a selfcontained competitive unit. She may belong to a big fleet, owned by a big company; she may belong to a single-ship company, a firm, or an individual. Several small companies will often entrust actual management to an experienced managing owner. In the early days of steam, wild speculation, especially on the sixty-fourth system, led to grave scandals in connection with overloading and the over-insurance of unseaworthy ships. The adoption of a compulsory loadline, as the result of an agitation carried on during the seventies by Samuel Plimsoll, put an end to these evils, and later legislation, together with the immense and most beneficial influence of Lloyd’s and Lloyd’s Register, has brought about a very high standard of safety afloat. The evils of speculation in shipping have latterly been most felt by the ship-owners

themselves,

through the results of a tendency

to

over-build in times of prosperity, which has led to every boom in shipping being followed by a long-continued slump. The liner companies, with regular services to maintain high overhead charges, have always been particularly sensitive to ratecutting competition. Their efforts to avoid this took two forms during the last years of the roth century and the first years of the goth. In the first place there was a strong tendency to amalgamation and to the pooling of financial interests by the exchange of shares between the lines. In the second place the lines in particular trades gradually organized themselves in “conferences” for the purpose of stabilizing freights at an agreed level for fixed periods. In many instances they also tied the shippers to themselves by a system of deferred rebates, which were forfeited by the shipper if he loaded goods in any vessel outside the conference lines. It was mainly as a consequence of complaints by shippers

that the royal commission on shipping rings was appointed in 1906, but the lines pleaded that they could only guarantee a fast and regular service if they were assured of a steady volume of

traffic at remunerative rates, and the system still persists (1929) carefully watched by the imperial shipping committee.

International Competition.—As the years went on, many of the conferences came to include lines under several flags; for shipping is an international business, and all countries are served by the ships of many nations. During the last decade of the roth

546

SHIPPING

century and the early years of the 2oth, British ship-owners found for about two-thirds of their annual consumption of food, and for their supremacy assailed by the ships of countries that were be- the materials of their greatest industries, they depended on the ginning to make up the leeway caused by the earlier industrial labours of those who go down to the sea in ships, and on the development of Great Britain. The Scandinavians, especially the enterprise and efficiency with which the ships were managed. The Norwegians, were keen competitors in the general carrying trade. war brought home to them too, what manner of man the British The awakening of Japan was followed by the creation of a modern merchant seaman is. Down to the end of the 18th century, most mercantile marine. Dutch lines were prominent in the Far Eastern foreign-going ships went armed as a defence against pirates and trade. France and Italy built up their fleets by a system of boun- privateers, and the British merchant seaman, by whom in those ties and subsidies. Above all, German steam shipping increased days the navy itself was manned, had proved himself a fierce and from 723,000 net tons in 1890 to 3,096,000 in 1914—nearly a effective fighter. With the suppression of piracy, and the abolition quarter of the tonnage on the register of the British empire. The of privateering by the Declaration of Paris in 1856, the arming Germans were not very successful in the tramp trade, but there of merchantmen had practically ceased, and when the German were few routes on which British ship-owners did not feel the submarines broke through the accepted canons of war at sea, the competition of the German liner companies, backed as they were seamen found themselves exposed to a deadly attack, against by powerful financial interests. which they had no means of defence or retaliation. Yet there was Much of this competition was State-aided, by the reservation neither panic nor holding back. Men whose ships had been torof the coasting and sometimes of the colonial trade to the national pedoed under them or blown up by mines, who had suffered flag (United States, France, Russia), by shipbuilding and naviga- hunger, thirst and cold in the long pull to land, signed on again, tion bounties (France, Italy, Austria, Japan), and in other ways. as a matter of course, for another voyage exposed to the same German shipping was not directly subsidized, but British owners risks. When it became possible to arm them for their own decomplained that the through rates on the German State railways fence, they used their weapons with skill and spirit, and many a were manipulated to the advantage of German shipping, and that mercantile skipper showed how well he could manoeuvre a ship in the medical control of emigrants in transit through Germany was action. misused to force them to travel by German lines. The maintenance of supplies under war conditions was the first In Great Britain the early steamer companies were heavily sub- task of British shipping; but beyond this, it was called upon to sidized for postal or Admiralty purposes, but from about 1875 make an immense and vital contribution to the war effort of the the postal subventions were reduced to mere payment for work Allied and Associated Powers. It provided many thousands of performed, and at no time had any State assistance been given in men for the royal navy, through direct enlistment and the calling the construction and operation of cargo steamers. Vet British up of the naval reserves; it provided the ships and the bulk of the shipping still held an immense lead over its nearest rival. In the crews for the armed merchant cruisers that did so much of the school of unrestricted competition British owners had become work of patrol and convoy escort, and for the Auxiliary Patrol quick to respond to the needs of the world’s commerce and to engaged in mine-laying, mine-sweeping, and submarine hunting adapt the design of their vessels to the needs of particular trades. in home waters. It provided the navy with indispensable auxilNo other great maritime State placed its shipping so freely at laries, and carried nearly 43,000,000 tons of coal and a vast quanthe disposal of all countries. Many British lines ran regularly tity of oil on Admiralty account. Without merchant shipping the between foreign ports, and the ubiquitous tramps carried the Red battle fleets could neither have moved nor fought. Ensign wherever there was a charter to be obtained. While the British shipping was equally indispensable to the conduct of freight earnings of British shipping assisted to adjust the trade the war on land. Practically every British soldier landed in France balance of Great Britain, the services of the ship contributed was carried under the British flag. British ships brought Canadian, largely to the economic development of the world, especially by Australian, Indian and South African troops to take their place distributing the products of the great agricultural countries such on the western front, and carried the armies of the empire to Galas Canada, Australia and Argentina, and in this way they built lipoli, Mesopotamia, Palestine and the Balkans. When the United up new sources of foodstuffs and raw material for the British States came into the war, about 2,000,000 troops were transported people, new markets for British manufactures, and new fields to Europe. Of every hundred men, 49 were carried in British and for the investment of British capital. The outstanding characteristic of British shipping at the beginning of the 2oth century 45 in American vessels. Thus, including all movements of British and Allied troops, was the size of its contribution to that pool of fluid tonnage on nurses, Civilian staff, prisoners and refugees, the transpor t departwhich all nations draw to cope with emergency demands, or with ment provided tonnage from Aug. 1914, to Oct. 1918, for 23,700, the seasonal fluctuation in volume of traffic as between route ooo individual passages, of which nearly one-thir d involved voyand route. ages of considerable length. In addition they provided tonnage Shipping in the World Wat—The value to Great Britain for this floating reserve of tonnage was clearly seen in the war of the carriage of 2,200,000 animals and nearly 50,000,000 tons of of munitio ns and military stores, or goods, such as military fodder, 1914-18. From the start, the trade of the country had to be which were for direct account of the British and Allied War readjusted, and new sources of supply found to replace those Offices. For the Salonika expediti on 26 ships, averaging over closed by the war. About a quarter of the ocean-going tonnage on 5,000 tons, were lent to the French War Office. the register was taken up, in the first few months, for naval and British Shipping Services to Allies.—On Oct. military purposes. Soon heavy losses began 31, 1918, to be sustained. The 29-5% of the total available deadwe ight tonnage under the Britannual carrying-power of the remaining ships was reduced by ish flag was in direct naval and military service. Yet this service delays arising from the frightful congestion of the ports, due to was only a part of the contrib ution of British shipping to the war demands, often carelessly made, on port labour and facilities. common cause. Neither France nor Italy nor Russia had tonnage Neutral ships were frightened away from British ports by the sub- adequate to the fulfilment of their requirements for food, fuel marine campaign. As each crisis arose it was met; first by the and munitions. Again and again, at moments when the British ship-owners alone, afterwards by directing authoriti es, culminating authorities were at their wits’ end to procure tonnage for military in the Ministry of Shipping, and working with and through ship- and naval requirements, without reducing British imports (largely ping organizations such as the Chamber of Shipping , the Liverpool composed of materials for Steam Ship Owners’ Association and the Liner the munitions industries) below the Conferences. Serv- danger point, a call would come for ships to carry cereals, coal Ices were readjusted to the new demands of trade; a large pro- or munitions to the Allied ports, and so far as was humanly posportion of the ships trading between foreign ports were brought sible, every call was met. back into the trade of Great Britain to Over rs, 500,000 tons of coal were cartake the place of those ried to France and Italy in British requisitioned ships alone. Out sunk or requisitioned for war purposes. , of 5,250,000 tons of coal and munitions received It was the crisis caused by the submarine by Russia during campaign that first 1915 and 1916, two-thirds really brought home to the majority of were carried in British ships. When the British people that, France and

Italy began to import meat, to supplement the rations

SHIPPING of their troops, they were almost destitute of insulated tonnage, and out of 1,375,000 tons purchased by them during the War, more than three-quarters were imported under the British flag. To make good the deficit of the French and Italian harvests, 2,000,oco tons of cereals in British ships were diverted during the months Aug.—Oct. 1918, over and above supplies carried by British ships already on Allied service. At the end of the War, France and Italy required 6,423,000 deadweight tons of shipping for their import services, and could provide, between them, 1,710,000 tons. The United States, all other Allies and neutrals together provided 1,611,000 tons (much of it neutral tonnage under British control). Great Britain provided 3,102,000 tons. The bare facts are more eloquent than any rhetoric. The whole naval and military effort of the British empire and a great part of the military assistance provided by the United States, depended on British shipping. Without the assistance of British shipping the European Allies could have provided neither their armies, nor their industries, nor their people, with the supplies necessary for the continuance of the struggle. The story of the inter-Allied control of shipping is told elsewhere, but those who had most to do with it would be the first to admit how completely the execution of the whole gigantic task depended on the, skilled cooperation of British ship-owners, and the daring and devotion of British seamen. ‘ Losses and Dislocation.—The war services rendered by British shipping were rendered at a heavy cost. Apart from casualties among those who served under the White Ensign, no fewer than 14,661 officers and men of the merchant service and the fishing fleets lost their lives while engaged in trade or transport. The material losses inflicted by submarines, mines and raiders amounted to 7,759,000 tons gross, or 38% of the tonnage under the British flag in June 1914. The net reduction in ocean-going tonnage (ships of 1,600 tons gross and up), after allowing for every form of replacement, was 18%. Many of the remaining ships had suffered in efficiency through delayed repairs. The whole industry was disorganized. The tramp trade had been temporarily destroyed by the requisition of vessels for war purposes and the purchase of tramp tonnage by the liner companies to make good their depleted services. The liner services themselves had been violently dislocated in order to effect the concentration of shipping on the short Atlantic routes, which alone enabled the available tonnage to carry, in 1917-18, the essential minimum supplies. Many lucrative trades had been abandoned, for the time being, to foreign competitors. Other nations, especially the Norwegians, whose sailors had shown extraordinary courage in maintaining the dangerous North sea trade, had suffered heavy losses, but these losses were quickly made good. The prohibition on shipbuilding for foreigners and on the sale of British ships to foreigners, imposed during the War, and maintained for some time after it, led to a great extension of shipbuilding facilities in Scandinavia and elsewhere. The huge “emergency fleet” laid down in the United States during the War came rapidly into service. Japan, whose war losses had been light, had a tonnage, in June 1920, greater by 75% than before the War. By June 1919 the world’s losses of tonnage had already been made good; by June 1923 the world’s total tonnage, as recorded by Lloyd’s Register, was 32% greater than in 1914; but the British empire percentage (although all losses had been made good) had declined from 42:8% to 33-8%; the American

(including Great Lakes tonnage) had increased from 10-9% to 26-0%. This huge increase in tonnage was out of all proportion to actual

requirements. Indeed, the volume of the world’s sea-borne trade, for several years after the War, was greatly reduced as the result of that great upheaval, and the existence of a mass of sur-

plus tonnage led, after a short post-war boom, to the worst depression the shipping industry has ever known. In Jan. 1922 it was estimated that 11,000,000 gross tons of shipping were idle for

want of employment, and although the position gradually improved, as trade recovered, and as it became evident that much of the American tonnage, hastily constructed during the War,

547

could, for all practical purposes, be written off, the supply of carrying-power was still in excess of the normal demand in 1927. Tankers and Motor Ships—So far as the ships are concerned, the main feature of the post-war period was the influence

of oil. The tank steamer, constructed for the carriage of oil in bulk, dates back to 1885, but the increasing use of oil fuel both in industry and transport was responsible for an immense increase in the world’s tanker fleets during and since the War, and one main cause of this impetus to tanker construction was the substitution of oil for coal in the bunkering of mercantile as well as naval vessels. In 1914 only 2-6% of the world’s mercantile tonnage used oil under boilers, only 0-5% consisted of ships fitted with internal combustion engines. In 1927 the proportions were 28-4% and 6-6% respectively, and no less than 38% of the tonnage launched in that year consisted of motor ships. This new revolution in motive power has its dangers for British shipping, as it diminishes the advantage derived from coalfields within easy reach of the ports, and has combined with other factors to reduce the exports of British coal, to which tramp steamers in the trade of Great Britain look for the bulk of their outwards cargoes. It is not surprising, therefore, that British owners, while adapting many of their steamers to burn oil under boilers, and placing large orders for motor ships, have taken the lead in research and experiment directed to the discovery of a more economical employment of coal fuel, by the development of a new type of engine or the use of pulverized coal. As regards the internal organization of the industry, the War accelerated the tendency to amalgamation and combination, especially in the liner trades. In order to maintain their depleted services, many of the big lines absorbed the fleets of other companies, or purchased tramp steamers, with the result of bringing a still larger proportion of the total tonnage under the ownership or control of a few powerful groups. The tramp trade itself has been heavily hit by the decline in British coal exports and by the slackness of demand due to a surplusage of carrying-power. The line of demarcation between tramp and cargo-liner tonnage is not always clear; for many tramp owners put their ships “on the berth” for consecutive voyages to a particular port, during the busy season, and many liner companies place some of their essels on the open freight market, when not required for their regular services. There is no doubt, however, that the lines have gained, and the tramps lost ground since the War; but the necessity for coping with seasonal fluctuations will always provide employment for tramp shipping, and any large increase in the volume of world trade will lead to a revival of demand.

Shipping Policy.—In shipping policy two contrary tendencies are at work. The spirit of economic nationalism arising from the War has found expression, in many countries, in a tendency to foster, by subsidy or protection, the national shipping, and to discriminate against foreign flags. The other tendency springs from an increasing sense of the international character of the shipping industry, and its absolute dependence on the free movement of the world’s trade. It has found expression in the slogan of British ship-owners—“freedom of the seas in the sense of equal treatment of all flags in all ports,” and can be seen at work in the conventions on ports and flag discrimination concluded under the auspices of the League of Nations, and in the efforts of such bodies as the International Ship Owners’ Conference and the International Maritime Law Committee to procure uniformity of law and practice in such matters as safety regulations and equipment, the conditions of employment afloat, ship-owners’ liability, and shipping documents. It is natural that British ship-owners should have taken the lead in this movement, for, while the percentage of tonnage under the British flag is smaller than before the War, the British merchant navy is still much larger than that of any other nation, and takes a much larger share in the general carrying trade of the world. That position is likely to be retained, for geographical position, an indented coastline, coal and iron in close proximity to the ports, and an accumulated capital larger than can be absorbed in the development of her internal resources, all draw Great

SHIPPING

548

Britain to the sea. Shipping, however, is only the handmaid of Harry—is listed at the head of the inventory (given after Henry VIII.’s death) as of 1,000 tons. The average size of 152 ships in the Spanish Armada was 389

commerce, and the future prosperity both of British and of the world’s shipping depends on the demand for transport created by the peaceful development of the world’s resources, and on the ability of the ship-owners to meet that demand by supplying cheap and efficient carrying power. In the past it was the glory of shipping to extend the range of civilization by the discovery and exploration of new countries, and by enabling their empty spaces to be peopled from the surplus population of the old world. The period of discovery is over; the world has been mapped and charted. The tide of emigration has slackened with the growth of the new communities oversea, It remains for shipping to continue its beneficent task of redressing the uneven distribution of the world’s natural resources by a system of exchange which renders the products of all climes available in all countries to the benefit of all peoples.

tons. The English fleet consisted of 76 of the Queen’s ships aver-

aging 12z tons each. The combined tonnage of the Spanish and English fleets was probably less than that of three or four modern

transatlantic liners. More or less accurate statistics at any rate for the United Kingdom, the British colonies and the United

States of America become available at the end of the 18th cen-

tury, or roughly from the time of the appearance of the steam vessel, The first patent for a steam engine appears to have been taken out in 1786 and a small steamer was constructed and employed in towing on the Forth and Clyde canal in 1803. According to a Custom House return of 1830 there were 11 steam vessels of 342 net tons belonging to the United Kingdom in 1814. Of these only one steamer of 69 net tons was registered, BretiocraPpay.—General: W. S. Lindsay, History of Merchant Ship- The 10 unregistered vessels were presumably river craft so that ping (4 vols., 1874—76); R. J. Cornewall-Jones, The British Merchant so far as sea-going shipping is concerned the year 1814 may be Service (1898); A. W. Kirkaldy, British Shipping (1914, bibl.); taken as the official beginning of the steamship era in British merClement Jones, British Merckant Shipping (1922) ; E. Keble Chatterton, The Mercantile Marine (1923); W. L. Marvin, The American Merchant Marine (1902); J. R. Spears, The Story of the American Merchant Marine (1915); C. E. Cartwright, The Tale of Our Mer-

chant Ships (1924); R. A. Verneaux, L’industrie des transports maritimes au XIXe siècle et au commencement dy XXe siècle (2 vols., 1903); R. G. Plumb, History of the Navigation of the Great Lakes (x911).

chant shipping. In the United States records one steam vessel of 78 tons is shown for the year 1807 and 14 steam vessels of 2,917 tons for the year 1814. An accurate statistical account of the development of merchant shipping in the United Kingdom and in foreign countries since 1814 is rendered difficult by the fact that

some of the relevant figures are given in net tons and some in

Special Periods, etc.: M. P. Charlesworth, Trade Routes and gross. The official statistics of the United Kingdom are expressed Commerce of the Roman Empire (1924, bibl.); Cecil Torr, Ancient in net tons throughout, with alternative equivalents in gross tons Ships (1894); M. Oppenheim, A History of the Administration of for later years, but when comparative figures are required for

the Royal Navy and of the Merchant (1896); J. A. Williamson, Maritime T. W. Fulton, The Sovereignty of the Clipper Ship Era (1910) ; B. Lubbock,

Service im relation to the Navy Enterprise, 1485-1558 (1913)3 Sea (rorz); A. H. Clark, The The China Clippers (Glasgow,

1919), The Colonial Clippers (Glasgow,

1921); Report of the De-

parimental Committee on Shipping and Shipbuilding after the War, Cd. 9,092 (1918); C. E. Fayle, The War and the Shipping Industry (1926); Archibald Hurd, The Merchant Navy (1921, etc.); annual reports of the Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom and the Liverpool Steam Ship Owners’ Association; Brassey's Naval and

Mercantile Annual; U. S. Navigation Bureau (Commerce Dept.), Merchant Marine Statistics (1924-date) ; U.S. Shipping Board, Research Bureau, Report on volume of water-borne foreign Commerce of the United States, 1925/26; and Report of the National Merchant Marine Conference held under the auspices of the Chamber

of Commerce of the United States (1925).

C. E

SHIPPING: MERCHANT SHIPS OF THE WORLD.

In spite of the wealth of literature dealing with the sea and ships, there is very little information about the size of the fleets of the seafaring nations of the world before the nineteenth century. mengsem

Mulhall estimates the total world tonnage of shipping in 1800 at 4,026,000 tons. This is probably an under-estimate. Sir Henry Petty, writing about 1666, estimated the whole of the shipping of Europe at 2,000,000 tons distributed as follows:— English

Tons

. 500,000

Dutch ben GR Ri GE Sw, 900,000 Hamburgers with the subjects of Denmark and Sweden in the town of Dantzic . . i . 250,000 Spain, Portugal and Italy 250,000

If Petty’s figures are reliable, the English must have consider-

ably improved their position relatively to the Dutch in the first

half of the 17th century, for Sir Walter Raleigh writing in 1603/4 states: “We send into the East Kingdoms yearly only one hundred

ships, while the Shipowners of the Low Country send thither about three thousand ships.” He estimated that the Low Coun-

tries at that time possessed as many vessels of all sorts as eleven

kingdoms of Christendom including England and that they built one thousand ships annually. The sailing ships in which the seaborne trade of the world was carried in the middle ages would to-day be considered of very moderate size even in purely coasting

trade, Vasco de Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1497

with three vessels, the largest of which is described as of 120

tons and the first voyage round the world was accomplished by Magellan between 1519 and 1522 with five vessels, the largest of

which was only 130 tons. Vessels of greater size were, however, built and King Henry VIII.’s “Harry Grace a Dieu”—the Great

foreign countries reliance has to be placed on the records published by Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, and these have in recent years been expressed in gross tons only. In the following tables gross tonnage has been converted into net. The conversion ratios vary with the period of build of the ship, and the appropriate ratios have been estimated from the data available.

Tables of British Shipping—Mulhall gives the following

totals for British and Colonial shipping up to the year 1800. Vear 1588 1610 1666 1688

British and Colonial shipping Vessels

Net tons

479

37,400

oxra 1,320 2,620

83,000 120,000 219,000

51730

487,000

1702

3,260

1800

17,410

1760

201,000

1,856,000

The table on p. 549 shows the tonnage of the merchant shipping on the register of the United Kingdom from 1791 to 1927, so far as the records are available for the earlier years, in some detail

for the period 1860 to 1890 when the rate of replacement of sailIng vessels by steam vessels was particularly rapid, and yearly from 1914 to 1927. In 1870 the tonnage of sailing vessels was four times as great as that of steam vessels. By 1900 the position was reversed. The

growth of the effective carrying power was much greater than is

indicated by the mere tonnage figures as the steam vessel made three or four voyages for every voyage of the sailing vessel. The total tonnage owned in the United Kingdom was reduced by nearly 2% million net tons between 1914 and 1918 by reason of war building failing to keep pace with war losses. Since the war the highest total reached was at the end of 1925 when it was practically the same as at the end of 1912. The depression in shipping in the last few years has discouraged building and has accelerated

the scrapping of older vessels, and tonnage on the register at the

end of 1927 was more than a million tons less than at the end of 1925, Since 1923 the Board of Trade returns show motor ship tonnage on the register separately. The increase from 263,000 net tons In 1923 to 765,000 net tons in 1927 is not so great either absolutely or relatively to the total tonnage on the register as was the increase in steamship tonnage from 2,723,000 tons in 1880 to 3,973,000 tons in 1885 and to 5,043,000 in 189o.

SHIPPING

549

Number and Tonnage of Registered Vessels Belonging to the United Kingdom Including Jersey, Guernsey and Isle of Man, at the End of Each Year

Vear

Sail

Steam

No. I79I 1800 1810 1814

Net tons

T ad

Net tons

1,414,956 1,698,821

20,253 21,549

2,210,661 2,414,101

18,823

1829

22,382

2,832,090

790

1860 1865 1870

25,663 26,069 23,189

4,204,360 4,936,776 4,577,855

2,000 2,718 3,178

1885

17,01

1875 1880

24,799

21,291 10,938

Total Net tons

No

2,449,049

69

24

2,170,458

2,548

287

3,396,791

29,501

95,678

1,185

4,200,897 3,851,045

168,342

3,456,562

20,253 21,550

:

;

21,997

ns

I9,I I0

:

323,533

1,945,570 2,723,468

„644

339735483

7,410

5,042,517

2,414,170

2,451,597

2,199,959

2,927,708

27,663

4,658,687

26,367

5,690,789 6,152,467

28,787

1,112,034

1,414,956 608 821 2,210,661

23,172

25,984

454327

4,170 5,247

Net tons

bes

, I

21,973

1850

No. ; .

1819 1841

Motor

No.

3,595,133

5,760,309

25,461 25,185

6,574,513

21,591

7:978,538

23,662

7:430,045

1890

14,181

1895

12,617

2,806,805

8,386

6,521,555

21,003

8,988,450

1900

10,773

2,096,498

9,209

7,207,610

19,982

9,304,108

8,019

776,761

12,771

11,650,349

20,790

603,905 592,933

11,334 I1I,79%

9,497,040 10,334,986

18,191 18,346

574,189 550,723 521,987

12,787 10,813 10,690

11,223,036 10,897,138 10,809,608

i 1,624 1,823

516,999 506,332

10,262 10,030

10,760,098 10,579,515

2,170 25343

2,936,021

1905 IQIO IQI4

19,050 0,090 8,203

r916 1QI7

7,669 7,186

714,830 625,428

6,309 6,272

584,046 609,761

t915

1918 1919

1920 IQ2I

6,857 6,555

1922 1923 1924

6,184 5,962 5,842

1926 1927

5,078 5,638

1925

1,670,766 I,II2,044 793,567

5:785

10,522 12,000 12,862

9,064,816 10,442,719 11,621,635

12,405 11,534

11,036,788 9,606,671

12,307 12,660

510,821

10,777,038 10,932,369

10,526

10,964,526

1,965

E 263,205 384,840

498,731 629,431 764,872

20,581 21,090 21,065

10,735,582 11,555,003 12,415,202

20,074 18,720

I1,751,618 10,232,009

18,616 18,932

18,971 18,3909 18,355

18,276

I, IIO 18,011

Note.—In 1827 the new Registry Act came into operation under which owners of ships were obliged to register anew. been previously lost had been continued up to this time on the registry, no evidence of their loss having been produced.

World Shipping.—Only approximate world figures are available for the earlier years of the rgth century. In the following table the figures for the years 1886 to 1927 have been prepared from returns published by Lloyd’s Register andthe Bureau Veritas. The earlier figures are estimates collected by Mulhall. The more recent figures have been converted from gross tons to net so as to make them comparable with the earlier figures and with the preceding table applicable to the United Kingdom. World’s Mercantile Marine at Various Dates from 1800 to 1927 Steam”

Motor

©

Sail

Total

Net tons

Net tons

Net tons

Net tons 4,026

; ae Si

4,026 5:814 9,012 14,890 12,900

(000’s) 20 368 1,710 3,040

5,880

6,693 ae 29

13,857 23,046

28,108 20,792 32,003

36,194

37,170 37,000

35:963

35,992 35,600

35,286

(000’s)

(000’s)

14,400

(000’s)

5:834 9,380

16,600 15:940 20,280 17,910

11,227 ae 9,1

21,680

3,086 2,722 3,022

31,940 32,979

aoe 2,50

40,809

6,674 4,624 2,772

2,241 2,019 1,887

1,709

17,462 20,531

27,670

36,215 39,736

38,585 39,410

39,666

39,596 39,571

12,427,110 10,100,945 10,927,919

11,361,084 11,542,130

11,797,225 I1,711,066 11,716,435

11,983,078

11,906,528 11,841,719

Many vessels that had

Motor ship tonnage has increased from 146,000 tons in 1914 to 2,576,000 tons in 1927 and the same comment can be made as on the United Kingdom table that this increase is not so great either absolutely or relatively as the increase in steamships between 1860 and 1870 or between 1870 and 1880. The world’s merchant shipping was on the whole increasing at a rapid rate during the period. Sailing ship tonnage was increasing until 1860, roughly stationary until 1880 and has, on the whole, been steadily declining since that date. The relative positions of thé merchant fleets of the chief maritime nations for the last 40 years can be studied from the published records of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping which go back to 1886.

`

The table on the following page shows the steam (including motor) and sailing ship tonnage for June of the years 1886, 1914, 1920 and 1927. Vessels of under roo tons gross are omitted from Lloyd’s Register figures. In 1886 the United States occupied the second place numerically, but much of its shipping was employed on the Great Lakes and in the reserved coasting trade, and Norway came immediately after the United Kingdom among world carriers. The columns of the table headed ‘“‘1914” show the position immediately before the World War. The United States had dropped to third place and more than half of the 4-3 million tons of United States steam shipping was employed exclusively on the Great Lakes. Germany was by far the most important shipping country in the world after the United Kingdom. The figures for the year 1920 are inserted in the table as showing the position immediately after the war better than the figures for r9r8 or 1919. Early in

1920 Germany surrendered all her larger vessels to the Allies under the terms of the Peace Treaty and her steam tonnage was

reduced to 419,000 gross tons, or less than she had in 1886. The United States total had increased to over 144 million tons The world’s mercantile marine doubled itself between 1666 | of steam and motor shipping, of which about 124 million gross and 1800 from the 2 million tons of Sir Henry Petty’s estimate | tons was ocean-going. This huge increase in American shipping to the 4 million tons of Mulhall’s estimate and increased tenfold | followed the completion during 1919 and 1920 of the building *Including motor ships prior to 1914.

between 1800 and 1922 from 4 million to 41 million net tons. | programme entered upon in the last years of the war.

Much of

ve

SHIPPING

of Lloyd's . Tonnage of the Vessels of roo Tons and Upwards Belonging to Each of the Several Countries of the World as Recorded in Various Editions Register Book

Steam

Countries owned where

Steam Sees motor and ships

s Sailing vessels

Gross

Net

Gross

Gross

tons

tons

tons

and motor ips

Gross

Net

tons

tons

52I

20,143

440

21,878

296

22,174

14,574

1,475

13,690

979

14,670

1,708 1,430 1,922 5,135 1,957 1,472

238 307 325 547 25

2,996 2,118 2,963 419 1,980 1,773

Es 124 282 253 240 20

4,033 3,396 3,362 35320 2,803 2,645

4,625 1,587

496

Sweden . . Spam Denmark

. . .

. . . . . . Greece. 2. weet Other countries . .

78 195 738 604 I40 Igo

32 705 319 806 1,352 229

331 159 128 289 655

1,015 884 770 821 3,436

103 15 50 16 AIL

996 937 719 497 3,790

77 60 84 33 321

10,291

11,217

45,404

3,686

53,905

3,409

oa . . .

. . .

I50 362 143 54 6or

. . .

..

Total .

(000) (000) 130 | 109,300 2,865 166

(000) 19,179 2,699

(000) 220 220

tons

tons

tons

1,038

6,540

sO %. ee oa oe ow we . . . . . . . . . . . .

Gross

Gross | Gross

tons

4,330

. .

United States including Gt. Lakes

E

20,524

Great Britain and Ireland . . . . British Dominions

(000) 18,892 1,632

6 Japan Ital aes Fiance o Germany Norway. Holland.

vessels

(000) 18,111 2,032

(000) 3,249 1,377

Total British empire

| cating S281 | Total

motor! andSteam 1 ships

(000) 365 157

(000) 6,162 378

=r

S GRETNA A A wre

ots Sailing vessels

Steam

Sailing vessels

motor andships

1927

1920

1914

1886

|

4,033 3,483 3,470 3,363 2,824 2,654

oe 88 108 43 22 9

1,329 1,136 1,032 1,026 3,017

1,365 1,161 1,060 1,02 3,907

37 26 28 3 287

63,267 | 1,926 | 65,193

America. Materials for wooden ship construction were to be had cheaply and at locations convenient to the coast. Therefore a large shipbuilding industry was set up and flourished along the North Atlantic seaboard. Soon after the United States became independent, its government established a policy of industrial protection. This policy was extended to shipping and resulted almost immediately in a rapid The British Empire owned 63-6% of the mechanically pro- increase of the volume of seagoing tonnage under the American pelled shipping in the world in 1886, 35-2% in.1914, 37-4% in flag. This is indicated in the table at the bottom of the page, 1920 and 34:6% in 1927. (L. I.) authority for these figures being the bureau of research of the United States Shipping Board. THE UNITED STATES United States Flag Ships Employed in Foreign Trade 1830 to ro26 In the roth century United States shipping passed through (Number of vessels not recorded prior to 1868) stages of brilliance (see Surppinc, History oF), gradually fading and declining into an inconsequential factor in the world’s carryNumber Gross tons ing trade, to be revived again since the World War in a new effort to provide United States cargoes with ships of the same nation537,503 762,838 ality suitable to convey them to their respective destinations. 1,439,694 Early in the history of American independence the shipping 253795390 industry was pre-eminent among the industries developed on the 1,448,846 western side of the Atlantic. At that time the United States was 1,314,402 primarily a seacoast” country, and overland transport had not 928,062 been sufficiently developed to make exploitation of the interior 816,795 convenient, while the size of the population did not make it 782,517 9,924,604 urgent. Inter-state transport was chiefly by water, as was, of 8,793,067 course, transportation between the states and the European 8,157,426 sources of articles whose manufacture was not yet developed in 7:719,139

this tonnage was of doubtful value, nearly 2 million tons consisting of wooden vessels. During the last seven years, American tonnage has been steadily reduced while Germany has been slowly rebuilding her merchant fleet, and she is well on the way to regain her prewar position. Japan, Italy, France and Norway have all considerably improved their relative positions since rgr4.

aathaahitteldati

a

A

FAAA

AY D p Aaony RA ANDRO

AE

Steam, Motor and Sailing Vessels of the American Merchant M. arine, £530 to 1926 (Number of vessels not recorded prior to 1868) ie

Steam

Motor Gross tons

1830 . a ;

ee =e ae ee

ee 1920.

1924 . G ;

a kz

: ee 52 oe

$396;

eee ;

8,103

7:736 a

1273

Number

Sail Gross tons

Number

64,472 202,330

8 50,0

13,466,400 ;

14,870,103 14,495,294

4,317,777

Number

*r 127,304 r2 *,978,425

750947 - 193 075; 95 D

719531533 817,

Total Gross tons

s

: i. ;

10,711

II,O14 11,183

11,416

ws

a 357,040

445,240 481,099

530,443

_

Gross tons I, 191

6 76

ayeraa

7 17,534 16,830

*3:009,507 4,485,932 2,363,086 2,366,258

i 22,058 21,547

3:535:454 5,353,368 3,438,181 3,577,816

327% 947

isons 1,655,473

20,324 22,399

4,542,639 6,555,8

15,164

4,030 2,748 174

2,533

2,362

*Includes canal boats and barges.

2,109,413

21,129

272, 1,272,150 1,184,867 184,

1,125,403

1,091,543

i 22,844

-

3,968, 50%

21,498

ST 15,095,60 o8 8 16,500,210 150 ,

21,051

15,939,763

20270

r61201,796

S

SHIPPING The table in col. 2 of the preceding page shows United States shipping reached a peak at the time when sailing vessels were at the height of their development. In this type of shipping, United States shipowners and shipbuilders enjoyed advantages in the cost ot construction of vessels which did not continue with the incoming of the steam ship. Almost simultaneously with this latter de-

velopment, came the development of the railroad, large increases in the population, and a natural instinct, fostered by the government, to explore and settle the interior regions of the United States; all of which combined to divert national interest away from the sea. In the table below is shown the percentage of United states cargoes carried in United States vessels over a period of about one hundred years. Percentage of U.S. cargoes carried

in U.S. ships

Percentage of U.S. cargoes carried in U.S. ships

89-9

9°3

72:5

42°7

82-9

87

66-5

36:3

174

322

35:6

34I

I2°9

The outbreak of war in 1914 indirectly resulted in a severe dislocation of ocean traffic through American ports due to the diversion of European vessels regularly operated in the United States trades to military usage. This situation gave rise to Congressional consideration of the shipping problem which resulted in the passage of the Shipping Act of 1916. This act was designed to create a board which would regulate shipping passing through American ports and make researches which would lead the way for further development of a national shipping programme. With the entrance of the United States into the World War and following the call on its government for ships to assist the Allies in conveying troops and supplies across the Atlantic, the shipping board was utilized by the president of the United States as an agency for carrying out the largest shipbuilding programme of history. In the course of this programme covering a period of four years, a total of 2,314 ships, aggregating 13,636,967 deadweight tons, was built. In addition to the construction of vessels, much tonnage was secured from other sources. The entire programme is indicated in the following table:

Constructed E Seized from enemy alien owners so tà Purchased. . . . Transferred to shipping board from other government departments . Total

.

Number of vessels

Aggregate deadweight tons

2,314

13,636,967

IO5 103

675,441 368,305

2I

25,504

2,543

14,706,217

Hostilities ceased prior to the tıme construction on the majority of the new tonnage was completed, but most of it was well on the way before the signing of the armistice and contracts for its completion have been made.

To solve the problem presented by this fleet’s existence the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 was passed. This act undertook a

plan to transfer the fleet to the ownership of citizens of the United States who would operate it privately, and devised means of aiding them in their operation so that they might compete on an equal footing with ships of other flags operated under conditions more

favourable to their owners. The act likewise directed the shipping

board to operate vessels over trade routes essential to American commerce when it was not possible to effect transfer to private ownership to the end that all trade routes necessary to the maintenance of United States foreign trade should be served by United States ships. In many cases, this move was necessary, and in all, the shipping board established 35 shipping lines, 16 of which had been sold to citizens of the United States by the end of 1928.

551

In the practical operation of the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 it was found that the aids provided to assist private operators in meeting foreign competition in many trade routes were not adequate. Thereupon Congress considered the matter anew and passed the Merchant Marine Act of 1928 wherein it increased the construction loan fund, provided for in the previous act, to $250,000,000, and made it possible for shipowners to borrow up to 75% of the cost of the construction of vessels at the rate of inter-

est which the government pays on current borrowings. It also extended the period for which mail contracts may be made from one year to ten years and increased the amount of compensation to be paid for the carriage of mail in United States ships. (T. V. O’C.) See W. S. Lindsay, History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce (1874—76) ; Lloyd’s Register of Shipping (annual); Bureau Veritas (Annual); House of Commons Papers; Annual Statement of the Navigation and Shipping of the United Kingdom; Statistical Abstract of the United Kingdom; Annual Report of the Commissioner of Navigation, Washington.

SHIPPING, MINISTRY OF, one of the temporary British departments of State brought into existence when Lloyd George became prime minister in Dec. 1916. Shipping had long been recognized within a limited circle as a vital factor in the prosecution of the World War, but it was only about this time that the intensification of the submarine campaign, coupled with the evergrowing military demands upon sea transport, gave grounds for real anxiety in regard to the shipping resources of the Allies. The object in view was thus to bring all the shipping available under the control of one authority to ensure its most economical employment under war conditions and for war purposes. The Development of the Shipping Problem.—At the out-

break of war Great Britain stood easily first among mercantile nations, Germany, whose ships were compelled from the beginning of the conflict to seek safety in port, being her only competitor. The possibility that the available tonnage might prove insufficient did not therefore at first enter into the calculations of the Government, though there was ground for anxiety lest ships be prevented from putting to sea and a successful scheme of insurance against war risks had been carefully worked out beforehand. No ship was prevented from going to sea by lack of crew, though at one period on certain routes the loss of one ship in three was almost certain. Once the continued employment of the ships had been assured there seemed at the outset to be no cause for anxiety as to the sufficiency of the 18,000,000 tons of ocean-going ships with which Great Britain entered the war. Ships were taken up for service with the fleet and as transports as occasion arose, the vast majority remaining free to fulfil their

normal functions, subject only to restrictions imposed in the interests of safety. It was not until the war had been in progress for more than a year that the conservation of shipping by eliminatIng unnecessary demands began; in 1916 the restriction of imports as a means of relieving the pressure upon tonnage was first embarked upon. (See War CoNTROL OF SHIPPING.) The possibility that shipping might prove a governing factor when once realized was not allowed to escape from view, and the facts were not less patent to the enemy. Intensified activity followed on both sides. The submarine campaign became a definite challenge upon the issue of which all Germany’s hopes were centred. The establishment of the Shippmg Control Committee (g.v.), marked the beginning of the new phase, and the constant occurrence of new demands handled by different governmental authorities tended to throw the economic system of the country out of gear and led to a risk that necessary services might be starved while surplus tonnage was seeking profitable but nationally disadvantageous employment elsewhere. The Pre-existing Organization.—Prior to the creation of the

Ministry the two authorities directly concerned with merchant shipping were the Transport Department of the Admiralty and the Board of Trade, The primary function of the former was to select, if necessary equip for service, and direct the movements of, the ships required by the Navy, and during the war its responsibilities expanded rapidly. Its activities however did not extend to

matters coming within the purview of the Board of Trade, the

554

SHIPPING

pre-war responsibility of which, so far as shipping was concerned, was limited to regulating in the interests of passengers and crew the conditions under which ships were employed. This responsibility was extended during the war to include such measures of control as became necessary in connection with other activities of the Board, which, inter alia, is responsible for watching the general economic condition of the country, and in that capacity it had to devise measures for checking developments which appeared to threaten British economic welfare. Two Committees were set up by the Board in November 1915 with that object. The first—the Ship Licensing Committee—could debar any British ship from undertaking a voyage which for any reason was not approved. The second—the Requisitioning (Carriage of Foodstuffs) Committee

—directed British shipping into channels which would assist importation of food or other necessities. The Board of Trade from the outbreak of war undertook direct responsibility for, transport of, all imports of frozen meat. It also saw that

matters, with the selection and allocation of ships to the various services, with the management of the various classes of transport, naval, military and commercial, and coastwise shipping under private control, and the work of the port. To the secretariat was assigned the handling of questions

concerned with general policy and the conduct of correspondence with other departments and with the public in connection

therewith. It also dealt with all establishment questions and was responsible for all business not definitely assigned to one or other of the executive branches, such as negotiations for securing the control of neutral tonnage, and the work of the National Maritime Board,—a body consisting of representatives of owners

and employees, set up to settle questions connected with the pay the of officers and men of the Mercantile Marine. The Tonnage Priority Committee decided between competalso and ing claims for freight and scaled down the programmes of the the various import services, bringing them within the scope of the

interests of the Mercantile Marine were not overlooked in the competition for materials and for vacant slips in the ship-yards, The Trade Division of the Admiralty, primarily concerned with the regulation of the movements of British ships from the standpoint of safety, developed during the first two years of war important functions in relation to neutral shipping by means of a

system of control of British hunker coal; and at the end of 1915 the Port and Transit Executive Committee was set up to expedite the flow of traffic through the ports. The Internal Organization of the Ministry.—The Ministry was organized upon the usual model of a Department of State. The Controller, Sir Joseph Paton Maclay (afterwards Lord Maclay), was a member of the Cabinet, though not of the War Cabinet. He was not a member of the House of Commons and ’ declined to seek election, questions in the House being answered by the parliamentary secretary, while on occasions of exceptional

importance a member of the War Cabinet was available to state its case. The staff of the Ministry was drawn from‘a variety of sources, The Transport Department of the Admiralty was transferred to

tonnage available, The Ministry relied on the estimates of the Statistical Branch and, when it became necessary to bring under a single control the

tonnage resources of all the Allies, the Allied Maritime Transport Council (g.v.) was set up. A small Legal Branch was set up to advise upon questions arising in day-to-day administration of the Department and to represent, the Ministry in Admiralty adjudica-

tions in regard to compensation for ships lost upon Government service. The financial work of the Ministry attained very large dimensions for with practically the whole of British shipping under requisition, enormous sums were payable in monthly hire, and heavy claims for loss and damage to ships had to be met. (J. A.) SHIPPING: REGISTRATION, CLASSIFICATION

AND STATE REGULATION.

Registration.—It is essen-

tial that every ship should have a certificate of identity, or of registry, for facility in maritime trading. The Navigation Acts

of Great Britain from 1660 onwards made the registration of

vessels compulsory, and this requirement is still contained in the it en bloc, also certain small sections of the Board of Trade; and Merchant Shipping Acts. To obtain a certificate, an application must be made by the as the work grew, the necessary personnel was obtained by the temporary transfer of trained civil servants and by volunteers owners, stating their qualifications for ownership and their financial from shipping firms. interests. A certificate from the builders must be produced giving At the outset the Admiralty was inclined to regret the loss of a description of the ship, the estimated tonnage, and the time control necessitated by the creation of a separate Ministry of and place of build. A surveyor of the Board of Trade measures Shipping, but the difficulty was solved by a compromise, the Di- the vessel for tonnage and for registration, and prepares a certifirector of Transport (the Chief Executive Officer of the Depart- cate of particulars which include the draught marks at the bow ment) becoming directly responsible to the Board of Admiralty and stern, The registrar then issues a certificate (“carving note”) for all shipping employed on naval service, the Admiralty retain- which gives the vessel an official number and which states the ing the right to order the movements of the shipping on which they registered or net tonnage and the port of registry. The builder depended for their supplies, thus authorized cuts the official number and the registered or net The Shipping Control Committee became in effect the Coun- tonnage in the steel structure of the ship (usually on the beam cil, or supreme deliberative body, in the Ministry and was con- at the after end of the main hatchway, immediately before the stantly consulted by the Controller, who addressed himself from bridge), marks the port of registry and the name of the ship on the first to the question of increasing the available supply of the stern, and the name only on each side of the bow, the draught shipping. At home the scarcity of material and labour and the marks having already been marked and checked by the surveyor. competing demands of the Navy had brought the output of the The necessary particulars are then entered in the official register, yards to far below their normal capacity. It was decided to con- and a certificate of registry in conformity with these particulars, centrate on the production of standardized cargo vessels of the but to which is added the name of the master, is given to the simplest design; and the co-operation of the shipbuilders was se~ owners. As there is often some confusion as to what is meant by cured. Simultaneously steps were taken to place contracts with “registered tonnage,” it should always be remembered that this shipbuilding yards abroad—in Japan, the United States of America term Js usually applied to the net tonnage, that is, the tonnage on and Canada, and the resources of every firm at home or abroad which dues are assessed, and is the tonnage which is marked on which had berths available were utilized to the utmost. the ship for purposes of identification. (For particulars of measAfter a few months the responsibility for all shipbuilding was urement see SHIPPING: Tonnage Terms,) transferred to the Controller of the Navy, but the Minister Lloyd’s Register.—There are certain societies forme of d by the Shipping continued to keep in close touch and the marked im- sea interests which have for their purpose what is termed provement in the output of new merchant tonnage which the helped classification of ships. The most famous and influen tial as well to relieve the situation later in the war was largely due to the as the oldest of these bodies is Lloyd’s Register of Shippi ng, which programme which he had drawn up. was founded in 1760 and reconstituted in 1834 “for the purpose of The executive work of the Ministr

y was under the Directo of obtaining for the use of Merchants, Shipow ners and Underwriters _ Transport and Shipping, an officer who had previously rbeen Director of Transport under the Admiralty; his immediate assist- a faithful and accurate classification of mercantile shipping, and ants were also styled directors, dealing respectively with technical for their government adopt from time to time a code of rules and regulations,” and

which may be taken as a standard to illus-

SHIPPING

553

trate the important part played by classification societies in the

where shipowning or shipbuilding existed. In 1851 rules were drawn up for the construction of wood ships, and about 1867 for Register Book containing the names and particulars of all the iron. Rules for steel came later, and also rules for the construcships in the world over 100 tons gross, and where the vessels are tion of machinery, and as circumstances arose provision was made classed with the society the characters assigned with full particu- for special types, such as oil-tank vessels, turret vessels, and lars are given. It publishes, at regular intervals, certain valuable dredgers, as well as for the testing of materials. These rules have statistical summaries of the position of shipping with reference to been revised from time to time, and special rules issued for ships Its growth, change, and so forth, which are regarded by the ship- intended for inland waters, for yachts and for motor boats. The British Corporation was founded in 1890, and obtained its ping world as its “barometer.” and which form a sensitive index charter under the Merchant Shipping Acts for the assignment of of the position of the world’s trade generally. The rules fix the quality and strength of the material to be freeboards; its first rules were issued in 1893. Its inception was used in the construction, the thicknesses of the parts of the hull, due to the enterprise and influence of a number of leading shipthe equipment of anchors and cables as well as the requirements owners, shipbuilders and engineers more particularly connected for machinery. The use of the expression “Ar at Lloyd’s” as a with Glasgow and the west of Scotland, the first aim of the hall-mark of excellence indicates that from the design stage to founders being to provide an independent society thoroughly the end of its existence the fitness of the ship is under control. capable of dealing with the complicated questions which were When a new ship is contracted for, plans of the design showing likely to arise under the Load Line Act then coming into operation. details of the various parts of the structure are submitted and The Liverpool Registry, which had once been independent, had amended where necessary. The materials to be used in the con- been absorbed into Lloyd’s Register some years before, and it was struction are tested by the society’s surveyors, and its officers thought that the enormous shipbuilding interests of the country supervise the actual building of the ship and its machinery. When demanded the existence of a society whose friendly rivalry with it is completed a certificate is issued to the effect that the general the great society of Lloyd’s Register would have a beneficial inregulations and practice of the society have been complied with, fluence on the shipbuilding of the country. The British Corporaand the character or symbol of classification is attached to the tion have a working agreement with the Registro Italiano, the vessel’s name in the register of the society. The ship enters into American Bureau of Shipping, and the Imperial Japanese Corporaservice, and at regular intervals—generally every four years—is tion, which provides for the mutual recognition by these bodies required to undergo a special survey and overhauling at the hands of the classification and survey of vessels conducted by them. The American Bureau of Shipping, established in 1867 as the of the surveyors, under specific regulations. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping is voluntarily maintained by the Record of American and Foreign Shipping, was resuscitated as shipping community, and is governed by a committee composed the result of the large construction of merchant ships built by the of the most representative men in the various branches of the United States for their use in the World War, and is officially industry—shipowners, underwriters, and ship and engine builders. supported by the United States Government. The Norske Veritas was established in 1894 by the various It has similar committees in the United States, France, Holland, Sweden, and Japan. It thus forms a link between the sea-faring marine insurance clubs of Norway. Previously each club had its communities of the world which cannot be supplied by inter- own separate staff of surveyors, on whose report depended the national political means, and forms a community of sea-faring class of the vessel and the premium to be paid. As ships rose in interests whose purpose is to ensure the fitness of ships. Its value and reinsurance became the rule, a desire for mutual prohighly trained technical experts are to be found in every centre tection led to the establishment of the Norske Veritas with one of shipping activity in the world. (See Lioyn’s REGISTER OF uniform system of classification and valuation. The Germanischer Lloyd was established in 1867, and reorganSHIPPING.) Classification Societies.—Most countries have set up their ized as a joint-stock company in 1889. Its functions are carried own national classification societies, in some instances partly out by officers at the central office in Berlin, assisted by a staff of under Government direction. These comprise the Bureau Veritas, surveyors in Germany and at the principal foreign ports—the with headquarters in France; the Norske Veritas, with head- latter under control of agents, who are mostly consuls. In all quarters in Norway; the Germanischer Lloyd, with headquarters foreign parts in which the Germanischer Lloyd has no representain Germany; the American Bureau, which was resuscitated when tive, the German consuls are required by order of their Governthe United States entered the World War; the Registro Italiano in ment to exercise the functions of an agent of the Germanischer Italy; and a Society in Japan of very recent origin; these societies Lloyd. The Registro Italiano was first founded in 1861, and has passed differ somewhat in the particular symbols which they attach to the various classes. Although their printed regulations for the con- through many changes of late years, the first of which occurred struction of ships and machinery do not differ greatly, there are in rọrọ, when it was reconstituted as the Registro Nazionale differences of practice in regard to the administration of the Italiano. Later it became the Registro Navale Italiano, and after various rules. The principal classification societies in 1927, and the World War, was amalgamated with the other Italian instituthe tonnage of vessels (steam, motor and sail) classed, were :— tion, the Veritas Adriatico, by the wishes of the Italian Government, in order that one Italian Register of Shipping should be

working of the mercantile marine.

The society prints annually a

Tons gross

Lloyd’s

Register of Shipping,

with

headquarters

in

London . . «se ee eee 29,605,303 British Corporation for the Survey and Registry of Shipping, in Glasgow . . . 4,484,782 American Bureau of Shipping, at New York . . 8,580,532 Bureau Veritas, at Paris . . . 5,870,900 Germanischer Lloyd, at Berlin . 3,837,222 1,84.7:334 y goga Norske Veritas, at Oslo Registro Italiano, at Genoa . . . 2,712,316 Tt will be seen that the major portion of the total tonnage owned

in the world, which in 1927 was some 63 million tons gross, plies under the aegis of one or other of the principal classification

societies—a clear indication that, to the world’s mercantile marine, classification is an indispensable adjunct.

The Bureau Veritas was founded in Antwerp in 1828, to make known to underwriters the qualities and defects of ships frequenting Dutch and Belgian ports. In 1832 the headquarters were moved to Paris, and in due time its influence spread to countries

established, under the name

Registro Italiano.

The highest class assigned by the societies upon the completion of a ship is marked as follows :— Lloyd’s Register Bureau Veritas . British Corporation

«. .

Germanischer Lloyd Registro Italiano

. i T

Norske Veritas

American Bureau

“ee

* . .

< . .

. EI00AL LMC . $/L 1,1 B.S.* M. B. S.* lai

EMV, KEV

. @100A1, 1, L - HAI®

FAMS

The star or cross in each case denotes special survey during construction. In Lloyd’s Register 100A refers to conformity with the

rule requirements; the figure 1 to the efficiency of the equipment of anchors and cables; LMC denotes Lloyd’s Machinery Certificate. In the Bureau Veritas the encircled I expresses the first division of classification (out of three), the two rings denoting that the ship is divided into a sufficient number of watertight

554

SHIPPING

compartments to enable her to float in still water with any two open to the sea; °/3 expresses completeness and efficiency of hull and machinery; the letter following °*/s indicates the navigation for which the vessel is intended, L signifying unrestricted

ocean trading; the first 1 shows that the wood portions of the

hull are entirely satisfactory, while the second 1 has the same significance in respect to the equipment of masts, spars, rigging, anchors, cables and boats. In the British Corporation Register,

B.S. signifies conformity with all requirements, these letters standing for British Standard; M.B.S. signifies that the machinery also conforms. In the Norske Veritas 141 denotes compliance with rule requirements as regards the hull; MV and KV signify that the vessel has a Norske Veritas certificate for engines and boilers.

The third figure A denotes the efficient state of the equipment. In

the Germanischer Lloyd the mark 100 A signifies that the ship, including equipment, fulfils the requirements of the highest class of the society. The figure 4 indicates that the class is to be regularly renewed after special surveys held in periods of four years each. MC signifies that the machinery conforms with the rules and has obtained a separate certificate. In the Registro Italiano 100A refers to conformity with the rules, the first 1 to the equipment of the hull, and the second 1 to the equipment of the propelling power (whether sails or machinery). The letter following

line.)

These acts required the owners of foreign-going ships to

mark the position of the upper deck line and to mark also a circular disc showing the maximum draught to which they claimed to load, while the distance between the deck line and the centre of the disc was recorded and inserted in the agreement with the

crew. While by the act of 1873 the Board of Trade were given power to detain overladen ships, yet without certain rules for guidance as to what constituted an overladen vessel the surveyors at the ports were in an impossible position. In order to remove these difficulties Benjamin Martell, the chief surveyor to Lloyd’s Register, suggested in 1874 a series of tables of freeboard based on

actual experience with British vessels. The Board of Trade in 1875 called a conference with Lloyd’s Register which laid down as principles that—(i.) There should be an enclosed buoyant volume above water which should be a certain proportion of the volume of the ship below water; (ii.) There should be a certain

height of the exposed deck at particular places (known as “height of platform”) such as at the forecastle and bow, at the stern, and at the bridge or navigating position; (iii.) The construction of the vessel should be sufficiently strong, and all exposed Openings in the main or weather deck should be properly closed. The question of tables, based on these principles, was further the class indicates the navigation for which the ship is intended, L examined by Lloyd’s Register in 1882 and by the Board of Trade signifying unrestricted ocean trading. In the American Bureau, which appointed the first loadline committee in 1883. This comAl denotes conformity with the rules, E referring to the equip- mittee drew up a set of tables which was adopted voluntarily in ment, and AMS signifies American Machinery Survey. 1885 and made compulsory by the Merchant Shipping Acts of State Regulation.—In Great Britain the State maintains con- 1890. Authority was given by the Board of Trade to Lloyd’s trol in matters concerning the safety of life at sea, while leaving Register, the Bureau Veritas, and the British Corporation to fix much to the sea-faring interests as far as the safety of ship and the freeboards on behalf of the Government. The Rules and cargo is concerned. Thus, for instance, while the classification cer- Tables drawn up in 1890 have served since that time as the basis tificates of Lloyd’s Register are accepted as sufficient evidence that of freeboard; they have been examined and adjusted on several the vessel, her machinery and equipment are in a proper sea- occasions principally in 1898 and in 1906, in which latter year worthy condition, yet when it comes to the provisions for the the Merchant Shipping Acts were amended to apply to all foreign safety of crew and passengers the Marine Department of the ‘vessels using British ports. In 1908 an arrangement was made with British Board of Trade sees that proper provision is made for Germany to adjust the differences between the practice of the (a) the accommodation for crew and emigrants; two nations. As a consequence those tables have not only remained (b) boats and life-saving appliances; in force but have been adopted by all the maritime countries. (c) wireless, navigation fittings and control; In 1913 a further load line committee was appointed and (d) the carriage of special cargoes such as wood, grain and coal; reported in 1915, but the war delayed any action, and in 1927 (e) the marking of the proper load line of a cargo ship, and another committee was asked to reconsider the whole problem (£) the subdivision of passenger vessels, and in addition to examine (a) the practice of various countri , es Authority is given to the Board of Trade by the Merchant Ship- which permitted vessels carrying wood cargoes to load deeper, ping Acts of 1894 to prepare and to administer regulations and neces- (b) the contention of the United States that oil tankers (vessels sary for safety at sea, of which the principal are those relating carrying entire cargoes of oil) could with safety be loaded to the marking of a load line. deeper

Loadlines: (a) Cargo Vessels—The loadline is not a moder

n feature, for the vessels of the Italian republics probably before A.D. 1000 had a mark printed on their sides to indica te that the ship should not be loaded beyond this point. The Sardinian mark was the centre of a painted ring—practically the same as to-day. The modern story of the loadline is less than a century old, for about 1835 the committee of Lloyd’s propos ed that a freeboard of 3 inches per foot depth of hold should be used as a guide for safe loading. The freeboard or free side was the vertical distance from the upper (z.¢., the top continuous) deck to the waterline, and Lloyd’s rule approximately stated that this freeboard should be + of the depth of the ship. While other rules were also tried, the first definite proposal to deal logically with the relation of freeboard to size and type of ship was sent by the Institution of Naval Architects to the Board of Trade in 1867. In x8yr a Merchant Shipping Act was passed requir ing a scale of feet to be marked at the bow and stern showing the izing the Board of Trade to appoint person draught, and authors to record the draught of water of vessels leaving port. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, in about 1873, required what were known as Awning Decked Vessels to have a mazimum loadline marked. In 1874 the Royal Commission on Unseaworthy Ships dealt with the question of loadlines, and under the stimulus of Samue l Plimsoll three Merchant

Shipping Acts were passed by parliament in 1874—75—76, which together brought the freeboard questi on to a definite position. (The sailor to-day regards the freeboard mark as the “Plimsoll”

than ordinary ships. This committee is stil] sitting, and has before it a suggested departure in principle, viz.:—to allow vessels which carry whole cargoes of timber and oil to be loaded deeper than other ships. The detailed calculations to ascertain the freeboard of a vessel are necessarily complex and can only be undertaken by an expert. In order however to give an idea of the actual amoun t of free-

board it may be taken roughly that for a cargo vessel forecastle, a bridge and a poop the freeboard will be having a about one quarter of the depth of the ship from the keel to the uppermost continuous deck. (b) Passenger Ships.—The question of additional protect ion of passenger ships arose from a committee which in 1887 was considering the regulations for boats and life-saving appliances on British vessels; Thomas Gray, the official then in charge of the Marine Department of the Board of Trade, suggest ed that a proper arrangement of internal partitions (“bulkheads”) should be provided in order that the vessel might remain afloat for a reasonable length of time to enable the life-saving appliances to be used. The Bulkhead Committee of 1890 suggested rules for position of bulkheads, which permitted a reducti the number and on in the amount of life-saving appliances. The conclusions of this committee determined the practice until 1911, when the Mercha nt Shipping advisory committee suggested that the questio n appliances needed adjustment. Following the loss of life-saving in April 1912 a Bulkhead Committee was appoin of the “Titanic” ted to consider the whole question, but after the Court of Enquir y presided over

SHIPPING by Lord Mersey, the question of subdivision was separated from that of life-saving appliances. Consequently for the first time regulations were prepared for the number and position of bulkheads (subdivision). It was laid down that passenger vessels should have as efficient a scheme of subdivision as the nature of their service or their trade would allow. It was realized that regu-

lations which destroyed the economic possibilities of trade were worse than useless. While this committee was sitting an international conference was held in London to consider the whole question of safety of life at sea—embracing subdivision, life-saving appliances, wireless and navigation. The general lines of agreement were embodied in a convention signed by all the principal maritime nations (save Japan) in March 1914—and adopted by parliament in Great Britain and some other countries; but it was only made partially operative on account of the World War. As in certain respects the subdivision regulations were incomplete, the British Government only put into operation the minimum requirements and applied these to all passenger vessels which carried more than 12 passengers. When however during the war the provisions of the convention were examined in regard to new ships, it was rapidly found that such drastic alterations were required to vessels carrying a relatively small number of passengers as to render them economically impossible. The whole question has been re-examined both by Governments and by the International Chamber of Shipping, and as a result the question of revising the whole convention was under consideration in 1928. It has been generally recognized that while the regulations laid down in 1913—14 might be deemed to apply to vessels almost wholly devoted to passengers, such as the large liners on the North Atlantic, yet considerable alterations are necessary to apply them to all other passenger ships. Any system of subdivision must take into account-—

(a) the spring of (¢.e., distance between)

bulkheads—the

more passengers carried the closer is the spacing;

(b) the height of the bulkheads above water—the greater the height, the wider is the spacing; (c) the strength of the bulkheads in relation to the height of water which may be behind them when an adjacent space is full of water; (d) the probable contents of the various parts of the vessel— some spaces requiring more water to fill them than others, and

(e) the nature of the damage to the side and underwater por-

tion of the ship; it should be observed that it is of little use providing bulkheads unless the ship can remain afloat with the space between them open to the sea, and that where any greater protection is necessary endeavour should be made to arrange that - the vessel will float with an intermediate bulkhead damaged and the space open to the sea. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping and the other classification societies have rules for the number of bulkheads in cargo vessels. A bulkhead is required near the bow called the collision bulkhead, one has to be fitted at each end of the machinery space, and another near the stern. In general, while all ships have 4 bulkheads, yet when the length exceeds 285 ft., more bulkheads are required on

55

tion, Classification and Stete Regulation.) Tonnage legislation dates from very early times, not only in the Mediterranean but also in the Far East, where in China some form of measurement has existed since before the Christian era. The earliest known record in Great Britain occurs in AD. 1422, which provides that “keels (barges) that carry coals at Newcastle shall be measured and marked.” In 1694 the actual weight carried was recorded and was ascertained by placing known iron or lead weights on board, 2ocwt. avoirdupois being taken as a ton. In France in 1681 the volume was measured approximately and expressed in tons of 42 cubic feet, on the assumption that 4 wine tuns—which average that particular volume—weighed 1 ton avoirdupois. There is thus from early times a considerable confusion of thought as to what is the real meaning of the word “ton,” it being apparently connected both with the ton avoirdupois and with the tun of wine. Methods of Measurement.—Besides the methods prescribed

by the Merchant Shipping acts, which are generally followed by the principal maritime nations of the world, there are other methods used for various purposes. The principal methods may be summarised as follows:—

(1) Measurement

or Capacity

Tonnage

(British Merchant

Shipping Acts). (a) Under-deck tonnage, which is the total internal capacity of a ship below the tonnage deck. (b) Gross tonnage, which is the sum of the under-deck tonnage and of all enclosed spaces above the tonnage deck—ihere being, however, certain portions above the tonnage deck which may be exempted from measurement. (c) Register or net tonnage, which is derived from the gross tonnage by deducting the volumes of certain “nonearning” spaces—spaces which cannot, broadly speaking, be utilized for the carriage of cargo or passengers. (2) Displacement Tonnage. This system is invariably used for warships, and represents the weight expressed in tons avoirdupois of the vessel when fully loaded. It is called displacement because it is generally ascertained by calculating the weight of the water displaced by the form of the vessel when immersed to the loadline.

(3) Deadweight Tonnage. Deadweight tonnage is the weight in tons avoirdupois of cargo, passengers, fuel and stores which can be carried by a vessel when fully loaded. It is the difference between the weight of a vessel (including machinery)—or what is termed the light ship—and the weight of the vessel and the contents when fully loaded. (4) Freight Tonnage. Freight tonnage is a measure of the total cubic capacity of a vessel which is available for the carriage of cargo, and is usually expressed in tons of 40 cu.ft. measurement,

it being assumed that 40 cu.ft. weigh 1 ton avoirdupois. Under the British system of tonnage measurement, the tonnage deck is the upper deck in vessels which have one or two decks, and in all other vessels it is the second continuous deck from below. The upper deck is the uppermost complete deck the openings of which are closed in such a way that any space below the deck is regarded as a closed-in space by the Board of Trade. The tonnage dimensions, z.e., length, breadth and depth, differ from the regzstered dimensions (see SHIPPING: Registration, Classification and State

Regulation)—although these are both ascertained at the same time by the surveyor who is measuring the tonnage. For purposes of tonnage, the length is measured along the thus a vessel 285 ft. long should have 5 bulkheads, and one 610 ft.

the scale of one bulkhead for about every 65 ft. increase in length;

long 10 bulkheads. The result of the suggested amendments to the convention would be that with a small number of passengers there

would be the same number of bulkheads as required by Lloyd’s rules, but these bulkheads would have to be spaced in accordance

with the principles given above.

SHIPPING: TONNAGE

TERMS.

(W. S. A.) The term “Tonnage”

has a variety of meanings. According to the British Merchant Shipping acts and the Suez and Panama Canal regulations it is a measurement of the capacity or volume of a ship expressed in units of 100 cubic feet—one unit of such volume being termed a ton measurement. The purpose of measuring a ship is two-fold—

primarily to form a basis for the payment of the various charges which are levied by Port and Harbour authorities, by Lighthouse Boards and for pilotage services; secondly for use in the registration or identification of the ship itself. (See SHIPPING: Registra-

centre line of the upper surface of the tonnage deck from a point forward where the inner surface of the frames or lining crosses the deck at the bow to a similar point aft. The tonnage breadth is taken horizontally from face to face of the inside of the frames, or of the inside of the lining on the frames provided the lining is not more than 3 in. thick. The depth for tonnage in vessels with double bottoms is measured from the upper surface of the inner bottom plating at the centre line to the under side of the tonnage

deck, from which is deducted one-third of the curvature or “round” of the deck beam, while a further deduction is made if a lining is fitted on the inner bottom. For purposes of registration, the length is taken from the fore

part of the bow, on the line of the forecastle deck, to the after side of the head of the sternpost (or the centre of the rudder stock where no sternpost exists). The breadth is the maximum breadth

556

SHIPPING

measured to the outside of the plating of a steel ship, or to the outside of the planking of a wooden ship. The depth is measured from the top of the tonnage deck beam at the centre line amidships to the top of the inner bottom plating. In the measurement of tonnage, the area of cross section in the space under the tonnage deck is determined at a number of places—depending on the size of the ship, and from these areas—which are obtained by actual measurement at the ship—the volume of the under-deck tonnage is ascertained. The result in cubic feet divided by too gives the under-deck tonnage. The spaces above the tonnage deck are now measured, such spaces being either those which extend through a complete ’tween deck or those which are situated above the upper deck. All spaces which are deemed to be properly enclosed are required to be measured and included in the gross tonnage. Such spaces as hatchways have to be measured and their volume ascertained, and any excess over a certain amount is added to the tonnage. There are, however, certain spaces (such as shelter decks, forecastles, bridges or poops) which may be closed in certain defined ways, and which so long as they have the accepted methods of closing are not measured for tonnage nor included in the gross tonnage. “Gross” and “Net.”—-From the gross tonnage—which is the sum of the under-deck tonnage and of the tonnage above the tonnage deck—the register or net tonnage is obtained by making certain deductions on account of the space in which the machinery or engines and boilers aré situated, on account of crew spaces, and on account of certain small spaces necessary for the general working of the ship. The most important of these is the allowance for the machinery space; the other two items, although of importance, amounting to only some 10% of the total deductions permitted. The allowance for machinery spaces appears to be designed to include not only the volume actually occupied by the machinery itself, but also an allowance on account of the fuel necessary to

propel the ship. The present allowance is based on the use of coal

as a fuel and on the use of steam machinery. It is quite evident that the fuel space allowance must be the subject of compromise, since for the same ship the length of voyage may be very variable. It is usual to provide in all ships a certain amount of permanent bunker space, which may, for the average sea-going ship, be roughly described as that necessary for a month’s voyage. The spaces occupied by the main machinery (including the necessary light and air spaces and shaft tunnels) are measured. The total deduction permitted is either 14 times the propelling space, or 32% of the gross tonnage where the actual measurement of the propelling space lies between 13% and 20% (both inclusive) of the gross tonnage. It will therefore appear that the difference between the volume of the machinery space and the volume allowed to be deducted represents the allowance made for the space deemed to be occupied by fuel. In order to take full advantage of this deduction, all low-powered steamships have the volume of machinery space so arranged that it is never less than 13% of the gross tonnage. The Merchant Shipping Act of 1907, however, limits the deduction which may be permitted for propelling power to a maximum of 55% of the gross tonnage. It must be recognized that with the improvement in marine engines and the adaption of the oil motor for propelling purposes, the tendency is for the

machinery spaces to be less in volume than the 13% necessary for

the ordinary marine steam machinery, and in this respect it will probably be necessary in the future to reconsider the allowance which may properly be made. The register or net tonnage is now determinable (being the gross tonnage less the deductions permitted as described above), and is the tonnage which appears on the register of the vessel and on which dues are assessed. The British system of measurement has been generally adopted by all the maritime nations, the principal differences in those which do

not identically comply being on account of the method of esti-

mating the propelling power deduction. It may be said that generally the tonnage as measured by any maritime country will not differ more than about 2% from that obtained by the British

measurement.

Suez and Panama “Tons.”—This satisfactory state of affairs does not, however, obtain with the Suez and Panama canal

authorities, whose regulations differ from the British in giving less allowance for deductions, and in requiring more of the superstructures to be taken into the gross tonnage. Approximately it may be stated that the gross tonnage for the Suez Canal is 5% higher than the British, and that for the Panama Canal 10% higher, while the net tonnage for the Suez Canal is nearly 30% higher, and for

the Panama

Canal about

25% higher, than the British meas-

urement.

It is difficult to express briefly the relation between tonnage and size of ship. As an example, an ordinary cargo steamer which can carry a nominal deadweight of about 8,000 tons avoirdupois of cargo, fuel and stores will have a displacement of about 11,500 tons, a gross tonnage of about 5,200, and a registered or net tonnage of about 3,200. The net tonnage is relatively highest in this type of steamer, where it may be as much as 65% of the gross tonnage. This figure is reduced to 50% for coasting cargo vessels of small size. In fast steamers, where a large proportion of the space is taken up by machinery, the net tonnage may be as low as 50% of the gross tonnage, and for such extreme types as the cross-channel boat the ratio may be as low as 40%. BisrioGrRAPHY.—Board Measurement Measurement

of Trade Instructions as to the Tonnage

of Ships (H. M. Stationery Office); E. R. Johnson, of Vessels for the Panama Canal, Washington Govern-

ment Printing Office (1913) includes references to tonnage measurement systems adopted by various nationalities; A. Van Driel, Tonnage

Measurement, The Hague Government Printing Office (1928)

AJ

SHIPPING, WAR CONTROL OF: sce War CONTROL oF SHIPPING.

SHIPPING:

WAR

LOSSES

OF.

The outstanding fea-

tures of the attack upon merchant shipping in the World War were (1) the enormous preponderance of the British losses, (2) a neu-

tral nation—Norway—suffered the second largest losses, (3) two

allied nations, the United States and Japan, owned more shipping at the end of the war than at the beginning, every other nation possessing less, (4) submarines accounted for 87% of the losses, (5) nearly one-half of the losses occurred in the 12 months Nov, 1916 to Oct. 1917, (6) marine losses of British ships were nearly 50% greater in 1918 than in 1913, (7) one commerce raider, “Mowe” accounted for more than double the number of ships sunk by any other individual surface craft, (8) on an average approximately 1,000,000 tons of shipping was continuously under repair, (9) the current losses were greater than the output of new shipping until the last nine months of the war. The enemy conducted his campaign by submarine, by surface craft and by mine, five vessels only being sunk by aircraft. To losses directly due to enemy action must he added the losses due to marine risks which were greatly increased by strandings and collisions, resulting from the unlighted coasts, concentrated shipping, etc. There was also a diminution of effective tonnage on account of damage to vessels which ultimately reached port. The campaign falls into three periods, the first extending until Aug. 1916, when the enemy began an intensified effort. This continued until the “sink-at-sight” campaign began in Feb. r917. For this last period, much more detailed information was obtained regarding the circumstances of each attack, and this part of the campaign can be studied from every possible standpoint. Comparison cannot be made, however, with the earlier periods owing to the lack of the earlier statistics, particularly in regard to foreign tonnage. In the case of British tonnage, the losses do not include merchant. ships which were fitted out as armed escorts or as merchant cruisers for the protection of shipping routes, etc. World’s Losses.—Excluding tonnage owned by the then enemy countries, the world’s losses by enemy action were 6,604 vessels aggregating 12,850,814 tons, or approximately one-third of the pre-war tonnage of the world. To this figure must be added the losses due to marine risks, approximately 2,102,000 tons, making a grand total of nearly 15,000,000 tons. The table at the top of the next page shows the losses suffered by each of the principal allies and by neutrals as the result of enemy action. Excluding fishing vessels, the total war losses of the allies and neutrals were in part made good by new construction (10,849,000

tons) and by 2,411,000 tons captured from the enemy, the total

SHIPPING

557

Number and Tonnage of Merchant ond Fishing Vessels Sunk by Enemy Action, 1914-18 Tonnage

Number Periods

24 months from tT. 8. 14

baer

Total

21 months from I. 2.17

(5x months)

.

Total

24 months | 6 months oi from I- 8. 14

2x Eom months | (51 ;_ months)

I. 8. 16

2. 3... 17

Thousand tons

elem,

erchant `. ishing

Periods

6 months from I. 8. 16

517 s

France a a Italy 8 United States . Other Allies

x

X

Neutrals .

Totals (all countries other than enemy countries)

2 97

pe

QI 88 59

207

LS

279 ‘

829

35 184 136

97

I7I TIQ T SI

74

419 ES|

|

TT: |Aa

73759;090

12 144 182

ror

374

Tons

541 | ep

2 | ae

1,782

ger

Sauce

12,850,814

“Excludes and } includes 118 ships of 298,393 tons which when sunk belonged to countries which were neutral but subsequently became allies.

pre-war tonnage of 34,825,000 being reduced to 33,041,000 tons. There were net gains to the United States of 4,196,000 tons (128% over 1914) and to Japan of 677,000 tons (67%), while

During the 21 months of unrestricted campaign, rr9 vessels over 500 tons (of all countries) were lost, of which 88 were in home waters. There was a steady fall in losses after the first quarter, the largest net losses were to United Kingdom 3,084,000 tons when 22 were lost in home waters and 8 in other areas. Nearly (17%) and to Norway 1,260,000 tons (48%). 10,000 mines were swept up in home waters. Usually the halfBritish Losses.—2,479 merchant vessels (7,759,090 tons) be- yearly yield by sweeping was between 1,000 and 1,350, but in longing to the United Kingdom and Colonies were sunk by the 1917 the yields were 2,452 and 1,835. The improvement in enemy, and of British fishing vessels 675 (71,765 tons). Sub- dealing with new minefields is best indicated by the fact that the marines accounted for 2,099, the figures for the three periods number of mines swept up was about 9 times the number of being 342, 211 and 1,546, mines for 259 (102, 42, 115), surface vessels struck in each of the half years up to June 1916, after craft for 117 (72, 18, 27) and aircraft 4 (three at the beginning which the proportion went up to 14, 16 and 23 times in the of the “sink-at-sight” period). subsequent half years until it was 35 times in Jan. 1978. Submarine Attacks During the Unrestricted Campaign. Marine Losses.—The British tonnage lost during the war ~~During the 21 months, 3,672 vessels were reported attacked, of owing to marine risk was 1,100,000 tons, or rather more than which 2,930 were by torpedo and 742 by gun-fire. Of those at- half the world’s losses from this cause. The next largest losses tacked, 2,262 were sunk, 345 damaged and 1,065 escaped. Of the were those of the United States—302,000-—and Norway 132,000 2,930 attacked by torpedo, 1,949 were British (28% escaped) tons. During 1918 the British losses totalled 256,000 tons excluand g8z foreign (18% escaped). Of the 742 attacked by gun-fire sive of 3,784,000 tons damaged. For allies and neutrals during 368 were British (71% escaped) and 374 foreign (21% escaped). the same period the figures were 330,000 sunk and 2,262,000 tons A comparison between the 9 months Feb—Oct. 1917 with the damaged. Detailed information relating to all tonnage lost by marine risks during the last 6 months of the war shows that of same period in 1918 gives the following interesting figures :— 191 vessels (368,000 tons) sunk, 54 were lost by collisions, 22 by British fire or explosion, and 60 ran ashore. The remaining 55 foundered, capsized or were lost from unknown causes. Taking British vesAt| DamSunk Damsels only, the pre-war monthly loss from marine risks was 18,000 aged tacked} caped Sun 5 aged tons, but during the war years it showed a continuous increase, namely, 21,000, 22,000, 24,000 and 26,000. Damaged Tonnage.—lIt has been estimated that the quantity 615 99 of shipping continuously out of service undergoing or waiting ITQ 387 repair averaged 1,000,000 tons, half of which was damaged by enemy action and half by marine risk. The British and foreign tonnage damaged by enemy action during the 6 quarterly periods 87 from Feb. 1917 varied between 253,000 tons and 378,000 tons; I2 80% of the total was British (1,550,000 tons), the rate of damage Losses by Surface Craft.—Of the rox vessels (562,900 tons) showing a marked decline during the later months of the war. The lost throughout the war, cruisers accounted for 48, raiders 61, average time that this tonnage was out of service was 5 months. armed merchant cruisers 27, and torpedo boats, etc. 55; 117 were As regards shipping damaged by marine risks, the average monthly British (averaging 3,800 tons) 43 allies (1,900 tons) and 31 neu- tonnage during the ro months of 1918 was 378,000 tons of British trals (1,200 tons). The most successful enemy vessel was the and 226,000 of foreign vessels, but these figures include quite raider “Möwe,” which in the 15 months from Jan. 1916 sank 38 minor damage. Nearly 40% was due to collision: and nearly vessels (33 British). The cruisers Emden and Karlsruhe in the 24% to machinery breakdown. About one-third of the casualties first four months of the war had 17 and 16 to their credit, all occurred in the English Channel and the East Coast. except one being British vessels averaging 4,000 tons. Two other The total tonnage of the monthly sailings of British vessels for raiders “Seeadler” and “Wolf” operating 2 and 6 months in ro9r7 overseas destinations other than near continental ports increased accounted for 12 and 10, each sinking 6 British vessels. The from about 5 million tons in 1917 to 6 million in 1918, while the armed merchantmen Kronprinz Wilhelm sank 9 British and 5 percentage of losses fell from about 44 in the first two quarters others and the Prinz Eitel Friedrich 5 British and 6 others, before of the unrestricted campaign to 3 in the October quarter, 14 in being interned in March and Feb. 1915 respectively. The 16 Jan. 1928, and to 1%, 14 and 1% in April, July and Oct. 1978. British vessels sunk by torpedo boats and by unidentified vessels Taking British and foreign vessels leaving U.K. ports for overaveraged 1,275 tons and the 39 others were about the same size. seas destinations the tonnage of the sailings increased from 64 Losses by Mine.—The chief centres in which mines were laid million in April to nearly 8 million in Oct. 1918, and the perby the enemy were the East Coast and the English Channel. centage losses during 1918 were highest in the April quarter at

558

SHIPPING

129 and lowest in October at just over 1%.

| that year, according to a parliamentary return, 1,305 sailing vesLosses Under the Convoy System.—During the spring of sels of 98,894 net tons were wrecked. This is 6.9% of the number 1917, the system of special routes for independent sailings was and 4-6% of the tonnage. Sailing vessels employed in the long gradually superseded by that of convoy. In the French coal trade, distance trades made only one or two voyages a year, and the i i ili i which occupied nearly 38,000 sailings during the war with } j an | smaller vessels employed inin tthe shorter trades were frequently laid average fou ct only ee the losses during the heaviest period | up for the winter months. During the four years 1826 to 1820, of the “sink-at-sight” campaign were 0-16%, while during 1918 | 4,720 sailing vessels were totally lost or an average of 1,180 they were reduced to 0-07%. The success of the convoys to | per year.

Scandinavia was marred by two costly surface attacks, the per-|

Safety through

Steam.—Although

287 steam

vessels of

centage of losses being 1-16%, which was afterwards reduced to| 29,501 net tons were already on the register in 1829 no record of

0-39%. Overseas shipping that was convoyed increased from 2,700 | losses of steam vessels appears to be given in the parliamentary i

il-Oct. to 7,700 for the same period in 1918, | papers of that year. The following table gives an imperfect vessels in April-Oct. indi1917 7,7 by marine risks 7 arising out of cation of the increasing safety to the while the losses—including tothose ship resulting from the sub-

convoy conditions—fell from 1-01% to 0.66%. ‘The grand total of vessels convoyed during the war under the British organization was nearly 90,000, the losses being 436 or approximately 4%. Area of Operations.—During the unrestricted campaign, the area of the enemy operations may be divided into four main groups (1) the English coast, (2) the western approaches north

stitution of sail by steam.

steam vessel in a year was three or four times greater than that travelled by the sailing vessel. Average number of vessels on the register

and south of Ireland, (3) the South Atlantic from Land’s End to the neighbourhood of the straits of Gibraltar, and (4) the

Mediterranean. Round the English coast, the losses from enemy

submarines showed little variation from the beginning of the camo : paign in Feb. 1917 until; the blocking of Zeebrugge and Ostend in April 1918, when the losses fell from an average of 56 vessels per month to 28. The east coast section suffered heavily in June 1918 mainly in the north-east convoy when 21 vessels were lost as compared with an average otherwise of seven. The English $ : mee Channel section was subjected to a burst of activity by the enemy in Dec. 1917 when the previous average of 22 vessels lost per month went up to 37, after which it fell to 23 and later to six. In the Irish Sea section, Feb. to April 1918 were bad months, the losses averaging 16 monthly compared with 5 and 4 per month respectively for the periods before and after that quarter. In the : second group (western approaches),

the fall monthly losses from 41 in the 6 months Feb. to July 1917 into the 4 in the subsequent months was attributable to the convoy system, as was also that 6 in the third area (South Atlantic) from 26 to 16 per

It is of course an understatement as it

makes no allowance for the fact that the distance travelled by the

Sail

231500 5,200 24406 21,600 17,000 12,500 9,900 7,600 6'300 6,200 6,000 5,800 ee TERET i 2 aS “xctuding losses of vessels

Average number of vessels totally lost or missing

Steam

pai 1,600 2,600

4,200 6,600

9,200 10,500 12,200

12,700

12,800 12,400 12,500 :se 15 7 7 = by enemy action and losses of vessels due

to mines. {Excluding losses belonging to the Irish Free State. due to mines.

**Excluding vessels

ae HRON The substitution of the intrinsi cally safer steam vessel for the

month. the Mediterranean, the losses in the 6 months Feb. to | saìling July 1917Inaverage vessel d 30 per month and in subsequent similar periods not only lowered the risk of loss to shipping as a | Whole but the has loss among sailing vessels, as such few sailing were 27, 21 and rr vessels per month.

vessels The improvement was | aS remain are only very occasio nally employed on the longer and

greater in the western Mediterranean than in the eastern. Protective

more dangerous routes or

at the more dangerous seasons. Measures.—Devices for the protection of individual ships include d “paravane” and “otter” gear for use against | theThe Hazards That Remain.— It remains true, however, that occupation of the seaman is hazardous. That part of the mines, smoke apparatus for spreading a screen against

and dazzle-painting, a colour scheme to create a confusi the enemy Registrar General a decennial supplement for England and Wales effect 1921, dealing with occupational mortality, after pointin as to the vessel’s course and speed. But the greatest onal g out the protect lay always in the watchfulness and resource of the officers ion | “ifficulty of preparing figures by which the mortality of seamen men of the merchan and trom all causes may be compared with the mortali t service, undismayed by the fact that 62% ty of all occupied males, comes to the conclusion of the vessels struck sank within rsminutes.

H. W. G.)

from

exceeds the SHIPPING: WRECK STATISTICS. About 1870, Samuel |Violencdisease Plimsoll, a Member e by 430%. of Parliament, commenced an agitation The loss of life among

that the scaman’s mortality average by 48.8% and his mortality from

seamen and against the overloading of ships and the sending to sea of unsea- wreck of or casualty to the vessel among passengers caused by has, however, notably diminworthy ships. This agitation led to the appointment royal | ished in recent years, commission on unseaw orthy ships. Important load-linofe alegisla| The following table shows in five yearly periods the loss of life tion followe

d and the freeboard mark on British vessels is still |(MONG Passengers and members of the crew from known as the Plimsoll mark. these causes from 1871 to r925. The roth century was a period

during which the British mer- | Lives Lost by Wrecks and Casualties at Sea to Vessels Belonging chant marine was rapidly growing numerically to the and in which at the ; same time sail was being replaced at first gradual United Kingdom* ly and then more Averages for five year periods rapidly by steam. The royal commission on unseaworthy ships, in Period Passengers lost the introductory paragraph of their prelimi Seamen. lost nary in Sept. 1873, drew attention to the danger of statistical report comparisons of re 406 wrecks “because with the employment of steamer 1,943 s a greater num- || 1881-85 ber of voyages may be made with fewer vessels R ” In spite of || 1886-90

considerable improvement in the quality and quantit y of official || 1891-95 statistics since Farrer’s day, it is not yet possible to relate the el a number of

wrecks to the number of voyages A lives lost to the number of persons employ or the number of ed on such voyages || I9r1—z5 and thus exposed to risk. tor0-20 On the 31st Dec.

1829, there were 18,823 sailing vessels on the | [1921725 _

United Kingdom register aggregating 2,1 70,458 net tons. During

11289 1,356 966

. l .

:

to

*From the Board of Trade Reports of Shipping Casualti es.

36 Bcc i

287

SHIPPING During 1926 only two to vessels in which they bers for 1925 and 1924 figures are much smaller

BOARD—SHIPPING

passengers lost their lives from casualties were travelling. The corresponding numwere four and five respectively. These than those relating to the pre-war periods.

REFERENCES: Parliamentary papers; Statistical Abstracts of the United Kingdom; Returns of Shipping Casualties and Deaths; Report of Royal Commission on Unseaworthy Ships (1873); Sea casualties and loss of life, Sir Westcott Abell, Journal of North East Coast Insti-

tutions of Engineers and Shipbuilders (1921); The Interpretation of Statistics relating to Shipping Casualties, and Loss of Life at sea, J. W. Verdier, Journal Royal Statistical Society (1922). (L. I.)

WRECK STATISTICS, UNITED STATES The statistics of wrecks and casualties at sea occurring to vessels of the United States are useful for comparative purposes only

since 1915. Before that time the figures reported by the United States Coast Guard regularly included disasters for foreign vessels on and near the American Coast.

za

eq|

y June 30

Casualties involving

Number | partial

of vessels | and unPalen

Kae

a

in-|

Vessels

ota Vovmng lost y | total loss| damaged

damage .

Tons

IQII-IS 1916-20 1921-25 Date

Ss

6,237 5,000 4,589

4,759 3,391 3:325

es Losses ieee to | Losses cargoesto Dollars

631,510 958,571 563,222

Tons

1,478 | 7,480,757 1,609 | 7,433,821 1,264 | 9,041,591 ‘ Lives lost

Passengers

Dollars

IQII-15 | 47,755,195] 11,707,413 | 86,947 1916-20 |197,202,420] 69,017,135| 49,445 1921—25 | 93,971,722| 21,872,325]

51,033

111,474 98,667

99:294

1,438 3:255 947

During 1926 there were 236 lives lost; number of vessels lost 982; wrecks involving total loss 254; casualties involving partial and unknown damage 728; vessels totally lost 93,539 tons; vessels damaged 2,015,068 tons; losses to vessels $15,596,857; losses to cargoes $4,324,475; 12,331 passengers and 21,970 crew. See reports of the United States Coast Guard, Treasury Department.

SHIPPING BOARD: see UNITED STATES SHIPPING BOARD. SHIPPING CONTROL COMMITTEE. A co-ordinating body appointed by the British Government on Jan. 27, 1916, to decide on the allocation of British ships to essential requirements of Britain and the Allies, and to make representations to the Cabinet regarding ships required for naval and military

purposes.

(See WAR CoNTROL OF SHIPPING.)

SHIPPING LINES AND

GROUPS.

The tendency for

a large number of comparatively small shipowning firms to spring up during a period of prosperity and to collect into groups in the ensuing depression has long been one of the regular cycles of the shipping business. Since the latter part of the roth century there has also been a general and increasing practice of combining big successful lines into huge groups. British Empire.—Under the British flag the principal groups are the Kylsant, Inchcape, Furness Withy, Cunard and Ellerman amalgamations. The group which takes its name from Lord Kylsant (Sir Owen Philipps) centres round the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co., which

maintains services to South America, the West Indies and north

Pacific. Numerous well known lines are associated with it. The Aberdeen Line runs to Australia and in 1928 absorbed the Aus-

tralian State shipping service (Australian Commonwealth Line). The Shaw Savill and Albion Co. covers New Zealand, Elder Dempster and Co. (African S.S. Co., British and African S.N. Co., Elder Line and Imperial Direct Line) are principally concerned in the west African trade. On the various South American trades, in addition to the parent R.M.S.P., are the Lamport and Holt, Nel-

son and Pacific S.N. Lines, while the group is also interested in the Mihanovitch fleet of river steamers on the Plate. The King Line

LINES

559

covers the general cargo trade; MacAndrews (including John Hall Jr. and Company) the Iberian business; the Glen and Shire Lines the Far East; the Moss S.S. Company the Mediterranean; the Union Castle Line East and South Africa; and Bullard King and Co. S. Africa and India. The White Star Line, purchased from the International Mercantile Marine in 1927 and bringing with it the Aberdeen and Shaw Savill businesses, is engaged on the American, Canadian and Australian trades. Numerous coastal, Irish Sea and Continental services are maintained by the Coast Lines (several small companies merged) and J. and P. Hutchinson. Among the group’s interests outside shipping are Harland and Wolff and A. McMillan and Son the shipbuilders, and the London Maritime Investment Company. The second big group is the Inchcape, at the head of which in 1928 was Lord Inchcape. The Peninsular and Oriental and British India Lines are the predominant partners, their interests being joined in 1914. Both are interested in the Indian, Eastern and Australian trades, the British India maintaining East African services in addition. The other companies connected with it include the P. and O. Branch Line (formerly Lund’s Blue Anchor) and the Orient Line, both to Australia. The New Zealand Shipping Company, Federal Line, James Nourse, Hain Line, Union S.S. Company of New Zealand, Australasian United Line, General Steam Navigation Company, Khedivial Mail Line, Burns Philp and Company, the Eastern and Australian Line and Euphrates and Tigris S.N. Company are all closely connected. Nearly all these companies confine themselves to regular services but the General S.N. Company is largely employed on the coasting and

continental trades and the Hain Line steamers are chartered all over the world. The group is also interested in shipbuilding on the Thames and Clyde and also in the English Channel. The Furness Withy group was in 1928 under the control of Sir Frederick W. Lewis. It includes a large number of minor companles for agency purposes and otherwise, but also a number of important regular lines. In addition to Furness Withy and Company itself, running principally to Canada and the United States, there is the British and Argentine S.N. Company, the British Empire Steam Navigation Company, the British Transoceanic Line, the Furness-Houlder-Argentine Line, the Gulf Line, the Prince Line, the Johnston Line, the Neptune Line, the Rio Cape Line, the Warren Line, Manchester Liners, Messrs. Harris and Dixon, Houlder Bros. and Company, Norfolk and North American Steam Shipping Company, Bermuda and West Indies Steamship Company and the Danube S.N. Company. The group also controls the management of the Cairn Line to Canada. The organisation of the group is extremely complicated and units are constantly being transferred from one section to another. From being originally interested almost entirely in the North Atlantic trade, Furness Withy’s activities extend nearly all over the globe and the firm possesses some of the finest cargo tonnage afloat. In addition to these shipowning concerns it has an interest in the British Maritime Trust, the Economic Insurance Company, the Queenstown Dry Dock Company, and the Blythswood Shipbuilding Company. The Cunard group, under the chairmanship of Sir Thomas Royden, includes the various North Atlantic and Mediterranean services of the Cunard Line itself, the American-Levant Line

(under the management

of Messrs. S. and J. Thompson)

the

Anchor Line which runs on the North Atlantic and Indian services and which includes the old Donaldson Canadian service, the Brocklebank and Well Lines, and the Commonwealth and Dominion Line of big cargo liners which is interested in the Australian, New Zealand and South African trades as well as the American. The Ellerman group, controlled by Sir John Ellerman, includes the Ellerman Line itself and the Bucknall, City, Papayanni, Hall and Wilson Lines, and Messrs. Westcott & Laurance. Its activities extend all over the globe, either"by itself or in conjunction with other concerns and like the Furness Withy group has a very complicated organisation which constantly changes. The Canadian Pacific Company has absorbed important concerns, such as the Elder Dempster company’s Beaver service and

560

SHIPPING

LINES AND

the Allan Line, but they have completely lost their identity. In addition to numerous services on the rivers, lakes and coasts of Canada it has both Transatlantic and Transpacific interests. Together with the Union Steamship Company of New Zealand (Inchcape group) it maintains the Canadian-Australian Line between Vancouver and Australia, alternative to the Suez route. The Alfred Holt group, almost invariably known as the “Blue Funnel” from the characteristic appearance of its ships, consists principally of the Ocean and China Mutual Companies, with close connections with certain local companies in the East and shipbuilding concerns at home. Its ships are most familiar in the Oriental, East Indian, North Pacific, South African and Australian ports. The firm was one of the pioneers in fast cargo tonnage and still makes it one of the principal features of its policy. The Intemational Mercantile Marine has of recent years become more and more United States in character, although many of its ships still fy European flags. It was a combine formed by the late J. Pierpont Morgan in 1902 and its sale to the Kylsant group of the White Star Line did not break up the combine, although it took away the Shaw Savill and Albion and Aberdeen interests. There still remain the Leyland Line under the British flag, the Atlantic Transport Line, partly British and partly American, the Holland America Line and the Red Star Line on the North Atlantic and the Panama-Pacific Line and the International Mercantile Marine Corporation on the intercoastal trade. (F. C. Bo.)

The United States—United States shipping may be divided into two broad groups: (1) domestic, including coastwise, intercoastal and Great Lakes shipping, and (2) foreign trade shipping. In the two groups there is a total of about 13,000,000 tons, and this is divided about equally. In the domestic group some of the important companies engaged in shipping are the Panama Pacific Line, an International Mercantile Marine Company subsidiary; the Luckenbach Line; the Williams Line; the Munson-McCormick Line; and the Argonaut and Calmar Lines. The Atlantic, Gulf and West Indies Lines, coramonly called the AGWI group, composed of the Clyde, Mallory, Ward and a few smaller concerns, is engaged partially in the domestic trade along the Atlantic Coast and partially in the foreign trade through its services to the West Indies and Central America. In the foreign trade group, distinction may be made between privately owned lines and government owned lines. Through the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 the United States Shipping Board established 35 lines, five of which were passenger services, from American ports to the various ports of the world having commerce with the United States. There are no United States flag lines operated between two ports foreign to the United States. Sixteen of the lines established have been sold and are now operated privately by United States firms. Among the larger American shipping concerns is the Dollar Steamship Line which operates passenger and cargo ships across the Pacific and also operates a fleet of seven passenger-cargo vessels in a round-the-world service. The bulk of the Dollar ships were purchased from the government. The Munson Steamship Line is the principal United States concern operating vessels from New York to the east coast of South America, while the Grace Line operates lines from both Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States to the west coast of South America. These two services carry both passengers and cargoes. Of the strictly cargo services, the largest private line is the American Export Lines which runs from North Atlantic ports of the United States to ports of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Others are: The American West African Line, the American South African Line, the Pacific Argentine Brazil Line operated

GROUPS

| Pacific coast ports to the Hawaiian islands and cargo services from | these American ports to Australi a, Philippine Islands and the Orient. The shipping board cargo lines are operated for the governmanment’s account through private shipping agencies, known as securing the in agents as act es compani These . operators aging of cargoes and general management of the ships. The one remaining government passenger line, the United States Lines, is operated direct by the United States Shipping Board Merchant Fleet Corporation which is the shipping board’s business corporation. This line is operated in the North Atlantic between New York, Southampton, Cherbourg and Bremen. In United States shipping it should also be noted that there is a large volume of tonnage coming under the class of so-called industrial carriers. The Standard Oil Company, the United States Steel Corporation, the United Fruit Company and the Ford Motor Company all maintain substantial fleets primarily for the trans-

portation of their own traffic.

(T. V. O’C.)

Other Countries.—There are also several groups on the Continent, particularly in Germany and France. In the latter country the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, is intimately associated with the Fabre Line, the Chargeurs Réunis, the Compagnie Sud Atlantique, the Transports Maritimes Line and the Fraissinet Company. This group shows every indication of further extensions. In 1928 the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, the Sud Atlantique, and the Chargeurs Réunis formed a company known as the Union Francaise d’Armement, to deal with matters concerning the interests of the three lines, fuel, victualling, agencies, and the like. In Germany the policy of amalgamation has produced the keenest rivalry between the two big concerns, the Hamburg American Line and the Norddeutscher Lloyd, who between them own the greater part of the tonnage under the national flag. The latter includes the Argo Line, the Roland Line, the Horn

Line, the Hamburg-Bremen-Afrika Line, the Seefahrt Co., the Hanseatic Co., and the Hansa Line, in addition to smaller concerns. The group also owns shipbuilding interests and in partnership with the Hamburg American Line has interests in the Deutsche Levante Line, the Deutsche Ost Afrika Line and the Woermann Line. In addition to these concerns in which they share an interest with the Norddeutscher Lloyd, the Hamburg American group has the Deutsche-Australische, Kosmos and Hugo Stinnes Companies, also the Hamburg South American Line. The big Italian group is headed by the Cosulich Line and includes the Lloyd Triestino, which before the war was the Austrian Lloyd, the Adria Line, the Marittima Italiana, the San Marco and the Puglia Lines, with other less important connections and considerable shipbuilding interests. There is also very close working between the various companies under State guidance quite apart from actual amalgamation. In northern Europe the principal groups are the Dan Brostrom group in Sweden, and the Forenede group in Denmark. The Japanese companies have followed the policy of total absorption more than amalgamation, the two principal concerns being the Nippon Yusen Kaisha and the Osaka Shosen Kaisha. Both maintain a network of services all over the globe. The tendency towards amalgamation in shipping appears to increase rather than decrease, particularly in periods of shipping depression. Compared with the huge groups mentioned, the independent shipping firms appear small, although there are many important ones still in service. Under the British flag the

most important are the Clan Line of cargo ships, Messrs. T. and J. Harrison, Andrew Weir’s Bank Line, the Bibby Line, Runciman’s

and Reardon Smith’s, while some of the tanker companies also

out of San Francisco to the east coast of South America, the

aggregate a big tonnage. In France there is the Messageries Maritimes, in Italy the

formed by the American Hawaiian Line and Matson Navigation Company. This group maintains passenger and cargo services from

companies, and in Denmark the East Asiatic Co., although the last-named has Swedish connections. (F. C. Bo.)

Oregon Oriental Mail which runs from Portland, Oregon, to the Orient, and the Tacoma Oriental Line which runs from Tacoma, Navigazione Generale Italiana, in Spain the Compania TransWashington, to the Orient. atlantica, in the United States such concerns as the Dollar and A large group which also has interests in the domestic trade is Matson Lines, in Holland the Rotterdam Lloyd and Nederland

SHIPPING SHIPPING ROUTES.

ROUTES

56I

Regular shipping routes have existed

shipping was the “Guinea trade” to the west coast of Africa, which

as long as regular shipping, originally as measures of safety but afterward as part of the intricate organisation of trade. For this reason they are constantly changing with changed trade and political conditions.

followed the ships of the fifteenth century explorers who were attempting to find a sea route to India. With the establishment of the regular slave trade this grew into a triangular route such as ship-owners frequently have to adopt in order to get the return cargoes which are an economic necessity. The regular run for British ships for nearly two centuries was out to the west coast of Africa with a general cargo of “notions,” across to the West Indies with slaves, and home with sugar and rum. With certain changes due to the fluctuating slave market this triangle continued until the abolition of slavery. The Portuguese were able to keep their secrets of the Indian trade for nearly a hundred years, but when it was opened to the English in the early 17th century, first to the islands and then to the mainland, this route was rapidly developed with a very necessary victualling station at the Cape of Good Hope. It was afterwards continued to China and when the East India Company lost its Indian monopoly in 1814 an alternative was found and it sent many of its ships to Australia with settlers and their stores, then on to China in ballast to load tea for Great Britain. . This tea trade attracted the attention of the American shipowners who, employing very much faster ships than the East Indiamen, worked up a big trade from the United States to China by way of the Cape with general cargo, collecting for the American and European markets. Their ships entered the British trade from China on the repeal of the Navigation Act, and for a time obtained the cream of the business but almost immediately afterwards the discovery of gold in California gave them such opportunity on a route that was protected from foreign competition that the Oriental trade was speedily abandoned. This superior speed was characteristic of American ships. In colonial days their shipping was very severely handicapped by legislation, but as soom as the United States attained full independence they established a lucrative trade along a regular lane from the New England States to the West Indian islands, particularly with the Spanish possessions from which they were debarred. It was to avoid the Spanish warships that the American shipbuilders first turned their attention to speed, and it had a very considerable influence on their trading operations. The direct route across the Atlantic from Britain to the United States was comparatively neglected until the end of the Napoleonic Wars, when the first of the fast sailing vessels which were to become famous as the Western Ocean Packets were started by enterprising Americans and soon included some of the finest ships afloat. Even when regular steamers were running the sailing packets maintained a large measure of their position, particularly in the emigrant traffic. The short distance and the big volume of passenger trade on the North Atlantic permitted fast and luxurious tonnage then just as it does to-day. In the earlier days of Atlantic steam navigation the coal difficulty necessitated a call at Halifax, which was abandoned when more economical machinery was evolved. Although the direct service is more than ever important, the post-war tendency is to revive such intermediate calls with the less expensive tonnage, while the biggest ships tap the Continental as well as the British

Early History.—In the older history of shipping routes several factors must be especially considered. One of these concerns the relatively small size of the vessels used; it often made coastwise routes advisable and it permitted far more river navigation than can be accomplished by the deep-sea ships of to-day. Another factor was the discovery or introduction of the compass, probably in the 13th century. By means of it methodical charting was made possible, supplanting the accident-and-report system of the earliest times. It must be said, however, that such early route-maps as the Periplus maris erythraei, of the 1st century, show an attentive study and systematic record of what had been discovered by the use of the old method. There were two other factors of the highest importance for the history of sea routes to the Orient. One was the discovery of the Indian ocean trade wind, which occurred, sọ far as Europe is concerned, at a time not far distant from the composition of the Periplus. As the story has come down to us, a marine tax collector in the Roman service was carried out into the Indian ocean by a high wind which maintained its direction steadily for many days. At the end of this adventure he was able to drop anchor in a port which proved to be in Ceylon. There he was made to understand that the wind set in alternate directions every six months and that he would be able to return to the Red sea after a certain interval and by the same means that had brought him out. This he did, with the result that the direct overseas route to India was often followed thereafter instead of the coastal one. However, as late as the 14th century, the Persian mariners still used the old route; they feared the long course because of the frail construction of their vessels. In still earlier times there existed a navigable channel from the

Nile to the Red sea—one which was silted up long before the end of the ancient period. Early shipping routes were thus strikingly influenced by accident as well as by discovery, and in no other field of endeavour has progress been more uneven. Although the coastal and island navigation of the remotest times was never discontinued in the Mediterranean, the Roman empire developed several important long routes. A notable one was that followed by the grain ships from Egypt, which, generally setting out from Alexandria, rounded Crete and the southern coast of Greece and thence made a run due westerly to the straits of Messina, after which the course was northwesterly to Ostia, where the grain was unloaded for Rome. The most dangerous part of this route, incidentally, seems to have been at the entrance to the harbour of Ostia. Another route was almost due south from Ostia, between Corsica and Sardinia, then north of the Balearic islands and then southwesterly along the Spanish coast to the Strait of Gibraltar. In the middle ages the main shipping routes substituted Venice

and Genoa for Rome as their Italian termini, while Alexandria maintained much of its ancient importance.

This was lessened,

however, by the use of Constantinople as the gate to Asia Minor trade by making use of the various Channel ports instead of the and the Far East and by the centralization of the eastern Mediter- Western. f ranean trade, for a considerable period, in Famagosta, on the The “Suez” Changes.—On the Eastern routes, the experiment island of Cyprus. of sending steam ships out to India by way of the Cape having As was only natural before the science of navigation was devel- proved too expensive to be practical, a new “overland route” was oped, the first regular trade routes were coasting, giving some established in which a proportion of the tonnage was kept in the element of safety both from weather and enemy. The Mediter- Indian Ocean, running from Suez, while other steamers carried the ranean, was crossed and recrossed by regular lanes at a very early passengers and cargo to Alexandria, the connection across the Isthdate, then the Baltic and Atlantic coast of Europe, while they mus of Suez being made by caravan. The expense, trouble and existed from the East African coast, Red sea and Persian gulf to discomfort of this route gave to the sailing ships which succeeded India from time immemorial. The Portuguese found this trade the East Indiamen, particularly the “Blackwall frigates,” the fully organised and flourishing when they entered the Indian Ocean greater part of the cargo and a proportion of the passenger busiin 1498. Even later than that, the overland route developed by ness to India, Australia and the East until the Suez canal was the Italian republics prospered, the sea portion being generally completed in 1869. This waterway changed all the principal trade lanes to the East. from Constantinople to Western Europe, Antwerp was one of the was not suitable for sailing vessels but favoured the steamship It principal entrepôts for this trade. One of the first long sea routes to be developed by European in every respect, so that sailing ship freights fell and it became

562

SHIPS’ FIGUREHEADS of passenger companies now maintaining

necessary to build tonnage for large capacity rather than for small ! but there are a number and a very big trade is done in addition to the cargoes at high charges. This sounded the death knell of the| a direct service . business r . first a as ship sailing the clipper. Within comparatively few years Changes.—The latest great influence on the trade class passenger carrier was doomed, although it still had good Manni very lanes is the cutting of the Panama canal. It has provided chances of profit from emigrants and special passengers. the of whole the to Europe from routes e alternativ shorter much In the last quarter of the 19th century the west-about route to| more case every almost in time in saving the Orient, New Zealand and Australia came into favour, the lines Pacific seaboard, the canal charges and the sometimes vexarunning across the Pacific from the Canadian and American ports than compensating for the permitted the establishment of a also has It in conjunction with the regular Atlantic services and trans-Con- tious regulations. the Eastern and the Western between trade al intercoast more new and more becoming are routes tinental railways. These reviving the old clipper route railways, the to opposition the in of States popular as an alternative to Suez and the trying passage Being technically a coasting servHorn. the round California to encourage to much done has nt establishme their while Red sea, ice, this is reserved for American ships and is attaining very large the regular trans-Pacific services which are now numerous. When the business of sailing vessels on the Australian trade proportions. The canal has also permitted the recent development of roundbecame more or less confined to the less expensive cargoes a new run the-world cargo services, from the North Pacific ports to the Oritriangle was evolved in addition to the regular out-and-home of way ent, through the East Indies to India, to New York via Suez and by Australia to Europe from was This ships. wool the of South of then back to the North Pacific ports along the usual intercoastal coast West the Cape with general cargo, on to the (F. C. Bo.) America with coal, and home with nitrates. Another triangle route. SHIPS’ FIGUREHEADS. The primitive ship was doublewhich existed for some years was out to the Cape with general rising cargo, railway materials or machinery, on to India in ballast and ended, with both stems, that is the stem and stern-post, home with jute. Direct trades during the last years of sail were above the planking of the hull; and nearly all types occurring from numerous, one of the most important being the grain trade from the earliest times till late in the middle ages are recognizable as California which was finally covered almost entirely by subsidised variants of this original. The high stems were commonly so conContinental sailing ships able to do the outward voyage in ballast spicuous as to be naturally the first parts chosen for decoration; and if only one of the two was decorated, that one was in most and still show a profit. Meanwhile the tramp steamship route in the Mediterranean cases the stem. These stem-head carvings represent the earliest also tended to form a triangle—out to Italy with coal, then to the figureheads. When, as in the oared war-galleys of ancient Greece Black sea in ballast and back with grain. This route has been and Rome, the stem-head ceased to be conspicuous, a wood carvchecked by the Russian revolution. Direct routes which absorbed ing or bronze casting was fixed as near to the traditional position and absorb much tramp tonnage are with coal out to the River as was convenient, so resembling the modern figureheads in

Plate and home with grain and to the St. Lawrence, generally in northern Europe. The few Roman figureheads which have surballast, for wheat. A certain number of sailing ships, nearly all vived from the period of the early empire are, save for their owned on the Continent, still contrive to secure charters for Aus- greater artistic merit, curiously similar to those which were applied to English men-of-war in the Napoleonic era. tralian grain from the steamers. Figureheads might be religious emblems, they might indicate The West African trade is now almost entirely direct, but in the case of South Africa the direct mail services are supplemented by the nationality of the ship, or might symbolize her name. Also intermediate services which reach the various East African ports as, with few exceptions, they represented living creatures, and as by way of the Mediterranean and Suez, then proceed to the Cape they are rarely if ever, in early times, found in conjunction with the oculus, it would seem that the mariner must have held, if and return direct to Europe by way of the West Coast. As regards the Continental trades, the opening of the Suez canal only as a secondary consideration, that they helped the ship to permitted a rapid development of the routes from the Mediter- find her way. The Phoenicians placed a horse’s head on the fore ranean to the East. The French, backed by the maritime interest stem, just as the English and the Dutch of the ryth and 18th of Napoleon III., and the Austrians took Immediate advantage of centuries employed their national lions as fgureheads; the Egypit: the Spaniards and the Italians followed later. Of these the tians used various religious emblems, which probably served also French and Austrians tended to keep their steam tonnage on the to designate individual ships, as did the figures of the holy family regular routes, leaving the tramp business to the sailing ships and of saints in the Spanish navy in the 18th century; the under their flags and to the steamers of their rivals. Romans of the empire would seem to have named at least some The development of German shipping was slower. Despite the of their ships after distinguished warriors, whose busts were emmaritime heritage of the Hanseatic League it suffered from initial ployed as figureheads, in this anticipating the practice which began discouragement, largely on account of the fear held by the author- in England in the 17th century and became increasingly common ities that passenger communications would drain the country of from the middle of the 18th century onwards. conscripts. In spite of this discouragement steamship companies When, about the 13th century, the temporary fighting stages were formed both in Hamburg and Bremen in the mid-zoth developed into integral parts of the hull, figureheads almost vancentury, principally for the transatlantic trade. The policy was ished for a long period; for the forecastle overlapped the stemreversed by Bismarck in 1885, when he offered a heavy subsidy head, and left no very obvious position in which a figure could for German mail services, particularly to Africa, Australia and be carried. A very small carving on the foremost part of the rail the East. German owners had always kept the greater part of of the forecastle itself, or a device placed under it across the stem, their tonnage on regular routes, never favouring the tramping were the available alternatives, but both were quite ineffective. business. Although the Italians were slow in starting on a large scale on the regular services, they have made great strides of recent years. Before the war they did a very extensive North Atlantic steerage business, but that was ruined by the restriction of U.S. immigration and many of the North and South American services have been combined to make the most of the seasonal trades. At the same time the Italians have adopted a very strongly protective policy to preserve for Italian ships their emigration, both across the Atlantic and to Australia. In the West, until the latter part of the rgth century, it was

quite usual for travellers from the United States to South America to travel by way of Europe, to the detriment of American trade,

They served, however, to keep the tradition of the figurehead alive while this old type of forecastle, often nowadays spoken of as the “carrack forecastle,” was universal in great ships. But in

Henry VIII.’s reign the important change began which substituted the galleon type of ship for the carrack type. The galleon, as one of her most conspicuous differences from the old type, had the forecastle cut back so that it ended abaft the stem. The figure might therefore have resumed its old place on the stem-head, had not the introduction of the beak-head afforded a still better position for it. By the end of the 16th century the galleon type was universal, and the foremost end of the beak-head bore the figure. The beak-head altered its shape continually, but as the “head” it

outlived the galleon and is found in the sailing man-of-war right

SHIPTON—SHIRE down to the days of steam; it always bore the figure at its fore end in men-of-war and in all merchantmen of similar build, the figure varying in size and general form to match with the changes of the head itself. It will be enough to indicate what were the fashions in the figure itself in England from Elizabeth’s reign onwards, for in no other country was the figure developed to a greater extent. At first a simple “beast” sufficed, being most commonly the lion or the dragon, the supporters of the royal arms. When the dragon was discontinued as a supporter, he ceased also to be used as a figure, and the lion during the 17th century was by far the most common figure. For great ships more elaborate figures were used, small groups, especially St. George and the dragon, which, though given always to ships bearing the name of St. George, was considered also as a national emblem. So too was a figure of Neptune. From Charles I.’s time also equestrian figures began to be used in the largest ships, and these in the 18th century developed to a portentous extent into the so-called “double” heads. From 1703 to 1727 the lion was established by order as the universal figure for men-of-war, but a dispensing order was nearly always forthcoming for the greatest ships. After 1727 any figure was allowed

to be used which did not exceed the lion in cost; but in 1796 an attempt was made to abolish figureheads as an unnecessary extravagance. This order at once became a dead letter, and instead of it another was issued which cut down the cost to so low a figure that no more than “devices” could be given to the great ships, and busts to the smaller. One of these “‘devices” survives as the existing figurehead of the Victory. After 1815 busts continued, but grew greatly in size and about 1840 developed into half length figures of vast dimensions. When, with the coming of steam, the old form of head fell out of use, the figure also became obsolete; but an attempt was made for several years to provide some sort of a substitute which usually took the form of a badge or scutcheon on each side of the stem. The last ships in the Navy to have figureheads were the sloops of the Odin class, which, indeed, served with them in the World War of 1914. i See L. G. Carr Laughton, Old Skip Figureheads and Sterns, illustrated by Cecil King, R.I. (L. G. C. L.)

SHIPTON, MOTHER, a reputed witch and prophetess who is supposed to have lived in early Tudor times. There is no really trustworthy evidence of her existence, but tradition has it that her maiden-name was Ursula Southill, Sowthiel or Southiel, and her parents were peasants, living near the Dropping Well, Knaresborough, Yorkshire, and that she was born about 1486-1488. Her mother, Agatha Southill, was a reputed witch, and Ursula, who was phenomenally ugly, was regarded by the neighbours as “the Devil’s child.” When about twenty-four she married a builder of

York, Tobias Shipton. Her most sensational prophecies had to do with Cardinal Wolsey, the duke of Suffolk, Lord Percy and other men prominent at the court of Henry VIII. She is said to have died at Clifton, Yorkshire, in 1561, and was buried there or at Shipton. Her whole history rests on the flimsiest authority, but her alleged prophecies had an extraordinary hold on the popu-

lar imagination. The suggestion that Mother Shipton had foretold the end of the world in 1881 caused most poignant alarm in rural England in that year, the people deserting their houses, and spending the night in prayer in the fields, churches and chapels. This latter alleged prophecy was one of a series of forgeries to which Charles Hindley, who reprinted in 1862 a garbled version of Richard Head’s Life, confessed in 1873.

See Richard Head, Life and Death of Mother Shipton (London, 1684); Life, Death and the whole of the Wonderful Prophecies of Mother Shipton, the Northern Prophetess (Leeds, 1869) ; W. H. Harrison, Mother Shipton investigated (1881); Journ. of Brit. Archaeo. Assoc. xix. 308. Mother Shipton’s and Nixon’s Prophecies, with an introduction by S. Baker (1797).

SHIR: see Bart.

i

S

563

on the west attain 11,000 ft. It is approached on the north through chains of hills which separate the plain of Mervdasht, where are the ruins of Persepolis; and on the south from the Persian gulf through difficult mountain passes, the highest of which attain 7,400 ft. The city is irregularly circular in plan and has a mud wall flanked by semi-circular towers, about 4 m. in circuit, but the suburbs have extended far beyond the enceinte. There are six gates and the town within the walls is divided into eleven quarters, one of which, the Mehalleh Yahudi, is inhabited exclusively by Jews numbering 2,200. The population has been very variously estimated: at 53,600 in 1884, 38,000 in 1900, and at 60,000 in 1904; no exact figures of more recent date are available. Shiraz can make no claim to eminence by reason of its great antiquity. The general location is certainly ancient, as evidenced by the Achaemenian and Sasanian ruins in the vicinity—at Persepolis (some 45 m. N.E.) and elsewhere; but according to Mohammedan authors the town arose only after the Mohammedan conquest. Shiraz owes most of its architectural distinction to Karim Khan Zand (1751-79) who governed it as regent under the Safavid dynasty and made it his capital; but much of his work was destroyed by the eunuch ruler Agha Mohammed Khan, who razed to the ground the stone ramparts and replaced them by the existing mud wall. Of its fifty considerable mosques, the Jami Atiq is amongst the most noted and ancient. The largest mosque, not only in Shiraz but in all Persia, is the Masjid i Nau, or New Mosque, built by Atabeg Sa‘d bin Zangi, ¢. 1200, a building reconstructed out of his own palace; while perhaps the most beautiful is the

Jami i Vakil of Kerim Khan built about A.D. 1766.

The gardens (bagh) and rose-bowers of Shiraz and its out-

skirts are famous and some of these pleasure-grounds, despite neglect, retain much of their original beauty. Close to the Bagh i Dilgushi, one of the most conspicuous of these gardens, north of the city, is the Sa‘diyyeh, an enclosure planted with cyprus and orange trees which holds the tomb of the celebrated mystic poet Sa‘di; and in a cemetery nearby is the Hafiziyyeh with the tomb of the poet Hafiz, a sarcophagus of Yezd marble on which two of the poet’s odes are chiselled in relief. The true

renown of Shiraz rests largely on the fame of these her two great sons and on other distinguished men she has given to Iran. It was also the birthplace of the religious reformer called the Bab. Shiraz is an important trade centre and point of departure of passable motor roads: north, via Isfahan and Qum, to Tehran; north-east to Yezd; east to Kerman; and south-west to Bushire. The most noted product is wine of the Khullar vineyards, 30 m. N.W. of which, however, only a small quantity is exported, religious scruples preventing its production on a large scale. The town is noted for its silver-work, and it manufactures mosaics called Khatam-Kari, cloths, brocades and silk-floss, and is the centre of a rug industry. The climate though healthy is subject to extremes; the absolute maximum observed over a number of years was 113° Fahr. and the absolute minimum 21°. The town was laid in ruins by the earthquakes of 1813, 1824 and 1853, which also caused great loss of life. See G. N. Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question (1892); E. G. Browne, A year among the Persians (1893 and 1926); A. V. Williams

Jackson, Persia past and present (1906).

(P. Z. C.)

SHIRE, a river of East Central Africa, the only tributary of

the Zambezi navigable from the sea. The Shiré (length about 370 m.) issues from the southernmost point of Lake Nyasa and almost immediately enters a shallow sheet of water called Malombe or Pa-Malombe, 18 m. broad, and 12 or 13 m. long. A shifting bar of sand obstructs the end of Malombe nearest Nyasa, but does not prevent navigation. Below Malombe the bed of the Shiré deepens. The river flows through a mountainous

country, and in its descent to the Zambezi valley forms rapids

rendering its middle course for a distance of 60 m. SHIRAZ, the capital of the province of Fars in Persia, in and cataracts, most southern and the finest of these cataracts The . unnavigable | m. r80 and Tehran from 29° 38” N., 22° 40 E., 530 m. by road Cataract or Falls, after Sir Roderick Murchison the called is N.E., by E. of Bushire (112 m. crowfly). The city stands 5,200 who identified himself during the midgeologist, the Murchison, well a in stream, small a of bank right the on level sea ft. above l exploration in Africa. In geographica with epoch Victorian which watered plain about 7 m. wide, surrounded by mountains

564

SHIRE—SHIRLEY

passing the cataracts the Shiré falls 1,200 ft. From the station called Katunga, a short distance below the cataracts, shallowdraught steamers can navigate the river when in flood (JanuaryMarch) to its junction with the Zambezi, and thence proceed to the Chinde mouth of the main stream. The scenery of the lower Shiré is very picturesque, the spurs of the plateau forming bold, rocky crags overhanging the water. The river is studded with small islands usually covered by thick grass. A little before the Zambezi is reached the country becomes flat. The Shiré joins the main river in about 35° 25’ E., 17° 50’ S., at a

point where the Zambezi is of great width and presents in the

dry season many narrow winding channels, not more than 3 ft. deep, with intervening sandbanks. The lower part of the Shiré is in Portuguese territory; the upper part is in the British Nyasaland Protectorate, to which it is the natural highway. Below Port Herald the Shiré is navigable all the year round.

(See ZAMBEZI and BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA.) SHIRE, one of the larger administrative divisions in Great

Britain, now generally synonymous with “county” (g.v.), but the

word is still used of smaller districts. The Anglo-Saxon shire was an administrative division next above the hundred and was pre-

sided over by the ealdorman and the sheriff (q.v.). SHIRE MOOT, an assembly of the free men of a shire for judicial, fiscal, and other administrative business, It is first

mentioned in the reign of Edgar (958-975), and then probably consisted of all the free Jandholders of the shire. In course of time the burden of suit to this court became attached to particular estates, and by the 13th century the number of persons present at a shire court was small.

Each shire moot met at a

specified place, and in the roth century twice a year only, though more frequent sessions were held in later centuries. The shire court received fresh importance in the 12th century from the occasional presence of royal justices itinerant, and at a later time it came to play an important part in the machinery by which members were elected to parliament from the counties. SHIRLEY or SHERLEY, SIR ANTHONY (1565~c. 1635), English traveller, was the second son of Sir Thomas Shirley

(1542-1612), of Wiston, Sussex. Educated at Oxford, he gained same military experience with the English troops in the Netherlands and also during an expedition to Normandy in 1591 under Robert Devereux, earl of Essex; about this time he was knighted by Henry IV. of France, which brought upon him Elizabeth’s displeasure and a short imprisonment. In 1596 he conducted a predatory expedition along the western coast of Africa and across to Central America, but owing to a mutiny he returned to London in 1597. In 1598 he led a few English volunteers to Italy to take part in a dispute over the possession of Ferrara; this, however, had been accommodated when he reached Venice, and he decided to journey to Persia to promote trade between England and Persia and to stir up the Persians against the Turks. He was well received by the shah, Abbas the Great, who made him a mirza, or prince, and granted certain rights to all Christian merchants. Then, as the shah’s representative, he visited Moscow, Prague, Rome and other cities, but the English Government would not allow him to return to his own country. For some time he

was in prison in Venice, and in 1605 he went to Prague and was

sent by the emperor Rudolph II. on a mission to Morocco; after-

wards he went to Lishon and ta Madrid. The king of Spain appointed him to command an expedition in the Levant, which failed. After this he was deprived of his command. Shirley, who was a count of the Holy Roman empire, died at Madrid some time after 1635. His brothers Thomas (1564-c. 1620) and Robert (¢. 1581-1628) were also great travellers. sir Anthony Shirley wrote: Sir Anthony Sherley: his Relation of

kis Travels inta Persia (1613), the original manuscript of which is in the Bodleian library at Oxford. There are in existence five or more accounts of Shirley’s adventures in Persia, and the account of his expedition in r596 is published in R. Hakluyt’s Voyages and Dis-

caveries (1809-12). See also The Three Brothers: Travels and Adventures of Sir Anthony, Sir Robert and Sir Thomas Sherley in

Persia, Russia, Turkey and Spain (1825); E. P, Shirley, The Sherley

Brothers (1848), and the same writer's Stemmata Shirleiana again 1873).

(1841,

SHIRLEY or SHERLEY, JAMES (1596-1666), English

dramatist, was born in London in September 1596. His career of playwriting extended from 1625 to the suppression of stage plays by parliament in 1642. He was educated at Merchant Taylors’ school, St. John’s College, Oxford, and Catherine Hall, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in or before 1618. His first poem, Echo, or the Unfortunate Lovers (of which no copy is known, but which is probably the same as Narcissus of 1646), was published in 1618. He took orders and held a living near St. Albans, which

he left on his conversion to Catholicism. He was then (1623-25) master of St. Albans grammar school.

Shirley settled at Gray’s

Inn, London, in 1625, and for eighteen years was a prolific writer for the stage, producing more than thirty regular plays, tragedies and comedies, and showing no sign of exhaustion when a stop was

put to his occupation by the Puritan edict of 1642. Between 1636 and 1640 Shirley went to Ireland, under the patronage apparently of earl of Kildare, and three or four of his plays were produced in Dublin. On the outbreak of war he seems to have served with the earl of Newcastle, but soon returned to London. He supported himself chiefly by teaching, publishing some educational works under the Commonwealth. Besides these he published during the period of dramatic eclipse four small volumes of poems and plays, in 1646, 1653, 1655 and 1659. Wood says that he and his second wife died of fright and exposure after the great fire, and were buried at St. Giles’s-in-the-Fields on Oct. 29, 1666. Shirley constructed his own plots out of the abundance of materials that had been accumulated during thirty years of unexampled dramatic activity. He worked with confident ease and buoyant copiousness on the familiar lines, contriving situations and exhibiting characters after types whose effectiveness on the stage had been proved by ample experience. His scenes are ingeniously conceived, his characters boldly and clearly drawn; and he never falls beneath a high level of stage effect. Shirley’s tragedies are: The Maides Revenge (acted, 1626; printed, 1639); The TZraytor (licensed, 1631; printed, 1635), which Dyce reckoned as Shirley’s best tragedy; Love’s Crueltte (1631; printed, 1640); The Duke’s Mistris (acted, 1636; printed, 1638); The Polititian (acted, 1639; printed, 1655); The Cardinal (acted, 1641; printed, 1652), a good example of Shirley’s later style, and characterized by Edmund Gosse as perhaps the last great play produced by the giants of the Elizabethan age. His comedies are: Love Tricks, or the School of Complement (licensed, 1625; printed under the latter title, 1631); The Wedding (licensed, 1626; printed, 1629); The Brothers (acted, 1626; printed, 1652); The Wittie Faire One (acted, 1628; printed, 1633); The Gratefull Servant (licensed in 1629 as The Faithful Servant; printed, 1639); Changes: Or Love in a Maze (acted and printed, 1632); Hide Parke (acted, 1632; printed, 1637); The Ball (acted, 1632; printed, 1639); The Bird in a Cage (acted and printed,

1633), ironically dedicated to William Prynne; The Young Admirall

(licensed, 1633; printed, 1637) ; The Gamester (played at court, 1634;

printed, 1637), written at the command of Charles I., who is said

to have invented or proposed the plot; The Example (acted, 1634; printed, 1637); The Opportunity (licensed, 1634; printed, 1640) ; The Goronatzon (licensed, 1635, as his, but printed, 1640, as by Fletcher); The Lady of Pleasure (licensed, 1635; printed, 1637); The Constant

Maid, or Love will find out the Way, printed in 1640 under the former

title with St. Patrick for Ireland; The Royall Master (acted and printed, 1638, ed. with critical essay in C. M. Gayley’s Representative English Comedies, New York, 1914), an excellent comedy of intrigue, with an epilogue addressed to Strafford; The Douhtfull Heir (printed, 1652), licensed as Rosania, or Love's Victory in 1640; The Gentleman of Venice (licensed, 1639; printed, 1655); The Imposture (acted, 1640; printed, 1652) ; The Sisters (licensed, 1642; printed, 1653) ; The

Humorous Courtier (perhaps identical with The Duke, licensed, 1631),

printed, 1640; The Court Secret (printed, 1653). Poems (1646), by James Shirley, contained “Narcissus,” and a masque dealing with the Judgment of Paris, entitled The Triumph of Beautie. A Contention

for Honour and Riches (1633) appeared in an altered and enlarged

form in 1659 as Honoria and Mammon. In 1653 a selection of his pieces was published as Siz New Playes. He wrote the magnificent entertainment presented by the members of the Inns of Court to the king and queen in 1633, entitled The Triumph of Peace, the scenery being devised by Inigo Jones and the music by W. Lawes and Simon Ives. In this kind of composition he had no rival but Ben Jonson. His Contention of Ajax and Ulysses (printed, 1659) closes with the well-known lyric, “The Glories of our Blood and State.” The standard edition of Shirley’s works is The Dramatic Works

and Poems of James Shirley, with Notes by William Gifford, and

Additional Notes, and some Account of Shirley and his Writings, by

Alexander Dyce (6 vols., 1833). A selection of his plays was edited

SHIRLEY—SHOCK

565

(1888) for the “Mermaid” series, with an introduction by Edmund |which presses against a set of peripheral coiled springs, and so Gosse. See R. S. Forsythe, The relations of Shirley’s plays to the Starting and variable impulses are absorbed quickly by the springs Elizabethan drama (1914).

SHIRLEY, WILLIAM

(1694-1771), colonial governor of

Massachusetts, was born at Preston in Sussex, England, on Dec. 2, 1694. He studied law, entered the Middle Temple, emigrated to Massachusetts in 1731, was appointed “the King’s only advocategeneral in America” (z.e., of all New England except Connecticut) in 1734, and in 1741, while representing Massachusetts in a boundary dispute with Rhode Island, was appointed governor. The most important event of his administration was the conquest of Louisburg in 1745. The expedition was undertaken on his suggestion and its success was largely due to his energy and enthusiasm. In Sept. 1749, £183,650 (English) in coin was brought to Boston to cover the outlay of Massachusetts, and largely through Shirley’s influence this was used for the redemption of outstanding paper money, thus re-establishing the finances of the province, a subject to which Shirley had given much attention. Both in the colonies and in England, whither he returned in 1749 om leave of absence, Shirley kept up an active agitation for the expulsion of the French from the whole of Canada. He went back to Massachusetts as governor in 1753; led an unsuccessful expedition against Ft. Niagara in 1755, and after the death of Gen. Edward Braddock (1755) until June 1756 was commanderin-chief of all the British forces in America. In Sept. 1756 he was recalled to England and was succeeded as governor by Spencer Phips. He was governor of the Bahamas until 1770, then again ‘returned to Massachusetts, and died at Roxbury, March 24, 1771. He published a Journal of the Siege of Louisbourg (1745), and The Conduct of General William Shirley Briefly Stated (1758).

SHOA, the southern of the four former principal provinces of the Abyssinian empire. Shoa from about the middle of the roth century till nearly the close of the 13th century was the residence of the Abyssinian sovereigns, who had been driven out of Axum, their former capital. About 1528 Shoa was overrun by Mohammedan invaders and was for over a century afterwards a prey to Galla raiders. It remained independent of northern Abyssinia until 1855 when the emperor Theodore reduced it to submission. In 1889 Menelek II., king of Shoa, on the death of the emperor John, made himself master of the whole of Abyssinia. The prin-

cipal town, Addis Ababa (q.v.), is now the capital of the empire (see ABYSSINIA).

SHOCK ABSORBER

is an elastic medium which absorbs

the heavier shocks given to road vehicles. One type consists of two arms pivoted together, with their ends connected to the frame and axle. Tension is imparted to the pivot joint by flat friction discs, or by a band brake with friction lining, as in the absorber made by Frank Smith and Co. Ltd., of Elland, and shown here. As the axle rises the arms move towards one another, which movement acts on the tension spring so allowing the band to slide freely round the brake drum. On the rebound the arms separate, and the band coils round the drum, thus TENSIONING BOLT absorbing the excess energy stored

up in the spring

the compression movement.

during sy courtesy or FRANK SMITH (ELLAND)

The dealt

Seance ae eee

tensioning bolt has four indicat- ee A> TOR ee ie ing grooves in its head to enable

uniform adjustment to be given to each absorber. Grease is supplied to the friction surfaces by a special lubricant packed inside the drum, and automatically feeding through two slots to the friction surfaces. To assist lubrication under all climatic conditions

a paddle is fitted, with a hexagon head, to be oscillated with a spanner at about every 1,500 miles. There are many types of shock absorbers in use in the United States on motor vehicles. The term shock absorber is also applied to spring fittings in large power chain drives for factory and other installations. Instead of making the sprocket-wheel solid, it has a separate rim

without stressing the chain.

SHOCK

and COLLAPSE.

A severe injury which is not

sufficient to kill may yet so derange the mechanism of the body that even a casual observer can correctly judge how little extra hurt would be necessary to cause death. In lesser degrees of injury a trained observer is able to detect derangements which must be regarded as early stages of the more serious conditions which compel observation. The name given to this depressed condition of the body is “shock” and when consequent on injury it Is known as traumatic shock. Shock has been studied chiefly in connection with injury and many would limit use of the term to undeniable however that conditions to those produced by severe external accidents of disease, e.g., perforation

the results of trauma. It is of the body very similar injury may follow various of a gastric ulcer or stran-

gulation of a coil of intestine—so that it is wise to take a broader

view of the subject. This is the more necessary since Dale has

shown that injection into the body of minute doses of histamine— a protein decomposition product—will produce an almost exact simulation of shock. Similar symptoms may also be produced by the entry into the circulation of poisons formed in obstructed small intestines, or of products of muscle-disintegration after injury, or of bacterial products in peritonitis. It is convenient therefore to apply the term shock to the common state and to designate the particular type by a qualifying adjective, e.g., traumatic, toxic, protein or haemorrhagic shock. The word collapse is rather loosely used to indicate the same condition as shock. Various contradictory and unsatisfactory efforts have been made to distinguish between shock and collapse. There is no doubt that collapse suggests something rapid and a close approximation to the common significance of the term would be “the rapid onset or aggravation of the symptoms of shock.” The symptoms of severe shock are very characteristic and consist chiefly of a failure of the peripheral circulation with accompanying (and partly consequent) diminution of all the metabolic processes of the body. There is in addition some increased activity of the sympathetic system as shown by the sweating and dilated pupils. The affected person is usually pale or livid, the extremities and nose cold, the pulse small and weak, and frequently more rapid than normal. The blood-pressure is as a rule lowered and tends to dimmish as the condition progresses. The mental processes are commonly sluggish and the muscles relaxed. The secretions are diminished with the exception of sweat which may be poured out in great quantities. Though pain itself may produce shock yet in severe cases of shock, pain is usually not a complaint. The temperature is usually subnormal, registering 95° or 96° F. The clinical measure of the degree of shock is usually made by an estimation of the blood-pressure. In severe shock the systolic blood-pressure usually goes below roomm. of mercury and sometimes drops to 80 or even 6omm. Recovery rarely takes place if a lower register than 50mm. is reached. Sometimes the systolic pressure does not fall so low but the pulse-pressure (difference between systolic and diastolic pressures) drops from the normal 50 down to as little as zomm. These measurements afford a ready proof of circulatory failure. Though in well-defined shock all the indications are present there are many occasions when one or more of the classical symptoms are wanting. Occasionally a slow pulse may accompany even severe shock whilst very obvious appearance of shock (subnormal temperature, sweating, pallor) may exist with only a slight or even no fall im blood pressure. Mental dullness is another rather variable factor for in many cases of toxaemic shock the mind may be very alert. , The pathology of shock has been the subject of much research and diference of opinion. Most of the experimental work has been concerned with traumatic shock and has been performed on animals. Clinical work has been concerned chiefiy with shock following operation—a particular type of traumatic shock, It is agreed that prolonged over-stimulation of peripheral nerves will

cause shock in proportion to the intensity of the stimulus and the

'·

SHODDY-SHOE (4) Acute bacterial infection must be dealt with, A Hmb with number of nerve endings involved. Crile showed that if the nerve was anaesthetized so that the nerve impulse could not pass, then gas gangrene must be amputated, the decomposition products in shock was diminished. He thought that s ho ck resulted from obstructed intestines must be drained by relief of obstruction or exhaustion or inhibition of the vaso�motor centre in the medulla exteriorly, etc. One of the latest methods of treating shock has for its aim the whereby blood stagnated in some of the smaller paralysed and dilated arterioles, and the circulation in the vital centres be· encouraging of metabolism. The patient is given an injection of came in&ufficient. It bas since been shown that the vaso-motor glucose t ogether with a proportionate amount of insulin to ensure centre is not paralysed in shock. the metabo lis m of the glucose in the body. See W. B. Cannon, TraWtUJtic Slloell (New York, 19a3, bibl.); Med. Yandell Henderson suggested that shock was due to over oxygenation of the blood (acapnia) leading to insuffic ient respiration Research Co'!!lcil's Special Reports, Nos. as and 27; Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., vols. xu., J9J8-I9 and xv. I92J-u (Sect. Obst. and and d e fi cient circulation, but the view has not gained general (V. Z. ·� acceptance. . . , first applied and term o pr o factory a y bab l ngm m SHODDY, It is a fact that in shock there is a diminished alkalinity of the to the waste thrown off or "shed" during the process of wool blood and some hold the view that a cidosis is the cause of shock �anufacture. It is now the name give� to a s pe cial trpe of f�bIt 1s much more likely a consequence than a cause. . m atenals which r a remanu actured matenals, ··�·· Malcolm found that in the course of shock developing during nc m de f om but have operat ion there was a gr adually increasing c on traction of the have already been spun 1nto yarn and woven mto cloth b�en to� up or "ground up" (as this operation is termed tech­ peripheral arteries with a diminution of the volume but increase term in the rate of the pulse. He stated that the fluid part of the �1cally) �nt. o a tib�ous mass,. and respun �nd rewoven. The . reman­ h c of su made fabr1cs s all appli�d som to es oddy ttm IS h onl � l though cou surmise the y he d reduced blood was gradually exact mechanism of the reduction. This view has been confirmed ufacturcd matenals, of whi ch there are many types, such as be con­ and to -day an essential fact is that the volume of the blood in "mungos," "extracts," "flocks," etc., but strictly it sho uld Eng­ from made originally n duced oth l o pr d c a fabrics o from t e fi ffia W . cases in shock insu reduced ith n of circulation is greatly from dent amo unt of blood in circulation metabolis m diminishes and lish and the longer cross-bred wools. Mungo is produced all the vital centres are starved. F �r a time the blood-pressure f abrics originally made from Botany and short fine wools; ex­ is mai n t ained by the contraction of the arteries, but ultimatel y 1 t ra ct is the wool fibre obtained from goods originally composed of wool and cotto n from which the cotton has been " extracted " vaso-constriction cannot ma i nt ain blood-pressure and fi nal 1 by sulphuric acid or some other agent; and flocks mostly come of the circulation follows Now fluid may be rapidly lost from the circu la t ion n ot o nl y 1 from milling, raising an d cropping mach ines . The operJtions of converting rags, tailors' clippings , etc., Into directly by haemorrhage , but also by extreme dia rrhoea as in cholera, profuse sweating as in some severe colics and toxae- these remanufactured ma terials are as follows: dusting, to ren­ m ias , or rapid effusion into the peritoneal cavity as in so me cases der the sub sequent operations as healthy and agreeable as pas­ of perfo rative peritonitis; moreover certain poisons may in· si ble ; seaming, i.e., taking out every little bit of sewing thread rrease the permeability of the capi l la ries or possibly paral ys e the (unless the rags are for extracting) in orde r that a go o d "spin'' contractile power of the minute blood vessels and thus cause may result ; sorting into the various qualities and colours; oiling, local stagn a tion and loss to the general circula ti on of a larg e to cause the fibres to g li de upon one another. and thus separate so far as possible without breakage; and finally grin ding , i.e, tearamoun t of blood. It would appear therefore that shock and collapse arc due to in g up into a fibrous mass which may be rea di ly !>pun into threads c ircul a to ry and metabolic failure con sequent on a grave diminu - The last-named operation is usually spoken of as "grinding," but tion of the amount of fluid in circulation. This flu id leaves the really it is more of a teasing -out operation. the object being to blood vessels either as the result of continuous and extreme reflex preserve the length of the fibre so far as possible. The rcmanufac­ vaso-constriction, or as the result of toxins rendering the smaller tured materials arc necessa rily very short in fibre , so that it 1s blood vessels more permeable, or as a consequence of great loss usually necessary to mix, i.e., "blen d ," some better material with of fluid by sweating, effusion or haemorrhage. In a few extreme t hem to carry the bulk t hrou gh the machines into the yam. With cases toxins may paral yse the vaso-motor centre. Shock which this obj ect in view, som etime s good wool or noils (the short from ensues immediately after an injury is called pnmary and is due combing), but more often cotton, is e mployed . The yams thus to reflex nervous inftuence; secondary traumatic shock comes on spun are in the majority of cases woven into pieces as weft yarns . 24 hours after the infl ict ion of an injury and is probably due to the warps us ua lly being cotton; but there are some exceptions, a abso rp t ion of toxic products. Mental shock produced by s evere good mungo blend being readily woven as warp (See also YARN.) SHOE or BOOT is a covering for th e human foot with a emotion ma y perhaps be due to temporary cardiac failure. The t reat ment of shock depends upon an u nderstanding of somewhat stiff sole and a top of li ght er material, usually leather, the main featu res of its mechanism (I) I nj urio us stimuli must though many other materials are used. The simplest f oot - protec be a voided or diminished as much as possible; ( 2) the body heat tor is the sandal , which consists of a sole attached to t he foot, must be main tained ; (3) the fluid of the circulation must be re- usually by leather thongs. The use of this can be tra ced back to plenisbc d; and (4) foci from whirh shock producing toxins are a ve ry early period; and the sandal of plaited grass, palm fronds, being absorbed must be dealt with. These fo ur requirements hold leather or other material still continues to be the most com mon foot-covering among oriental races. Where climate dem anded for both prophylaxis and cure of the shocked condition. (t) The greatest care has to be taken to avoid traumatism. greater pro te ct ion for the foot, the primitive races shaped a rude In operati ons gent lenes s is essential. In giving anaesthetics it shoe out of a single piece of untanned hide; this was laced with a must be re�emhered tha t tht•y intensify any shock. Nerve block· thong, and so made a complete covering . Out of these two ele­ ing to st op peripheral stimuli may be advisable. Pain is t reated ments-sole without upper and upper without sole-arose the perfected shoe and boot , consisting of a combination of both. by adequate doses of morphia. (2) The diminished metabolism shown by the subnormal tem- The boot proper differs from the shoe in reaching up to the knee, perature is treated by a pplicat ions of warmth and avoidance of as exemplified by such forms as jack-boots, t op boots , Hessian further exposure. Warm blankets, radiant heat, hot water bottles , boots and Wellington boots, but the term is in England now com­ or any suit able source of heat can be tried. manly applied to "half-boots" or "ankle-boots " which reach only (3) The fluid lost to the ci rculation is made good by injection above the ankle. A collection illustrating the numerous forms and of normal saline solution per rectum, subcutaneously or intra• varieties of foot-covering, formed by Jules Jacquemart, is in the venously. A 6 per cent so lution of RUm acacia in saline was recom· Cluny Museum in Paris. mended by Bayliss as being less rapidly lost again from the The simplest foot-covering, largely used throughout Europe is permeable vessels. Blood transfusion (q.v.) is very valuable when the wooden shoe (sabot) made from a single piece of wood much blood bas been lost. cut into shoe form. Analogous to this is the dog of the midland

1

Gyn�.

_

·

�

failure !

­

·

roughly

Note: This page from 1929 edition.

SHOE-BILL-SHOOTING counties· of England. Clogs, knowa also as .pattens, are wooden I territory. This possibility of utilizing captured forces against their soles to which shoe or boot uppers are attached. Sole and heel I former masters and the altering values of the different men render are made of one piece from a block of maple or ash two inches Sho-gi a very clifticult and complicated game. See E. Falkener, Games Ancient ancl Orle11tal (1892); the Fielcl thick, and a little longer and broader than the desired size of shoe. The outer side of the sole and heel is fashioned with a long (Sept. Ii'04) chisel-edged implement, ealled the dogger's knife or s tock ; a SHOGUN, in Japan, originally merely a general in command s eco nd implement, called the groover, makes a groove about one- in the field. In II92 the emperor Takahira made the Minamoto eighth of an inch deep and wide round the side of the sole ; and by leader, Yoritomo, a Sei-i-tai-shogun ("barbarian-subjugating gen­ means of a hollower the contour of the inner face of the sole is eralissimo") or general-in-chief, and this office became stereotype d adapted to the shape of the foot. The uppers of heavy leather, in the hands of success ive great military leaders, till in 1603 machine sewed or riveted, are fitted closely to the groove around lyeyasu Tokugawa became shogun and established the Tokugaw a the sole, and a thin piece« leather-bindi ng is nailed on all round dynasty in power. The shogunate from that time till 1867 exer­ the edges, the nails being placed very close, so as to give a firm cised the de facto sov ereign ty in Japan, though in thl"''ry subor di­ nate to the mikado. The revolution of 1867 swept away and durable fastening. For an account of the modem industry see the articles Boor AND abolished the shogunate and restored the mikado's supreme SHOE INDvsraY and BooT AND SHoE MAcHINERY. aut hority (see JAPAN: History). (Balaenice�s SHOLAPUR, a c it y and district of British India, in the SHOE-BILL Central division of Bomba y. The c ity is 164m. S E. from Poona rex), a giant bird from the White Nile, related to the herons. In by the Great Indian Peninsula railway. Pop. ( 1 9 2 1 ) II9,581. singularity of aspect few birds The DISTRICT OF SHuLAPUR has an area of 4.556 sq m. The surpass Balaenice�s, with its chief rivers are the Bhima and its tributaries, all fl ow ing towards gaunt grey figure, some 5ft. in the south-e as t . Sholapur is pec uharly liable to sea sons of scarcity, but much has been done by the opening of canals and tanks, such height, its large head surmounted by a lit tle curled tuft, its scowling as the Ekruk and A&hti tanks, to secure a better water-supply; the large Ekruk tank provide s Sholapur city w it h water and irrieyes and its h ug e bill. in form not unlik e a wha le' s head but tipped gates about 4,500 acres of the surrounding ('o unt ry. In 1921 the with a formidable hook. It forms population was 742,010. The chief trading mart is Barsi. Pandharpur is a pop ula r place of pilg ri mage. The Great Indian Penin· large flocks and frequents dense sula railway run s through the district, w it h a junction for the swamps. The flight is heron-like, Madras and Southern Mahratta railway, a nd another for the and the birds seUle on tr ee s. The Barsi light railw ay. food consists of any small ani· mals or c arrion The nest is a SHOOTING. G eo rg e Mark land , in his poem Ptery�legia (1727), is the first writer to deal with this field sport from a hole in dry ground, roughly lined with herbage, and from two to .. co••••n or ••••••!'• ••n•• or modem standpoint. The first authority of his own and i ndee d of twt>lve chalky white eggs are laid. ••••••• "'"TO"' our own time is C o l onel Peter Hawker, whose Instructio11s to THE SHOE-BILL OR WHALE·HEADED Yotmg Sportsmell in thl' Art of Sl10otit11{ was published first in SHOEBURYNESS, a prom- HERON OF THE WHITE NILE 1814 and went through edition after e dition until his death. He ontory on the Essex c oa st, Eng· land, the point at which the coast-line trends north-eastward was preparing the 9th edition when he died in 1853. The possibiliti es of shooting ha\'e alwa y s depended on the from the estuary of the Thames. It gives name to a school of gunnery. On the seaward side of the Ness there is an ea rth wo rk quality of the w eapo n s employed a� muth a& on the rharactt>r of the quarry. Hawker's days were those of the muzzle-loader; he attributed to the Norsemen. Pop. (1921) 6,413 used first the flint and steel g un and, in h1s later days, the detonator or percussion cap; and It was not until breech-loading gu ns were SHOFAR, SCHOFAR or SHOFER, the ancient ram's introduced in the 'fiflies, and latt"r, wh en hammt'r guns were superhom trumpe t of the Hebrews. It seded by the hammerless ejec tor , that the perfection of the weapon combined with an intensified study of the management of moors consisted of a natural horn turned up at the bell end, and. having a and manors, brought modern shooting to its p re se nt po&ition of importance. �hort conical bore of very large Grouse Shooting.-The chief branch of the spor t in Great calibre, it w oul d be capable of Britain is un doubt edly grouse sh oot i ng In Scotland, in the north producing at most the fundamental octave and twelfth. of England and Wale s, and in the north and wo&t of Ireland grouse are to be found in all hilly ground where t here is heather, and they SHO-GL the Japanese game of chess. Like Go-bang, the game .. couamr or '"' •noopo•,.•il ...... have recently been introduced to Exmoor and Dartmoor in Devon ­ of the middle classes, and Sugoro· or m shire. The great grouse county in Engla nd is Yorkshire, though chu (double-six), that of the TYPES OF liTH CENTURY SHOFAR& the largest bag-2.9�9 grouse to 8 gun s . belongs actually to Lao­ common people, it was introduced from China many centuries ago cashire; and in Yorkshire and the north of England general ly the and is still popular with the educated classes. It is played on a re cognized method of shooting is by driving the birds over butts. board divided into 81 squares, nine on a side, with 20 pieces on In Scotland on the other hand . the acct'pt ed method on the each side, arranged on the three outer rows. The pieces, which majority of moors is walking up tht' gr ouse ovrr dogs in the are fiat and punt-shaped with the smaller end towards the fro nt , earlier part of the srason and driving in the later part of the 5epresent, by means of different inscriptions, the 0, or Sl1o, Ki ng - season when the birds become wild and pack There are. howewr. General, with whose checkmate the &arne ends, his two chief aids, moors w hich are never driven. and other� where driv ing �� the in­ the Ki11 and Ghin, Gold and Silver Generals ( two of each). Ka- variab le rulr. D r iving unquC'�tionahly p1ovicb more chlfirult Ala, horse or knight (two), Yari, spearman (two), one llisha, or shooting than walkin�t. and �trou.,e r omm�:: owr thl' hutts in a flying chariot (rook), one Kaku (bi sho p ) , and nine 1/io or Fu, high wind. or late in the l\l'a!tun wht'n thl'Y have att.1ined their full soldi ers or pawns. AU these pieces, like those in chess, po&sess strength, are a& hard a mark a� any sr•ort!.mdn nel•rl de&ire. But different functions. The chief difference between chess and Sho- there is a pleasure of its ow n in walking up groul>c over dogs; in gi is that in the Japanese game a piece does not cease to be a f actor watching a wel l trained brace of pointers or setters range the in the game when it is captured by the opponent, but may be re· heather and find their birds, wh ile many men prefer tht' exerci�.e turned by him to the board at any time as a reserve; and, secondly, of walking to the more stationary work of shooting from a but f all pieces, except the King and Gold General, are promoted to From first to last the &port of groul>e & hooti ng depend!> very higher po wers upon entering the last three rows of the ene my 's greatly on the fortune of the sl."llsons as regards wt>athcr Unfavour•

Note: This page from 1929 edition.

568

SHOOTING

abie weather prevents regular and sufficient burning of old heather, |thus put on the wing rise into the air with the object of regaining and so prevents the growth of young heather; it prevents heather | their “home,” and as a rule will attempt to do so in a single from ripening its seed, and so lessens the food supply of grouse |flight. It is upon this home-flying habit of pheasants that the whole in winter; and it prevenis the proper regulation of the size of the |principle of modern covert-shooting is founded, and there can grouse stock on the moor. In a word, it reduces food supply, and be no question that pheasants flying in this way, high In the alr the provision of a sufficient supply of food is the single key to and at a great pace, and often swerving or curling ina high wind, successful moor management. provide as exacting a test of skilled shooting as is possible. Partridge Shooting.—Partridge shooting, like grouse shootBiack Game, Ptarmigan and Capercailzie.—Most of the ing, can be separated as regards methods into two categories— shooting of other game in Great Britain is corollary to the sport walking up and driving. The former is the older form of the sport| to be had with grouse, partridges and pheasants. Black game, for and still has many adherents—probably, indeed, the majority of example, are to be found in most places where there are grouse, partridge shooters prefer walking. Certainly it is a method which and the methods of shooting the two species are identical. has its own charm, partly of old association, partly of simplicity, Ptarmigan, on the other hand, belong only to the higher ranges of partly doubtless of September weather. A single gun may go out grouse country, or perhaps, rather, deer forests, and if walked up by himself, or with a companion, or if there is plenty of ground provide uninteresting shooting owing to their tameness. Caperavailable, there may be a line of four or five guns—any larger cailzie may occasionally be found on the open moor, but only in number is apt to be cumbrous. The general proceeding on a Sep- the neighbourhood of trees; the name is “cabhar coille,’’ or cock of tember morning is to walk the stubble fields so as to drive the the wood, and it is in the heart of pine and fir woods that the coveys into roots or other cover, and then to walk each piece of capercailzie makes its home. The birds are driven in winter, and cover in turn so as to flush the coveys and to send them in the afford remarkable shooting, for they sail out from the trees over direction of other cover which can be walked in the same way. the glen at a great pace, and may easily be out of shot. Working the different fields of a farm in this way needs careful Snipe Shooting.—Two or three other forms of shooting may planning and a certain knowledge of the natural habits of par- be pursued for their own sake. Snipe are to be found on most tridges, which is one of the chief claims to consideration that the grouse moors, but snipe shooting is a sport by itself, to be enjoyed sport of walking up must have for the country sportsman. wherever there is bogland adapted to the snipe’s feeding habits. In driving partridges, the purpose of the shooters is to collect a The bird rises from the ground like a flash, twisting this way and number of coveys into a field or strip of roots lying alongside a that, and to hit so elusive a mark needs a quick eye and hand. fence, on the other side of which are posted the guns. If possible, Snipe-shooting is a sport of the winter months, for the home-bred these guns should stand in a grass field or on stubble, in order birds are joined by the migrations from the Continent in Nothat the partridges killed in the drive may be collected easily vember. The largest bags of snipe have been made in the and quickly. A drive begins with a line of beaters, with flankers Hebrides, but Ireland and Wales, especially the former, provide working on the right and left of the line, advancing over a some of the best snipe ground, and in England there are possichosen number of fields and driving the partridges before them bilities of good shooting in Norfolk. towards the selected strips of roots. The beaters and flankers Woodcock.—Woodcock shooting, as a sport by itself, belongs carry flags, the latter being charged with the duty of waving principally to certain localities on the line of the birds’ migration. their flags so as to keep the birds from breaking out at the As is the case with snipe, large numbers of woodcock arrive every sides. Throughout, the head keeper (or possibly the host) is autumn from the Continent, and pass through the British Isles in in charge of the drive, and it requires a considerable knowl- a general direction from north-east to south-west. The furthest edge of the country and of wind and weather to ensure suc- limit of this migration is the west and south-west of Ireland, and cess. The beaters on reaching the strip of roots into which the the shooting at Ballykine and its neighbourhood on the shores of coveys have been driven advance slowly and the partridges are Lough Mask is possibly the best in the world. But large bags are flushed so as to fly over the fence behind which stand the guns. obtained in Cornwall, which is the limit of the line of flight in As they top the fence and catch sight of the guns the birds England, and in the west of Scotland, particularly the isle of Islay, Swerve and swing in every direction, with a disconcerting sudden- which is a stage of the birds’ migration both on the outward and ness that tests the quickest eye and hand. Indeed, there could homeward journey. The supposed difficulty of the shooting arises be no higher criterion of the all-round skill of a game shot than. from the erratic movement of the bird, whose sight is adapted for to describe him as first rate with driven partridges. night conditions rather than day, when flying among trees. Pheasant Shooting.—Pheasant shooting, A compared with woodcock in the open is a comparatively simple mark. grouse and partridge shooting, is an artificial busine ss; or it is Hares and Rabbit s.—Ground game provide shooting which true, at all events, to say that only under more or less artificial is variously regarded as sport accordi ng to the standards of the conditions can pheasants supply the sporting chance s of shooting shooter. Hares, which are destructive to which modern sportsmen prefer. Wild pheasa crops, have to be shot nts, to speak gen- down but hare-driving produces few opportunities for interesting erally, make dull work for the gun. It is a pheasant’s natural work with a gun. But rabbit-shootin g may afford considerable instinct to run rather than to fl , and if forced to fly, to regain tests of hand, eye and brain, for a rabbit gets to its top speed Shelter as soon and as near as possible. Theref ore. when a covert in an amazingly small space of ground, and takes every advantage containing wild pheasants is beaten out, few of them will be found ‘ef cover and obstacle. The main methods of shooting rabbits are to dy high or far, or to go straight in any partic ular direction; the two—tferreting and laying out. In the former, ferrets are put to birds will fy out anyhow and anywhere, possib ly back over the ground in the rabbits’ burrows, or “buries,” and the little animals beaters’ heads. Only a small proportion can be put over a line are shot as they bolt_fr om the holes. The sport varies of guns, and the shots offered will be poor and uninteresting. condition of the weather; if it has been fine at night, with the With hand-reared pheasants the case is and the different. A line of rabbits have fed well, they are sluggish and disinclined to move; if beaters enters the wood in which the pheas ants are fed, and they have been kept in by rain—for rabbits dislike pushes them out by advancing slowly a wet jacket— and tapping the trees they will bolt quickly, or dodge from one hole into another, offerquietly; the birds run before the advancing line and can be pushed ing only the chance of snap shooting. If the second method, that in this way, either running or flying low from one wood to another, of laying out, is adopted, the procedure is different. A day or until they have been manoeuvred into a covert previously chosen, two before the shoot, the gamekeeper goes the round of the buries at the far side of which is placed a line of stops, that is, men or with some sort of evil-smelling mixture, such as paraffin and tar, boys tapping trees, fences, etc—beyond which the pheasants will which he sprinkl es into each hole. The rabbits leave their holes not go. When the birds are collected into will take up their position in a line betwe this covert the guns at night to feed, but do not return to them, objecting to the en the covert and the smell. The keeper birds’ home; the keeper and one or the next morning fills in every hole, and on two chosen assistants then the day of the shoot the rabbits are found lying out in the underenter the covert, and flush the birds a few at a time. The pheasants growth, from which they are dislodged by beaters with sticks, r

SHOOTING

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INTERNATIONAL

NEWSREEL

SHOOTING

1. Quail shooting in the South, U.S. The dog in the centre of the picture

6. Duck hunter, with his retriever “Spike,” shooting on Grass lake, Illinois

will retrieve the fallen bird 2. Shooting ducks from a blind.

7. Winter winds and zero weather are no bar to this Long Island sound duck hunter. He lies on his back in the boat covered with branches

The sportsman

in the photograph

has

killed three birds with one shot 3. Waiting for the approach of the ducks. Wooden ducks are used as decoys to attract the wild birds 4. Duck shooting on Long Island sound. The two hunters are waiting in

a tiny boat of the “‘sneak-box” type 5. End of a coon hunt in Florida. the hunters preparing to fire

With the coon treed by the dogs and

until the flying ducks come within range &. Mrs. Lindsay Stewart’s “Haylers Rufus” retrieving a bird from dense undergrowth 9 V. Routledge’s “Partridge” retrieving a dead partridge during the Re` triever Trials near Hatfield, England

SHOOTING

569

or by spaniels. In the south of England a pack of beagles is men. Plantation owners and ranchmen bred and trained magnificent packs capable of imparting an almost exalting contagion to sometimes used for this purpose. Wildfowl.—Sport with wildfowl must always be of an un- the spirit of good hunting and the hardihood of its followers. certain nature, since it depends largely on the weather. The To-day, hounding is confined almost wholly to fox-hunting, coon harder the weather the better, so far as the wildfowler is con- and rabbit hunting. As a gun dog, the hound attained a rating cerned, since gales bring the fowl in from the sea to shelter and of high efficiency when broken to follow only given scents. Slow frost confines the spaces of water where they can feed by night running, cold-nosed strike dogs, sticking witk their trailing mates and rest by day. Sport with wildfowl may be enjoyed by follow- to specific quarry and deserting it for none crossing, were the ing two methods. One is that of the shore shooter, who waits at dogs before which much of the country’s game supply fell to dawn and dusk at certain points over which he knows the duck will waiting sportsmen. That the American hound could be trained to pass when flighting to and from their day and night quarters. He run dangerous foreign game was demonstrated when the late Paul will need both for use and for friendly company a well-trained J. Rainey selected well-broken stock from several of the country’s retriever, or he will not be able to pick his birds in the dark or from best big game packs and sent them to Africa with Shelley. Shelthe water into which they may have fallen. The other method is ley, a master-hand at such work, remained in Africa off and on for that of the punt-gunner, who sets up to his fowl in a flat-bottomed I3 years, making record kills of lion hunted py his American boat carrying a heavy swivel-gun, firing anything from x Ib, to hounds. Hunting lion, leopard, cheetah, etc., with hounds, is not 2 lb. of large size shot, with which he shoots at duck on the water now permitted in the Kenya Colony of British East Africa. Half-bred American hounds and airedale terriers also have or as they rise. This is a form of sport which is followed by probably a decreasing number of persons, but is one which requires been used to hunt mountain lion, panther and other of the large a strong constitution, patience and endurance, and is perhaps Carnivorae in North and South America. A good hunting rather more exciting and also more dangerous than any other shooting than a game or plucky hound or dog is the better for following the powerful and more savage wild animals against which the of its kind. The art of shooting is not to be taught in words; it is a matter aggressive dog has no chance, the rifle, not the dog, being the imof practice. But practice should be begun on right lines; this is plement used for destruction. A pack of rough-haired Welsh foxhounds—a breed celebrated an easier proceeding to-day than it used to be, for one of the modern developments of the gun trade is the shooting school which for its great scenting powers—imported by Erastus Teftt, of the best firms place at the disposal of their clients, where the use Brewster, N.Y., in 1928 ran and killed 14 out of 20 foxes they of the gun can be learned together with the elements of the eti- found in Putnam County, N.Y. This probably constituted a record quette of the shooting field. The beginner should always be fitted in the annals of American foxhunting with hounds that not only with a gun, and the fitting again, is part of the gunmaker’s busi- kill but eat their foxes. A conception of gun dogs in the United States, however, rests ness. For different purposes different types of weapon are necessary, but for all round work a 12 bore hammerless ejector, in the main upon those breeds best adapted to finding, pointing weighing say 63 Ib. and firing cartridges loaded with 1 +4, oz. of and retrieving game from marsh and upland. Setters and pointers shot with 42 grains of Schultze or 34 grains of E.C. may be unquestionably occupy the more prominent station with reference to the gun. They are of several strains, foundation stocks of recommended. BrsriocrapHy.—P. Hawker, Instructions to Young Sportsmen (new which were imported from England. Llewellin, Gordon, Lavarack edition, 1922); H. C. Folkard, The Wild Fowler (1859); Shooting, and Irish constitute the main stems in setter blood. In many in“The Badminton Library” (1885); W. W. Greener, The Gun and its stances these strains have been inter-bred, which doubtless ac-~ Developments (1889) ; A. Chapman, The Art of Wild-Fowling (1896) ; counts for the enormous number of so-called cold-nosed or unC. J. Cornish, Nights with an old Gunner (1897); “Shooting,” Country Life Library of Sport (1903) ; C. Alington, Partridge Driving registered bird dogs of all breeds. In addition, pointers and setters (1904); R. F. Meysey Thompson, A Shooting Catechism (1905); have, at times, been knowingly or unknowingly cross-bred. Such G. T. Teasdale Buckell, The Complete Shot (1908, 1924) ; G. Malcolm progeny are classed in bird dog parlance as droppers. In a few and Aymer Maxwell, Grouse and Grouse Moors (1910); A. Maxwell, cases droppers have turned out splendid gun dogs, seeming to Partridges and Partridge Manors (1911); The Grouse in Health and in Disease, Report, of Committee on Grouse Disease (1911); A. Maxwell, Pheasants and Covert Shooting (1913); R. Payne-Gallwey, Letters to Young Shooters (1914) ; E. Parker, Shooting Days (1918) ; H. S. Gladstone, Record Bags and Shooting Records (1922) ; E. Parker, Elements of Shooting (1924); R. Page, New Ways with Partridges (x924); J. C. M. Nichols, Birds of Marsh and Mere (1926); E. Parker, Partridges Yesterday and To-day (1927). (E. Pa.)

GAME SHOOTING WITH DOGS IN THE UNITED STATES Development of gun dogs in the United States has covered a range of breeds and fields for their respective hunting activities ranging from fox, deer and bear hounds, through the rank and file of Chesapeake bay, Irish water spaniel and springer spaniel water retrievers, on into the ranks of pointers and setters (see Doc:

Setters and Pointers). The last-named breeds constitute the main stem of upland game workers as differentiated from marsh dogs. It might be well, in order definitely to establish his entitled

place in the record, to recall with full credit a type of gun dog now practically extinct along the vanishing frontiers. This was the

sturdy, upstanding settler’s dog,.a combination strike dog and trailer, capable of helping to provide meat for wagon train, camp or home, and also of acting as watch dog and cattle herder. “Founding” game with dogs, save in the pursuit of predatory bears, wolves, lynx and coyotes—and then only by permit—is a practice now more or less barred by most State game codes and falling more and more into disuse, as being against the sounder principles of conservation. When game abounded, and the country, particularly in the south, was a thickly wooded and almost

impenetrable barrier of windfall and swamp, “hounding” was the

recognized and thorough-going arm of a royal sport and race of

possess, in addition to sound bird dog instincts, the ability to trail and tree squirrels and wild turkey. In the main, however, little if any attention need be paid to such mistakes in canine offspring. Long and short hair, setter and pointer conformation are sometimes found together in the same litter of droppers. The Best Gun Dogs.—Three types of gun dog aristocracy are found in the blooded lineage of the United States: bench-show individuals, shooting dogs and field-trial dogs. The true shooting dog is usually pedigreed, thoroughly broken to the gun and pos-

sessing the brain and stamina, nose and bird-sense which constitute the acme of class and reflect pride of ownership to a true bird-hunter. The field-trial dog is bred for and trained to the rigours of competitive bird-finding, the acid test of great speed,

heart, ability to locate and, what is of paramount importance, ability to handle game and be handled. By handling is meant (in addition to all other demands of the competition,—bird sense, finding, steadiness to shot and wing, etc.) the dog’s acute perception and intelligent execution of its trainer’s direction on the field-trial course. Types of upland gun dogs vary with the game sought and terrain to be covered both by dog and hunter. In heavily bushed and wooded grouse and partridge coverts the dog required is a

strong, keen-nosed individual of somewhat restricted range as compared to the needs for freer upland casting. Handling such birds is a distinct phase of gunnery both for dog and master, the supreme importance of stance and signal in thick cover being obvious in sizing up limited space and opportunity for enforced quick-pointing and snap-shooting. Good individuals on grouse or quail would doubtless find their respective abilities badly at sea were they to

570

SHOOTING

exchange territories abruptly . The pheasant, an imported upland ; propagation that has made great strides in the United States and I now occupies a very deiinite place in gun dog usage and upla nd ' searching, requi res a highly specialized apprenticeship for the bird dog. Ha ving winded and engaged in handling a pheasant, the dog usually advances in swift, broken spurts of tra iling. Trailed to the end of cover or having twisted and doubled through every advantageous bit of leeway, the cock pheasant flushes with a m uffled cackle. The quail dog, having located his game, points it staunchly, and quail, as a rule, lie steadily until flushed. A c customed, however, to trailing a moving bevy of quail, the upland dog, when in contact either with a pheasant or Hungarian partridge, soon learns to take care of them in a workman -like manner. In quail shooting the gun has but to ltush promptly and steadily and shoot, but with pheasants the trail and uncertainty of flush makes the rise quite a different proposition In early chickensh ooting on the prairies the birds, handled by wide ranging quail finders , do not present the distance rises of the later season , nor do they run as promptly or to such distances. The typical quail dog, sett er or pointer, should possess above all else, r egardless of speed and range , a good nose and bird-sense As a general rule in bird dog calculation, the pointer learns more readily, and is therefore generally more easily broken and inclined to specific brillianc y The &ellt>r is rather slow in learning but improves steadily with development. There is abo a more or less generally ac cepted theory that the setter is more useful in a briar tangle country, but liable, on the other hand, to s uff er from burr-chafing. The pointer has a more decided aversion to cold than the setter with his longer protective hair. In recent years pointers have cnjoyrd a supremacy over setters at field trials . This is thought by som e to indicate that perhaps t h e setter strain s have been bred a bit too high and too much toward high speed, resulting in a tendency to racial nervousness The true quail hunter, however, finds his most suitable and soup:ht-after dog type in the apparently tireless companion who joys in finding birds, holdin g them staunchly and steadily under fire. and retrieving fallen quarry from l a nd or water. In the south, quail are more often hunted from horseback, per· mitting a much wider scope of tra\•el for bird findmg in wider casts j and better mutual observation by gunners and dogs. Sin�les are better watched , too, from such vantage point . Following the find or "point" of a bevy of quail, the gunners alight, hitch their mounts and fire. A fte r the bevy rise, the smgles or scattered birds are hunted on foot. This phase of quail bunting bas developed appreciation for the close-searching, quick-scenting, staunch single- 1 bird dog, as opposed to the wide-casting covey finder . It is ! usually as a resul t of careful work by the single-bird dog that a satisfactory bag is accumulated. If, in addit ion , such a dog is a skilled retriever, his val ue is greatly enhanced . Many crippled birds falling into briar tanglrs and log �otrewn swamps and vint>s would otherwise escape the diligent agent who follows t heir winding scent through inaccessible places and rl'turns them often alive and almost unruffled to the hunter. Other breeds of gun dogs wh1ch have attained some small degree of field success in the United States are the griffon and the airedale. The griffon , a slow, steady bearcher and pointer, of sound retrieving ability , has won popularity from a necessarily limited field of admirers Attempts to elevate the hardy and efficient airedale to gun dog rank have met with small, if any, recogni lion. That the airedale will retrieve is unquestioned . That he will &.ight trail and IIOmetimes strike and fight is also proved by his use in some big game packs. As an all round upland and marsh dog the springer sp aniel is most in favour to-day. Larger and stronger than the average run of the breed, the springer locates and puts up pheasants and enters wild fowl, retrieving with sagacity and hardihood . The Irish water spaniel, an imported development in water-working gun dogs, has a great capacity for trailing and working wild fowl under tough Powrrful and sagacious and with a tightly curled conditions liver-coloured coat and distinctive top-knot and almost beaverlike rat tail, the Irish water spaniel has many admirers. E�ts in wildfowling, however, favour to no small extent the Chesapeake

I

bay as the master gun dog for retrieving. He is rated by maar as possessing every physical and moral requisite for the purpose. Sprung from a much discussed origin, ranging from Irish retrit\Per to Newfoundland heritage, the breed is now defmitely estab­ lisbed and classified' under three standards , dark, medium aDd sedge. The two first run to liver-coloured, the last has been bred so that its colour will conform more or less with western marsh surroundings. The conformation in all is the same: flat hair tend­ ing to wave; wide, flat skull; rather pointed nose-strong body and lemon eyes. The Chesapeake, running in weight up to nearly 100 lb. but averaging 7o-8o lb. in full-grown, large males , is gifted with extraordinary strength for resisting cold. He possesses mar­ vellou s eyesight and an almost uncanny intelligence and diligence in following wounded birds. The Chesapeake bay is essentially a one-man dog, becoming deeply attached to its master. He re­ quires but little breaking. Given the proper surroundings and a master intent upon the work in hand, th e Chesapeake practically breaks himself. Chesapeakes are trained to work from either boat or blind, and in thick cover, high seas or stiff current will save the shooter a fair share of an otherwise small bag of ducks or geese. A distress ing phase of g am e restoration in the Unite d States is that in many of the best u pland sectors (notably in the South ) gun dog blood oft en creeps into mongrel breeds of the local country­ side, producing a semi-houn d type m ost detrimental in its scent­ ing prowess to birds and nests in the mating season . Tenants going mto the fields are al most i nvariably accompanied by these and other curs . Such dogl> are a menace to the perpet uation of shoot ­ ing a nd the use of gun dogs. Another retarding influence in the further or more general u&e of gun dogs in the United States is the i ncrea sing scarcity of all species of game. Curtailed shooting seasons and the time, troubl e and money required to enable the average hunter to enjoy the sport while carrying a kennel through lengthy closed seasons will, in time, diminish the hunting instinct which is a predominant note in the American field heritage. Until the States and the Jo'ederal Government devote both time and money to the consideration and recogn ition of game res toration as a national reclamation project, revealing its food and commercial value to both farmers .mel sportsmen, the use of gun dogs will continue to deura�c. (E. F'. W.) Waterfowl ShootinJ.--More men in the U S. hunt wild ducks and geese than any other species of game, with the exception of the rabbit There is not a. single State that does not furnish some duck shooting during the fall and winter. Wild ducks breed i n almost every State, but the great bulk of these birds, together with the wild geese, nest north of the 40th parallel. A t the first touch of autumn millions of wate,r fowl begin their southern migra­ tion , and it is then that the wild - fowler is abroad at daylight in o rde r to get the best of the shooting. Until recently, wild ducks were sold on the markets of the United Sta.tt>s, and gunn ers were also permitted to shoot them on their return flight from the South to the breeding grounds. On March 14, 1913, the U.S. Government passed a law forbidding return-flight or spring shooting of waterfowl . There was some question as to the constitutionality of this law. On Dec. 8, 1916, a. treaty was entered into with Great B rit ain for the protec­ tion of the birds . A law was enacted on July 3, xgx8, to put the treaty into effect . From that date not only has spring shooting been illegal, but the sale of wild ducks and geese bas been out­ !awed. This last a.ct was declared constitutional by the United States Supreme Court on April 19, 1920. There are many different ways of hunting wild ducks. These wildfowl of the air have well-defined highways over which they trav el. If one flock takes a certain route, the next flock follow­ ing is very apt to t ravel along the same course . Men have taken adva n tage of this trait, and by stationing themselves along the lines of flight they s ecure excellent shooting. This type of shoot­ ing is generally called pass shooting. The sport is at its best when the birds are "passing" from one body of water to another. At such a time they are low enough to shoot. When they are mip'at­ ing, they travel a.t such heights that shooting is impossible. The most popular form of d11ck buntiug is known as decoy

Note: This page from 1929 edition.

SHOOTING STAR-SHOP FRONT DESIGN sboOtiag, The hunter conceals himself in a blind of his making, and oa the shaDow water before him are placed a number of ducks made of wood, rubber, canvas or other material. The wild birds, in passing over, see apparently a ftock of feeding ducks and awing in to alight. At tbis time the gunner rises and fires at the decoyed birds. The decoys are also called stools. Many gunners tie live ducks out in the water to act as decoys. When this is done, a stool is aometimes provided just under the surface of the water, ao that the bird may climb out and rest. This probably

aplaina the origin of the term. Gunners use different types of blinds. The most common is made of rushes and graft to correspond with the shore line of the lake or river where the bunting is to take place. Often pits are dug in the lake banks. 'Ibis type of blind is very efficient, as the gunner is completely bidden when down in the pit and there is nothing showing above the surface of the ground to attract the birds' attention and frighten them. In some sections small boats thatched with rushes and decked over, except for an opening, where the gunner sits, are used successfully. The gunner's legs extend under the deck, and he lies on his back in the shallow cock­ pit, completely hidden. When the ducks get within shooting range, he rises to a sitting position to shoot. On tidal water, gunners use a blind known as a battery, or sink-box. Great numbers of birds can be killed from such a rig, which often has as many as 400 wooden decoys anchored around it. The rig is anchored in open water where great numbers of ducks have been feeding. On rivers where great quantities of driftwood are floated during high water, this material makes excellent blinds. In the winter, ice is often used successfully, or gunners go out and cover them­ selves with white canvas to match the snow or ice. The main essential in blind building is to make the blind blend in with the surrounding terrain so that it is as inconspicuous as possible. In the grain countries of the West and North-west, a popular form of shooting is known as stubble-field shooting. All that is necessary here is to locate a large grain field where the birds are feeding. The gunner then hides in a shock of grain and fires when the ducks come over. Geese are much more wary than ducks, and the only success­ ful way to hunt them is from blinds with deco}"'. In the West, the pit blind is used almost exclusively, but along tide-waters in the East many geese are killed from brush blinds or thatched blinds located out in the water with no attempt to make them inconspicuous. Such blinds usually have a dozen or more live wild geese a!l decoys. These birds call to passing flocks and toll them in. With inanimate decoys only, such blinds would not be very effective. In the grain fields and on big river sand-bars, pro­ file geese decoys made of sheet metal are very effective, especially if supported by one or more live geese. The various States and the Federal Government are setting aside refuges where no shooting will be allowed, in order that the breeding stock may not be sacrificed. (R. P. H.) SHOOTING STAB. (Dodocatkeon), the common name for a genus of beautiful plants of the primrose family (Primlllaceae), comprisin� some 30 species native to North America and north­ eastern Asia. They are stemless, perennial herbs, with basal leaves and a naked flower-stalk which bears at its summit a cluster (umbel) of singularly shaped flowers similar to those of the garden cyclamen. The shooting star, commonly grown in gardens (D. Meatlia), with pink or white flowers, is native to open grounds from Pennsylvania to Manitoba south to Seorgia and Texas. Numerous species occur in the western States, seven being found in California, among which are the Sierra shooting star (D. Jeffreys'), the lowland shooting star (D. patu­ Zum), and the upland shooting star (D. Hendersonii). SHOP FRONT DESIGN. The shop front, since the earliest days of barter, has been a pertinent problem in design for the obvious reason that, apart from the requirement of presenting merchandise attractively. the interest of the prospective customer has had to be maintained. Hiltory-The stores of the Roman forum, and in particular the light thrown upon the habits of the populace by the resurrec­ tions of Pompeii, show that the shops of earlier generations had

much in common with ours. E. jaussely prepared a series of ·drawings of the forum of Pompeii which indicate clearly bow these stores might have appeared. Chiffiot completed a remarkable work showing a restoration of the house of the Centenaire which showed the palatial home of the owner with its interior courts away from the street, and facing the street the small shops which were rented to merchants whose interests were quite separate from the house at the back. The stores were open to the street, inas­ much as the use of glass, for enclosure, was unknown. The design of the stores themselves, however (assuming that the restorations are reasonably accurate) indicate an attempt at des1gn which would appear to be normal for a shopkeeper aiming to attract the passer-by. The stores always clustered around the main build· ings of the city throughout the East, and later throughout Europe. Throughout the East, the bazaar has been, and still is, the source of barter of goods of any type. The form of the bazaar varies from the covered passageway either partly or entirely pro­ tected from the sun's rays to the open market. The arrangement of goods consists primarily in displaying the complete stock. The same theory of display holds good in the modem five-and­ ten-cent store where the first principle is to hold the attention with an enclosure of vivid red, in which as much stock as can be placed is visible. Throughout the middle ages, the cathedral was the focal point of public interest, and around it would be found the stores of popular appeal. Unfortunately, in the last century many of these accretions were eliminated on the theory that the architec­ ture of the original structure should be kept intact, with the result that to-day many churches, such as Notre Dame, in Paris, actually seem cold standinJt as they are, isolated from the more immediate life of the public. The bridges of the great cities, because of their importance as public arteries, long held the stores that still divert the tourist on the Rialto in Venice or the travellPr crossing the Arno in Florence. Pont Neuf, in Paris, lost its stores in the final rebuilding during the 19th century. The International Exhibition in Paris, in 1925, revived this feature by building shops on the Pont Alexandre III. and most interesting they were, in spite of the transitory nature of their building materials. Throughout France, many examples are still in evidence at Caen, Bourges, Rouen, Compiegne and as well in Paris, itself, of historic buildings of excellent design, where the store was planned as the important feature of the building. It is of course equally clear that during the middle ages, and even up to the French Revolution, the shopkeeper under the guild system maintained a certain dignity quite distinct from the aristocratic classes, and inasmuch as the store was often the outlet for goods manufac­ tured above by the family, or the outlet for merchandise assem­ bled by the owner, it was possible to beautify the store in pro­ portion to the artistic intelligence of the proprietor. A shop which, in some measure, explains this principle, may be seen in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, where an armourer's store, with its extremely interesting detail, bas been bodily removed from France, and is displayed as an adjunct for the display of armour. (Sre ARMS AND ARMOUR.) The inns, such as the Hostellerie du Grand Cerf, at Les And­ elys, built during the z6th century, are quite definite instances of unusually good design developed under trade requirl.'ments The inns, like the modern restaurants, had similar requirements of attraction and were successful without question. in proportion to the charm and interest tbl!y maintained. Another exhibit of the Metropolitan Museum, emphasizing a quite different social phase, is an 18th century store front of painted and carved wood. Holland, in the day'> of its great commercial glory, built homes for the great houses that maintained business contacts through­ out the world and in particular during the 16th, qth and 18th centuries erected many buildings that are standing to this day as examples of industrial produrtion of high order. The home of the merchant was, and u.�ually still is, part of the business structure and this has tended to produce a particular feeling of intimacy in detail that is lost when the typical store building of the mod­ ern scheme is projected. The Dutch houses along any of thl' great canals in Amsterdam, for instance, are built of brick and

Note: This page from 1929 edition.

572

SHOP

FRONT

are extremely simple in their decoration. The more recent Dutch store design has completely emancipated itself from the domestic store policy and has broken every restriction either of form or of use of material. These facades are interesting experiments though it is more than likely that another generation will choose certain elements of strength from which to evolve a simpler and less bizarre form of building. On the whole, the variation between the store preceding the rgth century and our own type is essentially that of a change in business policy; the larger store developing from a bazaar into a great organization has required monumental buildings. At the same time, a parallel development of the specialized store has resulted in the construction of special settings for the display and sale of merchandise requiring environment, as, for example, small shops, candy stores and the particularly American development of the drug store which is quite in sharp contrast to the dignity of the apothecary of Europe. With the development of the modern store and the distinctly modern use of large sheets of glass, the frame of the store, in many instances, has become the band enclosing the expanse of display within. The only reasonable explanation of this boldness is the demand for sudden changes of display—hardware in the morning to clothes or food in the afternoon. Under such circumstances the less striking the setting the simpler the problem of the window designer. (E. J. K.)

DESIGN

Paris examples of these stores may be seen. The Rue St. Honoré,

the Rue de la Paix, Avenue de L’Opéra and the Rue Royale, in Paris, as well as Unter den Linden and the Kurfurstendam, in

Berlin, are especially to be noticed and there the variety of design

is almost as extensive as the quality of merchandise which the stores contain. In these various stores the proportion and size of the show window are in direct relation to the scale of the merchandise in the store. The back of the window is very often made an interesting part of the composition, but it is not clear that this element of design is of sufficient importance to warrant comparison with the well developed facade and the illumination within. Fifth avenue, in New York, has a character thoroughly at vari-

ance with the streets noted. Although the original theory of the

shopkeeper had quite simply been a willingness to adapt Euro-

pean forms, the rapid development of the Avenue has forced serious changes in style in so breathless a form that the description is difficult. At one period, particularly at the beginning of the zoth century, the classic revival produced excellent varieties of Italian palaces transformed into stores that are slowly feeling the pressure of business changes. The uneven sky-line which the daily rebuilding further exaggerates tends to complicate the problem by presenting difficult questions of scale. The struggle seems to lie between the policy of the large show window of the Altman, Bonwit Teller and Franklin Simon store type as against the smaller

Technique.—The great development in recent years in the window and larger wall surface as exemplified in the Cammeyer,

design of shop fronts has been caused by the growing expanse of display space, the use of new materials and the intensification of sales technique. The modern shop front is designed as a picture frame for the contents of the window and also as a means of attracting customers at long range. Intelligent merchants have discovered that mere expanse of plate glass is not enough. In other words, the picture needs a frame, but at the same time, the frame must not be so important that it overpowers the picture. The attraction of customers from a distance offers a more difficult problem—the reconciliation of the desire of the shopkeeper to have his shop as conspicuous as possible with the desire to preserve the beauty of the street as a whole. It is obtained by richness of material, interesting form, prominent signs, bright colours, strong lighting. The extent of display space has been increased by new types of glass joints, metal mouldings and deep vestibules with elaborate convolutions of plan, so that even on a short frontage a large display is possible—more powerful lights and greater control by colour screens and spotlights, together with a great advance in the art. of window dressing have added to the effectiveness of the dis-

play itself. Show window interiors should ground for the display, not so dark as to as to make prominent shadows, or of a strong as to overpower the display. The

be designed as a backabsorb light or so light colour or treatment so display itself is treated

as a composition of sculpture or painting, arranged in mass with

stands and drapery and accented by lighting. (R. H. S.) Modern Tendencies.—In the modern store, wood and plaster have practically disappeared and the use of marble, stone, bronze and the less expensive materials, such as cast iron, copper and quite

recently polished rustless steel, is usual.

As a matter of solution of design, the stores in America have not shown great brilliancy in spite of the tremendous opportunities that have been presented. This, in large measure, is due to extreme conservatism. Two influences appear in recent years: one, an attempt to introduce into store design the principles of the Colonial or English Georgian architecture, and many excellent examples of store fronts are now in evidence throughout New England. The very close derivation of detail from historic Sources has produced charm of design and intimate scale that is in thorough sympathy with the buildings surrounding the shop. The other tendency has been to copy the specialty store, as was particularly developed in Paris during the 19th century, and up

to this particular day, the theory being largely that of creating a

striking frame for a very special display of goods. In quite a number of these stores, however, where the designer has proceeded

Dobbs and Bergdorf-Goodman stores. The tendency on Fifth avenue has been thoroughly conservative and its appearance, in spite of the restraint, is dignified and well worthy of the most important shopping district in the country.

In Germany, the illumination of the exterior and the interior of the window has been greatly exploited by the use of tubular lamps which, on occasion, frame the store opening, or where the same lamps are used to develop a store name and appear during the day as letters against a proper background, at night presenting

a brilliant design against the dark surface of the building. These tubular lamps do not throw a large amount of illumination but show themselves as brilliant units of glowing colour. In Germany, likewise, the use of sheets of glass is to be noted, wherein varying possibilities of effect are produced. In some cases a white glass is used to form surface patterns through which, at night, light is thrown, thereby presenting a very brilliant impression to the street. This is particularly noticeable in restaurants or stores where the major requirement is a sensational effect. Another use of the glass is in the application of sheets of opaque material; blue, black and white glass acting as a veneer,. either framed in metal or bolted to the wall as purely decorative material. Throughout France and Germany, mosaic has been extensively used, and the possibilities of colour effect which this material permits appear to be unlimited. In Paris, the large stores, as contrasted with the specialty shops of the streets before mentioned, have developed a design extremely characteristic of Paris. The Printemps, Bon Marché and the Galleries Lafayette have, during the past few years, redesigned their façades, not only to keep abreast of the modern note in design, but to maintain the public’s interest, apparently in their own evolution. It is quite likely that Paris, being a cosmopolitan city, requires more active development than similar cities in the United States or England might find advisable, and it is likewise obvious that according to American and English standards French stores are somewhat over-elaborate. There must be a nice bal-

ance between the interesting frame and the merchandise within, quite in the same proportion that a painting or a piece of sculp-

ture requires careful handling to be enhanced by its background.

In spite of this criticism, however, the French stores unquestionably are of great interest and apparently hold the popular enthusiasm through their present policies, The German stores, in particular the Wertheim building, designed by A. Messel in 1905, and which is still the prototype for

big store design in Germany, resemble the French stores in their with a free hand in the solution of a problem, unusually excellent elaboration, with profuseness of carving and decoration, explainresults have been obtained, and on a number of the streets in Ing a period when money was available for such use. It would Seem to be a happy misfortune that the requirement for econo my

SHOP

FRONT

DESIGN

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BY COURTESY ITAN MUSEUM

OF OF

(1!) CANADIAN PACIFIC ART, NEW YORK, (1!)

STEAMSHIPS, TODHUNTER,

(3) THE DIRECTOR OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, INC., (12) THE FAVIL PRESS; PHOTOGRAPHS, (2, 6) DONALD

EXAMPLES 1. Jewellery

Street in Hongkong,

China.

OF SHOP

Most of the shops are small

and

narrow 2. An 18th

FRONT

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hatter’s shop In London

3. A late eee

: ae front from Petty France, Westminster

4. Place Vendôme, Paris, France.

Noted for its beautiful shops

5. An 18th century Louis Seize shop front, similar to English examples of

the same century 6. Early Georgian

shop front

4

BEAd hen

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(4, 8) COLLECTION ARCHIVES PHOTOGRAPHIQUES, MCLEISH, (7) E.N.A., (9) FRIBOURG AND TREYER

(5)

THE

METROPOL-

DESIGN

7. Rue de Rivoli, Paris.

Famed for its exclusive shops

S. Rue Castiglione and Place Vendôme, century

jh

Paris.

Many smart shops are

found here

9 k ee

i rSee Treyer. on

10. Liberty’s Tudor Building, London.

i eat

S3 -

Quaintness of Tudor architectural

style attracts attention

11. Todhunter, Inc., 119 E. 57th Street, New York city, N.Y. 12. Favil Press shop front designed

by the late H. J. Birnstingi,

London

Prate I

SHOP

FRONT

DESIGN

E

og seh

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“BBE

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tag

So ag sake? Od ah Areae RS

EE, PNRP BY

COURTESY OF (1) JOHN WARD SHOES, STUDIOS. CAPTIONS BY R. H, SMYTHE

INC.,

(2)

GALERIES

1 Sonate as LAFAYETTE,

MODERN

(3)

THOM

TREND

MCAN,

be lowered to basement for arranging 2. Galéries Lafayette, Paris. Glass faceted marquise

attracts the eye from a distance and gives light and shelter to those Wishing to inspect the

display more closely

4. Delman,

Madison

Avenue

and

54th

street,

distant

New

vision.

York.

Large

(4)

DELMAN,

IN SHOP

1. The John Ward shop, 555 Fifth Avenue, New York, designed to provide large display space for small frontage. Floor of round windows may

3. Thom McAn shop. Beveled windows allow tions kept from display by sloping glass

oo

Reflec-

oval

(6) ALLAN

FRONT

us weds,

CHRISTENSEN

AND

COMPANY,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(5, 7)

THE

VAN

ANDA

DESIGN

window with figures in motion attracts attention. Small windows below make for intimate effect 5. Lucky Strike, Broadway and 45th street, New York. Odd shaped corner window with moving figures and machinery used to attract attention of passers-by

6. Extensive amount of glass is used In the Peter Sorensen shop in Copenhagen, Denmark, that city

7. Delletrez,

one of the greatest shops

Fifth Avenue

by use of rich

near 57th street,

materials,

original

forms

for the sale of shoes

New and

York.

in

Effect obtained

delicacy

of treatment

SHOP

STEWARDS—SHORING

in Germany to-day is causing the designers to simplify the forms to a point where effects are obtained with a great reduction in oes and more emphasis on proportion, colour and purity of orm. Among American examples might be noted the work of Louis Sullivan, in New York and Chicago, in particular the Carson Pirie Scott and Co. store which, although most exuberant in detail, shows an interesting variance in pattern from the work of its day. The former Alexander shoe store on Fifth avenue was a very interesting example of a specialty store design to frame a very particular business, and although it has changed its occupancy it still remains one of the fine examples of design on the most important street in America. The Gattle jewellery store on Fifth avenue likewise shows a type of store that had considerable influence on other store designs, through the shape of itswindows, arrangement of display and more particularly the unusual placing of marble and glass. The Bergdorf-Goodman store at s8th Street and Fifth Avenue is characteristic of the new store in the most exclusive district of the city, where restraint and dignity would seem to be dominant. (See ARCHITECTURE; INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE; LIGHTING

AND ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION.)

(E. J. K.)

573

importance enough to incur the hostility of Richard of Gloucester, afterwards King Richard III., who accused her of having practised sorcery against him in collusion with the queen and Hastings. Richard had her put to public penance, but the people pitied her

for her loveliness and womanly patience: her husband was dead, and now in poverty and disgrace she became a prisoner in London. Thomas Lynom, the king’s solicitor wished ta marry her, but was apparently dissuaded. Jane Shore survived till 1527; in her last

days she had to “beg a living of many that. had begged if she

had not been.” She figured much in 16th-century literature, notably

in the Mirrour for Magistrates, and in Thomas Heywood’s Edward IV. The legend which connected Jane Shore with Shoreditch is quite baseless; the place-name is very much older. BrstiocraPHy.—Most of our information as to Jane Shore comes from Sir Thomas More’s Life of Richard III., edited by J. R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1883), supplemented a little by Edward Hall (Chronicle, pp. 363-364). See also H. B. Wheatley’s edition of Percy’s Reliques, ii. 264 (1876-77), and J. Gairdner’s Life and Reign of Richard LI.

(Cambridge, 1898).

SHOREDITCH, an eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded north-west by Islington, north-east by Hackney, east by Bethnal Green and Stepney, south by the City of London, and west by Finsbury. Pop. (1931) 97,038: area 658 acres. It is a crowded district extending east and west of Kings-

BIsiioGRAPHY.— Architectural Forum (July, 1928); Encyclopédie de architecture, Constructions modernes; Nouvelles devantures et

land Road. An old form of the name is Soersditch. The metro-

magasins

politan borough of Shoreditch returns one member to Parliament.

agencements

de

magasins;

Devantures,

vitrines,

installations

de

(1925); Het Stadswoonhuis in Nederland gedurende de

laatste 25 jaren (1924); K. Matthes, Moderne Ziegelbauten (1927); Moderne Ladenbauten (Berlin); Cafes, Bars and Restaurants, published by Librairie de la Construction Moderne, Paris; W. C. Behrendt, Der Sieg des Neuen Baustils (Stuttgart, 1927) ; Wasmuths Monatshefte für Baukunst (Berlin, 1927).

SHOP STEWARDS.

Prior to 1914, shop stewards in Great

Britain were confined to certain of the skilled trade unions. The duties of the shop steward were to inspect trade union contribution cards at regular intervals, to recruit new members for the union, to keep a watch on possible encroachments in the trade of other sections of labour, and to report regularly to the trade union

branch or district organisation which he represented on matters arising in the workshop demanding official attention. In some cases he was also responsible for representing grievances of members of his union in the workshop to the management. His powers were, therefore restricted. The conditions of wartime led to the assumption of new functions by shop stewards. The official trade union organisations were parties to the industrial truce agreed upon at the beginning of the war, and in any event, their machinery was too cumbrous to deal with the questions which arose from day to day in almost every munitions factory. During the war, therefore, shop stewards became negotiators and superseded in a large degree in factories and workshops engaged on war production, the ordinary official machinery of trade union negotiation. At the end of the war, the restoration of more normal conditions broke the power of the shop stewards. They have, however, in many unions now become a normal part of Trade Union organisation. Shop stewards have been appointed in factories and workshops in a variety of industries where they did not exist prior to the war. In addition to carrying out their well established duties, they are in some industries empowered to negotiate on minor matters, but their negotiating powers are derived from the unions and are not exercised independently of

the unions as was so frequently the case during the war. TRADE UNIONS.)

SHORE, JANE

(See

(d. 1527), mistress of the English king

Edward IV., is said to have been the daughter of Thomas Wainstead, a prosperous London mercer. She was well brought up, and married young to William Shore, a goldsmith. She attracted the notice of Edward IV., and soon after 1470, leaving her husband, she became the king’s mistress. Edward called her the merriest of his concubines, and she exercised great influence; but, says More, “never abused it to any man’s hurt, but to many a man’s

comfort and relief.” After Edward’s death she was mistress to

Thomas Grey, marquess of Dorset.

She also had relations with

William Hastings, and may-perhaps have been the intermediary between him and the Woodvilles. At all events she had poltical

SHOREHAM, of the River Adur, (1931) 8,757. The in distinction from

a seaport in Sussex, England, near the mouth 6 m. W. of Brighton. Pop. of New Shoreham town is sometimes known as New Shoreham, the village of Old Shoreham, a mile distant,

which was the former port. Shoreham owed its early importance to the natural harbour formed by the River Adur. It became an important port in the 13th and 14th centuries, but was later much reduced, doubtless owing to the encroachment of the sea.

The port revived during the reign of George III., when acts were passed for securing and improving the harbour which was continually becoming silted up by the tides and tending to move eastward.

Shoreham was called a borough in 1236. Weekly mar-

kets and an annual fair dating from the time of Edward IL. were held for some centuries, but have now been discontinued. Shipbuilding has always been the chief industry, and was largely carried on in the 13th and r4th centuries. There is also trade in coal, grain, timber and cement. The public boys’ school of St, Nicholas, Lancing, is near Shoreham.

SHOREY, PAUL

(1857

}, American classical scholar,

was born at Davenport (Ia.), on Aug. 3, 1857. He graduated at Harvard university in 1878, and was admitted tọ the Chicago bar in 1880. He then continued his studies at the universities of Leipzig (1881-82) and Bonn (1882) and the American School of Classical Studies, Athens (1882-83), proceeding thence to the University of Munich (Ph.D., 1884). He was professor of Greek at Bryn Mawr college 1885-92, resigning to fill a similar chair at the University of Chicago. He became head of the classical department at Chicago in 1896, and was Roosevelt professor in the

University of Berlin (1913-14). Dr. Shorey wrote: De Platonis Idearum Dactrina (1884); The Fdea of Gaod in Plato's Republic

(1895); ‘The Odes and Epodes of Horace (1898); The Unity of

Plato’s Thought (1903); and The Assaulé on Humanism (1917), the last named a brilliant but bitter polemic directed chiefly against those who minimized the value of humane studies in the educational system. He became managing editor of Classical PhiJology in 1908, and was a constant contributor to its columns. SHORING is the scientific placing of supports to parts of a building which are liable to distortion or collapse either because the fabric of the building is unsound—which may be evidenced by failure or settlement—-or to guard against the disturbance of adjacent parts of a structure and adjoinmg premises where altera~ tions to the fabric are being made. The word “shore” means a prop or support and is apphed to the work under description because every member employed is virtually à prop or a strut, opposing movement by its own resistance to compression. The cyait of shoring lies in so placing the shoring members and forming the joints and connections, that the shores as a whole may

SHORING

574

function perfectly; this condition requires that all parts shall fit closely and squarely at their ends and to be brought into close contact without “shock” to the structure which is being operated upon. Wedging requires the use of the hammer, causes shocks and vibration and should be used as little as possible; though it cannot be dispensed with entirely. Where wedges are adopted they should be placed at the ends of members distant from the defective portions of the structure and great care must be exercised in using the wedges, which should be slowly and cautiously BS driven by gentle blows. In all shoring it is imperative to maintain the condition of the structure to which it is applied, not to disturb it, or to attempt to

Braces.—Compound shores are stiffened and braced either by rough boarding nailed across them or bound with bands of hoop-

iron (figs. 1 and 2). For further strength braces of 1-in. boards,

6 to g in. wide, are used to bind the shores and plate together.

The wall-plate is usually a “deal” 9 in. wide by 2 in. thick, secured

against the wall with wrought-iron wall hooks, forming a good

abutment and serving to spread the pressure from the shores over a large area of the wall supported by them. Holes are cut through this plate to receive the needles, which are pieces of wood about I ft. long and 4 in. square in section, cut with a shoulder to butt against the wall-plate. A portion of a brick or stone is removed from the wall and the end of the needle is passed through the hole in the wall-plate into the recess in the wall. The head of the needle projects about 44 in. beyond the face of the wall-plate and forms an abutment for the notched head of the shore; the notching prevents side movement. A cleat is housed and spiked above the needle to obtain

restore it to an original position. There are several different forms of shoring, each adapted to suit particular circumstances. Much ordinary shoring is done with heavy, roughly sawn timbers strongly braced together, but for heavy work steel members may be introduced with advantage. Generally, steel is only employed for short heavy beams called “needles” (see below Dead Shoring), but in some special cases, as in the restoration of the piers supporting the dome of St. Paul’s cathedral, shoring and scaffolding must necessarily be of steel to support the immense loads during repair operations. The form of shore in most general use is that known as the raking shore. It consists of one or more timbers sloping from the face of the structure to be supported and bedded upon the ground. When the ground is of a yielding nature, a stout timber plate termed a sole-piece, is placed to receive the base of the a firm bearing. raking timber or timbers. A wall-plate, to increase the area of HOOP IRON BINDING Horizontal shores, or flying support, is fixed to the face of the wall by hooks driven into the shores, may be employed for joints. Where space is available, a slope of 60° is found convenient for the main shore, the auxiliary members ranging in their spans up to about 35 ft. They slope from 45° to 75°. In many cases, especially in towns, the are used to support the party SOLE PLATE angle of slope is governed by outside influences such as the width walls of buildings which adjoin DETAIL AT FOOT OF SYSTEM OF RAKERS of the footway or by local regulations. Raking shores are erected premises being rebuilt. They are singly or in “systems” in planes at right angles to the face of the FIG. 2.—DETAILS OF JOINTS USED erected in stages during the pullIN ASSEMBLING FIG. 1 wall. The members rise fanwise from the sole-plate to support the ing down operations and removed wall at different points. The spacing between systems depends as the new building is raised. A system of flying shores consists of on the condition of the building to be supported, and also upon the one or more horizontal timbers, sometimes known as dog shores, spacing of its window and other openings. The usual spacing is cut in tightly between wall-plates similar to those employed in rakro ft. to 15 ft. apart, but depends upon the openings in the wall. | ing shores (fig. 3). These horizontal members are supported at The application of the shores each end by cleats and needles fixed in the wall-plate and the shores needs care, support being given are supported in their length by inclined struts springing from i only where there is a correspondneedles fixed near the lower ends Roo Ss ing thrust from a floor or roof. A of the wall-plates and serving CLEAT clear idea of the construction of a He NEEDLE to strut the shore at a point about system of raking shores can be a third of its length from the mrooh obtained from a study of the wall. Corresponding braces are h RIDER SHORE illustration (fig. 1). The names carried from the upper surface and functions of the different PR of the shore and abut against timbers are indicated here. FLoor/AN \ needles at the upper ends of the aNANU ETAN e f AN Raking Shore or Raker.—A HORE | y \\ RAKERS plates. Straining pieces are sepiece of timber sloping up from j O cured to the upper and lower Y the sole-plate to the wall-piece faces of the horizontal memand joined as in fig. 2. The top ber to serve as abutments for and longest shore may necessarily the ends of the struts. The be formed in two pieces. The upbest angle for these struts is per one is the riding shore or about 45°, but a smaller inclinaBACK rider, and the lower, which supSHORE tion has frequently to be adopted. PAA. ports it, is the back shore. At Sa A Wedges are inserted, usually SOLE PLATE their junction folding wedges are at the end of the flyer and introduced to give the head of the sometimes between the struts rider a firm bearing against the FIG. 1.—SYSTEM OF RAKING SHORES and the straining piece, and needle and wall-plate above. The sole-piece (fig. 2) usually con- gently driven to cause each timsists of a piece of 11 by 3 plank, but may have to be bedded on a ber to find a close bearing. If Fic. 3.—HORIZONTAL OR FLYING platform of timber to spread the weight over a large area. The the adjoining premises are of SHORE sole should be placed at an angle (say 80°) with the inside of the considerable height and especially if it is proposed to undertake shore to enable the latter to be gradually levered to a firm bearing extensive excavations, the systems of flying shores may be comwith the aid of a crowbar. Wedging should not be resorted to or plicated, each consisting of several horizontal members spaced the building may sustain injury through vibration. When in posi- from to to 13 ft. apart, placed opposite-floors or other solid masses tion the foot of the shore is fixed by dog-irons to the sole-piece, and well strutted one to another and to the wall-plate (fig. 4). and for additional security against slip, a cleat is spiked very The members should be securely dogged and spiked together to firmly on the sole plate. form-a rigid framework able to resist the attacks of a strong wind. H

TY

ie

SHORNCLIFFE—SHORT

575

Horizontal shores are preferable to raking shores. Besides being more economical, they are more convenient and more efficient than rakers springing from the ground, especially if the height of the building is considerable and the span not much over 30 ft. They present a direct resistance to the thrust and are well out of the way of building operations that may be carried on below them, so that there is little risk of their being accidentally dis-

should be built slowly with rich Portland cement mortar. Before the shoring is removed, at least a week should elapse to allow the work to set hard and firm. Then the needles should be carefully loosened and removed and the holes from which they were withdrawn made good. The remainder of the props can then be “struck,” leaving the raking or flying shores until the last. Rules and Sizes for Raking Shores.—Walls 15 ft. to 30 ft. high should have 2 shores to each system; if more than 30 ft. in height an additional shore is required for each increase of ro ft. Shoring is rarely seen more than 5 shores high. The angle of the main shores is usually about 60° (but may be governed by local Roof regulations concerning the use of the roadway), and none of the timbers should exceed an angle of 75° to the horizontal. ‘Some STRUT of the lower shores will slope at angles between 40° and 60°. The SSS systems should not be placed at a greater distance apart than 15 ft. FLOOR and they should always be applied at the piers between window openings. The approximate section of a shore for any height of HORIZONTAL building may be determined by dividing the height of the building SHORE (at point of application) in feet, by five; then the result equals Watt PLATE the side of the square section in inches. Post For Horizontal or Flying Shores.—For spans not exceeding 15 ft. the principal strut may be 6 in. by 4 in., with raking struts 4 in. by 4 in.; for spans exceeding 15 ft. but not exceeding 35 ft. the size of the principal strut should be from 6 in. to 9 in. square, and the raking struts from 6 in. by 4 in. to 9 in. by 6 in. “Post The restoration of some important and ancient buildings in England by the British Office of Works has provided the opportunity for the design and application of new methods of shoring where great loads have had to be supported upon arcade arches CLEAT STRAINING while the original piers or columns were removed and restored. “PIECE The system adopted was to build very large brick piers under QAM XXX NE each arched opening and to construct brick rampant arches springSET ing from each side of the pier and terminating against the soffits FIG. 4.—SYSTEM OF FLYING SHORES USED IN CONSTRUCTING A HIGH of the original arches thus providing pairs of side supports to each BUILDING spandrel portion. As the arcade supported a high and thick wall, turbed; raking shores may be disturbed by accident or loosened this latter was also shored by raking shores—with which was combined scaffolding for use in restoring the wall faces. The by digging and other operations. Dead shoring is also known as vertical shoring or needle shor- columns were provided with a steel core of special section, round ing, and is adopted to support the upper portion of a building which the original column facing was rebuilt. The whole system was applied at Tintern abbey and at Furness when necessary to reconstruct foundations or to make large openIngs in the lower parts of the wall, as, for example, when put- abbey and met its purpose admirably. It is an excellent example ting a shop front in an existing building. This form of shoring of structural engineering applied to restoration work. consists of horizontal members of balk timber or steel I-sections The principal works of reference on this subject are: C. H. Stock, termed needles (very different from the needles used in raking’ Shoring and Underpinning (3rd ed., 1902); G. H. Blagrove, Shoring and flying shoring), which are passed through holes in the wall to Ce . Application (1887); G. Ellis, Modern Practical Carpentry IQI5). be supported, at a sufficient height to allow of the insertion of any arch or lintels that may be necessary above the proposed opening. SHORNCLIFFE, a military station in Kent, England, on The needles are supported at each end by an upright timber high ground north of Sandgate and 3 m. W. of Folkestone. SHORT, SIR FRANCIS JOB (1857~), knighted 1911, or dead shore, one on each side of the wall to each needle. These should not be allowed to rest upon any floor or vault English engraver and water-colour painter, was born at Stourbut be carried down to a solid foundation and set upon and bridge, Worcestershire, on June 19, 1857. He was educated to securely dogged to a timber sleeper rumning parallel to the wall. be a civil engineer, and came to London in 1881 as assistant to

N

If it is not practicable to take the inner dead shore through inter- Baldwin Latham in connection with the parliamentary inquiry vening floors down to the solid ground in one piece, and it is into the pollution of the river Thames. He was elected an asnecessary for its base to rest upon the floor or upon sleepers sociate member of the Institute of Civil Engineers in 1883 and placed on the floor, the shores must be continued in a direct the same year joined the National Art training school, South Kenlne below it until a frm foundation is obtained. Between the sington, and worked at the Westminster school of art, and needle and the head (or base) of the dead shores folding wedges at the Schools of the Royal Institute of Painters in Waterare inserted to force the horizontal supporting balk firmly up to colours. His real life-work now became that of an original and the underside of the masonry. Fixings between dead shores, translator engraver. He was a keen student of the works of needles and sleepers are made with wrought iron dogs. The J. M. W. Turner; and his etchings and mezzotints from Turner’s spacing of dead shores depends upon the material of the wall; for Liber Studiorum (1885 seg.), wonderful examples of devotion brickwork the intervals should not be greater than 6 ft. With this and skill, were among bis earliest successes. Short also reproduced form of shoring it is often necessary to adopt supports auxiliary in fine mezzotints several of the pictures of G. F. Watts, and engravings of the landscapes of David Cox and Peter de Wint. to the main shoring. All openings in the wall above should be well strutted between His subtle drawing of the receding lines of the low banks and their reveals to prevent any alteration of shape taking place. Inside the building, for support of the floors, vertical shores or strutting must be carried up independently from a firm foundation, in a direct line between the floors with head and sole plates at floor and ceiling to relieve the wall of weight from the floors and roof. To obviate settlement as much as possible, work done in underpinning

shallows of river estuaries and flat shores is seen to perfection

in many of his original etchings, mezzotints, and aquatints. Short was elected A.R.A. in 1906 when the rank of associateengraver was revived. As head of the Engraving schoel at the Royal college of art, South Kensington, he had great influence on younger engravers. He was elected to the Royal Society of

SHORTER—SHORTHAND

576

Painter-Etchers and Engravers in 1885. In 1910 he succeeded Sir to the composition of deeds, names of officials concerned, etc. It is the opinion of some authorities that such notations were a See The Etched and Engraved Work of Frank Short, by Edward F. protection against forgery. Examples of Greek shorthand are

Seymour Haden as president.

Strange (1908), which describes 285 plates by the artist.

confined to a few fragmentary papyri and waxen tablets ranging

SHORTER, CLEMENT KING (1857-1926), English journalist and author, was born in London on July 19, 1857, After

from the 4th to the 8th century, chiefly among the Rainer collection at Vienna to which Prof. Wessely has devoted much

working as a clerk at Somerset House, he became a journalist on

labour.

the staff of the Penny Illustrated in 1890. He was editor of the Illustrated London News from 1891 to r900, and founded and edited the weekly Sketch (1893), the Spkere (1900) and the Tatler (1903). He helped to found the Omar Khayyam Club, and was at one time president of the Johnson Club. He was a

contains marginal notes in shorthand of the date a.p. 972

A manuscript (Add. ms. 18231) in the British Museum

(Wattenb., Script. Graec. specim., tab. 19). Dating from the roth century, we find the Paris ms. of Hermogenes, with some tachygraphic writing of that period which Bernard de Mont-

faucon. deciphered with incredible labour (Pal. Gr., p. 351).

considerable critic and literary historian, and was interested par- But the largest amount of material is found in the Vatican ms. ticularly in Borrow, Dr. Johnson and the Brontés. He died on 1809, a volume in which as many as 47 pages are covered with Nov. 19, 1926, leaving a valuable collection of books and manu- tachygraphic writing of the r1th century. Cardinal Angelo Mai scripts. Shorter’s first wife, Dora Sigerson, is separately noticed. first published a specimen of it in his Scriptorum veterum nova In 1896 he published Charlotte Brontë and her Circle, and later collectio (1832); and in his Novae patrum bibliothecae tom. secundus edited the Haworth edition of the Brontés with Mrs. Humphrey (1844) he gave a second, which, in the form of a marginal note, Ward. In 1924 he issued a private edition of Patrick Branwell contained a fragment of the book of Enoch. Bronté’s And the Weary are at Rest. He edited Boswell’s Life of Shorthand and the Early Christian Church.—With the Dr. Johnson (1922) and Mrs. Gaskell’s Life of Charlotte Brontë. rise of the Christian Church and a demand for the exact utterThrough various connections of the Bronté family, a number of ances of the religious leaders of the day, the teaching and pracunpublished documents came into his possession, and he privately tice of the Tironian Notae received a new impetus. Many of the printed over 30 brochures on the Brontés and other subjects, trials of the early Christians were reported by shorthand writers including Mrs. Gaskell’s My Diary; the early years of my who were employed by the church for that purpose. Daughter Marianne. ' Revival of Shorthand in England.—England was the

SHORTHAND is the art of writing legibly, by means of brief

birthplace of modern shorthand. The publication by Dr. Timothy Bright in 1588 of his Charac erie: an Arte of Shorte, Swifte, and Secrete Writing by Character marked the beginning of this development in England. Bright’s system was invented durthe term “‘shorthand” is now almost universally applied to it. ing the reign of Queen Elizabeth and dedicated to her. It provided Shorthand is now employed widely in reporting the proceedings of parliament and legislative bodies, the trial of cases in courts that each sign could be given four different slopes, and that the base of each could be modified by 12 varying terminations. of law and especially for taking dictated business correspondence, With the publication of the Arie of Stenographie in 1602 by reports and other business communications. John Willis began the introduction of the systems based on the The Shorthand of the Ancients.—The earliest record we alphabet. These systems are sometimes referred to as orthohave of an organized system of shorthand dates from the year signs, at a rate sufficiently rapid to record speech. It has been variously known as stenography (close, little or narrow writing), tachygraphy (swift writing), brachygraphy (short writing). But

graphic, because they followed

the spelling of the words, omit53 B.C., the age of eloquence in Rome. At that time a freedman ting silent letters and in many cases the vowels in a word, One and friend of Cicero, Marcus Tullius Tiro, invented a system of the best known of these orthographic systems is that of of wolae that was used in recording the speeches of Cicero, Seneca and others of the Roman senate. The system invented Thomas Shelton, published about 1630, in which the famous by Tiro was taught in the Roman schools, was learned by em- diary of Samuel Pepys was kept. In 1767, Dr. John Byrom perors, and remained in use for several centuries. We are published his Universal English Shorthand, His principal contriinformed by Plutarch, in his life of Cato the younger, that the . bution to the art was greater lineality in writing, and representaspeeches of Caesar and Cato in connection with the conspiracy tion of the five vowels by writing a dot in five different positions of Catiline were taken down verbatim by notarii who had been with respect to the consonant outline, His system was popularized by Thomas Molyneux, who published seven cheap editions placed by Cicero in various parts of the Senate. An inscription on a marble slab from the Acropolis at Athens,

attributed to the 4th century 8.c., indicates that a system of brief

writing was practiced among the Greeks.

‘Tiro’s system was

between 1793 and 1825. In 1786, Samuel Taylor published in London an Essay Intended to Establish a Standard for a Universal System of Stenography. He simplified his system considerably by

limiting each letter to one sign, except w, and by the elimination of a great many of the arbitrary signs that had characterized Previous systems. His system was eventually adapted for use in France, Italy, Holland, Sweden, Germany and other Continental countries, Development of Phonetic Shorthand.—Most of the early namely, that by it, one and the same consonant letter, without the addition of points or any other signs whatsoever, expressed, systems of shorthand in England were orthographic or alphaby the inclination of such letter in three different directions, the betic, but the idea of writing according to sound comtinued to exact vowel, a, e, or 7, which followed. In the case of some of the gain in favour. The first published system using a phonetic base consonants the whole five vowels, and even the diphthongs, was that of William Tiffin (1750). Others were Lyle (1 762), were capable of like indication. Holdsworth and Aldridge (1766), Roe (1802), Phineas Bailey based on the orthographical of initials, following in this in common use with the tion of all, it was marked renders it superior to every

principle; it abounded in the use respect the abbreviating formulae Romans; and, principal distincby this peculiar excellence which other system known till to-day—

(1819), Towndrow (1831) and De Stains (1339).

Example of Tironian Notae:

Za

Een gud.

hy

PITMAN

:

SYSTEM

The publication by Isaac Pitman, in 1837, of Stenographic

Nemo fideliter diligit quem fastidit nam et calamitas querula Sound Hand marked a new era in the development of phonetic systems. Not only did he classify the sounds of the languag Shorthand in the Middle Ages—After the fall of the scientifically and arrange his material for writing accordin e gly,

Roman empire, the use of the Tironian system survived for but he introduced simple expedients of abbreviation that made several centuries. In a.p. 625 Tironian notes were used in the royal diploma of the Merovingian King Clotaire IL. In sub- for rapidity. A short summary of the principles underlying the Sequent years we find on public documents brief notations as system is given. Since the system is phonetic, all words are written according

SHORTHAND

577

to their sounds. The words dain, deal, may, knife would therefore | shun, no matter how it is spelled, is expressed by a large hook: be written as if they were spelled Jan, dél, ma, nif. passion S petition Y occasion 1>. When used with curved PITMAN’S SHORTHAND ALPHABET letters, the hooks are ‘always written inside the curve. The Names

Sign|

CONSONANTS Signi Nemes

Names

|chy

Sign|

Names

pee

PN

be

BN | jay

tee

T

|

kay

K

— | ith

TH

(

ish

SH

_/

dee

D

|

gay

G

—— | thee

TH

(| she

ZH

dA

emM s~

CH

/

|e

F

\

J

/

ve

V

\ | sxee

emnNW

way W o”

ingNG

yay Y


motion mo. The halving of a stroke indicates the addition of ¢ or d. This principle is of great value in writing the past-tense

forms of verbs: float @ floated Q plate % plated y pain S

pained or paint $ grade ~ graded “+ label “\ labelled *S . Doubling the length of a consonant adds ter, der or ther: track [_ tractor Lea laugh (\ laughter OVW bill NZ builder V mole AV moulder af: pore aeporter Vowel Indication.—In rapid writing it is not possible to insert all vowels, nor is it necessary. Three methods are employed to indicate the presence or absence of a vowel. Letters having alternate forms are used for this purpose; the downward 7 usually indicates that a vowel precedes it, whereas the upward form is usually used when a vowel follows. By writing a word in position

with relation to the line, it is possible to indicate a vowel. Words

Consonants.—The consonants in the system are drawn from simple geometrical forms, straight lines and shallow curves. It

is a curious fact that, while the tendency in longhand writing, beginning about A.D. 600 with the development of the Uncial

letters, was away from the Roman capital letters and toward a

cursive style, this tendency did not affect shorthand writing, although several systems appearing before Pitman’s were cursive in form. In Pitman’s system there are 26 signs for 24 consonant

sounds in the language, two of the signs being provided with duplicates for convenience in joining with other signs. The first 16 signs occur in pairs, a light sign for a light sound, and a heavier sign for a heavy sound. Vowels.—The 12 vowels in the language, ah, a, e, aw, 0, 00, as heard in the words, ‘Pa, may we all go too?” and their corresponding light sounds, a, e, 4, 0, %, 00, as in the words, ‘‘That pen

is not much good,” are represented by a dot and a dash, dis-

may be written above the line to indicate a first-place vowel, on the line for a second-place vowel, and through the line for a third-

place vowel. The first up or down stroke in the word generally takes the position, and the rest of the outline follows in regular order. The position of the word is determined by the first vowel. The third method of vowel indication is by the use of some of the consonant outlines instead of their abbreviated form, as the use of the s stroke in place of the circle at the beginning of a word,

or the writing of the z» stroke in place of the x hook in such a word as funny. Grammalogues.—A large number of the most commonly occur-

ring words have been condensed in outline form so that they Illustration of Pitman Shorthand b oN

ee

GRAAF.

on

£, V

ee.

S

F oy

RA,

joined. A heavy dot placed opposite the beginning of a consonant represents the long vowel ah; opposite the middle of the stroke it represents d; and opposite the end of a stroke it represents é@ A short, heavy dash placed similarly represents the sounds aw, 6, 60. The dot or the dash is made very light to represent the corresponding light or short vowel sounds. To illustrate: pa ‘\ bay N tea |. sigh Y ode -| bug X. The sound s when preceding or following another consonant is expressed by a small circle: pays ey tease L.spy XS spouse NA When the sound ses occurs other than at the beginning of a

SEAL 6 ae t=. SF Ne me FEM rw

word, it is represented by a large circle: paces Xo teases L. spices Xo excessive = When the large circle is the beginning

Ee

of a consonant it represents sw: Swoop QR Swede P swim 6^.

The small circle for s is turned into a small loop torepresent st,

and into a larger loop to represent sir: past boast ‘4 boaster $

must

~~ muster

pastor “SD

®© state J steam ox.

Use of Hooks——The hooks used as abbreviating devices are obtained from segments of the circle s, or of the large circle for ses. A small hook written at the beginning of a consonant on the left of straight downstrokes and under horizontal strokes adds r; a small hook written at the end of a consonant under the

IPN

>

tverg

K

“oD

LA

P P reme < —

(oge

°

ETN

Sax

ONS

“Ny,

[^N

>

2

x

It is certain that any matter that is likely to strain our attention severely should be attended to when the mind is clear, the memory retentive, and the mental faculties fully alert and ready to act. Unfortunately, we cannot always arrange to follow this excellent division

of our time, and we are obliged to deal with business matters Just as they turn up. After all, it may be said that in all these cases the matter may be left to the judgment of the man affected. no

can be written with one stroke of the pen without vocalization. These words are memorized and learned thoroughly so that they can be written with great facility. Illustrations: that 2 is o as, has__. are our „, The common sound of

is a list of contractions which it is necessary for the writer

578

SHORTHAND GREGG

to memorize before he can develop much speed. T hese contractions are usually long or awkward outlines that have been reduced in form by dropping parts of the word but at the same time keeping them significant enough to establish their identity. Examples of these are: indispensable

“4, dangerous

CONSONANTS

K

G

R

L

P

The Pitman system was introduced into America a few years after its publication. Alfred Baker tells us in the Life of Sir Isaac Pitman that the first instruction book in Pitman shorthand was brought out by Mr. Stephen Pearl Andrews (Boston, 1844). In 1852, Mr. Benn Pitman, brother of the author of the system, came to America to continue the work he had been doing for several years. After the publication of the roth ed., in which the sowa scale was dang, Benn Pitman refused to adopt the

learned and practised the system began to modify it and publish it in altered form. Among these were A. J. Graham, J. E.

B

C

F

C

)

Short Medium Long

A,

basis, so another group of authors discarded the use of geometrical signs. As early as 1787, S. G. Bordley had presented

vee i, Medium 4 é ,, ,, den

his cursive shorthand. This was followed by R. Roe (1802), T. Oxley (1816), J. and J. Aitchison (1832) and D. Cadman (1835). In France and Germany script systems had been introduced successfully and are in wide use to-day. Fayet’s French system and Gabelsberger’s German system are illustrations.

Long

i

GREGG SYSTEM

ow

In 1888, John Robert Gregg published his Light-Line Phonography, in which he incorporated what he considered this fundamental idea of employing shorthand characters that were in harmony with the slant and movement of longhand as well as many other principles, the lack of which had given rise to many criticisms of existing systems. Gregg adopted the phonetic principle and added a scientific analysis of kandwriting. The title of the first book of his system was The Phonetic Handwriting. Gregg brought his system to America and offered it to the public soon after its publication in England. At present it is taught in more schools in the United States, and practised by more stenographers, than any other. A summary of the system is presented. The basic principles given below are taken from a copy of the original Light-Line Phonography, published in 1888: (1) Total absence of shading or thickening. (2) The characters being based on the elements of the ordinary longhand, the strokes are familiar and the motion uniform. (3) The insertion of the vowels in their natural order without lifting the pen. (4) The absence of positions, or the placing of words on, above, or through the line of writing to imply the omission of certain vowels or consonants. (5) The preponderance of curve motion. Although some changes have been made in the system since 1888, these principles have remained the same. Consonanis.—-The consonants generally are paired according

to affinity of sound and are distinguished by length. Consonant signs were selected which would permit the joining of many fre-

quently recurring consonantal combinations without modifying the primitive form and to make possible the writing of these forms

kr —

kl noe

a

TH

D

C

gl —_—"

ŒE

-

/ re

J

S

%

re

ae

/ z

—~

~

O

E-group (i asin din

,, ,, owl

large, and by hooks.

Long

le 1

9) OG

« V /

=

shoe

OO-group 1h aeineek

32

o 5 Long 66 ,, ,,doom / DIPHTHONGS Composed j D ara adio

Composed ayas aa

5

© O /

3 i Medium 4 ®© ,, ,,t00k

|E „ ,, dean

4-60

i : 5100p j oe o as In Ho Medium 4 aw ,, ,, audit m

» came

Short

e

T

VOWELS

ero a as In cat 44 ,, ,, calm

Munson, E. Longley and Eliza B. Burns. , Script Systems.—Just as Pitman and his predecessors rejected the orthographic principle in shorthand and adopted the phonetic

IC

M

V , (A dot)

Many others who had

br

N

; inWritten downward:

with but one movement of the pen, thus: pr Ê

ALPHABET

Written forward:

defatigable N

change and adhered to the old forms.

SHORTHAND

ao

1

ä-ē

» s Ùsle

«A y /

> O

A small circle expresses the E-group of

vowels, z, é, é; a large circle, the A-group, &, ä, ā. The circle js

written on the inside of curves and on the outside of angles;

before and after straight strokes, or between straight strokes in the same direction the circle is written clockwise; between reverse curves the circle is turned back on the first curve. A system of diacritics is provided for showing the exact shade of sound, as for example &, @, d, but since the large circle expresses an a-sound in any case, the need for these diacritics arises rarely.

To illustrate the application of the rules for joining circles: key —o aim

air Q

Cc.

me

lake e7

meet ——% Sememi

gain “~~

mean

————er-

make —~3~> wreck

We

The hook vowels are derived from a small ellip-

tical figure, thus:

>

the lower part expressing the O-group

of vowels, J, aw, 6; the upper part expressing the OO-group,

tt, 00, 00. These hooks join naturally in most combinations but

they are modified in two instances to avoid unnecessary angles,

thus: the O-hook is turned on its side before n, m, r, l; the OOhook is turned on its side after n, m, and after k, g, if followed byr orl. Illustrations: ought e% wrote _«“know —w shop

f

moodme”

obey

cull m

to

~

foot L

meds

Coal —e___—one—

nor

~~

Signs for W and Y.—W has the sound of 00, as 00-G-tin watt, and is expressed by the sign for æ. W within a word is expressed by a short dash struck under the vowel sign. The sound for y is equivalent to long e, as 2-00-th in youth, and is so expressed, except ye 1s expressed by a small loop, and ya by a large loop.

The Signs for S and Th.—To facilitate joining in various combinations alternative signs are provided for the frequently recurring sound of s, written downward, and for th, written upward. In the use of these forms two principles serve as guides: Illustrations: wait oa weave 7 youth ø” yacht € uniformity of rotation and forward movement when joined to yello we__-~ Yale as queen —pcurves; sharp angles when joined to straight strokes. Vowel Signs.—The vowels are expressed by circles, small and Diphthongs.—The signs for the four pure diphthongs, @, ow, ot,

SHOR THOUSE 3, are written by simply joining the signs for the sounds composing them. Concurrent vowels are written in the same way. Illustrations:

price CE

feud

ye

science ,

now

oe

L

S ell _

5

4

oe

FIG. 3.— OPEN, CUP-SHAPED EYES OF (A) CHAETOPOD WORM (SYLLIS); (B) GASTROPOD, COMMON LIMPET (PATELIA); (C) CHAMBERED CEPHALOPOD (NAUTILUS) tion is exactly the same as in the vertebrate eye. The cuttlefish can focus its sight either for near vision or for distant by means of particular muscles, which alter the length of the axis of the eye. It is hardly necessary to mention that the pupil in the iris can be expanded or contracted according to the strength of the light falling on it. In the structure of the retina, also, the eye of the cuttlefish is equivalent to those of vertebrates. It is made up of more than 100,000 elements per sq.mm., and thus is certainly adapted for the formation of a sharp image. Lastly, it may be mentioned, that in size also it is in no way

Lae

en

et meee aN À

Í\ sa

FIG. 5.—CLOSED, VESICULAR EYES OF (A) A MARINE GASTROPOD (MUREX); (B) A LAND GASTROPOD SLUG (LIMAX) crystalline cone, a conspicuous structure, usually gelatinous, which is quite transparent, and allows the rays of light to pass freely, and directs their path. If we examine the eye of a diurnal insect, we find that the inner extremity of the crystalline cone is adjacent to the cells which, collectively, correspond to our retina. Each

ommatidium has only 6 or 7 of these cells. Among them they secrete a remarkable body, the rhabdom, which evidently represents a kind of transformer. The rays of light which enter the eye are focused on the rhabdom, and there are evidently brought into such a form af

energy that they are available to the sensory FIG 6.—EYE OF A L. LID; C. CORNEA; LENS; R. RETINA

CUTTLEFISH; I. IRIS; LL.

layer

cells.

immediately

The nervous

adjoins

the

sensory cells. In diurnal insects each ommatidium is separated

from its neighbour by a layer of pigment. Somewhat comprehensive conclusions may be drawn from the structure of the faceted eye as to its functional powers. It seems certain that each ommatidium functions separately. It

FIG. 4.—CUP-SHAPED EYES OF (A) THE LARVA OF A BEETLE (ACILUS); (B) A SPIDER (TEGENARIA) inferior to the vertebrate eye. Eyes 37 cm. in diameter have been found in the giant cuttlefishes of the genus Architeuthis. The eyes of turbellarian worms and leeches have a somewhat different structure. In these animals, it is true, eye-cups are present, but they are not formed by the retinal cells themselves, but of pigment cells, which absorb the light, while the sensory cells penetrate into the interior of the cup (fig. 7). Faceted Eyes.—We find quite a different type in the faceted eyes of insects and crustaceans. As the name implies, the eye may be seen to be formed of a great number of facets, usually square or hexagonal in shape, which in their regularity resemble

AFTER

HESSE

FIG, 7.—(A) EYE OF A TURBELLARIAN WORM (PLANARIA); A LEECH (HIRUDO)

(B) EYE OF

projects the image of a point of light. The whole image see

thus by an insect is composed only of as many elements as the

eye possesses facets. The number of these, however, is surprisingly small. Even those insects which have the best sight, such as dragonflies, have only about 60,000 ommatidia, With this we

630

SIGHT

must compare the fact that in the vertebrate eye a single sq.mm., which gives only an exceedingly small portion of the whole image, contains about 300,000—700,000 separate elements. It follows as a matter of course that only in a very slight degree is an insect

Eyes of Nocturnal Insects.—The

eyes of nocturnal insects

and of the mostly nocturnal crustaceans are constructed in a remarkably different manner from those of diurnal insects. _As is to be expected, such an eye is constructed so as to admit a greater amount of light than that of a diurnal insect. This is

attained by the ommatidia being no longer separated by pigment

layers. In addition, the crystalline cone has, in such animals, other physical peculiarities. The physiologist Exner has proved

this conclusively for the eyes of the glow-worm.

He showed

O oO

eMart ee oe TN 5 LS Sorensen WZA IRTA et eS SAAG ooere tp

g

A ery NY Prana ROU)

GNN PATR

AFTER FIG.

(A) KUEPFER,

(B) JACOB

10.—FACETED

EYE

BIVALVE MOLLUSC ARCA

FROM

THE

MARGIN

OF

(A) Transverse section through the edge of the mantle.

more strongly magnified. sensory cell.

FIG. 8.—(LEFT) OMMATIDIUM FROM THE FACETED EYE OF AN INSECT (COCKROACH, PERIPLANETA) AND CROSS-SECTION THROUGH THE RET. INULA. (RIGHT) OMMATIDIUM OF A CRUSTACEAN (CRAYFISH, ASTACUS), WITH CROSS-SECTION THROUGH THE RETINULA able to distinguish form, as is borne out by the previously mentioned experiments. Most insects, which have only a few thousands or even hundreds of ommatidia, cannot do this at all. On the other hand, these eyes are eminently adapted for the perception of movement. When an insect the size of a fly passes

L. Lens.

THE

G. Vitreous humour.

P’ Interstitial pigment cells

MANTLE

OF

THE

(B) Two Ommatidia,

P. Pigment coat of

that the light given out by a luminous point penetrates not only one ommatidium but many (fig. 9). After leaving the crystalline cone, however, the rays are refracted in such a way that, ultimately, they again become focused upon one point of the retina. Each rhabdom.receives, therefore, a much greater amount of light than those in the eyes of diurnal insects. On account of the arrangement one upon the other of the points of light which come from the various crystalline cones, such eyes are described as giving “superposition images,” while those of diurnal insects give “apposition images.” It is of interest that crustaceans are able to use their eyes either for superposition or for apposition vision, according to their needs. This is attained by the movement of the pigment in the cells which separate the ommatidia.

FIG, 11.—TRAINING HONEY-BEES TO DISTING

= a= an J a ~~ I J — a ~~ ~ pon Ll

— — e a — = D ~. = a = I = i

B, and A, are the boxes with forms to which the beeUISH FORMS had been previously trained to comes A, and B, are other boxes

Faceted eyes are found in some bivalves (Arca) and Chaeto pod worms,

as well as in Arthropods, but serve, however, only for perception of movement (fig. x0).

THE FUNCTION OF THE EYE To man the eye is by far the most important of all the sense organs. With the help of our eyes we recognise FRON KUHN our fellow men, animals and plants, the things we use in daily FIG. 9.—PATH OF THE LIGHT-RAYS life, in short all IN A FACETED EYE; (A) IN ONE GIVING AN APPOSITION-IMAGE, the world around us. He who studies the sight (B) IN ONE GIVING A SUPERPOSIT of animals is apt IONIMAGE; P. PIGMENT; RH, RHABDON to make the mistake of supposing that their eyes function like ours. in front of a dragonfly at a distance of about 2 metres, it is seen Such perception of form as permits us, from the by the latter only as a black point, for appearance of it can be proved that, in an object, to draw conclusions as to its other qualities, and thus this case, only one single ommatidium catches the image of the to understand its nature, is only to be found in the highest fly. In spite of this it is pursued, captu anired and eaten. mals, mammals, birds, and, perhaps, some reptiles. Even the

SIGHT frog does not recognise a motionless fly as desirable food, but is quite indifferent to it; it is, so to speak, “intellectually blind.” This applies in a still greater degree to the invertebrate or lower animals. Of these, so far as is known at present, only bees and their relatives show a definite sense of form. Von Frisch demonstrated that bees can be trained to distinguish forms. Food was given them in a closed box, into which they were obliged

631

is often to be seen in decapod crustaceans. These animals react to a moving object by holding the antennae straight out towards it. (See fig. 12.) Uexkuell showed that the house-fly finds its mate by means of this perception of movement. If a small, black bead, about the size of a fly, is fastened to a thread, and drawn fairly rapidly through the air, the male flies immediately throw themselves upon it. If the surface of the bead be smeared with a sticky substance, it makes an ideal fly-trap. That dragonflies and other predatory insects only pursue moving prey need hardly be mentioned. The most lowly animals which undoubtedly possess the power of perceiving movement are certain marine Chaetopod worms

(Branchiomma).

They live in tubes, constructed by themselves,

from which only their heads project, which bear numerous, long tentacles. Each tentacle has at its extremity a compound eye. If one makes a rapid movement with the hand in front of the aquarium, every worm retreats into its tube with lightning rapidity. That this is a typical case of the visual perception of movement is proved by the fact that darkness or light, produced by the switching off or on of an electric lamp, without movement,

makes no impression whatever upon the animals. That the lower animals perceive and take heed of motionless

AFTER DOFLEIN FIG, 12.—GALATHEA SQUAMOSA, SHOWING REACTION TO OPTICAL PERCEPTION OF AN APPROACHING OBJECT, BY BENDING ANTENNAE DOWN

to crawl through a hole. Around this hole was glued the picture of a flower, while round a hole in another box, which was placed beside the first, but was empty, was gummed the picture of another flower. After food had been given thus for several days, the boxes, which could be distinguished only by the difference in the pictures of the flowers, were placed before the bees empty. A much greater number of visits was paid to the box which had contained food (see fig. 11). Bees, therefore, are able to distinguish between two flowers according to their shape. Similar experiments may be made also by using simple geometrical figures. Perception of Movement.—dAs far as is known at present, none of the other lower animals are capable of such a performance. It is easy to guess for what purpose they use their eyes if we consider the behaviour of some mammals. The hare takes not the least notice of the sportsman standing motionless at the edge of the wood, but as soon as he makes the slightest movement, it takes to flight. It, therefore, exhibits in a marked degree the power of perception of movement. Spontaneous movement can take place only in living organisms. Since the animal heeds only the movement, and not the motionless form, it is able, in the simplest way, to distinguish between “living” and “lifeless.” The power of perceiving movement is very distributed. Schrader ‘has made interesting experiments with falcons. These intelligent birds, under normal conditions also, are able to distinguish motionless prey as such. If, however, the cerebrum is removed, they notice movement only. A falcon from which the cerebrum has been removed, pursues and strikes a living, active mouse just as skilfully as would a normal bird; as soon as the mouse is dead, however, it takes no more interest in it. In general, frogs and salamanders snap only at moving prey, and every angler knows that fishes act in the same way. Among the lower animals interesting observations have been ‘made on insects, crustaceans and molluscs. The scallop, Pecten jacobaeus, has, on the edges of its mantle, a large number of eyes of complex structure. On account of the poor development of its brain, however, it is unable to distinguish its enemies by means of sight, and is able only to perceive movement. If another animal crawls slowly towards it, as soon as the scallop perceives the movement, it extends the long, thread-like tentacles, which are its olfactory organs. By means of these it determines whether the approaching animal is friend or foe. If it be the former, the scallop quickly becomes quiet again; if the latter, it swims away hurriedly. A corresponding co-operation between eyes and feelers

objects is really only to be observed when they have to turn aside from their path on account of them. When an insect flies about in a forest it must not run the risk of colliding with every tree. This also applies to the deliberately moving gasteropods. We can well observe in these slow-moving creatures how skilfully they avoid the obstacles which may be placed in their path. This is also the case if we place between the animals and the obstacle a glass screen, which excludes all impressions of it other than visual ones. We do not know as yet how widespread this

“avoiding reaction” is in the animal kingdom. On the other hand, visual perception of direction is almost universal. This power enables the animal to pursue an orderly path in a straight line. It hardly requires to be proved that it is a necessity of life for all freely-moving animals to crawl, fly or swim straight ahead. It suffices to remember that, without this power, an animal runs the risk of moving round and round in circles, in a quite aimless manner. Mephistopheles says in “Faust” :— I tell you, the man who speculates, Is like a beast upon a barren heath, Led in a circle by an evil spirit, While just beyond are spreading, fresh, green fields.

We can conjure up this evil spirit in our experiments by conducting them in darkness. If we allow small insects to creep

about in the dark on a piece of glass lightly smeared with soot, we can see from their tracks that they have crawled here and there, not indeed in circles, but In a totally aimless manner, without

moving far from one place (see fig. 13). We can increase this restriction of movement by amputating one of the legs of the insect; it then frequently runs in a narrow spiral, always turning towards the same side. As soon as we admit light into the darkened chamber, however, AFTER V. BUDDENBROCK matters are instantly changed; FIG. 13.—TRACK OF A BEETLE IN the creature runs away from the THE DARK THE LIGHT

(THIN LINE), AND (THICKER LINE)

IN

light in a course straight as a

line. Visual Sense of Direction.—These experiments prove the existence of the visual perception of direction. This applies to human beings also. It has long been known that a man in desert or snow covered regions, or in dense brush, unable to use his sight for orientation, moves round in circles, and, after walking for hours, finds himself back at the point from which he started. The manner in which man and the higher animals orientate themselves in space by means of sight is generally, known. Quite unconsciously. they choose some prominent object, such as a

SIGHT

632

tree, for which they aim; on approaching this they select as their goal another, more distant object, lying in the same direction.

The lower animals regulate their movements on a different principle. They shape their course in relation to the light. This method of orientation is well illustrated by the following example. Xenophon frequently writes in his “Anabasis” :—“We marched keeping the sun on our right.” That is to say, we can in a quite unfamiliar region, travel in a straight course in a particular direction, if we take

where there are no glazed windows, brightness means the open air and the sky. A very clear example of phototaxis appearing only under certain conditions is furnished by the water scorpion

(Nepa cinerea). This creature lives in shallow waters among the plants on the bottom. It is, however, an air-breather, and is obliged to ascend to the surface of the water from time to time, in order to inhale it. In this it is aided by positive phototaxis, which, in this case, co-operates with negative geotaxis. Since light only enters the water from above, the creature, which becomes phototactic only with lack of air, creeps up the water plants as much as possible in a vertical direction, until it reaches the surface. Scarcely, however, has it breathed in the fresh air,

care that the rays of the sun and when phototaxis ceases, and the water scorpion is able to descend the line of march enclose a conagain into the deeper regions. As a final example, the water-flea, stant angle. What man does inDaphnia, may be mentioned, in which we can produce phototaxis telligently the lower animals acat will. We have only to introduce water containing carbon complish by blind instinct. dioxide into a vessel in which there are Daphnia, to see at once The particular motion with rethat all the animals swim as quickly as possible towards the light. lation to the light may be demonHere, however, we must again make it clear that, normally, the strated experimentally in two light enters from above. Daphnia live in stagnant waters, freways. A small candle is put on a quently very unclean, at the bottom of which poisonous carbon table in a dark room, and the dioxide can be very easily formed through putrefactive processes. animal to be studied is placed In this instance, phototaxis serves to protect the Daphnia from about half a metre distant from poisoning by carbon dioxide. the light. (Some small beetles The Mechanism of Phototaxis——While these matters are or caterpillars are good subjects AFTER V. BUDDENBROCK comparatively simple, the naturalists of the present day are as for this experiment.) The ani- FIG. 14.——-THE MOVEMENTS OF A yet very divided in their opinions regarding the mechanism of mal begins by running past the CATERPILLAR IN RELATION TO phototaxis. There are various theories, of which we may, perlight, apparently without heeding LIGHT it; if, however, we suddenly take up the light and place it haps, go so far as to say that each is correct in some instances. The best known is the Theory of Tropisms (also called the on the other side of the animal, the latter turns in an angle of Ray-Ver worn Theory, or the Theory of Tropotaxis). It is 180°, and continues its way in the opposite direction to that previously followed (fig. 14). This very pretty experiment does founded on the fact that the majority of animals which are not succeed with all species. The following is simpler, and can prototactic have bilateral symmetry. These all have a median be carried out with all sorts of insects, crustaceans, and gastero- plane dividing the body into two, absolutely identical halves. The pods. The animal is placed on a table near the light, and left to entire animal is regarded as a small automaton. The light rays its own devices; it may then be observed that, under the influence which fall on the eye are converted into nervous energy, which of the light which radiates outwards in a circle, the animal per- is conducted to the brain. The latter transmits the stimulus to the limbs, which are under its control, and thus, according to this forms a circus-movement round the source of illumination. It theory, the movements of the legs are, by a natural law, dependmoves, therefore, in such a way that the angle formed by the ant on the strength of the illumination of the eyes. If the rays light rays and its path remains constant. In this instance the of light come from the front, they strike both eyes equally, and, angle is roughly a right angle; the animal is able, however, to therefore, the legs of each side move with change it at will. For example, it may crawl in such equal force, and the a way that animal runs straight forward. IE, however, the light comes from the light falls upon its eyes obliquely, from behind; it then moves one side, so that one eye is more strongly illuminated than the in a spiral which gradually removes it from the light (see fig. 15). other, there is also a difference between the two sides in the The long known fact that noct urnal insects are attrac ted by a working of the legs. The conselighted lamp is connected with th is particular type of movement. quence must be that the animal Usually, on their nocturnal flights, they orientate themselves turns until its median plane coinby the moon, the clouds, or other far distant source s of light. If, however, they come by chance within the influe cides with the direction of the nce of a near source of light, such as an electric arc-lamp, they light rays. When this is accomare compelled to fly around the artificial light in circles or plished, it again runs in a straight in spirals. Often enough they come thus into the immediate line towards the light. This theory neighbourhood of the light, and are burnt. Is so very striking in its great Visual perception of direction in animals may simplicity that, at first, it was show itself in quite another way, namely, in what is called received with much enthusiasm, phototexis. The following example illustrates what is particularly by everyone intermeant by this. If a bee is taken, and released in the middle of a ested in Natural Philosophy. room, it flies with absolute certainty towards the window, and, With time, however, the oppotherefore, towards AFTER MULLER the light. Such an animal is called positively phototactic. The FIG. 15.—TRACK OF A NEGATIVELY sition to this theory has been cockroach illustrates an opposite condition; it is negatively photo- PHOTOTACTIC WOODLOUSE UNDER greatly increased, and there are tactic. It avoids the light, and when turne THE INFLUENCE OF TWO BEAMS OF many naturalists who have almost d out A i place, it will assuredly make for the dark. A A A (A & B) completely relinquished it. FreThat phototaxis is not always a constant quently, the law which governs character is shown the movements of by the bee. We cannot say off-hand “the bee such animals is known by another name, is positively photo- namely the “Law of Resultants.” Thus, if we allow an animal tactic.” It is so only under quite defini te conditions; in very to crawl into a field of light which is formed by two crossin many other circumstances it is not so. g For example, when it beams, it is compel led to move according to the resultant. A returns from gathering honey, and flies into the dark hive, it is fine example of this much rather to be described as negatively manner of reaction has been phototactic. Frl. Müller, who worked with woodlice (see fig. furnished by Sometimes it is easy to state the condi 15). It aptions under which an pears that the animals under the influence of two equally strong animal will become phototactic. The bee becomes positively beams of light, phototactic if it is caught, and strive run exactly in the diagonal; if the beams s to free itself. In nature, made to are be of f

.

.

yo

unequal strength the angle alters.

It can be

SIGHT trees in advance if we know the strength of both beams light. A second theory, which is in opposition to the theory of tropisms, asserts that the lower animals behave similarly to man and the higher animals. If a man walks towards a light, or let us of

say in a general way towards some optically perceptible point, first of all he fixes his eyes on the light, that is to say he moves them so that the light falls on the central point (fovea centralis); he then turns his head and body towards the light and goes straight forward. Kuehn has

633

towards it. This gives the impression of being a clear case of tropotaxis, but Mast was able to prove that the zooids on the illuminated and on the shaded sides differ, not in the strength of the lashing of the flagella, but in the direction of the strokes. On the former side the flagella lash sideways, on the latter, straight out to the back (see fig. 17). It is apparent, therefore, that in this reaction we are dealing neither with a case of tropotaxis nor with one of telotaxis, but with a phenomenon sz generis. Very interesting are the orientation movements of

named this kind of reaction “‘telotaxis” > it is fundamentally op-

posed to tropotaxis, as will appear if we close one eye. A telotactically reacting animal is just as well able to direct its course when using only one eye as when using both; a tropotactically reacting animal, on the other hand, when it has only one eye is compelled continually to move round in circles. It is easy to convince oneself, on the basis of this alterFIG. 16.—UPWARD MOVEMENT OF A native, that the majority of the POSITIVELY PHOTOTACTIC DAPHNIA, more highly developed animals, DIAGRAMMATIC such as insects or the higher groups of Crustacea, behave for the most part telotactically. The numerous partial refutations which the theory of tropisms has undergone cannot be given in detail here. Only one particularly important argument can be mentioned. It used to be considered a proof of its validity that animals blind on one side constantly run round in circles. If they are positively phototactic, they continually turn towards the side on which they can

see; if they are negatively phototactic they turn towards the blind side. Now, in the first place, this certainly does not apply to all cases. The majority of the higher insects learn very quickly to run straight when they have only one eye. Above all, Mast was able to prove that the animal does not move round in circles involuntarily, as the theory of tropisms would require, but that the animal voluntarily runs round thus, and moves its legs in such a manner as to attain this end. If some of the legs are amputated the remaining ones completely alter their movements, so that, in spite of the totally different locomotor conditions, the circus movement is still possible. A second argument of general application is as follows:—The naturalist usually makes use of horizontal light in his experiments, which strikes the animal from one side. Only under these artificial conditions is it possible to turn about an axis which lies in the plane of symmetry of the body. Under natural conditions, on the contrary, the light, as far as aquatic animals are concerned, comes always from above. The Daphnia on becoming positively phototactic turns from its former position, not to right or left, but backwards. That it swims in the end towards the light, and not in the direction A or B is impossible to understand on the theory of tropisms (fig. 16). Frequently, however, it is impossible to decide with certainty from such rough experiments the manner in which an animal orientates itself in relation to light, and a closer, more

exact

analysis is required. We are indebted to S. O. Mast for the best work on this subject. He showed that in many cases, neither tropotaxis nor telotaxis sufficed to account for the phenomena. As the first example we may mention briefly the researches of Mast on the orientation of the colonial Flagellate, Volvox. The colony is composed of about 20,000 individuals, which are arranged on the surface. Each zooid has two flagella, and an eye-

AFTER S. O. MAST FIG. 17.——PHOTOTACTIC ORIENTATION OF A VOLYOX ONLY FOUR CELLS. L. THE DIRECTION OF LIGHT

COLONY,

SHOWING

asymmetrical animals, as for example one-eyed animals such as the Ascidian larvae also studied by Mast. These animals are negatively phototactic, and in swimming revolve about their longitudinal axis. When the light comes from one side, the eye, which is set in a pigmented cup, is alternately illuminated and in shadow with each revolution. Every time it is in shadow, the animal makes a stroke with its tail towards the ocular side; every time it is illuminated, it makes a stroke towards the abocular side

(see fig. 18). In this way the

larva quickly turns away from the light. We find the least development of the sense of sight in those animals which are unable to perceive either images, movements, or direction, but can only distinguish light and darkness. They react mostly to alterations in the light intensity to AFTER S. O. MAST FIG. 18.——REACTION OF THE NEGA- which they are accustomed. A TIVELY PHOTOTACTIC, ASYMMET- very common phenomenon of this RICAL LARVA OF AMAROUCIUM

kind is the “shadow reflex.” Many of the lower animals, particularly those which dwell in shells or shelters of some kind, into which they can withdraw, d so directly a shadow falls on them. An animal particularly suitable for the demonstration of this spot, provided with a lens. The colony has an anterior pole, is the vineyard (Roman) snail, Helis pamata, which has a a and reflex swimming, in front the which is always turned towards shadow to fall upon longitudinal axis round which it rotates. If a light is placed to wide distribution in Europe. If we cause a or completely requickly, very horns its withdraws it head, its the until turns it colony, phototactic positively one side of a be mentioned may animals marine Among shell, its into treats is directed to the light, and then swims straight

anterior pole

SIGHT

634

time a shadow the small sessile crustacean, Balenus, which, every in a constant move ly normal which feet, its aws falls on it, withdr way, rhythm.

Further, many tubicolous worms react In a similar

on them. and many bivalves close their shells, if a shadow falls biologiThe read. widesp ly unusual is enon In short, the phenom by this cal significance of this shadow reflex most certainly is that may shadow the since danger, from hides means the animal 1s, of perhaps indicate the approach of some animal. This fails to course, a very poor expedient, since, in the first place, it on directi e opposit an in are which s enemie give protection from to the sun, and, in the second place, it causes the animal to withdraw unnecessarily thousands of times. Animals which do not possess any well-developed sense organs to give them certain warning of the approach of their enemies, are obliged, however, to help themselves even in this primitive manner. The animals here mentioned, which respond to the slightest shadow, very frequently do not react in any way if we increase the degree of illumination. Other animals withdraw only in the latter circumstance, and are not disturbed by any shadows. Among these is the sand-dwelling Mya arenaria, which is found on the coasts of Europe and America. It lives in the sand at a depth of about 20 cm., and makes a shaft which leads upwards in a vertical direction, in which lies its tubular siphon, the organ by means of which it takes in food and oxygen. If this fleshy siphon were pushed so far out of the shaft that it stretched out

ed universally, was convinced that the lower organisms also possess e a sense of colour similar to his own. Later we went to the opposit extreme. Hess pronounced the definite opinion that all inverte-

brates and fishes were totally colour-blind, and that only the amphib highest organisms, such as mammals, birds, reptiles and

sweeping ians, were able to enjoy the colours of nature. This active generalisation was contradicted, and so gave rise to a very labours these of result The subject. investigation of the whole , may be summarised thus:—very many of the lower animals indeed do ea, Crustac higher the and insects shes, such as cuttlefi not possess a sense of colour. Further, in cases in which it has that ion conclus the draw to hesitate we exist to proved yet been it is absent. Experiments.—The

methods

by which

we

have

sought

to

investigate the colour-sense in various animals are very numerous. All animals which possess a certain amount of intelligence can be trained to distinguish a particular colour. vV. Frisch was the first to attempt this, with bees. It is just in dealing with these insects, for which the array of colours in flowers would seem to have been evolved, that this statement by Hess must give cause for reflection. In order to understand the following it is necessary to consider more precisely the nature of coloured light. In this two factors are always to be distinguished, the brightness of the light, in physical terms, the intensity, and the colour of the light, or in e of into the water, fishes would immediately come and bite it off. physical terms its wave-length. In studying the colour-sens The light reflex serves to prevent this; as soon as the siphon animals we are concerned only with the question whether they pushes out into the water, it is exposed to stronger light, and are able to distinguish light of different wave-lengths, and we have to take the greatest care, therefore, that the reactions of the refiex movement of withdrawal promptly takes place. It is just these simple phenomena which are frequently of in- the animals are not connected with differences in the intensity of terest to the naturalist, since by their means we may easily the light. v. Frisch made use of the “‘chess-board” method. On understand the laws which govern the perceptual life of animals, a square board were fixed a large number of pieces of cardboard and of mankind also. Weber’s Law is very well known. This of all shades of grey, from the lightest white-grey to the darkest states that a man is first sensitive to a new stimulus when it black-grey. Among these was placed a piece of cardboard of the colour on which the bees had been trained (blue). If the bees stands in a particular numerical ratio to that already present. Thus, if originally light “L” prevails, an animal sensitive to had no sense of colour, but distinguished between the different shadow first withdraws when the light is shaded by about L/20. pieces of cardboard only by their degree of brightness, they would confuse the blue with one or other of the greys, one of which In this case the value of L is quite immaterial. The table is compiled from the results of the author’s experi- would certainly be of the same tone. If, on the other hand, they ments on Balanus. L, indicates the original light, La the greatest had a true colour-sense, such confusion would not occur. The amount of light which yet gives rise to the shadow reflex. result of the experiment was in favour of the possession of such a sense by the bees. The trained bees, having been accustomed to L/L is, as can be seen, roughly constant. find their food on a blue background, flew to the blue pieces of cardboard only, and paid no attention to any of the others. Since these fundamental researches were made by v. Frisch, the colour-sense of bees has been studied with much finer technique, particularly by Kuehn. Above all, we have learnt to train these insects to distinguish the pure colours of the spectrum. We are now able, therefore, to form a fairly precise estimation of From these experiments the fact of Adaptation may be proved the colour-sense of these insects. Bees perceive all wave-lengths as a logical inference. The sensitiveness of our eyes is consider- between 650-313 uu. Within this range they distinguish four ably greater in weak light than in strong. The eye thus adapts different colours. The first comprises wave-lengths from 650 to itself completely to the light conditions present. Starting with about 500 uu, and includes our red of, shorter wave-length, and an original intensity of 1,000 light units, Balanus first reacts when also yellow and green. Seemingly, all these appear to them as this is diminished by 33 units. With an original intensity of 250 one colour. On the other hand, the red of longer wave-length, units the animal first notices a diminution by ro units. On pursu- which we use in our photographic dark-rooms, bees do not distining the subject further, we find that with an original intensity guish at all; they confuse it with black. The second comprises of 25 units, diminution of this by only one unit is noticed by the wave-lengths from 500-480 wy and corresponds to our blue-green, animals. The eye, therefore, becomes more sensitive as darkness the third lies between 480 and 400 (our blue and violet). Lastly, bees perceive a fourth visual region in the ultra-violet, which is increases. beyond our powers of sight. g

4

THE COLOUR-SENSE OF ANIMALS

Colours play such a large part in human life that the question whether animals also possess a sense of colour is of extreme interest to us. In speaking of the colour-sense of animals it behoves us to make it perfectly clear at the outset that it is quite impossible for us to study the sensations of animals. We cannot even say anything about the sensations experienced by our fellow men. On the other hand, we can decide objectively whether an animal is able to distinguish different colours. ~ The investigation of the colour-sense of animals, has followed a‘xemarkably zig-zag course. In the time of Darwin man, almost

It lies between 4oo-310 uu. Bees may therefore be trained to distinguish ultra-violet just as well as blue or yellow. A sense of colour has been proved to exist also in Lepidoptera, dragonflies and flies; perhaps it is universal among insects. We have gone to work in quite a different manner to prove the existence of a colour-sense in Crustacea. Some of these possess the remarkable power of matching their colouration to that of

the surface on which they live. On light backgrounds they are light, on dark ones they are dark. This is brought about by

means of particular pigment cells (chromatophors)

which are

present everywhere beneath the transparent cuticle. The majority

SIGHTS of species have several kinds of chromatophores of different colours. Crangon, the species which up to the present has been studied most, has white, yellow, red and black. Stimulation takes place through the eyes; blind crustaceans are no longer able to mimic their background. The light stimuli which reach the eye are communicated to the brain, and by this are transmitted to the pigment cells in a way which we do not yet understand more exactly. Koller was able to prove that the chromatophores which expand are always those which conform in colour to the background. On a grey ground the black cells expand, on a yellow ground, the yellow cells, and on a red ground the red cells. The ead of the light plays as unimportant a part as in the case of bees. With the simple inquiry whether a given animal is able to see or distinguish between colours the problem of the colour-sense of animals is by no means exhausted. It can be proved that every organism, including man himself, responds differently to light and its colours, according to the conditions under which it finds itself. According to Schlieper’s investigations, in the optomotor reactions about to be described, all the animals studied hitherto act as if they were colour-blind, even those in which a sense of colour has been proved beyond all doubt, either by the “training method” or in some other way. The best-known instance of such a reaction occurring in everyday life is what is called. “railroad nystagmus.” If we watch a person opposite us in a railway carriage who is looking out of the window, we notice that his eyes do not remain still. They seek to follow the images of the rapidly passing landscape, and move in the direction opposite to that in which the train is going. They are directed forwards again in a particular rhythm. When studying animals we can represent the railway by a rotating cylinder, in the middle of which is placed the animal under observation. The inside of the rotating cylinder has vertical strips of paper stuck on it, of which half are coloured and half grey (fig. 19). Every animal AFTER SCHLIEPER must be studied in relation to a FIG. 19.—OPTOMOTOR REACTION IN whole series of such cylinders, BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS which differ from one another in

635

by Schlieper. By numerical degrees brightness which animals. We then

comparison with the grey papers, of known of brightness, we can calculate the relative different colours possess for the individual reach the remarkable result that this value for

the whole of the animal kingdom corresponds to that which prevails in totally colour-blind human beings. This had already been affirmed by Hess, but not sufficient heed was paid to it. Relative Brighiness-values of Hering’s Coloured Papers for

)

5a Q

Pa

©

% (Coccinella

=

Bees

(CarcinusEpinephelus adapted) justina(dark Man

crab Shore

(light Man

OO Hw Ww 1O A &

SIGHTS.

(W. v. BUD.) It isa matter of common experience that, owing to

the curvature of trajectories, it is necessary in order to propel a missile to any considerable distance, to throw it upward as well as forward, or, to use the technical term, to give it elevation. It is also well known that the trajectories of artillery projectiles fired from rifled guns have in addition a slight curvature in the horizontal plane known as drift. These considerations are discussed quantitatively in the article Batiist1cs and it is there shown how to calculate the elevation and drift correction necessary in any particular case. The process of pointing the gun in the proper direction and giving it the proper elevation is known as laying the gun. Sights are the mechanical devices employed to facilitate accurate laying. Before going on to any detailed discussion of sights

HORIZONTAL

the shades of grey, while the coloured strips are the same in all of them. The individual animals react differently to the rotation. AX QUADRANT Some move the head, some the feelers, some the eyes. In every ELEV. og A NS species, however, a particular combination of grey and colour can means be found to which no movement-reaction takes place. This that, in this instance, the animal perceives no difference between LINE OF SIGHT the grey and the coloured strips; it sees a uniform grey, and is thus, in this experiment, certainly as blind to colours as in the previously described experiments it was aware of them. The reaction to the other “grey and coloured” combinations is only to the different degrees of brightness of the strips, not to perception Fic. 1 of the colour contrast. The following little table may make this definitions of the various techgive to here t convenien be will clear; it is taken from the results of experiments with the common it :— sighting in employed terms nical 1 Grey “blue.” colour the using brassicae, white butterfly, Pieris Line of Fire—The horizontal direction of the target from the is the lightest, 12 is the darkest; the measured angle is that gun. described by the feelers of the captive insect. Line of Sight—The line joining gun and target. Angle of Sight—The angle between the line of sight and the Shades of grey horizontal plane through the gun. Axis of the Sight—The line joining the hind sight to the fore sight. In the case of telescopic sights, the sight axis is the optic Soi ; axis of the telescope. some; above elevated is gun the of axis the angle n—The Elevatio line of reference; in particular, quadrant elevation is the, angle between the axis of the gun and the horizontal plane, while tangent lime of elevation is the angle between the axis of the gun,and the, hay, yet not has which fact, Meee From these results emerges the startling e et . sight. been explained, that the same animal reacts sometimes as if distinct ENO: under d; considere best is. Jaying "The process of perceiving colours, at others as if colour-blind. (b) laying: for elevation.

laying for line, or direction Another important result can be obtained by the methods used| headings (a)

SIGHTS

636

layIn the earliest days of smooth-bore cannon and short ranges, gun and the of top the along looking by d achieve was line for ing that it laying for elevation was neglected, the range being so short sight was sufficiently accurate to lay the gun along the line of

used (known as point-blank fire). The earliest pattern of sight and , oresight f and scale tangent the was on elevati in laying for this is still the arrangement used for the sighting of rifles and

machine guns. The principle can easily be seen from fig. 2. The clamp is NOTCH HINDSIGHT

DEFLECTION LEAF MOVING HINDSIGHT NOTCH LATERALLY

_-~ AXIS OF GUN

TANGENT ELEV.

FORESIGHT, 247” S

LINE OF SIGHT

TANGENT SCALE

SIDE VIEW

END VIEW

FIG. 2.—TANGENT

SCALE

AND

FORESIGHT

loosened and the tangent bar raised by an amount varying with the desired range. To bring the notch on the tangent scale, the foresight and the target into line it is necessary to elevate the gun and the amount of elevation will depend on the amount the tangent scale has been raised. Thus the graduations on the tangent scale can be marked with the number of yards corresponding to the range realized by that particular elevation. It will be seen that

the fundamental principle is that of establishing an angle between

the axis of the sight and the axis of the gun, then bringing the

axis of the sight to point at the target thus elevating the gun above the line of sight. Since in this case the line of sight is taken as the line of reference, laying is by tangent elevation.

Practically all modern sights are based on this principle, the

chief developments being the use of a telescope mounted on a

rocking bar (fig. 3) in lieu of the notch and foresight and the mounting of the sight as a whole on some non-recoiling part of the carriage instead of on the gun itself. This latter development, rendered possible by the introduction of mountings in which the gun, recoils axially in a cradle, has led to increased rates of fire and also to the use of accurate optical and mechanical systems

which could not have withstood the stresses experienced by any form of sight mounted on the gun itself. Laying for Line.—S dt

sows naX d z

E

G AE

: Peet H

PHOTOGRAPHS,

KEYSTONE

VIEW

COMPANY

CULTURE

OF SILKWORMS

of wo rms of the silk producing type- Their ‘1. Tray filled with thousands out at the period when the eggs, called ‘silk seed,” are hatched mulberry buds are breaking into leaf Leaves must be green but to silkworms. 2. Feeding mulbe rry leaves slightly wilted.

ten days, each During the final feeding, lasting about

of the leaves worm consumes 20 times his own weight consist of “brushes” of cocoons in their nests. These nests

3. Silkworm ed shrub placed vertically scrub oak or of some other many branch the worms have hitherto spent in the centre of the shelves where

to spin a cocoon by raising their lives. A worm indicates readiness lowly from side to side s the forepart of the body and writhing carefully

pl aced

in an

incubator,

An even

heat

eggs being raised 2° each day until 77° is maintained starting at 65° F and g takes place

4. Silkworm

n is reached at which temperature hatchi

5. Reeling the raw silk from the cocoon.

Great care is taken not to break

delicate thread it is sent away for spinning 6. Weighing and sorting raw silk before

SILK AND

SERICULTURE

607

nanerie) is allocated to the rearing of silkworms; it may be used for other purposes during the remainder of the year provided it is swept clean, disinfected and lime-washed ready for the reception of the worms, In more backward places, the dwelling of the peasant rearer is utilized, but the same scrupulous disinfection and cleanliness should be observed, though this is often neglected with unfortunate effects on the worms and the rearer. The place set apart for rearing should be wellventilated, but not necessarily well lit, indeed, it should be capable of shading the worms from the direct rays of the sun, which are detrimental to them. Though there are many methods of keeping the worms during feeding, the best is probably to erect shelves about three feet wide in the centre of the room so that there is a walking space between them and the walls all round and gangways intersecting them. These shelves are constructed by means of light scantling from the floor BY COURTESY OF THE CORTICELLI to the ceiling with cross-pieces at inter- sic co. vals of two feet, the lowest being two feet Fig. 2.—SILKWORMS SIX above the floor. Over the frame-work thus AND TEN DAYS OLD FEEDcreated is laid large-mesh wire netting ING ON A MULBERRY LEAF which, in this way, provides a series of shelves each two feet high. Paper is spread over the wire and the worms are placed on this; the worms increase in size with astonishing rapidity and they are given more and more space in conformity with their growth. No less remarkable is their growing voracity. After three or four days they are sufficiently grown to be able to consume whole young leaves, and from this time onwards their powers of consumption run parallel with the maturity of the mulberry. The feeding lasts about 42 days, but during that time the worm passes through four periods of sleep lasting 24 hours each; some races have only three periods of sleep, but these are rare. During this sleeping period the skin of the worm cracks and when the creature wakes up it is able to shed the old skin and continue with the new one. The

- importance of the regularity of hatching out now becomes apparent. The worms hatched out on the same day all sleep at the same time, and during the sleep do not require nourishment. If, however, the hatching out is irregular, sleeping and active hungry worms are mixed up, with the risk either of a waste of mulberry leaf or of malnutrition of the active worms. Worms will not touch faded leaves; the latter must be green but very slightly wilted. The sleeping periods occur on the sixth, twelfth, eighteenth and twenty-sixth day after hatching. After the fourth sleep, the worms start their great and final feed, lasting for ten days during which period they consume about twenty times their own weight of leaves.

Laurent de l’Arbousset showed in 1905

that r oz. of seed of 30 grammes produc-

ing 30,000 to 35,000 silkworms

a

(30,000

may be depended upon to reach the cocoon stage) will give a harvest of 130 to 140 Ib. fresh cocoons and ultimate yield of about 12 Ib. raw silk properly reeled. The amount of nourishment required for this rearing is as follows:—hatching to first moult, about 9 lb. of leaves of tender growth, equal to 40 to 45 lb. ripe leaves; conTicet'' first to second moult, 24 lb., representing

FIG. $.—WORMS ABOUT 100 lb. ripe leaves; second to third moult,

18 DAYS OLD

80 lb., representing

240 Ib. ripe leaves;

third to fourth moult, 236 1b., representing 472 lb. ripe leaves; fourth moult to mounting, 1,430 lb., representing 1,540 Ib. ripe leaves, totalling to about one ton of ripe leaves for a complete

Weight per 100} Size in Lines Worms newly hatched . After ist moult ;

»y

.

«

«

x3

9» 2d

3rd

»

.

.

.

n

4

2”

`

.

I gr. IS y

94 9 >

`

Greatest weight and size

400

s;

1,628 ,,

9,500 5;

I 4

6

I2

20

40

The Cocoons.—The worms show that they are ready to spin their cocoons by raising the forepart of the body and waving it slowly from side to side. Provision is now made for the structure on which they can spin. This consists of “bushes” of scruboak or other many-branched shrub which are placed vertically in the centre of the shelves on which the worms have hitherto spent their lives. Obedient to the dictates of nature, the worms, now replete with glutinous fibre, mount up into the bushes and proceed to spin the cocoons around themselves. If they are overcrowded there is the danger of two worms combining to spin one cocoon; this latter is practically useless for making silk as the combined threads are inextricably mixed up and the cocoon is incapable of being reeled into fine silk. After eight days, the bushes are removed from the shelves and the cocoons are picked off them. The importance of an even incubation is again demonstrated here, for if the hatch-out were irregular some worms would be ready to spin before others and the rearer would run the risk of taking down the bushes before all the worms had completed their spinning, resulting in some cocoons of inferior quality. On the other hand, the rearer dare not wait more than eight days, otherwise the chrysalis would complete its transformation and change into a moth which, in emerging from the cocoon, would cut through the silk fibres and destroy it for reeling purposes and thus render it practically valueless. With the exception of those selected for reproduction of eggs, the cocoons are now treated so as to preserve them intact for reeling. The chrysalis must be killed without damage to the cocoon. The worm spins the cocoon with one continuous thread in a manner forming the figure 8, therefore the cutting of the cocoon at one end to allow the moth to escape means the cutting of the one continuous thread into many thousands of short ones and naturally makes it impossible to unwind (“reeling silk” is only another way of saying “unwinding cocoons”). The method adopted for killing the chrysalides—is that of suffocation. Leaving cocoons exposed to the hot sun will suffocate the chrysalides,. but it also hardens the gum in the thread, making unwinding difficult and wasteful, and withdraws to a certain extent the colour from yellow cocoons. Another method is suffocation by steam. The cocoohs are placed in shallow drawers in a cupboard which is constructed over a common washing copper. The bottoms of the drawers are constructed so as to allow of steam percolating through them. A fire is lit below the cauldron, which is filled with water, and steam is generated. The cocoons remain in the steam from eight to ten minutes and the chrysalis is suffocated. The cocoons are then spread lightly on canvas [Seen

BY

at)

COURTESY

FIG.

4.—A

fe

OF

THE

FEIT

SILKWORM,

FULL GROWN, FEEDING

beds, sheltered from the sun, but

neat

CORTICELLI

SILK

CO.

ALMOST

where air can circulate freely. They remain on the beds from

six weeks to two months, during

which time they require to be turned over twice daily to prevent heating and the dead chrysalis gradually dries up without be-

coming putrid. In this methed there is the risk of either keeping the cocoons in the steam too: long and damaging the fibre, ren-

dering the thread brittle, or not keeping them long enough so that rearing. The growth of the worms during their larval stage is the chrysalis, which has’ marvellous powers of récovery, ‘will

stated by Count Dandolo to be as follows: the small, black, newly hatched worm

weighs about one-hundredth of a grain, and is

complete its metamorphosis and the moth will cut through after

all. The safest and most practical method is-suffocation by! hot

about one-twelfth of an inch long; when it has reached its full air. Séchoirs, or dryers, are constructed to take a large quantity growth, the large white worm weighs about ten grains, and is of cocoons at one ‘charge, and air is fanned through a steam-coiled more’ than three inches long. Or, in tabular form:

ee OS

chamber rendering it about 200° -F.’ ‘The’ het ‘dir‘circulates by

SERICULTURE

SILK AND

668

means of channels through the chambers containing the cocoons,

and the chrysalis is suffocated and all moisture in it dried up

put in one process of twelve hours’ duration. The cocoons are e Exposur tion. deteriora of fear into sacks and stored without

to air and wind, which also means exposure to dust and dirt, 1s are unnecessary, and the colour of the silk when the cocoons reeled is richer, while the water used in the reeling keeps clean. Selection of Eggs for Reproduction.

—The promiscuous production of eggs for the following crop by the rearers is strongly to be discouraged and in many countries it is absolutely prohibited, because of the great risk of propagating diseases tọ which the silkworm is prone. Reproduction, if a virile and healthy race of worm is to be preserved, must be under the supervision

of experts.

These experts

BY sa

OF THE CORTICELLI

choose rearers who are known to be ex- Bie

5—A

them specially selected eggs, each separate yrs

cocooN

SILKWORM

tremely adept at cocoon-raising and give wory EMERGING

FROM

(FRONT

laying of which has been microscopically VIEW)

part of the ditions of climate, to improving the cocoons of one -—an endless another from those with moths the world by crossing ure in

succession of problems for the propagation

alae

of sericult

DISEASES

That the silkworm is subject to many serious diseases is only

to be expected of a creature which for upwards of 4,000 years these has been propagated under purely artificial conditions, and the not where and nature, ry insanita very a of most frequently healthy life of the insect, but the amount of silk it could be made to yield, was the object of the cultivator. Among the most fatal

and disastrous of these diseases with which the cultivator had long of to grapple was “muscardine,” a malady due to the development The ar, caterpill the of body the in , a fungus, Botrytis bassiana disease is peculiarly contagious and infectious, awing to the development of the fungus through the skin, whence spores are freed, which, coming in contact, with healthy caterpillars, fasten on them

and germinate inwards, giving off corpuscles within the body of the insect. Muscardine, however, has not been epidemic for many ears.

: The Pebrine Epidemic.—About the year 1853 anxious atten-

tion began to be given in France to the ravages of a disease among silkworms. This disease, which at a later period became known as name given to it by de Quatrefages, one of its many inpebrine—a the of condition the examine to rearing the during magnanerie first been noticed in France at Cavaillon in the vestigators—had microscopic for worms and take away any of doubtful appearance near Avignon. Pebrine manifests itself by Durance the of valley trace no and successful entirely is rearing the If . examination of disease is found, the cocoons are taken to the “seed station,” dark spots in the skin of the larvae; the eggs do not hatch out, or in where they are examined. Ill-formed or imperfect cocoons are hatch imperfectly; the worms are weak, stunted and unequal sent to be stifled and the selected ones are threaded together into growth, languid in movement, fastidious in feeding; many perish long ropes and suspended from the ceiling to within a foot of before coming to maturity; if they spin a cocoon it is soft and the floor. In due course the moths emerge from the cocoons, loose, and moths when developed are feeble and inactive, When mating takes place and the female is placed in a small linen bag, sufficient vitality remains ta produce a second generation it shows about 2 in. square, which has been washed and disinfected; in increased intensity the feebleness of the preceding. The disease the mouth is tied up and these bags are strung together and is thus hereditary, but in addition it is virulently infectious and suspended from the ceiling of another room, The female lays contagious. From 1850 onwards French cultivators were comits eggs in the bag and dies. The males, after two or three mat- pelled, in order to keep up their silk supply, to import graine from ings, are destroyed. This part of the process is carried on until uninfected districts. The area of infection increased rapidly, and the cocoon crop is at an end. The ratio of reproduction is about with that the demand for healthy graine correspondingly ex250 to 1, so the seed stations require about 1,000 lb. of cocoons panded, while the supply had to be drawn from increasingly remote and contracted regions, Partly supported by imported eggs, for seed for a crop of 25,000 Ib. of cocoons the next season. As soon as the mating is over, work is begun on the micro- the production of silk in France was maintained, and in 1853 scoping of the seed which has been laid. In the case of selection reached its maximum of 26,000,000 kilos of cocoons, valued at for cellular seed, each bag is emptied of its contents, the seed 117,000,000 francs. From that period, notwithstanding the imis washed in water to free it from the remains of the dead female portation at great cast of foreign graine, reaching in some years and a few seeds are crushed and placed on a slide for examina- to 60,000 kilos, the production of silk fell off rapidly. In 1865 it tion. If the microscope’ tells no tale of disease, that particular touched its Jowest weight of about 4,a00,000 kilos. In 1867 de

examined for the presence of disease. These eggs are known as “cellular seed.” The experts pay periodical visits to the

laying is passed. If traces of disease are found, the bag and its Quatrefages estimated the loss suffered by France in the 13 years

contents are burnt, In the case of seed not to be used for re- following 1853, from decreased production of silk and price paid production but only to be distributed for producing cocoons for to foreign cultivators for graine, to be not less than one milliard of

a

silk, called industrial seed, each rearing is kept separate and the contents of all the bags of one rearing are emptied out together. This heap of seed is washed as before, is well mixed and half a dozen samples are taken, crushed and examined as before. If guise disease is detected, further samples are taken to determine the extent of it. If not more than BY CQURTESY QF THE CORTICELLI SILK cQ, 5% of disease is apparent, the F'6. 6.—SILKWORM MOTH EMERG, it

nn

Me w q

pHa Vane

rast

ae

“Py

EPR te in T any

francs. In the case of Italy, where the disease showed itself later but even more disastrously, affecting a much more extended in-

dustry, the loss in 70 years de Quatrefages stated at two milliards.

A loss of £120,Q00,9@0 sterling within 13 years, falling on a limited area, and on one class within these two countries, constituted indeed a calamity on a national scale, calling for national effort to

contend with its devastating action.

The malady, moreover,

spread eastward, and, although it was found to be less fatal in

Oriental countries than in Europe, the sources of healthy graine became fewer and fewer, till only Japan wag left as an uninfected source of European graine supply.

rearing passes; if more, it is en- "NS FROM ITS COCOON (SIDE VIEW) A scourge which so seriously menaced the very existence of tirely destroyed, In this way all the eggs are gradually cleared silkworm. in the world necessarily attracted a great amount through the microscoping room, a further washing takes place attention, As early as 1849 Guérin Méneville observed in and, after the seed is dry, it is done up in small gauze bags in bload of diseased silkworms certain vibratory corpuscles,

the

of

the but

~ weights of 1 oz., 4 0z,, and 4 02z, These, in turn, are placed in per- neither did he nor the Italian Filippi, whọ studied them later, conforated cardboard boxes and are ready for distribution to rearers nect them distinctly with the disease. The corpuscles were first the following season, the cellular seed being kept separate for se- accurately described by Cornalia, whence they are spoken of as

lected rearers for a further cycle of reproduction,

the

corpuscles

of

Cornalia.

The

French

Academy

charged

de

The expert’s task is not finished with the production of sound

Quatrefages, Decaisne and Péligot with the study of the disease,

of different varieties with a view to a higher yield of silk in the cocoons for reeling, to creating hardier races for different con-

actuelles des vers & soie (1859) and Nouvelles Recherches sur les

and healthy seed. He is also concerned with the cross-breeding

and they issued two elaborate reports—Etudes sur les maladies

maladies actuelles des vers a soie (1860); but the suggestions

SILK AND

SERICULTURE

they were able to offer had not the effect of stopping the march of the disease. In 1865 Pasteur undertook a Government commission for the investigation of the malady. Attention had been previously directed to the corpuscles of Cornalia, and it had been found, not only that they occurred in the blood, but that they gorged the whole tissues of the insect, and their presence in the eggs themselves could be microscopically demonstrated. Pasteur established (1) that the corpuscles are the special characteristic of the disease, and that these invariably manifest themselves, if not in earlier stages, then in the mature moths; (2) that the corpuscles are parasites, and not only the sign but the cause of the disease; and (3) that the disease manifests itself by heredity, by contagion with diseased worms, and by the eating of leaves on which corpuscles are spread. In this connection he established the very important practical conclusion that worms which contract the disease during their own life-cycle retain sufficient vitality to feed, develop and spin their cocoon, although the next generation

is invariably infected and shows the disease in its most virulent and fatal form. This fact, however, enabled the cultivator to know with assurance whether the worms on which he bestowed his labour would yield him a harvest of silk. He had only to examine the bodies of the moths yielding his graine: if they were free from disease then a crop was sure; if they were infected the education would assuredly fail. Pastetir brought out the fact that the malady had existed from remote periods and in many unsuspected localities. He found corpuscles in Japanese cocoons and in many specimens which had been preserved for lengthened periods in public collections. Thus he came to the conclusion that the malady had been inherent in many successive generations of the silkworm, and that the epidemic condition was only an exaggération of a normal state brought about by the method of cultivation and production of

graine pursued. The ctire proposed by Pasteur was simply to take care that the stock whence graine was obtained should be healthy, and the offspring would then be healthy also. Small educations teared apart from the ordinary magnanerie, for the production of graine alone, were recommended. At intervals of five days after spinning their cocoons speciméns were to be opened and the chrysalides examined microscopically for corpuscles. Should none have appeared till towards the period of transformation and escape of the moths, the eggs subséquently hatched out might be depended on to yield a fair crop of silk; should the moths prove perfectly free from corpuscles after depositing their éggs the next genération would certainly live well through the larval stage. For special treatment towards thé regeneration of an infected race, the most robust worms were to be selected, and the moths issuing from the cocoons were to be coupled in numbered cells, where the

female was to be confined till she deposited her eggs. The bodies of both male and female weré to be examined for corpuscles, and the eggs of those found absolutely free from taint were preserved for similar “cellular” treatment in the following yéar. By this laborious and painstaking method it has been found possible to re-establish a -healthy stock of valuable races from previously highly-infected breeds. The rearing of worms in small educations under special supervision has been found to be a most effective means of combating pebrine. In the same way the rearing of worms for graine in the open air, and under natural conditions as far as possible, has proved equally valuable towards the development of a hardy, vigorous and untainted stock. The openair education was originally proposed by Chavannes of Lausanne,

and largely carried out in the canton of Vaud by Roland, who reared his worms on mulberry trees enclosed within “manchons” or cages of wire gauze and canvas.

The insects appeared quickly

to revert to natural conditions; the moths brought out in open

air were strongly marked, lively and active, and eggs left on the trees stood the séverity of the winter well, and hatched out successfully in the following season. Roland’s experience demon-

strated that not cold but héat is the agent which saps thë con-

669

more developed form. The worm attacked presents the following symptoms: the skin is distended as if swollen, is rather thin and shiny, and the body of the worm seems to have increased, that is, it suffers from fatness, or is engraissé, hence its name. The disease is characterized by the decomposition of the blood; in fact it is really a form of dropsy. The blood loses its transparency and becomes milky, its volurne increases so that the skin cannot hold it, and it escapes through the pores. This disease is more accidental than contagious and rarely takes very dangerous proportions.

If the attack comes on a short time before maturity,

the worms are able to spin a cocoon of a feeble character, but worms with this disease never change into chrysalides, but always die in the cocoon beforé transformation can take place. The causes Which produce it are not well known, but it is generally

attributable to curtents of cold and damp air, to the use of wet

leaves in feeding, atid to suddén changes of temperature. Another cause of Serious loss to the rearers is occasioned by flacherie, a disease well known from the earliest times. Pasteur showed that the origin of the disease proceeded from microscopic organisms called ferments and vitrids. Oné has only to ferment a certain quantity of mulberry leaves, chop them up and squeeze them, and so obtain a liquid, to find in it millions of ferments and vitrios. It invariably occurs during the most active period of feeding, three or four days after the fourth moult up to the rising,

and generally appears after a meal of coarse leaves, obtaitiéd from mulberries pruned the same year and growing in damp soil. It can also occur from the feeding of damp leaves, ¢.g., leaves wétted by rain, to the worms or from leaves too freshly phicked and rot allowed to wilt slightly. Flacherie is an intestinal disease of the cholera species and therefore contagious. The definite course is hot occasioned so much from the fetments which exist in the

leaves themselves, but from an arrest of the digestive process

which allows the rapid multiplication of the former in the intestines. Good ventilation is indispensable to allow the worm to give out by transpiration the great quantity of water that it absorbs with the leaf. If this exhalation is stopped or lessened the digestion in its turn is also stopped, the leaf remains longer than usual in the intestines, the microbés multiply, invading the whole body, and this brings about sudden death. The true remedies consist in the avoidance of the fermentation of the leaves by careless gathering, transport or packing, in proper hygienic care in ventilation and in maintaining a proper degree of drynéss in the atmosphére in rainy weather, and in the use of quicklime to facilitate the transpiration of the silkworms. '

WILD

SILES

The ravages of pebrine and other diseases had the effect of attracting prominent attention to the numerous other insects, allies of the mulberry silkworm, which spin serviceable cocoons. It

had been previously pointed cut by Captain Hutton, who devoted great attention to the silk question as it affects the East Indies, that at least six species of Bombyx, differing from B. mori, but also mulberry-feeding, aré more or less domesticated in India. These include B. textor, the boropooloo of Bengal, a large species having one generation yearly and producing a soft flossy cocoon; the Chinese monthly worm, B. sinensis, having several generations, and making a small cocoon; and the Madrasi worm of Bengal (B. croesi), the Dasseé or Desi worm of Bengal (B. fortunatus)

and B. arracanensis, the Burmese worm-—all of which yield several

generations in the year and form reelable cocoons.

Besides these

there are many other mulberry-feeding Bombycidae in the East, principally belonging to the genera Theophila and Ocinara, the cocoons

of which have not attracted

cultivators.

The moths

yielding wild silks which have obtained most attention belong to the extensive and handsome family Saturnidae. The most im-

portant of the spécies at the present time is the Chinese tussur

or tasar wortn, Antheraea pernyi, which is an oak-feéding species, native of Mongolia, from which is derived the greater part of the so-called tussur sill now imported into Europe. Closely allied to

stitution of the silkworm and makes it a ready prey to disease.

this is the Indian tussur moth, Antheroea mylitta, found throughout the whole of India feeding on the bher tree, Zizyphus jufuba,

cidental to the silkworm.

and also on many other plants. It yields a large cofnpact cocoon

Other Diseases.—Grasserie

is another form of disease in-

It often appears before or after the

first moult, but it is only after che foutth that it appears in a

of a silvery grey colour, which Sir Thomas Wardle of Leek, who

670

SILK AND

SERICULTURE

devoted a great amount of attention to the wild-silk question, succeeded in reeling. Next in promising qualities is the muga or moonga worm of Assam, Antheraea assama, a species to some extent domesticated in its native country. The yama-mai worm of Japan, Antheraea (Samia) yama-mai, an oak-feeder, is a race of considerable importance in Japan, where it was said to be jealously guarded against foreigners. Its eggs were first sent to Europe by Duchéne du Bellecourt, French consul-general in Japan in 1861; but early in March following they hatched out, when no leaves on which the larvae would feed were to be found. In April a single worm got oak-buds, on which it throve, and ultimately spun a cocoon whence a female moth issued, from which Guérin Méneville named and described the species. A further supply of eggs was secretly obtained by a Dutch physician Pompe van Meedervoort in 1863, and, as it was now known that the worm was an oak-feeder, and would thrive on the leaves of European oaks, great results were anticipated from the cultivation of the yama-mai. These expectations, however, for various reasons, have been disappointed. The moths hatch out at a period when oak leaves are not ready for their feeding, and the silk is by no means of a quality to compare with that of the common mulberry worm. The mezankoorie moth of the Assamese, Antheraea mezankooria, yields a valuable cocoon, as does also the Atlas moth, Attacus atlas, which has an omnivorous larva found throughout India, Ceylon, Burmah, China and Java. The Cynthia moth, Atiacus cynthia, is domesticated as a source

of silk in certain provinces of China, where it feeds on the Ailan-

thus glandulosa. The eria or arrindi moth of Bengal and Assam, Attacus ricini, which feeds on the castor-oil plant, yields seven generations yearly, forming loose flossy orange-red and sometimes white cocoons. The ailanthus silkworm of Europe is a hybrid between £. cynthia and A. ricini, first obtained by Guérin Méneville, and now spread through many silk-growing regions. These are only a few of the moths from which silks of various usefulness can be produced; but none of these presents qualities, saving per-

haps cheapness alone, which can put them in competition with common silk. A wild silk which has entered the market since the beginning of

the 2oth century is Anaphe. It is found in West and East Africa, The worms combine to make large nests of cocoons with a strong outer protecting covering, tough as parchment. A peculiar and

or bave which is composed of two filaments of different specimens of mulberry silk was found at the Lyons laboratory to vary from 0-00180 to 00033 cm.; the bave of wild silks from 0.0030 to 0.0070 cm.

The denier or weight in grams of 9,000 metres (see

SıtK MANUFACTURE) of the bave of mulberry silk varies from 1-8 to 3-8, and that of the bave of the Anthers (wild silks) from 3 to 8 deniers.

The raw silk fibre (see Freres) consists essentially of two cores of fibroin cemented together and covered with sericim or silk albumen, besides small quantities of waxy and colouring matters, The ultimate filaments of fibroin, which constitute about 70 to 80% of dry, raw mulberry silk have in bulk, after removal of the gum, the characteristic soft white appearance and pearly lustre of pure silk. Under the microscope the filaments appear smooth and rod-like and, when examined by polarized light, show the colours given by doubly refracting substances; their cross-section is roughly triangular (maximum diameter, 0-0023 to 00014 cm.: minimum diameter, 0-0018 to o-0009 cm.). The filaments have

great tensile strength (3 to 5 X 10° dynes per sq.cm.) extending considerably before breaking, and show true elastic effects under limited stresses (Young’s modulus, 0-4 to 0-8 X 10!! and rigidity, 0-2 X 10"! dynes per sq.cm. under ordinary conditions). Their density is about 1-3, refractive index, 1:5 and specific heat, 0.3 calories per gram. The low electrical conductivity of fibroin, utilized in the employment of silk for electrical insulation, may cause a troublesome electrical excitation of the fibres during manufacturing processes in a dry atmosphere. Its thermal conductivity also is low. Under ordinary atmospheric conditions fibroin contains about 11% of its dry weight of hygroscopic moisture which may be removed by heating it at ros° C. It is insolu-

ble but swells slightly in water, alcohol, benzene and other organic liquids. Fibroin is an amphoteric colloid and belongs to the chemical

class of proteins; the formula CisH23NsO5 sometimes assigned to it should be taken to be no more than an approximate expression of its elementary composition. The X-ray method of examination indicates the possible presence in fibroin of a crystalline constituent, and there is some chemical evidence that fibroin is chemically heterogenous. It dissolves in the cold in concentrated solutions of the mineral acids or of the caustic alkalies, and in an ammo-

niacal solution of copper oxide; from all these solutions it may be reprecipitated in a more or less altered form when the solution is neutralized, but, owing to more far-reaching changes, not after

unpleasant quality of this species is the presence of hairs of a somewhat poisonous nature which bring out a rash on the skin when the nests are handled. Chemical treatment before handling long standing. When heated, fibroin melts and burns giving a has eliminated this trouble, but progress with the utilization of smell of burnt feathers which serves to distinguish it from the this silk is slow. It first began to attract attention in Germany vegetable fibres, including artificial silk. It may be distinguished In 1913 but its experimental stage was held up until 1920. At from wool by its microscopical appearance and by chemical tests.

first, the outer cover was thrown away and the internal cocoons

aaa i

were treated, but it has since been found that the outer cover is the more valuable and the internal cocoons hardly worth trouble of working. Natives use the nests for the manufactuthe re of their blankets but its economic usefulness in Europe has still to be proved (1928). The systematic planting of the bush on which the Anaphe worm feeds would also be indicated if there

is to be a constant and cheaper supply of this material. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SILK Common cocoons (Bombyx mori) enclosing chrysal ides weigh each from 0-4 to 2 grams, że., there are from 300 to 600 to the pound, for small breeds, and 270 to 300 for large breeds. About one-sixth of this weight is silk and of that one-hal f can be reeled the remainder which cannot be reeled consisting of surface floss or blaze and the husk of the chrysalis. It is therefo re difficult to estimate the total length of thread produced by the silkworm or even that of the portion reeled, which varies in length and thickhess according to the condition and robustness of the cocoon. and

The ultimate filaments of the wild silks are thicker and more ribbon-shaped than those of mulberry silk and exhibit longitudinal striations along which the filaments tend to split into fibrillae under any mechanical or chemical action ; the fibroin of the wild silks possesses properties similar to those of mulberry fibroin but is more resistant to chemical action. Sericin, also a protein, is more active chemically than fibroin, from which it may be separated by the solvent action of hot water, best under pressure,

or of acid or alkaline solutions. Its hot aqueous solution gelatin-

izes on cooling. Its elementary composition is similar to that of fibroin but it contains more oxygen; like fibroin it may be chemically heterogenous. The colouring matter of yellow silk is probably carotene or a related substance. Since 1916 a committee of experts has been sitting at the Imperial Institute to study the possibilities of sericulture in all parts of the Empire. Through its efforts the filature was erected in Cyprus, and it is following with practical advice the experimental work being carried on in a dozen other countries under the British flag. See Srtx Trane for a further study of the development of sericulture.

may be 500 metres in some breeds and in others 900 to 1,200 metres. Under favourable conditions ry kilogr The U.S. Department of Agriculture, with appropriations cocoons may give 1 kilogram of raw silk for commerams of fresh the Same quantity of waste silk for spinning. The ce and about made by Congress, conducted extensive experiments in serithread is usually culture. It was shown that thicker and stronger towards the middle of cocoons of excellent quality can be the reeled portion produced in the many localitie s in the United States where the than at the extremities. The mean diameter of the cocoon thread white

mulberry tree grows well, but the conclusion reached by

SILK

FABRICS

the Department was that under the then existing economic conditions the raising of silk could not be made commercially successful. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—L. Duran, Raw Silk (1913); R. C. Rawlley, Economics of the Silk Industry (1919); E. Brinckmeier, Der Seidenbau

(4th ed., 1922). Soie, Lyon.

See also Rapports du Laboratoire @ Etudes de la (N. Br.; F. Wa.; W. S. De.)

SILK FABRICS, ARTIFICIAL.

Except in the production

of knitted and lace goods, as well as a small variety of woven luxury fabrics of the most delicate texture, artificial silk is of such a character that it may only be employed successfully when in combination with threads produced from the natural textile fibres, in order to constitute a foundation texture of sufficient stability according to the specific use for which the fabric is intended. It should be realized, therefore, that the special function of artificial silk (so far as the textile industry is concerned) is that of embellishing and enriching textile fabrics of any description that permit of decorative treatment. Artificial silk may be employed in conjunction with cotton in any combination. Also, the warp and weft may be interwoven in order to develop any desired textural or woven effect from the simplest and most elementary weaves. Fabrics may also be produced either as simple or compound structures and decorated with simple figuring. Again, artificial silk threads either of the same colour or any number of different colours may be introduced in place of the ordinary warp and weft threads, or as extra threads of warp and weft, in order to produce simple or variegated stripes. Special Precaution in Preparing Textile Designs.—In the development of brocade or “float” figuring with artificial silk, great care should be taken, when preparing an applied design for the card-cutter, to ensure thorough interlacement of the threads, and also to avoid floats of inordinate length. This precaution is eee

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A DRESS FABRIC FIG. 1.—APPLIED DESIGN FOR CHENILLE VOILE FABRIC, WITH VELVET OR CONSISTING OF A VOILE FOUNDATION INTERWOVEN PLUSH

PILE

OF

ARTIFICIAL

SILK

picks of cotton weft, The black squares indicate warp threads raised over of artificial silk weft and the shaded squares, the warp raised over picks

fricespecially necessary for fabrics that are subject to wear or silk l artificia of e structur lament multi-f tion, as, owing to the As a threads, the fine filaments are easily caught up and broken. be degeneral rule, the decorative features of a woven fabric may with the veloped with much greater success with the warp than during the weft series of threads, for the practical reason that,

comoperation of weaving, the warp threads are under much more

warp plete control and tension than the weft. Consequently, the

series of threads lie much straighter and firmer in the fabric, and

can be thus produce a more perfectly flat and even surface than

671

obtained by employing weft for figuring purposes. Moreover, not only does the greater tension of the warp threads tend to effect a better distribution of the fine filaments composing those threads, and thus ensure a more complete “covering” of the weft, but the additional tension (by keeping the threads straight) also increases their power of reflection, which enhances their lustre. Further, the employment of warp, instead of weft (whenever the choice of these alternatives is quite optional and solely for decorative effect, as distinct from technical and practical considerations) is a more economical policy from the manufacturers’ point of view, besides incurring a smaller percentage of waste material. Multi-colour Effects of Cross-Dyeing.—Another method

of

embellishing textile fabrics with artificial silk in combination with other textile materials is by what is known as “cross-dyeing,” whereby two or more distinctly different hues and tones of colour may be produced in the same fabric by submitting it to a single dye-bath. This interesting phenomenon results entirely from the different chemical and physical properties of artificial silk and of the natural fibres. Hence, certain types of fibres react, on being

submitted to the same dye-bath, in a manner quite different from that of other types, and thus assume different hues, according to the particular types of fibres employed, and their different affinity for dyestuffs.

Staple Artificial Silk Fibres.—Other uses to which artificial

silk is applied in combination with cotton, wool and even natural silk, and one that offers ample scope in every section of the textile industry, is to cut the filaments of artificial silk into definite staple lengths and blend these with the fibres of cotton, wool or waste silk, respectively, to be spun together to produce “union” or “mixture” yarns. Chenille Voile.—The various stages in the construction of this fabric is indicated by a portion of an applied or “working” design on point paper, in fig. 1, in which black squares indicate warp threads raised over picks of cotton weft, while the shaded squares show the warp raised over picks of artificial silk weit. After the cloth is woven, the ribs of floating artificial silk weft are “cut” up the centre in order to sever the floats of weft, which immediately assume a more or less vertical position, and thus constitute the tufts of cut velvet or plush pile, after the manner of forming the ribs of pile in corduroy and velvet cord fabrics (see Fustan Fasrrcs). “Chenille voile” fabrics are sometimes woven with plain ribs or cords of pile, uniformly, and afterwards embellished with printed designs in one, or more than one, colour. Embossed Plush Pile Fabrics—The charming decorative qualities of artificial silk are displayed to their greatest perfection in so-called “embossed” plush or velvet pile figuring developed on a delicate texture of natural silk georgette and which was at one time very popular. This example is embellished with a design developed with a rich plush-pile figuring of artificial silk and subsequently printed with an effective colour scheme, displaying the artistic ability of tbe designer in conjunction with the handicraft skill of the weaver. The georgette foundation texture of this lovely dress material is produced from spun silk yarn with a high degree of twist, and with both the warp and weft threads twisted in “reverse” direction, że., “twist-way” and “weft-way” respectively, in order to develop the peculiar, crimped tissue which is a distinctive characteristic of voile and georgette textures. The artificial silk pile figuring warp threads and the spun silk ground warp threads are drawn through the shedding harness and reed in pairs, with a “two-and-two” end disposition, uniformly. of The ground warp threads of spun silk are disposed in the order

one thread spun with a “right-hand” twist (or “twist-way”), and one with a “left-hand” twist (or “weft-way”), in alternate sucare cession, uniformly; while the ground picks of spun silk weft

inserted with three picks of weft spun “twist-way,” and three spun “weft-way,” uniformly. in a Embossed plush pile fabrics of this character are produced distinct two which in type “double-plush” loom of a special the fabrics are woven together simultaneously, face to face, with upper the between ly vertical passing threads figuring pile warp ically and lower foundation textures which are severed automat

not (whilst in the loom) during the eperation of weaving. When +

672

SILK MANUFACTURE

required for figuring purposes, the figuting warp threads are floated quite loésely as surplus yarn on the back of their respective foundation fabrics, from which they are afterwards brushed

away as waste material. This method of pile weaving necessitates the winding of the plush figuring watp threads on to separate flanged bobbins that are supported in a bobbin-creel frame, whereas the foundation warp threads are wound on to an ordinary warp beam. See H. Nisbet, F.T.1., Grammar of Textile Design (3rd ed., 1927)5 a practical treatise on the principles of woven fabric structures, with a chapter on “The Decorative Value of Artificial Silk in Textile Fabrics.” (H. N.)

SILK MANUFACTURE.

In discussing silk manufacture,

it is necessary to distinguish between reeled silk and spun or waste silk. The former embraces a range of operations peculiar to silk, dealing as they do with continuous fibres of great length,

whereas in the spun silk industry the raw materials are treated

by methods analogous to those followed in the treatment of other fibres (see WEAVING). It is only floss, injured and unreelable

cocoons, the husks of reeled cocoons, and other waste from reeling, with certain wild silks, which are treated by spun silk process, and the silk thereby produced loses much of the beauty, strength and brilliance which are characteristic of the manufactures from reeled silk.

Filature or Reeling—When the cocoons have been gathered

and the chrysalids they contain have been stifled, they are sorted into qualities for reeling. Doubles (cocoons made by two worms in conjunction), pierced cocoons and any from other causes

rendered unreelable are put aside for the spun silk manufacture.

During the gathering from the rearers of “fresh” cocoons, i.e., while the chrysalids are alive, á certain ammount of crushing occurs, which smashes the chrysalis and naturally saturates the cocoon with its fluid. One cocoon thus crushed may be the cause of

staining several others. Also, there are partly reelable cocoons made by unhealthy worms. A black fluid is exuded fromm some of these cocoons, which, in turn, stain all the cocoons in their vicinity. Worms which have been ill fed make cocoons of a weak thread. The sorting is done by hand, and the cocoons

work in a circular motion first one way and then the other by machinery until the ends of the broom have caught the outside fluff and the actual filament (maitre brin) is found. The worker pulls up the broom, disengages the hank of fluff from the bass from whith now depends the filament of each cocoon separately.

She catches up the cocoons from the water strainer and passes it over to the reeler.

by means of a

The latter empties the

cocoons into her basin, which also contains water kept at a level

automatically and heated by a steam coil to 180° to 200° F, She then “makes her threads.” Filatures are constructed to ehable four, six and eight skeins to be reeled by one reeler at a time. The reeler takes the filaments of, say, six cocooħñs and makes one thread of them by twisting them together; this combined thread is passed through an apparatus about 2 in. above thé water level, upwards about 18 in. round a tiny glass conducting reel, then downwards round a similar glass reel and upwards again until the thread crosses itself. Heré it is twisted round itself many times and is then taken through a glass conducting hook above the reeler’s head,

passed through a porcelain slit and finally attached on which the skein is to be wound. The process until the four, six or eight threads, each consisting of of six cocoons, are attached to the reels. The reels

to the reel is repéated the threads are set re-

volving by méans of a control lever ready at the reeler’s hand, and as the reels revolve, they pull the threads; if eight skeins are being reeled, the 48 cocoons which go to make the eight threads all begiri to turn about in the water as they unwind themselves in response to thé pulling of the reels. When each thread is in motion, it travels through the apparatus with a minute hole, which prevents to a great extent any imperfection in the thread getting through, then through the twist on itself, then round the two glass conducting reels, then through the twist on itself for the second time and thence to the porcelain slit just in front of the reel, and finally on to the reel itself. The

porcelain slit has a short cross motion of about r4 in. which spreads the skein evenly over the surface of the reel. The twist on itself given to the thread is most important for it performs two functions; it rounds, smooths and condenses the six separate separated into four qualities, (a) cocoons which are perfectly filaments into one strand, and as the surface of the filaments is clean and firm, (6) cocoons which are otherwise good but which gummy and adhesive, the threads are agglutinated into a compact have been stained by crushed cocoons, (c) weak cocoons, and single fibre of raw silk. The twist also expels from the thread (d) cocoons crushed and badly stained from within. The (c) all the moisture on it from the water in the basin in the form of and (d) qualities, which form but a small proportion of the spray aiid it reaches the réel practically dry. A silk thread made whole, are reeled as quickly as possible, for they are liable, if up of the filaments of six cocoons is scarcely visible, and yet it kept in store, to attack from an ingect fly which bores a minute can éasily stand the strain imposed on it by this twist on itself hole about the size of a pinhead through them and renders which is as long as six inches. A good silk should stretch about them unsuitable for reeling. The (5) quality, which forms about one-third of its own lerigth before reaching breaking point. Dur20% of the whole, is also susceptible to the insect, but to a much ing the reeling process, the cocoons, of course, give off all their smaller degree, so these are worked next, leaving the (a) quality silk in a short time and breaks continually occur, so the reeler for the remainder of the year’s work. This assortment is of great has to watch the unwinding cocoons carefully and directly she consequence for the success of the reeling operations, as uni- detects @ cocoon that is motionless, she supplies the thread of formity of quality and evenness and regularity of fibre are the another from a réserve which she keeps ready. The apparatus most valuable features in raw silk. The object of réeling is to through which the thread is originally passed has a little disc bring together the filaments (Fr. bave) from two or more (géen- attached to it which revolves rapidly. The reeler places the erally five or six, but sometimes up to 20) cocoons, and to form filament of the new cocoon across her extended first and second them into one continuous, uniform and regular strand, which fingers, she advancés het fingers to the disc, one above and one constitutes the “raw silk” of commerce.

To do this, the natural gum of the cocoons which holds the filaments togethér must be softened, the ends of the filaments must be caught, and means must be taken to unwind and lay these filaments togéther, so as

to form a simple uniform rounded strand of raw silk. ‘This reeling

process is generally carried out by female labour; it is extremely

delicate but by no means hard work. The establishment in which it is done is called a filature, and may consist of anythirig from

20 to 300 reeling basins. Each reeler is issued with a giver weight of cocoons, and the worker who prepares them for the

reeler places a quantity of them in a round deep kept at a certain level automatically and heated by a steam coil in the bottom. A circular bass fit exactly over the basin is shut down on the

basin with water to boiling point

broom made to soaking cocoons (which float on the surface of the water) so that the bass just touch the tops of the cocoons. The broomends of the is set to

below, the disc cuts the filament and whirls it round the others

which absorb it, and the new cocoon begins unwinding.

A break

of one filament in a thread of six will be rectified by a first-class reeler before half a yard of thread has gone through. All cocoons whose filaments break before they are finished are returned to

have their filaments found again by a second brushing.

As soon as the cocoons issued to the reeler are finished, the silk is removed from the reels and taken to the silk rdom. It is weighed and a ratio to the quantity of cocoons used is found. The value of silk permits óf no unnecessary waste and this control is important. The skeins are then examined for any defects. These consist of small knobs on the thread like pin-

heads, or a very coarse piece 3 or 4 in. long due to a cocoon not unwinding evenly.

The knobs ‘are picked off, the coarse pieces

removed and clean thread is inserted in their place. The skeins

are twisted up and packed into a bale.

SILK MANUFACTURE Silk Waste.—The outer covering or fluff which is brushed off the cocoons in finding the filaments is a valuable waste used by

silk spinners. Its trade name is knubs (Fr. frisons). A thin film of silk is left round the chrysalis when reeling is completed. The chrysalids with this film are boiled up in a vat and stirred with beaters which tear the film off. This is a low grade waste also used by spinners. The chrysalids are dried and form a valuable manure. Thus nothing is lost.

Throwing.—Raw

673

maintained. A reel is taken away from the reeler and carried to the testing room, where a winding machine measures of 450 metres from the reeled silk. This silk is put on the balances and if it weighs 14 deniers it is perfect, if 13 or 15 deniers it is good, if 12 or 16 deniers it is passable, but if it weighs 11 or 17 deniers

it is bad and the reeler has been reeling a thread with less or more than the six cocoons combined.

Conditioning.—Silk in the ordinary dry condition usually

silk, being still too fine and delicate for

contains about 10 per cent of hygroscopic moisture, the exact

ordinary use, next undergoes a series of operations called throw-

amount depending on the relative humidity of the atmosphere with which it is in contact, As it is largely sold by weight it becomes necessary to ascertain its condition in respect of absorbed water, and for that purpose official conditioning houses are established in all the considerable centres of silk trade. In these the silk is tested or conditioned, and a certificate of weight issued in

ing, the object of which is to twist and double it into more substantial yarn. The first operation of the silk throwster is winding. He receives the raw silk in hanks as it is taken from the reel of

the filature, and putting it on a light reel of a similar construction, called the swifts, he winds it on bobbins with a rapid reciprocating motion, so as to lay the fibre in diagonal lines. These bobbins are then in general taken to the first spinning frame, and there the single strands receive their first twist, which rounds them, and prevents the compound fibre from splitting up and separating when, by the subsequent scouring operations, the gum is removed which presently binds them into one. Next follows the operation of cleaning, in which the silk is simply

reeled from one bobbin to another, but on its way it passes through a slit which is sufficiently wide to pass the filament but

stops the motion when a thick lump or nib is presented.

In the

doubling, which is the next process, two or more filaments are wound together side by side on the same reel, preparatory to their being twisted or thrown into one yarn. Bobbins to the number of strands which are to be twisted into one are mounted in a creel on the doubling frame, and the strands are passed over smooth rods of glass or metal through a reciprocating guide to the bobbin on which they’ are wound. Each separate strand passes through the eye of a faller, which, should the fibre break, falls down and instantly stops the machine, thus effectually calling attention to the fact that a thread has failed.

The spinning or throwing which follows is done on a frame with

upright spindles and flyers, the yarn as it Is twisted being drawn forward through guides and wound on revolving bobbins with a reciprocating motion. From these bobbins the silk is reeled into hanks of definite length for the market. Numerous attempts have been made to simplify the silk-throwing by combining two or more operations on one machine, but not as yet with much success.

According to the qualities of raw silk used and the throwing

operations undergone the principal classes of thrown silk are— (x) “singles,” which consist of a single strand of twisted raw silk made up of the filaments of eight to ten cocoons; (2) tram

or weft thread, consisting of two or three strands of raw silk not twisted before doubling and only lightly spun (this is soft,

flossy and comparatively weak); (3) organzine, the thread used for warps, made from two and rarely three twisted strands spun in the direction contrary to that in which they are separately twisted. Silks for sewing and embroidery belong to a different class from those intended for weaving, and thread-makers throw their raw silks in a manner peculiar to themselves. Numbering of Silk.—Silk is graded for thickness of thread like cotton, but instead of the size being termed “counts” it is measured in “deniers.” The French denier weighs one-twentieth part of a gramme. The basis for raw and thrown silk adopted by the permanent committee of the Paris international congress of 1900 was a fixed length and a variable weight, the standard of length being 450 metres and the weight the “denier.” Thus, a manufacturer gives an order for a bale of silk of 13-15 deniers. By this is meant that a thread is required of which 450 metres

measured off will weigh between 13 and 15 deniers. Silk is reeled as fine as 8-1o deniers and as coarse

as 28-30

deniers—for

some purposes even 38-40 deniers. A silk cocoon has a filament of three deniers in its early stages of unwinding, two and a half deniers in the middle and two deniers at the end, so in order to

arrive at a size of 13-15 deniers it is required to reel a thread of two new, two half-reeled and two nearly finished cocoons. During the reeling tests are carried out to see that the size is properly

accordance with the results. The silk is for four hours exposed to a dry heat of 230° F, and immediately thereafter weighed. To the weight 11% is added as the normal proportion of water held by the fibre. Scouring.—Up to this point the silk fibre continues to be comparatively lustreless, stiff and harsh from the coating of albu-

minous matter (gum or grés) on its surface. As a preliminary to many subsequent processes it is therefore necessary to remove the gum by boiling off, scouring or décreusage. Silk is usually boiledoff in a solution of 30 per cent of its own weight of neutral soap dissolved in sufficient pure water to give a one per cent solution. The hanks of raw silk hung on a wooden rod are immersed in this solution which is maintained at a temperature just below the boiling point, the hanks heing turned round to expose all parts equally to the solvent action of the hot solution. After one hour the silk is removed, centrifuged, then treated similarly in a second bath with half the quantity of soap. It is finally rinsed and dried in a hydro-extractor. According to the amount of gum to be boiled off the soap solutions are made strong or weak; but care has to be exercised not to overdo the scouring, whereby loss of strength, substance and lustre would result. The perfect scouring of silks removes from 20 ta 27 per cent of their weight, according to the character of the silk and the amount of soap or oil used in the working. Scouring renders all common silks, whether white or yellow in the raw, a brilliant pearly white, with a delicate soft flossy texture, from the fact that the fibres which were agglutinated in reeling, being now degummed, are separated from each other and show their individual tenuity in the yarn. Silks to be finished white are at this point bleached by exposure in a closed chamber to the fumes of sulphurous acid, and at the close of the process the hanks are washed in pure cold water to remove all traces of the acid. Instead of “‘sulphuring” a dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide containing sodium silicate may be used for bleaching. Much thrown silk is woven or knitted without having been boiled-off, the gum being then usually removed from the woven or knitted fabric (piece-degumming). Weighting.—The weighting of silk, which is by nọ means universal, and which when practised is confined usually to certain classes of goods, is facilitated by the ease with which silk absorbs various metallic salts and organic substances. In tin weighting, the silk yarn or cloth, usually degummed, is soaked in an aqueous solution of stannic chloride and then washed exhaustively with water when hydrated stannic oxide is precipitated in the fibre; if the weighted silk is now soaked in a solution ef sodium phosphate the stannic oxide present in the fibre is rendered insoluble in the solution of stannic chloride and so, with each repetition of the same series of operations, a further quantity of stannic oxide is fixed by the silk which may be treated finally with a solution of sodium silicate. The compounds of tin are fixed permanently in the fibre, unless against chemical treatment, and the weighted silk may be washed or dyed like unweighted silk from which it differs little in outward appearance. The mineral matter, besides adding weight, makes the fibres somewhat thicker, thus increasing their covering power and allowing cheaper goods to be made of weighted than of unweighted silk; on that account and because weighted silk garments drape well, the practice is held by many to be justified. By the removal of the gum,

674

SILK MANUFACTURE

raw silk loses about one quarter of its weight; if the original Piedmont, Milan, etc. There are yellow wastes from Italy, and weight is restored by the addition of mineral matter to the de- many more far too numerous to mention. gummed silk, the silk is said to be weighted “to par”; heavier A silk “throwster” receives his silk in skein form, the thread of weightings are described as so much per cent “above par.” The which consists of a number of silk fibres wound together to make weighting does not usually exceed 50% above par. The strength a certain diameter, the separate fibres having actually been of the fibre remains unimpaired after weighting but weighted silk spun by the worm, and this fibre may measure anything from 500 is more sensitive to the action of light than unweighted silk. to 1,000 yd. in length. The silk-waste spinner receives his silk in In black weighting the silk is treated with salts of iron and log- quite a different form: merely the raw material, packed in bales wood or tannins such as extracts of sumac, divi-divi, chestnut, of various sizes and weights, the contents being a much-tangled catechu from the Areca or Acacia and gambier from the Uncaria. mass of all lengths of fibre mixed with much foreign matter, such The silk is frequently “bottomed” with Prussian blue or tin as ends of straws, twigs, leaves, worms and chrysalids. It is the weighted, before being black weighted with various combinations spinner’s business to straighten out these fibres, with the aid of maof the above materials. Black weighted silk is highly resistant to chinery, and then to so join them that they become a thread, which the deteriorating action of sunlight. is known as spun silk.

Dyeing.—Silk may be dyed with acid, basic or direct cotton

colours or with vat or mordant dyes; but acid dyes are still the

ost commonly used. The application to silk of vat dyes which

There are two distinct kinds of spun silk—one called “schappe” and the other “spun silk” or “discharged spun silk.” All silk produced by the worm is composed of two substances—fibroin, the

are necessary for many very fast shades requires special care be- true thread, and sericin, which is a hard, gummy coating of the cause of the sensitiveness of the fibre to the alkaline solutions “fibroin.” Before the silk can be manipulated by machinery to which must be used with these dyes. any advantage, the gum coating must be removed, really dissolved Although tussur and other silks from wild moths are readily and washed away—and according to the method used in achieving dyed, the dyeing is apt to be uneven; and as these wild silks are this operation the result is either a ‘“‘schappe” or a “discharged usually of a fawn or brown colour which is not readily bleached yarn.” The former, ‘“‘schapping,” is the French, Italian and Swiss it is difficult to dye them successfully with light or brilliant col- method, from which the silk when finished is neither so bright nor ours. Pioneers in this field were Sir Thomas Wardle and Tessié so good in colour as the “discharged silk”; but it is very clean du Motay who made use of potassium permanganate to bleach and level, and for some purposes absolutely essential, as, for the fawn colour of tussur; this reagent tends, however, to destroy instance, in velvet manufacture. the fibre itself and gentler means of oxidation, such as, a dilute Schapping.—The method is as follows: If waste silk is piled solution of hydrogen peroxide made slightly alkaline with sodium in a heap in a damp, warm place, and kept moist and warm, the silicate, are now employed to bleach tussur to a fairly pale ground. gum will in a few days’ time begin to ferment and loosen, and can then be washed off, leaving the true thread soft and supple; THE SPINNING OF “SILK WASTE” but the smell caused by the fermentation is, so offensive that it The term silk waste includes all kinds of raw silk which may be cannot be practised in or near towns. Therefore schappe spinners unwindable, and therefore unsuited to the throwing process. Be- place their degumming plant in the hills, near or on a stream of fore the introduction of machinery applicable to the spinning of pure water. The waste silk is put into large kilns and covered with silk waste, the refuse from cocoon reeling, and also from silk windhot water (temperature 170° F). These are then hermetically ing, which is now used in producing spun silk fabrics, hosiery, etc., closed, and left for a few hours for the gum to ferment and was nearly all destroyed as being useless, with the exception of loosen. When thoroughly softened—the time occupied depending that which could be hand-combed and spun by means of the distaff on the heat of the water and nature of the silk—the contents of and spinning wheel, a method which is still practised by some of the kiln are taken out and placed into vats of hot water, and the peasantry in India and other Eastern countries. allowed to soak there for some time. Thence the silk is taken to a The supply of waste silk is drawn from the following sources: (1) The silkworm, when commencing to spin, emits a lustreless washing machine, and the loosened gum thoroughly washed away. The silk is then partly dried in a hydro-extractor, and afterand uneven thread with which it suspends itself from the twigs and leaves of the tree upon which it has been feeding, or from wards put in rooms heated by steam-pipes, where the drying is straws provided for it by attendants in the worm-rearing establish- completed. “Discharging” is the method generally used by the English, ments: this first thread is unreelable, and, moreover, is often mixed with straw, leaves and twigs. (2) The outside layers of the and results in a silk having brilliance and purity of colour. In this true cocoon are too coarse and uneven for reeling; and as the process the silk waste is put into strong, open-meshed cotton bags, made to hold (in accordance with the wish of individual spinworm completes its task of spinning, the thread becomes finer and ners) from z Ib. to 5 Ib. in weight. When about roo Jb. of silk has weaker, so both the extreme outside and inside layers are put aside been bagged, the whole is placed in a large wooden tub and as waste. (3) Pierced cocoons—i.e., those ftom which the covmoth ered with boiling water in which r2 to 20 Ib. of white curd soap of the silkworm has emerged—and damaged cocoons. (4) During has previously been dissolved. In this the silk is boiled from the process of reeling from the cocoon the silk often breaks; and one to two hours, then taken out and put through both in finding a true and reelable thread, and in joining a hydro-extracthe ends, tor to remove the dirty gummy solution. there is unavoidable waste. (5) Raw silk skeins Afterwar ds it is put are often re- into another tub of soapy liquor, and boiled from one to one and reeled; and in this process part has to be discarded : this being a half hours. It is then once more hydro-extracted, and finally known to the trade as gum-waste. ‘The same term—gu m-waste— taken to a stove and dried. “Discharged silk” must be entirely is applied to “waste” made in the various processes of ing; but manufacturers using threads known technicall silk throw- free from gum when finished, whereas “schappe” contains a pery as organ- centage of gum—sometimes zines and trams call the surplus “manufacturer’s as much as 20%. waste.” Finally From this stage both classes of silk receive much the we have the uncultivated varieties of silks known same treatas the chief of which is tussur. The different qualities “wild silks,” ment, differing widely in detail in different mills and districts. of “waste,” of The “degummed silk,” after it is dried, is allowed which there are many, vary in colour from to absorb a rich yellow to a a certain amount of moisture, and thus it becomes soft and pliable creamy white; the chief producing countries being China, Japan, to the touch, and proper ly conditioned for working by India, Italy, France and the countries in the Near East; and the When the waste contains any large percentage ofmachinery. best-known qualities are: steam wastes, worm or from Canton; knubs, chrysalis, it is taken from China and from Italy and other Western to a “cocoon beater,” a machine which has countries; frisons, a large revolving disk on which the from various sources; wadding and blaze, Shanghai: silk is put, and while revolving China, Hang- slowly is beaten by a leather chow, and Nankin buttons: Indian and Szechuen whip or flail, which loosens the silk wastes; punjum and knocks out the wormy matter. After the the most lustrous of wastes; China curlie beating, the silk s; Japan wastes, known Presents a more by such terms as kikai, ostue, etc.; Frenc loose appearance, but is still tangled and mixed h, Swiss, Italian, China, in length of fibre. The object

of the Spinner at this point is to

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SILK L. Winding silk on bobbins, in diagonal lines

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PHOTOGRAPH,

(3)

WIDE

WORLD

MANUFACTURING used to lay fibre

Frame pictured has upright spindles and

forward through guides flyers. As yarn is twisted it also is drawn From the bobbins silk is reeled and wound on revolving bobbins. into hanks of definite length for the market

PHOTOS

MACHINERY

loom, woven pattern in 3. Weaving silk Sebastian brocade on Jacquard cards hanging from material determined and controlled by Jacquard

above to all working parts from 4. Modern power loom with motion conveyed or printed goods main shaft. Healds control all warps in plain

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SILK MANUFACTURE straighten out the tangles and lumps, and to lay the fibres parallel: the first machine to assist in this process being known as an opening machine, and the second asafilling engine.

Opening and Filling.—The silk to be opened is placed on a

675

giving the same results as the circular frame: the silk descends from boxes into combs, and at the same time has the gentle action of the flat frame. The cost of the operations is as cheap as the circular frame, therefore the machine combines the advantages of each of its predecessors. Noils—The noils resulting from the dressing operations are

latticed sheet or feeder, and thus slowly conveyed to a series of rollers or porcupines (rollers set with rows of projecting steel pins), which hold the silk firmly while presenting it to the action sometimes combed, the comb used being similar to those used in of a large receiving drum, covered with a sheet of vulcanized the cotton trade. The resulting sliver is used by silk spinners who rubber, set all over with fine steel teeth. As the drum revolves at make a speciality of spinning short fibres, and the exhaust noils a good speed, the silk is drawn by the steel teeth through the por- are bought by those who spin them up into “noil yarns” on the cupines into the drum in more or less straight and parallel fibres. same principle as wool. The yarns are chiefly used by manuWhen the teeth are full the machine is stopped, and the silk facturers of powder bags. The noils are also in great demand stripped off the drum, then presenting a sheet-like appearance for mixing with wool to make fancy effects in wool cloths for technically known as a “lap.” The lap is taken to the filling engine, the dress goods trade. which is similar in construction and appearance to the opener as Drafts—The drafts from the dressing frame are valued in far as the feeding arrangements are concerned, but the drum, in accordance with their length of fibre, the longest being known place of being entirely covered with fine steel teeth, is spaced at as A or ist drafts and so on:— + intervals of from 5 to 10 in. with rows of coarser straight teeth, Ist znd 3rd 4th 5th 6th each row set parallel with the axle of the machine. The silk drawn drafts drafts drafts drafts drafts drafts by the rows of teeth on the drum through the porcupine rollers or as quality A B C D Shorts (or porcupine sheets in some cases) covers the whole of the drum, hooked at certain intervals round the teeth; and when a sufficient Each draft may be worked into a quality of its own, and by such weight is on the machine, it is stopped, and an attendant cuts, with means the most level yarns are obtained. But occasionally one or a knife, the silk along the back of each row of teeth, thus leaving a drafts are mixed together, when price is the determining a fringe of silk hooked on the pins or teeth. This fringe of silk is actor. a placed by the attendant between two hinged boards, and whilst Processes Peculiar to Silk Spinning Industry.—The foreheld firmly in these boards (called book-boards) is pulled off the going processes are all peculiar to the silk waste trade, no other machine, and is called a “strip”; the part which has been hooked fibre having to go through such processes, nor needing such round the teeth is called the “face,” and the other portion the machinery. In the first stages of the spun-silk industry, the silk “tail.” By these means the silk has been opened, straightened and was dressed before boiling the gum out; the resulting drafts then cut into a certain length, the fibres now being fairly laid were cut into lengths of one or two inches. The silk was then parallel and ready for the next operation, known as silk dressing. boiled and afterwards beaten, scutched, carded, drawn, spun, Silk Dressing.—This is the process equivalent to combing in folded, etc., in exactly the same way as fine cotton. Short fibre the wool industry. Its purpose is to sort out the different lengths silks are still put through cards and treated like cotton; but the of fibre, and to clear such fibres of their nibs and noils. There are value of silk is in its lustre, elasticity and strength, which chartwo well-known principles of dressing: one known as “flat frame,” acteristics are obtained by keeping fibres as long as possible. giving good results with discharged silk, and the other known as Therefore, when gill drawing machinery was invented, the cutting “circular frame’’ dressing, suitable for schappes. of silk into short fibres ceased, and long silks are now prepared The flat dressing frame is a box or frame holding a certain for spinning in what is known as “long spinning process.” Folnumber of book-boards from the filling engine, which boards when lowing the process of dressing, the drafts have to go through a full of silk are screwed tightly together in the frame. The frame is series of machines known as preparing machines: the object being capable of being raised into contact with travelling combs, affixed to piece up the lengths of fibre, and to prepare the silk for 4 to an endless belt placed round two metal rollers about 6 it. apart. spinning. Preparing or Drawing Machinery.—A faller or gill drawThe attendant allows the silk to enter gradually into close contact with the combs, which comb through the silk in exactly the same ing machine consists of a long feeding sheet which conveys silk manner as a lady combs her tresses. In a circular frame the silk to a pair of rollers (back rollers). These rollers present the silk is clamped between boards, and these are fixed on a large drum. to a set of fallers (steel bars into which are fixed fine steel pins), This drum revolves slowly, and in its revolution conveys the which carry forward the silk to another pair of rollers, which fringes of silk past two quickly running smaller combing drums. draw the silk through the pins of the fallers and present it to the These combing drums being covered with fine steel teeth pene- rollers in a continuous way, thus forming a ribbon of silk called trate their combs through the fringes of silk depending from the a “sliver.” The fallers are travelled forwards by means of large drum, thus combing through the silk. In each machine the screws, and when at the end of the screw are dropped autoobject is the same. First the filled silk is placed into a holding matically into the thread of a receiving screw fixed below, which receptacle, clamped fast, and presented to combing teeth. These carries the fallers back to their starting point to be raised by teeth retain a certain proportion of shorter fibre and rough places cams into the top pair of screws tħus to repeat their journey. Silk Spreader.—This is the first of the series of drawing and tangled portions of silk, which are taken off the combs in a book-board or wrapped round a stick and again presented to the machines. The drafts from the dressing frame are made into combs. This fibre again yields combings which will also be little parcels of a few ounces in weight, and given to the spreader, combed, and so on for five or six times until the combings are too who opens out the silk and spreads it thinly and evenly on to the short, and are taken from the machine and known as “‘noils.” The feeding sheet, placing a small portion of the silk only on the productions from these several combings are known as “drafts” sheet. Another portion is opened out and placed tail end to the and are of different lengths: the product of the filled silk first first portion; and these operations are repeated until the placed in the dressing frame being the longest fibre and of course requisite weight is spread. During this time the silk has been conveyed through the fallers and into a large receiving drum the most valuable. . +

The flat frame is the most gentle in its usage of the silk, but is about 3 ft. in diameter, the silk being wrapped thinly and evenly most costly in labour; whilst the circular frame, being more severe all round the circumference of the drum, When the agreed-on in its action, is not suitable for the thoroughly degummed silks, weight is on the drum, the silk is drawn across the face of the but on the other hand is best for silks containing much wormy drum. parallel with its axle, and pulled off in form. of a sheet, and matter, because the silk, hanging down into the combing teeth is called: a Jap,, This dap is thin,. but presents the: fibres of silk is thoroughly cleansed of such foreign matter, which. is deposited ;

under the machine. This method also has the advantage of being

cheaper in cost of labour. Recently a machine has been invented

now, joined and overlapped in a continuous form, the length

measured by the cigcumference ofthe dim, ;This fap is sometimes. re-spread,ta. make it more even, and at other times taken

SILK TRADE

676 to a drawing machine

which

delivers in a sliver form.

This

sliver is taken through a series of four other drawing machines called “four head drawing box.” Eight or more slivers are put behind the first drawing head, conveyed through the fallers and made into one sliver in front of the machine. This sliver is put up

behind the second drawing; eight or more ends together run

through the second head again into one sliver; and so on through the third and fourth heads of drawing. All these doublings of the sliver and re-drawing are for the purpose of getting each fibre to lie parallel and to make the sliver of an equal weight over every yard of its length.

From the last head of drawing

the sliver is taken to a machine known as a gill rover. This is a

is prepared in exactly the same manner as other spun silks, þut

its chief use is to make an imitation of sealskin known com-

a B mercially as silk seal. BrsriocrarHy.—J. Persoz, Essai sur le conditionnement, le titrage, et k era de la soie (1878); H. Silbermann, Die Seide, ihre Geschichte, Gewinnung und Verarbeitung, 2 Bde, (Dresden, 1897); L. Hooper, Silk: its production and manufacture (1911, and ed. 1927) ;

S. Kline, A Manual of the processes of winding, warping, and quilling silk, etc. (1918, 2nd ed. 1926) ; H. Ley, Die neuzeitliche Seidenfarberei oe 1927). See also (1921); J. Schober, Seide und a Lyon.8, De.; A, Met.) la ṣire, toire d'Etudes de Ot dE Bes W. Rapports du Laboratoire

SILK TRADE,

The area suitable for sericulture stretches

drawing machine fitted with fallers through which the sliver is in a broad belt between 25° and 48° of latitude right across drawn, but the end from the front roller is wound on to a bobbin. Europe and Asia. It is China and Japan which produce 85-5 per The machine is fitted with 20 to 40 of these bobbins placed side cent. of the world’s supply of raw natural silk as the following by side, and its product is known as “slubbing roving,” it being table, taken from the League of Nations Repo:t for 1927 (C.E,I. now a soft, thick thread of silk, measuring usually either 840 or 24, page 6), indicates. 1,260 yd. to x Ib. weight. Hitherto all the drawing has been by Warld rollers and fallers, but in the next machine the drawing is done Production 1925 percentage by rollers only.

Dandy Roving Frame.—This is a frame built with forty or

more spindles. Two or three slubbing rovings are put up behind the machine opposite each spindle; each end is guided separately into back rollers and thence between smaller rollers, known as carrier rollers, to the front rollers. The back rollers revolve slowly, the front rollers quickly, thus drawing the rovings out into a thinner size or count. The product is wound on to the bobbin by means of flyer and spindle, and is known as dandied or fine roving, and is then ready for the spinning frame.

Spinning.—The spinning is done by exactly the same methods

as cotton or worsted, viz., either mules, ring frames, cap or flyer frames, the choice of machine being determined by the size or count of yarn intended to be produced. Twisting and Doubling—lIf a 2-fold or 3-fold yarn is needed, then two or more ends of the spun thread are wound together and afterwards conveyed to the twisting frame for the purpose of putting the needed twist in the yarn necessary for weaving or other requirements. This process is exactly the same as in the cotton or worsted industry, ring or flyer frames being used as desired. Weft Yarns-—These are taken straight from the spinning frame, wound on to a long paper tube and so delivered to the manure facturer ready to place in the loom shuttle.

Folded Yarns are hairy after being spun and folded, and in addition sometimes contain nibs and rough places. The fibre and nibs have to be cleaned off by means of a gassing machine so constructed that the end of silk (silk yarn) is frictioned to throw off the nibs, and at the same time is run very rapidly through a

gas flame a sufficient number of times to burn off the hairy and

fibrous matter without injuring the main thread. The yarn is now ready for reeling into skeins or for warping, both of which operations are common to all the textile yarns. It may be washed or dyed just as required, either in hank or in warp. Growth of Industry and Uses of Spun Silk.—As will have been gathered, spun silk is pure silk just as much as that used by the throwster. The spinning industry has notfecreased in England. The number of mills has decreased, but machinery now runs so much more quickly than formerly that more yarn is being spun on fewer spindles. The American spinning industry has more than doubled its output since 1914 under a protective tariff of some 35%. The Continental spinners have increased, but are developing into huge syndicates, all working on the schappe principle. The three chief syndicates, one each in Italy, France and Switzerland, work very much together, practically ruling the prices for yarns and raw materials. Spun silks are used largely for silk linings, hosieries, sewing

threads, elastic webbing, lace, plush and many other purposes, such as mufflers, dress goods and blouse silks; also for mixing with other fibres in form of stripes in the weaving of various fabrics, or to be used in what are known as mixed goods, że., a warp of silk and weft of some other fibre or weft of silk and a warp of cotton or other fibre. The article known as tussur spun

Western Europe

Kilogrammes

Spain .

ro

France

265,000

Italy . 4,380,000 Eastern Europe and the Levant The Far East India and Indo-China 90,000)

China

Japan

.

.

AFEA

4,740,000

1,065,000

34,055,000

25,845,000

Approx.

39,860,000

The above figures show the quantity of silk available for western manufacturers, but the actual production of both China and Japan is far higher, the figures shown being merely those of the exports of raw silk from these two countries. The home consumption of China is estimated as at least 45% of her total production, being mostly worked upon hand looms, whilst in the case of Japan, about 30% is used at home, and so the above figure represents only 45% of the total output of China and 70% of that of Japan. Moreover, in the case of the latter country much of the raw material is worked up by modern machinery whose products are subsequently sold in competition with European silk manufactures. ; It is believed therefore that the actual world production of raw silk is not less than 58,000,000 kg., worth approximately

£175,000,000 or $830,000,000, whereas the commercial supply available for European and American manufacturers is only 39~ 40,000,000 kilogrammes.

In 1875, western Europe produced about 46% of the world’s commercial supplies of natural silk, but by ro25 it was barely

12%. In that year the value of the commercial crop was £120,000,000. It will: thus be seen that without reducing shipments of raw silk to Europe and America, China and Japan have an ample supply of raw silk with which to produce increasing quan-

tities of silk manufactures and sell them in competition with the

products of western manufacturers.

One factor must be noted

and that is that despite the impoverishment of Europe by the World War and the increasing output of artificial silk, the demand for natural silk products has steadily increased during the last ten years, and so has the total production of raw silk. The demand is due in part to the present fashions, and in particular for silk hosiery of all types, and in part to the increasing use of silk mixed with other textile yarns in all manner of products.

Consumption of Silk Goods——Although it is not possible

to give accurate figures of the world’s output of finished silk goods, a very fair picture will be obtained from a study of the statistics of consumption. According to The Economic Forees of the World issued by the Dresdener bank of Berlin in 1927, the world consumption of raw silk in 1923 was 29,250,000 kg. Of this France used 17-3%, Germany 13-7, Italy 5-5 and all Europe to-

gether took 39-9 per cent. Of the remainder the United States

consumed 40-39%, China 9-9 and Japan 6.8. By 1925 the world

SILL

677

total had risen to 46,350,000 kg. and the United States had in- in that year the mean rate of exchange for the franc was 123-87 creased her lead to 61-7%, France had sunk to 13-1% and Ger- francs to the £. Of the remaining European countries the most many to 4-5%. The consumption of the rest of Europe had also de- important are Italy and Germany. In 1927 the former iniported creased so that the total was only 21-1%, while in Asia Japan was manufactured silk goods worth 393,270,000 Hre, of which 63,000,the only exception, her consumption having risen to 9-7 per cént. ooo represented cocoons and 130,872,000 thrown silk. Of her Number of Looms.—In the 20th century two tendencies have exports the most important items were thrown silk 863,293,000 been most noticeable: the first is the gradual replacement of the lire, and doubled and twisted 645,629,000 and she sold waste silk handloom by the mechanical loom and the second is the steadily worth 179,006,000 and tissues worth 943,376,000 lire. Germany sufferéd severely during the post-war crisis and is increasing importance of the United States as a manufacturer of silk goods. The consumption figures have already shown this only gradually recovering her former position. In considering tendency but the figures of the number of looms are even more her statistics we must remember that they include artificial silk, striking. So far as the hand looms are concerned, in 1913 Europe which should be excluded but cannot be disentangled. The gold owned 29,300 out of a total of 69,300 or 42-4%, practically all mark in 1927 was worth 11-74d., in which year she imported the rest being Japanese, for although China and India used approximately 200,000,000 marks worth of raw and thrown silk, handlooms their products hardly competed commercially, being yarn and tissues and exported 258,800,000 marks worth, of which only 4,111,000 was classified as raw and thrown. Her two chief almost exclusively used at home. _ By 1925 the European handlooms had sunk to 23,406, while items were tissues and hosiery, which between them accounted (J. S. M. W.) in Japan the number had remained stationary. Of the European for nearly four-fifths of her exports. SILL, EDWARD ROWLAND (1841-1887), American handlooms more than half belong to France. The real future of the silk industry rests, however, with the poet and educationist, of Puritan ancestry, was born at Windsor mechanical loom and here the progress has been marked. In (Conn.), April 29, 1841. Early orphaned, he drifted through 1913 Europe *owned 152,800 out of a world total of 244,800 or, college, recognized as a genius, but out of sympathy with the in other words, 62-4 per cent. The United States owned 84,000 Puritanic atmosphere and academic formalism of Yale at the or 343% and Japan 8,000 or 3-3 per cent. By 1925 the world period. After his graduation in 1861, he had difficulty in finding total had increased to 268,100, of which the United States owned his proper niche. He spent five years in California, working in no less than 102,000, while those belonging to European countries & post-office, on a ranch, and in a bank, and for a time studying had only increased to 154,100 a8 compared with the increase in medicine and law. On his return to the East, he entered the Japan to 12,000. Therefore in that year Europe owned only Harvard Divinity school, but felt that he could not conform to 57-5% of the total as compared with 62-4% in 1913, whereas the church dogmas and tried newspaper work in Brooklyn, where he “didn’t suit, wasn’t suited, and quit.” After a brief experience United States owns 38% and Japan 4-5 per cent. Commerce in Silk.—Lyons is still the headquarters of the of teaching in a rural school, he was, from 1869 until 1871, silk trade in France, Krefeld in Germany, Genoa in Italy, Zurich principal of the high school and superintendent of the grades in in Switzerland and Macclesfield in England, although there are Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, the home of his “best uncle,” his wife’s many other places where particular lines are made and distributed. father. Thereafter he taught at the Oakland (Calif.) high school, In 1927 Great Britain imported raw silk worth £1,831,600 arid and he was professor of English in the University of California, articles manufactured worth £16,190,000 and only exported goods at Berkeley, from 1874 to 1882. The remainder of his life was worth £2,427,000. India purchased abroad silk goods worth devoted to literary work at Cuyahoga Falls. He died unexpect4,71,84,193 rupees, of which raw silk and waste represented edly, after a minor operation, at Cleveland, Ohio, Feb. 27, 1887. 1,37,04,763 rupees and only exported 40,12,400, of which Sill was devoted to music, ahd had some talent in painting. Of 35,01,000 rupees represented raw silk. It is clear, thereforé, that an unusually sensitive temperament, he liked best to work in seas yet she plays but a small part in the production and distribu- clusion, and much of his work in the Atlantic and other magation of manufactured silk goods. China on the other hand im- zines appeared anonymously in “The Contributors’ Club” or ports but little silk, whereas she supplies approximately 22 per under a pseudonym. The reception of his first book, The Hercent of the total commercial crop. The value of her total silk mitage and Other Poems (1868), was disappointing; and although exports in 1926 was 191,675,975 Haikwan taels. This total in- The Venus of Milo and Other Poems (1883) was privately `

cluded silk piece goods worth 21,364,100 Haikwan taels and shows that, despite her primitive methods, she is able to sell large quantities of finished goods, a fact which suggests that as she changes to the mechanical loom she will tend to become a more serious competitor both of Europe and the United States. Japan has already progressed a fair way along the road on which China is only just embarking. Handlooms still play an important part in the production of the goods she sells abroad, but it is her mechanical looms which are increasing. That she is now an important factor in the silk trade may be demonstrated by the fact that in 1926 her exports of tissues were five times as great as those of Great Britain. In 1927 her silk imports were trifling and consisted almost entirely of cocoons and wild silk, but her exports were large and included such items as raw silk worth 740,611,000 yen arid tissues 139,615,000 yen. Heavy imports of

raw silk in Ametica show that the trade consists iùn producing finished goods for the home matket whereas her imports of finished goods are stall and only exceed het exports by a trifling amount. Thus in 1927 the United States imported raw silk worth $390,368,000 and fabrics worth $17,862,000, while her exports were

worth $15,298,600. In Europe France is the chief centre of the silk trade. She imported ih 1927 raw silk worth 1,678,180,000 francs, weighing

120,486,000 kilogs., spun silk and thread worth 46,443,000 francs and tissues worth 10d,238,000 francs and éxported raw silk, spun

silk and thread, ete., worth 720,495,000 francs and mianufactured goods worth 3,233,511,000. We must remember, however, that

printed as a farewell to his California friends, he published no other book during his lifetime. His best poems, such as “The Fool’s Prayer” and “Opportunity,” gave him a place among the minor poets of America, which might have been higher but for

his early death. A mémorial volume was privately printed by Sils friends in 1887. Seé the biographical sketches in The Poetical Works of Edward Row-

land Sill (1906), and in his collected Prose (1900) ; also Edward Row-

land Sill, His Life and Work (1915), by W. B. Parker.

SILL (0.Eng. syl, Mid. E. sylle, selle; the word appears in Icel.

Syl, svill, Swed. syll, and Dan. syld, and in German, as Schwelle ; Skeat refers to the Tetttonic root swal-, swell, the word meaning the rise or swell formed by 4 beam at a threshold; the Lat. solea, from which comes Fr. seuil, gives Eng. “sole,” also sometimes

used for “sill”), the horizontal base of a door or window-frame.

A technical distinction is made between the inner or wooden base of the window-frame and the stone base oft which it rests—the latter being called the sill of the window, and the former that of its frame.

SILL, in geology, an intrusive mass of igneous rock which consolidated beneath the surface and has a large horizontal extent

in comparison with its thickness. In north-eastern England there is a great mass of this kind known as the Whin Sill. “Whin” designates hard, tough, dark coloured rocks often of igneous origin, and the Whin Sill is a mass of dolerite or, more strictly, quartzdolerite. Its most striking character is the great distance over which it can be traced. It starts not far north of Kirkby Stephen

678 (Westmorland)

SILLIMAN—SILURIAN and describes a great curve with its convexity

towards the west, till it ends on the sea-shore at Bamborough, not far south of Berwick-on-Tweed. It has been pierced in a deep boring at Crook, in Durham. The length of the outcrop is about 80 m., but in places it is covered with superficial deposits or may be actually discontinuous. The rocks in which it lies belong to the Carboniferous Limestone series, and the sill is probably one of the manifestations of the volcanic activity which occurred during the later part of the Carboniferous period. The Hudson Palisades.—The great Palisade trap of the Hudson river, which is an almost exact parallel to the Whin Sill, is an enormous sheet of igneous rock exposed among the Triassic beds of New Jersey and New York. It has an outcrop which is about 100 m. Jong; its thickness is said to be in places 800 ft., though usually not above 200 to 300 ft. Like the Whin Sill the rock is a quartz-dolerite occasionally passing into olivine-dolerite, especially near its edges. The Palisade dolerite is compact, nonvesicular and non-porphyritic as a rule. It follows the bedding planes of the sedimentary rocks into which it was injected, but breaks across them locally and produces a considerable amount of contact alteration. These great sheets of igneous rock intruded into cold and nearly horizontal strata must have solidified very gradually. Their edges are fine-grained owing to their having been rapidly chilled, and the whole mass is usually divided by joints into vertical columns, which are narrower and more num-

erous at top and base and broader in the centre. Where exposed by denudation the rocks, owing to this system of jointing, tend to present a nearly vertical, mural escarpment which seems to consist of polygonal pillars. Sills of Scotland and Ireland—In the Tertiary volcanic district of the west of Scotland and north Ireland, including Skye, Mull and Antrim, innumerable sills occur and intrusive sheets

SYSTEM

volcanic action was going on contemporaneously with the deposit of the beds among which they occur. Sills, on the other hand, show only that at some subsequent period there was liquid magma

. working its way to the surface. SILLIMAN, BENJAMIN (1779-1864), American chemist and geologist, was born on Aug. 8, 1779, at Trumbull (then called North Stratford), Connecticut. Entering Yale college in 1792, he graduated in 1796, and in 1802 was appointed professor of chemistry and mineralogy, a position which he retained till 1853.

Not only was he a popular and successful teacher of chemistry, mineralogy and geology in the college for half a century, but he also did much to improve and extend its educational resources, especially in regard to its mineralogical collections, the Trumbull

gallery, the Medical institution and the Sheffield Scientific school. Outside Yale he was well known as one of the few men in America who could hold the attention of a popular audience with a scientific lecture. His original investigations were neither numerous nor important, and his name is best known to scientific men as the founder, and from 1818 to 1838 the sole editor, of the American Journal of Science and Aris—often called Szlliman’s Journal—one of the foremost American scientific serials. He died

at New Haven (Conn.) on Nov. 24, 1864. ; SILLIMANITE, a rock-forming mineral of composition Al,SiO;, crystallizing in the rhombic system. Sillimanite has the same percentage of chemical composition as andalusite (g.v.) and kyanite (g.v.) but differs from these in crystalline form and physical properties. The crystal habit is that of long slender prisms, often aggregated together to form fibrous or compact masses (hence its alternative name, fibrolite), but terminal faces are very rare. The mineral possesses a perfect cleavage parallel to oro, and an irregular cross parting parallel to oor is usually observed in thin slices under the microscope.

build up a great part of the geological succession. They are The pure mineral is white, but coloured varieties are pleochroic, for the most part olivine-basalts and dolerites, and while some of the colour being ascribed to FeO; or TiO, Rare sapphire-blue them are nearly horizontal, others are inclined. Among the lavas crystals of gem quality from the Burma ruby mines have yielded of the basaltic plateaus there is great abundance of sills, which good faceted stones. are so numerous, so thin and so nearly concordant to the bedding Sillimanite is stable at all temperatures below 1,545° C, at of the effusive rocks that there is great difficulty in distinguishing which temperature it dissociates into the compound 3A1,0,-2Si0, them. As a rule, however, they are more perfectly columnar, (mullite) (g.v.) and a silica-rich liquid, It is doubtful whether more coarsely crystalline and less vesicular than the igneous rocks sillimanite has yet been artificially prepared. Sillimanite is essenwhich consolidated at the surface. These sills are harder and tially a mineral of the crystalline schists and hornfelses, being more resistant than the tuffs and vesicular lavas, and on the hill especially characteristic of highly metamorphosed argillaceous slopes their presence is often indicated by small vertical steps, sediments. As such it is commonly found in the thermal aureoles while on the cliff faces their columnar jointing is often very con- of igneous intrusions and in areas of crystalline schists of the spicuous. highest grade of metamorphism. Cordierite, corundum, spinel Modern Volcanic Sills—QOn modern volcanoes intrusive and potash felspar are common associated minerals, (C. E. T.) sheets are seldom visible except where erosion has cut deep valSILO: see ENSILAGE. leys into the mountains and exposed their interior structure. This SILURES, These were a powerful and warlike tribe in anIs the case, for example, in Ireland, Teneriffe, Somma and Etna cient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouth, and in the volcanic islands of the West Indies. In their origin Brecon, and Glamorgan. They made a fierce resistance to the the deep-seated injections escape notice; many of them in fact Roman conquest about A.D. 48, but a legionary fortress (Isca belong to a period when superficial forms of volcanic action have Silurum, Caerleon) was planted in their midst and by a.D. 78 ceased and the orifices of the craters have been obstructed by they were overcome. Their town Venta Silurum (Caerwent, 6 ashes or plugged by hard crystalline rock. But in the volcanoes m. W. of Chepstow) became romanized. Its massive Roman of the Sandwich islands the craters are filled at times with liquid walls survive, and excavations have revealed a town hall and basalt which suddenly escapes, without the appearance of any market square, a temple, baths, amphitheatre, etc. lava at the surface. The molten rock, in such a case, must have SILURIAN SYSTEM, a term variously used in geology; as found a passage underground, following some bedding plane or originally defined by Murchison in 1835 it included the rocks defissure, and giving rise to a dike or sill among the older lavas veloped on the borders of England and Wales, a region formerly or in the sedimentary rocks beneath. Many of the great sills, inhabited by the Silures; now used in Britain in a restricted sense however, may have been connected with no actual volcanoes, to denote rocks lying between the Ordovician system below and and may represent great supplies of igneous magma which rose the Old Red Sandstone or Devonian system above. There is no from beneath but never actually reached the earth’s surface. complete agreement as to the exact horizon at which the lower Sills and Dikes.—The connection between sills and dikes is and upper limits of the system should be drawn, The upper limit very close; both of them are of subterranean consolidation, but of the Ashgillian has yet to be defined accurately in those areas the dikes occupy vertical or highly inclined fissures, while the sills where sedimentation proceeded continuously from Ordovician to have a marked tendency to a horizontal position. Accordingly we Silurian time; and opinion is somewhat divided as to the upward find that sills are most common in stratified rocks, igneous or limitation of the system, on the one hand on account of the physsedimentary. Very frequently sills give rise to dikes, and in other ical conditions attending deposition where the Old Red Sandstone cases dikes spread out in a horizontal direction and become sills, facies succeeds, and on the other from the difficulty of putting a It is often of considerable importance to distinguish betwee n sills definite boundary where there is a gradual passage, owing to conand lavas, but this may be by no means easy. Lavas indicate that tinuous sedimentation under the open sea conditions that usher

SILURIAN in the Devonian facies. As is the case with the rocks of the OrpDovICIAN system the strata belonging to the SILURIAN system may be divided into several contemporaneous facies or types of deposit controlled by different physical conditions; four main facies can be recognized:

I. TERRESTRIAL: only known in America. 2. SHALLOW WATER: (a) areas of heavy sedimentation, 3.e., littoral areas. (b) areas of average sedimentation, sandstones and mudstones.

(c) clean sea areas of reef formation

and shell-bank

SYSTEM

679

It may be said to be characterized:— (a) By the rise of the spine-bearing brachiopods (e.g., Airypa, Meristina) and the great development of those with a definite internal skeleton (Pentamerus). The Silurian is pre-eminently the age of brachiopods. (b) by the abundance of trilobites, though as these have passed their zenith there are but few new genera, and these of no great importance. (c) by the predominance of the uniserial scandent graptolites (Monograptus). Other noteworthy features are:— (d) the rise in importance of the mollusca as a whole, especially the Cephalopods, the earliest Ammonoid making its appear-

growth.

3. DEEPER WATER GRAPTOLITE SHALES. 4. VoLcANIc: mainly in Australia and America.

ance. (e) the incoming late in the period of the first vertebrates (fish).

Again, as in the Ordovician Period, the deposits belonging to the shallow water facies may pass into each other laterally, ze., in a direction parallel to the original shore line, whilst in a direction at right angles to this shore line they pass into the deeper water Graptolite Shales, and as this transition often takes place gradually, the shallower water beds being replaced stage by stage, the contemporaneity of the two is placed beyond doubt. Life.—The life of the SmrurrtAN Periop, though somewhat similar in general aspect to that of the ORDOVICIAN, presents a definite advance in type, and more classes of organisms play a prominent part.

(f) the increased importance of corals and crinoids, especially as rock-builders. (g) the abundance towards the close of crustaceans of Eurypterus type.

The shallow water fauna is predominantly a brachiopod-trilobite fauna, characterized by mutations of Pentamerus (including the subgenera Barrandella, Conchidium, Sieberella, etc.), though in some places it is less prominent than Stropheodonia, and in the higher beds Rhynchonella (Camarotaechia) and Chonetes predominate. In the cleaner waters, which seem to have occupied wide areas, there seems to have been considerable reef-building,

Table Showing Characteristic Facies of Development of the Silurian (Gotlandian) in Classtc Areas

British Isles

Scandinavia

aa elly

s Graptolitic

Shelly

z

(Gotland)

a raptolitic

(Skåne)

Bohemia Shelly

:

e

raptolitic

ee and ivonia

*Ledbury or Temeside Shales

*Downton Sandstones

Ascoceras Lst.

>

Ostracod Lst.

=

Upper Ludlow

Upper Osel Lst. || Manlous Lst.

f

3 I

Megalonus Lst.

Â

Rondout

,

S Cobleskill Lst.

Fr

F

Sphaerocodium

Lst.

,

,

=~ Salina Beds with rock

©

salt and gypsum

Crinoid zone

Aymestry

Lst.

ee

Lower Ludlow eta

k Lst.

3

Lower Ludlow

£

a .¢&

Fe

Dayia Lst. -

Marlsand Lst.

i Colonus

Brachiopod zone

i

Ez

Cephalopod zone

Guelph Lst.

Shales

Ery

Lower Osel

Cyrto-

“

"eb Wenlock Shale

Wenlock Shale

Lst.

graptus

z

Shales

i

4 Lockport Dolomite

Rup

-£ Q

I

S

3

A

Woolhope Lst.

5 Rochester Shale

Tarannon-Gala

Upper Llandovery

9%

Browgill

Middle Llandovery

S “$j Birkhill j

or

S| Skelgill Shales T

=

Up. Stricklandinia ni Marl -4| Pentamerus

A| Lst. (Dalarne)| 3

Shales

Ela

i Medina Sandstone

Beds

g

8 Quartzite o Phacops elliptifrons (Dalarne)

EE EEAT PREOT

Pentamerus

Rastrites

%

un

Lower Llandovery

Clinton Beds

9 O

*Included by some in O.R.S.

[eee

a

Ö Oneida Conglom, and Queenstown Shates.

SILURIAN

680

Murchison

r

|

in Classic British Areas Table Showing Development and Succession of the Silurian Rocks S. Scotland / Bates Welsh Borderland d Lake District N. Wales offa Lapworth

*Ledbury or Temeside Shales

'

*Downton Sandstones

$

©

3 =

Upper Ludlow Aymestry Lst.

|

SYSTEM

Lower Ludlow

í 3 3a =

|

Wenlock Lst. OE WEEE ES

q

Eg A

ax

J

Kirkby Moor Flags

)

Bannisdale Slates

S

a© A

|

T

Sr eee

Raebury Castle Beds a

Riccarton Beds

Blair and Straiton Beds

Gala Grits

Drumyork Flags

Flags

|

S

of Lanarkshire Pentland Fills

patra

Woolhop Lst.

Lland

‘G| is

Coldwell Beds Grits

Wenlock Shale

Middle

Donii.

Denbigh

Upper Llandovery

D 2 g

oats

}

Coniston Grits

|

Coan

g 2 3

Valentian bed

Stockdale Shales

:

=

Birkhill Shales

k Bargany Group

B| Penkill Group n y

S| Camregan Group

5

S

Lower Llandovery

4| Saugh Hill Group |Mulloch Hill Group *Included by some in O.R.S.

not only by corals but by other classes of organisms such as bryozoa, crinoids and stromatoporoids. Brachiopods also, together with other organisms, gave rise to considerable shell-banks of limestone. The fossils of commonest occurrence are:— Trilobites

Brachiopods

Corals Cystids Crinoids Crustaceans Cephalopods

Lamellibranchs

Phacops Sensu lato, Calymene, Encrinurus, Acidaspis, Lichas, Cheirurus, Homolonotus, Illaenųus, Arethusina, Proetus, Sphaerexochus. Pentamerus Sensu lato, Siricklandinia, Meristina, Stropheodonta, Atrypa Coelospira, Plectambonites, Lepiaena, Camarotaechia, Wilsonia, Dayig, Chonetes, Dalmanella, W hitfieldella. Halysies, Heliolites, Favosites, Acervularia, Omphyma, Palaeocyclus, Goniophyllum, Syringopora. Lepadacrinus, Prunocystis, Schizocystis. Cyathocrinus, Crotalocrinus, Tasxocrimus, Periechocrinus. Eurypterus, Pierygotus, Slimonia. Orthoceras, Gomphoceras, Trochoceras, Phragmoceras, Ascoceras. Orthonota, Cardiola, Aviculopecten, Pterinaea, Modio-

lopsis, Grammysia.

In the Graptolitic facies Monograpti predominate throughout;

in the earlier beds they have either simple cells or cells with a

slight degree of sinuosity, but they then tend to show a development into a lobe or hook on the one hand, or to isolation of the cells from each other on the other; thus the lobed cell and the isolated cell are characteristic of the Valentian, the hooked cell of the lower part of the Salopian, and the return to simple form the upper part of the Salopjan. In general, graptolites are rare above the Salopian, but some have been recorded from Bohemia from beds of Downtonian age. Distribution.—Rocks of Silurian age are found in many lands all over the world; they occur in Europe in the British

Isles, Scandinavia, Estonia, Livonia, Russia, France, Belgium, Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Spain, Elba and Sardinia; in Asia,

in Siberia, China, the Himalayas and in the Shan States; in N, and S. America; in N. Africa and in Australia. Europe.—With the exception of those occurring in E. Scandinavia, Estonia, Livonia and Russia, the beds in Europe have been in general highly folded by earth movements, but even so may be grouped according to their facies of deposit; they seem to have occupied much the same areas as those of the Ordovician, and it is clear from the study of the rocks accumulating throughout the period in the N.W. geosyncline, that the stresses were in operation that were eventually to culminate in the elevation of the Caledonian-Scandinavian mountain system, for the shore lines of the gulf are continually shifting their position, and as a result intra-formational conglomerates are frequently found, and there is a marked tendency for succeeding beds to overlap; moreover, oscillations of the shore line gave origin to a widespread continental shelf with its island festoon affording ideal conditions for the reef-building by corals and other organisms, or for the forma-

tion of shell-banks made up largely of the remains of one class of organism. Outside the geosyncline also clean sea limestone reefs or graptolite shales are of widespread occurrence. The island of Gotland may be taken as typifying the former, the development

in Skane or Bohemia as characteristic of the latter facies of deposit.

The British Isles—The general instability of the shore lines of the geosyncline is admirably illustrated by the rock succession

in S. Scotland on the one hand and the Welsh borderland on the other; in S. Scotland the shore line moved more or less steadily towards the S.E., so that deeper water beds are continually being

overlaid by those of shallower water type. In the Welsh borderland

the oscillations were far more irregular; sometimes the sea transgressed with overlap and unconformity upon the eastern shore line, at others there was a retrogressive movement when the

shore line advanced so that there is great variety in different places, not only in the sediments found, but also in the completeness of the succession. One fact remains constant, namely, that

SILVA—SILVER

681

when far enough away from the shore line, these variable deposits

rintho de Creta (November 1736), Guerras do Alecrim e Mangerona (carnival of 1737), As Variedades de Proteo (May sa so shallow that the shallow water facies occupies the 1737) and Precipicio de Faetonte (1738). Slight as these sketches whole. are, they show considerable dramatic talent and an Aristophanic Scandinavia.—Skane alone possesses a complete series of beds wit. The characters are well drawn and the dialogue full of of Silurian age; for the greater part these belong to the graptolite comic strength, the scenes knit together and the plot skilfully shale facies, but include shallower water beds towards the top: worked out. Moreover Silva possessed a knowledge of stageover much of the remainder of the country the strata of this craft, and, if he had lived, he might have emancipated the period are found in the table-topped hills capped by dolerite in drama in Portugal from its dependence on foreign writers; but which only a part of the succession is found. the triple licence of the Palace, the Ordinary and the Inquisition, America.—The Silurian rocks of America are not exposed so which a play required, crippled spontaneity and freedom. Even so, extensively as were those of Ordovician age; at present little is he showed some boldness in exposing types of the prevailing known about their character in the west, the best known succes- charlatanism and follies, though his liberty of speech is far less sions being found in the east and centre, though they are also than that of Gil Vicente (g.v.). His comedies give a truthful and known in the north; in the eastern region the succession is of interesting picture of 18th century society, especially his best interest, as a volcanic facies occurs in addition to those of shallow comedy, the Alecrim e Mangerona, in which he treats of the and deeper water type and in many respects, apart from the fidalgo pobre, a type fixed by Gil Vicente and Francisco Manoel volcanic rocks, the succession resembles that of the British Isles; de Mello (g.v.). the central region contains the classic development exposed in the BIBLIOGRAPHY.—His plays were published in the first two volumes Niagaran Gorge (see table); the rocks are thickest in the Appa- of a collection entitled Theatro comico portuguez, which went through lachian region, and thin away towards the interior where the at least five editions in the 18th century, while the Alecrim e Mangeappeared separately in some seven editions. This comedy and series tends to be incomplete as the result of unconformity or rona the D. Quixote have been reprinted in a critical edition with a life of overlap. There is a very general absence of rocks of Lower Silva by Dr. Mendes dos Remedios (Coimbra, 1905). Ferdinand Valentian age. In the north the development, which includes Denis, in his Chefs-d’oeuvre du thédtre poriugais (pp. 365-496, Paris, islands in the Arctic archipelago, consists very largely of coral 1823), prints liberal extracts, with a French translation, from the all tend to pass into graptolite shales until the area of the gulf has

imestones.

Australia.—Strata of Silurian age appear to be restricted wholly

+

to the east part of the continent, being found only in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, where they have been considered as originating in Schuchert’s “Tasmanian geosyncline.” They are mainly of interest as affording evidence of submarine volcanic activity during the period, this being most conspicuously displayed in New South Wales; apart from this, records indicate the occurrence of the common facies of deposition. In Tasmania the rocks are mainly of shallow water type, and in Victoria where they have been considerably affected by earth movement, they are

distinguished by the development of fringing reefs of coral lime-

stone. Graptolitė shales with characteristic also been recorded.

Monograpti

have

BreriocraPHy.—British Isles: B. N. Peach, J. Horne and J. J. H.

Teall, The Silurian Rocks of Britain, Vol. I. (Scotland) in the Memrs. of the Geol. Survey of the UK. (H.M. Stationery Office,

1899); Articles in the Quarterly Jrnl. of ihe Geol. Soc. by B A.

Nicholson and J. E. Marr, E. M. R. Wood, 56 (1900), O. T. Jones, 65 (1909), 77 the Geol. Mag. N.S., Decade

vol. 44 (1888), G. L. Elles, 56 (1900), G. L. Elles and I. L. Slater, 62 (1906); (1921), and 81 (1925); J. E. Marr, in III., Vol. IX. (1892); L. D. Stamp, in

the Geol. Mag., Vol. 60 (1923).

Scandinavia: J. Kiaer, Das Obersilur

im Kristiantagebette, Videnskapsselskapets Skriften I. Mat-Naturv. (Christiania, 1908) ; J. C. Moberg, “Historical-Stratigraphical Review

of the Silurian of Sweden” in Sveriges geologiske Undersökning, Årsbok Series C. No. 229 (Stockholm, 1911). America: B. Willis, Index to the Stratigraphy of North America (U.S. Geol. Soc., 1912). Australia:

T. W. E. David, Geology of the Commonwealth, Federal Handbook of Australia (Melbourne, 1914). Bohemia: J. Perner and O. Kodym, in the American Jrnl. of Science, Ser. 5., Vol. IV. (1922).

SILVA, ANTONIO

JOSE DA (1705-1739), Portuguese

dramatist, was born at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, but came to Portugal with his parents at the age of eight. The parents belonged to a French family which had emigrated to escape the Inquisition, Antonio was sent to study at Coimbra, and, while still a

student, was arrested with his mother.

Both were tortured, but

Antonio abjured his errors, and his mother figured as a penitent in

Vida de D. Quixote. See Dr. Theophilo Braga, Historia do theatro portuguez; a baixa comedia e a opera (Oporto, 1871); F. Wolf, Dom Antonio José da Silva (Vienna, 1860); Ernest David, Les Opéras du juif Antonio José da Silva, 1705-1739 (Paris, 1880); Oliveira Lima, Aspectos de litteratura colonial Brazileira (Leipzig, 1896); Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. xi. p. 341; G. A. Kohnt, “Bibliography of Works relating to Antonio José da Silva and Bibliography of Don Antonio’s Compositions” in the Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. No. 4, p. 181; idem, “Martyrs of the Inquisition in South America,” ib. p. 1354 M. Griinwald, “José da Silva” in Monaisschrijt (1880), xxix. p. 241.

SILVANUS (Lat. silva, wood), a deity or spirit of the woodland bordering on clearings. Thus he is partly wild and partly civilized, and reflects the experience of the earliest settlers in Italy; hence his later identification with foreign deities felt to be not wholly hostile. Accordingly Horace writes of the “horridi dumieta Silvani” (Odes, iii. 2g) but he also calls him “tutor finium” (Epod., ii. 22) and Virgil “arvorum pecorisque deus” (Aen. viii. 600). A writer on land measurement (Script. gromatici, i. 302) tells us that each holding had three Silvani—domesticus (of the holding itself), agrestis (of the wilder pasture-land) and orientalis (of the boundaries). Although much worshipped, he never made his way into the towns, but is almost the only Roman deity who from first to last retained the same perfectly intelligible rustic character. His double nature as deity of woodland and cultivated land is seen well in the artistic representations of him; he carries a young tree in one hand, a pruning-hook in the other. See Wissowa, Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1904, p. 78 foll.).

SILVER, a metal known from very early times and, on ac-

count of its comparative scarcity, briliant white colour, and resistance to atmospheric oxidation, has long been used for articles

of value—coins, ornaments and jewellery. Silvër (symbol atomic number 47, atomic weight 107-88) was called Luna Diana by the alchemists, who assigned to it the symbol of crescent moon; the term Iunar caustic is still in general use

Ag, or the for

silver nitrate. Silver is very widely diffused throughout nature as is shown by

an auto-da-fé. He completed his studies and joined his father in spectrum analysis; it is always present in séa water in minute practice as an advocate at Lisbon. He married a cousin whose amounts, an estimate of the total amount presént being 2,000,000 parents had been burnt by the Inquisition, while she also had been tons. Silver is sometimes found native—usually in only small exiled for her religion. On Oct. 5, 1739, husband and wife were quantities, though occasionally masses of several htndredweights imprisoned for “judaizing,” having been denounced by the Inqui- have been discovered. Gold is almést invariably found associated with silver. The sition. On Oct. 18 Antonio was strangled, and his body burnt in ah auto-da-fé; on that samé day ohe of his popular operettas principal ores of silver are the sulphides, and to a lesser extent it is found combined with telluriurn, selenium, arsenic and antimony. was given at a Lisbon theatre. Hig dramatic works, which were produced at the Bairro Alto Galena, PbS, always contditis silver and most of the metal protheatre between 1733 ahd 1738, include the following comedies, duced in Europe comes from this source. Physical Propertties.—Silver in the massive state is the whitest all played by marionettes :—D. Quixote (1733), Esopaida (1734), Os Encantos de Medea (1735), Amphitriéo (May 1736), Laby- of all metals, has a petfect metallic lustre, and is the most malle-

SILVER

682

of the pure able and ductile of all metals except gold: one gram more than one

metal can be drawn out into wire considerably a thickness of mile long, and it can be beaten into leaves of considermetal the hardens rolling or ng Hammeri 0-00025 mm. dull red a at annealing by ably, but the malleability is restored but softer than gold than harder somewhat is silver Pure heat. as coinage or copper; it is too soft in the pure state for use by alloying it jewellery, and for these purposes it is best hardened its colour affects neither which copper of ge percenta with a small of silver gravity specific The appreciably nor renders it brittle.

varies considerably according to the previous method of treat10-55, ment, the density of different samples varying from 9-87 to

ferwhereas the density of silver precipitated from solution by as taken be may 10-5 of value mean A 10-62, is sulphate rous

fairly correct. The specific heat of silver is about 0-56 and its coefficient of linear expansion between o° and 100° C is about 0-0000194, but this increases rapidly at higher temperatures. Silver is by far the best conductor of heat and electricity. According to the law of Wiedemann and Franz, the ratio of heatconductivity to electrical-conductivity of good conducting metals is constant at the same temperature. Taking the thermal conductivity of silver as standard (100), the thermal conductivities of other metals are as follows:

Ag 100

Cu 73°6

Au 53°2

Zn 19°0

Sn I4°5

Fe 11-6

Pt 8-4

Pb 8-1

Bi 1°8

The melting point of silver is 960-5° C, and its boiling point under atmospheric pressure is about 2,000° C. It gives rise to a blue vapour which on dilution in the atmosphere appears bright green. Its vapour density has been determined at a temperature above its boiling point, and the molecule thereby found to be monatomic. In the molten state silver has the property of “occluding” about 20 times its volume of oxygen. This oxygen is not in a state of chemical combination and is violently ejected on cooling to near the solidifying point, producing a phenomenon known as the “spitting” of silver. The absorption of oxygen from the air can be prevented by covering the surface either with powdered charcoal or with some non-oxidising flux. Chemical Properties.—Silver does not combine directly with oxygen, nor does it decompose water or steam at any temperature; it is, however, oxidized by ozone which becomes converted into ordinary oxygen without alteration in volume. The ordinary blackening or discoloration of silver is invariably caused by sul-

phur, either in the free state or in compounds other than oxides. This stain is black silver sulphide, Agos. Silver dissolves readily in nitric acid, either strong or dilute, producing the nitrate, AgNOs, with evolution of nitric oxide; it is also readily soluble in hot strong sulphuric acid, silver sulphate, Ag2SO,, being produced with evolution of sulphur dioxide. Hydrochloric acid acts superficially on silver, but further action is stopped by the coating of silver chloride produced. Hydriodic acid dissolves silver readily, producing the iodide but hydrofluoric

acid is without action on it. Silver combines readily with the free halogens. i

“Molecular” Silver—Silver can be obtained in a finely divided, very reactive state as a greyish powder either by precipitation of a solution by a reducing agent, such as ferrous sulphate, or by bringing a piece of a more electro-positive metal such as iron or zinc Into contact with a silver halide below faintly acidified water. This active form of the metal is usually dried at a low temperature after thorough washing, and is frequently used in organic synthesis for removing halogen elements from alkyl compounds with duplication of the organic radical. Colloidal silver may be produced by precipitating a solution of silver nitrate with various organic substances such as tartrates, citrates, tannin, etc. The precipitates vary greatly in colour, and after washing become soluble in pure water. A brown colloidal solution of silver may also be obtained by passing an electric arc between silver terminals under pure water. . Silver in any form acts catalytically upon solutions of hydrogen peroxide; a steady stream of oxygen flows from the points of contact and finally complete decomposition results.

atomic Chemically Pure Silver —In exact determinations of the weights (g.v.) of elements (halogens, etc.), it 1s frequently necesdeal

sary to obtain silver in the purest possible state and a great of work has been done to this end. For a long time the most satisfactory process was the reduction of a solution of silver to

nitrate by means of ammonium sulphite, but this process, due J. S. Stas, has been superseded by that of Richards and Wells al(1905), which is carried out as follows: A solution of recryst

lized silver nitrate is precipitated by hydrochloric acid and the resulting chloride thoroughly washed. This chloride is then placed invert in a silver dish and reduced to metallic silver with pure

sugar and caustic soda. The reduced silver is fused on a block of

to lime in the reducing flame of a blowpipe, and thereby brought 99:999% purity; this is made the anode and cathode of a cell, the electrolyte being a solution of silver nitrate prepared from some of the same purified silver. On electrolysis a crystalline

powder of electrolytic silver is formed, and is thoroughly washed, dried and fused in a lime boat contained in a tube through which a current of hydrogen is circulated. The small bars of silver after scrubbing and washing with dilute nitric acid, ammonia and water are dried in vacuo at about 400°. Alloys.—Silver alloys readily with most metals, but in many cases the alloys are of little practical value; thus arsenic, antimony, bismuth, tin and zinc produce very brittle alloys which are quite unsuitable for further working. Copper on the other hand increases its hardness, toughness and fusibility, and such alloys are therefore almost exclusively used for coinage and jewellery. The proportion of silver in alloys is stated in terms of its “fineness” which means parts of silver in 1,000 parts of the alloy. Thus the British coinage till 1920 was of a fineness of 925 or 92:5% silver and 7:5% copper, and was well adapted to its purpose, but the silver currency was then lowered to a fineness of 500, and other metals besides copper, especially nickel, were introduced. This alloy is much less satisfactory than that of the old standard for, apart from its unsatisfactory working properties, it is much more readily discoloured. Silver is sometimes alloyed with gold and with the platmum metals, with which it produces alloys which can be worked satisfactorily. Thus the sovereigns formerly minted in Australia were of 22-carat quality, containing 8.33% silver instead of copper, and thus having a lighter colour; and a dental alloy of 50% silver-platinum was at one time in general use. Compounds of Silver.—Several oxides of silver have been reported from time to time. A subexide, Ag,O, has been stated to exist by several observers, but their results have not been generally accepted. The best characterized oxide is the compound Ag:O, argentic oxide, which is the base of all the more stable salts of silver. It is produced by precipitating a solution of silver nitrate by an alkaline or alkaline-earth hydroxide, as a blackish powder which can be crystallized from solutions of ammonia, forming violet crystals. This oxide is appreciably soluble in water (1 part in 300) giving a solution which turns red litmus blue, and which precipitates most of the heavy metals as hydroxides. This oxide is a strong base and forms stable salts with acids. It begins to decompose into its elements at 250°. Silver peroxide, AgO or Ag:0z, is formed by the electrolysis of silver solutions under certain conditions, or by the action of potassium permanganate upon argentic oxide. That formed by electrolysis is generally found combined with some of the silver

salt forming the electrolyte, and compounds such as AgrNO, and

Agis52Ou are said to have been produced. Higher oxides of silver have been reported but not confirmed. Halogen Compounds.—Silver combines with all the halogens to

form definite and very stable compounds.

Silver chloride, AgCI,

is found native in the mineral horn-silver or cerargyrite; mixed

with clay, it is called butter-milk ore by the German miners. It is obtained as a precipitate by the action of hydrochloric acid or any soluble chloride upon a solution of silver. It forms a white

curdy precipitate which rapidly darkens on exposure to light, and this reaction ïs the basis of nearly all the processes used in photography (g.v.). Silver chloride. is nearly insoluble in pure water and in dilute nitric acid (1 part in 50,000). It is, however, much

SILVER more soluble in concentrated solutions of hydrochloric acid and metallic chlorides, although, on dilution, most of the silver chloride is often precipitated.

Silver chloride

dissolves readily in am-

monia and evaporation of the solution yields rhombic crystals of the composition 2AgCl.3NH3. It is also easily soluble in solutions of sodium thiosulphate and potassium cyanide. Silver chloride melts at about 455° C to a yellow transparent liquid, which, on cooling, solidifies to a colourless horny mass. It is easily reduced

to metallic silver (1) by contact under acidulated water with certain metals (zinc, iron, etc.), an equivalent of which dissolves as chloride; (2) by fusion with alkaline hydroxides, carbonates or cyanides; (3) by heating in a stream of hydrogen or coal gas; or (4) by digesting alkaline solutions with grape sugar or other reducing agents.

Silver bromide, AgBr, found native in the mineral bromargyrite

in Chile and Mexico, is obtained as a yellowish-white precipitate by the addition of a soluble bromide to a silver solution. It resembles the chloride in most of its properties but is less soluble in ammonia. It melts at about 425° C, and is even more sensitive to light than the chloride, although its change in colour is less noticeable. Certain minerals, chiefly found in Chile, consist of variable mixtures of AgCl and AgBr; they are embolite, megabromite and microbromite. Silver iodide, AgI, found native in the mineral iodargyrite or iodyrite, is produced by precipitating a silver solution with any soluble iodide or by acting upon the metal with hydriodic acid or iodine. It forms a yellow powder, practically insoluble in water, acids, or ammonia, but soluble in strong hydriodic acid, sodium thiosulphate, or strong solutions of potassium iodide, forming in the last case a double iodide, KAgIh. Silver iodide is dimorphous; at ordinary temperatures it is hexagonal and deep yellow, but at 146° C it changes to a cubic, light yellow form. Like the chloride and bromide, it is partly decomposed by light, but without apparent change of colour as it requires a developer to demonstrate the change. Silver iodide melts at 352° C, and after resolidifying it shows the anomalous behaviour of expansion on cooling. Silver fluoride, AgF, produced by dissolving the oxide in hydrofluoric acid, is soluble in water, the solution possessing an alkaline

reaction; it crystallizes with one molecule of water and is unacted

on by light. Other Compounds.—Silver nitrate, AgNOs, by far the most important compound of silver, is almost always produced by dissolving the metal in somewhat diluted nitric acid and crystallizes on evaporation of the solution as anhydrous, colourless, rhombic plates. Silver nitrate is exceedingly soluble in water, dissolving in less than half its own weight at ordinary temperatures; at

100° C one part of water dissolves more than eleven parts of the nitrate; it is also soluble in alcohol and ether. Silver nitrate

melts silver posed takes

at 209° C and decomposes quantitatively abcve 320° C into nitrite, AgNOs, and oxygen. When pure, it is not decomby light, but in the presence of organic matter blackening place. Either in the solid state or in solution it stains the

skin black, and a dilute solution in ether is sometimes used as a hair-dye. The nitrate cannot be used as the basis of a markingink for linen, since the strong acid liberated when the silver is deposited would corrode the fabric, and hence silver salts of various weak organic acids are used for this purpose. Silver sulphide, AgeS, found native in the minerals silver glance or argentite, is formed by direct union of its elements or by precipitating a silver solution with sulphuretted hydrogen. Silver

683

sufficient to cause violent detonation. It is probably variable in composition as the formulae AgsN and AgNH: have been assigned to it by different observers. Silver fulminate, AgeC2N202, produced by the action of alcohol on a solution of silver nitrate containing free nitric acid, forms a grey crystalline powder. Silver azide, AgNs, the silver salt of hydrazoic acid, HNs, is formed by precipitating a silver solution with a soluble azide or by the interaction of silver nitrate and hydrazine sulphate. It is a white curdy precipitate physically resembling silver chloride. The two last compounds are used as detonators for high explosives. Silver cyanide, AgCN, formed by the addition of a soluble cyanide to a silver solution, is a white curdy precipitate, soluble in excess of alkali cyanide or in ammonia. On ignition it is decomposed into silver, cyanogen and paracyanogen, and can be thus distinguished from the chloride which it resembles in many respects. It is, however, not decomposed on exposure to light. Certain silver salts yield stable co-ordinative compounds with ethylenethiocarbamide (etu), the complex chloride [Ag,3etu]C1 is readily soluble in water, and not affected by light; two complex nitrates are known, one sparingly soluble [Ag2,3etu](NOsz)2, and the other readily soluble [Ag,4etu]NO; (Morgan and Burstall, 1928). Bivalent Silver.—In the foregoing silver salts the metal is İnvariably present in the univalent condition. A co-ordinative compound of bivalent silver has, however, been described by Barbieri, 1912; which has the constitution [Ag, 4Py]S20s, that is argentic persulphate with four molecules of pyridine of crystallization; it is a sparingly soluble, yellow, crystalline substance. Further evidence of the existence of complex derivatives of

bivalent silver is furnished by W. Hieber and F. Mühlbauer (1928), who employ the organic diamine, o-phenanthroline (pha), in preparing the brown persulphate, [Ag, apha]S.0s, and also the perchlorate, chlorate, nitrate and acid sulphate, [Ag, 2pha] Xe, where X=CLO., CLO3, NOs or HSQs. Medicinal Use—Two compounds of silver are in the British Pharmacopoeia: (1) Argenti nitras (U.S.A. and British Pharmacopoeia), lunar caustic, incompatible with alkalis, chlorides, acids (except nitric and acetic), potassium iodide and arsenical solutions. From the nitrate are made (a) argenti nitras indurata, toughened caustic, containing 19 parts of silver nitrate and one of potassium nitrate fused together into cylindrical rods; (5) argenti nitras mitigatus, mitigated caustic, in which one part of silver nitrate and two parts of potassium nitrate are fused together into rods or cones. (2) Argenti oxidum, incompatible with chlorides, organic substances, phenol, creosote, etc., with which it forms explosive compounds. Therapeutics —Externally the nitrate has a limited caustic action, destroying the superficial tissues and separating the part acted on as a slough. It may be employed to destroy warts or be small growths and to reduce exuberant granulations, or it may a, ophthalmi of forms various and lids applied to bites. In granular solutions of silver nitrate (2 gr. to x fl.oz.) are employed. A 1% solution is also used as a prophylactic for ophthalmia neonatorum.

The effect of the nitrate being both astringent and stimulating as well as bactericidal, solutions of it are used to paint indolent are ulcers, and in chronic pharyngitis or laryngitis. Silver salts ea; gonorrho chronic and e sub-acut in injection an as most useful one uses either the nitrate (1-5% solution) or protargol (1% solution), which is a proteid compound containing 8% of silver; sulphate, AgeSO., is produced by dissolving the metal inoff;hotit they also benefit in leucorrhoea. In pruritus of the vulva and concentrated sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide being given. a weak solution of silver nitrate will relieve the itching, and anus, silver a to can also be produced by adding strong sulphuric acid will in strong solutions painted round the base of an incipient boil solution. It is a white crystalline substance sparingly soluble n. its formatio abort SQu. water, but dissolving in ammonia to give 2NH3,Age Internally the nitrate has been used in the treatment of gastric, Silver selenide, Ag,Se, occurs in nature in the double selenides in chronic tel- ulcer, in ulcerated condition of the intestine, and naumannite, PbSeAg.Se, and eukairite, Cu,SeAg2Se. Silver either given in be must it ns conditio l intestina For y. dysenter silver, luride, AgeTe, occurs in the mineral hessite. Fulminating the rectum. The ex- a keratin-coated pill or injected high up into of silver which must not be confused with silver fulminate, is a black, Nitrate chorea. and et in 1788 oxide has been given in epilepsy on to objecti the ceedingly explosive powder, first obtained by Bertholl and slowly very system the from ted elimina ig When dry it the in ed ‘deposit by the action of strong ammonia upon silver oxide. is silver that is drug a as feather is its continuous use is exceedingly unstable, as merely touching it with a

SILVER

684.

tissues causing argyria or chronic silver poisoning, of which the

METALLIFEROUS.

i

a of Silver from Ores—The treatment of silver the most prominent symptom is the dark slate-blue colour of ores was for centuries chiefly by amalgamation (g.v.) but lixivialips, cheeks, gums and later of the skin. Taken in large doses, tion processes, in which the silver is dissolved and the solutions nitrate of silver is a powerful poison, causing viclent abdominal washed out of the ore, were introduced in the middle of the roth pain, vomiting and diarrhoea, with the development of gastroof these procenteritis.

In some cases nervous symptoms and delirium super-

vene. The treatment consists in the use of solutions of common salt, followed by copious draughts of milk or white of egg and

water, or soap in water, in order to dilute the poison and thus to

protect the mucous membranes of the oesophagus =

a

AND

PRO-

SILVER:

METALLURGY,

MINING

DUCTION. Silver was discovered later than gold and copper, but has been known to man from prehistoric times. Silver orna-

ments and decorations have been found in the royal tombs of Chaldaea, built in the fourth millenium s.c. It was in use as money probably as early as gold, and it is recorded that Abraham paid Ephron in silver for land bought as a burial place. Silver is

also mentioned as money in a Chaldaean inscription of about 4500

B.C., according to Gowland. In ancient Egypt it was scarce, and in

the IV. and succeeding dynasties it was more valuable than gold, but in the XVIII. dynasty trade with the eastern Mediterranean countries made silver more plentiful and cheaper than gold.

Occurrence and Distribution.—Silver is sometimes found in the metallic state (“native silver”) but unlike gold it ís generally combined with other elements in its ores. Horn-silver, AgCl, and embolite (a chloro-bromide), found in the oxidized portions of lodes near the surface, have been formed by the weathering of more complex compounds. At deeper levels, silver usually occurs as sulphides, arsenides and antimonides (compounds of silver with sulphur, arsenic and antimony respectively). Native silver occurs in dendritic and wire-like forms which are aggregates of minute crystals, usually cubes and octahedra belonging to the cubic system. lt also occurs in thin sheets and sometimes in masses. At Kongsberg in Norway, where the mines have been worked for centuries, large masses of ndtive silver have been found, one of which weighed 697 kilogrammes or nearly three quarters of a ton. Native silver has been found, associated with other silver ores, at Cobalt, Canada, at Broken Hill, N.S.W., and in many localities in the United States, Mexico and South America, occurring for example in the native copper of Lake Superior, but it is not an important source of production of silver. Argentite, AgeS, a soft black sulphide of silver, is one of the commonest ores of silver, but complex sulphides containing antimony and arsenic are algo of frequent occurrence. The most im-

portant of these as sources of silver are Stephanite,

5Ag.S,

SbeSs, iron black in colour; the ruby-silver ores, Pyrargyrite or dark red silver ore, 3Ag2S, SbzS3 and Proustite or light red silver ore, 3Ag2S, AssSs; Dyscrasite or antimonial silver, Ag.Sb, and Polybasite. Grey copper ore or Fahlerz, a complex mineral containing copper, iron, zinc, antimony, arsenic and sulphur, is also an important silver öre of which no two specimens agree ih composition. At Cobalt, Ontario, a large proportion of the ore taken from the mines in 1967 contained thousands of ounces of silver per ton, but such rich ores are unusual, and silver ores containing as much as 4% of silver or t5o oz. pér ton are gerierally regarded as very rich. A large part of the world’s production of silver is, however, not obtained from true silver minerals but from lead, copper and zinc oresin which it is an accidental constituent. These are called argentiferous ores. Galena (lead sulphide), in particular always contains silver, in amounts ranging das a rule from

20 OZ. to 200 oz. per ton, whith is extracted as a by-ptoduct at a trifling cost. One result of the large yield of silver in lead and copper smelting is that its market price has not such a strongly controlling influence on the amount of production as is observable in the statistics of other metals. The amounts of lead’and copper ores smelted and of silver extracted from them depend mainly

on the demand for lead and copper and their market prices and

not on the price of silver. About 14 million oz. of silver are extracted annually from gold bullion and the remainder is from ores obtained by mining in rock, as there is no silver obtained by washing loose alluvial deposits. For the operations of silver min-

In one group

century and passed into wide use.

was esses, much used for a time in the United States, the ore

roasted with common

salt in rotating cylindrical or other fur-

naces in order to convert the silver into chloride of silver which

was then dissolved by various solutions. These solutions had little or no effect on metallic silver or on silver sulphides or complex minerals containing silver. In the Augustin process the silver chloride was dissolved in hot strong brine (common salt). It was

superseded by the Patera process, in which a solution of sodium thiosulphate (commonly called hyposulphite, the “hypo” of photography) was used. In the Kiss process the leaching solution contained calcium thiosulphate and in the Russell process a double

thiosulphate of sodium and copper.

replaced by the cyanide process

These processes have been

(g.v.), in which a preliminary

roasting is not required, or by smelting. Smelting is merely the ordinary smelting of lead ores or copper ores which contain silver, but it is often found to be the more profitable course to add true silver ores to the smelting mixture, instead of treating them separately by the cyanide process. The increased percentage of extraction by smelting compensates for the additional cost, if adequate supplies of lead or copper ore and fuel are at hand. For lead and copper smelting and the extraction of silver from the products, see LEAD, COPPER.

Refining.—Crude silver, produced by the cyanide process, or separated from lead by cupellation, or from copper or gold by electrolysis, contains small amounts of copper, gold, bismuth, lead, and other metals. When it contains a few parts of gold per thousand it is called “doré silver.” Doré silver was formerly refined by boiling in sulphuric acid (see Gotp Minrtnc AnD METALLURGY) but more recently most of it has been treated by electrolysis. Both the Moebius and Balbach processes are used. Besides doré silver, scrap and résidues of all kinds containing gold up to about one third of the total weight may be treated by electrolysis. In the Moebius process the silver is cast into plates about 18in. long, roin. wide and 4in. thick. Each plate is enclosed in a linen or cotton bag and a number of them are suspended in a parallel series in earthenware or porcelain vats. The plates form the anodes of an electric circuit and are supported by hooks from rods connected at one end with the positive pole of adynamo. Cathode plates consisting of thin rolled sheets of pure silver are suspended in the vats alternately with the anodes, parallel to them and about din. distant. The eléctrolyte filling the vats consists of a solution containing 4-1% of silver nitrate and 1~2% of nitric acid. A current of electricity is passed from the anodes to the cathodes through the liquid, which is kept stirred. The silver, copper and some other metals are dissolved from the anodes, and pure silver is deposited on the cathodes in pulverulent and non-coherent form. The cathodes are continually cleaned by wooden scrapers moving

backwards and forwards automatically and by this means are kept free from loose crystals of silver. If left undisturbed the crystals form trees which may stretch from cathode to anode and cause short circuits.

The detached silver falls into canvas trays

at the bottom of the tanks. In later practice glue or gelatine is added to the solution and the stirring is more vigorous, with the result that hard, compact, adherent deposits of silver are fotmed on the cathodes. In one form of apparatus there are rotating cylindrical cathodes, surrounded by anodes, in order to enable

stronger currents to be used with more expeditious deposition. The copper accumulates in the solution as copper nitrate and, to prevent it from being deposited on the cathodes with the silver, more nitric acid is added and the current is reduced. When the amount of copper in the liquid reaches about 5%, part of the solution is withdrawn and replated by fresh solution of silver nitrate; otherwise copper would be deposited on the cathodes. The deposited silver is removed, washed, melted and cast into ingots which should contain over 99-9% of pure metal. The slime in the anode bags consists in great part of gold which remains undis-

685

SILVER solved.

In the Balbach cell, the whole bottom surface of an|

1915

parthenware trough is the cathode which may consist of carbon. | 1916 7977 itahsand are supported on} Thef anodesd are placed horizontally above i 1918 perforated earthenware trays or a grill consisting of wooden rods. The trays are covered with a filter cloth to prevent the anode

slime from falling through and settling on the cathode,

Alloys of Silver.—The addition of a small percentage of copper to silver lowers its melting point, prevents it from “sprouting” on solidification, and makes it harder, without sensibly impairing its malleability, altering its colour, or preventing it from taking a high polish; thus, silver-copper alloys are used for silver coin and plate. A little cadmium is often added to them to facilitate the manufacture of wares, and other metals such as antimony have been added to produce alloys which will not tarnish. The

‘colour of silver-copper alloys remains nearly white until the copper amounts to about 45% the copper is increased copper alloys, like pure from the formation of

to 50% when the alloy is pale red and as further the colour becomes deeper. Silversilver, blacken in the atmosphere of towns, a film of sulphide of silver. They blacken also when heated to redness but the black oxide of copper thus formed can be removed from their surface by warm dilute sulphuric acid. Silver alloys with molten lead with great readiness and in all proportions, but if the melted alloy is cooled, pure lead crystallizes out and sinks in the liquid which becomes enriched until it contains 2-5% of silver, when the alloy solidifies as a whole, These properties are used in the Pattinson process (see

Leap).

Zinc removes silver from molten lead, forming a zinc-

silver compound which is lighter than lead and floats to the top with the dross and surplus zinc so that it can be skimmed off, as in Parke’s process of desilverizing lead, (See Leap.) Silver is at once “wetted” by mercury when brought into con-

tact with it at the ordinary temperature (see AMALGAMATION)

but the interpenetration of the metals is exceedingly slow and a

true solid amalgam is difficult to form, The crystalline amalgam containing 35% of silver and 65% of mercury is produced in the beautiful branching form known as Arbor Dianae by prolonged

contact between mercury and a solution of silver and mercury

nitrates. The other alloys of silver are of no industrial importance. Production.-The most ancient silver mines of importance known to history were those in Asia Minor and on islands in the Aegean Sea. The deposits of silver-lead ore at Hissarlik in the

Troad were worked probably as early as 2500 B.¢. and lasted for many centuries, and the Greek mines at Laurium, also of silverlead, were known in 1090 B.c. The Romans obtained most of their silver from Spain, but in the middle ages the supplies which had previously been plentiful became scarce, as production was small and the stocks gradually disappeared. The scarcity came to an

end with the discovery of America, which has given the rest of the

world a large and ever increasing supply of silver, The following estimates of production are those given in the Annual Reports of

the Director of the United States Mint. The statistics for the

period 1493-18853 were compiled by Dr. Adolf Soetbeer, and from 1886 onward the estimates were made by the United States Mint.

Between 1493 and 1520 the average annual production of

the world was 1,511,000 oz, troy of fine silver, The output then

rose until in 1545-60 the annual average was 10,018,000 02., but

a lull follewed up to about the year 1700, during which preduyction

was almost stationary. In the period 1791-10 the average was 11,432,500 0%. per annum and the production then rose gradually until in 1801-10 it was 28,747,000 oz. per annum. The Wars of

Independence of the Spanish colonies of America disorganized the mining industry, and production fell so that in 1821-39 the avercon: age was only 14,807,000 02. Thereafter the rise was almost tinuous yntil in 1900 it was 173,591,000 OZ.

The annual production of the world from mines singe rgo1 1s

given below in units of 1,000 oz, fine, I73,0II

IQOL

1902.

164,195

F¥9II

+

167,489

>:

1905

.

.

172,318

. 1906 1907,

;

910

1909

>

>-

221,750

162,763

1904

1903

203,131

165,054 184,207

232,149 226,193

230,904.

I912

1013 IQI4

. .

.

à

210,013 172,264

192%

171,286

179,850 174,420

1925 1926

280,802 1922 1923 186,125 1924 203,159

1919. 1920.

200,815 diate aa 239,485

245,214 253,587

About two-thirds of the world’s supply is derived from Mexico and the United States. The Mexican mines first sent supplies to Europe in the 16th century and during the years 1781-1300 yielded two-thirds of the world’s production. After a period of less activity owing to civil war, Mexico was again the leading producer in 1924-27. The United States became a large producer about 1860, and was first among the countries during most of the next 40 years. Its production was 116,019 oz. in 1860; 1,546,920 oz. in 1861; 22,254,002 oz. in 1872 and 54,647,000 oz. in 1900, but the production is no longer increasing. Canada produced little until late in the 19th century, but South America has sent supplies to Europe since the discovery of the Potosi mines in Peru in 1533. In Europe, Germany and Spain are the most important producers. The German mines were worked in the roth century and at the beginning of the 16th century the production was over 400,000 02. annually. In 1905 the output was 12,535,238 oz. but declined later. In Spain the mines were neglected in the 16th century owing to the plentiful supplies from America, but production was revived in the roth century. The output in Asia is chiefly from India and Japan. Australia became noticeable after the discoyeries at Broken Hill, New South Wales, where 36,608 oz. were produced in 1885 and 7,727,877 oz. in 1890, The silver in Africa . is mainly derived from the gold bullion of the Transvaal. The production by countries is given in the Report of the director of the United States Mint for 1927 as follows, in units of 1,000 oz. fine. UNITED STATES . CANADA . ... MEXICO... CENTRAL AMERICA

. . ...

1925

1926

66,107 20,229 92,885

62,673 22,372 98,291

Zea

3:499

30,343 (9,927)

30,340 (21,500)

33) . € . 12,337

42) ( 12,518

WEST INDIES

.

SOUTH AMERICA . . PERU .

BOLIVIA . CHEE. . EUROPE . . GERMANY . SPAIN o

«ee

. . .

. . . -¢ , à&a Se.

ee

« « y

n

GREAT BRITAIN ASIA .

INDIA JAPAN .

: g

ys

p

AFRICA TOTAL

«+ € 4,347) « ¢ & 3,202) 11,064 . ( 4,780) . ( 3,394)

( 5,834) ( 2,877) 11,499 ( 5:359) ( 3,090)

. (4,855) (4:833)

(3,325) € 4,776)

10,841 . ( 9,220)

. .

. . AUSTRALIA NEW SOUTH WALES

FOR THE WORL

.

II,200 ( 9,710)

. 1419

1292

. 24514

253:587

The silver produced in the world is in great part exported to India and China. The net amounts sent to these countries, taken together, averaged about 87,000,000 oz. per annum in the years 1910724 according to the figures published by the London dealers in bullion. Phe Report of the Director of the United States Mint gives the following figures of coinages and consumption in the

industries for the world. SILVER COINAGE COINS WITHDRAWN

.

e .

N a

t

NET COINAGE Be

1925

1926

oz. fine

ez. fine

. 188,306,976 - 84,737,192

148,035,068 43,827,862

. 303,568,884

104,227,206

39,827,000

39,498,090

ean ea

e EAST

ee

FRANCE

.

`

:

-

-

.

i

;

>

GREAT BRITAIN .

1908

173,000

OTHER COUNTRIES (incomplete)

TOTAL

:

;

?

:

10,750,000

8,500,000

10,224,000

8,000,000

8,513,000

6,7QI,000

67,590,000

64,333,000

Earlier Times” BIBLIOGRAPHY .—W. Gowland, “Silver in Roman and t for archaeaccoun e complet a is (1978), 121 p. Archaeologia, vol. 69, Silver and Gold (1880), contains a full descrip-

elogists; John Percy;

686 SILVER-BERRY—SILVERSMITHS’ tion of the ores of silver; C. A. Stetefeldt, Lixiviation of Silver Ores

(1890) is a technical work; W. Gowland, Metallurgy of the Na Ee

rous Metals (1914) contains a technical account of the metallurgy O silver; see also Annual Reports of the Director of the Mint (Washington, 1880, foll); and B. White, Silver: Its History a ERS (1917), a popular treatise.

SILVER-BERRY (Elaeagnus argentea), a North American

AND

GOLDSMITHS’

WORK

aborate diadems or pectorals, six bracelets, 60 earrings oe and nearly 9,000 beads. The Trojan vases have bold and simple forms, mostly without ornament, but some are lightly fluted. Many are wrought from single sheets of metal. The characteristic handle is a heavy rolled loop soldered or rivetted to the ee

body.

Some silver flasks with inverted cup-covers have small

shrub of the oleaster family (Elaeagnaceae), found from Quebec shoulder-studs pierced vertically for hanging. Bases are someto Hudson bay and British Columbia, south to Minnesota and times round or pointed, sometimes fitted with separate collars, Utah. It grows from 6 to 12 ft. high, with silvery-scurfy leaves but more often slightly cupped to make a low ring-foot. An odd and numerous fragrant flowers, pale yellow within and silvery shape in gold is an oval bowl or cup with a broad lip at each end without, borne in the leaf-axils, and round-ovoid, olive-like silvery and two large roll-handles in the middle. The oval body has fruit, with a mealy edible fleshy portion enclosing a grooved nut. Sumerian affinities, and it seems likely that Trojan arts at this SILVER CITY, a town of south-western New Mexico, U.S.A., time were Asiatic rather than European. Asiatic influence had inin the foothills of the Mogollon mountains, at an altitude of 6,000 deed invaded Europe, for the oval shape occurs in the contempoft.; the county seat of Grant county. It is on Federal highway rary pottery of the Greek mainland and islands (Helladic and 180 and the Santa Fe railway. Pop. (1930) 3,519. It is ina metal- Cycladic). A plain spouted bowl of usual eatly Helladic shape in mining (copper, iron and manganese) and stock-raising region the Louvre is the typical specimen of goldsmith’s work from preand a health resort, the gateway to the Gila National Forest. Mycenaean Greece, and the scarcity of precious metals points to Silver City was founded in 1870 on the discovery of rich deposits Jack of wealth as prime cause of the artistic backwardness of of silver ore that could be reduced in a mud furnace and had a these regions. Silver seems to have been more plentiful in the wild boom period. It was the first town incorporated in New Cyclades, but only a few simple vessels, head-bands, pins and Mexico (1878). rings survive. Conditions were different in Crete.

SILVERFISH, a small active wingless insect, so called from

the silvery glitter of the scales covering the body. It is less than half an inch long and is found in damp corners or amongst books and papers in houses. Although accredited with destroying paper and linen, it probably feeds only on farinaceous or saccharine substances. Scientifically it is Lepisma saccharina and belongs to the order Thysanura, sub-class Apterygota (g.v.). |

SILVERIUS, pope from June 536 to March 537, successor

of Pope Agapetus I., was a legitimate son of Pope Hormisdas, born before his father entered the priesthood. He was consecrated on June 8, 536, having purchased his elevation from the

Gothic king Theodotus. Six months afterwards (Dec. 9) he was

one of those who admitted Belisarius into the city. He opposed the restoration of the patriarch Anthimus, whom Agapetu s had deposed, and thus brought upon himself the hatred of Theodor a,

who desired to see Vigilius made pope. He was deposed by Belisarius in March 537 on a charge of treasonable corresp ondence with the Goths, and degraded to the rank of monk. He went to Constantinople, and Justinian, who entertained his complaint, sent him back to Rome, but Vigilius was ultimately able to banish his rival to Pandataria, where the rest of his life was spent.

SILVER-PLATED

WARE:

see ELECTRO-PLATE

MANUFACTURES. SILVERSMITHS’ AND GOLDSMITHS’ WORK. Personal ornaments, utensils, vases, decorative objects, etc., made of silver or gold, with their various alloys, are generally known as silversmiths’ and goldsmiths’ work. The article that follows is treated historically under the following divisions: Egyptian to Roman, with Jewellery included in a Separa te North and South America » Oriental Work. section; European; (See also EGYPT; ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY; INDIAN AND SINHALESE ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY; RomAN ART; BYZANTINE Art; Bronze; Iron IN ArT; DRINKING VESSELS; JEWELLERY.) EGYPTIAN TO ROMAN

Gold, silver and their natural or artificial mixture called electrum or white gold, were worked in ancient

Minoan and Mycenaean.—A profusion of gold jewellery was found in early Minoan burials at Mochlos, three silver daggerblades come from a communal tomb at Kumasa, and silver seals and ornaments of the same age are not uncommon. An elegant silver cup from Gournia belongs to the next epoch (Middle Minoan I., ¢. 2000 B.c.); it is unique, but numerous imitations of its cusped and carinated form in clay, and of its metallic sheen in glazed and painted decoration, prove that such vessels were common. Minoan plate and jewellery are amply represented in the wealth of the mainland tombs at Mycenae and Vaphio. The vases from Mycenae are made indifferently of silver, gold and bronze; but gold is generally reserved for drinking-cups, small phials and boxes; silver is used for jugs as well. Much of the funeral furniture is gold, notably the masks that hid the faces or adorned coffins of the dead. It has been thought that the small gold the discs, which Schliemann found in prodigious quantities (700 in one grave), were nailed on wooden coffins, but they may have been sewn on clothes.’ They are impressed with geometrical designs based on circular and spiral figures, stars and rosettes and natural forms such as leaves, butterflies and octopods. Smaller bossed discs bearing similar patterns may be button-covers. Models of shrines and other amulets are also made of gold. A splendid

piece of plate is a silver counterpart of the black steatite

libation-vase from Knossos in the form of a bull’s head, with gold horns, a gold rosette on. the forehead, gold-plated muzzle, ears and eyes. The gold here and in other Mycenae an plating is not laid on the silver, but on inserted copper strips. cups from Mycenae are of two main types: plain The gold curved or carinated forms related to the silverware and pottery of Troy, and embossed conical vessels of the Minoan tradition. plain pieces have handles ending in animals’ heads,Some of the the rim or peer into the cup. The embossed ornament which bite vertical and horizontal bands of rosettes and spiral consists of coils, floral, foliate, marine and animal figures. The designs are beaten through the walls and are consequently visible on the' insidés of the vessels; but the finest examples of their class, the two gold cups from the Vaphio tomb near Sparta, have a plain gold lining which overlaps the embossed sides at the lip. The reliefs

on the Vaphio cups represent men handling wild and domestic trees in a rocky landscape. The handles show ated cattle among form: two horizontal plates rivetted to the the typical Minoan body at one end and joined at the other by a vertical cylinder. Steatite vases carved with similar pictorial reliefs were evidently made to imitate em-

in Lydia, whose golden sands supplied Croesus. Aegean lands were rich in preci the fabulous wealth of erable deposits of treasure found in the ous metals. The consid- bossed gold. A fragment found at’ Palaikastro had part of its earliest prehistoric strata original plating on the site attached.

of Troy are generally assigned to the second city; they Cretan and mainland tombs have produ are earlier than the sixth (“Homeric”) ced many examples of city, and are not likely to be weapons later than 2000 B.C. The largest:of them, adorned with gold. Modest ornaments are gold caps on -the so-ca lled Treas ure the rivets joini of Priam » 18 a representative collection of jewels and plate. The cased in gold. ng hilt and blade, but the whole hilt is often gold -ornaments were packed ih a’ large silver An example from Mycenae has a cylindrical ‘cup: They consist openwork gold flowe grip of rs with lapis-lazuli in their

petals and crystal

aba ye


. Fs Art.h. Churc Abexg, -2h¢, AngloBronsted, Early English, Ornament (1924); N, oil yd f, e> (trans. S. Charleston; 1926)... 'The goldsmiths of the famous Achaemenid period in Persia were Saxons in England 437-429 Dp. erk, Kunsthandw und Kunst in Latour, V. the Austria: . in an advanced state of culture, as witness the Oxus treasure of

ORIENTAL WORK ». $

ee

z ‘

i

692

SILVERSMITHS’ AND

pub. by the Kaiserlich-Königlich Österreichisches Museum fiir Kunst

N : 7 und Industrie (1899}. Balkans: Legétura de Evanghelie Incraté de argintarul sas George in the Bule-

Mai (1707); “Arginturile lui Constantin Brancoveanu,”

GOLDSMITHS’

WORK

; im Kunstgewerbe Museum zu Berlin (1907); E. A. Jones, Gaon of the ‘Gutmann Collection acquired by J. Pierpont Morgan (1907), and Catalogue of the Gold and Silver and Limoges Enamels of the Baroness James de Rothschild (1912); R. Graul, Leipziger

des Mittelalters (1908); J. Braun, tinul of the Muzeul de antichitati din Bucuresti (July-Sept. 1914); Gold- und Silberschmiedearbeiten de Vergotischen Zeit Deuischen CRTs

O. Tagrali, Le Trésor byzantin et roumain du Monastère de Pouina (1925). Baltic States: W. Neumann, Grundriss einer Geschichte der bildenden Kunste und des Kunsigewerbes in Livland, Estland, und Kurland vom Ende des 12 bis zum Ausgang des 18 Jahrhunderts (Reval, Leipzig, 1887) ; A. Buchholtz, Goldschmeidearbeiten in Livland, o : Estland und Kurland (Lübeck, 1892). Belgium: L. and F. Crooij, L’Orfévrerte Religzeuse en Belgique

(x911); E. J. Soil de Moriamé, Orfévreries Tournaisiennes du XVIe

et du XVIIIe siècle à l'Exposition de Tournai (1911); G. van Doorslaer, “L'Enseignement de l'Exposition d'Art ancien de Malines en 1911” in Académie d'Archéologie de Belgique, Annales, Ser. 6, vol. 4 1912). i eres O. M. Dalton, Byzantine Art and Archaeology (1911); J. Strzygowski, Altai-Iran und Volkerwanderung (1917); J. Breck and M. R. Rogers, The Pierpont Morgan Wing: a Handbook, publ. by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (1925); H. Peirce f : and R. Tyler, Byzantine Art (1926). Denmark: J. Olrik, Drikkehorn og Sølytø? fra Middelalder og m Renaissance, pub. by the Danske Nationalmuseu (1909), and Danske S¢lvarbejder fra Rena:ssancen til vore Dage (1915) ; B. Olsen, Danske i : Guldsmedes Maerker (1929).

England: R. S. Ferguson, The Old Church Plate in the Diocese of Carlisle: with the makers and marks, pub. by the Cumberland and

Westmorland Antiquarian Soc. (1882); J. E. Nightingale, Diocese of

Salisbury: The Church Plate of the County of Dorset (Salisbury, 1889), and Diocese of Salisbury: The Church Plate of the County of Wilts (Salisbury, 1891); A. Trollope, An Inuentory of the Church Plate of Leicestershire, 2 vols. (Leicester, 1890); C. A. Markham, The Church Plate of the County of Northampton (1894) ; E. H. Freshfield, The Communion Plate of the Churches in the City of London (1894), The Communion Plate of the Parish Churches in the County of London (1895), The Communion Plate of the Parish Churches in

the County of Middlesex (1897), and of Essex (1899): L. Jewett and

W. H. St. John Hope, The Corporation Plate of the Cities of England and Wales (1895); Memorials of the Goldsmiths’ Company (ed. Sir W. Prideaux, 1896); J. S. Gardner, Old Silver Work, chiefly English, from the XVth to the XVIIIth centuries (1903) ; B. L. S. Stanhope and

H. C. Moffatt, The Church Plate of the County of Hereford,... Inventory of Church Goods, ... 1552—1553 (1903); J. T. Evans, The Church Plate of Pembrokeshire (1905), Gloucestershire (1906), Carmarthenshire (1907), Radnorshire (1910), Breconshire (1912), Cardiganshire (1914), Gowerland (1921), and Oxfordshire (1928);

Meisterwerke der unich, 1922; 2nd ed. 1928).

.

,

Tolland: A. Pit, H a goud-en zilverwerk

in het Nederlandsch

Museum voor geschiedenis en kunst te Amsierdam (1907) ; E. Voet, Jr.,

Merken van Amsterdamsche goud-en szilversmedan (1912); C. J. A. Begeer, Inleiding tot de geschiedenis der N ederlandsche edelsmeedkunst

(Utrecht, 1919); N. Ottema, Friesch Zilver (1927); Catalogue , Tentoonstelling van Friesch Zilver (1927). Italy: A Cocchi, Degli antichi reliquiari di Santa Maria del Fiore

e di San Giovanni di Firenze (1903).

,

|

Norway: T. Kielland and H. Gjessing, Gammelt Sglvi Stavanger

Amt. (Stavanger, 1918) ; T. Kielland, Soetryk av Norsk Kunsthistorie, and Norsk Guldsmedkunst i Middelalderen (1927).

Poland:

Designs

for goldsmiths’

work

by Erasmus

Kamyn

of

Poznan (Posen, 1592) ; and A. Przezdziecki and E. Rastawiecki’s book on silver work in Poland. Portugal: L. Costa, As Contrastarias em Portugal (1927). Russia: N. P. Kondakov, The Russian Icom (trans, E. H. Minns, 1927) ; Illustrated Catalogue of an Exhibition of Russian Ecclesiastical Art at Moscow, 1913; and Filimonov’s catalogues, _ Spain: L. Wiliams, Arts and Crafts of Older Spain (1907); R. R. de Arellano, Estudio sobre la historia de la orfebreria toledano (1915) ; F. G. Sanchez Canton, Los Arfes Escultores de Plata y Oro, r5o1— 1603 (1920); P. M. de Artifiano, Catalogo de la Exposicion de Orfebreria Civil Espanolo (1927). See also Burlington Magazine, Monograph on Spanish Art (1927). i , Sweden: G. Upmark, Guld-och Silversmeder i Sverige, 1520-1850 (1925); E. Wettergren, The Modern Decorative Arts of Sweden 1928). : Switzerland: E. A. Jones, Old Silver, European and American (1928).

North and South America; Mexico: M. H. Saville, The Goldsmith's

Art in Ancient Mexico (1920); M. Romero de Terreros y Vinent, Marques de San Francisco, Las Artes Industriales en la Nueva España (Mexico, 1923). Peru: W. Lehmann and H. Doering, The Art of Old Peru, pub. by the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Berlin (1924). United States: J. H. Buck, Old Plate, its makers and marks (1903); Boston Museum, American Silver (1906) and American Church Silver (1911) ; Catalogue of an Exhibition of Silver, Metropolitan Museum, New York (1911); G. M. Curtis, Early Silver of Connecticut (1913) ; E. A. Jones, The Old Silver of the American Churches (1913); H

E. A. Jones, Tke Church Plate of the Diocese of Bangor (1905), French, List of Early American Silversmiths and their Marks (1917) ; The Oid Church Plate of the Isle of Man (1907), The old Silver F. H. Bigelow, Historic Silver of the XVII, and XVIII, centuries; the Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England (1907), Clearwater Collection (1920); M. Brix, List of Philadelphia SilverOld English Gold Plate (1907), Catalogue of the Collection of the smiths and Allied Artificers, 1682—1850 (1920); S. G. C. Ensko, AmerOld Plate of Leopold de Rothschild (1907), Illustrated Catalogue of icam Silversmiths and their Marks (1927). the Collection of J. Pierpont Morgan (1908), The Old Royal Plate in Oriental: G. C. M. Birdwood, Industrial Art of India, 2 vols. the Tower of London (1908), The Old English Plate of the Emperor (1880); H. L. Tilly, The Silver Work af Burma (1902); P. Eudel, of Russia (1909), and The Old Plate of the Cambridge Colleges (1910) ; L’Orfèvrerie Algérienne et tunisienne (Algiers, 1902); A. P. Charles, T. S. Ball, Chester Church Plate (1907); C. J. Jackson, Illustrated Gold and Silver Ware of the United Provinces (1905) ; O. M. Dalton, History of English Plate (1911), and English Goldsmiths and their The Treasure of the Oxus, with other examples of Oriental Metal work Marks (and ed. rev. and enlarged, 1921); T. M. Fallow, Yorkshire (1905, 2nd ed. 1926); A. K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Sinhalese Art

Church Plate (completed and ed. by H. B. McCall, Huddersfield, 1912); Victoria and Albert Museum, Catalogue of English Goldsmiths’ work (1920); H. H. Mulliner, The Decorative Arts in England (1924); E. A. Jones, Catalogue of the William F. Farrer Collection (1924); W. W. Watts, Old English Silver (1924); J. B. Carrington and G, R. Hughes, Plate of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths (1926); W. J. Cripps, Old „English Plate (rth ed., 1926); J. P. de Castro, The Law and Practice of Hall-Marking Gold and

Silver Wares (1926) ; N. Gask, Old Silver Spoons of England (1926) ; W. J. Pressey, G. H. Benton and F. W. Galpin, The Church Plate of

the County of Essex (1926); J. W. and M. I. Walker, The Church

Plate of Berkshire (1927); C. G. Rupert, Apostle Spoons (1929). France: P. Germain, Eléments d’Orfevrerie (1748, reprinted 1888); W. J. Cripps, Old French Plate (1880, 3rd ed. 1920); P. Eudel, 60

Planches @’Orféureries (1884); C. G. Bapst, Études sur VOrfèvreries françaises au XVIIIe siècle (1887)

and L'’Orfèvreries françaises à la

cour de Portugal au XVIIe siècle (1892); H. Bouilhet, L’Orfévrerie frangaise aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles, 3 vols. (1908-12); Catalogue of the Exhibition of French silver at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris (1926); H. Nocq, etc., Orfévrerie Civile francaise (1927) and

Le Poingon de Paris (in progress).

_Germany; M. Rosenberg, Siebzehn Blatter aus dem grossherzoglich sächsischen Silberschatz in Schlosse su Weimar (1891); Die Kunstkammer im grossherzoglichen Residenzschlosse zu Karlsruhe (1892); Stebzehn Blatter aus dem herzoglichen Anhaltischen Silberschaiz im Schlosse zu Dessau (1895) ; P. Seidel, Der Silber und Goldschatz der Hohenzollern im Königlichen Schlosse zu Berlin (1895); British Museum, Catalogue of the Waddesdon Bequest (1902, 1927) ; B. Olsen, De hamburgske Guldsmede Jakob Mores de oeldres og de yngres Arbejder for de Danske Konger Frederick IT. og Christian IV. (1903) ; E. Hintze, Die breslauer Goldschmiede (1906); J. Lessing, Gold und

(1909) and The Art and Crafts of India (1911) ; H. L, Roth, Oriental

Siver, Malay and Chinése (1910); V. A. Smith, A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon (1911) ; F. Sarre, Die Kunst des alten Persien

(1922) ; see also The Journal of Indian Ari and Industry (1884, etc.). Miscellaneous: Z. Giardini, Promptuarium artis argentariae (100 designs for silversmiths’ work) (Rome, 1750); J. E. Wesseley, Das

Ornament

(1877); C. Pulsky, E. Radisics and E. Molinier, Chefs-

d'oeuvre d'orfèvrerie ayant figuré à Pexposition de Budapest, 2 vols, (1886) ; H. Bouchot, Modèles d'orfèvrerie du XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (roo plates, 1889); P. Jessen, Das Ornament des Rococo und seine

Vorstupen (1894), Der Ornamentstich (1920), Meister des Ornamentstich (1923-24); F, R. Martin, Schwedische Königliche Geschenke an Russische Zaren 1647-1699 (1900); J. Starkie Gardner, Catalogue of the Collection of Silversmiths’ work of European Origin, pub. by the Burlington Fine Arts Club (1901); J. Strzygowski, Koptische Kunst

in Catalogue général des antiquités Egyptiennes du Musée du Caire, Nos, 7oo1~7394 and 8742-9200

(r1gor, etc.); H. Wilson, Silverwork

and Jewelry (1903) ; M. Rosenberg, Geschichte der Goldschmiedekunst auf technischer Grundlage, (i) Niello (Frankfurt am Main, 1907, 2nd

enlarged ed., 1910, etc.); (ii) Aushdngebogen (1908), also Jamnitzer

alle erhaltenen goldschmiedearbeiten verlorene Werke, Handzeichnungen (1920), and Der Goldschmiede Merkzeichen (1922-28); N. Dawson, Goldsmiths’ and Silversmiths’ Work (1908); È. A. Jones, The Gold and Silver of Windsor Castle (Letchworth, 1911); British Museum, Guide to the Early Christian and Byzantine Antiquities (1921), and

Guide

to Mediaeval

Antiquities

(1924);

Victoria

and

Albert Museum, Catalogue of Chalices (1922); A. O. Curle, The Treasure of Traprain: a Scottish Hoard of Roman Silver Plate (1923) ; O. M. Dalton, East Christian Art (1925) ; A. Bisen, The Great Chalice of Antioch (1926); E. A. Jones, Old Silver, European. and American

(1928).

(B.A. J.

Prate VI

SILVERSMITHS’ AND GOLDSMITHS’ WORK

BY COURTESY CUZNER

OF

(1)

HIS

MAJESTY

KING

GEORGE

THE

FIFTH,

f (2,

6)

LEBOLT

EXAMPLES 1 2. 3, 4,

AND

COMPANY,

pitcher

4)

GEORGE

C.

OF SILVERSMITHS’

made by Paul Storr Silver-gilt cup designed by John Flaxman, 1812 and measure and tray glasses, six shaker, of set Modern cocktail adaption Sterling silver Guild cup, English and continental teapot, sugar bowl American early an of silver sterling in Reproduction and cream

(3,

GEBELEIN,

(5)

THE

GORHAM

MANUFACTURING

COMPANY,

(7)

BERNARDO

WORK

5. Silver service of modern

design ornamented with ivory or lapis-fazull

balls

6. Hand chased tea service chased decorations and fibre 7J. Hot water jug and coffee pot of silver with handles and knobs

PLATE

SMITHS’ WORK SILVERSMITHS’ AND GOLD

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BY COURTESY

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WORKSHOPS,

LTD.

CONTEMPORARY

DESIGNS

IN SILVER dish.

. A pitcher and two cups by Georg Jensen

2o

Teapot, Teapot

candelabrum,

ladle

and jar,

MAN OBIAn OM INy.JRUS Sheena

the work of Georg 9 Jensen

3. Left: Brass biscuit box with silver-plated interior. Right: Biscuit box in gilding metal, with silver-plated

interior.

Centre:

Copper fruit

AND

OTHER

METALS

Group designed and made by Gordon

Russell, Broadway, Wor-

casters 4. Silver vase with ornamental lid, designed by Prof. Kai Gottlob and made by Evald Neilsen, Copenhagen

5. Silver bonbonniéres made by A. Michelsen (Danish)

SILVERSMITHS’ AND GOLDSMITHS’ WORK

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

GORHAM

MANUFACTURING

PLATE VIII

COMPANY

PROCESSES

IN WORKING

is l. Heating and alloying the silver in an American plant. The silver placed in a crucible, mixed with other metals in the proper pro-

portions, and melted in the furnace 2. Shaping a sheet of sterling silver. The design to be worked silver tray is seen on the wall in the background

into the

SILVER

AND

GOLD

on a teapot pre3. Skilled worker in silverware plant drawing the design paratory to working beak 4, Silver chaser using the snarling iron. A snarling iron has a long holdand is used In making raised work on silverware. The worker is with ing one end of the snarling iron in a vise and striking the shank inside a hammer. It makes its impression on the rebound from the

SILVERSMITHS’

Prate IX

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

GORHAM

MANUFACTURING

AND

workman

engraving

WORK

COMPANY

DIFFERENT 1. Skilled

GOLDSMITHS’

with a graver elaborate

PROCESSES

design on a silver

tray. 2. Soldering the top on a silver candlestick. 3. Erik Magnussen, noted European designer now devoting himself to development of artcrafts in America, hand-chasing a sterling silver vase. A new and modern motif

OF

SILVER

WORK

is expressed in his work.

4. Stamping the Hall Mark on a finished piece of

silverware. The Hall Mark is used to identify the maker of the piece and the date, and to attest to the purity of the silver

SILVER-TREE—SILVESTER SILVER-TREE

(Leucodendron argenteum), a South Afri-

can tree, the leaves of which are covered with fine silky hairs, and are used for painting on. The tree has been nearly exterminated. There are about 70 species of the genus Leucodendron (family Proteaceae) all South African.

SILVESTER I., pope, bishop of Rome from Jan. 314 to Dec. 335, succeeded Melchiades and was followed by Marcus. The story of his having baptized Constantine is pure fiction, as almost contemporary evidence shows the emperor to have received this rite near Nicomedia at the hands of Eusebius, bishop of that city. The so-called Donation of Constantine (q.v.) was long ago

and the bishop Cesena; flinging offence against abbey; granting

I.

693

of Hildesheim; besieging the revolted town of the count of Angouléme into prison fc: an a bishop; confirming the privileges of Fulda charters to bishoprics far away on the Spanish

mark; and, on the eastern borders of the empire, erecting Prague as the seat of an archbishopric for the Slavs. The genuineness of

the letter to St. Stephen, king of Hungary, to whom he sent a golden crown, and whose kingdom he accepted as a fief of the Holy See, is contested. Gerbert’s dreams for the advancement of church and empire were cut short by the death of Otto III., on

Feb. 4, 1002, followed a year later by the death of the pope himself, May 12, 1003. He was buried in the church of St. John Lateran. Besides being the most distinguished statesman, Gerbert was also the most accomplished scholar of his age. His pupil Richer century. SILVESTER II. (Gerbert), pope from 9099 till 1003, famous has left us a detailed account of his system of teaching at Reims. under his original name of Gerbert, first as a teacher and after- So far as the trivium is concerned, his text-books were Victorinus’s wards as archbishop successively of Reims and Ravenna, was translation of Porphyry’s Jsagoge, Aristotle’s Categories, and an Aquitanian by birth, and was educated at the abbey of St. Cicero’s Topics with Manlius’s Commentaries. From. dialectics Gerold in Aurillac. Here he seems to have had Gerald for his he urged his pupils to the study of rhetoric; but, recognizing the abbot and Raymond for his instructor, both of whom were necessity of a large vocabulary, he accustomed them to read among the most trusted correspondents of his later life. He Virgil, Statius, Terence, Juvenal, Horace, Persius and Lucan. visited Rome about 971 in company with his two patrons Count More remarkable still were his methods of teaching the quadBorel of Barcelona and Bishop Otho of Ausona. When brought rivium. To assist his lectures on astronomy he constructed elabobefore the emperor Otto I., Gerbert admitted his skill in all rate globes of the terrestrial and celestial spheres, on ‘which branches of the quadrivium, but lamented his comparative igno- the course of the planets was marked; for facilitating arithmetical rance of logic. He went to continue his studies under Adalbero at and perhaps geometrical processes he constructed an abacus with Reims, where he seems to have studied and lectured for many 27 divisions and a thousand counters of horn. A younger conyears, having amongst his pupils Robert, afterwards king of temporary speaks of his having made a wonderful clock or sunFrance, and Richer. Gerbert’s fame spread over Gaul, Germany dial at Magdeburg; and we know from his letters that Gerbert was and Italy, till it roused the envy of Otric of Saxony (Octricus of accustomed to exchange his globes for mss. of those classical Magdeburg), who, suspecting that Gerbert erred in his classi- authors that his own library did not contain. More extraordinary fication of the sciences, sent one of his own pupils to Reims as still was his knowledge of music—an accomplishment which seems a spy, and then accused Gerbert of his error before Otto II. The to have been his earliest recommendation to Otto I. Gerbert’s emperor commanded the two scholars to appear before him letters contain more than one allusion to organs which he seems to at Ravenna, about Christmas 980, and the disputation lasted, have constructed, and William of Malmesbury has preserved an we are told, a whole day. Otto II. appears to have given Gerbert account of a wonderful musical instrument still to be seen in his the abbey of Bobbio, but the abbot found diffculty in collect- days at Reims. The same historian tells us that Gerbert borrowed shown to be spurious, but the document is of very considerable antiquity. It was certainly known to Pope Adrian in 778, and was inserted in the false decretals towards the middle of the next

ing his dues, and returned to Reims as secretary to Adalbero. According to M. Olleris’s arrangement of Gerbert’s letters, he was at Mantua and Rome in 985. The archbishop died on Jan. 23, 989, having, according to his secretary’s account, designated Gerbert his successor. But the influence of the empress Theophana, mother of Otto III., secured the appointment for Arnulf, a bastard son of Lothair. The new prelate took the oath of fealty to Hugh Capet and persuaded Gerbert to remain with him. When Charles of Lorraine, Arnulf’s uncle, and the son of Louis IV. D’Outremer, surprised Reims in the autumn of the same year,

from the Arabs (Saraceni) the abacus with ciphers. (See NuMERALS.) Perhaps Gerbert’s chief claim to the remembrance of posterity is to be found in the care and expense with which he

gathered together mss. of the classical writers. His love for literature was a passion. In the turmoil of his later life he looked back with regret to his student days, and “for all his troubles

philosophy was his only cure.” Everywhere—at Rome, at Treves, at Moutier-en-Der, at Gerona in Spain, at Barcelona—he had friends or agents to procure him copies of the great Latin writers for Bobbio or Reims. To the abbot of Tours he writes that he is

Gerbert fell into his hands and for a time continued to serve “labouring assiduously to form a library,” and “throughout Italy, Arnulf, who had gone over to his uncle’s side. He had, however, Germany and Lorraine (Belgica) is spending vast sums of money returned to his allegiance to the house of Capet before the fall of in the acquisition of mss.” It is noteworthy, however, that GerLaon placed both Arnulf and Charles at the mercy of the French bert never writes for a copy of one of the Christian fathers, his king (March 991). Then followed the council of St. Basle, near aim being, seemingly, to preserve the fragments of a fast-perishReims, at which Arnulf confessed his treason and was degraded ing secular Latin literature. So remarkable a character as that of Gerbert left its mark on from his office (June 17, 991). In return for his services Gerthe age, and fables soon began to cluster round his name. See bert was elected to succeed the deposed bishop. The episcopate of the new metropolitan was marked by a Faust. Towards the end of the 11th century Cardinal Benno, vigour and activity that were felt as far as Tours, Orleans and the opponent of Hildebrand, is said to have made him the first Paris. Meanwhile the friends of Arnulf were active in his behalf, of a long line of magician popes. William of Malmesbury adds a and he is said to have been reinstated after the accession of love adventure at Cordova, a compact with the devil, the story of a speaking statue that foretold Gerbert’s death at Jerusalem—a Gregory V. In any case Gerbert seems to have left France prophecy fulfilled, somewhat as in the case of Henry IV. of Engtowards the end of 995, as he was present at Otto ITI.’s coronation at Rome on May 21, 996. Somewhat later he became Otto’s in- land, by his dying in the Jerusalem church of Rome—and that structor in atithmetic, and had been appointed archbishop of imaginative story of the statue with the legend “Strike here,” found its way into the Gesta Romanorum. Ravenna before May 998. Early in the next year he was elected Gerbert’s extant works may be divided into five classes. (a) A col-

pope (April 999), and took the title of Silvester II. Gerbert is generally credited with having fostered the splendid vision of a restored empire that now began to fill Otto’s imagination. Nor did Silvester II. confine himself to plans on a large scale. He is also found confirming his old rival Arnulf in the see of Reims; summoning Adalbero or Azelmus of Laon to Rome to answer for his crimes; judging between the archbishop of Mainz

lection of letters, some 230 in number, contained for the most part in

an rrth-century ms. at Leiden. Other important mss. are those of the

Barberini Library at Rome (late 16th century), of Middlehill (x7th

century), and of St. Peter’s abbey, Salzburg. With the letters may be

grouped the papal decrees of Gerbert when Silvester II. (6) The Acta

concilii Remensis ad Sanctum Basolum, a detailed account of the proceedings and discourses at the great council of St. Basle; a shorter

account of his apologetic speeches at the councils of Mouzon

and

694

SILVESTER

other councils or Causey; and drafts of the decrees of two or three archbishop r raperial constitutions promulgated when he was above min Ravenna or pope. The important works on the three ms. just allude councils are to be found in the 11th-century Leiden ione to. (c) Gerbert’s theological works comprise a Sermo de informat et sangune Domini, episcoporum and a treatise entitled De corporephilosoph ical works we both of very doubtful authenticity. (d) Of his at the reonly have one, Libellus de rationali et ratione uti, written ms. at Paris. quest of Otto III. and preserved in an 11th-century abaco computt, (e) His mathematical works consist of a Regula de and a of which a 12th-century ms. is to be found at the Vatican; mss. at Libellus de numerorum divisione (11th- and rath-century ndRome, Montpellier and Paris), dedicated to his friend and correspo d attribute ent Constantine of Fleury. A long treatise on geometry,

to Gerbert, is of somewhat doubtiul authenticity. To these may be to added a very short disquisition on the same subject addressed

III.—SIMEON on a bay in the south-east, is the capital, and port, where vessels of the Royal Packet Navigation company call, giving connection

with Tapa Tuan, on the Sumatran mainland: there is also a cable

between Simalur and Singkep, in Achin, Sumatra. Other small places on the coast are Sibigo and Sigule; they are connected by aroad. The Banyak islands, nearly 70 in number, lie southeast of Simalur.

They are prolific in coco-nut palms and form a

port of call, for copra, for vessels of the Royal Packet Navigation , , company. SIMANCAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Valladolid; g m. S.W. of Valladolid, on the road to Zamora and the right bank of the river Pisuerga. Pop. (1920) 1,032. Simancas is a town of great antiquity, the Roman Septimanca, with a citadel

to Adalbold, and a similar one, on one of his own spheres, addressed

dating from the Moorish occupation in the gth century. In 934 it was the scene of a battle between the Moors and Christians.

SILVESTER TI. When Boniface IX. was driven from Rome

national archives of Spain were removed by order of Philip IT. in 1563. Their transference thither was first suggested to Charles V. by Cardinal Ximenes or Cisneros (d. 1517). The extensive alterations were made by three celebrated 16th-century architects, Juan de Herrera, Alonso Berruguete and Juan Gomez de Mora; the arrangement of the papers was entrusted to Diego de Ayala. They include important private as well as state papers. The archives of the Indies were transferred in 1784 to the Lonja of Seville.

Constantine, abbot of Micy. All the writings of Gerbert are collected in the edition of A. Olleris (Clermont, 1867).

early in January 1044, John, bishop of Sabina, was elected in his stead and took the title of Silvester III. Within three months Boniface returned and expelled his rival. Nearly three years later (December 1046) the council of Sutri deprived him of his bishopric and priesthood. He was then sent to a monastery, where he seems to have died.

SILVESTRE

DE SACY, ANTOINE

ISAAC, Baron

(1758-1838), French orientalist, was born in Paris on Sept. 21, 1758. In 1781 he entered the civil service, but he retired in 1792 and lived in seclusion till in 1793 he became professor of Arabic in the newly founded school of living Eastern languages. The interval was in part devoted to the study of the religion of the Druses, which was the subject of his last and unfinished work, the Exposé de la religion des Druzes (2 vols., 1838). Since the death of Johann Jakob Reiske, Arabic learning had been in a backward state. In the Grammaire arabe (2 vols., 1st ed. 1810, 2nd ed. 1831) and

the Chrestomathie arabe (3 vols., 1806), together with its supple-

ment, the Anthologie grammaticale (1829), De Sacy supplied admirable text-books. In 1806 he became Persian professor. In 1815 he became rector of the university of Paris, and after the second restoration he was active on the commission of public instruction. With Abel Rémusat he was joint founder of the Société asiatique, and was inspector of oriental types at the royal printing press. De Sacy, who had been created a peer of France in 1832, died on Feb. 21, 1838.

The citadel is now the Archivo General del Reino, to which the

SIMBIRSK: see ULIANovsx. SIMCOE,

JOHN

GRAVES

(1752-1806), British soldier

and first lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, was born at Cotterstock, Northumberland, on Feb. 25, 1752. He entered the army, and first saw active service at Boston in 1775, remaining in America during the greater part of the Revolutionary War. His military career in America ended with the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown (Oct. 19, 1781). In 179r he was appointed lieutenant-governor of the new province of Upper Canada. He reached Kingston, Upper Canada, on July 1, 1792. There the

first council was assembled, the government of the new province proclaimed, and the oaths of office taken. Simcoe’s ideas of colonial government were dominated by military and aristocratic conceptions quite unsuited to the pioneer conditions of Upper Canada, and there was friction with the colonists and with Lord

Dorchester, the governor-general. He left Canada in September 1796. After some service in England he had been designated Among his other works are bis edition of Harīrī (1822, 2nd edition commander-in-chief for India to succeed Lord Lake, when he by Reinaud, 1847, 1855), with a selected Arabic commentary, and of the Alfiya (1833), and his Calila et Dimna (1816),—the Arabic ver- died at Exeter on Oct. 26, 1806.

sion of that famous collection of Buddhist animal tales which has been im various forms one of the most popular books of the world; a version of Abd-Allatif, Relation arabe sur Egypte, and essays on the history of the law of property in Egypt since the Arab conquest (1805-18). To biblical criticism he contributed a memoir on the Samaritan Arabic of the Pentateuch (Mém. Acad. des Inscr. vol. xlix.) , and editions of the Arabic and Syriac New Testaments for the British and Foreign Bible Society. Of the brilliant teachers who went out from his lecture-room may be mentioned Professor Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer (1801-88), who contributed elaborate notes and corrections to the Grammaire arabe (Kleinere Schriften, vol. i., 1885).

SILVESTRINES or SYLVESTRINES, an order of monks

See D. C. Scott, John Graves Simcoe (1905).

SIMEON, in the Old Testament, the name of a tribe of Israel, named after the second son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. xxix. 33). According to Gen. xxxiv., the brothers Simeon and Levi massacred the males of Shechem to avenge the violation of their sister Dinah (“judgment”) by Shechem the son of Hamor. Jacob disavowed the act, and on his deathbed solemnly cursed their ferocity, condemning the two to be divided in Jacob and scattered in Israel (xlix. 5~7). Subsequently the priestly Levites are found distributed throughout Israel without portion or inheritance (Deut. xviii. 1, Josh. xiii. 14). On the other hand, Simeon is reckoned among the N. tribes in 2 Chron, xv. 9, xxxiv. 6, but is elsewhere assigned a district in S. Palestine, the cities of which are otherwise ascribed to Judah

under the Benedictine rule, founded 1231 by St. Silvester Gozzolini, who in 1232 built a monastery at Montefano. The rule was the Benedictine, but as regards poverty in external things, far stricter than the Benedictine. The order was approved in 1247 (cf. Josh. xix. 1-9 with xv. 26-32). An interpolation in 1 Chron. by Innocent IV., and at Silvester’s death in 1267 there were eleven iv. 31 states that Judah was their seat in David’s time, but there silvestrine monasteries. At a later date there were 56, mostly in is no support for this in other records (see x Sam. xxvii., xxx.). Umbria, Tuscany and the March of Ancona. In 1907, there were In fact, Simeon is not mentioned in the “blessing of Moses” nine Silvestrine houses, one in Rome, and about 60 choir monks. (Deut. xxxiii., see S. R. Driver, Deut. p. 397 seq.), or in the stories

See Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), i. § 30; Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2); and the Catholic Encyclopaedia, art. “Sylvestrines.”

of the “judges”; and notwithstanding references to it in the chron-

SIMALUR, the northernmost island of the chain off the west

What historical facts are thus represented, and how they are to be brought into line with the early history of Israel, are problems which have defied solution (see J. Skinner, Genesis, p. 421 seq.).

icler’s history of the monarchy, it is not named in the earlier books of Samuel and Kings. But is Gen. xxxiv. to be taken literally? SILVICULTURE is the technical branch of forestry (g.v.) Shechem is the famous holy city, Hamor a well-known native famwhich is concerned with the establishment and maintenance of ily, Jacob talks of himself as being “few in number,” and the deeds the forest. See ARBORICULTURE. of Simeon and Levi are those of communities, not of individuals.

coast of Sumatra, Dutch East Indies. It is about 54 miles long, and is hilly, the coasts being rocky and reef-bound.

Sinabang,

SIMEON—SIMMONS It is conjectured that Dinah represents a clan or group (cf. Dan) which settled in Shechem and was exposed to danger (é.g., oppression or absorption); the tribes Simeon and Levi intervened on its behalf, the ensuing massacre was avenged by the Canaanites, and the two were broken up. These events are supposed to belong to an early stage in the invasion of Palestine by the Israelites (15th—13th century B.c.), perhaps to a preliminary settlement by

the “sons” of Leah (Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah), previous to the entrance of the “son” of Rachel, Joseph, the “father” of Ephraim and Manasseh. In the New Testament, (1) the seer who recognized the infant Jesus as the Redeemer; .(2) an alternate form of Simon.

SIMEON

(or Symeon) OF DURHAM

(d. after 1129),

English chronicler, embraced the monastic life before the year 1083 in the monastery of Jarrow; but only made his profession at a later date, after he had removed with the rest of his community to Durham. He composed his Historia ecclesiae Dunelmensis, extending to the year 1096, at some date between 1104 and 1108. The original manuscript is at Durham in the library of Bishop Cosin. There are two continuations, both anonymous. The first carries the history from 1096 to the death of Ranulf Flambard (1129); the second extends from 1133 to 1144. A Cambridge ms. contains a third continuation covering the years 1141—1154. About 1129 Simeon undertook to write a Historia regum Anglo_rum et Dacorum. This begins at the point where the Eccleszastical History of Bede ends. The section dealing with the years 11191129 is, however, an independent and practically contemporaneous narrative. The most complete modern edition of his works is that of Thomas Arnold (“Rolls” series, 2 vols., 1882-1885). Simeon’s works have been

translated by J. Stevenson in his Church vol, iii. part ii. (1855).

SIMEON

Historians of England,

STYLITES, ST. (390-459), the first and most

famous of the Pillar-hermits (Gr. o7iXos, pillar), was born in N. Syria. After having been expelled from a monastery for his excessive austerities, at thirty years of age he built a pillar six feet high on which he took up his abode. He made new pillars higher and higher, till after ten years he reached the height of sixty feet. On this pillar he lived for thirty years without ever descending. A railing ran round the capital of the pillar, and a ladder enabled his disciples to take him the necessaries of life. From his pillar he preached and exercised a great influence, converting numbers of heathen and taking part in ecclesiastical politics. The _ facts would seem incredible were they not vouched for by Theodoret, who knew him personally (Historia religiosa, c. 26). Moreover, Simeon had many imitators, well authenticated pillarhermits being met with till the 16th century. The standard work on the subject is Les Stylites (1895), by H. Delehaye, the Bollandist; for a summary see the article “Saulenheilige,” in Herzog’s Realencyklopadie (ed. 3). On Simeon see Th. Noldeke’s

Sketches from Eastern History Christian Biography

(1892), p. 210, the Dictionary

and The Catholic Encyclopaedia.

of

SIMFEROPOL, the administrative centre of the Crimean A.S.S.R., situated on the northern slopes of the Chatyr-dagh mountains in 44° 58’ N., 34° 3’ E. on the Salgar river. Simferopol grew rapidly after the railway linking it with the main Russian net was constructed. Pop. (1926) 80,719. The small fortress of Napoli erected by the ruler of Taurida about roo B.C. existed near the town until the end of the 3rd century. Later it was a Tatar settlement Ak-mechet (Sultan Serai) the residence of the chief military commander of the khan. It was captured and burnt by the Russians in 1736. After the conquest of the Crimea by the Russians in 1784, it received its present name.

SIMILAR

FIGURES.

Geometric figures are said to be

similar if they have the same shape but not necessarily the same size; e.g., any two squares are similar; if they are of the same size, they are congruent, or identically equal, but they are still similar. Any two circles are similar, but not any two ellipses, for ellipses may have different shapes (see Extipse). Solids may also be similar, as in the case of cubes or of spheres. Similarity of figures is the basis of trigonometry (g.v.) and of indirect measures in general. Speaking more precisely, two systems of points, A1, Bi, C1,-+- and As, Be, C2, --- are said to be similar when they

695

can be so placed that all lines AiAz, Bi Bo, CiCo, -- +, joining corresponding points form a pencil whose vertex, O, divides each line into segments having a constant ratio r. In the figure here shown, the constant ratio is 2/3. Two figures are said to be similar when their systems of points are similar. The point O is called the centre of similtude. If r=1, the figures are said to be symmetric

with respect to the centre O (see SYMMETRY). SIMILAR

SIMLA, a town and district

FIGURES

in British India, in the Punjab. The town is the summer residence of the viceroy and staff of the supreme government, and also of the Punjab government. It is 58 m. by cart-road from the railway station of Kalka. A metre-gauge railway, 68 m. long, was opened from Kalka to Simla in 1903. The population in 1921 was 27,494,

but that was only the winter population. The sanatorium of Simla occupies a spur of the lower Himalaya, running east and west for about 6 m. The ridge culminates at the east in the eminence of Jakko, in the vicinity of which bungalows are most numerous; the viceregal lodge stands on Observatory Hill. The east of the station is known as Chota Simla and the west as Boileauganj. The situation is one of great beauty; and the houses, built separately, lie at elevations between 6,600 and 8,000 ft. above sea-level. To the north, a beautiful wooded spur, branching

from the main ridge, is known as Elysium. Three miles west is the cantonment

of Jutogh.

The minor sanatoria of Kasauli,

Sabathu, Dagshai and Solon lie some distance to the south. The first European house at Simla was built in 1819, and the place was first visited by a governor-general in 1827. It has gradually become the permanent headquarters of many of the official establishments. The two chief medical institutions are the Ripon and Walker hospitals.

The District oF Srmia has an area of ror sq.m., and had a population in 1921 of 45,327. The mountains of Simla and the surrounding states compose the southern outliers of the great central chain of the East Himalaya. Throughout all the hills forests of deodar abound, while rhododendrons clothe the slopes up to the limit of perpetual snow. The principal rivers are the Sutlej, Pabar, Giri, Gambhar and Sarsa. The acquisition of the patches of territory forming the district dates from various times subsequent to the close of the Gurkha War in 1816. The Simla Hill States—which as now constituted number 27 in all—include Jubbal, Bashahr, Keonthal, Baghal and Hindur. The States of Sirmor (Nahan) and Bilaspur are under the direct control of the Government of India.

SIMMEL, GEORG

(1858-1918), German philosopher and

sociologist, was born in Berlin on March 1, 1858. Professor of

philosophy first -in Berlin (1901), then in Strasbourg, (1914), Simmel was one of the first academic philosophers to apply philosophy to history and sociology. His philosophy centres round the conception of a spiritual life, various in its forms, and obedient to its own laws, whose external manifestations are to be seen in sociology and the arts. The ultimate theme of his works, which are written in a brilliant and very personal style, is nearly always the connection between life and the metaphysical general prin-

ciples, revealed to the philosopher in concrete existence. He died

in Strasbourg on Sept. 28, 1918. Simmel’s chief works are:

Uber Sociale Differenzierung

(1890);

Einleitung in die Moralwissenschaft (1892-93) ; Philosophie des Geldes (1900) ; Kant (1904) ; Die Probleme der Geschichisphilosophie, 2nd ed. (r905); Schopenhauer und Nietzsche (1907); Dze Religion (1907); Philosophische Kultur (1911); Rembrandt (1917); Grundfragen der Soziologie (1917); Lebensanschauung (1918). See W. Knevels, Simmels Religionstheorie (1920); N. J. Spykman, The Social Theory of

G. Simmel (1925).

SIMMONS, EDWARD EMERSON (1852— ), American artist, was born at Concord, Mass., on Oct. 27, 1852. ‘He graduated from Harvard college in 1874, and was a ‘pupil of

Lefebvre and Boulanger in Paris, where he took a gold medal.

He was awarded the prize by the Municipal Art Society of New York for a mural decorative scheme, which he carried ‘out for the criminal courts building, later decorating the Waldorf-Astona

SIMMS—SIMON

696

hotel in New York, the library of Congress, Washington, and the

capitol at St. Paul, Minn., and many other public and private buildings. He was elected to the National Institute of Arts and Letters and was one of the original members of the Ten American Painters. 3

SIMMS, WILLIAM

GILMORE

(1806-1870), American

poet, novelist, dramatist and historian, was born at Charleston, S. C., April 17, 1806. His mother died in his infancy; his father,

having failed in business, embarked on a series of wanderings on the border, fighting Indians and finally settling on a plantation in Mississippi. To the father’s tales of wild adventure and the son’s observation of frontier types on a visit to the West must be attributed some of the best features of Simms’s border romances. In general, however, his life and work were shaped by the fact that he made his home in Charleston, where his grandmother had reared him. First an apprentice to a druggist, then a lawyer and an editor, largely self-educated, he received little recognition from the aristocrats of that city, in spite of his lifelong devotion to the literature of the South. He gave advice and financial help to the literary aspirants who besieged him; he contributed with little or no remuneration reams of material to the feeble southern papers and magazines, six of which he founded and conducted; but he was compelled to go to the North, where he sold the serial and book rights of most of his tales, to obtain the money and fame his own city denied him. He served in the South Carolina legislature, but lost by one vote the post of lieutenant governor. His later life was shadowed by poverty, by the burning of his home and library during the Civil War, by the defeat of the secessionist cause which he had supported and by the death of his second wife and several beloved children. Nevertheless, he remained a gallant figure, writing unceasingly until the break-down that came before his death at Charleston June 11, 1870. Of his literary output Simms’s novels are most important, ranking him next to Cooper in the depiction of frontier life. His novel of the

Indians, The Yemassee (1835) ; his Revolutionary series, including The

Partisan (1835), Mellichampe (1836), Katherine Walton (1851), The Sword and the Distaff (1852; published later as Woodcraft), The Forayers (1855), and Eutaw (1856) ; and his tale of the outlaws of the West, Border Beagles (1840), are particularly to be commended. Beauchampe (1842) and Charlemont (1856), both based on a famous Kentucky murder used by Poe and other writers, are also of interest. As a novelist Simms’s greatest weaknesses were his carelessness in technique, due to hasty composition, and his excessive use of the horrible; his chief sources of strength were his inventiveness, his vivid descriptive powers, and his bold characterization of eccentric border types. He prepared the materials for his historical remances with the care of an antiquarian and he realized the value of fiction for social history— a fact that is brought out in the best of his collections of short stories, The Wigwam and the Cabin (1845~46; published in Aberdeen as Life in America, 1858). His poems, largely of a sentimental, dreamy type, were published in two volumes in 1853, after being issued in various minor compilations. Simms’s scholastic deficiencies, which he himself felt keenly, prevented his Supplement to the Plays of William Shakespeare (1848) from being of value save as a revelation of his tastes. His History of South Carolina (1840; many times republished, and still used in the public schools of the State), his other works devoted to South Carolina, and his edition of the War Poetry of the South (1867) reveal his loyalty to his section. Of his biographies the best probably are the lives of the Chevalier Bayard (1847) and

Captain John Smith

(2846), although the Life of Francis Marion

(1844) appeared in the greatest number of editions, A revised edition

of his more important works appeared in ten volumes in 1882, W. P. Trents Wiliam Gilmore Simms (1892) is an admirable biography. eee also O. Wegelin’s List of the Separate Writings of

Wiliam Gilmore Simms (1906) and John Erskine’s Leading American

Nouelists (xg910).

SIMNEL, LAMBERT

(4. 1477-1534), English impostor,

was probably the son of a tradesman at Oxford, He was about ten

years old in 1487, and was described as a handsome youth of intelligence and good manners. In 1486, the year following the accession of Henry VIIL, rumours were spread by the Yorkists

Clarence, had died in the Tower, Symonds decided that the impersonation of Warwick would be more efective. The Yorkists had many adherents in Ireland, and thither Lambert Simnel was taken by Symonds early in 1487. He gained the support of the earl of Kildare, the archbishop of Dublin, the lord chancellor and a powerful following, and was crowned as King Edward VI. in the cathedral in Dublin on May 24, 1487- Messages asking for help were sent to Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., to Sir Thomas Broughton and other Yorkist leaders. On Feb. 2, 1487 Henry VII. held a council at Sheen to concert

measures for dealing with the conspiracy. widow of Edward IV., was mondsey; and the real earl the streets of London. John nephew of Edward IV., had personation. He now fled

Elizabeth Woodville,

imprisoned in the convent of Berof Warwick was shown in public in de la Pole, earl of Lincoln, himself a probably connived at the Simnel imto Flanders, where he joined Lord

Lovell, who had headed an unsuccessful Yorkist rising in 1486, and in May 1487 the two lords proceeded to Dublin, where they landed a few days before the coronation of Lambert Simnel. They were accompanied by 2,000 German soldiers under Martin Schwartz, procured by Margaret of Burgundy to support the enterprise, Margaret having recognized Simnel as her nephew. This force, together with some ill-armed Irish levies commanded by Sir Thomas Fitzgerald, landed in Lancashire on June 4. King Henry immediately marched to Nottingham, where his army was . strengthened by the addition of 6,000 men. Making for the fortress of Newark, Lincoln and Sir Thomas Broughton, accompanied by Simnel, attacked the royal army near Stoke-on-Trent on June 16, 1487. After a fierce and stubborn struggle the Royalists were completely victorious, though they left 2,000 men on

the field; Lincoln, Schwartz and Fitzgerald with 4,000 of their followers were killed, and Lovell and Broughton disappeared. The priest Symonds and Simnel were taken prisoners. Henry VII., recognizing that Lambert Simnel had been a tool in Yorkist hands, took him into his own service as a scullion. He was later promoted to be royal falconer, and is said to have afterwards become a servant in the household of Sir Thomas Lovell. He was still living in the year 1534. See Bacon, History of Henry VII., with notes by J. R. Lumby (1881) ; Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., 1885-1890) ; James Gairdner, Henry VII. (London, 1889) and Letters and Papers illustrative of the reigns of Richard III, and Henry VII. (‘‘Rolls” series,

2 vols., London, 1861-1863) ; The Political History of England, vol. v.,

by H. A. L. Fisher (London, 1906) ; and W. Busch, England under the Tudors

(1895).

For a contemporary

account

see Polydore

Vergil,

Anglicae historiae, to which all the later narratives are indebted.

SIMOCATTA!, THEOPHYLACT, Byzantine historian, a native of Egypt, held an official position at Constantinople during

the reign of Heraclius (610-640). He is best known as the author of a history, in eight books, of the reign of the emperor Maurice (582-602), for which period he is the best and oldest authority. The work describes the wars with the Persians, the Avars and

Slavs, and the emperor’s tragic end (ed. pr. by J. Pontanus,

1609; best edition by C. de Boor, 1887, with a valuable Index. Graecitatis). “His want of judgment renders him diffuse in trifles and concise in the most interesting facts” (Gibbon), but his general trustworthiness is admitted. The history contains an introduction in the form of a dialogue between History and Philosophy.

Simocatta was also the author of Physical Problems, a work on natural histary (ed. J. Ideler in Physici et medici Graeci minores, i. 1842); and of a collection of 85 essays in epistolatory form. The best edition is by R. Hercher in Epistolographi Graeci (1873).

The letters were translated into Latin (1509) by Copernicus (reprinted 1873 by F, Hipler in Spicilegium Copernicanum). See C, Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur (1897).

SIR JOHN (1816-1904), English surgeon and sanithat the two sons of Edward IV., who had been murdered in the tarySIMON, reformer, was born in London on Oct. 10, 1826. In the Tower of London, were still alive. A young Oxford priest, Richard spring of 1844 he gained the first Astley Cooper prize a Symonds by name, decided to put forward the boy Simnel as one physiological essay on the thymus gland, and the following by year of these princes. He provided him with a suitable education, was elected F.R.S. Simon published many clinical surgical lectures but meanwhile a report having gained currency that the young of the greatest importance, and contributed an article on “Inearl of Warwick, son of Edward IV.’s brother George, duke of ‘Other forma of the name are Simocattos, Simocatos, Simocates.

æ

SIMON flammation” to Holmes’s System of Surgery which has become a Classic of its kind. It was, however, on his appointment in 1848 as medical officer of health to the City of London, and afterwards to the Government, that his great abilities in sanitary science found full scope. Simon can claim priority over Cock in the operation of perineal puncture of the urethra in cases of retention from stricture. He died on July 23, 1904.

SIMON, SIR JOHN ALLSEBROOK

(13873~

), Brit-

ish politician and lawyer, the son of a Congregational minister, was born Feb. 28, 1873, at Bath, and educated at Fettes College, Edinburgh, and Wadham College, Oxford, where he was a scholar. He became president of the Union in 1896, and was subsequently elected fellow of All Souls. He went to the Bar, became Barstow Law scholar in 1898, and was called in 1899. His manifest abilities and the persuasiveness of his advocacy soon brought him to notice; he was chosen one of the counsel for the British Govt. in the arbitration on the Alaska Boundary in 1903; and he rapidly attained so considerable a practice that he was able to take silk in 1908. He had gone into politics, and was elected Liberal member for Walthamstow at the general election of 1906. At first, probably owing to his absorption in his legal work, he did not command nearly so much attention in Parliament as his Wadham contemporary and fellow-lawyer, F. E. Smith (afterwards Lord Birkenhead). But he gradually made his way, and was appointed by Asquith Solicitor-General in 1910, was knighted the same year, and became Attorney-General with a seat in the Cabinet in 1973. On the outbreak of the war in 1914, his resignation, along with those of Lord Morley and Burns, was expected; but he finally decided to remain with his chief and the bulk of his colleagues. When the first war Coalition Government was formed, in May 1915, he was offered the lord chancellorship, but he declined the greatest prize of his profession as he preferred a political career in the Commons. Accordingly he accepted the home secretaryship, and gave up his legal practice. Early, however, in the following year, owing to his inability to accept the Government bill for compulsory military service, he resigned his office and led a fruitless opposition to the measure in the House; and then went out to the front in France as a major in the R.A.F. He subsequently resumed practice as a barrister, and immediately regained his position in the front rank of his profession. On the break between Asquith and Lloyd George in 1916, John Simon

adhered to the former. He lost his seat in Parliament at the gen-

eral election in Dec. 1918, but was returned for Spen Valley in 1922. On the occasion of the general strike in May 1926 John

Simon argued in Parliament that the strike was not covered by the Trade Disputes Act. His speech created a deep impression. In January 1928, on appointment as chairman of the Indian

Statutory Commission (see Inp1a: History) Simon retired. was made G.C.S.I. in the Birthday Honours, 1930.

SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS

He

(1814-1896), French states-

man and philosopher, was born at Lorient on Dec. 27, 1814. His father was a linen-draper from Lorraine, who abjured Protestantism before his second marriage (of which Jules Simon was the son) with a Catholic Breton.’ The family name was Suisse, which Simon dropped if favour of his third prenomen. At the Ecole Normale in Paris he came in contact with Victor Cousin, who sent him to Caen and then to Versailles to teach philosophy. He helped Cousin, without receiving any recognition, in his translations from Plato, and in 1839 became his deputy in the chair of philosophy at the Sorbonne, with the meagre salary of 83 francs per month. He also lectured on the history of philosophy at

the Ecole Normale. At this period he edited the works of Malebranche (2 vols., 1842), of Descartes (1842), Bossuet (1342) and of Arnauld (1843), and in 1844-1845 appeared the two

volumes of his Histoire de Vécole d’Alexandrie.

He became a

regular contributor to the Revue des deux mondes, and in 1847,

with Amédée Jacques and Emile Saisset, founded the Liberté

de penser, with the intention of throwing off the yoke of Cousin, but he retired when Jacques allowed the insertion of an article advocating the principles of collectivism. In 1848 he represented the Côtes-du-Nord in the National Assembly, and in 1849 entered the Council of State, but was retired on account of his repub-

697

lican opinions. After the coup d’état, which dismissal from his professorship, he used ing Le Devoir (1853), which was translated and Swedish, La Religion naturelle (1856,

La La Le In

Liberté Liberté Travail 1863 he

was followed by his his leisure in writinto modern Greek Eng. trans., 1887),

de conscience (1857), La Liberté politique civile (1859), L’Ouvriére (1861), L’Ecole (1866), L’Ouvrier de huit ans (1867) and was returned to the Corps Législatif for

(1859), (1864), others. the 8th

circonscription of the Seine, and supported “les Cing” in their opposition to the government. He became minister of instruction in the government of National Defence on Sept. 5, 1870. After the capitulation of Paris in January 1871 he was sent down to Bordeaux to prevent the resistance of Gambetta to the peace. But at Bordeaux Gambetta, who had issued a proclamation excluding from the elections offcials under the Empire, was all powerful. He affected to dispute Jules Simon’s credentials, and issued orders for his arrest. Meanwhile Simon had found means of communication with Paris, and on Feb. 6, was reinforced by Eugéne Pelletan, E. Arago and Garnier-Pagés. Gambetta resigned, and the ministry of the Interior, though nominally given to Arago to avoid the appearance of a personal issue, was really in Simon’s hands. Defeated in the department of the Seine, he sat for the Marne in the National Assembly, and resumed the portfolio of education in the first cabinet of M. Thiers’s presidency. He retained office until a week before the fall of Thiers in 1373. Simon was regarded by the monarchical Right as one of the most dangerous obstacles in the way of a restoration, which he did as much as any man (except perhaps the comte de Chambord himself) to prevent, but by the extreme Left he was distrusted for his moderate views, and Gambetta never forgave his victory

at Bordeaux.

In 1875 he became

a member

of the French

Academy and a life senator, and in 1876, on the resignation of M. Dufaure, was summoned to form a cabinet. He replaced antirepublican functionaries in the civil service by republicans, and held his own until May 3, 1877, when he adopted a motion carried by a large majority in the Chamber inviting the cabinet to use all means for the repression of clerical agitation. Marshal MacMahon then practically demanded his resignation. This act of the president, known as the “Seize Mai,” drove him finally from office. He justified his action in submitting instead of appealing to the Chamber by his fear of providing an opportunity for a coup d'état on the part of the marshal. The rejection (1880) of article 7 of Ferry’s Education Act, by which the profession of teaching would have been forbidden to members of non-authorized congregations, was due to Simon’s intervention. He was in fact the chief of the Left Centre opposed to the radicalism of Jules Grévy and Gambetta. He was director

of the Gaulois from

1879 to 1881, and his influence in the

country among moderate republicans was retained by his articles in the Matin from 1882 onwards, in the Journal des Débats, which he joined in 1886, and in the Temps from 1890.

He left accounts of some of the events in which he had participated in Souvenirs du 4 septembre (1874), Le Gouvernement de M. Thiers (2 vols. 1878), in Mémoires des autres (1889), Nouveaux mémoires

des autres (1891) and Les Derniers mémoires des autres (1897), while his sketch of Victor Cousin (1887) was = further contribution to contemporary history. For his personal history the Premiers mémoires (tg00) and Le Soir de ma journée (1902), edited by his son Gustave Simon, may be supplemented by Léon Séché’s Figures bretonnes, Jules

G. Picot, Jules Simon: Simon, sa vie, som oeuvre (new ed., 1898), and notice historique .. . (1897); also by many references to periodical literature and collected essays in Hugo P. Thieme’ Guide bibliographique de la litt. franç. de 1800 È 1906 (1907) .*

SIMON,

RICHARD

(1638-1712), French biblical critic,

born at Dieppe on May 13, 1638, was educated by the Fathers of the Oratory at Dieppe and at the university of Paris. Simon entered the priesthood in 1670, and the same year wrote a pamphlet in defence of the Jews of Metz, who had been accused of having murdered a Christian child. About this time began his controversies with the Port Royalists and with the Benedictines, and his enemies sought to drive him from Paris. He was engaged at the time in superintending the printing of his Histoire critique

du Vieux Testament, which was to be dedicated to Louis XIV.

698

SIMON—SIMONIDES

The proof sheets were held up pending the return of the king from Flanders, and fell into the hands of the Port Royalists, who had in hand a translation into French of the Prolegomena to Walton’s Polyglott. Simon now announced his intention of publishing an annotated edition of the Prolegomena, and actually added to the Critical History a translation of the last four chapters of that work, which had formed no part of his original plan.

OF CEOS

situation from month to month, brought him a wide reputation. After the Armistice he continued to contribute articles on inter-

national politics to this review

(of which he became foreign

editor in 1914), to other periodicals, and to a newspaper syndicate. His books include They Shall Not Pass (1916), an account of Verdun; History of the World nesVie 7-20); and How Europe Peace without America (1927).

Simon’s announcement prevented the appearance of the projected “ SIMONIDES (or Semonmes) OF AMORGOS, Greek translation, but his enemies found the desired opportunity in the iambic poet, flourished in the middle of the yth century B.c. He alleged heterodoxy of some of the views expressed by Simon. A was a native of Samos, and derived his surname from having decree of the council of state was obtained, and the whole im- founded a colony in the neighbouring island of Amorgos. Accordpression, consisting of 1,300 copies, was seized by the police and ing to Suïdas, besides two books of iambics, he wrote elegies, one destroyed. Simon was expelled by the Oratorians from their of them a poem on the early history of the Samians. The elegy fellowship, and retired in 1679 to his curacy of Bolleville, Nor- included in the fragments (85) of Simonides of Ceos is more mandy. Finally the Critical History appeared, with Simon’s probably by Simonides of Amorgos. We possess about thirty name on the title page, in the year 1685, from the press of Reenier fragments of his iambic poems, written in clear and vigorous Leers in Rotterdam. Simon died at Dieppe on April 11, 1712. Ionic, satiric in type, but less personal than Archilochus. His The remaining works of Simon were: Histoire critique du texte du largest fragment is an elaborate comparison of various types of Nouveau Testament (1689), Histoire critique des versions du Nouveau Testament (1690); Histoire critique des principaux commentateurs women with various animals.

du Nouveau Testament

(1693), and his Nouvelles Observations sur le

texte et les versions du Nouveau Testament (1695). ; The principal authorities for the life of Simon are the life or “éloge” by his grand-nephew De la Martiniére in vol. i. of the Lettres choisies (4 vols., 1730) ; Richard Simon et son Vieux Testament, by A. Bernus (Lausanne,, 1869); H. Margival, Essai sur Richard Simon et la critique biblique au XVIIe siècle (1900). For the bibliography, see, in addition to the various editions of Simon’s works, A. Bernus,

See Fragments in T. Bergk, Poëtae lyrici Graeci; separate editions by F. T. Welcker (1835), and especially by P. Malusa (x900), with exhaustive introduction, bibliography and commentary.

SIMONIDES OF CEOS (c. 556-469 B.c.), Greek lyric poet,

was born at Tulis in the island of Ceos. During his youth he taught poetry and music in his native island, and composed paeans for the festivals of Apollo. Later he went to live at Athens, Notice bibliographique sur Richard Simon (Basel, 1882). at the court of Hipparchus, the patron of literature. After the SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665), English medallist, was murder of Hipparchus (514), Simonides withdrew to Thessaly, born, according to Vertue, in Yorkshire about 1623. He studied where he enjoyed the patronage of the Scopadae and Aleuadae engraving under Nicholas Briot, and about 1635 received a post (two celebrated Thessalian families). Apparently some disaster in connection with the mint. In 1645 he was appointed by the overtook the Scopadae, which resulted in the extinction of the parliament joint chief engraver along with Edward Wade, and, family. After the battle of Marathon having executed the great seal of the Commonwealth and dies Athens, but soon left for Sicily at the Simonides returned to invitation of Hieron, at for the coinage, he was promoted to be chief engraver to the whose court he spent the rest of his life. mint and seals. He produced several fine portrait medals of His reputation as a man of learning is shown by the tradition Cromwell, one of which is copied from a miniature by Cooper. that he introduced the distinction between the long and short After the Restoration he was appointed engraver of the king’s vowels (€, 7, 0, w), afterwards adopted in the Ionic alphabet seals. On the occasion of his contest with the brothers Roettiers, which came into general use during the archonship of-Eucleides who were employed by the mint in 1662, Simon produced his (403). He was also the inventor of a system of mnemonics celebrated crown of Charles II., on the margin of which he (Quintilian xi, 2, 11). So unbounded was his popularity that engraved a petition to the king. This is usually considered his he was a power even in the political world; we are told that he masterpiece. He is believed to have died of the plague in reconciled Theron and Hieron on the eve of a battle between their London in 1665. opposing armies. He was the intimate friend of Themistocles A volume of The Medals, Coins, Great Seals and other Works of and Pausanias the Spartan, and his poems on the Lhomas Simon, engraved and described by George war of liberaVertue, was pub- tion against Persia no doubt gave a powerful impulse to the lished in 1753. national patriotism. For his poems he could command almost SIMON BEN YOHAI (2nd century A.D.), a Galilean one of the most eminent disciples of Aqiba (qg.v.). His Rabbi, any price: later writers, from Aristophanes onwards, accuse master him of avarice, probably not without some reason. was executed by Hadrian, and Simon’s anti-Roman sentiments Of his poetry we possess two or three short elegies (Fr. led to his own condemnation by Varus c. A.D. 16r 85 (according to seems from its style and versification to belong to Simonides of Graetz). He escaped this doom and dwelt for some years in a Amorgos, or at least not to be the work of our poet), cavern. Emerging from concealment, Simon settled several in Tiberias epigrams and about ninety fragments of lyric poetry. and in other Galilean cities. He acquired a reputation The epias a worker grams written in the usual dialect of elegy, Ionic with an epic of miracles, and on this ground was sent to Rome as an envoy. colouring, were intended partly for public and To Simon were attributed the important legal partly for private homilies called monuments. There is strength and sublimi ty in the former, with Sifre and Mekhilta (see Mmrass), and above all the Zohar, a simplici the ty that is almost statuesque, and a complete mastery Bible of the Kabbalah (g.v.). This latter ascription is altogether over the rhythm and forms of elegiac expressi uniounded, the real author being Leon, Moses de (g.v.). on, Those on the heroes of Marathon and Thermopylae are the most The fullest account of Simon’s teachings is to be celebrated. found in W. In the private epigrams there is more warmth of colour and Bacher’s Agada der Tannaiten, ii. pp. 70-149. feeling, but few of them rest on any better authori ty than that of SIMONDS, FRANK HERBERT (1878— ), American the Palatine antholo gy. One interesting and undoubtedly genuine writer, was born in Concord, Massachusetts, April graduated from Harvard ‘University in tooo, after 5 1878. He epigram of this class is upon Archedice, the daughter of Hippias having seen the Peisistratid, who, “albeit her father active service in the war ‘with: Spain. He became and husband and brother a the New York Tribune in 1961, and was with the reporter on and children were all princes, was not lifted up in soul to pride.” Washington The lyric fragments vary much in character and length: bureau of that paper in! r903, and its Albany corresp one is ondent in from a poem on Artemisium, celebrating 1904-05.' He was Albany correspondent for those who fell at Therthe New York mopylae, with which he gained the victory over Aeschylus; anEvening ‘Post imizg06—-08', became an editorial writer for the Sum other is an ode in honour of Scopas (commented on in Plato, ini Toog was editor'of the New York Evening Sun in IQI3=I4, Protagoras, 339 b); the rest and from rors to 1918 was associate editor are from odes on victors in the of the New York games, hyporchemes, dirges, hymns to the gods and other varieTribune. During the World War his brilliant articles in the ties, The poem on Thermopylae American Review of Reviews, analysing the breathes a lofty national pride; military and political the others are full of pathos and feeling, combined with a genial

SIMON worldliness.

“It is hard,” he says (Fr. 5), “to become a truly

good man, perfect as a square in hands and feet and mind, fashioned without blame. Whosoever is bad, and not too wicked, knowing justice, the benefactor of cities, isa sound man. I for one will find no fault with him, for the race of fools is infinite.” His most celebrated fragment is a dirge, in which Danaë, adrift with the infant Perseus on the sea in a dark and stormy night, takes comfort from the peaceful slumber of her babe. Simonides here illustrates his own saying that “poetry is vocal painting, as painting is silent poetry.”

Of the many English translations of this poem, one of the best is that by J. A. Symonds in Studies on the Greek Poets. Fragments in T. Bergk, Poëtae lyrici Graeci; standard edition by F. G. Schneidewin (1835) and of the Danaë alone by H. L. Ahrens (1833). Other authorities are given in the exhaustive treatise of E. Cesati, Simonide di Ceo (1882); see also W. Schröter, De Simonidis Cei melici sermone (1906).

SIMON MAGUS.

One of the most ancient and interesting

rivals of early Gentile Christianity was the sect of the Simonians. Its founder was a skilful magician who had established himself in the city of Samaria just prior to its evangelization and had captivated the populace by his sorcery, so that he was generally known as “the power of God which is called great.” His ascendancy was broken by the arrival in Samaria of Philip (Acts 8.5; the interpretation of this story depends somewhat on the view taken of the sources of Acts), whose novel cures and teaching attracted many converts to Christianity and-ultimately won over Simon himself who was baptized with the rest. It is probable that Simon’s conversion was due less to a change of heart than to a misunderstanding that baptism and the apostle’s cures were evidence of a magic superior to his own, the art of which he might hope to acquire as Philip’s disciple. Proof that he had carried over the mentality of his old profession into his new religion was not slow in forthcoming. When Philip was reinforced by Peter amd John who supplemented baptism by the gift of the Spirit through the laying on of hands, Simon asked that he might be taught to perform this rite and to obtain power to dispense the Holy Spirit and he offered the Apostles a fee for their instruc-

tion. Peter, perceiving how slight an impression Christianity had

made upon the magician’s mind, rebuked him severely and pointed out that, as he had no right understanding of Christianity, he could not share in its benefits. Simon accepted the reproof and begged Peter to pray for his forgiveness. We hear no more of Simon in Acts and might have assumed that his repentance was enduring and that he had been absorbed into the mass of Samarian Christians, if we did not have later references to him and fragments of a sectarian literature in which he figures as a god and which show that he must have withdrawn from Christianity and initiated a movement of his own in which Christian and Pagan elements were freely and curiously combined. From these later sources (Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Epiphanius and Hippolytus), it appears that Simon’s birthplace was Gitta, that he journeyed to Rome where he had some success in gaining followers under Claudius, that he was generally accompanied by a Phoenician woman named Helen, who had formerly been a prostitute but whom he. associated with his own claims for divine honours, that he had a number of disciples of whom the most important were Menander and Saturninus and that he met his

end through a foolish attempt to reproduce the resurrection of Jesus by allowing himself to be buried alive in the mistaken sup-

MAGUS

699

obscure and it is only a possibility that the god whose power

he was thought to be was Jehovah. Evidence that he wasinfluenced by Judaism apart from Christianity is wholly lacking. The recurrence of the phrase, “power of God,” or its equivalent, in all

the later accounts suggests a certain continuity and it seems probable that, even before his conversion, he advanced a theology similar to that described by Irenaeus (Adv. haer. 1.16.1 Harvey) but Jacking the elements borrowed later from Christianity and that after his withdrawal from the church he revised this system into a parallel and rival of Christianity. Apart from Justin’s meagre statement that Simon was worshipped as the supreme God and Helen regarded as the “primary notion” emanating from him, our first satisfactory account of Simonian theology is given by Irenaeus, whose assumption that he is describing Simon’s own teaching is erroneous, for he is evidently drawing from a later source in which reflections from contemporary christological speculation are unmistakable. In this system Simon is identified with the supreme God, the Father and most exalted Power from whom, before the creation of the world, a female principle emanated. This principle was his first notion through whom it occurred to him to create angels and archangels. Knowing the Father’s mind, she issued from him to execute his will and made the angels and powers who, in turn, fashioned the visible world. These inferior beings were ignorant of the Father’s existence but were jealous of their mother and, unwilling to be thought the offspring of another, detained her on the earth and forced her through a series of degrading incarnations. She appears in history as Helen of Troy and later as Simon’s companion, Helen of Tyre, whom he came to save and who, in Simonian exegesis, is identical with the lost sheep of the parable. To rescue her and to bring salvation to men the supreme Power became incarnate and descended to earth where the angéls were quarrelling for ascendancy. He came in human form, though in fact he was no man, and played the Passion in Judaea, though his sufferings were only apparent. He appears among the Jews as the Son, but also descended in Samaria as the Father and among the Gentiles as the Holy Spirit. The advent of this hitherto unknown god abrogated the precepts of the Prophets whose utterances had been inspired by the angels and designed to enslave man and obscure the truth that salvation comes not through good works but through the grace of Simon and hope in Helen and him.

The interesting features in this otherwise rather commonplace myth are the curiously Sabellian-like Trinitarian doctrine, the Iocetic theory of incarnation, and the doctrine of justification by faith or rather by hope—all of which appear to have been transferred bodily from Christianity and adapted to Simon’s theology. The meaning of the Father’s appearance in Samaria is obscure, but may refer to the Samaritan temple at Gerizim. It is also impossible to make out the relative importance of Jesus and Simon in the system. The Simonians evidently believed that the same divine principle was incarnate in both, but the reference to the Passion shows that they could not have confused the two historical figures. Further clarity cannot be expected as Irenaeus was not sufficiently interested or well informed to describe the doctrine of salvation in detail. More remote from the original stock is a system preserved in a document quoted at length by Hippolytus and entitled “the Great Pronouncement” (apophasis megale). Here fragmentary sur-

position that he would be able to rise again on the third day. vivals of the original Simonian myth serve only to cloak a philoJustin has a story that a statue was set up in Simon’s honour sophic system allied to Stoicism. Elaborate metaphor and fanciful on the Tiber with the inscription, Simoni Deo Sancto, but, this is exegesis do much to obscure the meaning and the affinities with probably an error, as a statue answering to Justin’s description and other known Simonian systems are very slight. The substitution inscribed, Semoni Sancto Deo Fidio Sacrum Sex Pompeius, S.P. of an innate saving principle in human nature for a personal F. Col. Mussianus Quingennalis Decur Bidentalts Donum Dedit, saviour is reminiscent of Saturninus, but the underlying ideas are was unearthed on the Tiber in modern times. Semo was alocal, moré philosophical and myth serves only as a symbol, not asa

perhaps Sabine, deity and had nothing to do with Simon, but

the mistake was not an impossible one for Justin or his source to have made. On the development of Simonian theology we are better informed than on the external history of the sect. Just what was

naive statement of fact. Still more tenuous is the connection between Irenaeus’ account and a system of theology attributed to Simon in the Clementines, but this problem can be satisfac-

torily treated only after further research on the text and sources

of that literature have been made,

A,

a

Both Irehaeus and Hippolytus inform us of the liturgicál prácimplied in the view, current in Samaria in. Simon’s pre-Christian of various kinds, wordays, that he was “the power of God which iscalled great” is tices of the Simonians. Apart from magic

700

SIMON

OF SI. QUENTIN—SIMONY

grave was the crime of or spiritualities. So i e ship was paid to Simon and Helen be us eal could accuse of infamo es a ee | ne eiapeic a Athena. It was, however, customary not to mention their names it. English provincial and legatine constitutions continually as| but to use the titles “Lord” and “Mistress” (kyrios, kyria). Any- | sailed simony. » and one violating this convention was detected as an outsider ee of English law simony is defined by BlackFor the _ CR. P .C.) astical expelled from the mysteries. - stone as the corrupt presentation of any person to an ecclesi purely SIMON OF ST. QUENTIN (7. 1247), Dominican mission The offence is one of reward. or gift money, for e of y benefic histor the wrote er and diplomatist, accompanied, and

travell which the Dominican embassy under Friar Ascelin or Anselm, Pope Innocent IV. sent in 1247 to the Mongols of Armenia and ed Persia. Large sections of Simon’s history have been preserv s chapter 19 where le, historia um Specul s’s Beauvai of in Vincent are expressly said to be ex libello fratris Simonis, or entitled frater Simon. The embassy proceeded to the camp of Baiju or Bachu Noyan (iì.e., “General” Baiju, Noyan signifying a commander of 10,000) at Sitiens in Armenia, lying between the Aras river and

Lake Gokcha, 59 days’ journey from Acre.

The papal letters

were translated into Persian, and thence into Mongol, and so presented to Baiju; but the Tatars were irritated by the haughtiness of the Dominicans. The Frankish visitors were treated with contempt: for nine weeks all answer to their letters was refused. Thrice Baiju even ordered their death. At last, on July 25, 1247, they were dismissed with the Noyan’s reply, dated July 20, which complained of the high words of the Latin envoys, and commanded the pope to come in person and submit to the Master of all the Earth (the Mongol emperor). The mission thus ended in complete failure. See Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum historiale, book xxxii. (sometimes

quoted as xxxi.), chaps. 26-29, 32, 34, 40-52 (of. pp. 453 A-454 B in the

Venice edition of 1591); besides these, several other chapters of the Spec. hist. probably contain material derived from Simon, e.g., bk. xxxi. (otherwise xxx.), chaps. 3, 4, 7, 8, 13, 32; and bk. xxx. (otherwise xxix.), chaps. 69, 71, 74-78, 78, 80. See also d’Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols, ji. 200-201, 221-233; iii. 79*(edition of 1852); Fontana, Monumenta Dominicana, p. 52 (Rome, 1675); Luke Wadding, Annales Minorum, iii, 116-118; E. Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches from Eastern

Asiatic Sources, vol. i., notes 458, 494 (London, 1888); M. A. P. @Avezac’s Introduction to Carpini, pp. 404-405, 433-434, 464-465, of vol. iv. of the Paris Geog. Soc.’s Recueil de Voyages, etc. (Paris, 1839) ; W. W. Rockhill, Rubruck, pp. xxiv-xxv. (London, Hakluyt Soc., 1900) ; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 277, and Carpini and Rubruquis, 269-270.

SIMONSTOWN,

a town and naval station of the British

navy in South Africa on False bay, and 224 m. by rail from Cape Town. In 1910 works were completed, which provide a tidal basin of 26 ac., with a depth of 30 ft. at L-W.O.S.T. South of this basin is a large, reclaimed area, the site of the new dockyards.

The hill behind the town is fortified.

Simonstown dates from

the close of the 17th century, and is named after Simon van

der Stel, governor of the Cape, 1679-99. Pop. (1926) 5,000, of whom 2,660 were whites. On the southern side it is developing aS a seaside resort.

SIMONY, an offence, defined below, against the law of the church. The name is taken from Simon Magus (g.v.). In the canon law the word bears a more extended meaning than in English law. “Simony according to the canonists,” says Ayliffe

in his Parergon, “is defined to be a deliberate act or a premeditated will and desire of selling such things as are spiritual, or of anything annexed unto spirituals, by giving something of a temporal nature for the purchase thereof; or in other terms it is defined to be a. commutation of a thing spiritual or annéxed unto spirituals by giving something that is temporal.” In the Corpus juris canonici the Decretum (pt. ii. cause i. quest. 3) and the Decretals (bk. v. tit. 3) deal with the subject. The offender whether simoniacus (one who had bought his orders) or simoniace promotus (one who had bought his promotion), was liable to deprivation of his benefice and deposition from orders if a secular priest——to confinement in a stricter monastery if a regular. No distinction seems to have been drawn between the sale of an immediate and of a reversionary interest. The innocent simoniace

ecclesiastical cognizance, and not punishable by the criminal law. from The penalty is forfeiture by the offender of any advantage of his the simoniacal transaction, of his patronage by the patron, benefice by the presentee; and now by the Benefices Act 1892, a person guilty of simony is guilty of an offence for which he may be proceeded against under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892. An innocent clerk is under no disability, as he might be by the canon law. Simony may be committed in three ways—in promotion to orders, in presentation to a benefice, and in resignation of a benefice. The common law (with which the canon law is incorporated, as far as it is not contrary to the common or statute law or the prerogative of the Crown) has been considerably modified by statute. Where no statute applies to the case, the doctrines of the canon law may still be of authority. Both Edward VI. and Elizabeth promulgated statutes against simony. The general result of the law before the Benefices Act 1898, as gathered from statutes and decisions, may be stated as follows: (1) it was not simony for a layman or spiritual person not purchasing for himself to purchase, while the church was full, an advowson or next presentation, however immediate the prospect of a vacancy; (2) it was not simony for a spiritual person to purchase for himself a life or any greater estate in an advowson, and to present himself thereto; (3) it was not simony to exchange benefices under an agreement that no payment was to be made for dilapidations on either side; (4) it was not simony to make certain assignments of patronage under the Church Building and New Parishes Acts; (5) it was simony for any person to purchase the next presentation while the church was vacant; (6) it was simony for a spiritual person to purchase for himself the next presentation, though the church be full; (7) it was simony for any person to purchase the next presentation, or in the case of purchase of an advowson the next presentation by the purchaser would be simoniacal if there was any arrangement for causing a vacancy to be made; (8) it was simony for the purchaser of an advowson while the church was vacant. to present on the next presentation; (9) it was simony to exchange otherwise than simpliciter; no compensation in money might be made to the person receiving the less valuable benefice. The law on the subject of simony was long regarded as unsatisfactory by the authorities of the church. In 1879 a royal commission reported on the law and existing practice as to the sale, exchange and resignation of benefices. Many endeavours were made in parliament to give effect to the recommendations of the commission, but it was not until 1898 that any important change was made in the law. The Benefices Act of that year absolutely in-

validated any transfer of a right of patronage unless (a) it is registered in the diocesan registry, (b) unless more than 12 months have elapsed since the last institution or admission to the

benefice, and (c) unless “it transfers the whole interest of the transferor in the right” with certain reservations; in other words, the Act abolished the sale of next presentations, but it expressly

reserved from its operation (a) a transmission on marriage, death or bankruptcy or otherwise by operation of law, or (b) a transfer on the appointment of a new trustee where no beneficial interest

passes. It also substituted another form of declaration for that required under the Clerical Subscription Act 1865, and this form

has been again amended by the measure of 1923 (infra). It abolished the sale by auction of an advowson in gross, and empowered a bishop to refuse to institute or admit a presentee to a benefice on a number of specified grounds: among others, on

promotus was, apart from dispensation, liable to the same penalties as though he were guilty. Certain matters were simoniacal the ground of possible corrupt presentation through a year not by the canon law which would not be so regarded in English law, having elapsed since the last transfer of the right of patronage, é.g., the sale of tithes, the taking of a fee for confession, absolu- and constituted a new court to hear appeals against a bishop’s tion, marriage or burial, the concealment of one in mortal sin refusal to institute. This court consists of a judge of the Suor the reconcilemient of an impenitent for the sake of gain, and preme Court, who shall decide all questions of law and of fact,

SIMOOM-——-SIMS and of the archbishop, who gives judgment. The Benefices Act 1892 has now been amended in many details by the Benefices Act 1898 Amendment Measure 1923 and the Benefices Rules 1926. In Scotland simony is an offence both by civil and ecclesiastical law. The rules are generally those of the canon law. There are few decisions of Scottish courts on the subject. By the Act of 1584, c. 5, ministers, readers and others guilty of simony provided to benefices were to be deprived. An Act of Assembly of 1753 declares pactions simoniacal whereby a minister or probationer before presentation and as a means of obtaining it bargains not to raise a process of augmentation of stipend or demand reparation or enlargement of his manse or glebe after induction. In the United States, there is no recognition of simony in the courts.

SIMOOM, the name usually given in the Sahara and Arabian deserts to hot, dry whirlwinds experienced in spring and summer.

SIMPLICIUS, pope from 468 to 483. During his pontificate the Western Empire was overthrown, and Italy passed into the

hands of the barbarian king Odoacer. In the East, the usurpation of Basiliscus (475-476), who supported the monophysites, gave rise to many ecclesiastical troubles, which were a source of grave anxiety to the pope.

The emperor Zeno, who had procured the

banishment of Basiliscus, endeavoured to compound with the monophysite party; and the bishop of Constantinople, who had previously fought on the pope’s side for the council of Chalcedon,

abandoned Simplicius and subscribed to the henoticon, the conciliatory document promulgated in 482 by the emperor. Simplicius died on March 2, 483, but without settling the monophysite question.

SIMPLICIUS, a native of Cilicia, a disciple of Ammonius and of Damascius, was one of the last of the Neoplatonists. When, in A.D. 529, the school of philosophy at Athens was disendowed

and the teaching of philosophy forbidden, the scholars Damascius,

Simplicius, Priscianus and four others resolved in 531 or 532 to seek the protection of Chosroes, king of Persia, but within two

701

cine in 1833, but the same year was licensed as a preacher of the Methodist Episcopal Church. After a couple of western pastorates, in 1837 he was appointed professor of natural science in Allegheny college, Meadville; and was from 1839 until 1848 president of the newly established Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) university, Greencastle (Ind.). He was editor of the Western Christian Advocate, which he made a strong temperance and anti-slavery organ, from 1848 to 1852. He was elected a bishop in May, 1852. He died on June 18, 1884, in Philadelphia. He published A Hundred Years of Methodism (1876) and Lectures on Preaching (1879), and edited a Cyclopedia of Methodism (1878). A volume of his Sermons (1885) was edited by G. R. Crooks. See his Life by G. R. Crooks (1890) and E. M. Wood, The Peerless Orator (1909).

SIMROCK, KARL

JOSEPH

(1802-1876), German poet

and man of letters, was born on Aug. 28, 1802, at Bonn, where his father was a music publisher. He studied law at Bonn and Berlin, and in 1823 entered the Prussian civil service, from which he was expelled in 1830 for writing a poem in praise of the French July revolution. He became lecturer and eventually (1850) professor at Bonn, where he died on July 18, 1876. Simrock established his reputation by his excellent modern rendering of the Nibelungenlied (1827), of the poems of Walther von der Vogelweide (1833), and other Old High German poems. Of his republications the most popular and the most valuable were

the Deutsche Volksbiicher, of which fifty-five were printed between 1839 and 1867. His best contribution to scholarship was his Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie (1853-55). Simrock took a high place among students of Shakespeare by his Quellen des Shakespeare in Novellen, Märchen und Sagen (1831); and afterwards he translated Shakespeare’s poems and a considerable number of his dramas. His Ausgewahlie Werke were published by G. Klee (12 vols., 1907). See N. Hocker, Karl Simrock, sein Leben und seine Werke (1877).

SIMS, GEORGE ROBERT (1847-1922), English journalist

and dramatic author, was born on Sept. 2, 1847. He was educated years they returned to Greece. After his return from Persia Sim- at Hanwell college and at Bonn, and commenced journalism in plicius wrote commentaries upon Aristotle’s De coelo, Physica, 1874 as successor to Tom Hood on Fun. His first play, Crutch De anima and Categoriae, which, with a commentary upon the and Toothpick, was produced at the Royalty Theatre in April Enchiridion of Epictetus, have survived. To the student of Greek 1879, and was followed by a number of plays of which he was philosophy his commentaries are invaluable, as they contain many author or part-author. After long runs at west end houses, many fragments of the older philosophers as well as of his immediate of these became stock pieces in suburban and provincial theatres. predecessors, His most famous melodramas were: The Lights of London (PrinSIMPLON PASS, a pass over the Alps. Not known early cess’s theatre, September 1881), which ran for nearly a year. save as a purely local route, the Simplon Pass rose into importance and Two Little Vagabonds (Princess’s Theatre, 1896-97), and when Napoleon caused the carriage road to be built across it among his musical plays were Blue-eyed Susan (Prince of Wales’s, between 1800 and 1807. The Simplon tunnel was opened in 1906. 1892) and The Dandy Fifth (Birmingham, 1898). His early The pass proper starts from Brig in the upper Rhône valley, 904 volumes of light verse were yery popular, notably The Dagonet m. by rail from Lausanne. From Brig it is about 14 m. to the pass Ballads (1882), reprinted from. the Referee. He published a book (6,592 ft.), close to which is the hospice (first mentioned in 1235) of reminiscences, My Life, in 1917. He died in London on Sept. in charge of Austin Canons from the Great St. Bernard. The road 4, 1922. descends past the Swiss village of Simplon, and passes through SIMS, WILLIAM SOWDEN (1858), American the wonderful rock defile of Gondo before entering Italy above naval officer, was born of United States parents at Port Hope, Iselle (28 m. from Brig). Here the road joins the railway line Ont., Canada, on Oct. 15, 1858, removing in childhood to Pennsylthrough the tunnel, which is 124 m. in length, and 2,313 ft. high, vania. He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1880, and being thus both the longest and the lowest tunnel through the for eight years served on board various ships in the North AtlanAlps. From Iselle it is about rı m. by rail to Domo d'Ossola, tic. During 1889-93 he was with the nautical school ship “Sarawhence the Toce or Tosa valley is followed to the Lago Maggiore toga,” was transferred to the Pacific station, and later to the China station. From 1897-1900 he was naval attaché to the (23 m.). SIMPSON, SIR JOHN (WILLIAM) (1858), Brit- American Embassy, at Paris and at St. Petersburg (Leningrad), ish architect, was born on Aug. 9, 1858, educated privately, and but in 1900 he returned to the Pacific station. Convinced of the studied at the Royal Academy. He became a fellow of the Royal inadequacy of American methods of target practice, he pressed Institute of British architects in 1900, and was vice-president on his views upon the Government, and in the end was enabled to two occasions, and president from rọrọ to 1921. His works in- arrange for a gunnery test and prove his claims. This resulte clude the school buildings of Roedean, Brighton, extensions of in his being made inspector of target practice in the bureau Haileybury, Winchester, and Lancing colleges. He has also de- navigation, where he served seven years (1902-09). In 1907 signed a number of memorials and many private houses. He was was made commander and appointed naval aide to Presiden joint architect of the National Hospital for the Paralysed and Roosevelt, and in 1909 he became commander of the battleship Epileptic, London, and designed the Grafton Street ‘hospital, “Minnesota.” During a visit of the Atlantic fleet to England in 1910, Commander Sims caused a stir at a dinner at the Guildhall, Liverpool. SIMPSON, MATTHEW (1811-1884), American bishop of London, where he said: “Speaking for myself, I believe that if the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Cadiz (0.) on the time ever comes when the British empire is menaced by an June 21, 1811. Largely self-educated, he began to practise medi- external enemy you may count upon every man, every drop of

702

SIMSON—SIN

Christian standpoint, be deemed sinners. Else we blood, every ship and every dollar of your kindred across the | even from the attribute sin to snakes and volcanoes. For the only to have should | sea.” A semi-official protest against this utterance was made at

relevant difference between the moral and the non-moral agent, is Washington by the German Government, but the incident ended i| that the former can, and the latter cannot, be aware of law having States. United the of in a severe reprimand from the President with ance In 1911 Sims was promoted captain, and for two years was | dominion over it. We cannot assert sin to be non-compli

destroying a member of the class of the Naval War college, Newport, Rhode |moral law, as distinct from known moral law, without all imnot n; imperfectio 1s sin All sin. of significance ethical the | torAtlantic the of Island. During 1913-15 he was in command absopedo flotilla, and in 1916 in command of the battleship “Nevada.” | perfection is sin. Thus it follows that there cannot be one condiany in which, of short fall to perfection, of standard lute | Naval the of president as Newport In Jan. 1917 he returned to

War college. When America entered the World War in April 1917 | tions and at any stage of moral enlightenment, convicts of sin.

he was waters. he was clusion

chosen to command the American naval forces In Jan. he had been promoted rear admiral, given the temporary rank of vice admiral. of the war he relinquished command of the

in European | The only relevant standard is comparable to a sliding scale: it is and in May what, to the all-seeing eye of God, is the highest that a given agent On the con- | can recognize, at the time of his activity that is in question. Hence fleet, and in | the wisdom of the counsel; “then at the balance let’s be mute.”

Feb. 1919 resumed his position as president of the Naval War | Development is incompatible with perfection; the Christian, of college. In 1920 he made a formal report to the U.S. Navy | all men, cannot say it is incompatible with sinlessness.

Turning now from the moral law and knowledge thereof to the Department charging it with serious errors in the conduct of naval| operations during the war. He has published, in collaboration | acts and conduct to which ethical standards are applicable, we may

consider the remaining conditions of what, in the strict sense, is with Burton J. Hendrick, The Victory at Sea (1920). SIMSON , WILLIAM (1800-1847), Scottish portrait, land- | to be called sin. Conscience and moral status, it has been said, scape and subject painter, was born at Dundee in 1800. He studied | are not innate; they are socially acquired, as human experience

under Andrew Wilson at the Trustees’ Academy, Edinburgh, and | evolves from its earliest stages. But certain instincts and imhis early landscape and marine subjects found a ready sale. He | pulsive or appetitive tendencies are undoubtedly inherited. That

next turned his attention to figure painting, and in 1830 was | is to say that in the body, with which an individual subject or soul elected a member of the Scottish Academy. On the proceeds of his |becomes associated, are already ingrained aptitudes, etc., transportrait-painting, he spent three years in Italy, and on his return | mitted and fixed by heredity, which evoke specific reactions and

in 1838 settled in London, where he died on Aug. 29, 1847. Simson | responses from the soul, with its actual and potential faculties and is tee asa landscapist ; his “Solway Moss—Sunset,” exhibited | capacities. Such appetites, instincts, strivings, etc. are involunE i e > sae ta Academy of 1831 and now in the National | tary, because, as yet, will or volition is not in existence. They are

E ah

dinburgh, ranks as one of the finest examples of the | necessary and inevitable; the embodied soul is not responsible for

early cottish school of landscape. ae ee

them, and had no part in moulding them. They are also, from the

cae the “Twelfth of August” (1829), the | biologist’s point of view, natural or normal; not the outcome of

k s alker” (1830); and among later works the “Camal- | derangement. Some of them, at least, are essential to the health doles F S MORK SIOWINE relics,” “Cimabue and Giotto,” the “Dutch | and lifee ofof both individ and race. Theology must affirm that both individual “Columbus and his Child.” and amily,”

they belong to man, as it has pleased God to make him, że., i i SIN is th is the name given to moral evil, when regarded from the | through evolutionary process. Lastly they are not only non-moral S point of view of religion, as distinguished from that of civic law | in that they are involuntary and prior to conscience, but also

or that of ethics. The Christian’s ideal is to do all things as unto | neutral, in respect of what shall eventually be made out of them the Lord; and he looks upon his shortcomings as offences against | by the moralized person. They are the basis of virtues as well as a divinely given law or as grieving the Holy Spirit. But if this | of vices. In themselves, therefore, these propensities or tendencies aspect of sin, or the religious associations with which moral evil | of the stock, are not sinful; no natural passion is base-born or con-

is tinged, be of high significance for religious life, the nature of | demnable. They are, however, the primary stuff oul of which sin as moral evil correlated with responsibility and guilt, is funda- | sinful conduct is shaped. But it is the will that shapes, not the mentally a question for ethics and psychology. That “‘sin is law- | stuff that is shaped, which alone calls for moral evaluation. The

lessness,” even when the law transgressed is regarded as divine, | can no more be wicked than can alcohol or prussic acid For the is a description which needs amplification, in order to fulfil the | fact that they are strongly entrenched in us at birth we are net responsible. Nor are we responsible, for the fact thatthe requirements of theological doctrine.

‘i

ted

ee |

one rst;

SS conduct, the one | tinue to assert themselves clamorously, after will and sors

the forthcomingness of a law, | have been acquir

i

of which sin is transgression; or of a mark, of which sin is the | though it is ei

aie oot orfie

ni

h

ai

missing. Moral law is a social acquisition; and knowledge of it is | that death alone can cure.” Temptation,

socially mediated, not innate to the individual. It is only when we | is temptability a sign

of ‘inful

Ce

thic E begin to find certain kinds of behaviour expected of us, as what | But before th we owe, and become spectators of our conduct from the point of Geiss withthe oo

view from which others see us, that conscience emerges in us. It | indeed

N

iderations:

eee aoa: a

oa

AE Eo

RE

E DEEE

to call oe they now possess, it was usual, and

pi age a E is not inborn, like instinct; nor does the soul possess it before expressions “inherited sin”rear embodiment. We are born non-moral, not sinners. Further, St. | have framed and tau htth toa ee Paul’s teaching, that where no law is, sin cannot be imputed needs though not uni i E O Oea a ane geen, d.€ to be supplemente ppi

en willing to allow that original sin is cS : iti This brings of | not sin proper, and that, unlike actual sin. it i g us to th e second condition

the possibility of sin. In order that an individual be accountable, | moral responsibilit

it is not enough that there is moral law forthcoming

whether | “sin” in but a fi

primitive customs or unconditional standards of Christian ethic; | of the old n

he must be aware of them as binding on himself, and must be in| ministerin

and | it. It i et

a a

toT f

a position to perceive his act to be a shortcoming at the time of its | the sense of sae occurrence. This reference to time is also essential. For instance, | be called sin. The ae

ee

ee

ae

pone peu

a a

E

A

g

Uee thar retention

eee is “original” in ae ee fai ae yy, cannot icy

condition ner eco ibili ahr knows, aa law as he aor is no suchhecna heathen who Chrisdan pots poe a may be blameless 1ay al asa toye sinner auainer Ged is volition, ie of th e possibility of sinful activity and inhe become a Christian and learn a higher ethic, he cannot then | and lo

ae pea

undone what, had he been a Christian he should have done. The | authorities

h

capacity to choose between higher

rightly accuse himself of guilt, in that, in his heathen past, he left | the dering! itas has been recognized throughout the history of aa

conduct of the infant that knows no law, or that of the adult | our birth a heathen who obeys some law but knows not the highest,

i

cannot

eae

if there be in us, as some

a moral taint that cleaves to us at

conscious ae ae oe the origin of which must be beyond the

reise of our freedom of will; an abiding root of sin,

SIN—SINAI which a man finds present in himself when his moral consciousness awakes; it must be brought by the soul itself, and have been contracted voluntarily in a life previous to the soul’s embodiment. This speculative view has found supporters here and there down the ages; but we have no knowledge as to such life, and certainly, if the soul possessed such moral volition before embodiment, it must somehow have become dispossessed of it on entering into this life, because psychology can trace the development of volition and conscience which, at birth, are absent. This suggestion, like all other forms of doctrine of a fall, whether of the race collectively or of each soul singly, has doubtless been cherished because it has seemed difficult to many minds to account otherwise for the prevalence—often assumed to be strictly universal—of sinfulness throughout mankind; also, perhaps, because it seems to explain the emergence of moral evil in God’s good world. But, as for the former of these motivations, it is enough to know that the race has solidarity in respect, not of ready-made sin, but of the nonmoral appetites, etc. which prompt the will to evil choice. As for the latter of them, any kind of fall such as is invoked to account for racial sinfulness, would seem only to put the difficulty further back, not to eliminate it. Evil must have entered into the human world somehow and at some time, whether in Adam, or in Satan,

or in each soul in a previous life; and that presents just the same difficulty as does the origination of sin in each man in this life. Indeed, in the case of the theory that sin originated in a previous

793

valley, Sin was naturally regarded as the head of the pantheon. It is to this period that we must trace such designations of the god as “father of the gods,” “chief of the gods,” “creator of all things,” and the like. The development of astrological science culminating in a calendar and in a system of interpretation of the movements and occurrences in the starry heavens would be an important factor in maintaining the position of Sin in the pantheon. The name of Sin’s chief sanctuary at Ur was E-gish-shir-

gal, “house of the great light”; that at Harran was known as E-khul-khul, “house of joys.” On seal-cylinders he is represented as an old man with flowing beard, with the crescent as his symbol. In the astral-theological system he is represented by the number 30, and the planet Venus as his daughter by the number 15. The number 30 stands obviously in connection with the thirty days as the average extent of his course until he stands again in conjunction with the sun. The “wisdom” personified by the moongod is likewise an expression of the science of astrology in which the observation of the moon’s phases is so important a factor. The tendency to centralize the powers of the universe leads to the establishment of the doctrine of a triad consisting of Sin, Shamash and Ishtar (q.v.), personifying the moon, sun and Venus. Nabunidus, the last king of Babylonia, inaugurated a movement to elevate the cult of Sin to the supreme place in religion, a movement clearly based upon astrological and astronomical theory that the triad, moon, sun and Venus are the controlling forces of divine providence. There is no doubt but that the emphasis placed upon moon worship by Sargon of Agade is due to his Semitic connection; in Arabia and throughout the Semitic races of Western Asia the moon god was from the beginning the most important deity. The consort of Sin was Ningal, to whom a special temple was built at Ur, and her cult was widely known in Syria where her name appears as Nikal. The cult of the Babylonian Sin seems to have been particularly favoured by the Assyrian colony in Cappadocia in the 21st~19th centuries, and among the Hittites of Anatolia and Syria.

life, the difficulty would seem to be increased. For had we all been in the same case as Milton’s Satan, to account for all sinning without exception, each being the Adam of his own soul, and that before embodiment, is hardly possible; whereas our bodily nature supplies the motives which make our sinfulness explicable enough, however condemnable it be. On the other hand, the traditional doctrine that we all owe our sinfulness to the sin of the first parent of the race, either offends our moral consciousness and sense of responsibility or else confounds sinfulness with the non-moral “material” out of which our will makes sin. BreriocraPHy —E. G. Pery, Hymnen und Gebete an Sin (Leipzig, Sin has, so far, been dealt with only in its elemental aspects and its earliest stages. It is, in fact, there that we encounter the 1907); S. Langdon, Oxford Editions of Cuneiform Texts, Vol. VI. (Paris, 1927); A. Jeremias, Handbuch der altorientalischen Geisteskulcontroversial issues, and the features of the problem that present tur (Leipzig, 1913), pp. 240-248. (S. L.) most difficulty and most interest for theology. The more advanced SINAI, the mountain which has given its name to the and complex stages present no further disputable issues. But it should be observed that from the dawn of volition, of thought or “Sinaitic peninsula,” the triangle lying between Egypt, South ideation, and of morality, our blind springs of action cease to be Palestine, Arabia and the Red sea. The mountain is famous in blind. When imbued with volitional response, they become desires, the Old Testament for the law-giving to Moses and the Israelites and eventually personal attitudes. Actions engender habits; emo- when they entered into covenant relations with the God who had tions establish sentiments; and so on. We soon discover that delivered them from Egypt (Ex. xix. seg.). The events, which are appetites, the satisfaction of which yields pleasure, can be stimu- the preludes to the’ journeys into Palestine, stand at the head lated, in order to be enjoyed. Hunger may be voluntarily trans- of the national history of Israel; and Sinai and other places to formed into gluttony, sensibility into voluptuousness; and as the south of Palestine (Kadesh, Edom, Mt. Seir, Paran, Midian) knowledge and experience widen the lengths to which “making are firmly established in tradition as, in some sense, the true provision for the flesh” can be carried, become indefinitely ex- home of the national god Yahweh (Deut. xxxiii. 2., Judges, v. 5, tended. But it is not necessary to follow further the development Hab. iii. 3, Ps. Ixviii. 8). Mt. Sinai, whose name connects it with the old Babylonian of the intricacy of the moral life of man; the essentials for a sound psychology of sin are manifested, and can be most clearly moon-god Sin, is also known as Horeb (1 Ki. viii. 9, Mal. iv. 4, studied, in the primary moral situations to which attention has etc.) : and not only is the site disputed, but it is possible that they were originally two mountains, which later harmonizing tradition here been almost exclusively directed. LITERATURE.—For a critical account of the main theories and treatment from the standpoint of sin-consciousness, see W. E. Orchard,

has combined. It has long been felt difficult to suppose that the Sinaitic peninsula could have been the scene of the wanderings of the immense body of Israelites, as described, and a careful study of the biblical narratives has raised questions which have

SIN, the name of the moon-god in Sumerian, derived from gu-en, usually written en-zu, “lord of wisdom.” He became one of the principal deities of the (Semitic) Babylonian pantheon, and only in the period of the later West Semitic occupation (22nd18th centuries) is found any trace of the pure Semitic cult of the moon god, when the title ‘ammu, hammu “uncle” appears. As god of the new moon he has the title šeš-ki, “brother of the earth,” pronounced by the Semites Nannar>Nanna. The chief seats of his worship were Ur in the South and Harran in northern Assyria, but the cult at an early. period spread to other centres, and temples to the moon-god aré found in all the large cities of Babylonia and Assyria. Duritigthe period (c. 2399-2282 B.c.) that Ur exercised a large measum of supremacy over the Euphrates

not yet been adequately answered. Analysis has made it probable that Kadesh-Barnea (50 m. S. of Beersheba) was the scene of some of the most important incidents now placed at Sinai, and the mount of the law-giving, or, perhaps, more especially Mt. Horeb,

Modern Theories of Sin (1909). For a discussion of sin on the lines indicated above, see F. R. Tennant, Tke Concept of Sin (7972) =

should possibly be looked for in Midian, east of the Gulf of

Akaba. (See JETHRO.): The northern part of the Simaitic peninsula has the ancient oft-trod road between Egypt and Palestine, one of the most famous in all history. Farther south is the bare and gradually

rising region known-as'the wilderness of et-Tih (“wandering”). Two very important roads meet at the station of el-Nakhl, one

running from Suez eastward to Akaba (the pilgrim road); another from Gaza southwards, opening out into various parts of the

704

SINAIA

the alphabet (g.v.). mountainous district of Sinai itself. Here, the Jebel Serbal | of The resources of the peninsula would obviously attract the (6,750 ft.) and the Jebel Musa (7,359 ft.) compete for the honour attention of peoples other than those of Egypt and Babylonia. : of being the mount of the law-giving. et III. (XIIth Dynasty) and Queen Hatshepshut Amenemh The There is no genuine pre-Christian tradition on the subject. Serabit, and with the chief authority for the ancient sanctity of Mt. Sinai is Antoninus Martyr (end of the 6th century A.D.), who tells that the heathen Arabs in his time still celebrated a moon feast there. As Sin was

a moon-god, the feast has been connected with the name of Sinal.

Of Arab origin, too, are the innumerable ‘Sinaitic inscriptions,

(XVIIIth Dynasty) industriously exploited

of Ramessids traces of Egypt come to an end. But the invasion Egypt by the Hyksos (whose seat was at the Delta city of Avaris) comes between the first and second of these periods, while the third

marks the decline of Egypt and the increase of Semitic power.

the wealth of the peninsula found especially in the Wady Mokatteb (in the north-west), and It is very unlikely, therefore, that peninsula was the meetingThe Egypt. by only ed appreciat was and language The drawings. rude sometimes accompanied by exposed, on the north, to was It . influences diverse of place character are Aramaic (Natabaean), but the proper names are of the eastern Mediterranean. peoples other and Philistine Aegean, the on names their graved by passing who Arabs, of mainly those rds from Gath, rocks. That they were pilgrims to Sinai cannot be made out with The “land of the Philistines” extended southwa 8-11); and xxvii. Sam. 1 23, ii. Deut. xxvi., (Gen. certainty. The inscriptions date from the early centuries of the Gaza and Gerar the markedly unfound are ts hereabou that hy notewort is it Christian era. In early Christian times, when the peninsula was

once better wooded, many anchorites inhabited Sinai, living for

the most part in the caves, which are numerous even in the primitive rocks. Monasteries were built, the most famous being the

great one of St. Catherine in Wady el-Dér (the valley of the monastery).

On Serbal, too, there were many granite dwellings,

and in the neighbouring

Pharan

(Phoenicion), which was

a

bishop’s see, there were, as the ruins show, churches and convents. Josephus says that Sinai was the highest mountain of the district—a description which might apply to Serbal as seen from the plain below. Eusebius uses expressions which may also seem to point to Serbal as the place of the law-giving; whereas the tradition which seeks the holy site in the group of Jebel Misa (i.e., the mass of which Mt. Catherine is the highest peak) is not older than the time of Justinian, and, on the whole, in spite of some good authorities, is of less value.

The southern half of the peninsula was famed for its stone, and its mines of copper and turquoise (malachite). At the Wady Maghara and Serabit el-Khadem the Egyptians have left abundant traces of settlements which testify to the constant exploitation of the turquoise mines from the Ist Dynasty onwards. Sinai, too, may have been the land of Magan, whence the Babylonians obtained stone as early as the days of Naram-Sin. In any case the peninsula as a whole must have had considerable strategical and economic importance from very ancient times. It is of special Interest, therefore, that remains were found at Serabit of a highly developed cult in connection with the mines. The place has been described by Sir W. M. Flinders Petrie (1905). Although King Snefru, the last of the IlIrd Dynasty, came to be regarded as a sort of tutelary deity, the real guardian was the goddess Hathor, the “lady (or mistress) of turquoise.” Her shrine was in a cave, in front of which buildings ran out for a distance of 250 feet. Ad-

joining the cave was the shrine of Sopdu, the lord of the deserts, and among the more noteworthy indications of an ancient and long-enduring cult was an enormous mass of ashes (estimated at 50 tons) in front of the cave, though the purpose of the ceremonial burnings is unknown. As Petrie recognized, Hathor represents some Semitic deity. Her cult was Semitic and not Egyptian, and was earlier than any known in Palestine or Arabia. Her Semitic title “baalath” (on

Semitic names (Kadesh-) Barnea, Ziklag and ‘Amalek (perhaps an Arab plural of some such form as ‘Amlak), It is not known whether they point to Philistine or related influence. (See PHILIsTINES.) They do not seem to be Egyptian, although Egyptian influence can be traced as far east as Tema (Teima) in North Arabia. Egypt (see Mizrarm) would lay claim to the whole peninsula, and the “Wady of Egypt” (el-Arish) formed the northem end of the boundary. (Cf, 1 Ki. viii. 65.) None the less, the peninsula was Semitic rather than Egyptian, and was occupied by

tribes with South Palestinian connections.

Biblical tradition

groups all these under Hagar and Ishmael, Esau, Edom,

Mt.

Seir and the Horites, and Abraham’s concubine Keturah. Moreover, the Horite name Lotan, with which Lot, the ancestor of

Ammon and Moab, may no doubt be connected, seems to be an echo of Retenu, an Egyptian name for Palestine; and whether this be so or not, the fact that men of Retenu are explicitly mentioned in Egyptian inscriptions of the XIIth Dynasty at Serabit, unites the peninsula naturally with the Semites of Palestine. How the name Sinai arose can hardly be determined. There is

a wilderness of Sin (Exod. xvi. 1)—Zin (Deut. xxxii. 51, etc.) is quite different—and Sin (Ezek. xxx. 15; old Egyptian sinw), situated at or near Pelusium, may have the same meaning. The appearance of the old Babylonian moon-god Sin in this part of the Semitic world is as striking as that of Baal-Zephon, the ‘‘Mountain of the north,” by the Red Sea (see Exod. xiv. 2), and of Mt. Nebo in Moab (Deut. xxxii. 49, seg.). These names, with the pemitic cult at Serabit, and the remains of a more or less contemporary sanctuary at ed-Dra, in Moab, point to some definite religious culture long before Israelite times. Sin, the moon-god, had his most famous seats at Ur in Babylonia and at Harran in North Syria; and when, in the 6th century B.C., Nabonidus interested himself in the moon-cult at these places, he also visited Teima in North Arabia—presumably fdr the same reason. Hebrew tradition claimed, through Abraham (g.v.), an early relationship with both Ur and Harran, and some evidence has been adduced by scholars to suggest that Yahweh, the god of Israel, was probably once regarded as a maon-god. Pp. 249, seg.) Yet while the moon-cult

(See Burney, Judges, seems to have been particularly prominent in early Semitic religion, and in the Sinaitic area, it is not the moon-god but the sun-god who, as god of justice,

which see Baat) was subsequently read upon some remarkable inscribed monuments written in characters which come between would be most naturally associated with a law-giving, even as it the Egyptian hieroglyphs and ancestral Semitic and European al- is from the sun-god Shamash that the Babylonian law-giver Hamphabets. They are of the XVIJIIth Dynasty, and possibly the murabi received his great code. The religious history of the XIIth; and although the inscriptions still defy complete decipher- Sinaitic area goes back to a remote date, and is pre-Israelite; but ment, the supposition that they were by, or refer to, the Israelites the biblical narratives have their own national traditions of its is—as yet at least—as baseless as an early view that the Aramaean significance for them, and these must be subjected to a critical “Semitic inscriptions,” mentioned above, had a like origin. The analysis. (See Aaron, Moses, Exopus, Numpers and HEBREW script is of exceptional interest for the problem of the alphabet. RELIGION,) It is disputed whether it is to be regarded as the actual ancestor

of the two great branches: (1) the South Arabian, (2) the North

Semitic (Phoenician, etc.) and the Greek, or whether it is only one of other forms once current before the types became fixed. In any event, since the Sinaitic peninsula touches the Delta and the South Palestinian towns of Rhinocolura (el-‘Arish) and Gaza, both of which were in contact with North Arabia and the Levant, its situation makes it a natural centre for the rise and distribution

Brsriocrapey.—sSee

Petrie

(and

Currelly),

Researches

in Sinai

(1906); L. Eckenstein, History of Sinai (1921), For the inscriptions at Serabit, see in the first instance, the articles by A. N. Gardiner and by Cowley in the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, iii., r, seq. . A. C.)

SINAIA, a town of Rumania, on the railway from Ploesci to

Brasov in Transylvania. Pop. (1928), 67400. Sinaia resembles a large model village, widely scattered-atingjag the pine forests of the lower Carpathians, and along the banks of the Prahova, a swift

SINALOA—SINCLAIR alpine stream. The monastery of Sinaia, founded by Prince Michael Cantacuzino in 1695, was the residence of the royal family until the present chateau was built. Its library contains valuable jewels belonging to the Cantacuzene family. Castle Peles, the modern palace, named after the hill on which it stands, is of a mixed style of architecture on the whole Germanic. Until

1850 Sinaia consisted of little more than the monastery and a group of huts.

SINALOA, a State of Mexico, on the Gulf of California,

with a coast line of nearly 400 miles.

Area, 27,557 sq.m.

Pop.

(1910), 323,642; (1921), 341,265. The surface consists of a narrow coastal zone where tropical conditions prevail, a broad belt of mountainous country covered by the ranges of the Sierra Madre Occidental and their intervening valleys where oak and pine forests are to be found, and an intervening zone among the foothills of the Sierra Madre up to an elevation of 2,cooft., where the conditions are subtropical. The State is traversed by numerous streams, the largest of which have broad valleys among the foothills. The largest of these are the Culiacan, Fuerte and Sinaloa, the last two having short navigable courses across the lowlands.

Rain is plentiful everywhere, except in the extreme north, where the conditions are arid. The climate of the low-lying coast lands is hot; however, in the mountains it is cool and healthy. Cereals and mezcal are produced on the uplands, and sugar, rum, coffee, tobacco, grape spirits and fruit in the lower zones. There are excellent cotton lands in the State and the production of this staple was largely developed during the American Civil War, but has since declined. In recent years large quantities of tomatoes have been raised, chiefly for the American market. Grazing receives considerable attention in the uplands, where the temperature is favourable and the pasturage good, and hides are largely

exported. Mining, however, is the chief industry, Sinaloa being one of the richest mineral-producing States in the republic. Gold, silver, copper,

iron and lead are

found.

There

are also salt

deposits and mineral springs. The best-known silver mines are the Rosario, from which about $90,000,000 had been extracted up to the last decade of the roth century, and the Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de los Reyes, discovered early in the roth century and yielding over $85,000,000 before its close. The forest products of the State include rubber, resins, cabinet and dye-woods, orchilla and ixtle fibre. Up to the beginning of the 2oth century Sinaloa had only one short railway, which connected Ctfacén with its port Altata. Since then the Mexican branch of the (American) Southern Pacific railway from Nogales to Guaymas has been extended south-east along the coast to connect the railways of central Mexico. Sinaloa has excellent natural harbours, only two of which —Mazatlin and Altata—are much used. The Bays of Agiobampo and Topolobampo are prospective railway terminals with fine

harbours. The capital of the State is Culiacán Rosales (commonly called Culiacán), on the Culiacán river 39 m. from its port, Altata, at the mouth of the same river, with which it is connected by rail. It is a well-built town, with some thriving manufactures,

including cotton goods, cigarettes, liqueurs, etc. It is the see of a bishop and has a fine cathedral. Culiacán (pop. in 1910, 13,527;

1921, 16,034) is the distributing centre for a large district be-

tween Guaymas and Mazatlán.

The next most important town is

Mazatlán (pop: 25,254) one of the leading ports of Mexico on the Pacific coast, and the commercial centre for S. Sinaloa and N. Durango. Other towns are Mocorito (pop. 3,757 in 1921), Sinaloa (pop. 1,666 in 1921), and Fuerte (pop. 2,836 in 1921), all in the N° of the State, Rosario (pop. 7,050 in 1921), and San Ignacio (pop. 1,635 in 1921) in the South. SINCLAIR, the name of an old Scottish family, members of which have held the titles of earl of Orkney and earl of Caithness. The word is a variant of Saint Clair. Sır WILLIAM SINCLAIR, or SAINT CLAIR (¢. 1260-c. 1303), was the descendant of a line of Anglo-Norman barons, one of whom

obtained the barony of Rosslyn from King David I. in the rath

century. Sir William took part in the dispute over the succession

to the crown of Scotland in 1292, and was one of the leaders of the Scots in their revolt against Edward I. His grandson Sm Wir-

LIAM

SINcLAIR, was slain by the Saracens in August

1330,

795

while journeying through Spain to Palestine with Sir James Douglas, the bearer of the heart of Bruce. This Sir William Sinclair married Isabel, daughter of Malise, earl of Strathearn,

Caithness and Orkney (d. c. 1350), and their son Sir Henry Sinclair (d. c. 1400) obtained the earldom of Orkney by a judgment of the Norwegian king Haakon VI. in 1379. He then helped to conquer the Faeroe Islands, and took into his service the Venetian travellers, Niccolo and Antonio Zeno, sailing with Antonio to Greenland. Wruttam, the 3rd earl of his line, whose earldom of Orkney was a Norwegian dignity, was made chancellor of Scotland in 1454 and Lord Sinclair and earl of Caithness in 1455. When in 1470 the Orkney Islands were ceded by Norway to King James ITI. he resigned all his rights therein to his sovereign and was known merely as earl of Caithness. His eldest son, William, having offended his father by his wasteful habits, the earl settled his earldom on his eldest son by another marriage, also called William, who was killed at Flodden in 1513. The elder William, however, inherited the title of Lord Sinclair, and the family was thus split into two main branches.

GEORGE, 4th earl of Caithness (c. 1525-1582), a son of the 3rd earl, was a Roman Catholic and a supporter of Mary Queen of Scots, but he was mainly occupied with acts of violence in the north of Scotland. His grandson George, the sth earl (c. 15661643), was outlawed and compelled to fly to the Shetlands. He left many debts, and his great-grandson and successor, George, the 6th earl (d. 1676), who was childless, arranged that his estates should pass to a creditor, Sir John Campbell, afterwards earl of Breadalbane. Campbell was created earl of Caithness in 1677, but the title was also claimed by George Sinclair (d. 1698), a grandson of the sth earl, and in 1681 the privy council decided in his favour. When Alexander, the oth earl, died in 1765 the title was suc-

cessfully claimed by William Sinclair (d. 1779), a descendant of the 4th earl, who became the roth earl. The title of Lord Sinclair passed from William, the 2nd lord, who died about 1488, to John (1610-1676), who became the gth lord in 1615. At first a covenanter, afterwards he became a royalist, and was taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester. He died without male issue and the title became dormant. His estates, however, passed to his grandson, Henry St. Clair (1660-1723), the son of his daughter Catherine (d. 1666) and her husband, John St. Clair of Herdmanston, and in 1677 Henry was created Lord Sinclair with the precedence of the older title. He had two sons, John Sinclair (1683-1750) the Jacobite, and James Sinclair, who became a general in the British army, and was also ambassador at Vienna and Turin and a member of parliament for many years. After the attainder of John, in consequence of his share in the rising of 1715, the family estates were settled on James, but he resigned them to his elder brother when the latter was pardoned in 1726. The pardon, however, did not include the restoration of the title. Earlier in life John Sinclair had killed a man named Shaw in a duel and had afterwards shot this man’s brother. He was tried by court-martial and sentenced to death, but was

pardoned. An account of the proceedings ın the court-martial was edited by Sir Walter Scott for the Roxburghe Club (Edinburgh, 1828). Sinclair himself wrote Memoirs of the Rebellion, published by the Roxburghe Club in 1858. Neither of the brothers left male issue, and the title devolved upon a cousin, Charles St. Clair (d. 1775), who was not included in the attainder. Charles did not claim it, but in 1782 his grandson Charles (1768-1863) was declared to be Lord Sinclair. He was a Scottish representative peer from 1807 to 1859 and is the ancestor of the present holder of the title. See Sir R. Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by Sir J. B. Paul; G. E. (Cokayne), Complete Peerage; Sinclair, The Sinclairs of

England 1887) ; Sir R. Gordon and G. Gordon, The Earldom of Sutherland (Edinburgh, Roslin (1835).

SINCLAIR,

1813), and Hay, Genealogy

SIR

JOHN,

Barr.

of the Sinclairs of

(1754-1835),

Scottish

writer on finance and agriculture, was the eldest son of George Sinclair of Ulbster, a member of the family of the earls of Caith-

ness, and was born at Thurso Castle on May 10, 1754. After

studying at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Trinity College, Oxford, he

..

SINCLAlR---SIND,

was admitted to the faculty of advocatu in Scotland, and c:a1led a.c.). At his death (313 a.c.) SiDd paued to Selncus Nillator, to tbe English bar, but never practlsed.. Ia I78o be was returned who yielded it m 305 te � miator of tbe first� to parliament for Caithness, and subsequently represented several based on the Ganaea lowland. After :a pUle of BuddlUst W.U,. ED,lish constituencies, his parliamentary career extending, with ence under Aso1ca (272-232 a.c.), came inroads fftllll west ad few interruptions, until xsu. Be established at Edinburgh a north. A Sudra d)'DUty ruling from the Salt ranp to tbe .sea, society for the improvement of British wool, and was the 6.tst with capital at Aror (Alor), waa followed by Brahman rule (7th president of the board of agriculture. Bll reputation as a 6nancier century A.D.) and hlamic invasion (711) under Muhammad. ,BOD and economist had been established by the publication, in 1784t of Kaslm. The Invasion was by sea, from the mouth of the Indus; of his History of the Public Revenue of the British. Empire; in and for nearly three centuries ,Sind remained nominally ,IQbject 1793 widespread ruin was prevented by the adopt ion of his plan to the Arab caliphs. Though conquered by Mabmud of Ghuo.i, for the issue of exchequer bills; and it was on his advice that, in who l'fdded into India, Sind long remained semi-independent, 1797, Pitt issued the "loyalty loan'' of eighteen millions for the under local dynasties, the Summand the 5am.m&&, both R.ajput, prosecution of the war. His services to scientific agriculture were but Mohammedans in religion. The latter had their capital at no less conspicuous. He supervised the compilati on of the valuable Tatta, in the Indus delta, a seaport untU the 18th century. The Statistical Account of Scotland (21 vols., 1791-1799), and also Sammas were followed by the Arahuns, of foteiBQ origin, and the• that of the Genefal Re;o,t of Scotland, issued by the board of Arghuns bi the short-lived Turkhan dynasty. It was not till the agriculture: and from the reports compiled by this society he time of Ak6ar, himself born at Umarkot, in Sind, that the province published in 1819 his Code of Agriculture. was regularly incorporated in the Delhi empire. When that empire Originally a thorough supporter of Pitt's war policy,·he later on broke up, on the death of Aurangzeb, local dynasties again arose. joined the party of " ar med neutrality." In x8os he was appointed The tirst of these was the Kalhoras, succeeded by the Talpurs, by Pitt a commi ssioner for th e construction of roads and bridge s of Baluch descent, who were ruling under the title of Mirs, with in the N. of Scotland, in x8xo he was made a privy councillor and, capital at Hyderabad, at the coming of the British. The East India company had es tablished a factory at Tatta in x8n, commission er of excise. He died Dec. 21, t83S· See Correspondence of tlJtt Right Bon. Sir John Sinclair, Bart., with 1758; but the Talpur mirs were never friendly to trade, and the Reminiscence� of Distinguished Characters (z voJs., I831) ; and factory was withdrawn in 1775. In 1830 Alexander Burnes was Memoirs of the Life and Works of the Right Bon. Sir John Sinclair permitted to pass up the Indus on his way to the court of Ranjit (2 vols., Edinburgh, I837). Singh at Lahore, and two years later Henry Pottinger concluded ) , American author, was a commercial treaty with the mira. In the expedition to Afghanis­ SINCLAIR, UPTON (1878bom in Baltimore, Md., on Sept. 20, 1878. He was educated at tan in 1838 for the restoration of Shah Shuja, the British army the City College of New York (A.B. 1897) and pursued graduate under Sir John Keane marched through Sind, and the mirs were study at Columbia university. He tirst won wide recognition by compelled to accept a treaty by which they paid a tribute to his novel The Jungle (1906), a powerful realistic study of social Shah Shuja, surrendered the fort of Bukkur to the British, and conditions in the stockyards and packing plants of Chicago. It allowed a steam flotilla to navigate the Indus. In 1842 Sir Charles aided the momentum which resulted ultimately in the passage of Napier arrived in Sind and fresh terms were imposed on the mirs. the Pure Food Laws. Other important novels were The Joumal of The Baluch army resented this loss of independence, and attacked Arthur Stirling (1903); Manassas (1904); Lo'IJe's Pilgrimage the residency near Hyderabad, which was bravely defended by (19I1) and Oil (1927), the last-named a more mature work and Outram. Then followed the decisive battle of Miini and the of greater breadth of vision than The Jungle. Sinclair 's investiga­ annexation of Sind. tion of the Colorado coal strike in 1913 focused the attention of Solll and Alrieulture-Forty per cent of the people are the na tion on the affair and brought results. The situation was cultivators, xo% live on income from land, and many are pas­ afterwards used in the novel King Coal (1917). Between 1917 toralists; about 2% depend on arts and industries. The generally and 1927 he wrote a series of pamphlets on aspects of American tine fertile alluvium is coarser towards the north and it there life, The Profits of Religion (1918); The Brass Check (1919), a retains moisture better and is easier to plough; the south rarely study of j ournalism ; Tlee Goose-Step (1923), and Tl�e Goslings yields the rich ha rvests of the north. All regions are liable to (1924) dealing with education; Mammonart (1925); and Money deposition of KaJar salts; this reduces fertility, and land seriously Writes (1927). He has also written a number of plays of which infested is useless. The worst effects of kaJar are to be seen in Singing Jailbirds (1924) is most effective. Sinclair interprets the fine-textured soils of southern Sind. Towards the desert parts American life in terms of a "class struggle," and his socialist con· of Thar and Parkar the soil approximates increas ingly to pure victions often inter fere with his work as art. sand, fertile only if well manured and watered. The richest of all See Floyd Dell, Upton Sinclair (1927). soil is that resulting from recent inundation (Kach.o). SIND, a province included within, and comprising the most northerly part of the Bombay presidency. Lying between 23° 35' 1924-25 192$-26 and 28° 29' N., and 71° xo' E., it stands apart both pbysically Thousands of acres and historically. Its key position in the west of India, bordering Net area cropped Baluchistan, m ust be considered in its relations, varying with the Current fallOws centuries, to the Persian gulf and the Iranian plateaux, the steppe Uncultivated deserts on the north and the monsoon regions on the south. The Total area area of Sind is 52,994 sq.m. and its population (1921) 3,472,529. These figures are inclusive of the native State of KhairRur (6,oso Fallows must be interpreted widely, i.e., as land occupied for sq.m., pop. �3,152) as well as the seven districts of Karachi, Hyderabad, Thar and Parkar, Nawabshah, Larkana, Sukkur, and cultivation. It is not necessarily economically cultivable. Upper Sind Frontier, which the province embraces. Ph)'licall'eaturea-It includes: (x) Sind proper, the alluvial (b) Col. (b) .. (4) plain created and watered by the Indus; ( 2) the Kohiatan, or hilly Year Area irrlg. Net area. per cent. country west of the Indus, extending between ltarachi and Schwan c&Dals (lovt. of (4) cropped and rising northwards to the Kirthar range, which carries the Thousands of &c:rel fronti er between Sind and Baluchistan; (3) the R.eglstan or Tbar 1,238 1.4'10 84·2 :rsas-86 desert, spreading eastwards from the Nara river into Rajputana. .

b�

(See INDIAN DBSUT, as also for CUfPtll.le.)

z&o$"96

llhtorJ-New data concerning prehistoric India's relations with the West are accumulating, but c:b.anges of the Indus cban· Dels make it diJiicult to picture even the Sind of Alexander (,sas

1904-os 1015-16 1924-25

1925'16

.

:a,6ss 3·357 3,254 4,425

$,946

Note: This page from 1929 edition.

:apoq

t,SO:a

;:m

:a,84o

75'7 83•5 90"2

6oo6

72•0

SIND •

Iniption ill Sind is virtually s)'llouymous with c:a.Da1 irriptiou. Tlws the total ana lrriptedtfrom all aourcea In 1915-26 was .s,ot6,ooo acres. Tbe above iprea indicate an iDcrease in the area watered, but they also point to the ftuctuatinc nature of the supply. Sipificant agricultural progreas in the province must wait upon the replacement of the present capridoUI water aupply by assured qUIDtities. The primary object of the Sukkur barrage il to effect this. (Se� INDIAN DznRT.) There are two prin cipal cultivating aeaaons, khan/ and rabl. In general, the former ex· tends normally from. the beginning of June to the end of October, and coincides for the fint three months with the height of the IndUI inundation. Ordiaarily, the rabi season covers the period early October to the close of March. The chief kbarif crops are rice, millet• (bajri and jowar) and cotton, wheat, pulses, oilseeds, barley and vegetables constitute the main rabi sowings. Rice, the main crop, occupies in an average crop year about t! million acres. It is particularly identified with two tracts; one in northern Sind centring in Larkana, where the finest is grown, and the other in southern Sind, centring in Hyderabad. The former acco unts for about one-third, the latter a good one· fifth, of the total rice acreage. Bajri and jO'Wa1' are the main food of the working classes. The former is the more wholesome, and occupies about a million acres, while jowar is grown over about half this area. Thar and :Parkar is the main seat of bajri; jowar is identified particularly with northern Sind. Here also wheat is found, which rivals jowar in the ar ea it normally occupies. Oth er cereals are insignificant. Among pul ses, matar (chickling vetch ) , grown in northern districts, is the chief. Rape and jambho (a variety of mustard ) are noteworthy oilseeds; they are fairly wide­ spread outside the desert, and the average area occupied by the two crops together exceeds 300,000 acres. Cotton stands fourth in a rea among kharif crops, being surpassed by rice, bajri and jowar only . It is gr own on about 400,000 ac., and is limited entirely to the left bank of t he Indus, where it reaches its maxi­ mum development under the Eastern Nara canal system. Investigations have been recommended into possibili tie s of cotton cultivation, when the Sukkur barrage extends i rrigati on, to the w est of the Indus, in spite of the great heat. Grasses and fodder crops are less important for the Sind pas· toralist than shrubs and trees. The best milch cows of Sind are famous, and much s ought after throughout India, and her buffa· loes, sustained on the swampy tracts in the delta, are the basis of a large export of ghi ( clarified butter). The camel-the main beast of burden in the province-thrives on salt marsh feed, and the abundance of poor dry land, together with the billy tracts, support large sheep and goat herds. Small hardy horses are also in evidence, and Upper Sind br eeds mares. Mules, asses and bullocks are well represented. Fauna.-Wild animals , hyaena, the gUI'khar or wild ass (in the south of the Thar and Parkar district), the wolf, jackal, fox, wild hog, antelope, pharho or bog deer, hares and porcupines. Of birds of prey, the vulture and several varieties of falcon may be men· tioned. The flamin go, pelican, s tork, crane and Egyptian ibis f requent the shores of the delta. Besides these there are the ubtira (bustard) or tilUI', the rock-grouse, quail, partridge and various kinds of pa rrots . Waterfowl are plentiful; in the cold season the lakes or dlw.ndhs are covered with wild geese, kulang, ducks, teal, curlew and snipe. Among other animals to be noted are scorpions, lizards, centipedes and man y snakes. l'orest.-Aridity limits forest to c. 1,200 sq.m. near the Indus from Gbotki to the mid-delta. Babul (Acacia tWbica) is most characteristic in Lower Sind and yields fuel and timber for boats; its bark is used for tanning and 1ts leaves and pods are fodder for camel and goat. Kandi (Prosopis spidgera) gives fuel and fodder, Bahan (Populus euphralica) building timber and lacquer wood, and Tamarisk (lai or Tamarix gallica, and jhao or T. dioica ) fuel and wood for turning and for farm implements. The Baban­ tamarisk zone is on land subject to flood, the Kandi zone is farthest from the river, the Babul zone is intermediate. The lower delta is without forest, apart from mangrove growths used for fuel and fodder. Tamarind and T"'ali (Dalbergfa Sissoo) have been Introduced, the latter into the north. Arid and dune areas ·

show crowth of herbs and shrubs, often adapted to salt conditicma. KaaufacturiAI Il1duttrlei.-Sind remains well known for its famous pottery and tiles, leather and lacquer work, carpets and ailk embroidery, though all• have declined in this age of maddne-tnade goods. Other crafts for which the province wu once renowned, such as armoury work and tlle fashioning of precious metals, are litUe more than a memory. There are numer· ous cotton ginning mills, mainly in Hyderabad, and rice huski111 factories, primarily in Larkana. Karachi and neighbourhood have cotton-presses, metal foundries, bone mills, printing presses, a glass and tlle factory, an arsenal and the railway and Port Trust workshops; taken together , these furnish employmcmt to several thousands. The Karachi district also supplies salt, and a not unimportant industry, having re gard to the number dependent upon it, is the making of mats (phanka) from the rank cruses in the delta. Trade asul Commwdcatlom.-The overseas exports of the provmce embrace, in order of value, raw cotton, whea t , wool, rape seed, flour, unhusked rice, raw skins, bones, and raw hides. Leading imports include cotton manufactures, sugar, rail· way materials and machinery, mineral oil, woollen goods, motor cars and associated items. The chief port is Karachi , the col­ lecting and distributing cen tre for all North India and the focus of a number of trade routt's whicb ram1fy through Afghani­ stan and Central Asia. The o versea s trade of Sind is limited to it; its subordinates, Keti Bandar and Sirganda, only engage in coastal trade, handling, mainly, rice. The coasting trade of Karachi includes, on the import side , benzine and petrol from Burma; cotton twist yam and piece goods from Bombay; gunny bags from Bengal; coconut oil from Madras; c: oal from Bengal; ghi from Baluchistan and Katbiawar; pepper from Travancore and Bombay, a nd teak from Burma. On the export side, the items are similar to the overseas items, with the addition of rice. There is a large re-export of sugar and miner a l oil. Across her land frontiers Sind receives raw cotton and wheat from Punjab and the United Provinces, and Rajputana, which adds wool also; from Asia comes live stock, pastoral produce, carpets and silk. In return, Sind gives of her own staple products in addiUon to what she passes on from overseas. Communicatiom.-Sind is traversed by the North-Western railway, which, entering from Punjab, follows the Indus south· wards and term'inales at Karachi. The Indus is twice bridged, at Rohri, where the main line crosses the river and a branch goes off via Jac obaba d to Sibi and Quetta ; and at Kotri opposite Hyderabad. From the latter place the met re- gauge Jodhpur­ Bikaner railway runs east via Mirpurkhas to link Sind with Raj­ putana; there is one feeder to this route from Hyderabad south to Badin and two from Mirpurkhas, one south to Jhudo and the other north to Kbad ro. A chord line of the North-West railway connects Hyderabad with Rohri, evadin g the erosion of the Indus and serving as an alternative from Karachi to the north-west. The desert portion of the province is accessible only by camels; the "roads" being rou gh tracks of heavy sand. There are few metalled roads anywhere in Sind. In the delta the traffic is almost e ntirely by water. The area is riddled with interlacing cr ee ks, and small boats can make their way at high tide in any direction within a distance of 15 to 20m. from the shore. Numerous ferries serve the Indus river, and, generally speaking, the canals are adequately bridged. Population-At the last census, nearly three quarters of the population of Sind were Sunni Mohammedans, one-quarter Hindus. Caste distinctions are only loosely observed. Broadly, 75% of the people speak Sindhi. Other languages of importance include Rajasthani, Balochi and Punjabi. Gujarati is spoken t owards the south-east in parts of Thar and Parkar, and is also fou nd agam in the city of Karachi. In Karachi, too, and also in Hyderabad and Upper Sind district, a dialect of Sindhi (Siraiki) occurs. ActminlsUatlon-Sind is administered as a non-regulation provmce, under a commissioner, who resides at Karachi. The high est court, independent of the High Court of Bombay, is that of the judicial commissioner, consisting of three judges, one of

Note: This page from 1929 edition.

•

SINDBAD

708

SAILOR—SINDHI

THE

whom must be a barrister specially qualified to deal with mercantile cases. See H. M. Birdwood, The Province of Sind (Society of Arts, 1903);

and Sir Richard Burton, Scinde (1851) ; Gazetteer of Province of Sind, vol. A. (1907) and vol. B. (districts) 1919; Statistical Atlas of Bombay

Presidency (1925) ; J. Abbott, Sind: A Re-interpretation (1924) ; Royal Comm. on Agriculture in India 1928, Evidence taken in Sind, Bull. 150, Dept. of Agric., Bombay (1928). See also INDIAN Desert bibliography.

(A. V. W.)

SINDBAD of Arabic

THE

SAILOR, VOYAGES

travel-romances,

partly based

OF, a collection

upon

experiences

of

oriental navigators (especially in the 8th—-roth centuries); partly upon ancient poetry, Homeric and other; partly upon Indian and Persian collections of mirabilia. In Sindbad’s First Voyage, from Baghdad and Basra, the incident of the Whale-Back island may be compared with the Indian ocean whales of Pliny and Solinus, covering four jugera, and the pristis sea-monster of the same authorities, 200 cubits long. With the Island of the Mares of King Mihraj, or Mihrjan, we may find (rather imperfect) parallels in Homer’s Jliad (the mares impregnated by the wind), in Ibn Khurdadbih and Al Kazwini, and in Wolf’s account of the three Ithas de Cavallos near Ceylon, so called from the wild horses with which they abounded, to which the Dutch East India merchants of the 17th century sometimes sent their mares for breeding purposes. Sindbad’s account of the kingdom of Mihraj (Mihrjan) is perhaps derived from the Two Musulman Travellers of the oth century; it would seem to refer to one of the greater East Indian islands, perhaps Borneo. Sindbad’s Valley of Diamonds has fairly complete parallels in Al Kazwini, in Benjamin of Tudela, in Marco Polo and in the far earlier Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, who died A.D. 403. As to the Mountain, or Island, of Apes in the Third Voyage, Ibn Al Wardi and Idrisi each recognizes an island of tbis kind, the former in the China sea, the latter near Sokotra. Sindbad’s negro cannibal adventure reproduces almost every detail of the Cyclops story in the Odyssey; among the Spice islands, and perhaps at Timor, may be located the island rich in sandal-wood, where the wanderer rejoins his friends. The cannibal land of the Fourth Voyage, producing pepper and coco-nuts, where Sindbad’s companions were offered food which destroyed their reason, has suggested the Andamans to some enquirers and certain districts of Sumatra to others; with this tale we may compare the lotus-eating of the Odyssey, Plutarch’s story of Mark Antony’s soldiers maddened and killed by an “insane” and fatal root in their Parthian wars, a passage @ Davis’s Account of Sumatra in 1599, and more complete parallels in Ibn Al Wardi and Al Kazwini. The burial of Sindbad in, and his escape from, the cavern of the dead is faintly foreshadowed in the story of Aristomenes, the Messenian hero, and in a reference of St. Jerome to a supposed Scythian custom of burying alive with the dead those who had been dear to them; the fully-developed Sindbad tale finds an echo in “Sir John

Mandeville.” we may also of Seyf Zu-l explained as

For the “Old Man of the Sea,” in refer to Al Kazwini, Ibn Al Wardi Yezen; Sindbad’s tyrannical rider one of the huge apes of Borneo

the Fifth Voyage, and the romance has usually been or Sumatra, im-

proved to make a better story. See Richard Hole, Remarks on the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments,

in which the Origin of Sindbad’s Voyages ... is particularly considered (1797); Eusebius Renaudot’s edition of the Two Musulman

Travellers (1718, translated into English, 1733, as Ancient Accounts of India and China by two Mahommedan Travellers . . . in the oth Century); J. T. Reinaud, Relations des voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans VInde et à la Chine dans le IXe siècle (1845): E. W. Lane’s translation of the Arabian Nights (1859), especially the notes in vol. iii. pp. 77-108; M. J. de Goeje, La Légende de Saint

Brandan (1890); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography (1897),

1. 235-238, 438-450.

occupied a peculiarly isolated position, and have in ‘es aac ai common lines of independent- growth. ae

This process was aided by the presence of Dardic languages (see

Inpo-ArvAN Lancuaces).

In early times there were Dardic

colonies along the Indus, right down to its delta, and both Sindhi and Lahnda have borrowed many peculiarities from their dialects. Sindhi is directly derived from the Vracada Apabhrarhsa Prak-

rit (see Prakrit).

The name of the Apabhrarhsa from which

Lahnda is derived is not known, but it must have been closely al-

lied to Vracada.

Sindhi has one important dialect, Kachchhi,

spoken in Cutch. Here the language has come into contact with Gujarati and is somewhat mixed with that form of speech. (See also LAHNDA.) Owing to their geographical position both Sind and the western Punjab were early subject to Mohammedan inroads. The bulk of the population is Muslim, and their languages make free use of words borrowed from Persian and (through Persian) from Arabic. The written character employed for Lahnda is usually that modification of the Persian alphabet which has been adopted for Hindustani. For Sindhi, further modifications have been introduced to represent special sounds. In both languages, Hindus also employ

a script akin to the well-known Nagari alphabet (see SANSKRIT). It is the same as the “Landa” (a word distinct from “Lahnda”) or “clipped” character current all over the Punjab and is very imperfect, being seldom legible to any one except its original writer, and not always so to him.

Phonetics.—The phonetic system of both languages in most respects resembles that of other Indo-Aryan vernaculars. In other Indo-Aryan languages a final short vowel is generally elided. This rule is also followed in Lahnda, but the genius of Sindhi requires every word to end in a vowel, and hence these short vowels are still retained. In Sindhi these final short vowels are very lightly pronounced, so that they are hardly audible. Lahnda, especially when dropping the final short vowel, has epenthetic changes,

which have not been noted in Sindhi. In that language and in Lahnda the short vowel 7, when preceded or followed by k, or at the end of a word, is pronounced as a short e.

In Lahnda the double consonant is generally retained, but in Sindhi, while the double consonant is simplified, the vowel remains short. An original long vowel coming before a conjunct consonant is shortened when the conjunct is simplified. In Sindhi, a sibilant is liable to be changed into %. In Lahnda the s is generally, but not always, preserved. A medial d becomes the hard r; there is great confusion between cerebrals and dentals,

more common

in Sindhi than in Lahnda.

In Sindhi, ¢ and d

become regularly cerebralized before r. The cerebral } does not appear in Sindhi, but it has survived from Prakrit in Lahnda.

When / represents a Prakrit single 7, it becomes Z, but if it represents a Prakrit JJ, it remains a simple dental Z. Sindhi has a series of “recursive” consonants g, j, d, and b. In sounding them the breath is drawn in instead of being expelled,

t.e., the larynx being lowered and the glottis closed. They often, but not always, represent an original double letter. Declension.—Both languages have lost the neuter gender, all

nouns being either masculine or feminine. The rules for distin-

guishing gender are much as in Hindustani. As in other IndoAryan languages, nouns may be either strong or weak, the strong forms being derived from nouns with the pleonastic Sanskrit sufix kae. In Sindhi, a masculine weak form in u corresponds to the strong one in 6, and feminine weak forms in a and o to a strong one in 7. In Lahnda, weak forms have dropped the final

short vowel, and the strong forms end in @ (masc.) and i (fem.). Almost the only old case that has survived throughout the declension of both languages is the general oblique. This is used

SINDHI (properly Sindhi, the language of Sindh, ie., Sind) for any oblique case, the particular case required being as a rule and LAHNDA (properly Lakndé or Lahindé, or Lahndé-di- further defined by the help of a postposition. The general oblique bolt, the language of the west), two closely connected forms of case, without any defining postposition, is specially employed for speech belonging, together with Kashmiri (q.v.), to the north- the case of the agent. There are also examples of the survival of western group of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages. the old locative and of the old ablative. The parent Prakrit, from which Lahnda is sprung, must once In Lahnda the final short vowel of the weak forms has been have extended over the greater part of the Punjab, but Lahnda dropped, ‘but in some and Sindhi, the western outposts of Indo-Aryan speech, have for final i of the feminine cases the final u of the masculine and the have been preserved by epenthesis. The

SIN-EATER—SINGAPORE Lahnda forms of the nominative plural and of the various oblique forms are identical with those found in Panjabi. In both languages the accusative case is the same as the nominative, unless

special definiteness is required, when the dative is employed in its place. The agent case is the oblique form without any postposition, All the postpositions are added to the oblique form. The genitive is really a possessive adjective and agrees with the person or thing possessed in gender, number and case. An adjective agrees with its qualified noun in gender, number and case. In Lahnda the only adjectives which change in these respects are strong adjectives in a. In Sindhi weak forms in « also change the u to e or in the feminine, The plural and oblique forms are made as in the case of nouns. If a postposition is used with the noun it is not also used with the adjective. Comparison is effected by putting the noun with which comparison is made in the ablative case. Sometimes special postpositions are employed for this form of the ablative. The north-western group of Indo-Aryan vernaculars, Sindhi, Lahnda and Kashmiri, made free use of pronominal suffixes. In Kashmiri these are added only to verbs, but in the other two languages they are also added to nouns. These suffixes take the place of personal pronouns in various cases. All these suffixes are remnants of the full pronominal forms. In all cases they can be at once explained by a reference to the originals in Dardic rather than to those of other Indo-Aryan languages. © Conjugation.—There are, in both languages, twọ conjugations, of which one (intransitive) has -a- and the other (transitive) -e- or -i- for its characteristic letter. The differences appear in the present participle and, in Sindhi, also in the conjunctive participle, the present subjunctive, and imperative. The two lat-

ter are the only original synthetic tenses which have survived in Sindhi, but in Lahnda the old synthetic future is also in common use. Both languages have a passive voice formed by adding 27 or

zj to the root. This form is not employed for the past participle or for tenses derived from it. The past participle of the transitive verb is passive in signification, There is therefore no need of a past participle for the passive voice. The Sindhi present participle of the passive voice follows a different rule of formation, and, in Lahnda, it omits the letter 7. In other respects the passive is conjugated like a regular verb of the first conjugation. The passive is directly derived from the outer Prakrit passive in -¢jja-. The present subjunctive is the direct descendant of the old Prakrit present indicative. The imperative is formed in the same way. The Sindhi future

is formed by adding the nominative pronominal suffixes to the present participle. As there are no nominative suffixes of the third person, for that person the simple participle is employed. There

are slight euphonic changes of the termination of the participle in the other persons.

The past tense is formed from the past participle with pronominal suffixes added in both languages. As in the transitive

verb the past participle is passive in signification, the subject must be put in the agent case, and the participle agrees in gender

and number with the direct object, or, if the object is put in the dative case instead of the accusative, is treated impersonally in the masculine. ` There arẹ numerous compound tenses formed by conjugating

the verb substantive with one or other of the participles. The past has slightly different forms with a feminine subject. Additional suffixes may be added to indicate the object, direct or remote. Numerous verbs have irregular past participles, derived directly

799

(Leipzig, 1866). Bipriocraruy.—G, Stack, Grammar and Dictionary (both Bombay, 1849) ; E. Trumpp, Grammor (London and Leipzig, 1872); G. Shirt, Udharam Thavurdas, and S. F. Mirza, Sindhi-English Dictionary (Karachi, 1879); E. O’Brien, Glossary of the Multani Language (1st ed., Lahore, 1881; 2nd ed., revised by J. Wilson and Hari Kishen

Kaul, Lahore, 1903); W. St. Clair Tisdall’s Simplified Panjabi Grammar (1889) also deals in an appendix with Lahnda; T. Bomford, “Rough Notes on the Grammar of the Language spoken in the Western Panjab” in Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. lxiv. pt. i. pp. 290 ff. (1895); “Pronominal Adjuncts in the Language spoken in the Western and Southern

Parts of the Punjab,” zb. vol.

Ixvi. pt. i. pp. 146 ff. (18907); J. Wilson, Grammar and Dictionary of Western Panjabi as spoken in the Shahpur District (Lahore, 1899) ; A. Jukes, Dictionary of the Jatki or Western Panjabi Language (Lahore and London, 1900) ; G. A. Grierson, “Vricada and Sindhi” in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, p. 47 (1902); R. T. Turner, “The Sindhi Recursives” in Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, vol. iii. 30r (1921); “Cerebralization in Sindhi,” J.R.A.S. p. 555 (1924); vol. viii. of the Linguistic Survey of India contains full particulars in great detail.

IN-EATER, a man who for trifling payment was believed

to take upon himself, by means of food and drink, the sins of a deceased person. The custom was once common in many parts of England and in the highlands of Scotland. Usually each village

had its official sin-eater to whom notice was given as soon as a death occurred. He at once went to the house, and there, a stool being brought, he sat down in front of the door. A groat, a crust of bread and a bowl of ale were handed him, and after he had eaten and drunk he rose and pronounced the ease and rest of the dead person, for whom he thus pawned his own soul. In the earlier form the sin-eater was taken into the deathchamber, and a piece of bread and possibly cheese, having been placed on the breast of the corpse by d relative, usually a woman, was afterwards handed to the sin-eater, who ate it in the presence

of the dead. He was then handed his fee and at once hustled and

thrust out of the house amid execrations and a shower of sticks, cinders, or other missiles.

The custom of sin-eating is generally

supposed to be derived from the scapegoat in Leviticus xvi. 21, 22,

A symbolic

survival

Market Drayton, Shropshire.

of it was witnessed

in 1893

at

After a preliminary service had

been held over the coffin in the house, a woman poured out a glass of wine for each bearer and handed it to him across the coffin with a “funeral biscuit.” In Upper Bavaria sin-eating long survived; a corpse cake was placed on the breast of the dead and then eaten by the nearest relative.

SINEW, a tendon, a cord-like layer of fibrous tissue at the

end of a muscle forming the attachment to the bone or other hard part. The broad, flat tendons are usually called fasciae MUSCULAR SYSTEM AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE).

(see

SINGAPORE, a town and island situated at the southern

extremity of the Malay peninsula in 1° 20’ N., 103° 50° E. Singapore is the most important part of the crown colony of the Straits Settlements, which consists with it of Penang, Province Wellesley

and the Dindings, and Malacca (gg.v.). The port is ane of the

most valuable of the minor possessions of Great Britain, as it lies midway between India and China, and forms the most important

halting-place on the trade-route to the Far East. It is being strongly fortified as a naval base at the cost of the imperial gov-

ernment, aided by an annual military contribution payable by the colony and fixed at 20% of its gross revenue. Its geographical position gives it strategic value; and as a commercial centre it is without a rival in this part of Asia. Its prosperity has been greatly enhanced by the rapid development of the Malay States on the mainland. It possesses a good harbour with docks and extensive coaling-wharves, which were acquired by government from the Tanjong Pagar Dock Company. It is also resorted to by

from the Prakrit past participles. The many compound verbs are

native craft from all parts of the Malay archipelago.

On the

grammars.

existence, which for many years have annually passed through their furnaces more than half the total tin output of the world. Singapore has also establishments for tinning pineapples, a rubber factory, a tannery, a shoe factory and a biscuit factory, Notable are a few large commercial buildings, government house, the lawcourts, a magnificent hospital, a new lunatic asylum, Raffles college, Raffles museum and the cathedral of St. Andrew. There are

formed much as in Hindustani, and must*be learnt from the island of Pulau Brani stand the largest tin-smelting works in Literature.—Sindhi and Lahnda possess no literature worthy

of the name.

There is, in both languages, a large stock of folk-

songs—tude poems dealing with the popular traditions of the

country. See Colonel Sir Richard Temple’s Legends of the Panjab (Bombay, 1884-1900). Also E. Trumpp, Sindhi Literature, the Divan of Abd-ul-Latif, known by the name of Shéha j6 Risalo

710

MANUFACTURING

SINGER—SINGER

several Roman Catholic churches, a Free Kirk, an American mis-

COMPANY

great port of call for ships passing to n ae the ed eee a

sion, and chapels belonging to Nonconformist sects. The mosques ;ships using the port during 1926 numbered

15,977

88

and Chinese and Hindu temples are numerous. There are military | gate tonnage of 25, 628,329 tons of which 7,516 were British ships

barracks at Tanglin. There is a good race-course and polo-ground, ' with an aggregate tonnage of 10,977,421 tons. The retail trade of a fine cricket-ground on the esplanade, four golf courses, and the place is largely in the hands of Chinese, Indian and Arab traders, but there are good European shops. The port is a free yachting, swimming and social clubs. The island is 27 m. long by 14 m. broad, and is joined to the port, import duties being payable only on opium, tobacco, wines state of Johore, situated on the mainland of the Malay Peninsula, and spirits. It is possible that Singapore was a trading centre in the rath by a cause-way. A railway runs from the town of Singapore and 13th centuries, but neither Marco Polo nor Ibn Batuta, both of whom wintered in Sumatra on their way back to Europe from China, have left anything on record confirmatory of this. About D alt A the middle of the 14th century it was destroyed by Majapahit. iy i tS In 1552 St. Xavier despatched letters from the port to Goa. F: à ma When it passed by treaty to the East India Company in 1819, JAAi fi hoe Sir Stamford Raffles persuading the sultan and temenggong of > a Bie OTt te ah On neeeTt Fe. | Johore to cede it to him, it was uninhabited save by fisherfolk. T : ei a f pees aA vi h Aime It was at first subordinate to Benkulen, the company’s principal station in Sumatra, but in 1823 it was placed under the administraw; tion of Bengal. It was incorporated in the colony of the Straits wee re arene: Ten n Ne ze ee ANN E Settlements when that colony was established in 1826. See also r AA E rh OOO eee BY COURTESY OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC STEAMSHIP CO. Matay PENINSULA and STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. For the naval THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN OF JOHORE, ONE OF THE MANY RELIGIOUS base see Docks AND NAvAL Bases and Docks. EDIFICES IN SINGAPORE aA eT

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through Johore Bharu up to Penang and on to Bangkok. The strait which divides the island from the Dutch islands of Bintang,

Rhio, etc., bears the name of the Singapore strait. The surface of the island is undulating and diversifed by low hills, the highest

point being Bukit Timah, on the north-west of the town, which is a

little over 500 ft. Geologically, the core of the island consists of crystalline rocks; but in the west there are shale and sandstone. All round the island the valleys are filled with alluvial deposits on a more extensive scale than could have been formed by the existing

See Coupland’s Raffles (Oxford, 1926) ; Boulger’s Life of Sir Stamford Raffies; Logan’s Journal of the Malay Archipelago; the Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore); Sir Frank Swettenham, British Malaya (1906) ; Malaya, ed. R. O. Winstedt (London, 1923); Blue-Book of the Straits Settlements (1924); The Straits Directory, 1927 (Singapore, 1927); J. E. Nathan, Census of British Malaya (1922); One Hundred Years of Singapore (1921); A. Wright and T. H. Reid, The Malay Peninsula (1912); C. B. Buckley, Anecdotal History of Singapore, 2 vols. (Singapore, 1902). (H. Cx.)

SINGER, SIMEON (1846-1906),

Jewish preacher, lecturer

and public worker, was born in London. In 1867 he became minisrivers: they suggest that the island was once united to Johore. ter of the Borough Synagogue, London. He moved to the new The south-west shores are fringed with coral reefs, and living West End Synagogue in 1878, and remained the minister of that coral fields are found in many parts of the straits. Composed congregation until his death. Singer was a power in the Jewish largely of red clays and laterite, the soil is not rich, and calls for community in the direction of moderate progress; he was a lover the patient cultivation of the Chinese gardener to make it produc- of tradition, yet at the same time he recognized the necessity of tive. The forest is of a mean type. The humid climate causes the well-considered changes. In 1892 at his instigation the first Engfoliage here, as in other parts of Malaya, to be luxuriant, and the lish conference of Jewish preachers was held, and some reforms contrast presented by the bright green and the rich red laterite of. were then and at other times introduced, such as the introduction the cliffs is striking. When first occupied by Sir Stamford Raffles, of Bible readings in English, the admission of women as choristers on behalf of the East India Company, the island was covered by and the inclusion of the express consent of the bride as well as jungle, but now all the land not reserved by government has been the bridegroom at the marriage ceremony. Singer did much to taken up, principally by Chinese, who plant rubber, vegetables reunite Conservatives and Liberals in the community, and he himand other products. There are fine botanical gardens at Tanglin. self preached at the Reform Synagogue in Manchester. His most The climate of Singapore is humid and hot. There is hardly famous work was his new edition and English translation of the any seasonal change, and the dampness causes the heat to be Authorized Daily Prayer Book (first published in 1870), a work more oppressive than are higher temperatures in drier climates. which has gone through many editions. The mean temperature in Singapore during 1926 was 80-1° F. See The Etterary Remains of the Rev. Simeon Singer (3 vols., 1908); The highest shade temperature for the year was 93-5° F regis- with Memoir. tered in April; the lowest 70-7° F, registered in February. North SINGER MANUFACTURING COMPANY, THE, and north-east winds prevail from the middle of October to the dates its founding from the invention and marketing of the first end of April, and south and south-west winds from the middle practical sewing machine by Isaac Merritt Singer in 1851. The of May to the end of September. The rainfall has been recorded first few machines were produced in a small shop in Boston, Mass. regularly since 1862. The wettest year was 1913 with 3,442-37 A partnership with Mr. Edward Clark was formed soon afterward mm. and the driest 1877 with 1,482-7 mm: The average number under the name of I. M. Singer and Company, from which date of rainy days during the past decade has been 173 and the average the rapid expansion of the business began. In 1853 a factory and rainfall 2,526-7 mm. main office were established in New York. In 1863 the coStatistics of population are given in the article STRAITS SETTLE- partnership was merged into a corporation, The Singer ManuMENTS: Population. Singapore with its hordes of immigrants facturing Company (of New York), which in 1873 became a naturally has the lowest proportion of females but it is rapidly New Jersey corporation under the same name. making up leeway. There are representatives of almost every The first large modern factory was established at ElizabethAsiatic nation and of many other races, Singapore being one of port, N.J., in 1872. In 1929 there were nine factories for the the midst cosmopolitan cities in the world. manufacture of Singet machines situated in four countries and _ As Singapore is the chief administrative centre of the colony, employing 27,000 persons. In addition to sewing machines for the governor has:his principal residence here. Here also are chief household use the Singer Company early began the development of offices of the various heads of the government departments, and ‘specialized sewing machines for industrial purposes and in 1928 here the legislative council of the colony holds its sessions. made more than 3,000 different machines for stitching a wide "The trade of Singapore is chiefly dependent wpon the position variety of products. In 1889 the company originated the electric which the port occupies as the principal emporium of the Fed- sewing machine and this ‘modern type is now in general use. crated Malay States and ‘of:the Malay archipelago, and as the Export’ business received close attention from the beginning.

SINGHBHUM—SINGING The capital structure of the present company is 900,000 shares of capital stock, all of one class, of the par value of $100 each. (CC. de)

SINGHBHUM,

a district of British India, in the Chota

7II

of studies at the Papal School at Rome (about 1624). Assembled in class, the pupils practised, for one hour daily, exercises on richness of tone; a second hour was devoted to the “trill”; a third hour to rapid passages; finally, one hour to the cultivation of taste and expression. All this was done in the presence of a professor who saw that the pupils sang before a looking glass so as to learn to avoid grimaces: wrinkling of the brow, winking of the eye-lids, or distortion of the mouth. The richness of these voices was undoubtedly assisted by extreme caution in the selection of studies, always kept within the natural compass of the voice. It is to the credit of the early English composers, Byrd, Morley, Dowland and Lawes (1550 to 1650) that they wrote songs demanding sustained power. Purcell (b. 1658) composed his touching ‘“Dido’s lament” also songs demanding execution, such as “Let the mighty engines.” In Italy, celebrated composers for the voice were Carissimi (b. 1604), Alessandro Scarlatti (b. 1659),

Nagpur division of Behar and Orissa. The administrative headquarters are at Chaibasa. Area 3,879 sq. miles. Pop. (1921), 759,438. Singhbhum is a hilly district on the fringe of the Chota Nagpur plateau with mountains in the north-west rising to a height of 2,500 ft., and in the south-west, where they are called the Saranda hills, to nearly 3,000 feet. The central portion consists mainly of well-cleared open country, which is the most fertile tract in the district. The south is another undulating plateau. The eastern portion of the district, which bears the name of Dhalbhum, contains the valley of the Subarnarekha, the principal river. The north-west is included in the estate of Porahat (800 sq.m.), while the central and south-western portions comprise the Government estate of the Kolhan with an area of nearly 2,000 sq. miles. Over one-third of Singhbhum is covered Lotti (b. 1667) and Bernacchi (b. 1690); the latter was engaged with primaeval forest, containing valuable timber trees; in the by Handel to sing in his opera “Rinaldo.” Porpora (b. 1686), a pupil of Scarlatti, established a school forests tigers, leopards, bears, bison and deer are found. Nearly two-thirds of the inhabitants belong to aboriginal tribes, of singing, whence issued those wonderful singers Farinelli and among whom the Hos, meaning simply “men,” are predominant. Caffarelli. The latter, who was kept to one sheet of exercises Their warlike character won for them the name of Larka, or fight- for five years, excelled in slow and pathetic airs. He was uning, Kols among outsiders. They were not finally subjugated till approachable in beauty of voice and in the execution of the trill. 1836, when the Kolhan was brought under British rule. In Porahat Farinelli became possibly the most remarkable singer who ever they broke out in rebellion during the Mutiny, and after a long lived. Porpora’s airs and exercises are mostly directed to flexibility of the voice; they are of such difficulty as to be almost campaign submitted in 1859. During recent years Singhbhum has become one of the most impossible of execution by singers of the present day. Here for important industrial tracts in Behar and Orissa, largely owing instance is a portion of an aria from his opera “‘Siroc”’: to the establishment of: the works of the Tata Iron and Steel company and of subsidiary concerns at Jamshedpur (g.v.), and in its neighbourhood. The exploitation of its mineral resources has begun and has great potentialities. The deposits of iron ore in the Saranda hills, which are reputed tọ be among the finest in the world, supply material to large works near Asansol, in Bengal. The output of iron ore in 1925 was nearly half a million tons. There is a belt of copper extending for about 80 m., where mining has been in operation for many years. Other mineral resources include chromite, manganese ore, apatite and gold: 6,000 ounces of the last were produced between 1915 and 1919. Several companies have also been formed for the production of silica bricks, fire-bricks and pottery, for which materials are obtained north-east of the mineral area. Timber is obtained from an = Cor. the forests, a minor product of which is sabaz grass for the The noble music of Handel, Bach and Gluck was performed manufacture of paper, ropes and string. SINGING. Like other arts, singing has had its periods of with masterly ease and expression by singers of this period. As development, culmination and decay. It reached its highest point time passed, the purity of style of the operas of Mozart (b. 1756) towards the end of the 18th century, since which time the devel- and Cherubini (b. 1760) became overshadowed by lovely melody, opment of music—largely in relation to the orchestra—has led admirably adapted for the display of the voice. Rossini (b. 1792), composers to a relative neglect of the voice as an instrument to Donizetti (b. 1797), and Bellini (b. 180r), composed the delightful music which was sung by such famous artists as Malibran, be studied on its own account. In its highest sense we must regard singing as the art of emit- Grisi, Rubini, Tamburini, Lablache and Jenny Lind. The singing ting the voice in fulness, unerringly on the pitch, so that each of Mozart’s aria “L’amerd” by Jenny Lind was a notable word is prolonged as naturally as during the most expressive talk- achievement. Later two of the most famous of English singers, ing. Such a standard demands a special mode of controlling the the tenor Sims Reeves and the baritone Santley rose to fame in breath in order that the voice, issuing in freedom and with open- England after completing their studies in Italy. And about the same time Francesco Lamperti of Milan, as the master of Italo ness of throat, can be sustained and intensified. Any language, whose practice is to dwell on the vowels and Campanini and Albani, became noted as a teacher of del ‘canto, Some time afterwards the whole question of singing and singing to avoid throaty combinations of consonants, must tend towards sonority of speech and freedom of throat. We are indebted to teachers became one of general interest and discussion. > Books the “Land of Song” for the art of bel canto, or beautiful singing. by Mandl of Paris, Morell Mackenzie, Lennox Browne and others To copy the haunting purity of the vowels as sung by Italian described the anatomy and action of the vocal organs. Professors artists has ever been the longing and despair of other nations. of singing also wrote about their different methods. Possibly, It may well be that‘such purity was originally developed through owing to the surgeons not being singers, or the singing masters the singers having to sustain, in large cathedrals, the long phrases not being clear in their physiology, little came of this. Aboud this time too, through the genius of Wagner, the increase in the poper characteristic of the music of Palestrina (b. 1514). Unfortunately it was not the habit of the old masters to publish of the orchestra reached its climax; and a corresponding increase books on their art. He who would form a bel canto of the vowels of sonority on the part of the singers became necessary. To members of the “old guard” such became possible. When, ` of his own country must rely mostly on the sayings or maxims of the old singers which have been handed down, and show their however, these experienced ones were replaced by younger and attitude towards singing and their ideas relative to its cultivation. sometimes half-trained singers, serious decadence in the art was Of especial interest is Angelo Bontempi’s description of the plan observed. There seemed occasionally a struggle between the voice =

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712

SINGING

and the orchestra which was not conducive to a feast of bel canto. Lamperti attributed this decadence to the quality of the music being no longer suitable to the voice. The composer Verdi, deploring the absence of purity and expressive phrasing, declared that singers must return to the methods of the old masters. The tendency of modern singing is to arrest the breath by a rigid contraction of the parts which should be free to form the

pattern sentence suggested is:—Who would know aught of art must learn and then take his ease. A man whispering “who” should sound F, but a woman Ab 299 » o» ” » ” o»

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We must now realise that we cannot tune the voice by anything we see or feel. We have no direct control over the action of the vocal cords. Many people, when given a note on the pianoforte, are at first all at sea as they try to sing that note. It is only by employing the right mechanism that the voice can tune unconsciously in the very.“eye” of the note intended. So it is only by alertness in listening to the tune that the right mechanism can be attained. The accompanying illustration from “Plain words on Singing,” by William Shakespeare, shows the unconscious shortening of the vocal cords, which occurs in the different registers. Giuglio Caccini (b. 1558) maintained that “the first and most important foundation is how to start the voice in every register: not only that the intonation be faultless, but that the quality of the tone be preserved,” Agricola (b. 1720) says “Many singers, before reaching a higher note, cause several others to be heard, with the result described as ‘seeking the note’ or scoopin g up to it.”

HEAD REGISTER

FRUM “PLAIN WORDS ON SINGING” (WM SHAKESPEARE; PUTNAM SONS, LTD.) DIAGRAM SHOWING THE UNCONSCIOUS SHORTEN ING OF THE CORDS DURING SINGING

VOCAL

It is impossible to sing with the tongue rigid, and at the same time, with the throat open. The art of Singing lies in the avoidance of rigidity and the adoption of the open throat. The advantage of the practice of whispering long vowels will now be realised. The pressure which sends out the breath is felt below the waist, while just above is realised a simultaneous holdback of the breath. The hold-back must not let the send-out gain the mastery or the result will be wasted. While singing, the breathfeeling should be the same as during whispering. Jean de Reszke declared that “right singing depends on the hold-back of the breath.” We realise with every good note a sensation as of “warming” some object; while the freedom of throat should be as of “yawning.” The notes of the scale then join as “pearls on a string,” the string being the breath. Johannes Hiller (b. 1728) describes the “lega to” as “‘consisting of no gap in passing from one note to another.” Johann Micksch (b. 1765) says: “The first study in training the voice is how to use the breath sparingly, never becoming breathless, by retaining some breath in reserve. Loud singing first becomes beautiful by rightly singing piano. The notes must be drawn out, never pushed out: and taken so quietl y that one may produce with the least breath a note that wil] gradu ally swell to the loudest degree and again die away. Tone is the material of all music. It has as much variety as the human countenanc Manstein (b. 1790) says: “It does not matte e.” r how much, but how we sing. By practice, art becomes second nature. The experienced artist, after long continued study, thinks not of the manner and means of execution but devote s with the aim of touching the innermost soul.”himself to expression, Lamperti (b. 1813) averred that “The eye is the mirror of the soul.” It is impossible to express at the same time Joy in the voice. J. A. Hiller previously named said: eye and sorrow in the « ‘Well spoken, is half sung’ is a motto which should be inscribed on the four walls of every school.” The old style caused every vowel and consonant to be clearly enunciated. At the present day, owin g possibly to the heavy orchestration, and the music of Wagn er and the modern Italian composers, there is frequently diffi culty in understanding the words, and sometimes in deciding even in what language the opera is

tone and pronunciation. The achievement of the old singers was to breathe silently and to control the breath while emitting the voice through the open throat. Lablache, when asked how Rubini breathed, answered “although I sang a duet with him I could not discern when or how he breathed.” Pacchierotti wrote “He who can control the breath and sustain the vowels with the throat open, knows well how to sing.” Crescentini added “Singing consists of freedom about the neck and the voice resting on the breath.” Here we will make enquiry into the tone of the voice, and the importance of the freedom of spaces in the mouth. An admirable practice for realising the shape of the tone spaces is that of slowly whispering the vowels. As the vocal cords are not in action, nothing distracts the attention from the pronunciation or the breath. After having whispered, the throat feels much more open when we start singing the same vowels. Donders of Utrech t noticed that the vowels, when quietly whispered, caused the air in the mouth to resound at different pitches. Dr. William Aikin has determined the exact pitch of the English vowels, so that these, when correctly whispered, cause a musical scale to be distinctly heard. Any man by sustaining “Ah” in a whisper and tuning this whisper to the note C (an octave above the third space, treble Clef) will realise the greatest resonance possib le to that vowel, and a remarkable sense of openness at the back of the tongue. This being undeniable, the following conclu sions are worthy of careful consideration: 1. By correctly tuning a whispered vowel, we realise the openness of the throat which we must attain during singing. 2. The vocal cords being so near the base of the tongue, their natural action is dependent on the freedom of the tongue. 3. Freedom of throat and tongue sets up in turn freedom of the soft palate, lips, face and eyes. 4. Throaty, gloomy, nasal or “white” sounds are impossible in that open state of throat by _ Which we correctly tune the vowels. In the following whispered scale, the pattern words contain the given. Sonority of voice is not incompat vowel sounds, which only are to be whispered, the consonants tone. ible with richness of Audiences are becoming critical over being ignored. By reason of their small the quality of exer pers of women tune a minor third highe tone cavities, the whis- pression of the singers, They long for the bel canto which once r than those of men. ‘The carri ed sounds of living emotion to the far corners of the theatre.,

SINGLE

SIDE BAND

TTRANSMISSION—SINGLETON

The composer Ferdinand Hiller, writing about Rubini the tenor,

said: “the sonority and overpowering beauty of his high notes combined with unerring precision in attack, thrilled all hearts. In dexterity of execution he excelled the most famous instrumentalists. Further, he had the most distinct pronunciation. Above all, however, a truly electrifying capability of expressing every shade of feeling, the sigh of pure devotion, the distress of the forsaken, the blissful agitation of the happy. Indeed, I believe he could have made all these immutable themes of the loving heart tell on his audience, while singing the simple scale.” This is indeed, a summary of the Art of Singing. (W. SHA.) SINGLE SIDE BAND TRANSMISSION is the method of radio transmission by which one side band (or group of frequencies) is transmitted and the other is suppressed. The carrier wave may be either transmitted or suppressed.

SINGLE-STICK, a slender, round stick of ash about thirty-

four inches long and thicker at one end than the other, used as a weapon of attack and defence, the thicker end being thrust through a cup-shaped hilt of basket-work to protect the hand. The original form of the single-stick was the “waster,” which appeared in the 16th century and was merely a wooden sword used in practice for the back-sword (see SABRE-FENCING), and of the same general shape. By the first quarter of the 17th century wasters had become simple cudgels provided with sword-guards, and when, about twenty-five years later, the basket-hilt came into general use, it was employed with the cudgel also, the heavy metal hilt of the back-sword being discarded in favour of one of wicker-work. The guards, cuts and parries in single-stick play were at first identical with those of back-sword play, no thrusts being allowed (see FencinG). The old idea, prevalent in England in the 16th century, that hits below the girdle were unfair, disappeared in the 18th century, and all parts of the person were attacked. Under the first and second Georges back-sword play with sticks was immensely popular under the names “cudgel-play” and “‘single-sticking,” not only in the cities but in the country districts as well, wrestling being its only rival. Towards the end of the 18th century the play became very restricted. The players were placed near together, the feet remaining immovable and all strokes being delivered with a whip-like action- of the wrist from a high hanging guard, the hand being held above the head. Blows on any part of the body above the waist were allowed, but all except those aimed at the head were employed only to gain openings, as each bout was decided only by a “broken head,” że. a cut on the head that drew blood. At first the left hand and arm were used to ward off blows not parried with the stick, but

near the close of the 18th century the left hand grasped a scarf

tied loosely round the left thigh, the elbow being raised to protect the face. Thomas Hughes’s story, Tom Brown’s School Days, contains a spirited description of cudgel-play during the first half of the roth century. This kind of single-sticking practically died out during the third quarter of that century, but was revived as a school for the sabre, the play being very much the same as for that weapon. The point was introduced and leg hits were allowed. By the beginning of the 2oth century single-stick play had become much neglected, the introduction of the light Italian fencing sabre having rendered it less necessary. Stick-play with wooden swords as a school for the cutlass is common in some navies. (X.; A. R. H.)

SINGLE TAX. The name given by Henry George, the American economist, to the doctrine of levying a tax upon rent alone as the sole necessary instrument of taxation. Land, he held, is the true source of wealth, and therefore the only proper revenue of a state is that derived from the appropriation of rent. The doctrine is one with that of the Physiocrats, the school of French economists founded by Quesnay (1694-1774). The “impôt unique” of Quesnay was proposed in days when the produce of the soil constituted by far the greater part of any nation’s wealth. Henry George wrote his Progress and Poverty in 1879, when already the arts of industry were playing a dominating part in

wealth production, and when capital was accumulating in great aggregations. Nevertheless, he believed that profits and industry should remain untaxed. He went further, and appeared to be-

743

lieve that, under a single tax system, all economic problems would be solved. The essence of the single tax theory may be given in Henry George’s own words, taken from his book, The Condition of Labour, written in 1891: “We have no fear of capital, regarding it as the natural handmaiden of labour; we look on interest itself as natural and just; we would set no limit to accumulation, nor impose on the rich any burden that is not equally placed on the

poor; we see no evil in competition, but deem unrestricted competition to be as necessary to the health of the industrial and social organism as the free circulation of the blood is to the health of the bodily organism—to be the agency whereby the fullest cooperation is to be secured. We would simply take for the community the value that attaches to land by the growth of the community; leave sacredly to the individual all that belongs to the individual; and, treating necessary monopolies as functions of the State, abolish all restrictions and prohibitions save those required for public health, safety, morals, and convenience.” This declaration is the more striking because it was written in answer to a Papal Encyclical on the labour question, which advocated the protection of labour and especially the labour of women and children. The single tax, Henry George thought, would make all, or nearly all, industrial legislation unnecessary. The fundamental doctrine underlying the proposal was that all men are equally entitled to the use of the land. As, however, the management of the land by the State was impossible in practice, and as it was also impossible to divide it up into equal parcels, or into parcels of equal productivity, the road to justice was to leave the land in private ownership, and to appropriate the “economic rent,” thus leaving to the owners the value of their own improvements. Collecting the economic rent as a social surplus by the single tax, the community as a whole would receive justice while individual enterprise would not be fettered. Universal free trade and free competition were thus postulated as parts of the doctrine. Private property was to be sacred as never before, for it was to go scot free of all taxation. The millionaire manufacturer was to pay no more in taxes than his poorest clerk. It was thus implied that the yield of the single tax would be sufficient to meet the expenses of government. This might easily be so in an agricultural community, but in Great Britain in 1928 the entire economic rent of the land in town and country would not defray more than a small fraction—perhaps one-eighth—of the expenses of the central and local governments. (See GEORGE, HENRY;

NATIONAL EXPENDITURE.)

PEYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL;

Economics;

Rent;

SINGLETON, the oldest town of the Hunter River valley, in central eastern New South Wales, Australia, socially and industrially one of the most interesting and important areas in the southern hemisphere. In its many-sided significance—in respect of its site in the river valley liable to floods, the presence of coal and possibly of petroleum in its neighbourhood, grazing and timber-cutting, mixed agriculture, fruit and vine-growing, co-operative dairying and buttermaking, cattle-marketing—it typifies the historical and economic growth of the area in which it occupies a central and linking position. From the coast round about Newcastle the Hunter valley stretches north-west as a low narrow trough between the.northern and southern plateaux for about 120 miles to a saddle near Cassilis (alt. r,500 ft.) which barely divides its drainage from that of the western rivers (Talbragar-Macquarie). It falls into two main sections (i.) the upper HunterGoulburn drainage basin, an irregular hill-and-valley country

(7,000 sq. miles; av. elevation 1,000 ft.) with streams descending chiefly from the northern heights, and divided by a constriction

(Branxton Gap, to miles wide, just below Singleton) from Cii.)

the lower, partly deltaic and estuarine valley. Tributaries (Pater-

son and Williams Rivers) open up important valleys in the north-

east and help to extend the lowland northwards from Newcasile.

The basalt capping of the north-west and north-east plateaux have supplied rich alluvials to the river floors but the southern sandstone scarps are poor in water and generally infertile. Relief, and the position upon the transition zone between summer and winter rains, help to give the upper basin a drier climate (22—30

714

SINGORA—SIN

KIANG

| in.) with a greater range of temperature (Cassilis: av. ann. temp. River Valley, 1927.) (See also NEWCASTLE, MAITLAND.) SINGORA or SONGKLA (the Sangore of early naviga72°=—47.5° F; mean daily range, 24-4° F; av. ann. rainfall 21-3 in.), and to the lower basin more humid and equable conditions (N ew- tors), a port on the East coast of the Malay peninsula and the castle: 72°—55° F; 15°; 42in.). In general, also, much more rain headquarters of the high commissioner of the Siamese division of falls on the northern slopes than on the southern. In the upper Nakhon Sri Tammarat. It is situated in 7° 12” N. and 100° 35 E. basin the rougher margins supply timber and grazing grounds, It was settled at the beginning of the roth century by Chinese and, though good soil abounds, erratic rainfall encourages cattle, from Amoy, the leader of whom was appointed by Siam to be sheep and horse rearing (e.g., Scone district) and saw-mills are governor of the town and district. Having been more than once widely distributed. Nearer the centre, the valleys—which would sacked by Malay pirates, the town was encircled, about 1850, admit of irrigation—are being invaded by mixed farming, and by a strong wall, which, as both Chinese governors and Malay large holdings are decreasing in number. At Aberdeen is a large pirates are now things of the past, supplies the public works meat (mutton, beef, rabbit) freezing works and at Denman a large department with good road metal. The population, about 5,000, butter factory serves the growing dairying industry. Here also Chinese, Siamese and a few Malays, is stationary, and the same the physical conditions are favourable for growing cotton. The may be said of the trade, which is all carried in Chinese junks. middle Hunter valley, formerly and still to some extent in pastoral The town has become an important administrative centre; good occupation, was devoted to wheat-growing, arable mixed-farming roads and the railway connect it with Kedah and other places in and fruit-growing (citrus and stone fruits, vines), but latterly in- the peninsula, and the mining is developed in the interior. creasingly to dairying. Thus around Singleton large estates, and also timber-cutting, persist, but farming, fruit-growing, and, most recently, dairying have increased and Singleton is a notable buttermaking centre. Fruit is extensively grown in the Paterson and Williams valleys but the wine-making industry, once important, has declined. The disappearance of wheat as a grain crop has been largely due to the humidity of the climate. From and through the Hunter valley come the horses, cattle, meat (cf. the famous Maitland cattle-market), and also the agricultural and dairy produce

of the valley itself and of the western slopes (Liverpool Ranges). But whereas the markets were formerly chiefly in Sydney or overseas, ever larger proportions have been absorbed by the growing coal-mining and industrial population at hand. All three measures of the State’s main coal deposit crop out in the Hunter valley. The most important seams are those of the Newcastle field (Newcastle or Upper Measures), of the Maitland field—mainly Lower

(Greta) seams—and those of Muswellbrook (Upper and Lower). The known reserves within the area are estimated at 12,000,000,000 tons, the total possible reserves at 72,000,000,000 tons (Newcastle field: 270,000,000 tons available; S. Maitland field: 1,350,000,000 tons; Muswellbrook: 96,000,000 tons of Lower, besides large reserves of Upper Series coals). Comparative ease of working and access to the sea have made this the chief coal-exporting area of Australia, but from various causes, social as well as economic, the coal industry is severely depressed, the annual output—normally 10,000,000 tons—has greatly declined, and the export trade has at present almost ceased. Output, 1926: northern

field: 7,258,000 tons (£6,835,000); cf. southern field (see BULLI, Port KEMBLA): 2,025,000 tons (£1,661,000); western field (see

In 1906 railway surveys were undertaken by the government with a view to making Singora the port for S. Siam; but this harbour, formed by the entrance to the inland sea of Patalung, would require dredging to be available for vessels of any size.

SINGPHO,

The term used in Assam for the tribe called

“Chingpaw” or Kachin (q.v.) in Burma.

SINHA,

SATYENDRA

PRASSANO,

ist

Baron

or

Rarur (1864-1928), Indian statesman, was born of an ancient family of the Kayashta or writer caste in the village of Raipur, Birbhum district, Bengal, in June 1864. From the Presidency college, Calcutta, he went to London in 1881 to join Lincoln’s Inn, where he won many prizes and scholarships, and was called to the bar in 1886. On his return to India he at once began to plead before the high court in Calcutta. In 1903 he became standing counsel to the Government. He was the first Indian to be appointed advocate-general of Bengal (1908), and the first to become a member of the Government of India. He held the law portfolio from April 1909 to Nov. rọro. He then resumed his lucrative practice at the bar. He presided at the Indian National Congress session at Bombay in 1915; in his presidential speech he begged the British Government to declare their policy with regard to the development of constitutional government. He and the Maharaja of Bikaner were the first Indians to participate in Empire deliberations in London, for in 1917 they jointly assisted the secretary of State at the meetings of the Imperial War Cabinet, and were members of the Imperial War Conference. Sinha joined the Bengal executive council in the same year, but returned to England in 1918 as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference, subsequently becoming a representative of India at the Peace Conference. Knighted in 1914, in 1918 he was made K.C., a distinction not previously conferred upon a barrister of Indian birth or practice.

LitHcow): 1,604,000 tons (£941,000). The rise of manufacturing industry—notably that of the steel industry with its associated chemical and metallurgical industries—tends to place mining in the second rank and to substitute an industrial for a mining popu- At the beginning of 1919 he joined the Lloyd George ministry as Jation, though a recent (1929) project for the large-scale (£3,000,- under-secretary for India, being raised to the peerage as Baron ooo capital) distillation of the Ellalong (Cessnock; see Marr- Sinha of Raipur and made a member of the privy council. He LAND) coal reserves holds out promise for the future of the coal, skilfully conducted the Government of India act, 1919, through as well as of other industrial developments. ' the House of Lords. At the close of 1920 he was appointed govNewcastle, with its satellites, is tbe chief industrial area and ernor of Behar and Orissa, being the first Indian to preside over also the chief port of the valley, but the S. Maitland field (W. a British province. Ill-health prevented him from serving his Maitland-Cessnock) is now the chief coal-producing area, while full term in that office, and in 1921 he resigned. In 1926 Sinha Muswellbrook (pop. 2,400), a farming centre in the upper Hunter was appointed a member of the judicial committee of the privy valley, has a rising coal production. A branching system of rail- council. He was opposed to the setting up of the statutory comway lines and of roads serves the valley; the river, though navi- mission on the Government of gable to Morpeth (35 miles from the sea), is little used because of indicated in the Government India at an earlier date than that of India act, 1919, in view of the its erratic flow. Newcastle provides a not altogether satisfactory divided state of India; but, the decision once taken, he supported harbour and Port Stephens has been suggested as a more desirable the Simon Commission, and entertained its members at Calcutta. outlet. Interesting also is the suggestion for linking the valley by He died on Mar. 5, 1928. rail with the western system over the Cassilis gap. Population has Sinha is remembered by Indians as the first to break down all grown rapidly and now amounts, in the whole valley, to c. 225,000. the barriers against Indians, and by lawyers as a learned, patient It is mainly an urban population, the Newcastle-Cessnock-Maitand courteous judge. Circumstances drove him into politics but land agglomerations alone including some 150,000. Some of the his real interests, which he served whenever opportunity offered, most difficult problems of Australian economic and political life lay in the progress of education. have been introduced during the evolution of this valley which SIN or the “New Territory,” is a great region typifies the present stage of growth of the Commonwealth. (See west-nortKIANG, h-west F. R. E. Mauldon: A Study in Social Economics, The Hunter Pop. (approx.) of China. Area (approx.), 550,340 sq. miles. , 1,200,000. It is bounded on the north-east by the

SINKING

FUNDS—SINOPE

715

foothills of the Altai mountains, on the east by Outer Mongolia, Kansu and Kuku Nor, on the south by Tibet, on the south-west by the Karakoram mountains and the Pamirs, on the north-west by a portion of the Tien-shan, from which the boundary diverges northward along various heights till it reaches the hills south of the Irtish, and then turns eastward. The Tien Shan range extends through the middle from west to east, and divides the province into two distinct regions. North of it are the districts of Ili (see Kuzipja) and Dzungaria, the latter of which is also partly in Outer Mongolia. South of the Tien Shan lies the basin of the Tarim river (g.v.), bounded on the south by the Kunlun mountains (g.v.), beyond which the province stretches to the Karakoram mountains (g.v.). The southern extension of the province between these two ranges is the plateau of inland drainage called Chang-T’ang. Dzungaria is a basin depression, the only part of the Chinese region north of the Tien Shan which is, in places less than 1,000ft. above sea-level. The Borotala here drains eastward into Ebi Nor. It has a remarkably heavy summer rainfall, so that the pastures on the hillsides are rich, while the slopes of the Dzungarian Alatau, on the north, are heavily forested. This depression has been drained as a zone through which peoples have moved throughout history. Beyond the hills of its south-west border lies the well forested Ili valley, containing the town of Kuldja and flanked on the south by the Tien Shan. The Tarim basin is an area of internal drainage more than 2,5ooft. above sealevel, and to the north-east lies the Turfan depression, the bottom of which is said to be more than 4ooft. below sea-level. The slopes from the Kunlun down to the Tarim basin are remarkably sharp in many places, and the southern part of the basin is known as the Takla Makan desert (q¢.v.). The western end of the Tarim basin leads to a pass between the Tien-shan and the Pamirs from Kashgar (q¢.v.) to Bukhara. East of the Takla Makan desert is the lake-marsh region of Lop Nor. The climate is intensely continental, with average July temperatures in the Tarim basin varying from 69° F at Yangi-Kul, on the Tarim, to nearly go° in the Turfan depression.. The January average temperatures in the Tarim basin vary from 21° at Yark-~and to 9-5° at Yangi-Kul. On the higher lands the variation of temperature within a day may be nearly 55°; in the Turfan depression it rarely exceeds 30°. The winds in the Kuen-lun region blow down the mountain slopes in the morning at great velocity, and they die down towards evening. The rainfall in many places

prevalent language. South of Tien Shan is the region of oases, with little opportunity for nomads, save as rulers or marauders, except among the mountains. Here again Turki is spoken and Sunni Mohammedanism is the general religion, but there are Shiah Mohammedans in the south-western mountains. The Chinese element is mainly administrative, and is said to have come largely from the Tientsin area; they are found especially at Urumtsi, the political capital of the dominion on the north side of the Tien Shan. The governor of Sin Kiang is nominally under the viceroy of Kansu; there are four Intendances of Urumtsi, Kuldja, Kashgar and Aksu, and these are divided into 16 prefectures. The cultivators of the irrigated lands live on cereals, beans and fruit, and grow a good deal of linseed for oil, etc., as well as silk and cotton. Some tea is grown. The towns of the oases of the Tarim basin include Aksu, Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan. The Ili basin has Kuldja, Dzungaria has Urumchi. The Turfan depression

in the Tarim basin is less than 2in. for the year, but may rise to roin. in localities on heights facing west. Much of the Tarim basin

See M. Six’s paper in the Numismatic Chronicle (1885), and MM. ei & Reinach, Recueil des monnaies grecques d'Asie Mineure

has Turfan. These towns are trading centres with business in skins, silk, cotton, carpets, etc. The chief roads are (a) from Kansu along the north via Hami and Urumchi to Kuldja, (6) via Hami to Turfan, Karashar, Aksu, Kashgar and so to Bukhara, with a branch from Kashgar to Yarkand, and (c) a way from Kansu via Lop Nor and Keruja to Khotan and Yarkand; this last is much less important than the others. (See also TAKLA-MAKAN; TARIM; ASIA, Archaeology.)

SINKING FUNDS,

funds specifically ear-marked for the

extinction of a debt, especially a national debt. See NATIONAL DEBT.

SINOPE (sinib), the capital of a vilayet on the North coast of Asia Minor, on a low isthmus joining the promontory of Boz Tepé to the mainland. Though it possesses the only safe roadstead between the Bosporus and Batum, the difficulties of communication with the interior, and the rivalry of Ineboli on the West and Samsun on the East have prevented Sinope from becoming a great commercial centre. It is shut off from the plateau -by forestclad mountains. Pop. (1927) 32,426. On the isthmus, towards the mainland, stands a huge but for the most part ruined castle, originally Byzantine and afterwards strengthened by the Seljuk sultans; and the Mohammedan quarter is surrounded by massive walls. Of early Roman or Greek antiquities there are only the columns, architraves and inscribed stones built into the old walls; but the ancient local coinage furnishes a very beautiful and interesting series of types.

I904). has a temperature below freezing point for at least three months. Sinope (Zw&rn)}, whose origin was assigned by its ancient In Dzungaria the temperatures are lower both in summer and winter, and in the Borotala the rainfall is much higher. On the inhabitants to Autolycus, a companion of Hercules, was founded 630 B.c. by the Jonians of Miletus, and ultimately became the high mountains the precipitation may be considerable. A great deal of the region is desert, with salt accumulations in most flourishing Greek settlement on the Euxine, as it was the many of its depressions. Tamarisk and reed grow here and there terminus of a great caravan route from the Euphrates, through are many groups of poplar trees at the foot of the mountains, Pteria, to the Black Sea, over which were brought the products of Central Asia and Cappadocia (whence came the famous while higher up the mountains is a certain amount of summer pasture. In Dzungaria saxaul and tamarisk trees are character- *‘Sinopic” red earth). In the 5th century B.c. it received a istic. There are fine forests in the Borotala and Ili valleys, and colony of Athenians; and by the 4th it had extended its authority often on the mountain slopes, mostly pine and birch. The north- over a considerable tract of country. Its fleet was dominant ern slopes of the Tien Shan are famed as summer grazing lands. in the Euxine, except towards the West, where it shared the field Where irrigation is possible, in certain places near the Tarim, with Byzantium. When in 220 B.C. Sinope was attacked by there is some good cultivation of cereals, rice, cotton and fruits. the king of Pontus,. the Rhodians enabled it to maintain its The wild animals include the camel, wild ass, wolf, tiger, yak, independence. But where Mithradates IV. failed Pharnaces sucgazelle, stag, etc. The nomads keep horses, camels, cattle, sheep, ceeded; and the city, taken by surprise in 183 B.C., became the capital of the Pontic monarchy. Under Mithradates VI. the goats and asses. Sulphur, saltpetre and alum are found at certain places, as in | Great, who was born in Sinope, it had just been raised to the the Turfan depression and near Yarkand. Iron and lead were highest degree of prosperity, with fine buildings, naval arsenals once mined in the Hi region. Coal occurs in the Turfan depression and well-built harbours, when it was captured by Lucullus and near Kurla and west of Kashgar, and the latter region also nearly destroyed by fire (70 B:c.). In 64 B.c. the body of the yields lead and copper. The famous Chinese jade occurs south murdered Mithradates was. brought home to the royal mausoleum. of Khotan and Yarkand, where some of the rivers have golden Under Julius Caesar the city received a Roman colony, but was already declining with the diversion of trafic to Ephesus, the sands. The region north of Tien Shan is famed as the home of nomads, port for Rome, and in.part to Amisus (Samsun). In the middle who. find good summer pasture..on the heights. They, are mainly ages it became subject. to the Greek Empire: of Trebizond,’ and Turkoman, including Kirghiz and Kazaks, mainly Sunni, Moham- passed into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, and m 1461 was ' medans: the Mongol element is Buddhist in religion. Turki is the incorporated in the Ottoman Empire. In: November 1853 the

716

SINTER—SIOUX

Russian vice-admiral Nakhimov destroyed here a division of the Turkish fleet and reduced a good part of the town to ashes.

SINTER, a word taken from the German

(allied to Eng.

CITY

treatment of nasal obstruction and catarrh and of dental disease, It is probable that living in hot stuffy rooms increases suscepti-

bility to sinus infection.

(See OLFACTORY SYSTEM.)

(S. Ha.)

“cinder”) and applied to certain mineral deposits, more or less

SION, the capital of the Swiss canton of theValais (1,680 ft.

porous or vesicular in texture. At least two kinds of sinter are recognized—one siliceous, the other calcareous. Siliceous sinter

above sea-level).

is a deposit of opaline or amorphous silica from hot springs and

Roman

geysers,

occurring

as an incrustation

around

sometimes forming conical mounds or terraces.

the springs, and

The pink and

white sinter-terraces of New Zealand were destroyed by the erup-

tion of Mt. Tarawera in 1886. Mr. W. H. Weed, on studying the deposition of sinter in the Yellowstone national park, found that the colloidal silica was largely due to the action of algae and other forms of vegetation in the thermal waters (oth Ann. Rep. U „Š. Geol. Surv., 1889, p. 613). Siliceous sinter is known to mineralogists under such names as geyserite, fiorite and michaelite.

(See OPAL.)

i

Calcareous sinter is a deposit of calcium carbonate, exemplified by the travertine, which forms the principal building stone of Rome (Ital. żravertino, a corruption of żiburtino, the stone of Tibur, now Tivoli). The so-called “petrifying springs,” not uncommon in limestone-districts, yield calcareous waters which deposit a sintery incrustation on objects exposed to their action. The cavities in calcareous sinter are partly due to the decay of mosses and other vegetable structures which have assisted in its precipitation. Even in thermal waters, like the hot springs of Carlsbad, Bohemia, which deposit Sprudelstein, the origin of the deposits is mainly due to organic agencies, as shown as far back as 1862 by Ferd. Cohn. Whilst calcareous deposits in the open air form sinter-like travertine, those in caves constitute stalagmite.

SINUS.

Anatomically the term refers to a space filled with

blood or air. The word is also used by surgeons to signify a discharging track which will not heal and has in many cases a foreign

In 1920 it had

Catholics), of whom

6,951

1,344 were

inhabitants

(mainly

German-speaking

and

5,379 French-speaking. Sion (Sedunum) dates from Roman times, and the bishop’s see was removed thither from Martigny

(Octodurum) about 580. In 999 the bishop received from Rudolf TII., king of Burgundy, the dignity of count of the Valais, and henceforward was the temporal as well as the spiritual lord of the Valais, retaining this position, at least in part, till 1798. Sion is one of the most picturesque little cities in Switzerland, being built

around two prominent hillocks. The north hillock is crowned by the castle of Tourbillon (built 1294, burnt 1788), which was long . the residence of the bishops. The south hillock bears the castle of Valeria (which now contains an historical museum) with the interesting 13th century church of St, Catherine. See also J. Gremaud, Introduction to vol. v. (Lausanne, 1884) of his Documents relatifs a Phistoire du Vallais, and R. R. Hoppeler, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Wallis im Mittelalter (Zürich, 1897).

SION COLLEGE, in London, an institution founded as a col-

lege, gild of parochial clergy and almshouse, under the will (1623) of Dr. Thomas White, vicar of St. Dunstan’s in the West. The clergy who benefit by the foundation are the incumbents of the

City parishes, of parishes which adjoined the city bounds when the college was founded, and of parishes subsequently formed out of these. In 1886 Sion College was moved from its original buildings in London Wall to the Victoria Embankment, and is now principally known for its theological library which serves as a lending library to membets of the college, and is accessible to the public. A governing body appointed by the members to administer the foundation consists of a president, two deans and four assistants.

body, or ‘dead bone at the bottom. Popularly the expression “Sinus trouble” implies an infection, acute or chronic, of one of the air-containing cavities connected with the nose. The largest SIOUAN INDIANS. This great family of American natives of these cavities (the antrum) is contained in the cheek-bone; takes its name from that of the largest tribe, the Sioux or Dakota the next in size in the forehead (frontal sinus); smaller cavities (g.v.). Next to the Algonkin, they were perhaps the most populous open into the back (sphenoidal sinus) and sides (ethmoidal cells) stock north of Mexico, They held three territories, the largest of the nose. (See Nose, ANATOMY OF.) mainly west of the Mississippi river, another, east of the ApAn acute infection of one or more of these sinuses is liable to palachian mountains in Virginia and the Carolinas; the smallest, follow a severe cold, influenza, or other acute infectious illness. in two fragments, in Mississippi. The last two divisions are nearly There will be pain, often wrongly described as neuralgia, in the extinct. The culture was not uniform, but accorded with the region face, forehead or behind the eye, which usually comes on about in which each tribe lived. Physical types probably varied similarly. the same time every day. There is sometimes discharge from In the Plains area, the Siouans were the preponderant linguistic the nose. The pain is caused by the discharge which collects in stock. The principal tribes were (those asterisked being separately the sinus and cannot get out because of swelling of the mucous treated): 1, in the west, *Dakota and *Assiniboin, the former membrane covering the communication with the nose. Menthol really seven tribes; *Mandan, *Hidatsa and *Crow; *Winnebago; reduces this swelling and thus relieves the pain. A piece of tribes speaking the Chiwere dialect, namely the Iowa, Oto Mismenthol the size of a pea may be placed in a jug of boiling water couri; tribes speaking Dhegiha, viz., *Omaha, Ponca, Kansa, and the vapour inhaled through the nose. Radiant heat, e.g., a *Osage, Quapaw or Arkansas; 2, in the south, Ofo and Biloxi; 3, powerful electric light bulb, held close to the forehead or face, in the east, Monacan, Manahoac, Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi, is also helpful. Woccon, *Catawba, Santee, Cheraw or Sara, and probably A chronic infection of one or more of the sinuses may follow Wateree, Congaree, Pedee and others. About 40,000 remain; the an acute attack or may be associated with chronic nasal obstruc- original numbers were probably at least twice as great.

tion or catarrh. An infection of the antrura may also result from

dental disease. Pain may be entirely absent. Sometimes, but by no

means always, there is a thick discharge (pus) which may run back into the throat. A discharge from one side of the nose is suggestive of sinus disease. Sometimes the discharge has an un-

pleasant smell especially when it is derived from an inf ected antrum. Although causing few symptoms, or indeed none whatever, sinus trouble is important because an infected sinus may act as a “septic focus” and cause disease of the eye, ear, joints, stomach, or indeed of almost any other part of the body, or it may be the starting point of a troublesome neuralgia. Sometimes, especially in the case of the antrum, repeated washing out may result in cure. Usually however, operative treatme nt js required. This consists in enlargement of the opening into the nose so as to allow free drainage or more rarely complet e obliteration of the sinus. Sinus trouble is prevented by avoidance of colds and early

(A. L. K.)

SIOUX CITY, a city of western Towa, U.S.A., on the Mis-

souri river at the mouth of the Big Sioux, 500 m. W. of Chicago;

a port of entry, the county seat of Woodbury county, and the second city of the State in size. It is on Federal highways 20, 75 and 77; has municipal and commercial airports; and is served by the Burlington Route, the Chicago and North Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, the Great Northern and the Illinois Central railways. Pop. (1920) 71,227 (15-7% foreign-born white, the majority from Russia, Sweden, Norway and Germany) ; 79,183 in 1930 by the Federal census. The city has a beautiful 45 sq.m., at an altitude of 1,158 ft. The narrow lowlands site of along the rivers and creeks are occupied by industry and commerce,

while the several distinct residential districts are built on bluffs, commanding views into three States. On opposite sideshigh of the city stand reminders of the coming of the white man and

SIOUX

FALLS—SIPPAR

747

the departure of the Indian: a shaft of white stone erected to the | capital has the name of an ancient town: Kastro has mediaeval memory of Sergeant Charles Floyd of the Lewis and Clark expedi- | fortifications, and the town hall bears the date 1365. Inscriptions tion, who died here in 1804;and the grave of War Eagle (d. 1851), show that Kastro represents the ancient city of Siphnos. Another a powerful chief of the Yankton Sioux and a friend of the early ancient town, Minoa, is marked by two Hellenic white marble settlers. In Riverside park is the Council Oak, under which towers known as the Pharos (lighthouse) and St. John. Byzantine took place many councils of war and peace. The park system in- churches and convents are scattered about the island. The “School cludes 1,119 acres. There are 82 churches and 31 public schools. of the Holy Tomb” was founded by Greek refugees from the The hotels have 2,000 guest rooms and the hospitals 800 beds. iconoclastic persecutions at Byzantium and became a centre of Since 1912 the city was operated under a commission form of culture. Its endowments are now held by the gymnasium of Syra. In ancient times Siphnos was colonized by Ionians from government. It is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop, and is the seat of several institutions of that church and of Morningside Athens. It refused tribute to Xerxes, and sent one ship to fight college (Methodist Episcopal, 1894). Sioux City is an important on the Greek side at Salamis. It was famous for its gold and jobbing, marketing and manufacturing centre. The output of its silver mines, easily recognized by excavations and refuse-heaps. In antiquity, as now, it exported pottery. During the Venetian factories in 1927 was valued at $124,585,800. The site of Sioux City was a favourite camping ground and period it was ruled first by the Da Corogna family and after meeting place of the Indians. The first white visitors of record 1456 by the Gazzadini, who were expelled by the Turks in were Lewis and Clark and their companions in 1804. In 1848 1617. SIPHON or SYPHON, an instrument, usually in the form William Thompson built a cabin on the bluff where Sergeant Floyd had been buried; and in 1849 Théophile Brughier, a French Cana- of a bent tube, for conveying liquid over the edge of a vessel and dian in the employ of the American Fur Company, settled at the delivering it at a lower level (Lat. sipho; Gr. cigwv, a tube). The mouth of the Big Sioux river, was recelved into the tribe of the action depends upon the difference of the pressure on the liquid Yankton Sioux, and married War Eagle’s daughter. In 1854 the at the extremities of the tube, the flow being towards the lower city was platted by Dr. John K. Cook, who was surveying a part level and ceasing when the levels coincide. The instrument affords of the region for the U.S. Government. The first mail arrived in a ready method of transferring liquids, and is made of glass, July, 1855; the first steamboat from Saint Louis in June, 1856. indiarubber, copper or lead, according to the liquid which is to The city was incorporated in 1857, with a population of 400. In be transferred. The simple siphon is used by filling it with the 1868 the first railroad reached the city, and a few years later a liquid to be decanted, closing the longer limb with the finger and packing plant was established. The decade 1880-90 was a period plunging the shorter into the liquid; and it must be filled for of phenomenal development. The population increased from each time of using. Innumerable forms have been devised adapted 7.366 to 37,806; factories, commercial houses and railroads multi- for all purposes, and provided with arrangements for filling the plied; public improvements and utilities were begun on a large tube, or for keeping it full and starting it into action automatically scale. The panic of 1893 brought temporary depression and an when required. Pipes conveying the water of an aqueduct across actual loss of population between 1890 and 1900; but since 1900 a valley and following the contour of the sides are sometimes growth and progress have again been rapid, the population increas- called siphons, though they do not depend on the principle of ing 115% in the first 20 years of the century. the above instrument. In the siphon used as a container for SIOUX FALLS, the largest city of South Dakota, U.S.A., on aerated waters a tube passes through the neck of the vessel, one the Big Sioux river, at an altitude of 1,422 ft., 190 m. N. by W. end terminating in a curved spout while the other reaches to the of Omaha; the county seat of Minnehaha county. It is on the bottom of the interior. On this tube is a spring valve which is Atlantic-Yellowstone—Pacific and the Custer Battlefield high- opened by pressing a lever. The vessel is filled through the spout, ways; has a municipal airport 3 m. S.E. of the post-office; and is and the water is driven out by the pressure of the gas it contains, served by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, the when the valve is opened. The “Regency portable fountain,” Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, the Great Northern, patented in 1825 by Charles Plinth, was the prototype of the the Illinois Central, and the Rock Island railways, and by 20 inter- modern siphon, from which it differed in having a stopcock in urban motor-coach lines. Pop. (1925 State census) 30,127; 1930 place of a spring valve. The “siphon champenois’’ of Deleuze Federal census 33,362. Sioux Falls is the metropolis of a large and Dutillet (1829) was a hollow corkscrew, with valve, which territory. The falls from which it takes its name are a series of was passed through the cork into a bottle of effervescent liquid, cascades, dropping about roo ft. in half a mile, which provide and the “vase siphoide” of Antoine Perpigna (Savaresse pére), picturesque scenery as well as water-power. There are 324 ac. in patented in 1837, was essentially the modern siphon, its head being

public parks. The residential sections have wide tree-lined streets, bordered with lawns and gardens. Many of the and institutions are built of “Sioux Falls granite” stone) quarried in the vicinity. The city is the Catholic and of a Protestant Episcopal bishop,

public buildings (quartzite sandsee of a Roman and is the seat

of the State penitentiary, the State school for the deaf, the South Dakota Children’s Home (a privately supported institution), Sioux Falls college (Baptist; 1883), Augustana College and Nor-

fitted with a valve which was closed by a spring. SIPHONAPTERA, an order of insects (g.v.) comprising the fleas (qg.v.). SIPPAR, a city of ancient Mesopotamia, situated in 33° N.,

44° E. The site to-day lies five miles east of the Euphrates, just south of the Royal canal (Nahr al Malik), but in ancient times the Euphrates flowed by the city. The temple of E-Babbar, “the House of the Sun” and its stage tower (ziggurat) occupied a terrace be-

mal School (Lutheran; 1889), Columbus college (Roman Catho- side the river with a superficial area of about 1,300 square feet. lic; 1921) and three training schools for nurses. It is an important East of the temple area and separated from it by a wide avenue distributing centre. The output in 1927 of 77 factories in the city lay the residential quarter, the whole city being surrounded by a was valued at $38,363,882. A settlement was established at the wall. This wall forms a rectangle, 860 yards wide and 1,400 yards falls in 1856, but it was abandoned six years later. Permanent long, the long sides facing north and south. The excavations in settlement dates from 1867. The village was incorporated in the northern part of the eastern mound and on the ziggurat pro1877, and in 1883 it was chartered as a city. By 1900 the popula- duced over 60,000 tablets, chiefly contracts, and religious and tion had reached 10,266. This increased to 14,094 in 1910, and grammatical texts of Neo-Babylonian date. The antiquity of the then more than doubled in the next 15 years. . city however is shown by the fact that there are ancient records of the Euphrates being called the river of Sippar. Its Sumerian SIPHANTO: see SrPHNos. SIPHNOS (It. and mod. Gr. Siphanto, Siphéno), an island name appears to have been Zib-Bar Nun. The Sumerian Sun god of the Greek Archipelago, 30 m. S.W. of Syra (area 28 sq.m.). was identified with the Semitic Shamash, and it was in this city Along the west slope of a limestone ridge, whose principal sum- that the Sun god had his principal cult. In ancient times the two mits, Hagios Elias and Hagios Simeon, are crowned by old rivers approached closely here and the site therefore commanded ` bod Byzantine churches, lies a series of villages, each white-washed the entrance to the southern plain from the north. See Cambridge Ancient History, vol. i. 1923 (bibliography). house with its own garden and orchard. Apollonia, the modern

SIPUNCULOIDEA—SIRENS

718

n of marine animals of uncertain affinities | urns are important in the productio dioecious, and the germ cells formerly regarded as a subdivision of the class Gephyrea (g.v.). loids are near the insertion of the Some authorities have linked them with the Phoronidea (g.v.) epithelium coelom at an early stage the into drop A | s. autonomou as they are here treated

SIPUNCULOIDEA,

as the Podaxonia, but number of fossil forms occur in the Middle Cambrian of British ; Columbia.

General Description.—The body is fusiform with a glisten-

ing cuticle, and may attain a length of about 12 inches. The body-wall comprises a thick cuticle, an epidermis containing glandular bodies, a thin sheet of connective tissue, several layers of muscle, and finally a coelomic epithelium. The anterior part, the proboscis or introvert, is capable of being retracted into the remainder as the tip of a glove-finger may be pushed into the rest: at the top of the introvert is the mouth, surrounded in Sipunculus by a laciniated funnel, but more usually by tentacles each with its ciliated groove creating a current in the direction of the mouth. The mouth leads into the oesophagus surrounded by the retractor muscles of the introvert, which arise in the body-wall about onethird of the body-length from the anterior end. The alimentary canal is a thin-walled tube, not marked off into definite regions, which runs to the posterior end of the body and then turns forward to end in the dorsal anus near the insertion of the retractor muscles. The descending and ascending limbs of the gut are twisted into a spiral coil, the axis of which is often traversed by a muscle arising from the posterior end of the body. Along most of the gut runs a ciliated groove, into which food does not enter. A diverticulum of variable size opens into the rectum. On the dorsal surface of the oesophagus lies a contractile body, the Polian vesicle, filled with corpusculated fluid and closed posteriorly; it opens in front into a circumoesophageal ring, giving off branches to the tentacles, which by its contraction are caused to expand. The excretory organs consist usually of two saccular brown tubes attached by one side to the ventral wall of

PIT

RETRACTOR MUSCLES.

OF CEREBRAL TUBE

DORSAL

ERVE CORD WITH ITS RAMIFICATIONS

immunity. The Sipuncuarise from the coelomic retractor

muscles;

they

and there develop. The

coelom is rich in corpuscles and contains haematids

carrying a

respiratory pigment, haemerythrin, rich in iron. There is a welldeveloped dorsal brain, usually with two pigmented eye-spots at the bottom of an epidermal invagination passing deeply into it;

in some genera this cerebral tube is divided into two: the brain is also connected with the heart-shaped nuchal organ, to the lateral ciliated lobes of which it gives off two large nerves. A nervering joins the brain to the ventral nerve-cord, in which there are

no distinct ganglia but a series of ganglion cells. gives off numerous nerves to the periphery.

The nerve-cord

Classification.—The Sipunculoids are divided into a number of genera separated on the arrangement and number of the longitudinal muscles and tentacles, the presence of calcareous bodies on the posterior end, etc. Development.—Segmentation is spiral. The larva is a trocho-

phore but with no protonephridia and flame-cells. ment is characterized by the enormous

elongation

The developof the post-

anal region which brings about the dorsal and anterior situation of the anus. Ecology.—Some

Sipunculoids live in mud and sand and feed

on the organic matter contained in them (Sipunculus); others (Phascolosoma, Physcosoma) occupy crevices and rock-crannies; others again (Phascolion, Aspidosiphon) inhabit the shells and tubes formed by other small marine animals. The two latter groups feed on detritus, etc., which are conveyed to their mouths by means of the cilia on their tentacles. Only the mud and sand dwellers are capable of free movement. BrsiiocRrapHy.—The best account of the group as a whole is that by J. W. Spengel, 1913, in the Handwörterbuch der Naturwissenschaften, Jena, vol. ix., pp. 97—106, 14 figs. with a bibliography, See also L. Cuénot, 1922, “Sipunculiens,” Faune de France, iv., pp. 1-17, figs. and bibl. (C. C. A. M.)

SIQUIJOR, a municipality (with administration centre and 42 barrios or districts) of the sub-province of Siquijor, attached to the province of Oriental Negros, island of Negros, Philippine Islands. It is situated on the small coral island of Siquijor, about r14 m. S.E. of Dumaguete, the capital of the province. Pop. (1918), 15,237. The principal industry is the cultivation of coco-nuts and the manufacture of copra. Tobacco, rice, corn, abaca are other agricultural products. In 1918 it had 139 household industry establishments with output valued at 23,700 pesos. Of the xr schools, xo were public. The language is a dialect of Bisayan.

SIRDAR or SARDAR, atitle applied to native nobles in India, ¢.g., the sirdars of the Deccan (Persian sardar, meaning a leader or officer). Sirdar Bahadur is an Indian military distinction; and Sirdar is now the official title of the commander-in-chief of the Egyptian army. NEPHRIDIA

DESCENDING LIMB OF THE Gut

NERVE CORD WITH ITS. RAMIFICATIONS

* ASCENDING LIMB OF THE GuT

SIRENIA, an order of aquatic placental mammals, comprising the manatees or sea-cows, the dugongs, the recently extinct Steller’s sea-cow (Rhytina), as well as their fossil relatives of the Tertiary period. The torpedo-shaped body ends behind in a horizontal tail fluke, as in the dolphins; but in contrast with the latter

the broad muzzle is truncate and the transversely expanded lips are very mobile. The name Sirenia was given in allusion to the supposed resemblance of these animals to mermaids.

FROM

THEEL,

“NORTHERN

AND

ARCTIC

INVERTEBRATES”

(¥YETENSKAPSAKADEMIEN)

GENERAL DISSECTION OF SIPUNCULUS PRIAPULVIDES FROM SURFACE SHOWING THE INTERNAL ORGANS IN POSITION

THE DORSAL

the body and opening to the exterior by a pore. The ventral lip of the internal ciliated funnel is a portion of the coelomic epitheltum; the funnel leads by a canal into the nephridial sac. These

organs serve both for excretion and for the passage of the genital products: the former function is also served by certain cellular

bodies, the urns, which may be free in the coelom or attached to the outer wall of the gut. The essential part of these organs is a ciliary mechanism by which the waste products in the coelomic fluid are agglutinated and brought into contact with the phagocytes, and so eliminated. J. Cantacuzéne has shown that the

A dugong as

seen at a distance from the deck of a ship and especially if floating half upright, with its baby under its flipper, might well be mistaken for a mermaid; and many legends gathered round them in the early days of exploration of the Indian ocean. For the evolutionary history and relationships of the Sirenia, see UNGULATA.

SIRENS, in Greek mythology, the daughters of Phorcys the sea-god (Gr. Depfves), or, in later legend, of the river-god

Acheloiis and one of the nymphs. In Homer they are two in number (in later writers generally three); their home is an island in the western

sea between

Aeaea,

the island

of Circe,

and the

rock of Scylla. They are nymphs of the sea, who lured mariners to destruction by their sweet song. Odysseus, warned by Circe,

SIRGUJA—SIRMUR escaped the danger by stopping the ears of his crew with wax and binding himself to the mast until he was out of hearing (Odyssey xii.). When the Argonauts were passing by them, Orpheus sang so beautifully that no one had ears for the Sirens. After one or other of these failures they drowned themselves. When the adventures of Odysseus were localized on the Italian and Sicilian coasts, the Sirens were transferred to the neighbourhood of Neapolis (Naples) and Surrentum, the promontory of Pelorum at the entrance to the Straits of Messina, or elsewhere. The tomb of one of them, Parthenope, was shown in Strabo’s (v. p. 246) time at Neapolis, where a gymnastic contest with a torch-race was held in her honour. Perhaps the most reasonable explanation of the Sirens is that they are soul-birds; z.¢., winged ghostly figures who fetch the living to join them. They are in this respect not unlike the Harpies (g.v.); so Weicker. In early art, they were represented as birds with the heads of women; later, as female figures with the legs of birds, with or without wings. See H. Schrader, Die Sirenen (1868); Preller-Robert, Griechische. Mythologie (1894), pp. 614-616; G. Weicker, Der Seelenvogel in der alten Literatur und Kunst (1902) (Bibl.), and in Roscher’s Lexikon, art. Seirenen.

739

period of about so years.

This indicated tbat an unseen

star

must be present, forming with Sirius a double star. In 1862 Alvan Clark, who was testing a large new object-glass, unexpectedly detected the companion as a faint point of light amid the glare of Sirius itself. Sirius is one of the nearest stars and its parallax has been measured with considerable accuracy. Its distance is 2-7 parsecs =8-8 light years=51 million million miles. Its apparent brilliance is due more to its nearness than to actual luminosity; absolutely it is about 28 times as bright as the sun—a luminosity which is not at all exceptional. Its mass has been determined by Kepler’s laws from the double star orbit and is 2-4 times that of the sun. Its spectrum shows that the surface temperature is much higher

than the sun’s (about 10,000° against 6,000°) and its light is correspondingly whiter. It is a typical star of the spectral class Ao, in which the Balmer series of hydrogen is most strongly developed. The companion is a remarkably interesting body. It revolves at a distance from Sirius nearly equal to the distance of Uranus from the sun in a period 49 years. Although it has one-third the

mass of Sirius it gives less than

w Of the light. A more con-

venient comparison is with the sun; it has 0-85 of the sun’s mass,

SIRGUJA or SURGUJA, one of the Chota Nagpur feuda-

but only 54, of the sun’s light. It seemed natural to assume that

tory states transferred in 1905 from Bengal to the Central Provinces. It is bounded on the north by the State of Rewa and on the north and north-east by the districts of Mirzapur and Ranchi; on the south is Bilespur; it thus borders three provinces. In the central portion, there is fairly well cultivated country, surrounded on three sides by massive hill barriers and tablelands, of which the Jamirapat, a winding ridge 2 miles in width, separates it from Chota Nagpur. The southern barrier of the State is the Mainpat, a fine tableland 18 m. by 6 m. with an elevation rising to 3,700 feet. The Ramgarh hill is a rectangular mass of sandstone rising abruptly from the plain, containing a remarkable natural tunnel, many rock caves and remains of temples made of enormous blocks of stone. There are other ruins in the jungles, indicating a higher

it must be radiating feebly like a star on the verge of extinction, but in 1914 W. S. Adams made the surprising discovery that its spectrum was not much different from that of Sirius itself. This indicates a white light coming from a surface at high temperature and radiating more intensely than the sun’s surface. If the small total light is not due to low emitting power, it must be due to small dimensions. Reasoning in this way the radius is found to be 18,800 km.; 2.e., intermediate between the earth and the

state of civilization at an earlier epoch than that now prevailing. The area of the State is 6,055 sq.m., and the population (1921) was 377,679. This comprises some 200,000 Hindus and 4,000 Mohammedans and the rest of the population is made up of a remarkable variety of different aboriginal tribes, some of which must have been very ancient. The chief, on whom the title of maharaja has been conferred, comes of ancient Rajput lineage.

SIRHIND, a tract of land in the Punjab, India. It consists of

the north-eastern portion of the plain between the Jumna and Sutlej rivers, and is watered by the Sirhind canal, which draws its water-supply from the Sutlej near Rupar. The canal, which was opened in 1882, irrigates over 2,000 sq.m.

SIRICIUS, pope from Dec. 384 to Nov. 399, successor of

next larger planet Uranus. The mass, which is 0-85 of the sun’s or 250,000 times that of the earth, has to be squeezed into this small sphere; and the resulting density is 61,c00 times that of water or about a ton to the cubic inch. The result at first seemed incredible, but the cause of the supposed breakdown of this natural inference remained a mystery. In 1924, however, it was discovered that, owing to the breaking up of the outer systems of electrons in the atoms under the high temperature prevailing in the interior of a star, stellar matter would not offer the resistance to high compression that terrestrial matter does. It was therefore quite conceivable that densities might be attained in the stars far transcending the greatest known terrestrial densities. It was suspected that this might be the explanation of the result for the companion of Sirius. Accordingly, in 1924-25 W. S. Adams carried out a special test, depending on the Einstein effect in the star’s spectrum, in order to check the high density. This effect is a lengthening of the wave-length of light which has come from a place of high gravitational potential, manifesting itself as a displacement of the spectral lines towards the red. It is thus theoretically possible to calculate the potential at the surface of a star (że., tbe mass divided by the radius) if the magnitude of the Einstein effect can be measured. In all

Damascus. The disfavour which he showed to the monks led to the departure of Jerome from Rome to Bethlehem. Several of the decretal letters of Siricius are extant, setting forth the rules of ecclesiastical discipline. Under his pontificate a general council was convened at Capua in 391, which discussed various Eastern ordinary stars the shift is too small to measure; it is believed to affairs. The council of Capua, inspired by the pope, deferred have been found in the sun, but this can scarcely yet be regarded to the council of Macedonia the affair of Bonosus, bishop of as certain. But if the foregoing dimensions of the companion of Sardinia, who had been accused of heresy. To safeguard the Sirius are right, the Einstein shift will be 30 times as great as authority of the Holy See over the bishops of Illyricum, Siricius on the sun. This quantity should be very easily measurable, were entrusted his powers to the bishop of Thessalonica, who was hence- it not for special difficulties which arise from the faintness of forth the vicar of the pope in those provinces. Siricius maintained the star and the interference of the scattered light from Sirius. his protest, made in 386, against the attitude of Bishop Ithacius, Adams applied the test and his results are believed to be trustthe accuser of Priscillian, although he disapproved of the latter’s worthy; they definitely confirm the large spectral shift predicted. doctrines. During his pontificate the last attempt to revive pagan- It appears therefore that the companion of Sirius is a genuine ism in Rome was made (392-394) by Nicomachus Flavianus. example of matter compressed to enormously high density— Siricius died on Nov. 26, 399. , more than 2,000 times the density of platinum. |

SIRIUS, the “dog star,” is the brightest star in the heavens.

Tt is situated in the constellation Canis Major (g.v.). The mythology and early references to it are discussed in the article Canis Major. In 1844 Bessel found that Sirius was not moving uniformly through the heavens, being sometimes ahead and sometimes behind the mean position. He deduced that (in addition to in an elliptic orbit in a uniform proper motion) it had a motion

BreriocrapHy.—For

the high density of the companion of Sirins:

A. S. Eddington, Monthly Notices of Ray. Ast. Soc.; 84, p. 322 (1944); W. S. Adams,’ Prec. Nat. Acad. Sct. Washington, IL., p. 382 (2925).

The remarkable physical conditions arising from the high density are |

discussed by R. H. Fowler, Monthly Notices, 87, p. 114 Garis Ey

' SIRMUR or SARMOR, an Indian State; wthin the Pun-

jab. It is also called Nahan,‘after the chief town. “Fr occupies the

i

STIROCCO—SISKIN

720

lower ranges of the Himalaya, between Simla and Mussoorie. Area 1,198sq.m. On the northern frontier Chor Peak and station are about 12,000ft. above the sea. Pop. (1921), 140,448. Estiee mated gross revenue, £45,000.

SIROCCO, a term used specifically for the hot, dry wind in Sicily and south Italy, but the name is in general use on the north

Mediterranean

seaboard

for any warm

southerly wind;

such winds may be either moist or very dry, and represent the air current in front of the depressions advancing eastward over the

Mediterranean

sea.

(See

LEVECHE;

LESTE;

KHAMSIN;

Sımoom; and Meteorological Ofice Publication No. 224, 1919.)

SIROHI, an Indian state in the Rajputana agency. Area 1,958 sq.m. The country is much broken up by hills and rocky ranges; the Aravalli range traverses it from north-east to south-west. The south and south-east part of the territory is mountainous and rugged, containing the lofty Mount Abu. The only river of any importance is the Western Banas. A large portion of the state is

covered with dense jungle, in which wild animals, including the tiger, bear and leopard, abound. Many splendid ruins bear witness to the former prosperity and civilization of the country. On Abu the average annual rainfall is about 64 in., whereas in Erinpura, less than so m. to the north, the average fall is only between 12 and 13 in. Pop. (1921) 186,639. In 1823 a treaty was concluded with the British government. For services rendered in 1857 the chief received a remission of half his tribute. The chief, whose title is maharao, is a Deora Rajput of the Chauhan clan, and enjoys a salute of 15 guns. The town of Smomr is 28 m. N. of Abu-road station. Pop. (1921) 6,197. It has manufactures of sword-blades and other

weapons.

SIS or Kozan

(anc. Sision or Siskia, later Flaviopolis or

Flavias), a kaza in the Adana vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated

century, represents Siscia among the five foremost cities of the Empire. Its bishopric was removed to Salona in 441, when Attila appeared, and thenceforward the city declined. For a brief

period in the 7th and 8th centuries, it was held by the Serbian princes, but in the roth century it was sacked by the Magyars,

and in 1092 its territories were bestowed upon the cathedral chapter of Zagreb (Agram) by Ladislaus I., king of Hungary.

Under the walls of its castle, built Turks were thrice defeated in 1593. fell, only to be evacuated in 1594. defeat in 1641, and from that date

by this chapter in 1544, the At a fourth venture the city It witnessed a final Turkish until 1918 it was included in

the Austro-Hungarian empire. See C. de St. Aymour, Les Pays sud-slaves de-l’ Autriche-Hongroie (1883).

SISAL HEMP or Henequen, of Florida and the Bahamas, the product of Agave rigida, variety sisalana, a native of Yucatan, but found in other parts of Central America and distributed to the West Indies, where it is being increasingly cultivated.

Agave (g.v.) is a member of the family Amaryllidaceae; and a well-known species of the genus, Agave americana, the century plant, will suggest the habit of the sisal hemp, which, however, differs in the absence of prickles along the margin of the fleshy leaf. After six or seven years the flowering stalk or “pole” develops from the centre of the leaf-cluster, and grows to the height of 15 or 20 it. The flowers are borne in dense clusters at the ends of short lateral branches, and closely resemble those of Agave americana. After they have begun to wither, buds are developed from the point of union with the flower-stalk; these form tiny plants, which, when several inches long, become detached and fall to the ground. Those that fall in a suitable place take root and are soon large enough to transplant. After flowering the main plant perishes, but. is renewed by suckers springing from the base of the stem; these suckers are then planted, and the leaves should be ready for cutting in about four years. The other method of

on the left bank of the Kirkgen Su, a tributary of the Jihun (Pyramus) and at the south end of a group of passes leading from the Anti-Taurus valleys to the Cilician plain and Adana. planting is by means of “pole” plants just described. Tt was besieged by the Arabs in 704 but relieved by the Byzantines. In collecting the fibre the leaves are cut off at the base, the spine The Caliph, Motawakkil took it and refortified it; but it soon at the top end removed, and the leaves carried in bundles to the returned to Byzantine hands. It was rebuilt in 1186 by Leo II., machines. Here two scraping wheels remove the softer parts from king of Lesser Armenia, who made it his capital. In 1374 it was the fibre of the leaves. The fibre is yellowish-white, straight, taken and demolished by the sultan of Egypt, and it has never smooth and clean, and a valuable cordage fibre second only to recovered its prosperity. It is now only a big village of some manila fibre in strength. 3,000 inhabitants. It has had, however, a great place in Armenian The plants thrive on arid rocky land, growing, for instance, on ecclesiastical history from the times of St. Gregory the Illumi- the Florida Keys upon the almost naked coral rock. Their northnator to our own. Gregory himself was there consecrated the first ern limit of cultivation is determined by frost; in Florida this is Catholicus in a.D. 267, but transferred his see to Vagarshabad represented by the line of 27° N. An inferior fibre is obtained (Echmiadzin, Etchmiadzin), whence, after the fall of the Arsacids, it passed to Tovin. After the constitution of the kingdom of Lesser Armenia, the catholicate returned to Sis (1294), the capital, and remained there 150 years. In 1441, Sis having fallen from its high estate, the Armenian clergy proposed to remove the see, and on the refusal of the actual Catholicus, Gregory IX., installed a rival at Echmiadzin, who, as soon as Selim I. had conquered Greater Armenia, became the more widely accepted of the two by the Armenian church in the Ottoman empire. The Catholicus of Sis maintained himself nevertheless, and was supported in his pretensions by the Porte up to the middle of the roth century,

when the patriarch Nerses, declaring finally for Echmiadzin,

carried the government with him. In 1885 Sis tried to declare Echmiadzin schismatic, and in 1895 its clergy took it on themselves to elect a Catholicus without reference to the patriarch; but the Porte annulled the election, and only allowed it six years later, on Sis renouncing its pretensions to independence. The lofty castle and the monastery and church built by Leo II., and containing the coronation chair of the kings of Lesser Armenia, are interesting. (D. G. H.)

SISAK, a town of Croatia-Slavonia, Yugoslavia. Pop. (1921),

8,802. Sisak was a flourishing city under Roman rule. Augustus made it a military station; Tiberius chose it as his headquarters against the Pannonian rebels, and Septimius Severus

ais É

ai

h a

|

ONE END OF A FIBRE CLEANING MACHINE ON A YUCATAN PLANTATION The tough henequen leaves enter the machine at this end and emerge as clean, white fibre at the other end

from the leaves of another species, Agave decipiens, which is found wild along the coasts and keys of Florida. It is known as the false sisal hemp.

SISKIN or ABERDEVINE

(Carduelis spinus), which has

long been known in England as a cage-bird, is one of the finches (q.v.). It often feeds upon the catkins of alder or birch, frequently hanging upside down like a titmouse. Above, the male made it the centre of a military government. In the third cen- is olive-green marked with black and yellow, and beneath, yellowtury the city comtained the chief imperial mint and treasury ; ish-white marked with black. His song is not unmelodious. The and an engraved coffer, found in Croatia, dating from the 4th hen is more soberly attired. The siskin breeds locally throughout

72%

SISLEY—SISTOVA scotland and parts of England, but more rarely in Ireland. The greater portion, however, of the bands, which visit the British Isles in winter come from the Continent. Its range stretches across Asia to Japan. The nest of the siskin is like that of the goldfinch, but not so neatly built; the eggs, except in their smaller size, resemble those of the greenfinch. A larger and more brightly coloured species, C. spinoides, inhabits the Himalayas. In the United States of America the name siskin or pine siskin is sometimes used for the pine-finch (Spinus pinus).

SISLEY, ALFRED

(1840-1899), French landscape painter,

was born in Paris in 1839, of English parents. He studied painting under Gleyre, and was afterwards influenced, first by Corot, and then by the impressionists Monet and Renoir. He worked both in France and in England, and made the Seine, the Loing and the Thames the subjects of many pictures that are remarkable for the subtle appreciation of the most delicate colour effects. His life was one of constant poverty and hard struggle. He was essentially a colourist who, like Monet, delighted in recording the changing effects of light in the successive hours of the day, and paid little attention to form.

SISMONDI, JEAN CHARLES LEONARD DE (17731842), whose real name was Simonde, was born at Geneva, on May 9, 1773. During the revolutionary disturbances of 1793-94 the Simonde family took refuge in England. On their return the greater part of the family property was sold, and with the proceeds they emigrated to Italy, bought a small farm at Pescia near Lucca, and set to work to cultivate it themselves. Sismondi’s experiences gave him the material of his first book, Tableau de Pagriculture toscane, which, after returning to Geneva, he pub-

lished in 1801. In 1803 he published his Traité de la richesse commerciale. As an economist, Sismondi represented a humanitarian protest against the dominant orthodoxy of his time. In his first book he followed Adam Smith, but in his principal subsequent economic work, Nouveaux Principes d’éconamie politique (1819), he insisted on the fact that economic science studied the means of increasing wealth too much, and the use of wealth for producing happiness too little. Meanwhile he began to compile his great Histoire des Républiques Italiennes du moyen âge, and became intimate with

Madame de Staël. He was invited or commanded (for Madame de Stael’s invitations had something of command) to accompany her on the journey into Italy, described in Corinne. During this journey he made the acquaintance of the countess of Albany

(g.v.) Louisa of Stolberg, widow of Charles Edward.

Sismondi’s

relations with her were close and lasted long, and they produced much valuable and interesting correspondence. In 1807 appeared the first volumes of his history. The completion of this book, which extended to sixteen volumes, occupied him for the next eleven years. He lived at first at Geneva, where he held a minor

official post. In 1813 he visited Paris for the first, time. During

the Hundred Days he defended Napoleon’s constitutional schemes or promises, and had an interview with the emperor. After

the Restoration he left Paris. On completing (1817) his great book on the Italian republics, he undertook (1828) a still greater, the

Histoire des Français, of which during the remaining twenty-three years of his life he published twenty-nine volumes. Sismondi died

at Geneva on June 25, 1842.

Among his other works are: Littérature du mìdi de PEurope (1813), an historical novel entitled Julia Severa ou Fan 492 (1822), Histoire de la Renaissance de la liberté en Italie (1832), Histoire de la chute de Pempire romain (1835), Précis de Phistoire des Francais, an abridgment of his own book (1839), with several others, chiefly political pamphlets. Sismondi’s journals and his correspondence with Channing, with the countess of Albany and others have been published chiefly by Mlle. Mongolfier (Paris, 1843) and M. de Saint-René Taillandier (Paris,

1863). The latter work serves as the chief text of two admirable Lundis

of Sainte-Beuve Lundis, vol. vi.

SISSALA.

(September

1863),

republished

in the Nowveaux

A people resembling the Nunuma who inhabit the

borders of Upper Volta (Gourounsi) and the Northern Territories, Gold Coast in Africa, and speak a language related to Nunuma and Kassena. A sub-tribe known as the Puguli live about 7om. west of Leo and Tumu in the Diébougou district of Upper Volta.

See Tauxier, Le Noir du Soudan (1912)-

SISTERHOODS

(Mopern ANGLICAN).

The dissolution of

religious houses in England (1536-1540) under Henry VIIT. swept away more than 140 nunneries, and the Anglican Church was left without sisterhoods for three centuries. But as these had for goo years formed part of her system, there were protests from time to time and attempts at restoration. Amongst such protests, which generally dwelt a good deal on the want of provision for unmarried women, may be mentioned three in successive centuries. The historian Fuller would have been glad “if such feminine

foundations

had still continued,”

only without vows

(Bk. vi.). Richardson the novelist, in Sir Charles Grandison, wishes there could be a Protestant nunnery in every county, “with a truly worthy divine, at the appointment of the bishop of the diocese, to direct and animate the devotion of such a society”; in

1829 the poet Southey, in his Colloquies (cxili.), trusts that “thirty years hence this reproach also may be effaced, and England may have its Béguines and its sisters of mercy. It is grievously in need of them.” Also small practical efforts were made in the religious households of Nicholas Ferrar at Little Gidding, 1625, and of William Law at King’s Cliffe, 1743; and under Charles IL.,

says Fr. Bede “about 12 Protestant ladies of gentle birth and considerable means” founded a shortlived convent, with Sancroft, then Dean of St. Paul's, for director. Southey’s appeal had weight, and before the thirty years had passed compassion for the needs of the destitute in great cities, and the impulse of a strong Church revival, aroused a body of laymen, among whom were included Mr. Gladstone, Sir T. D. Acland, Mr. A, J. Beresford-Hope, Lord Lyttelton and Lord John Manners (chairman), to exertions which restored sisterhoods to the Church of England. On March 26th, 1845, the Park Village Community was set on foot in Regent’s Park, London, to minister

to the peor population of-St. Pancras. The “Rule” was compiled by Dr. Pusey, who also gave spiritual supervision. In the Crimean War the superior and other sisters went out as nurses with Florence Nightingale. The community afterwards united with the Devonport Sisters, founded by Miss Sellon in 1849, and together

they form what is known as Ascot Priory. The St. Thomas’s sisterhood at Oxford commenced in 1847; and the mothersuperior of the Holy Trinity Convent at Oxford, Marian Hughes,

dedicated herself before witnesses to such a life as early as 1841 (Liddon’s Life of Dr. Pusey, iit.). Practically all Anglican sisterhoods originated in works of mercy, and this fact largely accounts for the rapidity with which they have won their way to the good will and confidence of the Church. This change in sympathy, again, has gained a hearing from modern historians, who tend more and more to discredit the wholesale defamation of the dissolution period. Another modern

feature is the fuller recognition of family ties: Rule 29 of the Clewer sisters directs that “the sisters shall have free intercourse with relations, who may visit them at any time.” But in most essential respects modern sisterhoods follow the ancient traditions. They devote themselves to the celibate life, have property in common, and observe a common rule of prayer, fellowship and work. Government is by a sister superior, assisted by various officers.

The warden and chaplain are clergy, and the visitor is

commonly a bishop. In one important regard there has been hesitation, and authorities like Dr. Littledale and Bishop Grafton contend strongly for

the primitive ideal of the convent as family, with a constitutional government, as against the later and widespread Jesuit ideal of the convent as regiment, with a theory of absolute rule and

obedience. On the other hand, the doctrine of obedience itself, as

applied to Anglican Sisterhoods, is subject to the atmosphere of free institutions and a respect for individuals which are themselves correctives of any possible dangers, inherent in the principle. Brsriocraruy.—lI. T’. Carter, Memoir of Harriet Monseil; Dr. R. F. Littledale, Papers on “Sisterhoods” in the Moxthly Packet (July 1874-November 1879); Parl. Report on Convent. and Monast. inst.

(1870) ; Lina Eckenstein, Woman under Monasticism (1896) ; Mow-

bray, Churchman’s

Year Book (1929), ref. s.v. “Communities.”

SISTOVA (Bulg. Svishiov), a town of Bulgaria, capital of the

722

SISTRUM—SITMAR

LINE

department of the same name, on the Danube, 40 m. W. of ble settlement of Alaska, on the west coast of Baranof island, Rustchuk. Pop. (1926), 12,068. A branch line connects it with inSitka sound, lat. 57° 03’ N., 135° 19° W., about room. S.S.W. the main Sofia-Rustchuk railway. It is an important commercial of Juneau. Pop. (1890) 1,193 (300 white and 893 natives); centre, exporting wine and grain and importing petroleum. The (1930) 1,056. The city is prettily situated on an island-studded Roman colony Novae, mentioned by Ptolemy, lay a little west- and mountain-locked harbour, with a background of forest and ward of the present town, which has been destroyed and rebuilt snow-capped mountain cones; an extinct volcano, Mt. Edgecumbe many times (1797, 1810, 1829, 1878). The Treaty of Sistova, (3,467ft.), on Kruzof island, is a conspicuous landmark in the determining the Austro-Turkish boundary, was signed here (1790). bay. Sitka’s mean annual temperature is 2° higher than that of Near by are the ruins of the palace of Theodoric the Goth. The Ottawa, and its climate is more equable. The mean annual temWalachian town of Alexandria was founded by fugitives from perature is about 43° F; the monthly means range from 33° Sistova in 1878. (January) to 56° (August), and the extreme recorded temperaÀ SISTRUM, an ancient Egyptian instrument of percussion of ture from —4° to 87° F. Two-thirds of the days of the year are indefinite musical pitch, a kind of metal rattle. It consisted of an cloudy; on about 208 days in the year it rains or snows; the oval metal frame fastened to a handle and crossed by four metal normal rainfall is 88-1in., the extreme recorded rainfall (in 1886) horizontal rods passing through holes large enough to allow them is 140-26 inches. The city includes an American settlement and to rattle when the instrument was shaken. Queen Cleopatra an adjoining Indian village. In addition to United States Governmade use of a large number of sistra at the battle of Actium (31 ment buildings (naval coaling station, agricultural experiment B.c.), and accordingly the instrument was satirically called Queen station, wireless telegraph station and magnetic observatory), Cleopatra’s war trumpet. there are two public schools (one for whites and one for ThlinSISYPHUS (etymology uncertain), son of Aeolus and En- kets), the Sheldon Jackson (ethnological) museum, which is conarete, and king of Ephyra (Corinth). He was the father of the nected with the Presbyterian Industrial Training school, a parosea-god Glaucus and (in post-Homeric chial school of the Orthodox Greek (Russian) Church, a Russianlegend) of Odysseus. He was said to have Greek church, built in 1816, and St. Peter’s-by-the-Sea, a Protesfounded the Isthmian games in honour of tant Episcopal mission built in 1899. Sitka is the see of a Greek Melicertes, whose body he found lying on Catholic and of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. In its early history the shore of the Isthmus of Corinth. From it was the leading trading post of Alaska. After the discoveries Homer onwards Sisyphus was famed as the of gold on the mainland, at the end of the roth century, it lost its craftiest of men. When Death came to commercial primacy, but business improved after the discovery of fetch him, Sisyphus put him into fetters, gold in 1905 on Chicagoff island, about som. distant. There is so that no one died till Ares came and a growing lumber industry; salmon fisheries are of greater imfreed Death, and delivered Sisyphus into portance. In the surrounding region there are gold and silver mines. his custody. But Sisyphus was not yet at Old Sitka or Ft. Archangel Gabriel, about 6m. from the present the end of his resources. For before he town, was founded in May 1799. The fort was overwhelmed died he told his wife that when he was by the Thlinkets in 1802, but was recaptured by the Russians in gone she was not to offer the usual sacriSept. 1804. The settlement was removed at this time hy Alexfice to the dead. So in the underworld he ander Baranof to the present site. Thereafter until 1867 it was complained that his wife was neglecting the chief port and (succeeding Kodiak) the seat of government her duty, and he persuaded Hades to allow of Russian America. During the latter days of Russian occupahim to go back to the upper world and tion, Sitka presented a scene of splendour and activity. Here was punish her. But when he got back to Corlocated the Russian orthodox church of St. Michael with its spired inth he did no such thing and so lived until dome and chime of bells, the courtly Baranof Castle, which was he died of old age (Pherecydes, frag. 1109, picaee ASTEA Jacoby). In the underworld Sisyphus was EGYPTIAN SISTRUM, USED the residence of the Russian governor and the centre of social life, and the solidly built log warehouse of the Russian-American compelled to roll a big stone up a Steep BY PRIESTS IN THE TEMFur company. It also had a shipyard and a foundry, hill; but before it reached the top of the PLE oF Isis which, it is said, made bells for half the mission churches in California hill the stone always rolled down, and Sisyphus . had to begin all The formal transfer of Alaska from Russian to American possesover again (Odyssey, xi. 593). sion took place at Sitka on Oct. 18, 1867. It continued The way in which Sisyphus cheated Death to be the tales. For several examples, see T. F. Crane, is not unique in folk- seat of government of Alaska until 1906, when Italian Juneau became the Popular Tales (1885). The German parallel is Gambling Johnny capital. , who kept Death

up a tree for seven years, during which no one died (Grimm 82, see the commentary of Bolte-Polivka). The Norse the Master Smith (E. W. Dasent, Popular Tales parallel is the tale of a Lithuanian parallel, see A. Schleicher, Litauis from the Norse). For worte, Rätsel und Lieder (1857) ; for Slavoni che M ärchen, SprichJagen und Märchen der Siudslaven, ii, c parallels, F. S. Krauss, razers Pausanias, ii., p. 33; O. Gruppe,Nos. I25, 126; see also Griechische M ythologie (1906), ii. p. r0o2z, note 2.

SITAPUR, a town and district of Britis h India in the Luckmow division of the United Provinces. The town is on the river Sarayan, half-way between Lucknow and Shahjahanpur. Pop. (1921) 21,584. It isa cantonment, garri soned by a portion of a British regiment. It has a considerable trade, principally in grain. The Districr or Srrapur has an area of 2,250 sq.m. It presents the appearance of a vast plain, well-wooded with numerous groves, and well cultivated, except in those parts where the soil is barren and cut up by ravine s. Except in the eastern portion, which lies in the doabs betwe en the Kewani and Chauka and the Gogra and Chauka rivers, the soil is as a rule dry, but even this moist tract is interspersed with patches of land covered with saline efflorescence called reh. The principal rivers are the Gogra, which is navigable by boats of large tonnage throughout the year, and the Chauka. SITKA. (formerly N ew Archangel), historically the most nota-

SITMAR

LINE.

The “Sitmar” Steamship Compan

originally incorporated with the N avigazione Generale y was Italiana. As an outcome of the deliberations of the Maritime Conventions, the lines of the N.G.I. which served the Mediterranean and Far East were formed into separate companies, which were subsidised by the State, and one of which was the “Sitmar”?” whose vessels served Egypt, Syria and the Near East Company, in competition with the Austrian and German companies. In 1912 the “Sitmar” decided to construct new and faster vessels and to provide a more luxurious and comfor table mode of travelling to Egypt than their existing accommodation provided. The construction of two large steamers of 12,500 tons displacement was thereupon undertaken, and the whole of the Company’s services were completely reorga nized a short time before the World War broke out. Upon the outbreak of hostilities the Company’s vessels were commandeered by the State for the transportation of troops in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas. Of the 13 vessels so taken, no fewer than 12, having a total tonnage of 62,000, were sunk by enemy vessels. At the cessation of hostilities it was found necessary to reorganize completely the entire service of the Company, and the reconstruction of vessels was begun on a large scale.

The launching of the well known S.S. “Espe ria” took place in

SITTIDAE—SIVAS 1920. After placing the “Esperia” in the fleet the efforts of the Company were aimed especially at the establishment of a fast, regular service-de-luxe between Italy and Egypt, having weekly sailing from Genoa, at that time taken in turn by the S.S. “Esperia” and the S.S. “Italia.” In May 1926 the construction of a new vessel-de-luxe was commenced, the “Ausonia,” to take the place of the S.S. “Italia”: this vessel was launched in October 1927, and commenced running in 1928. In addition to this regular weekly express service to Egypt by the fastest vessels in the Mediterranean, the “Sitmar” links up Italy with the principal ports of the eastern Mediterranean by the two fast “circular” lines, which provide a weekly sailing from Genoa to and from Egypt, Palestine, Athens, Constantinople and other ports. In addition to these are the mail and commercial services of lesser importance: Fortnightly mail service, Tyrrhenian SeaDanube; monthly commercial services, Tyrrhenian Sea—Aegean Sea and Tyrrhenian Sea—Black Sea. The fleet of the “Sitmar” consists of 15 vessels, totalling

116,218 tons.

(W. Sto.)

SITTIDAE: see Nutuatcz. SITTINGBOURNE, a market town in the Faversham parliamentary division of Kent, England, on ‘a navigable creek of the Swale, 443 m. E.S.E. of London by the Southern Ry. Population (1931) 20,175 with Milton. It consists principally of one long

street (the Roman Watling street) and the northern suburb of Milton Regis, a separate urban district (pop. 7,481), celebrated for its oysters, the fishery of which used to employ a large number of the inhabitants. Brick and cement making is an important industry employing about 6,000 hands, and there are corn and paper mills and a jam factory. The export trade in corn and import trade in coal is considerable. An earthwork known as Castle Rough, in the marshes below Milton, was probably the work of Hasten the Dane in 892, and Bayford castle, a mile distant, occupies the site of one said to have been built in opposition by King Alfred. Tong castle is about 2 m. E. of Sittingbourne. It consists of a high mound surrounded by a moat, and is said to have been erected by Hengest. Fragments of masonry exist about the mound. The story of the founding of the castle resembles that connected with the city of Carthage. Vortigern is Said to have granted Hengest as much land as an ox-hide could encompass, and the hide being cut into strips the site of Tong castle was accordingly marked out. The same tradition attaches to Tong castle in Shropshire. Tradition also asserts, according to the 12th century chronicler, Geoffrey of Monmouth, that it was in Tong castle that Vortigern met Rowena, Hengest’s daughter, and became so enamoured of her as to resign his kingdom to her father. In the time of Richard II. Tong castle belonged to

Edmund Mortimer, earl of March.

Sittingbourne is mentioned in Saxon documents in 989 and frequently in contemporary records of the 13th and 14th centuries. The first charter was obtained in 1573; a second in 1599. SITTING BULL (c. 1837-1890), a chief and medicine man of the Dakota Sioux, was born on Willow Creek, in what is now North Dakota, about 1837, son of a chief, Jumping Bull. He gained great influence among the reckless and unruly young Indians, and during the Civil War led attacks on white settlements in Iowa and Minnesota. Though he had pretended to make peace in 1866, from 1869 to 1876 he frequently attacked whites or Indians friendly to whites. His refusal to return to the reservation in 1876 led to the campaign in which Gen. George A. Custer (g.v.) and his command were massacred, Fearing punishment for his participation in the massacre, Sitting Bull with a large band moved_over into Canada. He returned to the United States in 1881, and after 1883 made his home at the Standing Rock Agency. Rumours of a coming Indian Messiah who: should sweep away the whites, and Indian dissatisfaction at the sale of their lands, created such great unrest

in Dakota in 1889-90 that it was determined to arrest Sitting Bull as a precaution. He was surprised and captured by Indian police and soldiers on Grand river Dec. 15, 1890, and was killed

773

while his companions were attempting to rescue him.

SIVA (Shiva), in post-Vedic mythology the destroyer-god who with Brahma the creator and Vishnu the preserver forms the Indian trinity. In the Vedas shiva (“auspicious”) was the epithet applied to any god, even euphemistically to the baleful Rudra (g.v.). In the Epic literature Siva has many attributes and various functions. He is lord of spirits (bhdits), protector of cattle (as Pasupati) and god of letters, music and dancing. As Natarāja (“dance-king”), however, his worship is confined to southern India; and there, too, is to be found one of his peculiar sects, the Lingayats (g.v.). His spouse is essentially Devi (“the goddess”)

under the various names, (g.v.), or Karali.

Uma, Parvati, Durga

(g.v.), Kali

See W. E. Hopkins, Epic Mythology (Strasbourg, r915); O. C. Gangoly, South Indian Bronzes (Calcutta, r915).

SIVAJI

(1627-1680), founder of the Mahratta power in

India, was born in May 1627. He was the son of Shahji Bhonsla, a Mahratta soldier of fortune who held a jagir under the Bijapur government, and regarded himself as appointed to free the Hindus from the Mohammedan yoke. Forming a national party among the Hindus of the Deccan, he opposed in turn the vassal power of Bijapur and the imperial armies of the Mogul of Delhi. By intrigue and hard fighting, Sivaji won for the Mahrattas practical supremacy in western India. In 1659 he lured Afzul Khan, the Bijapur general, into a personal conference, and killed him with his own hand, while his men attacked and routed the Bijapur army. In 1666 he visited the Mogul emperor, Aurangzeb, at Delhi, but on his expressing dissatisfaction at not being treated with sufficient dignity, he was placed under arrest. Having effected his escape in a sweetmeat basket, he raised the standard of revolt, assumed the title of raja, and the prerogative of coining money in his own name. He died on April 5, 1680. Savaji had a genius both for war and for peaceful administration; but he always preferred to attain his ends by fraud rather than by force. He is the national hero of the Mahrattas. See Grant Duff, History of the Mohrattas (1826); Krishnaji Ananta, Life and Exploits of Sivaji (1884); and M. G. Ranade, Rise of the Maratha Power (Bombay, 1900).

SIVAS, a vilayet in Asia Minor.

Srvas (anc. Megalopolis-

Sebasteia), altitude 4,420 ft., is the chief town of the vilayet of the same name. It is situated in the broad valley of the Kizil Irmak, on one of its right bank tributaries, the Murdan Su. Pop. (1927) 56,180. The climate is healthy but severe in winter. Coarse cotton cloth and woollen socks are manufactured. The medresses (colleges), built in the 13th century by the Seljuk sultans of Rum, are amongst the finest remains of Moslem art in Asta Minor. In one of them is the tomb of its founder, Izz ud-din Kai Kaus I. (1210-1219). Near the town is the Armenian monastery of the Holy Cross, in which are kept the throne of Senekherim and other relics. Under Diocletian Sebasteia became the capital of Armenia Minor, and in the 7th century that of the Sebasteia Theme. Justinian rebuilt the walls and, under the Byzantine emperors, it was second only to Caesarea in size and wealth. In 1021 Senek-

herim, king of the Armenian province of Vaspuragan (Van), ceded his dominions to Basil II, and became the Byzantine viceroy of Sebasteia and the surrounding country. ‘This position

was held by his successors until the town fell into the hands of the Turkomans after the defeat of Romanus II. by the Seljuks (1071). After having been ruled for nearly a century by the Danishmand amirs, it was taken (1172) by the Seljuk sultan of Rum, and in 1224 was rebuilt by Sultan Ala-ed-din Kaikobad I. In 1400, when captured by Timur, the city is said to have had

100,000 inhabitants, and to have been famous for its woollen stuffs. On this occasion the bravest defenders were massacred, and 4,000 Armenians were buried alive. Mohammed the “Conqueror” restored the citadel, and the place has ever since been an important Ottoman provincial capital. Early in the 19th century, like all other Ottoman towns, it was terrorized by janissaries, with whom Mahmud IT. commissioned the great Dere Bey of Yuzgat, Chapan Oglu, to deal in 1818. The news of his drastic success provoked a dangerous riot in Stambul, which postponed by some years the fmal tragedy'of the janissaries.

744

SIVATHERIUM—SIXTUS

IV.

Mechithar, the founder of the Mechitharists (g.v.) and of the to the Suliman range as it does to the Himalayas, t.e., it faces the famous monastery at Venice, was born (1676) at Sivas. Sivas is

connected with Angora by a railway which (in 1928) was being extended to Erzeroum.

SIVATHERIUM,

f

an extinct mammal allied to the giraffe

but larger, with two pairs of horns, the hinder large and deer-like, the anterior short and pointed. Its remains are found in the Pliocene foundation of the Siwalik hills in India, It reached a height of 7ft. An allied genus of the same geological age, Samotherium, with a single pair of horns, present only in the male, is known from Samos. ;

SIVRI-HISSAR, “Pointed-Castle,” a kazah in the Eski Shehir

vilayet in Asia Minor, situated 8 m. N. of the site of Pessinus, at the foot of a lofty double-peaked ridge of rock, which bears the ruins of a Byzantine castle. It is a road and commercial centre, with a trade in opium and mohair. Pop. (1927) 31,496. The town occupies the site of ancient Palic, re-founded and re-named Justinianopolis by the emperor Justinian. It was one of the chain of fortresses on the Byzantine military road across Asia Minor, and became the chief city of Galatia Salutaris about A.D. 700.

SIWA, an oasis in the Libyan Desert, politically part of Egypt.

plains and becomes the outermost wall of the hills.

SIWARD

(d. 1055), earl of Northumbria, was a Dane by

birth and probably came to England with Canute. He became earl of Deira after the death of Eadwulf Cutel, earl of N orthumbria, about 1038, and earl of all Northumbria after murdering Eadwulf, earl of Bernicia, in 1041. He supported Edward the Confessor in his quarrel with Earl Godwine in 1051, and was appointed earl of Huntingdon soon after this date. In 1054

Siward invaded Scotland in the interests of his kinsman Malcolm Canmore, and he completely routed King Macbeth in a battle in which his son Osbeorn was killed, Early in 1055 the earl died at York. A man of unusual strength and size, he is said to have risen from his bed at the approach of death, and to have died dressed in all his armour. One of his sons was Earl Waltheof. See E. A. Freeman, Tke Norman Conquest, vols. ii. and iii. (1870~ 76); and W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (1876-80).

SIXTUS, the name of five popes.

Sixtus I. (Xystus) was the sixth bishop of Rome (c. 116-125) and took the name on that account. Srxtus II., successor of Stephanus I. as bishop of Rome in 257, suffered martyrdom under

Tt is also known as the oasis of Ammon or Jupiter Ammon; its Valerian on Aug. 6, 258. He restored the relations with the ancient Egyptian name was Sekhet-am, “Palm-land.” The oasis African and Eastern Churches which had been broken off by his lies about 350 m. W.S.W. of Cairo; its chief town, also called predecessor on the question of heretical baptism. Dionysius sucSiwa, being situated in 29° 12’ N., 25° 30’ E. The oasis is some ceeded him. 6 m. long by 4 to 5 wide. Ten miles north-east is the small oasis Sixtus JIT. was bishop of Rome from July 31, 432, to Aug. 19, of Zetun, and westward of Siwa extends for some 5o m. a chain 440, Before his elevation to the pontificate he had been suspected of little oases. The population of Siwa proper is nearly 4,000. of favouring the Pelagians, but when he became pope he disapThe inhabitants are of Libyan (Berber) stock and have a lan- pointed their expectations, and repelled their attempts to enter guage of their own, but also speak Arabic, The oasis is extremely again into communion with the Church. During his pontificate fertile and contains many thousands of date palms. The town of the dispute was settled between Cyril of Alexandria and John of Siwa is built on two rocks and resembles a fortress. The houses Antioch, who had been at variance since the council of Ephesus, are frequently built on arches spanning the streets, which are but he himself had some difficulties with Proclus of Constantinarrow and irregular. nople with regard to the vicariate of Thessalonica. Sixtus IV. The oasis owes its distinction to the oracle temple of Ammon, and Sixtus V. have separate notices. (L. D.) which was already famous in the time of Herodotus, and was conSIXTUS IV. (Francesco DELLA Rovere), pope from Aug. 9, sulted by Alexander the Great. The remains of the temple are 1471, to Aug. 12, 1484, was born of a poor family near Savona in the walled village of Aghormi, 2 m. E. of the town of Siwa. It in 1414, He entered the Franciscan order at an early age and is a small building, with inscriptions dating from the 4th century studied philosophy and theology at the universities of Padua and B.C. The oracle fell into disrepute during the Roman occupation Bologna. He was chosen general of his order in 1464. Three of Egypt, and was reported dumb by Pausanias, c. A.D. 160. Near years later he was, to his own surprise, made cardinal-priest of the temple are the scanty remains of another temple of the same St. Pietro in Vincoli by Paul II., whom he succeeded as pope. century, Umm Beda, with reliefs depicting the prince of the Sixtus sent Cardinal Caraffa with a fleet against the Turks, but oasis making offerings to Ammon, “lord of oracles.” At Jebel the expedition was unsuccessful. He continued to condemn the Muta, ı m. N.E. of Siwa, are tombs of Ptolemaic and Roman Pragmatic Sanction in France, and denounced especially the ordidate; ro m. E. of Aghormi is a well-preserved chapel, with nance of Louis XJ. which required (Jan. 8, 1475) the royal placet Roman graves; at Kasr Rumi is a temple of the Roman period. for the publication of all papal decrees. He likewise continued The oasis lies close to the Tripolitan frontier and is largely his predecessor’s negotiations with the Tsar ILI. for the dominated by the sect of the Senussi (g.v.), whose headquarters reunion of the Russian Church with the Roman Ivan see and for supwere formerly at Jarabub, to the north-west. The Senussi suc- port against the Turks, but without result. He was visited in cessfully prevented various explorers penetrating westward be- 1474 by King Christian of Denmark and Norway, and in the yond Siwa. The first European to reach Siwa since Roman time following year (June 12) he established the University of Copenwas W. G. Browne, who visited the oasis in 1792. There were hagen. Sixtus soon abandoned his universal policy in order to serious disturbances in 1909, and as a result in 1910 a telegraph concentrate attention on Italian politics, and showed himself a line was built across the desert from Alexandria to the oasis. confirmed nepotist. He was cognizant the conspiracy of the SIWALIK HILLS, a name given to the foot-hills of the Pazzi, plotted (1478) by his nephew, of Cardinal Riario, against Himalayas in Dehra Dun district of the United Provinces of India Lorenzo de’ Medici, He entered into a fruitless and inglorious and in Nahan state and Hoshiarpur district of the Punjab. The war with Florence, which kept Italy for two years (1478-80) in range runs parallel with the Himalayan system from Hardwar on confusion. He next incited the Venetians to attack Ferrara, and the Ganges to the Beas, with a length of 200 m. and an average then, after having been delivered by their general, Roberto width of rom. The elevation varies from 2,000 to 3,500 ft. GeoMalatesta, from a Neapolitan invasion, he turned upon them logically speaking the Siwaliks belong to the tertiary deposits of and eventually assailed them for refusing to desist from the the outer Himalayas, and are chiefly composed of low sandstone hostilities which he had himself instigated. He relied on the and conglomerate hills, the solidified and upheaved detritus of the co-operation of Lodovico Sforza, who speedily forsook him; great range in their rear. The intermediate valley lying between and vexation at having peace forced upon him by the princes the outer hills and the Mussoorie mountains is known as the and cities of Italy is said to have hastened his death (Aug. 12, Dehra Dun (or Dehra valley) and is a popular residential area of 1484). Sixtus granted many privileges: to the mendicant orders, Europeans and Anglo-Indians. The principal pass is that of Mohan especially to the Franciscans; he endeavoured to suppress abuses by which the main road from Saharanpur to Dehra and Mussoorie in the Spanish Inquisition; he took measures against the Waltraverses the range. The Siwalik formation (distinguished for its denses ; he approved (1475) the office of the Immaculate Conextraordinary wealth of palaeontological remains) is found on the ception for Dec. 8; in 1478 he formally annulled the decrees of North-west Frontier occupying much the same position relatively the council of Constance; and he canonized st. Bonaventura

SIXTUS

V.—SKANDERBEG

(April 14, 1482). The most praiseworthy side of his pontificate was his munificence as a founder or restorer of useful institutions, and a patron of letters and art. He established and richly endowed the first foundling hospital, built and repaired numerous. churches, constructed the Sistine chapel and the Sistine bridge, improved church music and instituted the famous Sistine choir, commissioned paintings on the largest scale, pensioned men of learning, and, above all, immortalized himself as the second founder of the Vatican library. These great works, however, were not accomplished without grievous taxation. Annates were increased and simony flourished. See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. iv., trans. by F. I. Antrobus (1898); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. iv. (1901); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. vii., trans. by Mrs. G. W. Hamilton (1900-02); Jacob Burckhardt, Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien (4th ed., 1904) ; J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy; E. Frantz, Sixtus 1V. u. die Republik Florenz (Regensburg, 1880); I. Schlecht, “Sixtus IV. u. die deutschen Drucker in Rom,” in S. Ehses, Festschrift zu elfhundertjéhrigen Jubilium des Campo Santo (Freiburg, 1897) ; Aus den Annaten-Regisiern der Papste Eugen IV., Pius II., Paul II. u. Sixtus IV., ed. by K. Hayn (Cologne, 1896). (C. H. H.; X.)

SIXTUS V. (FELICE PERETTI), pope from 1585 to 1590, was

born at Grottamara, in Ancona, on Dec. 13, 1521. He was reared in extreme poverty; and at an early age he entered a Franciscan monastery. He soon gave evidence of rare ability as a preacher and a dialectician. About 1552 he came under the

notice of Cardinal Carpi, protector of his order, Ghislieri (later Pius V.) and Caraffa (later Paul IV.), and from that time his advancement was assured. He was sent to Venice as inquisitor general, but carried matters with a high hand, became embroiled in quarrels, and was forced to leave (1560). After a brief term as procurator of his order, he was attached to the Spanish legation headed by Buoncampagno (later Gregory XIII.) 1565. The violent dislike he conceived for Buoncampagno exerted a marked influence upon his subsequent actions. He hurried back to Rome upon the accession of Pius V., who made him apostolic vicar of his order, and, later (1570), cardinal. During the pontificate of Gregory XIII. he lived in retirement, occupied with the care of his villa and with his studies, one of the fruits of which was an edition of the works of Ambrose; not neglecting, however, to follow the course of affairs, but carefully avoiding every occasion of offence. This discreetness contributed not alittle to his election to the papacy on April 24, 1585. The terrible condition in which Gregory XIII. had left the ecclesiastical States called for prompt and stern measures. Against the prevailing lawlessness Sixtus proceeded with an almost ferocious severity, which only extreme necessity could justify. Thousands of brigands were brought to justice: within a short time the country was again quiet and safe. Sixtus next set to work to repair the finances. By the sale of offices, the establish-

ment of new “Monti” and by levying new taxes, he accumulated a vast surplus, which he stored up against certain specified emergencies, such as a crusade or the defence of the Holy See. Immense sums were spent upon public works; these include: the completion of the dome of St. Peter’s; the loggia of Sixtus in the Lateran; the chapel of the Praesepe in Sta. Maria Maggiore; additions or repairs to the Quirinal, Lateran and Vatican palaces; the erection of four obelisks, including that in the piazza of St. Peter’s; the opening of six streets; the restoration of the aqueduct of Severus (“Acqua Felice”); besides numerous roads and bridges, an attempt to drain the Pontine marshes, and the encouragement of agriculture and manufacture. But Sixtus had no appreciation of antiquity: the columns of Trajan and Antoninus were made to serve as pedestals for the statues of SS.

Peter and Paul; the Minerva of the Capitol was converted into “Christian Rome”; the Septizonium of Severus was demolished for its building materials.

Sixtus limited the College of Cardinals to 70; and doubled the

number of the congregations, and enlarged their functions, assigning to them the principal rôle in the transaction of business

(1588). The Jesuits Sixtus regarded with disfavour and suspicion.

He meditated radical changes in their constitution, but death prevented the execution of his purpose. In 1589 was begun a

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revision of the Vulgate, the so-called Editio Sixtina. In bis larger political relations Sixtus, strangely enough, showed himself visionary and vacillating. He distrusted Philip II. and viewed with apprehension any extension of his power. So, while he excommunicated Henry of Navarre, and contributed to the League and the Armada, he chafed under his forced alliance with Philip, and looked about for escape. The victories of Henry and the prospect of his conversion to Catholicism raised Sixtus’s hopes, and in corresponding degree determined Philip to tighten his grip upon his wavering ally. The pope’s negotiations with Henry’s representative evoked a bitter and menacing protest and a categorical demand for the performance of promises. Sixtus took refuge in evasion, and temporized until death relieved him

of the necessity of coming to a decision (Aug. 27, 1590)Posterity ranks Sixtus one of the greatest popes. He was hasty, obstinate, severe, autocratic; but his mind was open to large ideas, and he threw himself into his undertakings with an energy and determination that often compelled success. Few popes can boast of greater enterprise or larger achievements. Lives of Sixtus are numerous: Cicarella’s, in Platina, De {vitis pontif. Rom., is by a contemporary of the pope, but nevertheless of slight importance; Leti’s Vita di Sisto V. (Amsterdam, 1693, translated into English by Farneworth, 1779) is a caricature, full of absurd tales, utterly untrustworthy, wanting even the saving merit of style; Tempesti’s Storia della vita e geste di Sisto Quinto (1754gy) is valuable for the large use it makes of the original sources, but acks perspective and is warped by the author’s blind admiration for his subject; Cesare’s Vita di Sisto V. (Naples, 1755) is but an abridgment of Tempesti. Of recent works the best are Hiibner, Sixte-Quint, etc. (1870), translated into English by H. E. H. Jerningham (1872) ; and Capranica, Papa Sisto, storia del s. XVI. (Milan, 1884). See also Lorentz, Sixtus V. w. seine Zeit (Mainz, 1852); Dumesnil, Hist. de Sixte-Quint (1869, 2nd ed.); Segretain, Sixte-Quint et Henrz IV. (1861, strongly Ultramontane); Ranke’s masterly portrayal, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 446 sq., ii. 205 sg.; and v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom, iii. 2, 575 sq., 733 Sq._ Extended bibliographies may be found in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopidie, s.v. “Sixtus V.”; and Cambridge Mod. Hist. iii. 835 sq. See also The Catholic Oe

), German SIXT VON ARMIN, FRIEDRICH (1851general, was born at Wetzlar, Nov. 27, 1851. He took part in the war of 1870-71 and was severely wounded at St. Privat. After having occupied different positions on the General Staff, he was appointed in 1903 Director of the General Department of War in the Prussian War Ministry, and in 1911 general-in-command of the IV. Army Corps at Magdeburg. During the World War

he led his corps as a part of the First and of the Sixth Army;

he was appointed in 1917 commander-in-chief of the Fourth Army in Flanders, where he succeeded, in the spring offensive in 1918, in taking Armentiéres and the Kemmel Hill. At the close of the war he retired from the army.

SKAGERAK, the arm of the North Sea which gives access

to the Cattegat and so to the Baltic. It is about 140 m. long and 7 broad. On the Danish shore, which is low and beset with sandbanks, the strait is shallow. Towards the steep Norwegian coast its deepest part is found, 443 fathoms. For the currents, temperature and salinity of the water, etc.,

see Nort

Sea. For battle, see JUTLAND, BATTLE OF.

SKAGWAY, 2 town of Alaska, situated at the north end of

Lynn canal, a deep and narrow arm of the sea thrust far up between picturesque mountain ranges, in 59° 28’ N. and 135° 20 W., is at the head of navigation in the waters of south-eastern Alaska. Skagway owes its present importance to being the seaward terminus of the White Pass and Yukon railway. This road, built in the years 1898-1900, extends up the valley of the Skagway river to the summit of White Pass, 20 m., crossing there the international boundary and continuing thence down on the Canadian side 90 m.

to White Horse, head of navigation on the Yukon. Historically, it is of interest as the landing place of large quantities of supplies and many thousands of people during the struggle of 1897-98 (known as the “Klondyke Rush”) to reach the newly discovered rich deposits of gold in the upper (Canadian) Yukon. Its population in 1930 Was 492.

(1403or GEORGE CASTRIOTA SKANDERBEG 1468), the national hero of the Albanians, “ranked by Sir William Temple among the seven chiefs who have deserved, with-

726

SKARA

out wearing a royal crown,’ was of Serbian origin. The founder of the family of Castriota was a certain Branilo, who was governor of Kanina in 1368, and whose grandson, Giovanni, lord of Mat and Vumenestia, married Voisava Tripalda, daughter of a

Serbian magnate. The offspring of this union was George Castriota. Thus, as the Albanians gave to Greece several leaders of her War of Independence, Serbia furnished the chief figure of their struggle for freedom. George’s uncle had, however, married an heiress of the leading Albanian clan of Thopia and thus acquired, together with the fortress of Kroja, some of that family’s influence. Born in 1403, George was 11 years old when the Turks began to occupy Albania, and, while the castle of Kroja became the seat of a Turkish governor, he was sent as a hostage to Constantinople. Educated there as a Muslim he received the Turkish name of Iskander (“Alexander”), applied to him by Byron in

BRAE against a powerful Turkey. BrertiocrapHy.—Georges T. Petrovitch, Scanderbeg (Georges Casivriota); Essai de bibliographie raisonnée; Ouvrages sur Scanderbeg écrits en langues française, anglaise, allemande, latine, italienne, etc.

(Paris, 1881); Pisko, Skanderbeg, historische Studie (Vienna, 1895);

M. Barletius, Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum Principis (Rome, S.A.? 1808) ; J. de Lavardin, Histoire de Georges Castriot, surnommé Scanderbeg (Paris, 1598); C. Moore, George Castriot, surnamed Scanderbeg, king of Albania (New York, 1850); Hopf, Chroniques Gréco-romanes (Berlin, 1873) 5 Monumenta spectantia historiam Slavorum Meridionalium, xxiv. 404 (Agram, ea

SKARA BRAE, the name of sand-dunes, Parish of Sandwick, Orkney. About 1851 a great storm laid bare here an immense kitchen-midden and remains of ancient walls. Subsequent researches during the sixties by William Watt of Skail House, revealed a conglomeration of stone chambers or huts, opening onto a winding passage or street. Further excavations were conducted by Balfour Stewart in 1913, and in 1926 the Office of Works, which had assumed guardianship of the site, was obliged to initiate restoration works to preserve the monument against further encroachments by the sea. In the course of these operations J. Firth, the contractor, opened up a new hut in 1927 and in 1928 yet another hut and a large section of street were freed from superincumbent débris under the direction of Gordon Childe, Professor of Prehistoric Archaeology in Edinburgh University. The prehistoric village is conveniently situated on the southern shore of the Bay of Skail, that offers a sheltered haven to fishermen and convenient landing-place for ancient mariners. It consists, as noted, of an agglomeration of huts built of dry-masonry. Up to date seven such huts have been identified, but one has been

Childe Harold, with the title of bey—subsequently abbreviated by his countrymen into Skanderbeg. Like Albanians in later times, he rose to eminence in the Turkish service; he was promoted to the government of a sanjak, and for many years fought for his Turkish masters against Venetians and Serbs, till, in 1443, while serving in the Turkish army which had been defeated by Janos Hunyadi’s troops near Nish, he heard that his native land had risen against the Turkish garrison. Then, at the age of 40, he realized that his mission was to free Albania, and the rest of his life was devoted to that object. Seizing Kroja by stratagem, he made it his capital, proclaimed himself a Christian, and gathered the wild Albanian clansmen about him. His personal influence was increased by his marriage with Andronica, daughter of Arianites Comnenus, a prominent Albanian chief, who had vainly endeavoured to drive out the washed away by the waves and a second had been already ruined Turks. The other chiefs rallied round his standard; the Mon- and abandoned before the desertion of the site in prehistoric times. tenegrins, whose ruler, Stephen Crnojevich, was his brother-in- The huts are roughly square but the corners are in every case law, came to his assistance, and at a gathering of the clans at the rounded. The largest measures about 21 feet square on the floor Venetian colony of Alessio he was proclaimed Captain-General while others are scarcely twelve feet across. The walls are built of Albania. Venice, then mistress of the Albanian coast as far of slabs of local stone without mortar and converge towards the south as Durazzo, at first regarded him as a rival, but subsequently top, each course projecting inwards a little beyond the one betook him into her pay as an ally against the common foe. The low; in some cases, particularly in No. 7, they are still intact to a pope and the king of Naples helped the Albanian cause, as fel- height of ro feet. It does not seem possible, however, that they low-Christians and neighbours, and the latter, mindful of the were completed to meet eventually in a corbelled dome, and it claims of the Neapolitan Angevins beyond the Adriatic, received is still uncertain how the huts were roofed. In the walls at various the homage of the Albanian champion. But Mohammed IL, heights niches have been left. partly by,.working upon the proverbial jealousy of the other Moreover, most huts are provided with one or two small beeAlbanian. chiefs, partly by force of arms, temporarily eliminated hive cells, built in the thickness of the wall and entered by a low bim, and in 1461 concluded with him a ten years’ armistice. doorway. The floors of the huts were of stamped earth, but part But long before it elapsed, Skanderbeg, at the instigation of at least was generally paved with slates. Huts 4 and s, and Pius II., broke it, with fatal results. That pope’s projected cruprobably also the others, were provided with drains, laid undersade was prevented by its author’s death; Skanderbeg, abandoned neath the slate slabs and serving to carry off moisture and sewage. by his western allies, was left to fight single-handed against the On the floors various domestic fixtures, being built of stone, still great sultan, who himself in 1466 besieged Kroja. The fortress survive. In the centre in each case stands the hearth, framed held out, but Skanderbeg went to seek help from Pope Paul II. in with stone slabs set on edge. Built along the side walls are enRome, where a lane near the Quirinal still commemorates his closures resembling pens formed by three large stone slabs set name and visit. Returning, he died in the Venetian colony of on edge and held in place by pins and uprights also of stone. Alessio on Jan. 17, 1468, whereupon the Turks easily conquered Against the rear walls of huts 1 and 7 two-storeyed structures of Albania, except Kroja, ceded by his son to Venice, and the other stone resembling dressers have been reared. In all buts stand Venetian possessions. His son Giovanni and other Albanian chiefs cubical slate-lined receptacles, sunk in the floor. The joints beemigrated to southern Italy, and his posterity formed part of the iti the lining-slabs have always been carefully caulked with considerable Albanian colonies there; in our own time a selfclay. styled Castriota claimed the Albanian throne on the ground of The hut-doors are low and narrow. The jambs are about two his alleged descent from the national hero. feet apart while the height from threshold to lintel seldom exSkanderbeg’s grave in the church of St. Nicholas at Alessio ceeds three feet. Immediately within the threshold comes a short was opened by the Turks, who touched his bones with superstitious passage or porch of only slightly ampler dimensions in the walls reverence and wore them as amulets; but the ruins of the castle of which are holes for the bar that blocked the door to slide in. which he built on Cape Rodoni remain, the Mirdites still wear The entrance passage is always slate flagged. mourning for him, and the independent Albania of to-day has The door opened on to a narrow street or passage, generally placed his image on some of her postage stamps. He has been paved with slate and covered over about four feet above the made the subject of a Latin poem by de Bussiéres, an Italian floor with a roof of stone slabs. This street and its branches, of poem by Signora Sarrocchi, and an English tragedy, S canderbeg: which only one is as yet known, provided the sole means of comor Love and Liberty, by Whincop (1747). Gen. Wolfe wrote that munication between the huts. The street-roofs are to-day covered “he exceeds all the officers, ancient and modern, in the conduct over with a deposit of kitchen refuse. In this are found, together of a small defensive army.” His resistance to the Turkish ad- with ashes and broken animal bones, stone-knives, pot-sherds, vance helped Christendom, but did not save Albania—a country bone implement s and ornaments of precisely the same type as _ too small and too much divided by the clan system to stand those collected on the floors of intact huts. Hence it is clear that

SKAT the people who lived in the huts used to dump their rubbish on the roofs of the streets connecting their dwellings and even to camp upon those roofs themselves. The villagers of Skara Brae certainly possessed domestic animals including short-horned cattle, sheep and swine. There is no evidence that they practised agriculture, but fish played a prominent part in their diet and limpet shells have been found in enormous quantities. For weaving or metallurgy there is no evidence. Picks, shovels, awls (used probably for piercing leather garments), pins and polishing tools were made of bone. Flint, very finely worked, provided scrapers, and knives were manufactured in great numbers from the rolled stones of the beach. When dashed hard upon the ground these yield a sharp-edged flake quite suitable for use as a knife. Such flakes are extremely common in the midden and the huts. Axe-heads were made of polished stone and were not usually perforated. The only possible weapons, found on the site, are stone balls carved all over with nobby projections. These may have been mace-heads or bolas, but may equally well have served as poises for a weighing beam or bismar. The pottery is exceedingly coarse and very badly fired; indeed earthenware was used almost exclusively for cooking vessels, some of which are very large. The pots are nevertheless often decorated with relief patterns, formed by applied strips, below the rim. Other vessels include small cups made from vertebrae, large dishes of whale-bone and stone basins. As ornaments, beads (disc, cylindrical, barrel-shaped and segmented) and amulets (generally in the form of a tusk or claw) carved out of bone, walrus-ivory, boars’-tusk and the incisor teeth of ruminants were popular. The cemetery of Skara is yet to be found. One skeleton was unearthed lying above the hearth of hut No. 1 many years ago. In 1928 a double-interment was discovered under the wall of hut No. 7. This grave was an integral part of the hut and must have been covered over before the wall was built. It contained the skeletons of two very aged women which were buried in the contracted posture with a very poor type of furniture. They were probably the victims of a foundation sacrifice. The skeleton from hut No. 1 belonged to a tall woman, 5 ft. 6 in. high with a long head (index 70-6). The skull of the victim from hut No. 7 was likewise dolichocephalic. Hence the lowness of the doorways and passages was not due to the dwarfish stature of the huts’ owners. Probably the low door and long covered streets were really designed to exclude drafts of cold air like the entrance-passage of an Esquimaux snow-but or igloo. The builders of Skara were most probably Picts. In any case the architecture of their houses, their industry and especially their ceramic art carry on a tradition that had been rooted in northern Scotland since neolithic times. The actual age of the settlement is open to dispute. The finely worked flints and polished stone axe-heads would point to a high antiquity. Yet in previous excavations the mould for an early Christian cross and a stone carved with Runic letters were unearthed somewhere on the site. In 1928 an inscription was noticed on a slab in front of the grave. The script is still undecipherable. These facts would all support a date between A.D. 600 and 800, a date by no means incompatible with the stone balls. None the less it must be noted that a broch on the opposite side of Skail Bay has yielded normal Iron Age relics all far in advance of the industry of Skara Brae, while the pottery distinctly resembles that of the late bronze age (“encrusted” type).

See Petrie in Proc. Soc. Antiquaries Scotland, 1867, p. 205; Balfour Stewart, ibid., 1913-14, P. 344; Childe, zbid., 1928-29; Garson, J. (V. G. C.) Anthrop. Institute, xiii. p. 56.

SKAT, a game of cards, much played in central and northern

Germany. It is generally supposed to have been invented about 1817 by an advocate of the name of Hempel in Saxe-Altenburg. There is, however, some reason for believing that the game 1s of much earlier origin and was played by the Slav inhabitants of Saxe-Altenburg long before that date. In the home of the game of skat (Saxony and Thuringia) the old German single-ended cards are usually employed, while in north and south Germany in French cards are ordinarily used. The German cards are 32

TAT

number and of four suits: Schellen (bells}, the equivalent of diamonds; Rotk (red), hearts; Grün (green), spades; and Eichel (acorn), clubs. The eight cards of each suit are the seven, eight, nine, ten, }Venzel or knave, queen, king and ace. This arrangement denotes at once the value of the single cards, each following card being higher in value than the preceding; z.e., hearts are higher than diamonds, spades than hearts, and clubs (the highest colour) takes spades, hearts and diamonds. Again, 8 takes 7, g takes 8 and 7; but the knave (called Wenzel or Unter) is an

exception (see below). The game is played by three persons; where four play, the dealer takes no part in the play though he shares in the winnings and losings of the opponents of the player. The cards are dealt from left to right—or (as skat players say) in the direction the coffee-mill is turned. After the cards have been shuffled and cut, the dealer first deals three cards to each player, then four and again three, laying aside two cards (the skat). Each player has now ten cards in his hand, which he arranges in suits. The Wenzel or knaves occupy a peculiar position. They are not regarded as colour cards, but are essentially trumps and take all other trumps. The player sitting to the left of the dealer is “first hand,” and if he himself intends to make a game, invites the others to declare theirs, or if he wishes to reserve all rights to himself, simply says “Ick bin vorn”—“I have the lead,” and then his next neighbour on the left has to offer a game. If this neighbour holds such cards as to give him no prospect of winning, he passes, and his neighbour to the left has the right to offer a game. If he in his turn passes, then the first hand is at liberty to determine the game or declare “Ramsch” (see below). But if the first neighbour thinks he can risk a game, he offers one. If the first hand reserves this game (see above, “I have the lead”), either because he intends to play it himself or to play a higher game, the second hand must go higher or pass, 7.¢., renounce a game, and then his neighbour to the left has the right to offer, and if he again passes and does not offer a higher game than that which the first hand intends to play, the latter determines the game to be played. The usual games in skat are the following. First the simple colour game, which is, however, seldom played by skat enthusiasts. The player has here the right to take up the skat, and to determine the suit of the game; but here the rule is that the colour must not be lower in value than that of the game offered, though it may be higher. For instance, if spades are offered, the player cannot take hearts as trumps, though he may take clubs, because they are higher in value than spades. Next to the colour game comes “tourné,” the player turning up one of the skat cards, the suit of which becomes trumps. If a knave be turned up the player may announce “grando.” Then comes the game of “‘solo,” where the player declares which sult shall be trumps, and the skat remains intact. The highest “solo,” still higher than clubs, is “grando.” In this game only the four knaves are trumps. If the hand playing grando thinks he can make all the tricks, he declares open grando; ż.e., shows his hand. If in open grando a single trick be lost, the player loses the game. If one of the players holds such cards as to enable him to force his opponents to take all the tricks, he can declare “nullo.” But here the game is lost if even a single trick falls to the player. In nullo, the knaves are regarded as colour; 7.¢., are not trumps. Nullo can be played open, if there is no probability of the player taking a single trick. Simple nullo counts higher than diamond solo: open nullo comes after clubs solo. In Ramsch, which takes place when none of the players will risk a game, each player takes (as in whist) all the tricks he makes—but only knaves are trumps —and the loser is he who makes most points. The value of the individual cards given in figures is as follows: the seven, eight and nine count nothing, the knave counts 2, the queen 3, king 4, ten ro and ace rr points. This gives the value of the whole game as 120 points. The game is won if the player gets one above the half of this sum, i.e., 62. ‘The hand that does not make 30 is

“Schneider,” that is “cut,” and “Schwarz” (black) if he does not make a single point. in ohne Skat is almost invariably played for money, and the calculation A

SKATING

728

base was strapped to the boot and kept firm by low spikes or

is made thus. Every game and every suit have a set value :— Colour game..... .3, 4, 5 and 6, according to the suits. s, 6, 7, 8 and 12 (the last the grando). ... Tourné 9, 10, 11, 12 and 16 (grando). S0l0s it hadeosase These figures are increased by the number of “matadores.”

screws that entered the sole. The next step in development was the “club-skate,” originally Canadian, a patent appliance adjusted

knave of clubs down to the seven of trumps. If the player has then all four knaves and all the cards of the trump suit in his hand (or in the skat), he has a game with 11 matadores. But if a single card is missing in the series, only the matadores of higher value than the missing card count. If, for instance, the knave of hearts is missing, the game in question has only three

navians, Finns, Dutch and British, to whom in modern days have been added the Germans, Swiss, Austrians, Hungarians, French, Belgians, Italians, Japanese, Russians, Canadians and Americans. All these nations have “control” organizations, the British, founded in 1879, being the National Skating Association. The American, founded in 1884, is similarly styled, and co-operates with the Canadian Amateur Skating Association, founded in 1888. All are subject to the International Skating Union, the central body to which some 23 nations belong. In 1928 the U.S.A. Figure Skating Association transferred its membership of the I.S.U. to

Suppose a player of club solo holds all four knaves and the ace and ten of clubs, he has a game with 6 matadores. By matadores is accordingly meant an uninterrupted sequence, e.g., from the

matadores. To the number of matadores is added one if the game is simply won, two if won with Schneider (cut), and four if the opponents are Schwarz (black). Thus, if a spade solo with five matadores is won with Schneider, the winner makes 5-+-2x11=77

points.

(W. Da.)

AMERICAN

SKAT

As prescribed by “The Laws of the North American Skat League,” American skat differs from the European game, The cards are dealt in the following order: Beginning with the player at the dealer’s left, three cards are dealt to each player, then two are dealt the skat; next four cards are dealt to each player, with a last round of three cards to each. Bids must be made in terms of the numerical value of some variety of game. “Passt-MirNicht-Tournée” permits a player who dislikes the first card turned in the skat to reject that card without showing it, and to display the other skat card as the trump. If the exposed card be a jack, the player may choose its suit as the trump or he may elect to play a grande tournée. If the player utilizes the skat, neither “Schneider” nor “Schwarz” may be announced, Unannounced Schneider counts 2 points; unannounced Schwarz, 3 points. Announced Schneider counts 3 points, or in case Schwarz is made it counts 4 points. Announced Schwarz counts 5 points. A “grand” counts 20 points; a “grand ouvert” counts 24 points. Although readily recognizable, the American nomenclature frequently differs from terms used in the European game: thus grand is often employed, instead of grando; ouvert grand replaces open grando, while null frequently supplants nullo. Almost invariably the word jack is used in place of knave, wenzel or unter. Except among those of foreign birth or close affiliation with those of foreign birth, the word sw is employed universally instead of the word colour. (E. V. S.) SKATING, a mode of progression on ice with the aid of appliances called skates, attached to the sole of the shoe by straps, clamps or screws. The earliest form of skate that we know is that of the bone “runners” worn by the primitive Norsemen. These were bound to the foot with thongs. The Norse sagas speak with pride of the national achievements in skating, and the early development of the art was due principally to the Norsemen, Swedes, Danes, Finns and the Dutch, Whatever its origin in Great Britain, skating was certainly a common sport in England in the r2th century, as is proved by an old translation of Fitz-Stephen’s Description of London, published in 1180, in which the following words occur: “When the great fenne or moore (which watereth the walls of the citie on the North side) is frozen, many young men play on the yce .. . asome tye bones to their feete and under their heeles, and shoving themselves with a little picked staffe do slide as swiftlie as a birde flyeth in the aire or an arrow out of a cross-bow.” At what period the use of metal runners was introduced is unknown, but it was possibly not long after the introduction into northern Europe, in the 3rd century, of the art of working in iron. By the time of Charles II. skating had become popular, with the aristocracy as well as with the people, as is proved by entries in the diaries of Pepys and Evelyn. The modern skate is in the form of a steel blade mounted upon a wood or metal base. In the old-fashioned skate the wooden

by clamps to fit the sole. There are several varieties of clubskates still popular. They have a broad blade with slightly curved edge, and are more suitable for figure-skating than for speed. The best skaters now use skates fixed permanently to special skating-boots. As fa ancient times, skating is most practised by the Scandi-

the Amateur Skating Union of the U.S.A.

Speed Skating.—Of the earliest skating races no records have

been kept. That racing was a popular pastime in Holland two centuries and longer ago is proved by the numerous paintings of the time depicting racing scenes. In England the first skating match recorded was that in which Youngs of Mepal beat Thomson of Wimblingdon, both men of the Fens, in the year 1814. The Fen country has remained the chief English home of skating,

owing to the abundance of ice in that district, and most British champions have been Fenmen, notably the Smarts of Welney. In Jan. 1823, according to the N.S.A. Handbook, the first amateur match took place between teams of six gentlemen from March

and Chatteris, Drake of Chatteris finishing first. In the same year the Sporting Magazine records a match for a silver bowl on the Maze lake, Hertfordshire, over a course 5m. long, the winner being Blenkinsop. Racing, more or less intermittent, continued annually, the Fen skaters generally triumphing. In 1854 appeared the celebrated William (“Turkey”) Smart, who, after defeating Larmen Register in that year, remained champion for more than a decade. His nephew, George (“Fish”) Smart, won the championship in 1878 and held it until 1889, only to relinquish it to his younger brother James. The first amateur championship of England was held in 1880 at Hendon, and was won by F. Norman, a Fen skater.

Owing to the great area and cold winters of Canada and the northern United States, the sport of skating is indulged in to a great extent. Charles June was considered the best American skater from 1838 for many years, and his place of residence, Newburgh, N.Y., on the Hudson river, became the headquarters of

American speed skating. This city also is the birthplace of the Donoghue family, who may be called the Smarts of America, The most noted members of this family were Mr. T. Donoghue and his two sons, Tim and J. F. Donoghue, each in his day the fastest skater in the world, Joseph Donoghue winning every event at the international championship meeting at Amsterdam in 189I. There is very little professional skating in America, and the only American who has appeared in important international races in

recent years until the Olympiad of 1928 is C. Jewtraw, who won

the 500 metres race in the Olympic skating at Chamonix in 1924. Skating received a great impetus during the last decade of the rgth century, profiting both by the growing devotion to athletics and by increased facilities of communication, which led to inter-

national competitions and the institution of skating clubs in Switzerland and elsewhere, especially those of Davos, St. Moritz and Grindelwald, where ice is available every winter. Although skating instruments are so simple, the evolution of the skate has

advanced considerably, contributing to marked improvement in

the skater’s skill. In speed-skating an epoch was marked, first,

by the almost universal adoption of the Norwegian type of racing skate; and, secondly, by the institution in 1892, at an international congress held in Holland, of annual races for the championships

of Europe and of the world. The Norwegian skate, introduced and perfected (1887-1902) by

SKATING Axel Paulsen and Harald Hagen, is constructed with a view to lightness, strength and diminution of friction. The blade, of specially hardened steel, is set in a hollow horizontal tube of aluminium, and connected by similar vertical tubes with footplates riveted to a closely-fitting boot with thin leather sole. It is 1641gin. (42—48cm.) long, according to the height of the skater, and 4-4mm. thick (2.e., -o1g—-157in.) the average employed for hard ice being $mm., often thinner towards the heel. This thickness is

729

conjoint cause is the stricter training undergone before important races, together with the gradual improvement in skates and especlally in race-courses. The races held annually since 1892—93 for the championships of Europe and of the world, under the auspices of the I.S.U., have assembled representatives from the skating countries of Europe. The races are four in number, over distances of 500, 1,500, 5,000

suitable for hard ice, but for softer ice ;4, or gin. is preferable. The blade is nearly flat on the ice throughout, except for a few inches in front; this flatness distributes the weight, and with the extreme thinness of blade, reduces friction to a minimum. At the

same time the very slight curve to which the blades are built permits flexibility of stroke. This curve is such that when the blades are placed against each other, touching in the middle, the distance between them at the front stay should be about rmm.

and at the back about 4mm. only. The edges are right-angled and should be kept sharp. A special machine has been invented for this purpose. : The skater’s style has been modified. The blade, when planted on the ice with weight upon it, describes a nearly straight line, the last few feet only curving slightly outwards as the skate leaves the ice. Hence the stroke of the best skaters of the famous Peder Oestlund’s period (c. 1900), was almost, if not entirely, on the inside edge, a gain in directness and speed, the outside edge being used for curves only. Since the World War there has been a tendency to revert to rather thicker blades than the very thin 4mm.: making it possible to travel for several feet on the flat of the skate, or even on the outside edge as long as there is no appreciable weight yet transferred to that foot. This, however, at once increases the slight curve in the stroke, and the loss of ‘directness must be compensated by more frequent striking. The FIG.

2.—STYLE

FIGURES;

LETTER

KEY, SAME

AS

FIG.

í

and 10,000 metres, and the winner at three or four distances becomes champion; failing this, the decision is by points on an elaborate system of marking. In addition, each country, when possible, holds its own championship races. In England races are still skated, with rare exceptions, on straight courses, with a sharp turn round a post or barrel, the distance prescribed for N.S.A. championships being 13m., with three turns. The international system involves a course with straight sides and curved ends of such a radius that no slackening of speed is necessary. In both instances the competitors race two at a time on a double track, and the time test is used. Each skater must keep his own course, to prevent either from using the

other as pacemaker or wind-shield. The international regulations (Eiswettlouf-Ordnung) prescribe that, if a single track be used,

the hindmost skater must keep at a minimum distance of 5 metres from the other, on pain of disqualification. The advantage of inner curve on a Continental course is given alternately, and a space left open between the tracks at one point for the skaters to cross.

The curves are skated with a step-over-step action, and the

direction is always from right to left. Hence, or entering the curve the right foot is brought across in front and set down on the inside edge, the left passing behind on the outside edge, ATIVE COMFIG. 1.--ENGLISH STYLE FIGURES SHOWING TWO REPRESENT ON'S BINED FIGURES SELECTED FOR THE NATIONAL SKATING ASSOCIATI FIRST-CLASS

R=right

TEST

foot: L=left foot: F=fórward:

.

B=back:

I=inside edge: O==outside

edge

length of stroke has tended on the whole to diminish. Contrasted with the 12-18 yards’ stroke attributed to the old English cham-

pion, W. “Turkey” Smart, on the wooden fen “runner” which began decidedly on the outside edge, the modern racing stroke rarely exceeds royd., and is usually nearer 6 or 7. Particular in-

stances vaty with conditions of ice, etc., but at St. Petersburg, in 1896, Eden’s stroke in the 10,000 metre race averaged about 74

yd., that of P. Oestlund at Davos, in 1906, the same (for one lap, ‘at about 8yd.). J. F. Donoghue’s stroke in 1891 was computed g yards. The general effect has been vastly increased speed, and a

and being in its turn set down on an outside edge in front. The strokes thus form a series of tangents to the curve, and are little

shorter than in the straight. With a radius of 25 and 30 metres,

as on the superb 400 metres racing track at Davos, the curves can be skated with safety at full speed.

The following are the amateur speed records at the principal

distances: Distance

goo metres (546-8yd.)

1,000 1,500 g oco 10,000

metres metres metres metres

(1,093-6yd.) (1,640-4yd.). (3 m. 188+2yd_.) (6 m. 376-3yd.)

730

SKATING

The superiority of Norwegian skaters in world’s championship

rs years, and 25 men started, the oldest of whom was J. C. Aveling, champion in 1895 and on the next three occasions.

races has been remarkable, Norway having provided 13 out of 24 The world’s speed championship for 1928 was decided on Feb. winners between 1893 and 1928. On five occasions before the 5, at Davos, resulting in a narrow victory for C. Thunand 4 present system of points was adopted the result was indecisive, no skater winning three out of four races. Of these 13 victories berg (Finland), who won but one race out of the four distances, no less than five stand to the credit of the Norwegian champion, each of which fell to a different man. Norwegians monopolized

the next six places out of an entry of 31. The result was Ist, C. Thunberg, 193-87 points; 2nd, I. Ballangrud, 194-38; 3rd, B. Evensen, 194-86; 4th, R. Larsen, 195-68; sth, M. Staksrud, and De Koning one), Finland four (F. Wathén one and C. Thun- 196-25; 6th, M. Mjelde, 196-41; 7th, A. Carlsen, 199-20. No Americans entered. Two young Englishmen were entered by the berg three), and Russia two (N. N.S.A. after a trial race of 14m., in which they finished first and Strunnikoff), while the only New second respectively, C. W. Horn, World winner was T. McCulloch ( amateur champion, and Spenser (Canada) when the championEdgington, but they naturally ship was held at Montreal in had no chance against the Nor1897. wegians and Finns. Horn skated Owing to the fickleness of the very creditably in the 5,000 British climate, England, through metres, accomplishing gmin. 32 lack of ice, has fallen behind in| 1 2 sec., and beating two Dutchmen skill since the days of the smarts, FIG. 3.—(1) LOOP-CHANGE-LOOP and a Lithuanian. New world’s and practically the only English- anp (2) BRACKET-CHANGE-BRACKmen to compete in international ET, SCHOOL FIGURES OF THE IN- records for 500 and 10,000 meraces during the past 30 years TERNATIONAL SKATING UNION tres were made respectively by have been C. Edgington, president of the Oxford University Speed R. Larsen (Norway), 43-1sec., Skating club, formed in 1895, which won the first representative and A. Carlsen (Norway), 17min. FIG. 4.—SPECIAL FIGURE SKATED race on skates between the universities on the duke of Marl- 17-4 seconds. Thunberg also BY MR. CUMMING AT PRINCE'S borough’s lake at Blenheim, defeating Cambridge in each of six won the European championship SKATING CLUB, LONDON, OCTOBER races of rım. each, with three turns; F. W. Dix, British ama- for 1928. 1908 teur champion in 1908—-og and 1912—the last year in which the The Olympic speed skating was R.O.F. (direction for starting) championship was held up to 1928, winner of the Duddleston Cup held at St. Moritz on Feb. 13 and 14, with 15 nations rep(rm., 1908) and Baker Cup (220yd., 1912); and L. T. Redburn, resented. The 500 metres was won by C. Thunberg (Finland) winner of the 1m. amateur championship of London (1927). C. and B. Evensen (Norway), who skated a dead heat in 43-4sec., Edgington was second in each of the five international races at R. Larsen (Norway), J. Friman (Finland), and O. Farrell Davos (1901), fourth in two races (1,500 and 10,000 metres) in (U.S.A.), were. bracketed for third place in 43-6sec. The 1,500 the world’s championship at Berlin and in the European champion- metres also fell to Thunberg in 2min., 21-1sec., Evensen being ship at Davos (1899), and in 1898 and 1899 twice beat the world’s a fraction of a second slower, with I. Ballangrud third, R. record for an hour’s skating, accomplishing 18m. 1709yd. and 19m. Larsen fourth, followed by four Americans, E. Murphy, V. 348yd., the latter standing for seven years till C. C. J. de Koning, Bialas, I. Jaffee, and O. Farrell. The 5,000 metres was won by Dutch world’s champion (1905) made the present record, 20m. I. Ballangrud (Norway) in 8min. so}sec., J. Skutnobb (Fin207yd. The previous world’s record was 18m. 21syd. by A. D. land) being second, B. Evensen (Norway) third, I. Jaffee (U.S.A.) Smith (America) at St. Paul, Minn. (1894). In r901, Edgington, fourth, A. Carlsen (Norway) fifth, and V. Bialas (U.S.A.) sixth. at Davos, skated rom. in 33min. 38%sec., beating the best English The 10,000 metres race was spoilt by thaw, and had to be professional time of James Smart at Hamar (Norway) in 1891, abandoned after four heats were attempted, although it was viz., 35min. roseconds. The best world’s time for rom. was made awarded to I. Jaffee (U.S.A.). by J. S. Johnson (American amateur) at Montreal (1894), viz., 31 FIGURE SKATING min. II$ sec. There are the American records (see Morgan-Browne, Sporting This artistic and fascinating class of skating, as subjected to and Athletic Records), for short distances straight away, and with definite rules, is quite modern, having originated in the 19th a wind behind, which show the speed attainable on ice with the century, though the cutting of help of a strong wind. Such are T. Donoghue, Jr.’s (American figures on the ice was regarded amateur) time of 2min. 12$sec. for 1 mile at Newburgh, N.Y. as an accomplishment by skaters (1887), H. Davidson’s tooyd. in gsec. at Red Bank, N.J. (1895), long before. H. Davidson and H. P. Moshier’s 334sec. for 4m. (Orange lake, Although the Edinburgh SkatN.Y., and Red Bank, N.J., 1895), and J. F. Donoghue’s Imin. ing Club, founded probably in 5gsec. for 4m. with flying start (Newburgh, N.Y., 1892). Com1742, is the oldest skating orpetition records (amateur) in America (outdoors) are: Jewtraw, ganization in Great Britain, the tooyd., ggsec.; Gorman, 440yd., 36%sec.; Thunberg, Finland, 880 Skating club, of London, formed yd., (4 mile) rmin. r54sec.; Thunberg, 1 mile, 2min. 384sec. in 1830, is the most important, The best British time for 1m. is that of F. W. Dix, made on and for many years practically Cowbit Wash in 1912, without favour of wind, but with flying controlled figure skating. Figure start, viz., 2min. 27 seconds. In 1912 Dix, at Davos, won the skating championships are held 5,000 metres in gmin. I6ğsec., and 10,000 metres in 18min. FIG. 5.—-THE PANIN STAR SKATED in many countries under the aus49@sec., defeating the Austrian champion, T. Bohrer, and was adae Paar - et AT THE pices of the national associations, second to the latter in the 1,500m. in 2 min. 334 seconds. These OLYMPIC GAMES, ScTOnER oe 7 the world’s and European chamare the best times made by an Englishman. On Dec. 31, 1927, on L.I.F. (direction for starting) pionship meetings having been Lingay fen, near Cambridge, the British amateur championship held since 1896 and 1891, rewas contested over a course of 14m., with three turns, and was spectively, by the Internat ional won by C. W. Horn (of Upwell, near Wisbech), in 4min. S5Sec., impetus has been given to figureSkating Union. In England great skating by the multiplication of with F. W. Dix (of Raunds, Northants), second. Dix had won clubs, e.g., Wimbledon, founded 1870, Thames Valley, Crystal this championship in Jan. 1908 in 4min. 37#sec., a time which Palace, and more recently the Figure Skating club, formed for remains the record. A thaw came before the professional cham- the encouragement of the International style, the combined pionship could be decided. There had been no competitions for Figure Skating club, the Manchester S.C. and Combined F.S.C.,

Oscar Mathiesen, of Christiania (Oslo), who from 1914-27 was

also holder of four out of five world’s records for the usual distances. Holland has four victories to its credit (J. J. Eden three

SKATING

JSt

the Kettering and District, Birmingham, Cambridge university | competition for gentlemen and ladies, the winners of which hold and others, most of which are affiliated to the N.S.A., as well as those of Davos, St. Moritz, Chateau d’Oex, Engelberg, Wengen, Suvretta and the Bear S.C. at Morgins in Switzerland, the latter an enthusiastic nursery of the English style. Further valuable

the N.S.A. The winners the first two years this was held were A. J.

help has been derived from the construction of numerous artificial rinks, such as at Niagara, the National Skating Palace (known as Hengler’s), Prince’s club, Manchester Ice palace, and the new Ice

years, the development of the international style in England and

club opened in London (Westminster) in 1926. To these must be added the Richmond (1928) and Grosvenor House (1929) rinks. The Richmond Ice Rink Club, on the Middlesex bank of the Thames, built at a cost of £80,000, was opened on Dec. 18, 1928, and has an artificial ice rink 286 ft. by 85 ft. (an area of 24,300 sq.ft.—the largest covered ice skating rink in the world). The periodical planing, scraping and sweeping of the ice surface is performed by electrical apparatus. The surface will accommodate 1,000 skaters, and speed skating is possible on a track of about eight laps to the mile. The N.S.A., which nearly to 1898 had supported exclusively the English style, has in recent years offered ist, 2nd and 3rd

class badges for figure tests in both English and International

ee

aN

styles, as well as for E. Engelmann

speed; in 1893 the association founded a ee

ie

(Austria),

of Europe

in

London Skating Council, while in 1898 and 1902 it held the figure skating championship of the world in London. In America comparatively little interest is shown in this branch of the sport. In the British style of figure skating, which is not recognized by the International Skating Union, the body is held as nearly as possible upright, the employed leg is kept straight, the unemployed leg carried behind, the arms hang loosely at the sides, and the head is turned as a rule in the direction of progress. In the so-called Anglo-Swiss style, affected by British skaters trained at Davos, St. Moritz, and other Swiss centres such as Morgins, the upright, almost rigid position is insisted on, even the unemployed leg being held straight. Much more latitude is allowed by the Continental school, though here too definite rules of form have been laid down. The knee of the employed leg is slightly bent, and the unemployed leg is in constant action, being used to balance the body during the execution of the figures. The Continental is less difficult in execution than the British style, but its movements are more graceful. There are, of course, local modifcations. Canadians, whose Toronto Skating club is affiliated to the N.S.A., cultivate also grape-vines and other two-footed figures. The essential features are, however, identical. Thus Englishmen consider of secondary importance loops, cross-cuts, continuous and hand-in-hand skating (though such figures as grape-vines, single, double, Pennsylvania and Philadelphia are included in the īst class test of the N.S.A.), and devote themselves mainly to “combined figures.” Since 1901, however, the N.S.A., has devoted the English challenge cup to the encouragement of single skating in the English style, and since 1906 this competition has constituted the championship of Great Britain in that style. There was no contest for the years 1915—20; since then it was won for five out of seven years by R. S. Hewett, Bear S.C., and in 1928 by

H. A. C. Goodwin. Combined figures have been defined as “symmetrical execution of a figure by one or more pairs of skaters.” Originally known as the “skating club figures,” they have been gradually developed, and in 1882 a regular terminology was established, successively revised and extended by delegates from the principal clubs in 1891, 1903 and 1922. The ideal number of skaters for a combined figure is four, though sixes and eights are seen, one being chosen “caller” of the movement to be skated. Various sets of “calls” are arranged at the discretion of different clubs, and consist ordinarily of “turns” and “changes.” The N.S.A. offer a challenge shield for an annual competition in combined figure skating, and a challenge cup was instituted in 1924 by the Bear S.C. won in 1928 by the Wimbledon S.C. In 1905 there was instituted a hand-in-hand

a pair of salvers presented by Viscount Doneraile, president of

Davidson and Miss D. R. Jameson, and in 1927, H. Whitehurst and Miss K. Lovett. Though English style skating has flourished amazingly in recent abroad since the beginning of the 2oth century has been no less striking. In 1901 the Figure Skating club was established, as already stated, for this purpose, and its members attained such success that an English lady, Mrs. Syers, gained the second place in the world’s championship competition in 1902, and with her husband won an international pair skating contest in that year, and again in 1904; and in 1906 and 1907, the first two years of its institution, she won the ladies’ amateur championship of the world, or as it was styled previously to 1924, of the International Skating Union. The only English pair which has won the pair skating championship of the world (previously to 1924 styled the pair skating championship of the I.S.U.) is Mr. and Mrs. J. H. Johnson, also of the F.S.C., who were successful in 1909 at Stockholm and in 1912 at Manchester. This pair presented a trophy known as the Johnson challenge cup for a British pair skating championship in the international style, instituted by the N.S.A. in 1913, and won by themselves the first year, 1914, in 1921-22 by Major and Mrs. K. M. Beaumont, and from 1923-28 inclusive by J. F. Page and Miss E. Muckelt. The Swedish challenge cup, presented to the N.S.A. in 1902 by Col. Balck, president of the I.S.U., in the name of the Stockholm Allmänna Skridskoklub, was won by Mrs. Syers, in 1903 and 1904. In 1905 this was constituted the championship of Great Britain in the international style and was won by two other ladies, Mrs. Greenhough Smith in 1908 and i911, and Mrs. Johnson in 1921. From 1922—28, inclusive, the holder was J. F. Page, who was fourth in the world’s championship at Manchester in 1924, and third in 1925 to Herren Bickl and Dr. Preissecker, of Vienna, in Berlin, in an entry of nine, the greatest success that an English figure skater has ever attained. In 1927 the first competition for the challenge cup presented by H. M. Martineau for the championship of Great Britain in the international style for ladies was won by Miss K. Shaw (Manchester S.C.). In 1928 this was won by Miss C. Wilson (Toronto Skating Club), lady champion of Canada. The world’s figure skating championship was won in 1896 by G. Fuchs, Austria; 1897, G. Hiigel, Austria; 1898, H. Grenander, Sweden; 1899 and 1900, G. Hügel, Austria; rgor—rr (inclusive, with the exception of 1906, when Dr. Fuchs was again the winner), U. Salchow, Sweden; 1912~13 and 1923, F. Kachler, Austria; 1914, G. Sandahl, Sweden; 1922 and 1924, G. Grafström, Sweden; 1925-27, W. Béckl, Austria; Béckl also won the European championship for 1928. The competition consists of two parts, (a) compulsory figures (Pflichtiibungen), (b) free skating (Kiirlaufen), the latter affording scope for the performance of dance steps and brilliant individual figures, such as the “sitting pirouette,” the spread-eagle (Mond), and the “star” consisting of four crosses (forward rocker, back loop, back counter), invented by Engelmann and splendidly rendered by Salchow. The skates used for the English and international styles are shorter than those used for speed-skating, and differ in radius, though both are of the same type, 7.e., a blade fastened to the boot by sole-plates, the “Mount Charles” pattern being the one generally adopted by Englishmen. The English radius is 7ft., or in modern times more usually 6ft.; the foreign, 54 or even sit., and the result is seen in the larger curves skated on the former, and the greater pace obtained owing to decreased friction; at the same time, the difficulty of making a turn is greater. The English skate has generally. right-angled edges and blade of the same thickness throughout, except in the “Dowler” variety, which is thicker towards the extremities. The foreign skate is sometimes thicker in the middle than at the ends. The Olympic figure skating championship was held at St. Moritz in Feb. 1928. The figure skating for men was won by G. Grafström (Sweden) for the third time, W. Béckl (Austria) being

SKEAT—SKELETON

73

second and Van Zeebroeck (Belgium) third. The ladies’ event fell to Fröken Sonja Henie (Norway), Fräulein Fritzi Burger

(Austria) being second, and Miss Beatriz Loughran

(United

States) third. The pair skating was won by the French pair, Mlle. Andrée Joly and Monsieur Pierre Brunet, Fräulein Lilli Scholz and Herr Otto Kaiser (Austria) being second, and Fraulein Melitta Brunner and Herr Ludwig Wrede (Austria) third. The figure skating championship of the world for ladies and the pair skating championship of the world were held in March 1928, at the Ice club in London. This club, which has a member-

In most animals and plants, the shape could SKELETON. not be maintained without a thickening and hardening of certain

parts to form a support for the whole. These hardened parts are the skeleton; they dry and remain after the rest of the body has

disappeared. In higher animals the skeleton Is always rendered more rigid and permanent by the deposit in it of lime salts, thus leading to the formation of bone. In most of the lower or invertebrate animals, the skeleton is on the surface and acts as a protection as well as a framework. This is an exoskeleton. In the higher or vertebrate animals there is an internal or endoskeleton ship of 1,500, was established on the lines of the Bath and Hurl- and the exoskeleton is either greatly modified or disappears. The following account is divided into (1) axial, or skeleton of ingham clubs, and has a rink 170 by goft., with a rooft. circle in the centre. The ice, 14~2in. thick, is formed by the ammonia the trunk, (2) appendicular or skeleton of the limbs, (3) visceral process, and there are no less than 84m. of pipes. The ladies’ skeleton, or those parts which originally form the gill supports of championship of the world and the world’s pair skating cham- water breathing vertebrates. The skull and exoskeleton are conpionship for 1928 resulted as follows: Ladies, rst, Frodken Sonja sidered separately (see SKULL; SKIN AND EXOSKELETON). Spine.—The SPINE, SPINAL Or VERTEBRAL COLUMN, chine or Henie (Norway); 2nd, Miss Maribel Vinson (United States), afterwards winner of the ladies’ championship of the U.S.A., and backbone in man consists of superimposed bones named vertebrae. It lies in the middle of the back of the U.S.A. pair skating championship (with T. Coolidge); CC. THE SERIES OF 3rd, Fraulein Fritzi Burger (Austria); 4th, Miss Constance Wilof the neck and trunk; has the TWELVE RIBS ON ONE SIDE son (Canada); sth, Fraulein Melitta Brunner (Austria); 6th, cranium at its summit; the ribs Miss Kathleen Shaw (England, Manchester Skating club). Pairs: at its sides, which in their turn CERVICAL VERTEBRAE rst, Mlle. Andrée Joly and Pierre Brunet (France); 2nd, Fraulein support the upper limbs; whilst Lilli Scholz and Otto Kaiser (Austria); 3rd, Fraulein Melitta the pelvis, with the lower limbs, Brunner and Ludwig Wrede (Austria); 4th, Miss Ethel Muckelt is jointed to its lower end. The and J. F. Page (England, Figure Skating club); sth, Miss Beatrix spine consists in an adult of Loughran and Sherwin Badger (United States); 6th, Miss Maude twenty-six bones, in a young child Smith and Jack Eastwood (Canada); 7th, Mrs. J. W. Blanchard of thirty-three, certain of the and N. W. Niles (United States); 8th, Miss K. M. Lovett and bones in the spine of the child A. P. Burman (England, Manchester Skating club). (See also becoming ankylosed later. The ROLLER SKATING.) bones of the spine are arranged BIBLIOGRAPHY.—(z) Contemporary records in the Field, Outing, in groups, named from their Der Eissport, and other sporting journals, as well as the annual position, cervical, thoracic (formalmanacs; F. W. Foster, A Bibliography of Skating (1898) ; D. Adams, erly called dorsal), lumbar, Skating (1890) ; H. M. Browne, Sporting and Athletic Records (1897) ; sacral, and coccygeal or caudal; Sir T. A. Cook and others, Ice Sports, the Isthmian library (edit. B. Fletcher Robinson, 1901); J. M. Heathcote and C. G. Tebbutt, and the number of vertebrae in Skating, the Badminton library (edit. the duke of Beaufort and each group may be expressed in A. E. T. Watson, 3rd ed., 1902) ; W. T. Richardson, Skating (1903); a formula. In man the formula Tke Book of Winter Sports (edit. E. and M. Syers, 1908) ; “Skating,” is as follows:—CrThiwlsSsCoc, in Tke Encyclopaedia of Sport and Games (edit. the earl of Suffolk = 33 bones, as seen in the child; and Berkshire, new enlarged ed., 1911): C. G. and A. Tebbutt and A. Reid, Skating (1897, rewritten by C. E. Benson, 1921); Yngvar but the five sacral vertebrae fuse Bryn, n welppning (Christiania, 1924); N.S.A. Official Handbook together into a single bone— 1927-28. : t the sacrum—and the four coccy(2) Figure skating: See contemporary records, the Encyclopaedia FIG. 1.——THE AXIAL SKELETON

geal into the single coccyx.

of Sport, The Book of Winter Sports, the N.S.A. Handbook and J. M. Fteathcote’s Skating, cited above; T. M. Witham, Figure Skating (sth ed., 1897) ; G. H. Fowler, On the Outside Edge (1897) : M. S. F. Monier-Williams, Figure Skating, the Isthmian library (edit. B. Fletcher Robinson, 1898); G. A. Meagher, Lessons in Skating (Toronto, 1900) ; G. H. Browne, Handbook of Figure-skating (Springfield, Mass., 1900-04); R. Holletschek, Kunstfertighkeit und Eislangen (2nd ed., Troppau, 1910) ; H. H. Cobb, Figure Skating in the English

centrum, is a short cylinder, which by its upper and lower surfaces is connected by fibrocartilage with the bodies of the vertebrae immediately above and below. The arch encloses the spinal mar-

Dustin White, The Book Art of Skating (1926).

row or nervous axis, springs from the back of the centrum, and consists of two symmetrical halves united behind in the middle

Style (1913); H. R. Yglesias, Figure Skating (2nd ed., 1913); W. of Winter Sports (1925); I. Brokaw, The

SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM (1835-1912), English philologist, was born in London on Nov. 21, 1835, and educated at King’s College School, Highgate Grammar School, and Christ’s College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in July 1860. In 1878 he was elected Ellington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge. His great work on Middle English literature includes the three parallel texts of Piers Plowman (1886), the Oxford edition of Chaucer (6 vols., 1894), with a supplementary volume of Chaucerian Pieces (1897), and important editions for the Early English and Scottish Text Societies. In pure philology Skeat’s great work is his Etymological English Dictionary (4 parts, 1879-82: rev. and enlarged, roro). In the publications of the English Dialect Society he had a hand as the founder of the society and afterwards its president. He died at Cambridge on Oct. 7, 19x12.

SKEGNESS, a seaside resort in Lincolnshire, England; 131

m. N. by E. from London by L.N.ER.

Pop. (1931) 9,121. Since

1873, the place has undergone a transformation, and now possesses

good hotels and a pier. There are broad, firm sands.

The vertebrae are irregularly-shaped bones, but have certain characters in common. Each possesses a body and an arch, which enclose a ring, with certain processes and notches. The body, or

line. Each half has an anterior part or pedicle, and a posterior part or lamina. The processes usually spring from the arch. The spinous process projects backward from the junction of the two laminae, and the collective series of these processes gives to the entire column the character from which has arisen the term “spine.” The transverse processes project outward, one from each side of the arch. The articular processes project, two upward and two downward, and are for connecting adjacent vertebrae. The

notches, situated on the upper and lower borders of the pedicles, form in the articulated spine the intervertebral foramina through which the nerves pass out of the spinal canal. The vertebrae in each group have special characters. Cervical Vertebrae.—In man and all mammals, with few exceptions, whatever be the length of the neck, the cervical vertebrae

are seven in number. The first, or atlas, has no body or spine: its ring is very large, and on each side of the ring is a thick mass of bone by which it articulates with the occipital bone above and the second vertebra below. The second vertebra, axis, has its body surmounted by a thick, tooth-like odontoid process, which is re-

garded as the body of the atlas displaced from its proper vertebra

SKELETON

733

and fused with the axis. This process forms a pivot round which adults being due chiefly to differences in the length of the lower the atlas and head move in turning the head from one side to the limbs. The average length of the spine is 28 in.; its widest part other; the spine is large, thick and deeply bifid. The seventh is is at the base of the sacrum, from which it tapers down to the distinguished by its long prominent spine, which is not bifid, and by the small size of the foramen at the root of the transverse process. In the human spine the distinguishing character of all the cervical vertebrae is the foramen at the root of the transverse process. Thoracic Vertebrae.—There are twelve of these in the human spine and all are distinguished by having one or two smooth surfaces on each side of the body for articulation with the head of one or two ribs. The transverse processes have an articular surface in front for the tubercle of

a rib. The first thoracic vertebra is very like the seventh cervical; the twelfth has its lower articular processes shaped like those of a lumbar vertebra. Lumbar Vertebrae—These in man are five in number. They are the largest of the true vertebrae, especially in the centrum.

The fifth lumbar vertebra has its body much deeper in front than behind and its spine is less massive. Sacrum.—The sacrum is composed of five originally separate vertebrae fused into a single bone. It forms the upper and back wall of the pelvis, is triangular in form, and possesses two surfaces, two borders, a base and an apex. The anterior or pelvic surface is concave, and is marked by four transverse lines, which indicate its original subdivision into five bones, and by four pairs of foramina, through which are m COCCYGEAL 4-5 transmitted the anterior sacral nerves. Its posterior surface is ARTHUR THOMPSON IN ÇUNNINGHAM, convex; in the middle line are FROM “TEXT-BOOK OF ANATOMY” (OXFORD MEDICAL four spines. On each side of these pustications) COLUMN, are two rows of tubercles, the in- Fic. 2.—VERTEBRAL ner of which are the conjoined SEEN FROM BEHIND articular and mammillary processes, the outer the transverse processes of the originally distinct vertebrae. Between these rows four pairs of foramina transmit the posterior sacral nerves from the sacral canal, which extends through the bone from base to near the apex, and forms the lower end of the spinal canal. By its borders the sacrum is articulated with the haunchbones—by its base with the last lumbar vertebra, by its apex with the coecyx. The human sacrum is broader in proportion to its

tip of the coccyx. It diminishes also in breadth from the base of the sacrum upwards to widen again in the region of the neck. Behind and laterally it presents an irregular outline, but in front it is more uniformly rounded, owing to the convex form of the antero-lateral surfaces of the bodies of its vertebrae. In its general contour two series of curves may be seen, an anteroposterior and a lateral. The antero-posterior is the more important. In the infant at birth the sacro-coccygeal part of the spine is concave forward, but the rest of the spine is almost straight. When the infant begins to sit up, a convexity forward in the region of the neck appears, and subsequently, as the child learns to walk, a convexity forward in the region of the loins. Hence in the adult spine a series of convexo-concave curves are found, which are alternate and mutually dependent, and are associated with the erect attitude of man. A lateral curve, convex to the right, opposite the third, fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae, with compensatory curve convex to the left immediately above and below, is due apparently to the greater use of the right arm. In disease of the spine its natural curvatures are much increased, and the deformity known as humpback is produced. As the spine forms the central part of the axial skeleton, it acts as a column to support not only the weight of the body, but of all that can be carried on the head, back and in the upper limbs: by its transverse and spinous processes it serves also to give attachment to numerous muscles, and the transverse processes of its thoracic vertebrae are also for articulation with the ribs. Thorax.—The thorax, pectus or chest is a cavity, the walls of which are formed of bone and of cartilage. Its skeleton consists of the sternum in front, the twelve thoracic vertebrae behind, and the twelve ribs, with their corresponding cartilages, on each side. Sternum.—The sternum or breast bone is an elongated bone which inclines downward and forward in the front wall of the chest. It consists of three parts—an upper, called manubrium or presternum; a middle, the gladiolus or mesosternum; and a lower, the ensiform process or xiphisternum. Its anterior and posterior surfaces are marked by transverse lines, which indicate not only the subdivision of the entire bone into three parts, but that of the mesosternum into four originally distinct segments. Each lateral border is marked by seven depressed surfaces for articulation with the seven upper ribs; at each side of the upper border of the presternum is a sinuous depression, where the clavicle articulates. The xiphisternum remains cartilaginous up to a late period of life. Ribs—The ribs or costae, twelve on each side of the thorax, consist not only of the bony ribs, but of a bar of cartilage continuous with the anterior end of

each bone, called a costal carti-

length than in other mammals; this great breadth gives solidity to the lower part of the spine, and, conjoined with the size of the lateral articular surfaces, it permits a more perfect junction with the haunch-bones, and is correlated with the erect position. Owing to the need in woman for a wide pelvis, the sacrum is broader than in man. (For details see A. M. Paterson, “The Human

Sacrum,” Sci. Trans. R. Dublin Soc. vol. v. ser. 2.) Coccyx,—The coccyx consists of four or five vertebrae in the

human spine though the last one is sometimes suppressed. It is the rudimentary tail, but instead of projecting back, as in mammals generally, is curved forward, an arrangement also found in the anthropoid apes and in Hoffmann’s sloth. The vertebrae of which it is composed are small, and represent merely the bodies and transverse processes of the true vertebrae. There are no arches. The human spine is more uniform in length in persons of the same race than might be supposed, variation in the height of

FROM ARTHUR “TEXT-BOOK OF PUBLICATIONS)

FIG.

3.—THE

THE FRONT

THOMPSON ANATOMY”

IN CUNNINGHAM, (OXFORD MEDICAL

THORAX,

SEEN

FROM

lage, so that they furnish examples of a cartilaginous skeleton in the adult human body; in aged persons these cartilages usually become converted into bone. The upper

seven

ribs

are

connected

by their costal cartilages to the

side of the sternum, and are called true ribs; the lower:five do

not reach the sternum, and are named false, and of these the two lowest, from being comparatively unattached in front, are called floating. All the ribs are articulated behind to the thoracic vertebrae, and as they are symmetrical on the two sides of the body, the ribs in any given animal are always twice as numerous as the thoracic vertebrae in that animal. They form a series of osseocartilaginous arches, which extend more or less perfectly around the sides of the chest. A rib is an elongated bone, and as a rule

SKELETON

5

IO

possesses a head. a neck, a tubercle and a shaft. The head usually

just as the entoderm is an older layer of the embryo than the

of two adjacent thoracic vertebrae; the neck is a constricted part

both in embryology and in phylogeny or comparative anatomy, f the bony mesodermal skeleton. :

has two articular surfaces, and is connected to the side of the body

of the bone, uniting the head to the shaft; the tubercle, close to the junction of the shaft and neck, is the part which articulates

with the transverse process of the vertebra. The shaft is compressed, possesses an inner and outer surface, and an upper and lower border, but from the shaft being somewhat twisted on itself, the direction of the surfaces and borders is not uniform throughout the length of the bone. The ribs slope from their attach-

ments to the spine, at first outward, downward and backward,

then downward and forward, and where the curve changes from the backward to the forward direction an angle is formed on the rib. The angle and the tubercle are at the same place in the first rib and in each succeeding rib the angle is a little farther from the tubercle than in the last. The surface of the first rib which is not in contact with the lung is directed upward, forward and outward while that of the second rib is much more outward; the eleventh and twelfth ribs are rudimentary, have neither neck nor tubercle, and are pointed ante-

riorly. The ribs increase in length from the first to the seventh or eighth, and then diminish to the twelfth; the first and twelfth are therefore the shortest ribs. The first and second costal carti-

lages are almost horizontal, but the others are directed upward and inward. In its general form the chest is like a barrel which is wider below than above. It is rounded at the sides and flattened in front and behind, so that a man can lie either on his back or his belly. Its upper opening slopes downward and forward, is small in size, and allows the passage of the windpipe, gullet, large veins and nerves into the chest, and of several large arteries out of the chest into the neck. The base or lower boundary of the cavity is much larger than the upper, slopes downward and backward, and is ocSPLANCHNOPLEURE

SOMATQPLEURE

SCLERATOGENOUS LAYER OF PROTOVERTEBRAL SOMITE

GERMINAL CELL MUSCULAR LAYER OF MESODERMIC SOMITE SPONGIOBLAST

CUTANEOUS LAMELLA OF PROTOVERTEBRAL SOMITE

MESODERMIC SOMITE

NEURAL CREST

SPINAL GANGLION

CENTRAL CANAL NoOTOCHORD

PRIMITIVE AORTA

SPINAL CORD

COELOM

SOMATIC MESODERM

SPLANCHNIC MESODERM . ENTODERM

ECTODERM ss

FROM A. (OXFORD

H. YOUNG AND ARTHUR MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS)

FiG. 4.—-TRANSVERSE

ROBINSON

SECTION

IN

CUNNINGHAM,

OF A FERRET

“TEXT-BOOK

EMBRYO,

OF

SHOWING

ANATOMY”

FURTHER

DIFFERENTIATION OF THE MESODERM cupied by the diaphragm (q.v.), which separates the chest from the abdomen. The transverse diameter is greater than the anteropesterior, and the antero-posterior is greater laterally, where the lungs are lodged, than in the mesial plane, which is occupied by

the heart. : 2 ‘Embryology.—The first stiffening of the embryo is the formation of the notochord, which in higher vertebrates is temporary

,

mesoderm, so the notochord

or entodermal

skeleton precedes,

In the accompanying figure (fig. 4) the notochord is seen in section fully formed and lying between the entoderm and the neural canal. Its first formation is at an earlier period than this, before the neural groove has closed into a canal, and it appears at first as an upward groove from the most dorsal part of the entoderm in what will later on be the cervical region of the embryo. The groove, by the union of its edges, becomes a tube, but the cavity of this is soon obliterated by the growth of its cells, so that a solid elastic rod is formed which grows forward as far as the pituitary region of the skull and backward to where the end of the coccyx will be. While the development of the notochord is going on the mesoderm on each side of it is dividing itself into a series of masses called mesodermic somites (see fig. 4, PS) or protovertebrae. This process begins in the cervical region and proceeds forward and backward until thirty-eight pairs have been formed for the neck and trunk and probably four extra ones for the occipital region of the skull. Each of these somites consists of three parts: that nearest the surface ectoderm is the cutaneous lamella (fig. 4, CL). Deep to this and separated in the earlier-formed somites by a space is the muscle layer (fig. 4, ML) while deepest of all and nearest the nerve cord and notochord is the scleratogenous layer (fig. 4, SL). It is this layer which gradually meets its fellow of the opposite side and encloses the nerve cord and the notochord in continuous tubes of mesodermal tissue, thus forming the membranous vertebral column, which is perforated for the exit of the spinal nerves, but the intervals between the successive mesodermic somites are still marked by the tissue being rather denser there. The next stage is conversion into cartilage of each segment of the membranous vertebral column surrounding the notochord. In this way the bodies of the cartilaginous vertebrae are formed and each of these is segmental, that is, it corresponds to a muscle segment and a spinal nerve. The cartilaginous neural arch, however, which surrounds the nerve cord is intersegmental and is formed in the denser fibrous tissue which separates each somite from the next. This also applies to the cartilaginous ribs which appear in the fibrous intervals (myocommata) between the muscle plates (myotomes), and so it is easy to realize that each typical rib must articulate with the bodies of two adjacent vertebrae, but with the neural arch, through its tranverse process, of only one. The intersegmental tissue between the bodies of the vertebrae becomes the intervertebral discs and in the centre of these a pulpy mass is found which contains some remnants of the notochord. Elsewhere this structure is pressed out of existence and there is no further use for it when the cartilaginous vertebrae are once formed. One other series of structures must be mentioned though they do not play any great part in human development. In the intersegmental tissue ventral to each of the intervertebral discs a transverse rod of cells, known as a hypochordal bar, is formed which connects the heads of two opposite ribs. In man the greater number of these disappear, but in the case of the atlas the rod chondrifies to form the anterior (ventral) arch which is therefore intersegmental, while the segmental body of the atlas, through which the notochord is passing, joins the axis to form the odontoid process. These hypochordal bars are the last remnant in man of

the haemal arch of the vertebrae of fishes (see subsection on

comparative anatomy). In the cervical region the ribs form the ventral boundary of the foramen for the vertebral artery. They are so short that they become fused with the centrum and transverse process, leaving the vertebrarterial canal between. Sometimes in the seventh cervical vertebra the rib element is much longer and remains as a separate cervical rib with definite joints.

The sternum is developed according to G. Ruge by a fusion of the ventral ends of the ribs on each side thus forming two parallel longitudinal bars which chondrify and eventually fuse together in the mid line. The anterior seven or sometimes eight ribs reach

and is not converted into cartilage or bone. It is derived from the éntoderm or inner of the three layers of the embryo while the the sternum, but the ventral ends of the ninth and sometimes the bony skeleton is formed from the mesoderm or middle layer and, eighth probably

remain as the xiphisternum.

The morphological

SKELETON meaning of the sternum and surrounding parts cannot be settled entirely by a study of their development even when combined with what we know of their comparative anatomy or phylogeny. Professor A. M. Paterson (The Human Sternum, London, 1904) takes

735

deeply concave toward both the head and tail; such a vertebra is spoken of as amphicoelous and with one exception is always found

in fishes which have centra. In the bony fish (Teleostei) and mudfish (Dipnoi) the vertebrae are ossified. A vertebra from the tail of a bony fish like the herring has a ventral (haemal) arch surrounding the caudal blood-vessels and corresponding to the dorsal or neural arch which is also present. In the anterior or visceral part of the body the haemal arch is

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CUNNINGHAM,

“TEXT-BOOK

5.—OSSIFICATION

OF

OF

ANATOMY”

(OXFORD

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a different view from the foregoing and regards the sternum as derived from the shoulder girdle. To this point of view we shall return in the section on comparative anatomy. The position of the vertebral and sternal centres of ossification is shown in figs. 5,6 and 7. The ribs ossify by one primary centre appearing about the sixth week and by secondary ones for the tubercle and head. The sternum is ossified by centres which do not appear opposite the attachment of the ribs but alternately with them, so that although the original cartilaginous structure is probably intersegmental the bony segments are segmental like those of the vertebral centra.

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For further details see C. S. McMurrich, The Development of the Human Body (London, 1923). This includes bibliography, but G. Ruge’s paper on the development of the sternum (Morph. Jahrb. vi. 1880) is of special importance.

Comparative

Anatomy.—Just

as

in

development

the

notochord forms the earliest structure for stiffening the embryo, so in the animal kingdom it appears before the true vertebral column is evolved. This is so important that the older phylum of Vertebrata has now been expanded into that of Chordata to include all animals which either permanently or temporarily possess a notochord. In the subphylum Adelochorda, which includes the worm-like

ARTHUR

‘THOMPSON

IN

CUNNINGHAM, “TEXT-BOOK OF ANATOMY” (OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS)

FIG. 6.—OSSIFICATION OF SACRUM

(a, a) Centres for bodies, (b, b) Epiphysial plates on bodies, (c, c) Centres for costal elements, (d, d) Centres for neural arches, (e, e) Lateral epiphyses

IN

CUNNINGHAM,

“TEXT-BOOK

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intercentral remnants of the notochord are pressed out of existence by the forward growth of the centrum behind it, so that in the adult each vertebra is only concave behind (opisthocoelous). In the Anura (frogs and toads), on the other hand, the centra are usually concave forward (procoelous) and some of the posterior ones become fused into a long delicate bone, the wrostyle. The ribs of urodeles have forked vertebral ends and are thus attached

Balanoglossus, as well as the colonial forms

FROM

THOMPSON,

FIG. 7.—OSSIFICATION OF THE STERNUM, SHOWING THE SECOND AS WELL AS THE THIRD SEGMENT OF THE BODY POSSESSING TWO CENTRES split and its two sides spread out deep to the muscles and form the ribs. In the elasmobranchs on the other hand the ribs lie among the muscles as they do in higher vertebrates, and the fact that both kinds of ribs are coexistent in the same segments in the interesting and archaic Nilotic fish Polypterus bichir shows that they are developed independently of one another. The sternum is never found in fishes with the possible exception of the comb-toothed shark (Notidanus). Among the Amphibia the tailed forms (Urodela)} have amphicoelous vertebrae in embryonic life and so have some of the adult salamanders, but usually the

Rhabdopleura and Cephalodiscus, an entodermal structure, apparently corresponding to the notochord of higher forms, is found in the dorsal wall of the pharynx. In the subphylum Urochorda or Tunicata, to which the ascidians or sea-squirts belong, the notochord is present in the tail region only and as a rule disappears after the metamorphosis from the larval to the adult form. In the Acrania, which are represented by Amphioxus (the lancelet) and are sometimes classed as the lowest division of the subphylum Vertebrata, the notochord is permanent and extends the whole length of the animal. Both this and the nerve cord dorsal to it are enclosed in

to the centrum as well as to the neural arch of a vertebra; this SPINOUS PROCESS

ANTERIOR ZYGAPOPHYSIS

VERTEBRARTERIAL CANAL TRANSVERSE PROCESS TRANSVERSE PROCESS COSTAL LAMELLA

FIG. 8.—ANTERIOR

SURFACE

forking is supposed to be homologous with the double ribs of Polypterus already referred to. ‘The sternum as a constant structure first appears in amphibians and is more closely connected with the shoulder girdle than with the ribs; the ventral ends of which, except in the salaman-

oF der Necturus, are rudimentary.

SIXTH CERVICAL VERTEBRA OF DOG It is not certain whether it is the tubes of mesodermal connective tissue’ homologue of the sternum of the fish Notidanus; the subject is which are continuous with the fibrous myo- discussed by T. J. Parker and A. M, Paterson (Tke Human commata between the myotomes. Here Sternum, London, 1904, p. 50).

then is a notochord and a membranous

vertebral column resem-

bling a stage in man’s development. In the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) the notochord and its sheath persist through life, but in the adult lamprey (Petromyzon) cartilaginous neural arches are developed. In cartilaginous ganoid fishes like the sturgeon, the notochord is persistent and has a strong fibrous sheath into which the cartilage from the neural arches encroaches while in the elasmobranch fishes (sharks and rays) the cartilaginous centra are formed and grow into the notochord, thus causing its partial absorption. Each centrum: is

|,

In Reptilia the centra of the vertebrae are usually procoelous, though there are a few examples, such as the archaic Tuatera lizard (Sphenodon), in which the amphicoelous arrangement per-

sists. There are several cervical vertebrae instead of one, which

is all the amphibians have. The odontoid bone is usually separate both from the atlas and axis. Two sacral vertebrae Kie., vertebrae articulating with the ilium) are generally present instead of the one of the Amphibia, but they are not fused together as in mammals. In the tail region haemal arches are often found .en-

closing the caudal artery and vein as in urodele amphibians; .in

SKELETON

736

some species these are separate and are then spoken of as chevron bones. In the Crocodilia intervertebral disks first appear. Ribs are present in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar regions, and in

the Chelonia (tortoises) the cervical ones blend with the vertebrae as they do in higher forms. In crocodiles a definite vertebrarterial canal is established in the

SPINOUS PROCESS Utana

Sate

toed sloth, though thirteen or fourteen is the commonest number. In the anterior part of the thoracic region the spines point backward, while in the posterior thoracic and lumbar regions they

have a forward direction. There is always one spine in the posterior thoracic region which is vertical, and the vertebra which

cervical region which hencefor- |\. ward becomes permanent. The |Ñ shafts of the ribs are sometimes all in one piece as in snakes or

AL

t Ax j a

ar

ANTERIOR ZYGAPOPHYSIS

posrenion zvearoruysis ANAPOPHYSIS

eo eee

they may be developed by three separate centres as in Sphenodon FIG. 9.—SIDE VIEW OF THE FIRST LUMBAR VERTEBRA OF A DOG with intervening joints. In Crocodilia and Sphenodon there are spurs from each thoracic rib which overlap the next rib behind and are known as uncinate processes; they are developed in connection with the origin of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen and are very constant in birds. The ventral elements of some of the hinder ribs are found in the Crocodilia lying loose in the myocommata of the rectus and obliquus internus (inscriptiones tendineae) and are known as abdominal ribs, while the sacral vertebrae articulate with the ilium through the intervention of short rods of bone, sometimes called pleurapophyses, which are no doubt sacral ribs. The sternum of reptiles is a broad plate of cartilage which may be calcified but is seldom converted into true bone; it always articulates with the coracoids (see section Appendicular) anteriorly ®¥ courtesy oF F. @. PARSONS and with a variable number of ribs laterally ópconnor -7 TN aoee and posteriorly. It should not be con- Fie. 10.—INTERCENTRA founded with the dagger-shaped inter- OF LOWER PART OF THE

clavicle which, like the clavicles, iş ąVERTEBRAL COLUMN

membrane bone and overlaps the sternum ventrally. In birds the characteristics are largely reptilian with some specialized adaptations to their bipedal locomotion and power of flight. One effect of this is that the two true sacral vertebrae become secondarily fused with the adjacent lumbar, caudal and even thoracic, and these again fuse with the ilium so ‘that the posterior part of a bird’s trunk is very rigid. The neck, on the other hand, is very movable and the centra articula te by means of saddle-shaped joints which give the maximum of movement combin

ed with strength (see Jomvts). The caudal vertebrae are fused into a flattened bone, the bygostyle, to support the tail feathers. In the fossil bird Archaeopteryx the centra are am| STINGES PROCESS phicoelous and the long tail has | Separate caudal vertebrae. The i METAPOPHYS:s ribs are few and consist of dorsal

and ventral parts; the former almost always have uncinate processes. Free cervical ribs are often present and Archaeopteryx

possessed abdominal ribs. The

atlas articulate. The thoracic vertebrae vary from ten in some of the whales and the peba armadillo to twenty-four in the two-

RANSVERSE

bears this is known as the anticlinal vertebra. The lumbar vertebrae vary from two in the Ornithorhynchus and some of the armadillos to twenty-one in the dolphin, the average number being probably six. Both the mammillary and accessory tubercles are in some forms greatly enlarged. It is usually held that the former are morphologically muscular processes while the latter represent the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae. In the American edentates additional articular processes (zygapophyses) are developed, so that these animals are sometimes divided from the old-world edentates and spoken of as Xenarthra.

Lying ventral to the intervertebral disks in many mammals small paired ossicles are occasionally found; these are called intercentra and are ossifications

in the hypochordal bar (see subsection on embryology). They

PRESTERNUM

probably represent the places where the chevron bones or haemal arches would he attached and are the serial homologues of the anterior arch of the atlas

(see fig. 10); these intercentra, either as paired or median ossicles, are often found in lizards. The sacrum consists of true sacral

XIPHISTERNUM vertebrae, which directly articu- | late with the sacrum, and false, Fic. 12.—STERNUM AND STRONGLY which are caudal vertebrae fused OSSIFTED RIBS OF GREAT ARMA-

with the others to form a single PILLO (PRIODON GIGAS) bone.

There is also reason to believe that vertebrae which are

originally lumbar become cause in the development to the thirtieth vertebra, reaches the twenty-fifth,

secondarily included in the sacrum beof man the pelvis is at first attached but gradually shifts forward until it twenty-sixth and twenty-seventh; the

twenty-fifth or first sacral vertebra, however, often the lumbar type and sometimes may do so on one side Taking the vertebrae which fuse together as an definition of the sacrum, we find that the number may

reverts to only. arbitrary vary from

one in Cercopithecus patas to thirteen in some of the armadillos,

and, if the Cetacea are included, seventeen dolphin, Tursiops. Four seems to be about mammalia and of these one or two are true the Edentata the posterior sacral vertebrae

in the bottle-nosed the average in the sacral. In some of are fused with the

ischium, in other words the great. sacro-sciatic ligament is ossified. The ‘tail vertebrae vary from none at all in the bat Megade rma to forty-nine in the pangolin (Manis macrura). The anterior

PROCESS

| CHEVRON BONE

Frc. 41.—-ANTERIOR SURFACE OF

sternum is very large and in fly- FOURTH

CAUDAL

VERTEBRA

OF

FIG, 13.—DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION REPRESENTING THE RELATI ONS OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE TO THE TRUNK median keel (carina) projecting from it, while the non-flying, ones are remarkable for usually having chevron bones ostrich-like birds (Ratitae) have no such structur (shaped e. like a V) on the ventral surface of the intercentral In Mammalia the centra articulate by means articulation. of the inter- These protect the caudal vertebral disks and it is only in this class that vessels and give attachment to the the epiphysial plates ventral tail muscles. The ribs in mammals correspond in number , appear though these are absent in the Monot remata (duck-mole to the thoracic verteb rae, In typical pronograde mammals the etc.) and Sirenia (sea~cows). The cervical vertebrae are with a shape of the ribs differs from that of the higher Primates and few exceptions (two-toed and three-toed sloths and the manatee man: they are so curved that the dorso-ventral diameter of or sea-cow) always seven in number, and some, the usually all, of thorax is greater than the them have a vertebrarterial canal in the transverse while in the higher Primates transverse process. In the thorax is broade r from side to side than it is dorso-ventrally. some of the Cetacea they are fused togeth er. In the Ornitho- In this respect the bats agree with man and the lemurs with the rhynchus the odontoid is a separate bone, as in many reptiles, pronograde mammals. but this part includes the facets by means of which the axis and For further details and literature see ing

birds

(Carinatae)

has

a

PORPOISE

(PHOCAENA

COMMUNIS)

S. FI. Reynolds, The Vertebrate

SKELETON

737

responding with the separate coracoid bone of monotremes, birds and reptiles. Humerus.—The humerus (fig. 14) is a long bone, and consists of a shaft and two extremities. The upper extremity possesses a convex spheroidal smooth surface, the head, for articulation with the glenoid fossa of the scapula; it is surrounded by a narrow APPENDICULAR SKELETON constricted neck, and where the neck and shaft become continuous up built is each other, two processes or éuberosities are found, to which with limbs lower and upper the of framework bony The the rotator muscles arising from the scapular fossae. connectgirdle attached are limb a of on the same plan in both. Each consists in which the long tendon ing it with the axial skeleton, a proximal single bone segment, Between the tuberosities is a groove in section above, but triangular is shaft The and rests. biceps segments the of foot and hand the a distal double bone segment, groove winds round shallow A below. expanded foland the flattened the digits (phalanges). It should be understood that in al nerve is lodged. musculo-spir the which in in bone, the used of are back the external and internal terms the s lowing description a non-articular and articular an of consists extremity limb. lower the of The that to relation to the mid-line of the body and not portion. The articular has a small head externally for the radius, Upper Limb.—The upper and a pulley internally for the movements of the ulna in flexion limb in man consists of a proxiand extension of the limb. The non-articular part has promal part or shoulder, a distal part ACROMION PROCESS jections on its inner and outer aspects, the internal and external or hand, and an intermediate condyles; each is surmounted by a supracondylar ridge, and the shaft, which consists of an upper condyle and ridge attach the muscles passing to the flexor internal of each In arm, and a forearm. CORACOID PROCESS the forearm, while the external are for those passing of surface OF SCAPULA these subdivisions certain bones extensor the surface. to are found: in the shoulder, the the two bones of the forearm, the range of describing Before clavicle and scapula; in the upper take place between them should be noticed. can which movement arm, the humerus; in the forethey lie parallel to each other, the radius spine, position, one In bone the ulna, arm, the radius and bone, and the palm of the hand being external more the being of the upper arm in man being or prone position the radius crosses other the in directed forward; longer than the bones of the foreand the palm of the hand is ulna, the of front in obliquely arm; in the hand, the carpal and of the forearm, but those bones the only Not backward. directed metacarpal bones and the phain the supine position when they be to supposed are hand the of clavicle langes. The scapula and are described. together form an imperfect bony Radius—The radius (fig. 14) is the outer bone of the forearm, the Girdle; arch, the Shoulder possesses a shaft and two extremities. The upper extremity and A THE EIGHT CARPAL BONES shaft and hand form a free dihas a shallow, smooth cup for articulation with the head or vergent Appendage. The shoulder the outer margin of the cup is also smooth, for articulahumerus; girdle is the direct medium of THE FIVE the ulna and orbicular ligament; below the cup is a with tion METACARPAL BONES connection between the axial constricted neck, and immediately below the neck a tuberosity skeleton and the divergent part the insertion of the biceps. The shaft of the bone possesses for of the limb; its anterior segment, POLLEX, OR THUMB surfaces for the attachment of muscles and a sharp inner three ~~ the clavicle, articulates with the noe FINGER for the interosseous membrane. The lower end of the bone border upper end of the sternum, whilst MIDDLE FINGER broader than the upper, and is marked posteriorly by much is RING FINGER its posterior segment, the scapula, grooves for the lodgment of tendons passing to the back of the approaches, but does not reach, FIG. 14.~-APPENDICULAR SKELETON hand: from its outer border a pointed styloid process projects the dorsal spines. OF LEFT UPPER LIMB downward; its inner border has a smooth shallow fossa for articuClavicle—The clavicle or colwith the ulna, and its broad lower surface is smooth and lation the from extends lar bone (fig. 14) is an elongated bone which for articulation with the scaphoid and semilunar bones concave, upper end of the sternum horizontally outward, to articulate wrist. the of strong a presents It scapula. the of with the acromion process Ulna—The ulna (fig. 14) is also a long bone. Its upper end is sigmoidal curve, is slender in the female, but powerful inmuscular into two strong processes by a deep fossa which posmales; its sternal end is thick and somewhat triangular; its acrom- subdivided surface for articulation with the humerus. The smooth a sesses articular oval an has ial end, flattened from above downward, is rough in front for the insertion of the process anterior surface for the acromion. Its shaft has four surfaces for the whilst the posterior or olecranon process gives anticus, brachialis with it connecting ligaments strong attachment of muscles; and large triceps muscle of the upper arm. Imthe to insertion the coracoid and the first rib. below the outer bordet of the great fossa is the small Scapula—The scapula or shoulder blade (fig. 14).1s present mediatelycavity for articulation with the side of the head of the sigmoid of wall the of part in all mammals. It lies at the upper and back The shaft of the bone has three surfaces for the attachthe chest, reaching from the second to the seventh rib. Its form is radius. muscles, and a sharp outer border for the interosseous of ment and borders three surfaces, three plate-like and triangular, with The lower end, much smaller than the upper, has a membrane. three angles. Its ventral surface is in relation to the ribs, from styloid process and a smooth articular surface, the outer which it is separated by certain muscles: the dorsum is traversed pointed of which is for the lower end of the radius, the lower part portion this subdivides from behind forward by a prominent spine, which for moving on a cartilage of the wrist joint called the triangular aspect of the bone into a supra-spinous and an infra-spinous fossa. fibro-cartilage. the process, flattened broad a The spine arches forward to end in Hond-—The hand consists of the carpus or wrist, the metaacromion, which has an oval articular surface for the clavicle; or palm and the free digits, the thumb and four fingers. both spine and acromion are largely developed in the human carpus describe it with the palm turned to the front, and Anatomists deland scapula in correlation with the great size of the trapezius in line with the axis of the forearm. axis its toid muscles, which are concerned in the elevation and abduction with or wrist bones (fig. 14) are eight in number arranged carpal The to attachment give of the upper limb. The borders of the scapula a proximal, consisting of the scaphoid, semilunar, rows, two in several muscles. The angles are inferior, antero-superior and and pisiform, and a distal, consisting of a trapezium, postero-superior. The antero-superior is truncated and hasa large, cuneiform magnum and unciform; the bones in éach row being os trapezoid, n shallow, oval, smooth surface, the glenoid fossa, for articulatio the order they are met with, from the radial or outer with the humerus, to form the shoulder joint. Overhanging the named in the wrist.

Skeleton (Cambridge, 1897) ; W. H. Flower and H. Gadow, Osteology of the Mammalia (London, 1885); R. Wiedersheim, Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, adapted and translated by W. N. Parker (London, 1907); R. Wiedersheim and G. Howes, The Structure of Man (London, 1897); C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbeltiere, Band i. (Leipzig, 1901).

glenoid fossa is a curved beak-like process, the coracoid, céor-

to the ulnar or inner side of

738

SKELETON

The metacarpal bones are five in number (fig. 14). They are |nence, or tuber ischii. The tuberosity, a thick, rough and strong miniature long bones, and each possesses a shaft and two ex- process, gives origin to several powerful muscles: on it the body tremities. The metacarpal of the thumb is the shortest, and rests in the sitting posture; a flattened ramus ascends from it te diverges outward from the rest; its carpal extremity 1s saddle- join the lower ramus of the pubis, and completes both the pubic shaped, for articulation with the trapezium; its shaft is some- arch and the margin of the obturator foramen. Pelvis —By the articulation of the two innominate bones with what compressed, and its phalangeal end is smooth and rounded, for the first phalanx of the thumb. The four other metacarpal each other in front at the pubic symphysis, and with the sides of bones belong to the four fingers. Their carpal ends articulate with the sacrum behind, the osseous the trapezoid, os magnum and unciform: their phalangeal ends walls of the cavity of the pelvis are formed. This cavity is sub: articulate with the proximal phalanges of the fingers. The number of digits in the hand is five. They are distinguished divided into a false and a true by the names of pollex or thumb, index, medius, annularis and pelvis. The false pelvis lies beminimus. Their skeleton consists of fourteen bones named tween the expanded wing-like h PUBIS, THE THREE PARTS OF THE phalanges, of which the thumb has two, and each of the four portions of the two ilia. The true INNOMINATE BONE fingers three. Each is a miniature long bone, with two articular pelvis lies below the two ilio| ISCHIUM extremities and an intermediate shaft, except the terminal pectineal lines and the base of the sacrum, which surround the phalanges in which the distal end is rounded for the nail. Lower Limb.—The lower limb consists of a proximal part upper orifice or brim of the true or haunch, a distal part or foot, and an intermediate shaft sub- pelvis, or pelvic inlet, whilst its divided into thigh and leg. Each part has its appropriate skeleton lower orifice or outlet is bounded (the thigh-bone in man being longer than the leg-bones). The behind by the coccyx, laterally by bone of the haunch (os innominatum) forms an arch or pelvic the ischial tuberosities, and in girdle, which articulates behind with the side of the sacrum, and front by the pubic arch. In the arches forward to articulate with erect attitude the pelvis is so inA SACRAL VERTEBRA the opposite haunch-bone at the clined that the plane of the brim TIBIA forms with the horizontal plane pubic symphysis. It is the direct “a THE ILIUM' THE SEVEN TARSAL BONES medium of connection between an angle of from 60° to 65°. The the axial skeleton and the shaft axis of the cavity is curved, and THE FEMUR THE FIVE METATARSAL BONES and foot, which form a free diis represented by a line dropped perpendicularly from the planes vergent appendage. THE TWO PUBIC BONES HALLUX OR GREAT TOE The os innominatum, or ATTHESYMPHYSIS of the brim, the cavity and the SECOND TOE haunch-bone, is a large irregular Fic. 15.—DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION outlet; at the brim it is directed plate-like bone, which forms the SHOWING RELATIONS OF PELVIC downward and backward, at the FIFTH OR LITTLE TOE” lateral and inferior boundary of S!ROLE TO THE TRUNK outlet downward and a little forOs CALCIS, OF HEEL the cavity of the pelvis. In early life it consists of three bones— ward. Owing to the inclination of E FORMING PROMINENCE ee ilium, ischium and pubis—which unite about the twenty-fifth year the pelvis, the base of the sacrum FIG. 16.—APPENDICULAR SKELETON into a single bone. These bones converge, and join to form a is nearly 4 in. higher than the OF THE LEFT LOWER LIMB cup, the acetabulum, on the outer surface of the bone, which upper border of the pubic symphysis. The female pelvis is dislodges the head of the thigh-bone at the hip-joint. At the bottom tinguished from the male by certain sexual characters. The bones of the acetabulum is a depression, to the sides of which the are more slender, the ridges and processes for muscular attachligamentum teres of the hip-joint is attached. From the aceta- ment more feeble, the breadth and capacity greater, the depth bulum the ilium extends upward and backward, the ischium down- less, giving the greater breadth to the hips of a woman; the inlet ward and backward, the pubis forward, inward and downward. more nearly circular, the pubic arch wider, the distance between Below the acetabulum is a large hole, the obturator foramen, the tuberosities greater, and the acetabulum smaller in the female which is bounded by the ischium and pubes; behind and above than in the male, The greater capacity of the woman’s over the the acetabulum is the deep sciatic notch, which is bounded by man’s pelvis is to afford greater room for the expansion of the the ischium and ilium, and below this is the small sciatic notch. uterus during pregnancy, and for the expulsion of the child at Ilium.—The ilium (fig. 16) in man is a broad plate-like bone, the time of birth. the lower end of which aids in forming the acetabulum, while the Femur.—The femur or thigh-bone (fig. 16) is the longest bone upper end forms the iliac crest, which, in man, is elongated into in the body, and consists of a shaft and two extremities. The the sinuous crest of the ilium. This crest affords attachment to upper extremity or ead has a smooth hemispherical surface, in the broad muscles which form the wall of the abdominal cavity. which an oval roughened fossa, for the attachment of the ligaOne surface of the ilium is external, and marked by curved lines mentum teres of the hip, is found; from the head a strong elonwhich subdivide it into areas for the origin of the muscles of the gated neck passes downward and outward to join the upper end of buttock; another is anterior, and hollowed out to give origin to the the shaft; the place of junction is marked by two processes or iliacus muscle; the third, or internal, surface articulates posteriorly trochanters; to the external or great trochanter are attached many with the sacrum, whilst anteriorly it forms a part of the wall of muscles; the internal or lesser trochanter gives attachment to the the true pelvis. The external is separated from the anterior surface psoas and iliacus. A line drawn through the axis of the head and by a border which joins the anterior end of the crest, where it neck forms with a vertical line drawn through the shaft an angle forms a process, the anterior superior spine. Between the anterior of 30°; in a woman this angle is a little less obtuse, and the oband internal surfaces is the ilio-pectineal line, which forms part of liquity of the shaft of the femur is slightly greater. The shaft is the line of separation between the true and false pelvis. almost cylindrical about its centre, but expanded above and below; Pubis—The pubis (fig. 16) is also a three-sided, prismatic, its front and sides give origin to the extensor muscles of the leg; rod-like bone, the fundamental form of which is obscured by the behind there is a rough ridge, which gives attachment to several modification in shape of its inner end. In human anatomy it is muscles. The lower end of the bone presents a large smooth articcustomary to regard it as consisting of a body and of two branches, ular surface for the knee-joint, the anterior portion of which forms an upper and a lower ramus. Projecting forward from the junction a trochlea or pulley for the movements of the patella, whilst the of the body and upper ramus is the pubic spine, a landmark in lower and posterior part is subdivided into two convex condyles surgery, and to this the ilio-pectineal line may be traced. by a deep fossa which gives attachment to the crucial ligaments Ischium.—The ischium (fig. 16) also has the fundamental form of the knee. of a three-sided prismatic rod. One extremity (the upper) comThe femur constitutes usually about 0-275 of the individual pletes the acetabulum, whilst the lower forms the large promi- Stature; but this proportion is not constant, as this bone forms a

SKELETON

739

larger element in the stature of a tall than of a short man. The of the cuneiforms which are wedge-shaped, irregularly cuboidal; human femur presents also a concave popliteal surface, thus dif- the dorsal and plantar surfaces are as a rule rough for ligaments, fering from that of Pithecanthropus, whose popliteal surface is but as the astragalus is locked in between the bones of the leg and convex. In the bones of some races the dorsal ridge of the thigh- the os calcis, its dorsal and plantar surfaces, as well as the dorsum bone (linea aspera) projects as a prominent crest causing the of the os calcis, are smooth for articulation; similarly, its lateral bones to appear “‘pilastered.” Pilastering, though characteristic surfaces are smooth for articulation with the two malleoli. The of lower and primitive races of man, is never found in the an- posterior surface of the os calcis projects backward to form thropoids. the prominence of the heel. With this exception, the bones have Patella.—The patella or knee-cap (fg. 16) is a triangular flat- their anterior and posterior surfaces smooth for articulation. tened bone developed in the tendon of the great extensor muscles Their lateral surfaces are also articular, except the outer surof the leg. Its anterior surface and sides are rough, for the attach- face of the os calcis and cuboid, which form the outer border; and ment of the fibres of that tendon; its posterior surface is smooth, the inner surface of the os calcis, scaphoid and the ento-cuneiand enters into the formation of the knee-joint. form, which form the inner border of the tarsus. Supernumerary Between the two bones of the leg there are no movements of bones are occasionally found as in the hand. pronation and supination as between the two bones of the foreThe metatarsal bones and the phalanges of the toes agree in arm. The tibia and fibula are fixed in position; the fibula is al- number and general form with the metacarpal bones and the phaways external, the tibia internal. langes in the hand. The bones of the great toe or hallux are more Tibia.—The tibia or shin-bone (fig. 16) is the larger of the two massive than those of the other digits, and this digit, unlike the bones of the leg; the femur moves and rests upon its upper end, thumb or pollex, does not diverge from the other digits, but lies and down it the weight of the body in the erect position is trans- almost parallel to them. mitted to the foot. Except the femur, it is the longest bone of the Embryology.—The development of the appendicular skeleton skeleton, and consists of a shaft and two extremities. The upper takes place in the core of mesenchyme in the centre of each limb. extremity is broad, and is expanded into two tuberosities, the ex- By mesenchyme is meant that part of the mesoderm, or middle ternal of which has a small articular facet inferiorly, for the head layer of the embryo, in which the cells are irregularly scattered in of the fibula; superiorly, the tuberosities have two smooth sur- a matrix, and are not arranged in definite rows or sheets as in the faces, for articulation with the condyles of the femur; they coelomic membrane. This substance first becomes changed into are separated by an intermediate rough surface, from which cartilage, except perhaps in the case of the clavicle. The factors which determine the general shape and proportiona short spine (really a series of elevations) projects, which gives ate size of each limb bone are at work while the cartilage is being attachments to the interarticular crucial ligaments and semilunar cartilages of the knee, and lies opposite the intercondylar fossa of formed, because each future bone has a good cartilaginous model the femur. The shaft of the bone is three-sided; its inner sur- laid down before ossification begins. Calcification usually begins face is subcutaneous, and forms the shin; its outer and posterior at one point in each bone, unless that bone be a compound one surfaces are for the origin of muscles; the anterior border forms formed by the fusion of two or more elements which were distinct the sharp ridge of the shin, and terminates superiorly in a tubercle in lower vertebrate types, as is the case with the os innominatum. Calcification, once established, acts as an attraction for bloodfor the insertion of the extensor tendon of the leg; the outer borvessels, which probably bring with them osteoblasts, and the der of the bone gives attachment to the interosseous membrane of the leg. The lower end of the bone, smaller than the upper, is subsequent ossification is a process which needs and receives a prolonged into a broad process, internal malleolus, which forms plenteous supply of nourishment. After a long bone has reached the inner prominence of -the ankle: its under surface is smooth a certain size it very often has extra centres of ossification for articulation with the astragalus; externally it articulates with (epiphyses) developed at its ends as well as at places where important muscles have raised leverthe lower end of the fibula. CALCANEUM like knobs of cartilage on the The tibia in most civilized races is triangular in the section of its model. shaft, but in many savage and prehistoric races it is two-edged. ASTRAGALUS Turning now to the developThe foetal tibia has its head slightly bent backward with regard to ment of the individual bones of the shaft, a condition which usually disappears in the adult, but CusBoio the axial skeleton, the clavicle is is shown in the prehistoric tibiae found in the cave of Spy. In partly fibrous, and partly cartiraces that squat on their heels the front margin of the lower end NAVICULAR laginous; its primary centre is the of the tibia is marked by a small articular facet for the neck of earliest of all in the body to apthe astragalus. EXTERNAL pear, while its sternal epiphysis Fibula.—The fibula, or splint-bone of the leg (fig. 16), is a CUNEIFORM does not come till the bone is slender long bone with a shaft and two extremities. The upper fully grown, and so can have no end or dead articulates with the outer tuberosity of the tibia. The INTERNAL CUNEIFORM effect on the growth of the bone. shaft is four-sided and roughened for the origins of the muscles. It is probably atavistic, and is Separating the anterior from the internal surface is a slender ridge MIDDLE often regarded as the vestige of for the attachment of the interosseous membrane. The lower end CUNEIFORM the precoracoid, though it may has a strong process (external malleolus) projecting downward to represent the inter-clavicle. It form the outer prominence of the ankle, and a smooth inner surT, TARSUS sometimes fails to appear at all. face for articulation with the astragalus, above which is a rough The centres for the scapula are surface for the attachment of ligaments which bind together the M, METATARSUS shown in the accompanying figtibia and fibula. ures (fig. 19). G. B. Howes reFoot.—The foot consists of the tarsus, the metatarsus and the FP, PHALANGES garded the subcoracoid centre as five free digits or toes. The human foot is placed in the prone FIG, 17.—BONES OF THE RIGHT the atavistic epiphysis representposition, with the dorsum or back of the foot directed upward; ing the coracoid bone of lower the axis of the foot at about a right angle to the axis of the leg; HUMAN FOOT and the great toe or hallux, which is the corresponding digit to the vertebrates, while the human coracoid he looked upon as the thumb, at the inner border of the foot. The human foot, there- equivalent of the epicoracoid. The epiphyses in the vertebral border are atavistic and represent the supra-scapular element (see fore, is a pentadactylous, plantigrade foot. The bones of the tarsus or ankle (fig. 16), are seven in number, section on Comparative Anatomy). In the humerus the centre for the shaft appears about the and are arranged in three transverse rows—a proximal, consisting of the astragalus and os calcis, a middle, of the scaphoid and a eighth week of foetal life, which is the usual time for primary distal, consisting of the cuboid, ecto-, meso- and ento-cuneiform. centres. The ulna is a very interesting bone. The upper epiphysis shown ` The tarsal, like the carpal bones, are short and, with the exception

74.0

SKELETON

in fig. 21 does not encroach upon the articular surface, but is

developed in the triceps tendon and is serially homologous with the patella in the lower limb. In the radius there are two terminal epiphyses and one for the insertion of the biceps. The carpus ossifies after birth, one centre for each bone occurring in the following order: os magnum, 11 to 12 months; unciSTERNAL EPIPHYSIS OSSIFIES ABOUT 20TH YEAR: FUSES ABOUT 25TH YEAR

the tendon of which it is formed, is defined. Its ossification begins in the third year: The patella is usually looked upon as the largest and most typical example of a sesamoid bone in the body.

The tibia has an epiphysis at either end, but that for the upper

comes down in front so as to include a good deal of the tubercle.

In almost any other mammal, and often in man himself, it may be seen that this down-growth is an epiphysis developed in the quadriceps tendon below the patella and joining the main upper epiphysis before uniting with the diaphysis or shaft. The fibula has two epiphyses, the lower of which appears first. The general rule with the long bones of the extremities is æ

PRIMARY CENTRE APPEARS ABOUT STH

OR 6TH MONTH OF FOETAL LIFE FROM

ARTHUR

THOMPSON,

IN

CUNNINGHAM,

“TEXT-BOOK

OF

ANATOMY”

(OXFORD

MEDICAL

CENTRE FOR SMALL TUBEROSITY FUSES WITH

APPEARS EARLY IN 2ND MONTH

OTHER CENTRES ABOUT 7 YEARS

FOETAL LIFE

PUBLICATIONS)

FIG. 18,— OSSIFICATION

OF THE CLAVICLE

form, 12 to 14 months; cuneiform, 3 years; semilunar, 5 to 6 years; trapezium, 6 years; scaphoid, 6 years; trapezoid, 6 to 7 years; pisiform, 10 to 12 years. The metacarpal bones have one centre each for the shaft and one epiphysis for the head, except that for the thumb which has one centre for the shaft and one epiphysis for the proximal end. The phalanges develop in the same way that the metacarpal bone of the thumb does.

The os innominatum has three primary centres for the ilium, ischium and pubis. The special centres for the crest of the ilium are probably a serial repetition of those for the vertebral border of the scapula (see fig. 19). The centre for the pubic symphysis probably represents the epipubis of amphibians, while that for the tuberosity of

ABOUT

AT BIRTH ger i

Lao:

re r

gt

APPEARS ABOUT {2 YEARS

Cr roy is

i

FIRST 6

5

ABOUT 25 YEARS

ABOUT

YEARS

APPEARS ABOUT 17 YRS.; FUSES ABOUT 20 YRS.

ACRONIAL CENTRES

APPEAR 15-16 YRS.: . APPEARS. ABOUT 16 OR 17 YRS.; FUSES 18-20 YRS,

APPEARS ABOUT 16-17 YRS.; FUSES ABOUT 20 YRS,

mee

CAI

SUBCORACOID CENTRE APPEARS 10 YRS.: FUSES 16-17 YR,

= 2X

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Ap rate Api Besa7an;

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FROM ARTHUR THOMPSON, PUBLICATIONS)

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APPEARS 16-17 YRS.; FUSES 20-25 yrs.

INFERIOR EPIPHYSIS FUSES WITH SHAFT

FUSES WITH SHAFT

“TEXT-BOOK

ABOUT 17 TO 18 YEARS IN

CUNNINGHAM,

“TEXT-BOOK

FIG. 20.—OSSIFICATION

OF

ANATOMY”

(OXFORD

MEDICAL

OF THE HUMERUS

that the epiphysis nearest the elbow or farthest from the knee is the first to appear and the last to join. In the tarsus the cartilages are at an early stage arranged in three rows like those of the hand, but in the proximal row the

middle one (intermedium), corresponding to the semilunar in the

hand, fuses with the one on the tibial side to form the astragalus, though sometimes a vestige of it seems to persist as a little bone at the back of the astragalus, known as the os trigonum. The centre for the calcaneum appears in the sixth month of

foetal life, that for the astragalus in the seventh, the cuboid about

birth, the external, middle and internal cuneiforms in the first and second years, while the navicular is the last to appear in the third year.

The calcaneum has an epiphysis developed in the insertion of the tendo Achillis behind. The development of the metatarsal bones and phalanges of the

foot is the same as that of the hand.

s

seices eo 4

IN CUNNINGHAM,

THOMPSON,

16 YEARS

ABOUT 16 TO 17 YEARS

APPEARS 2 TO 3 YEARS FROM ARTHUR PUBLICATIONS)

ABOUT

SUPERIOR EPIPHYSIS FUSES WITH SHAFT

FOR TUBEROSITY, APPEARS Z TO 3 YEARS

ABOUT

APPEARS

{1 OR 12 YEARS

MONTHS

FOR CAPITELLUM, SECONDARY CENTRES FOR CORACOID APPEAR ABOUT END Isr YEAR: FUSE ABOUT 18 YRS.

A

FOR HEAD. APPEARS WITHIN

APPEARS ABQUTS YEARS

PRIMARY CENTRE APPEARS ABOUT 2ND M, FOETAL LIFE

12 YEARS

‘a

FoR INTERNAL CONDYLE,

ABOUT THE AGE OF PUBERTY

CENTRES FOR HEAD AND GREAT TUBEROSITY COALESCE ABOUT 5 YEARS

OF ANATOMY”

(OXFORD

MEDICAL

FIG. 19.-—OSSIFICATION OF THE SCAPULA the ischium is the hypoischium of reptiles (see subsection on comparative anatomy). The most anterior of the epiphyses in the acetabulum is the os acetabuli of lower mammals, while the occasional one for the spine of the pubis is often looked on as the vestige of the marsupial bone of monotremes and marsupials.

Tt will thus be seen that many of the secondary centres of the

os Innominatum are atavistic. ~o The femur has epiphyses for the head, the lower end the great and the small trochanters. The cartilaginous patella does not appear until the third month

ef feétal life, that is well after the quadriceps éxténsot cruris, in

For further details and literature see J. P. M’Murrich’s Development of the Human Body (London, 1923) and D. J. i , Text E

J. Cunningham’s 923) an Book of Anatomy. Comparative Anatomy.—It is only when the class of pisces is reached that paired appendages are found, and there are two main theories to account for their first occurrence. The one which iS at present most favoured is that in some ancestral] fishes two folds ran along the ventro-lateral part of the body, like the bilge keels of a boat, and that these joined one another in the midventral line behind the cloacal orifice to form the median caudal fin. Into these folds the segments of the body, including myotomes and myocommata, extended. Later on parts of these ridges were suppressed, but in the pectoral and pelvic regions they were retained to form the paired fins. This theory is support ed by the

fact that in some elasmobranch embryos the whole length of

741

SKELETON the folds can be traced. The second theory is that the limbs are elaborated gills. It is probable that the limb girdles are of later evolution than the skeleton of the fins themselves. In the elasmobranch fishes (sharks and rays) there is a crescentic bar of cartilage (pectoral girdle), concave upward, which girdles the ventral and lateral parts of the body; it is divided into a dorsal part (scapula) and a ventral part (precoracoid and coraAPPEARS EARLY IN 2ND MONTH OF FOETAL LIFE

FUSES WITH SHAFT

ABOUT 16 YEARS

mals, the serratus magnus muscles forming the chains of the bridge (see fig. 28). The clavicle is often entirely suppressed in mammals; this is the case in most of the Ursidae, all the Pinnipedia, Manis among edentates, the Cetacea, Sirenia, all Ungulata and some of the Rodentia. It is complete in all the Primates, Chiroptera, Insectivora (except Potamogale), many of the Rodentia, most Edentata, and all the Marsupialia except Perameles. In the Monotremata it is fused with a well-developed interclavicle, but in APPEARS EARLY IN 2ND MONTH OF FOETAL LIFE

AT BIRTH AT BIRTH APPEARS ABOUT 10 YEARS

APPEARS

FUSES WITH SHAFT 18-20 YEARS

ABOUT

5-7 YEARS

APPEARS ABOUT 14-15 YEARS: FUSES SOON AFTER

ABOUT 12 YEARS — ABOUT 12 YEARS--— FUSES WITH SHAFT 20-23 YEARS

APPEARS ABOUT 6 YEARS

UNITES WITH SHAFT

20-25 FROM ARTHUR PUBLICATIONS)

THOMPSON,

IN

CUNNINGHAM,

“TEXT-BOOK

FIG, 21.—OSSIFICATION

OF

ANATOMY”

(OXFORD

MEDICAL

OF THE ULNA

coid) by a facet for the articulation of the fin. This of course is the glenoid cavity. In some forms, e.g., the shark Heptanchus, there is a perforation in the ventral part of the bar on each side,

which possibly indicates the division between the precoracoid and coracoid elements,

In by a may In

many of the bony fish (Teleostei) the outline is obscured series of bones which connect the girdle with the skull and be the precursors of the clavicle. the Amphibia the dorsally-placed scapula (fig. 27, S) has

more dorsally still a cartilaginous plate, the supra-scapula (fig. 27,

S.S), which may be calcified. The precoracoid (fig. 27, P.C) and coracoid (C) are quite distinct, the former being in front (cephalad) and overlaid by a dermal bone, the clavicle (Cl). Uniting the ventral ends of the precoracoid and coracoid is the epicoracoid on each side (fig. 27, E.C). In the Reptilia the same general plan is evident, but in the lizards the ventral ends of the two clavicles are united by a median

YEARS

APPEARS ABOUT 2 TO 3 YEARS

FROM ARTHUR PUBLICATIONS)

THOMPSON,

IN

CUNNINGHAM,

“TEXT-BOOK

OF

ANATOMY”

(QOXFORD

MEDICAL

FIG. 22.—OSSIFICATION OF THE RADIUS

other mammals the interclavicle is either suppressed or possibly represented by the sternal epiphysis of the clavicle of the Primates. The pre-coracoid as a distinct structure entirely disappears, though vestiges of it may remain in the cartilaginous parts of the clavicle.

The chief modifications of the humerus are the development of the pectoral ridge, which is large whenever the pectoral muscles

are strong, and is represented in man by the outer lip of the bicipital groove and the supracondylar foramina. Epiphyses are fcund in this, as in other long bones, in amphibians, reptiles and mammals, but not in birds.

In the tailless amphibians (Anura) the radius and ulna are APPEARS ABOUT LATTER END OF 2ND M. OF FOETAL LIFE

dagger-like dermal bone, the interclavicle (fig. 27, I.-C), which lies on a plane superficial to the sternum and epicoracoids. In birds the scapula has the shape of a sabre blade, and there is a rudimentary acromion process, though this is also indicated in some reptiles. The pre- and epi-coracoids are aborted, but the APPEARS coracoids are very strong. The clavicles and interclavicle unite ABOUT 5-6 M. into a V-shaped bar which forms the furcula or “merrythought.” FOETAL LIFE In the Mammalia the Monotremata (Ornithorhynchus and Echidna) retain the reptilian arrangement of large coracoids and epicoracoids articulating with the sternum, while the clavicles and interclavicle are also largely developed; the scapula too is more bird-like in shape than mammalian. In the higher mammals FUSES 22-25 YEARS APPEARS ABOUT 4TH M. the scapula develops a spine and usually an acromial process, and OF FQETAL LIFE et has a triangular outline. As long as the forelimb is used for supse UNITE ABOUT 10 YEARS ABOUT 12 eOR 13 YEARS port, the vertebral border is the shortest of the three, and the long AT BIRTH “TEXT-BOOK OF ANATOMY” (OXFORD MEDICAL axis of the bone runs from this border to the glenoid cavity; but FROM ARTHUR THOMPSON, IN CUNNINGHAM, PUBLICATIONS) when the extremity is used for prehension, as in the Primates, or FIG. 23.—OSSIFICATION OF THE INNOMINATE BONE for flight, as in the Chiroptera, the vertebral border elongates and the distance from it to the glenoid cavity decreases so that the fused, while in the Urodela and reptiles they are always distinct. long axis is now parallel with that of the body instead of being In some lizards (Iguana, Sphenodon, etc.) the olecranon epiphysis remains a distinct sesamoid bone just as the patella does, and this transverse. Above the monotremes too the coracoid becomes a mere knob is also the case in some bats. In the pronograde mammals the for muscles, and no longer articulates with the sternum. There is radius is in a position of permanent pronation, and is a much more thus a sudden transition from the way in which the forepart of the important bone than the ulna, which is sometimes suppressed, so body is propped up on the forelimbs when the coracoid is func- that little more than the olecranon process remains (¢.g., horse, tional (as in reptiles) to the way in which it is suspended like a giraffe). In the lower Primates the ulna articulates directly with suspension bridge between the two scapulae in pronograde mam- the cuneiform and (sometimes) pisiform bones, and is not shut off Poet

SKELETON

742

from the carpus by a meniscus as in man. d from a The carpus of the higher vertebrates may be reduce its eleof certain of ssion suppre or fusion the by type generalized to known not is 29) fig. (see type ments. A perfect generalized are arranged in exist in any vertebrate. In such a type the bones and distal (5 three rows; proximal (5 bones), middle (2 bones), Fuses WITH SHAFT

APPEARS EARLY IN 2ND MONTH OF FOETAL LIFE

18-20 YEARS

FUSES WITH SHAFT ABOUT 18-19 YEARS

AT BIRTH

USUALLY APPEARS IN THE STH MONTH OF FOETAL LIFE APPEARS

ABOUT

EARL

APPEARS

ABOUT

2°3 YEARS

is the pubis, ; and j part is (cephalic) i When thisis iis the case the anterior (caudad) reum ischi the is in series with the precoracoid, while i peats the coracoid. een the ilium and sacrum beIn Amphibia the connection betw ct Labyrinthodontia have comes established, and some of the extin gh in existing forms the thou s, hyse separate pubic and ischial symp , , , , . ischium and pubis are generally fused just in front lage carti bifid a ly usual is there In the Urodela

which is called the (cephalad) of the pubes, in the mid-line,

epipubis. ard towards the Pa the Reptilia the ilium always projects backw MAY APPEAR INDEPENDENTLY ABOUT 11 YEARS

FUSES WITH SHAFT ABOUT 20-24 YEARS

FUSES WITH SHAFT ABouT 18 YEARS

PART OF FIRST YEAR APPEARS BEFORE BIRTH

APPEARS ABOUT 12-13 YEARS ABOUT

ABOUT 16 YEARS

APPEARS EARLY IN 2ND MONTH OF FOETAL LIFE

12 YEARS — Fuses WITH SHAFT ABOUT 20-22 YEARS

USUALLY APPEARS BEFORE BIRTH ARTHUR FROM PUBLICATIONS)

APPEARS

ABOUT

A:

1} YEARS

THOMPSON,

IN

CUNNINGHAM,

“TEXT-BOOK

OF

ANATOMY”

FIG, 24.— OSSIFICATION OF FEMUR

(OXFORD

MEDICAL

bones). The primitive reptile sphenodon has all these bones ex. cept the radiale marginale. In many of the urodele amphibians, e.g., the salamander and newt (Molge), the carpus is very generalized; in the tailless forms (Anura), however, it is more specialized. When only four distalia are present it is doubtful whether the fifth is suppressed, or has fused with the fourth. In the Reptilia the carpus is often very generalized, as in Sphenodon and Chelydra (see fig. 30). In the birds the radiale and ulnare are distinct, but the distal bones are fused with the metacarpus to form a carpo-metacarpus. In Mammalia various examples of fusion and suppression occur. In man the radiale, radiale marginale, and centrale radiale fuse to form the scaphoid; the semilunar is the intermedium; the cuneiform the ulnare; and the pisiform the ulnare marginale. The trapezium and trapezoid are distalia I. and II.; the os magnum distale III. fused with the centrale ulnare; while distalia IV. and V. have either fused to form the unciform, or, as some believe, distale V. has been suppressed. In some mammals the radiale marginale is very large, e.g., mole and elephant, and is regarded as a stage in the evolution of a digit on the radial side of the pollex, hence named the prepollex. In the Cape jumping hare (Pedetes) this digit is two-jointed and bears a rudimentary nail. Feebler indications of another digit on the ulnar side of the carpus, called the post-minimus, are sometimes seen in relation with the pisiform, which is therefore no longer regarded as a sesamoid bone, but, with the radiale marginale, as a stage in the progress from a pentadactylous to a heptadactylous manus. The centrale radiale and radiale marginale persist as distinct bones throughout life in many monkeys. In the suppression of digits in vertebrates a regular sequence occurs; the pollex is the first to go, then the minimus, index and annularis one after another, so that an animal like the horse, which has only one digit, has lost all except the medius. In the mammals the number of the phalanges usually corresponds with that of man, though in the lower vertebrates they are often much more numerous. When the extremity is modified to form a paddle, as in Ichthyosaurus and the Cetacea, the phalanges are often greatly increased in number. In the elasmobranch fishes the pelvic girdle is a repetition of the pectoral though it is not quite so well marked. The acetabulum corresponds to the glenoid cavity, and the part of the girdle dorsal to this is the ilium; the ventral part, uniting with its fellow in the mid-line, is the ischio-pubis, the two elements of which are sometimes separated by a small foramen for the passage of a nerve.

ee

k

As

an

;

iets

À FUSES ABOUT 18TH YEAR

AT BIRTH.

FROM ARTHUR PUBLICATIONS)

THOMPSON,

IN

CUNNINGHAM,

“TEXT-BOOK

FIG. 25.—OSSIFICATION

OF

ANATOMY"

(OXFORD

MEDICAL

OF THE TIBIA

tail; the ischia usually meet in a ventral ischial symphysis, from which a cartilage or bone projects backward to support the anterior lip of the cloacal orifice; this is the hypoischium, a structure which is traceable throughout the Vertebrata to man (see fig. 31). The hypoischium and epipubis are parts of a cartilaginous pelvic sternum, the former representing the xiphisternum and the latter the episternum of the shoulder girdle (see F. G. Parsons, “Epiphyses of the Pelvis,” J. Anat. and Phys., vol. xxxvii., p. 315). In birds the ilium extends forward and backward, and is fused AT BIRTH with the vertebral column. The APPEARS ABOUT MIODLE ischia and pubes do not form a OF 2ND MONTH OF POETAL LIPE symphysis except in the struthiPUSES WITH SHAFT ous birds (ostrich and rhea). The ABOUT 20-24 YEARS acetabulum is always perforate. In mammals the ilium projects forward toward the head, and an ischio-pubic symphysis is common, though sometimes it is only pubic as in man. In Echidna APPEARS ABOUT 3-4 YEARS among the monotremes the acetabulum is perforate as in birds. In the monotremes and marsupials part of the external oblique FUSES WITH SHAFT ABOUT 19 YEARS muscle is ossified to form the marsupial bones; these are someABOUT 12 YEARS times regarded as part of the epipubis, though it is more probable APPEARS ABOUT that they are merely adaptive 2ND YEAR strengthenings of the external FROM ARTHUR THOMPSON, IN CUNNINGHAM, oblique to support the traction of “TEXT-BOOK OF ANATOMY" (OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS) the pouch. A cotyloid bone (os ete Br

pater

N OF FIBULA acetabuli) is usually present, at

all events in early life, and it often shuts out the pubis from taking any part in the formation of the acetabulum. The femur is comparatively a very stable bone. Sometimes, especially in the odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla), the gluteal ridge forms a large third trochanter, while in most mammals, though not in ungulates, there are two sesamoid bones, called fab-

ellae, developed in the gastrocnemius just above the condyles.

SKELETON The patella first appears in the reptiles, though it is not present in all of them. Most of the Lacertilia show it as a small sesamoid structure in the quadriceps extensor tendon. It is present in all birds and mammals, with the exception of some bats. In most marsupials it remains cartilaginous throughout life. The źżbia and fibula fuse in the Anura and also in some mam-

mals

(e.g., rodents).

The fibula is often nearly or quite sup-

pressed in birds and mammals, while in birds the tibia fuses with the proximal row of tarsal bones, so that the ankle joint is obliterated and a tibio-tarsus formed. In the marsupials the upper end of the fibula is large and may articulate with the femur in certain positions of the knee, but, as a whole, it reaches its maximum development in the Carnivora in the aquatic suborder of which (Pinnipedia) it is as large as the tibia. It is curious that the only epiphysis which occurs in the long bones of birds is in the head of the tibia of the Gallinaceae. In the tarsus the bones are arranged on the same generalized plan as in the carpus, but the middle row as far as we know only contains one centrale. It is more difficult to trace the fate of these structures in existing vertebrates than it is with the carpal bones. In man the astragalus probably contains the tibiale, tibiale marginale and intermedium. The fibulare and fibulare marginale probably form the SUPRA- SCAPULA

EPI- OR OMO-STERNUM DEEP TO INTERCLAVICLE SCAPULA CLAVICLE INTERCLAVICLE PRECORACOID EPICORACOID CORACOID STERNUM

G GLENOID CAVITY

FIG.

27.—DIAGRAM

OF

A

GENERALISED

FORM

OF

SHOULDER

GIRDLE

calcaneum, though it is unlikely that the epiphysis at the back of that bone represents any integral part of a generalized tarsus. ‘The centrale persists as the navicular, while the three cuneiform represent tarsalia I., II. and ITT. and the cuboid tarsalia IV. and V., unless V. is suppressed as some believe. Vestiges of a prehallux are found in the Cape jumping hare and other rodents, though they are usually more closely connected with the navicular and internal cuneiform than with the bones of the proximal row. The large size of the hallux in man is an adaptation to the erect position. Most of the remarks already made about the metacarpals and phalanges of the hand apply equally to the foot, though there is a greater tendency to reduction of digits in the hind limb than in the fore. For further details and literature see S. H. Reynolds, The Vertebrate Skeleton (Cambridge, 1897); W. Flower and H. Gadow, Osteology of the Mammalia (London, 1885); R. Wiedersheim, Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, adapted by W. N. Parker (London, 1907); C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich Anat. der Wirbeltiere (Bd. i.) (Leipzig, 1901).

VISCERAL SKELETON In the lower vertebrates as well as in the embryo of man, a number of cartilaginous or bony arches encircle the mouth and pharynx (anterior part of the food tube), just as hoops encircle a barrel. There is little doubt that, when. they first appeared in the historý of evolution, all these bars supported gills and bounded gill slits, but in all existing types the first arch has been modified to surround the mouth and to act as both upper and lower jaws, gaining in different animals a more or less complete connection with the cranium or brain-containing part of the skull. The first of these visceral arches, therefore, is known as the oral or jaw arch and, as has been shown, the muscles in connection

with it are supplied by the fifth nerve (see MUSCULAR SYSTEM; and Nerve: Cranial). The second visceral arch is the hyoid and is accompanied by the seventh or facial nerve. The third visceral

743

or first branchial arch of most writers has the ninth or glossopharyngeal for its nerve supply, while the arches behind this are supplied by the vagus or tenth nerve. In man the maxiila, palate, internal pterygoid plate, malar and tympanic bones as well as the ear ossicles, mandible, hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage are developed in connection with this visceral skeleton. Of these the ear ossicles are described in the

SECTION OF TRUNK

{Vy WR STERNUM

$3°

HUMERUS THE DOTTED LINE REPRESENTS THE SERRATUS MAGNUS MUSCLE

FIG. 28.—TYPES OF SHOULDER GIRDLE, DIAGRAM SHOWING CHANGE OF

MECHANISM IN SUPPORTING THE THORAX IN (A) THE REPTILIAN, AND (B) THE MAMMALIAN article Ear, the thyroid cartilage in that on the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, while the other bones, with the exception of the hyoid, are treated under SKULL. It therefore only remains to describe here the hyoid bone of man. Hyoid Bone.—The hyoid bone lies in the upper part of the neck in close connection with the root of the tongue and just above the thyroid cartilage. It consists of a body across the midventral line and a great and small cornu on each side (see fig. 32). The body (basihyal) is rectangular with its long axis horizontal; behind it is concave from above downward and from side to side. In front it attaches several muscles, but behind it is smooth and is separated from the thyrohyoid membrane by a bursa. From its

upper border this membrane runs downward to the thyroid cartilage. The great cornua (thyrohyals) are attached to each side of the body by cartilage until middle life and afterwards by bony union. They curve upward and backward round the side of the pharynx and are laterally compressed. To their inner surfaces the thyrohyoid membrane is attached, while their knob-like ends are connected with the superior cornua of the thyroid cartilage by the lateral thyrohyoid ligaments. The small cornua (ceratohyals) are about a quarter of an inch long. It is only in late life that they become united with the body by bony union, if they ever do so. At their apices they are connected with the tips of the styloid processes by the long stylohyoid ligaments (epihyals). Embryology.—lIn the early embryo (see Mout#H and SALIVARY GLANpDs) the mandibular processes grow forward on each side of the slit-like stomatodaeum or primitive mouth, and at length join one another in the mid-ventral line. From the proximal part of each of these another process, the maxillary, grows forward (ventrad), only more slowly, to blend with the fronto-nasal process. In each of these processes cartilage is formed in the lower vertebrates, which in the case of the ULNARE MARGINALE A RADIALE MARGINALE

(PREPOLLEX)

CENTRALE ULNARE

l-5 DISTALIA

CENTRALE RADIALE

d’ -d

METACARPALIA

mandible (lower jaw) reaches to

the mid-ventral line and forms what is known as Meckel’s cartilage; but in the maxillary process the stage of chondrification is suppressed in man and other

FIG. 29.—DIAGRAM OF A GENERAL- Mammals, and the palato-quad-

ISED CARPUS rate cartilaginous bar which is so evident in embryo fishes and amphibians is not formed. Thus both the maxillary and the mandibular bars are derivatives of the first visceral arch. In the maxillary process a membrane bone is formed which blends with the sphenoid to form the internal pterygoid plate, while in front (ventrad) of this the upper jaw (maxilla) is developed in membrane by several centres. Of these, one, or perhaps two, form the premaxilla, each of the latter contributing a socket for one of the two incisor teeth. When these premaxillary sutures fail to unite, the deformity known as “cleft

744

SKELETON

palate” is produced and this may occur either between the lateral incisor and the canine or between the central and lateral incisor teeth. The mandibular or Meckel’s cartilage is continued up into the tympanum where it joins the proximal end of the cartilage of the second or hyoid arch, and it is from this junction (hyomandibular plate) that, according to H. Gadow, Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. 19, p. 396, the malleus and incus bones of the middle ear are developed (see Ear). Between the slender process of the malleus and the region of the inferior dental foramen, the cartilage later on disappears and its fibrous sheath forms the long internal lateral or spheULNARE nomandibular ligament (see fig. 33, L.LL.): 1-5 Five BONES OF THE DIsTAL Row OF THE CARPUS Each half of the lower jaw was m'-mns long considered to be composed THE FIVE METACARPALS of several distinct skeletal eleFROM GEGENBAUR, “VERGLEICHENDE ANATOMIE ments, homologous with the ele- DER WIRBELTIERE” (ENGELMANN) ments found in the jaws of lower FIG. 30.—DORSAL SURFACE OF vertebrates, but it seems evident

RIGHT MANUS OF WATER TORTOISE

that in man the process of ossi- (CHELYDRA SERPENTINA) fication is slurred over although some of the original elements of the lower vertebrates are repeated as temporary cartilaginous masses, ¢.g., coronary, condylar and angular. (See A. Lowe, “Development of Lower Jaw in Man,” Proc. Anat. Soc. of the University of Aberdeen, 1905, p. 59.) At birth the two halves of the mandible are separate as they are throughout life in many mammals (¢.g., rodents), but in man they join together about the end of the first year. It has been stated that within the tympanum the dorsal or proximal ends of the first and second visceral arches unite to form the hyomandibular plate from which the malleus and incus are derived. The stapes is also probably formed from the proximal

end of the second or hyoid arch (see fig. 33, St.), and just ventral to this the cartilage of the arch fuses with that of the periotic capsule, where it is later on ossified as the tympanohyal element

and hyoid arches are very rudimentary and probably have degenerated in consequence of the suctorial mode of nourishment. In the Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays) the visceral skeleton is entirely cartilaginous. In the more primitive types such as the comb-toothed shark (Notidanus)

the oral and hyoid arches are

quite distinct. The oral arch consists of the upper jaw, or palatoquadrate cartilage, and the lower jaw, or Meckel’s cartilage; these articulate with one another posteriorly and also with the skull. Behind these and distinct from them is the hyoid arch. Such a type of suspensorium or jaw articulation is called autostylic. In

the rays, on the other hand, the oral arch is connected with the skull by the proximal segment of the hyoid arch, which, since it connects both the hyoid and mandibular (oral) arches with Errun AD the skull, is called the hyomandibular cartilage. This type of suspensorium is termed AyoISCHIAL SYMPHYSIS ~~

stylic.

Below the hyomandibular cartilage the hyoid arch has two other segments, the ceratohyal FIG. 31.—PELVIS OF SPHENODON LIZARD laterally and the basikyal ventrally where it fuses with its fellow of the opposite side. Sometimes an epthyal intervenes between the hyomandibular and the ceratohyal. Behind the hyoid arch are usually five branchial arches, though in Heptanchus there are as many as seven. These are divided into a number of segments and outside these there is often another series of arches called extra-branchials which are probably homologous with the branchial basket of the Cyclostomata.

The chimaeroid fishes are called Holocephali because in them the palato-quadrate bar is fused with the rest of the skull. In the bony ganoids and teleosteans (Teleostomi) the palato-quadrate bar ossifies to form the palatine, ecto-, meso- and meta-pterygoids and quadrate bones from before backward, while outside these

is another row of dermal bones formed by the premazxilla, mazxilla and jugal or malar.

In the lower jaw, Meckel’s cartilage is ossified at its proximal end to form the articular bone, but distally it remains and is of the temporal bone (fig. 33, T.H.). From this point the cartilage partly encased by the dentary, and more posteriorly by the angubecomes free from the skull and runs round the pharynx until it lar, both of which are membrane bones. The jaw joint therefore meets its fellow of the opposite side in the mid-ventral line. That is between the quadrate and the articular. In comparing this depart of the cartilage which is nearest the skull remains as the scription with the section on human embryology it will be seen stylohyal element (fig. 33, S.H.) and this later on ossifies to form that certain bones, like the palate and pterygoids, which in the the styloid process which fuses with the tympanohyal between fish are ossifications in cartilage, become in the higher vertebrates twenty and twenty-five. For some distance beyond the stylohyal element the cartilage degenerates into fibrous tissue forming the

stylohyoid ligament; this represents the epikyal element, and occasionally instead of degenerating it ossifies to form an abnormal bone (fig. 33, E.H.). Near the middle line the cartilage persists as the ceratohyal element or lesser cornu of the hyoid bone (fig. 33, C.H.), while the most ventral part, where it fuses with its fellow of the opposite side as well as with the ventral part of the BED) arch, is the basthyal or body of the hyoid bone (fig. 33,

MIODLE eCONSTRICTOR vie OF PHARYN

GREATER CORNU

LESSER CORNU

GENIO-HYO-GLOSSUS

CHONDRO-GLOSSUS

|

MED. GLOSSUS THYRO-HYOID

GENIO-HYOID STYLO-HYOIO

The dorsal part of the cartilage of the third arch is wanting, but the lateral part forms the thyrohyal or great cornu of the hyoid bone (fig. 33, Th.H.), while its ventral part fuses with its fellow of the opposite side as well as with the ventral part of the second arch to form the body of the hyoid bone. The fourth and fifth

arches only develop cartilage in their ventro-lateral parts and fuse to form the thyroid cartilage of the larynx (fig. 33, Th.C.) (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM).

Bovy

OHWO-HYOID

STERNO-HYOID

FROM GRAY, “ANATOMY” (LONGMANS GREEN) FIG, 32.—HYOID BONE, ANTERIOR

MYLO-HYOID

SURFACE

(ENLARGED)

membrane bones, and so it is clear that too great stress must not be laid on the histological history of a bone in determining its ical significance. Comparative Anatomy.—In the Amphioxus the pharynx is morpholog The branchial arches of the Teleostomi closely resemble those stiffened by chitinous bars which lie between the gill slits, but it is unlikely that these are really homologous with the visceral skele- of the Elasmobranchii except that they are ossified and that the extra-branchials have disappeared. ton of higher forms, though, in serving the same purpose, they are _In the Dipnoi (mudfish) the suspensorium is autostylic, and certainly analogous. either five or six branchial arches are present. In the Amphibia, Among the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) there is an too, suspensorium is autostylic, the palato-quadrate bar rearrangement known as the “branchial basket,” which has a more mainsthelargely cartilaginous, though its posterior part is often superficial position than the visceral arches of fish and probably to form the quadrate. The membranous premaxilla, maxcorresponds to the extra-branchials of those vertebrates. The oral ossified ila, palatine, pterygoid, quadratojugal and squamosal bones are

SKELETON developed in connection with it, though it is interesting to notice that the pterygoid is sometimes partly cartilaginous and the quadrato-jugal is absent in the tailed forms (Urodela). In the lower jaw a splenial element has appeared, and in the frog a cartilaginous mento-meckellian bone develops close to the sym-

PTERYGOID (INTERNAL PTERYGOID ite

te

MALLEUS FYMPANIC

RIN

(QUADRATE?)

INCUS

?

TYMPANOHYAL

A

sch ala

PREMAXILLA

STYLOHYAL (STYLOID PROCESS) LONG INTERNAL LATERAL LIGAMENT

ZND ARCM

MANDIBLE SURROUNDIN

BASIHYAL

MECKEL'S CARTILAGE (BLACK)

(BopY oF HYOID Bone)

OCCASIONAL EPIHYAL CARTILAGE OR BONE IN STYLOHYOID LIGAMENT

CERATOHYAL (LESSER CORNU

4TH Arcn

THYROID CARTILAGE OF LARYNX

OF HYOID BONE)

Sao Axcm

THYROHYAL (GREAT CORNU

Ste Arcu

OF HYOID BONE)

FIG. 33.—DIAGRAM SHOWING FATE OF VISCERAL ARCHES IN MAN AND (WITH MODIFICATIONS) IN OTHER MAMMALS Membrane bones are white; cartilage and cartilage bones, black; and cartilage which has degenerated into ligaments is dotted

physis. In the larval stages there are rudiments of four branchial

arches behind the hyoid, but in the adult these are reduced in

the Anura and their ventral ends are united into a broad basilingual plate. In the Reptilia the site of the palato-quadrate bar is sur-

745

coronoid ossifications and in some cases a mento-meckellian as well. The quadrate bone with which it still articulates is becoming included in the wall of the tympanic cavity, and, according to H. Gadow, it is this bone and not the para-quadrate which will become the tympanic of mammals, The hyoid arch is sometimes suppressed in snakes, but in Sphenodon its continuity with the columella or stapes can be demonstrated. The branchial skeleton is reduced with the cessation of branchial respiration and only the ventral parts of two arches can be seen; these unite to form a plate with the hyoid (basikyobranchial) and with this the glottis is closely connected. In birds the morphology of the visceral skeleton is on the reptilian plan, and, although the modifications are numerous, they are not of special interest in elucidating the problems of human morphology. In the Mammalia the fremazxilla, maxilla, palate and pterygoid bones can. be seen in connection with the region where the palatoquadrate cartilage lay in the lower Vertebrata (see fig. 34). The premaxilla bears the incisor teeth, and except in man the suture between it and the maxilla is evident on the face if a young enough animal be looked at. The maxilla bears the rest of the teeth and articulates laterally with the jugal or malar, which in its turn articulates posteriorly with the zygomatic process of the squamosal, so that a zygomatic arch, peculiar to mammals, Is formed. Both the maxilla and palate form the hard palate as in crocodiles, but the pterygoid bone fuses with the sphenoid to form the internal pterygoid plate (see fig. 34, Pt.). The mandible no longer articulates with the quadrate but forms a new articulation, by means of the condyle, with the glenoid cavity of the squamosal, and many modern morphologists hold that the quadrate has become the tympanic bone. In many mammals (e.g., Carnivora) this bone swells out to form the bulla tympani. The derivation of the auditory ossicles has been discussed in the section on embryology as well as in the article Ear. The presence of a, chain of ossicles is peculiar to the Mammalia.

In many of the lower mammals (e.g., Ungulata and Carnivora) the hyoid arch is much more completely ossified than it is in man, tympano-, stylo-, epi-, cerato- and basthyal elements all being bony (see fig. 34). It is of interest to notice that in the hares and rabbits the body of the hyoid has occasionally been found in two pieces, indicating its derivation from the second and third vis{7 PTERYGOID

1 ANTERIOR NARIAL APERTURE

{8 ALISPHENOID

2 MAXILLO-TYRBINAL BONE

{9 SASI-SPHENOIO

3 ETHMO-TURBINAL

4 NASAL

20 PERIOTIC

21 BASI-OCCIPITAL

5 OSSIFIED PORTION OF THE MESETHMOID

22 EX-OCCIPITAL

6 CRIBRIFORM PLATE OF THE ETHMQ-TURBINAL

23 STYLO-HYAL

7 FRONTAL

24 EPI-HYAL

8 PARIETAL

25 CERATO-HYAL

9 INTERPARIETAL

26 THYRO-HYAL

10 SUPRA-OCCIPITAL,

27 BASIHYAL

Il PREMAXILLA

28 SYMPHYSIS OF MANDIBLE

I2 MAXILLA

29 CORONOID PROCESS

{3 VOMER

30 CONDYLE

14 PALATINE

31 INFERIOR DENTAL CANAL

IS PRESPHENOID

32 ANGLE

I6 ORBITO-SPHENOID

FIG.

34.—LONGITUDINAL

AND

VERTICAL

SECTION

OF

THE

SKULL

rounded by the same series of bones that are found in the Amphibia, but in lizards and chelonians a para-quadrate bone is found which, according to E. Gaupp, is the precursor of the tympanic ring of mammals. In the crocodiles the maxilla and palate grow inwards to meet one another and so form a hard palate. The mandible has dentary, splental, angular, surangular, articular and

OF A DOG

(CANIS

FAMILIARIS),

WITH

MANDIBLE

AND

HYOID ARCH

ceral arches. The fourth and fifth arches, which form the thyroid cartilage in mammals, are considered in the article RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W. Flower, Osteology of the Mammalia (1885); S. H. Reynolds, The Vertebrate Skeleton (1897) ; R. Wiedersheim, Com-

parative Anatomy

of Vertebrates

(1907); A. F. Dixon, Manual

of

74.6

SKELTON

Human Osteology (1912); G. Gegenbaur, Vergleich Anat. der Wirbel- |whole of the external surface and even part of the lining of the tiere (Leipzig N. K. Pearson and J. Bell, A Study of the Long | gut. The animal so freed of restraint very rapidly enlarges and Bones of the English Skeleton (1917); A. M. Buchanan, Manual of |then a new cuticle is formed and hardens to form a new skeleton. Anatomy, 4th ed. (1919); J. E. Frazer, Anatomy of the Human Skeleton, 2nd ed. (1920); J. S. Kingsley, The Vertebrate Skeleton (1925) ; !Details of the structure of these skeletons must be sought in the Cunningham’s Manual of Practical Anatomy, 3 vols., 8th ed. rev. A | separate articles. Robinson (1927). (EF. G. P.) An endoskeleton exists in Protozoa, sponges, some Alcyonaria,

THE INVERTEBRATE SKELETON The materials of the skeleton are very variable; it may, as in the case of the Vertebrate notochord, consist of living cells which have acquired rigidity by the accumulation of water under pressure in vacuoles and their cytoplasm, that is, by turgones. More usually it consists of non-living materials laid down by cells

Brachiopoda, Echinodermata, Chordata and Cephalopod molluscs

The protozoan endoskeleton may be protein in nature, or it may

consist of calcium and magnesium carbonates, silica, or even in one case, of strontium sulphate.

It is necessarily intracellular,

being completely covered by the cytoplasm of the single cell of which the animal consists. The sponge skeleton appears always to begin as a series of small rods of some organic material on which spicules of calcium carbonate or of silica are formed. These spicules, in some cases, at any rate, are formed within the bodies of cells, or of fused groups

either within their cytoplasm or outside their surface membrane. In the case of an exoskeleton, the process of skeleton formation begins with the formation on the outer surface of the animal of a thin layer, usually of an organic substance which forms a cuticle, of cells. They arise as isolated structures, and may retain their a structure exactly similar theoretically to a cell wall, but forming independence throughout the life of the animal, or they may fuse a continuous sheet over an epithelium, and resulting from the to form more elaborate structures. Though usually small, they activities of many cells. This cuticle may remain as a thin layer, may become gigantic, several feet in length in the case of the serving to resist the mechanical wear to which the outer surface anchoring spicules of the glass rope sponge and its allies. of all animals is subjected, added to only sufficiently to replace In addition to the spicules, many sponges possess a skeleton of loss by abrasion. But in many cases the cuticle is so much thick- a protein substance, spongin, which extends throughout their subened that it becomes inflexible, and gives a permanent form to the stance but is usually regarded as an exoskeleton. The endoskeleton part of the animal which it surrounds. It may serve, even when of the Alcyonaria consists of spicules which are of intracellular thin, to cement a sedentary animal to its base. The cuticle usually formation that may remain isolated or may be fused into such a consists of a substance which is a protein, though in Tunicates substance as precious coral. The Echinoderm skeleton is of mesothe test, which is, in effect, a much modified cuticle, is of tunicin, dermal origin, and is unique in that each of the elements of which a cellulose. The scleroproteins which compose cuticles vary much it is composed consists of a single crystal of calcite. It is very in their nature, chitin, which is chemically, perhaps, as closely highly developed in most forms, the individual elements articulaallied to cellulose as to the proteins, is the most widespread

and important. The organic basis of the cuticle may serve as a matrix in which mineral salts may be laid down, so as to harden and still further stiffen the exoskeleton. These salts are usually mixtures of phosphates of calcium and magnesium, or calcium carbonate, in the crystalline form of arragonite or calcite. An exoskeleton of this kind is found in certain Protozoa, in Hydomedusae, Gorgonians, and Zoantharia amongst the Coelenterates, in Polyzoa, Brachiopoda, Mollusca, and reaches its highest devel-

ting with one another, often by elaborate joints, and being movable by a highly-developed musculature. (D. M.S. W.)

SKELTON, JOHN (c. 1460-1529), English poet, is variously

asserted to have belonged to a Cumberland family and to have been a native of Diss in Norfolk. He is said to have been educated at Oxford. He certainly studied at Cambridge, and he is probably the “one Scheklton” mentioned by William Cole (ms. Athen. Cantabr.) as taking his M.A. degree in 1484. In 1490 Caxton writes of him, in the preface to The Boke of Eneydos comopment amongst the Arthropoda. pyled by Vyrgyle, in terms which prove that he had already won In Coelenterates, the exoskeleton forms a mere support to the a reputation as a scholar. “But I pray mayster John Skelton,” animal, and is, except in certain Gorgonians, inflexible and con- he says, “late created poete laureate in the unyversite of Oxentinuous. In Brachiopoda and Mollusca, it forms a shell to which forde, to oversee and correct this sayd book . . . for him I know muscles are attached, so that movements of the animal with for suffycyent to expowne and englysshe every dyffyculte that is respect to the shell and of the different parts of the skeleton therein. For he hath late translated the epystlys of Tulle, and the can be brought about. The shells of Brachiopods and Molluscs boke of dyodorus siculus, and diverse other works... in are often beautiful mechanical devices provided with interlockIng teeth which ensure accurate closure, and presenting, in their polysshed and ornate termes craftely ... I suppose he hath drunken of Elycons well.” The laureateship referred to was a ene and special structure, a very great strength for their degree in rhetoric. Skelton received in 1493 the same honour at weight. The exoskeleton of the Arthropods is far more complex, although Cambridge. Skelton found a patron in the pious and learned ‘actually continuous, not only over the whole external surface, countess of Richmond, Henry VII.’s mother, for whom he but into those anterior and posterior portions of the gut which wrote Of Mannes Lyfe the Peregrynacioun, a translation, now lost, of Guillaume de Deguilleville’s Pèlerinage

are lined by ectoderm. It is functionally divided into a series of segments or somites consisting of a ring of hard chitin, often more or less calcified, which are connected together by areas of thinner and flexible chitin, so that they may move on one another. Each segment may bear a pair of appendages, each of which is covered by a chitinous cuticle divided into segments movable on one another, though, like those of the body, connected by flexible rings. The individual sclerites, the hard areas of cuticle, may become hinged to one another by special processes, and are, in all cases, moved by muscles which lie inside them. In such cases as the claw of a lobster, special processes arising from the exoskel eton push their way into the body of the animal in order to give _ favourable points of attachment to muscles. The existence of this exoskeleton, which cannot, when once made, increase in area, and whose existence is necessary for the functioning of the animal, renders continuous growth impossi ble, and has led to the strange process of ecdysis. After a certain period the cuticle cracks along definite lines and the animal crawls out of it, leaving behind the complete structure, retaini ng the

de la vie humaine. An elegy “Of the death of the noble prince Kynge Edwarde the forth,” included in some of the editions of the Mirror for Magistrates, and another (1489) on the death of Henry

Percy, fourth earl of Northumberland,

are among his earliest

poems. In the last decade of the century he was appointed tutor to Prince Henry (afterwards Henry VITI.). He wrote for his

pupil a lost Speculum principis, and Erasmus, in dedicating an ode to the prince in 1500, speaks of Skelton as “unum Britannicarum literarum lumen ac decus.”

In 1498 he was successively

ordained sub-deacon, deacon and priest. He seems to have been

imprisoned in 1502, but no reason is known for his disgrace. Two years later he retired from regular attendance at court to become rector of Diss, a benefice which he retained nominally till his death. Skelton frequently signed himself “regius orator” and poet-laureate, but there is no record of any emoluments paid in connection with these dignities. His parishioners thought him, says Anthony à Wood, more fit for the stage than for the pulpit. He was secretly married to a woman who liyed in his house, he had earned the hatred of the Dominican monks by his and fierce

SKELTON

AND

satire. He was censured by Richard Nix, bishop of the diocese,

BROTTON

747

For though my ryme be ragged,

Tattered and jagged, and appears to have been temporarily suspended. After his death Rudely rayne beaten, a collection of farcical tales, no doubt chiefly, if not entirely, Rusty and moughte eaten, apocryphal, gathered round his name—The Merie Tales of It hath in it some pyth. Skelton. During the rest of the century he figured in the popular Colyn Cloute represents the average country man who gives imagination as an incorrigible practical joker. His sarcastic wit made him some enemies, among them Sir Christopher Garnesche his opinions on the state of the church. There is no more scathing or Garneys, Alexander Barclay, William Lilly and the French indictment of the sins of the clergy before the Reformation. He scholar, Robert Gaguin (c. 1425-1502). Earlier in his career he exposes their greed, their ignorance, the ostentation of the bishops had found a friend and patron in Cardinal Wolsey, and the dedica- and the common practice of simony, but takes care to explain that tion to the cardinal of his Replycacion is couched in the most he writes in defence of, not against, the church. The charge of coarseness regularly brought against Skelton is flattering terms. But in 1522, when Wolsey in his capacity of based chiefly on The Tunnynge of Elynoure Rummynge, a reallegate dissolved convocation at St. Paul’s, Skelton put in circuistic description in the same metre of the drunken women who lation the couplet: gathered at a well-known ale-house kept by Elynour Rummynge Gentle Paul, laie doune thy sweard at Leatherhead, not far from the royal palace of Nonsuch. “‘SkelFor Peter of Westminster hath shaven thy beard. In Colyn Cloute he incidentally attacked Wolsey in a general ton Laureate against the Scottes” is a fierce song of triumph satire on the clergy, but Speke, Parrot and Why come ye nat to celebrating the victory of Flodden. “Jemmy is ded And closed in led, That was theyr owne Kynge,” says the poem; but there Courte? are direct and fierce invectives against the cardinal who was an earlier version written before the news of James IV.’s is said to have more than once imprisoned the author. To avoid death had reached London. This, which is the earliest singly another arrest Skelton took sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. He printed ballad in the language, was entitled A Ballade of the was kindly received by the abbot, John Islip, who continued to Scotiysshe Kynge, and was rescued in 1878 from the wooden protect him until his death on June 21, 15209. covers of a copy of Huon de Bordeaux. “Howe the douty Duke In his Garlande of Laurell Skelton gives a long list of his works, of Albany, lyke a cowarde knight” deals with the campaign of only a few of which are extant. The garland in question was 1523, and contains a panegyric of Henry VII. To this is at- © worked for him in silks, gold and pearls by the ladies of the countached an envoz to Wolsey, but it must surely have been mistess of Surrey at Sheriff Hutton Castle, where he was the guest placed, for both the satires on the cardinal are of earlier date. of the duke of Norfolk. The composition includes complimentary Skelton also wrote three plays, only one of which survives. verses to the various ladies concerned, and a good deal of informaMagnificence is one of the best examples of the morality play. tion about himself. But it is as a satirist that Skelton merits It deals with the same topic as his satires, the evils of ambition; attention. The Bowge of Court is directed against the vices its moral, “how suddenly worldly wealth doth decay,’ being a and dangers of court life. He had already in his Boke of the favourite one with him. Thomas Warton in his History of English Thre Foles drawn on Alexander Barclay’s version of the Nar- Poetry described another piece Nigramansir, printed by Wynkyn renschiff of Sebastian Brant, and this more elaborate and imag- de Worde in 1504, and dealing with simony and the love of inative poem belongs to the same class. Skelton, falling into money in the church; but no copy is known to exist, and some a dream at Harwich, sees a stately ship in the harbour called suspicion has been cast on Warton’s statement. the Bowge of Court, the owner of which is the Dame Saunce Illustration of the hold Skelton had on the public imagination Pere. Her merchandise is Favour; the helmsman Fortune; and is supplied from the stage. A play (1600) called Scogan and the poet, who figures as Drede (modesty), finds on board Favell Skelion, by Richard Hathway and William Rankins, is mentioned (the flatterer), Suspect, Harvy Hafter (the clever thief), Dys- by Henslowe. In Anthony Munday’s Downfall of Robert, earl dayne, Ryotte, Dyssymuler and Subtylte, who all explain them- of Huntingdon, Skelton acts the part of Friar Tuck, and Ben selves in turn, until at last Drede, who finds they are secretly his Jonson in his masque, The Fortunate Isles, introduced “Skogan enemies, is about to save his life by jumping overboard, when he and Skelton in like habits as they lived.” wakes. Both of these poems are written in the seven-lined ChauVery few of Skelton’s productions are dated, and their titles are here cerian stanza, but it is in an irregular metre of his own that his necessarily abbreviated. Wynkyn de Worde printed the Bowge of most characteristic work was accomplished. The Boke of Phyllyp Court twice. Divers Balettys and dyties solacious devysed by Master Sparowe, the lament of Jane Scroop, a schoolgirl in the Benedic- Skelton Laureat, and Skelton Laureate agaynste a comely Coystroune . .. have no date or printer’s name, but are evidently from the press tine convent of Carowe near Norwich, for her dead bird, was no of Richard Pynson, who also printed Replycacion against certain yong doubt inspired by Catullus. It is a poem of some 1,400 lines with scolers, dedicated to Wolsey. The Garlande or Chapelet of Laurel: was many digressions. We learn what a wide reading Jane had in the printed by Richard Faukes (1523); Magnificence, A goodly interlude, romances of Charlemagne, of the Round Table, The Four Sons . .. probably by John Rastell about 1533, reprinted (1821) for the of Aymon and the Trojan cycle. Skelton finds space to give his Roxburghe Club. Hereafter foloweth the Boke of Phyllyp Sparowe was printed by Richard Kele (1550?), Robert Toy, Antony Kitson opinion of Chaucer, Gower and Lydgate. He seems fully to have (1560?), Abraham Veale (1570?), John Walley, John Wyght (1560?). realized Chaucer’s value as a master of the English language. Hereafter foloweth ceriaine bokes compyled by mayster Skelton... Gower’s matter was, he said, “worth gold,” but his English including “Speke, Parrot,” “Ware the Hawke,” “Elynoure Rummynge” antiquated. The verse in which the poem is written, called and others, was printed by Richard Lant (1550?), John King and March (1565?), and John Day (1560). Hereafter foloweth a from its inventor “Skeltonical,” is here turned entirely to whim- Thomas litle boke called Colyn Cloute and Hereafter... why come ye nat sical use. The lines are usually six-syllabled, but vary in length, to Courte? were printed by Richard Kele (1550?) and in numerous and rhyme in groups of two, three, four and even more. It is not subsequent editions. Pithy, plesaunt and profitable workes of maister far removed from the old alliterative English verse, and well fitted Skelton, Poete Laureate. Nowe collected and newly published was to be chanted by the minstrels who had sung the old ballads. For printed in 1568, and reprinted in 1736. A scarce reprint of Eknour

its comic admixture of Latin Skelton had abundant example in

Rummin by Samuel Rand appeared in 1624. See The Poetical Works of John Skelton; with Notes and some

French and Low Latin macaronic verse. He makes frequent use account of the author and his writings, by the Rev. Alexander Dyce (2 of Latin and French words to carry out his exacting system of vols., 1843). A selection of his works was edited by W. H. Williams (London, 1902). See also Zur Charakteristik John Skeltons by Dr. frequently recurring rhymes. This breathless, voluble measure Arthur Koelbing (Stuttgart, 1904); F. Brie, “Skelton Studien” in was in Skelton’s energetic hands an admirable vehicle for in- Englische Studien, vol. 38 (Heilbronn, 1877, etc.); A. Rey, Skelion’s vective, but it easily degenerated into doggerel. By the end of the Satirical Poems ... (Berne, 1899); A. Thümmel, Studien über John 16th century he was a “rude rayling rimer” (Puttenham, Arte of Skelton (Leipzig-Reudnitz, 1903) ; G. Saintsbury, Hist. of Eng. Prosody

(3 vols. 1906-10); and A. Kölbing in the Cambridge History of ` English Literature (vol. ii., 1909). even worse. His own criticism is a Just one:— SKELTON AND BROTTON, an urban district in the 1Pope said: “Skelton’s poems are all low and bad, there is nothing North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 17 m. E. by S. of Middlesin them that is worth reading” (Spence, Anecdotes, p. 87).

English Poesie), and at the hands of Pope* and Warton he fared

SKENE—SKI

748

brough by the L.N.E. railway, with stations at Brotton and N orth Skelton. Pop. (1931) 13,654. Altitude 400 feet. This is one of the largest townships in the Cleveland ironstone district, and its industrial population is wholly employed in the quarries. It is near the Skelton Beck which flows to the sea at Saltburn, 3 m. away. The

Cleveland hills rise sharply southward to elevations sometimes exceeding 1,000 feet. The modern Skelton castle incorporates part of a r2th century stronghold. Ruins remain of an ancient church, and a fine Norman font is preserved.

SKENE,

WILLIAM

FORBES

(1809-1892),

Scottish

historian and antiquary, was the second son of Sir Walter Scott’s

friend, James Skene (1775-1864), of Rubislaw, near Aberdeen.

In 1832 he became a writer to the signet, and shortly afterwards obtained an official appointment in the bill department of the Court of Session, which he held until 1865. His early interest in the history and antiquities of the Scottish Highlands bore its first fruit in 1837, when he published The Highlanders of Scotland, their Origin, History and Antiquities. His chief work, however, is his Celtic Scotland, a History of Ancient Alban (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1876-1880), perhaps the most important contribu-

tion to Scottish history written during the roth century. In 1881 he became historiographer royal for Scotland. burgh on Aug. 29, 1892.

He died in Edin-

The most important of Skene’s other works are: editions of John _ of Fordun’s Chronica gentis Scotorum (Edinburgh, 1871—1872); of the Four Ancient Books of Wales (Edinburgh, 1868); of the Chronicles of the Picts and Scots (Edinburgh, 1867); and of Adamuan’s Vita S. Columbae (Edinburgh, 1874); an Essay on the Coronation Stone of Scone (Edinburgh, 1869); and Memorials of the Family of Skene of Skene (Aberdeen, 1887).

SKI (shé or ské), the wooden snow-shoe used in Scandinavia and neighbouring countries for travel over the snow. (Icel, scidk, snow-shoe, properly “piece of wood.”) Implements for this purpose were used by many nations of antiquity, Xenophon

(Anab. iv. 5) describes the shoes or pattens of skins with which the horses of the Armenians were shod, to prevent them from sinking into the snow, and Procopius made mention of the ancient Lapps, known in Scandinavia as “Skrid-Finnen,” or sliders, Snow-shoes have always been used by the Mongols of north-western Asia. From the evidence of the old Norse sagas they must have been general in Scandinavia long before the Christian era. Ulf (or Ullar), the god of winter, is always spoken of as walking upon ski, the curved toes of which gave rise to the legend that they were really ships upon which the god was wafted

over hill and dale. Northern poets of the oth century refer to

ships as “the ski of the sea.” Ski have been used time out of mind by Lapps, Finns and Scandinavians for hunting and journeying across the frozen country. The first ski of which there is any record were elongated, curved frames covered with leather. Those of the Skrid-Finnen of the 16th century were leather shoes, pointed at the toe, about 3ft. long, into which, a few

inches from the rear end, the feet were thrust up to the ankles. On a rune-stone standing at a cross-road not very far from Upsala there is a picture of a ski-runner with arm-bow; this is probably the oldest picture of a skier. It dates from the rrth century, Modern ski are not, like the North American snow-shoe, made of broad frames covered with a thong web, but Jong, narrow, nearly flat pieces of ash, oak, beech, birch, spruce or hickory, pointed, turned up about a foot at the toe. Their length is usually the distance the wearer can reach upwards with his hand, that for the average man being about 7ft. 6in., although some advocate less length. Their width at the broadest part is about sin., and their greatest thickness (just under the foot) about Iġin., tapering towards both ends. The under surface is usually perfectly smooth, although some ski have slight grooves to prevent the snow caking. They are kept in condition by oiling and waxing; parafin wax is used to produce a very highly polished surface,

called the binding. There are a very large number of bindings of various

types,

the

commonest

among

novice runners Is the

kuitfeld, and the most popular with more experienced skiers the B.B. This is a metal binding without any straps, relying entirely on a hook and eye arrangement at the toe of the boot. The boots are stoutly made of deer hide and for use with the heel-strap bindings have specially shaped heels with a groove which holds the strap in place. On level ground the ski glide evenly over the snow without being lifted from it, the heels being raised with each

forward movement: long gliding steps can be taken without undue fatigue, the runner having a stick about 4ft. or 5ft. long in each hand, to assist progression; these sticks have a spiked end, about 7in. above which a metal disk is fixed to prevent the stick sinking into the snow. Downhill progression attains great velocity; the skier places one foot slightly in advance of the other and runs in a somewhat crouched position with the feet close together and body leaning forward. A single staff was formerly used as a brake in coasting downhill, but the popularity of two sticks used chiefly for assistance in uphill work, but also for balance on the descent, is now almost universal. Ski-ing as a sport began about 1860 in the Norwegian district of Telemark and rapidly spread over all the Scandinavian peninsula: The climax of the racing season is the great international ski tournament held annually in February at Holmenkollen, 6m. from Oslo. This famous contest was first held in the year 1892, Swedish skiers being present: a few weeks later the first international ski races were organized in Stockholm. The “Norwegian Derby” is divided into two parts, the first devoted to jumping contests, the other to long-distance racing. The take-off for the jumping contests is built into the side of a hill, and each competitor must jump three times. No staff is allowed and no jump is counted if the jumper falls in alighting. The distances covered are extraordinary, 58-50 metres being the record. The jumper, starting a distance up the hill, descends at top speed, stoops as he nears the take-off, and Jaunches himself into the air with all his force. He maintains an erect position until he reaches the ground,

alighting with bended knees, on both feet, one a little in advance

of the other and “giving” with his legs to overcome the force of the fall and to preserve his balance. Another feature is double jumping, performed by two persons hand in hand.

The highest

prize is the King’s Cup. The principal distance race is over a difficult course of about 20 miles. The record for 25km. (154 miles) is 2hr., 7 minutes, A Lapp once covered 220km. (about 138 miles)

in azhr. 22 min., the country being level. Ski-ing is very popular in Norway with both men and women; in fact it may be called the national sport of Norway. The sport bas been introduced Into other countries where the winter is severe, and has become

very popular in Switzerland and the United States, especially in Minnesota and the Rocky Mountain country. The mails be-

tween Chile and the Argentine republic are carried in winter by relays of Norwegian ski-runners, about 300 being employed. The ski worn by them are usually shod with horn. Ski cannot be used with advantage during a thaw or where the snow is less than 6in. deep. On this account, and because of their general unwieldiness, they are less convenient in thick forests than the Indian snow-shoe, though faster in the open country, Great Britain,—In Great Britain the use of the ski has been encouraged by the activities of several ski clubs, The Ski Club of Great Britain, founded in 1903, was for years recognized as the governing body for the sport. In 1908 the Alpine Ski Club was started, and membership confined to those who qualified for election by tours on ski in the High Alps. This club was founded entirely for the mountaineer who climbed on ski. In 1912 the British Ski Association was formed; this body had aims very similar to those of the Ski Club of Great Britain and in 1924 the two clubs amalgamated and jointly became known as the Ski Club of Great Britain, and as such is the governing body for the sport in the British Isles. According to Arnold Lunn in a “History of

which greatly increases the speed of the runner. Long strips of sealskin are sometimes attached to the under side of the ski, to prevent back-sliding, and assist the climber to make a more direct ascent. Without the use of skins one must climb in a zig- Ski-ing” in the Vear-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain (1925), ski were used in Cumberland in the Igth century and probably zag course or place the ski alternately, in a herring-bone pattern. The ski are fitted to the feet by an arrangement of straps,

in Devonshire 300 years ago.

Germany.—Ski-ing in Germany was almost unheard of until

SKI

749

Wilhelm Paulke was given a pair of ski for a present, about the year 1883. Paulke afterwards became the pioneer of ski-ing in his

party of 25 men. In Russia some troops from Finland in full marching order made a long hunting march in Carelia. In 29 days country, and together with two Norwegians who ascended The they covered 860 kilometres. In Switzerland a skieur took less Brocken in 1884 was responsible for the foundation of the sport than r3hr. to cover 25km., including altitudes of 1,547 metres. In in Germany. In 1890 the first German ski club was formed; it order to witness this competition, which took place in Glarus, the was called the “Ski Club Munich.” The first ski competitions were soldiers from the St. Gotthard garrison made a march of 48km. held in Germany in 1896, including the ascent of the Klausenpass (2,000 metres). A NorSwitzetland.—In 1883 the monks of St. Bernard were pre- wegian soldier named Holte covered with one leap a distance of sented by a traveller with a pair of ski, and six years later the 21-20 metres, and his companion Heyderdahl later achieved 24 friars had become skiers indeed, for the monastery owned about metres. a dozen pairs of ski, and races were held. This seems the earliest In Italy each company of Alpini has an annual credit for the record of ski-ing in Switzerland, but the sport seems to have provision of ski. Their duties in war time are almost the same as really gained ground after the year 1889 when a Norwegian, O. those of mounted infantry—exploration and communication, and Kjelsberg, made some ascents on ski. The first Swiss ski club the seizure of advanced positions. In the seven months of snow was formed in the year 1893 and was called “The Ski Club Glarus” on these frontiers the garrisons of the lonely posts cannot go out —and in 1902 the first ski races were held at Berne. This was save on ski or snow-shoes, as to the respective merits of which not a championship meeting, however, and it was not until the military opinion is divided. year 1905 that the first Swiss championship meeting was held at See T. W. Schreiner, Norway’s National Sport; Outing, vol. xxxvii.; F. Nansen, Auf Schneeschuhen durch Grönland, (Hamburg, 1891); Glarus. E. C. Richardson, Skz-running (1904); Year-Book of the Ski Club France.—Ski-ing in France dates from the great exhibition of of Great Britain; W. R. Rickmers, Ski-ing for Beginners and Moun1878 in Paris. Swedish ski were a feature of one of the exhibits, taineers (1910); E. C. Richardson, The Ski-Runner (1910); Vivian and were afterwards the property of M. Duhamel, who attempted Caulfield, How to Ski (1911); Canadian Ski Annual Conc to use them without any conspicuous success. In the year 1893, The United States.—Ski-ing has become the major winter outsome ski-runners appeared in the Bois de Boulogne; their efforts were not very enlightening and the French people were derisive. door recreation along the snow belt of Canada and the United However, three years later the first French ski club was formed States. Though the best all around development of the sport is with headquarters at Grenoble, and was called the Ski Club des in Canada, since about 1920 the United States, especially northern Alpes,-and French ski-ing really became popular at Chamonix New England, has shown a phenomenal increase in clubs, tournaments and the actual numbers of people who are using ski. One in 1898. Canada.—Canada’s natural resources made it an ideal country merchant in a New England town of 8,000 population sold 1,200 for ski-ing, and in the Laurentians it has become one of the most pair of ski in one season. In practically all the snow sections of popular winter pastimes. The early pioneers were members of the United States the tendency of ski-ing towards becoming an the universities who, fresh from a tour in Europe, had seen ski- outstanding national sport is evident. Popular interest in ski-ing takes the form of tours, or “hikes” running and jumping at Davos; and students at McGill university as they are termed in the United States. These tours consist of were soon practising on the narrow Scandinavian type of racing ski. The famous Revelstoke hill is the world’s fastest “jumping club or group ski trips over charted or uncharted trails ranging from trips over hills and meadows to more adventurous expedihill”; it was on this that Nels Nelson jumped 2ocft. Australia and New Zealand.—The largest ski resort in Aus- tions up mountains and over mountain ranges. Ski clubs maintain cabins and huts on trails marked out over the White mountralia is Mt. Kosciusko in New South Wales; here there is an tains, Green mountains and the Rockies. excellent hotel well equipped for the ski enthusiasts who foreSki proficiency tests are maintained by which a high standard gather for the meetings organized by the Mt. Kosciusko Ski Club. of ski proficiency on tours and in contests may be secured. A In New Zealand the popularity of ski-ing as a sport has yet to few clubs engage the services of ski instructors. One of the outbecome established, although the mobile value of the ski has been standing clubs in the United States for the promotion of general demonstrated in no uncertain way on the Tasman Glacier. Military Ski-ing.—Ski have been used for military purposes ski training for all around ability in touring is the Lake Placid Club, in New York. by the northern peoples for several centuries, and of late years The United States have helped to make ski-ing history in the other nations which have mountainous regions of snow have development of the most sensational type of ski sport—ski jumpturned their attention to this most useful mode of winter march- ing. Torjus Hemmestvelt, one of the first of the world’s recording. The army of Sweden (under Gustavus Adolphus and his suc- breaking jumpers, came to Red Wing, Minn., in 1893 and jumped cessors one of the foremost in Europe) employed infantry pro- 103 ft. on this pioneer United States hill. This established a vided with ski in its military operations. In Norway special units world’s record. Since then the record-jumping distances have adso provided were organized in 1710. Since 1902 the Alpine in- vanced steadily. In the United States, due to the size of the fantry of France and Italy have taken up the question. In Brian- country, two major competitions are held, the National Tournacon, attached to the 159th regiment of French infantry, is an ment fostered by the U.S. Amateur Ski Association, and the East-

école militaire de ski (established 1903) which trains the Chas-

seurs Alpins of the first line, and also the regional troops which are intended to take part in the defence of the south-eastern frontier of France, These regiments as a rule furnish one officer, one non-commissioned officer, and a few soldiers each to every course of instruction, which lasts two months. At the end of the frst month the skieur is expected in full marching order to cover 6okm. (374 miles) of Alpine territory in the day. The ski are put to a variety of ingenious uses; to form a stretcher-sledge for wounded men; and if rapidity of movement is desired, a horse or pony pulls the skieur along by means of long reins attached to. the horse’s girth. Even camps in the mountains are improvised. The

skieur is thickly clothed and muffled, and his eyes are protected against snow-blindness by blue or black spectacles. Some of the performances of soldiers on ski have been notable. Capt. Bernard, chief of the école of Briancon, ascended the cols of Arsiné

(2,400 metres) and of the Cauterel (2,080 metres) in 16hr. with a

ern Tournament, conducted under the auspices of the Eastern United States Ski Association. In addition to these competitions a great number of lesser but important tournaments that attract thousands of people are conducted. Each snow season produces a great number of State, interstate, collegiate, interscholastic and inter-club ski-jumping competitions. Listed among the world’s greatest jumping hills, where jumps of over 150 ft. can be made, is Brattleboro, Vt., with a record of r90 feet. There are other hills in development where jumps of over 150 ft. will be made. Cross-country ski racing has been conducted as a separate race. Its distances have lacked standardization. They have ranged from 5 to 25 miles. The ski clubs are tending to follow the plan of the Continental clubs and have the cross-country race combined with the ski jumping, the highest point winner in both

events winning the competition. This plan will give the cross-

country race a greater interest and importance, which it deserves. Ski racing down a long or short hill, either in what is called

SKIBBEREEN—SKIN

750

the down-hill or the shalom, has only recently been taken up in the United States. The lack of accessible mountains near most of the ski clubs or tournament grounds makes the Alpine style of long down-hill race almost impossible. But the shorter shalom race down a hill around artificial obstacles is rapidly becoming a feature of the competitions. The U.S. clubs look to the shalom race to develop a greater number of experts in all around ski-ing. The United States and Canada affiliate their amateur ski interests through a close association of the national organizations, the Canadian Amateur Ski Association, the National Ski Association of America and the Eastern United States Ski Association. These, in turn, are affiliated with the British Ski Association and exchange courtesies, information and competitive co-operation. See The Ski Sport, year-book of the National Ski Association of America, Inc.; Elon

es

SKIBBEREEN,

Jessup,

one

Snow and Ice Sports (1923).

(F. K. B.)

a market town of Co. Cork, Ireland, on

the river Ilen about 3 m. from its estuary, 532 m. S.W. of Cork by the Great Southern railway. Pop. (1926) 2,620. The river is navigable for small vessels to Skibbereen itself, and for larger ones to Old Court on the estuary; and the town is a flourishing fishing-station. Trade is in corn and other agricultural produce. The district suffered much in the famine of 1847, and many were buried in the graveyard adjoining the ruined Cistercian cell of Abbeystrowry, a mile west of the town. The Ilen offers fishing, late in the season, for brown and sea trout. SKTEN, a seaport of southern N orway, in Bratsberg amt (county), on the river Skien, 6 m. above Frier Fjord. Pop. (1927) 15,950. It was mostly rebuilt after a fire in 1886. Here Henrik Ibsen, the dramatist, was born in 1828. In 1892 a canal ascending 189 ft. by means of 17 locks was made between lakes Bandak and Nord, giving access to the Telemark district by way of Dalen. The distance between the lakes is 40 m., and several fine falls, as the Ulefos, Eidsfos, and Vrangfos, are passed. The engineering is noteworthy. There are numerous saw-mills, planing, cotton-spinning and flour-mills, factories for wood-pulp and domestic commodities. The exports are ice, timber (including telegraph poles), wood-pulp and iron ore, and the imports coal and china-clay. The town (the ancient Skida) dates from the 14th century.

sense comprises two sensations. One of these, which is sharply localized in time and place and is in its essence delicate and exact,

is touch in the strict technical sense. Its characteristic stimulus is movement at the surface of the skin. The other sensation js pressure; it is in its essence less precise and although well localized in place, is temporally indefinite so that the subject of it finds it impossible to decide by the sensation alone when a pressure stimulus has ceased. The characteristic stimulus of this sensation is simple static pressure.

True touch is probably the most elaborate product of evolution

among the skin senses. It is interesting to notice that the essential neurological fact behind the tactile sense—that mere mechanical movement can be transmuted by the body into sensation—is also

the fact on which the not more useful but far more imposing sense of hearing is based. Thetmal Sense.—Thermal sensations do not depend directly

on the absolute temperature of the object that causes them but on its temperature relative to that of the skin. In other words the characteristic stimulus of the thermal sense is the interchange of heat between the stimulating object and the body. Sensations of warmth and heat are caused by heat passing into the skin, and sensations of coolness and cold by heat passing out of it. The intensity of the sensation varies with the rapidity of heat transference and therefore not only with the temperature difference but also with the conductivity for heat of the object. A good conductor therefore feels hotter or colder as the casé may be than a bad conductor at the same temperature. Most of our thermal sensations come to us by conduction through things actually touching the skin, including of course the air. The thermal sense is then usually, like the tactile sense, a short range process involving contact. Thermal sensations can however also be set up by radiated heat. Such radiation probably acts by warming the skin from which heat is then conducted in the ordinary way to the thermal nerve endings. It is conceivable however that these nerve endings are capable of direct response

to the radiation. If this were so it would show the skin to possess the rudiment of a true long range sense, and perhaps a rudiment that by adaptation to higher frequencies of radiation has given us sight—the greatest of all the senses. SKILLUH, the name given by the Arabized Moors to the Pain.—The pain sense does not show the same simple and Berber peoples of southern Morocco. They occupy chiefly the orderly relation between stimulus and sensation that is found with province of Sus. The name is said to be a corruption of dshlih the tactile and thermal senses. Sensations of pain are set up by a (pl. éshiéh), a camel-hair tent. They are of fine physique , strong heterogeneous group of stimuli which do not permit of any inand wiry, and true Berbers in features and fairness. clusive general physical or physiological description. It is of SKIMMER, the name of aquatic birds of the genus Rhyncourse obvious that any process that actually damages the chops, remarkable for the unique formation of the skin bill, in which is likely to cause pain at the moment of infliction though even the upper mandible is capable of vertical movement, while the this, as we shall see, is not an invariable rule. lower is much longer and is laterally compressed like Many stimuli a knife-blade. however, though at intensities giving clear sensation of pain, do This is adapted to its mode of feeding. By means of its lower hot cause any perceptible injury—such for example are brisk heat mandible the bird may be said literally “to plough the main.” and cold and the faradic current. The anomal The black skimmer, R. nigra, is found in North ous relation of stimuAmerica. Other lus and sensation to the Possibility of injury is well seen in conspecies occur in South America, India and Africa. The sexes are nection with radiant stimuli. Heat rays easily excite pain when alike. In breeding-habits the skimmers agree with the terns too weak to cause injury as is shown (g.v.) to which they are related. in the sensitiveness of the ocular cornea to the radiation of a dull red fire. On the other SKIN, SENSORY FUNCTIONS OF. It is the functi hand on of the far more injurious ultra-violet and X-rays excite our senses to keep us in relation with our no sensasurroundings and to tion whatever even at the moment enable us to move with impunity about when they may be seriously a world full of hard damaging the skin. In general angular and dangerous objects. In this task however it may be said that most the senses of the of the stimuli capable of causing skin take an important and characteristic pain are such that if they were part. position between what we may call the intima They occupy a of but little increased intensity they would actually cause injury. te senses of taste From this it follows that the characteristic pain stimulus is of and smell on the one hand and the distant senses of sight and considerable energy—far greater hearing on the other. In the former group in fact than that of the tactile the stimulating sub- or thermal stimulus—and that stance has to be brought into very close the pain sense in comparison with contact with the body all others is a dull sense and the mechanism of stimulation is probab or has, in physiological terms, a high ly chemical; in the threshold. latter group the stimulating agent may act from great distances. However insensitive the mechanism may be, the sensat Unlike both these the skin gives us news ion itself chiefly it has nothing to tell us of the intimate chemic of nearby events; has a peculiarly vivid and explosive quality and differs from all al nature of objects other sensations in arousi and very little directly of distant things. ng in the subject of it a strong impulse to make some kind of motor response. The The external events which by acting on barely controllable the skin arouse sensa- flinching with which we suffer the mildest of pin-pricks is familiar tion are found to be for the most part the simple and obvious evidence of this unique physical processes, mechanical and therma character of the pain sensation. l. In comparison with Touch.—The feeling of contact or touch in the non-technical anomalous. Its anoma other senses, pain then is seen to be highly lies have been the subject of much theo-

SKIN

AND

EXOSKELETON

retical discussion from which however no generally accepted doctrine has yet emerged. Distribution of Sensibility.—It has long been known that the whole of a given area of skin is not equally sensitive. If its surface is explored with stimuli sufficiently fine, it is found that in some places no response is obtained to any stimulus and that sensitiveness is limited to certain small areas mostly less than a

millimeter across. These spots are distinct for each kind of stimulus and respond to it only, so that there are separate spots for touch, heat, cold and pain. The sensitiveness of a given region depends on whether the distribution of sensitive spots is thick or thin. As a general rule density of distribution varies together for all four senses so that a part sensitive to one stimulus is sensitive to all. To this however there are important exceptions. The skin of the face and the skin of the finger tip are both highly sensitive to touch but the latter is much the less sensitive to pain. A far more striking anomaly however is that certain regions—the cornea of the eye and a part of the glans penis—possess sensibility to pain only. It is difficult to give a functional explanation of this curious fact but it is interesting to note that these two regions have this in common that their embryological development includes a longitudinal splitting of the skin into two layers. The Peripheral Sensory Mechanisms.—The sensory nerve fibres of the skin terminate in certain well-marked and minute structures called end-organs which are regarded as having the power to originate under appropriate stimulation the nerve-impulse which yields the characteristic sensation. These end-organs show a great variety of structure, but they are clearly divisible into two groups. First there is a group in which the end-organ consists of a mere breaking up of the nerve fibre into many fine naked branches among the cells of the part; this “terminal aborisation” is the end-organ of the pain nerve. Secondly there is a group the members of which though varying much have this in common-— that the end of the nerve fibre is enclosed in a definite and often thick capsular structure. These end-organs are concerned with the sensations other than pain. This marked structural difference between the encapsuled or insulated and the naked or uninsulated end-organs is yet another peculiar character of the pain sense. Into the intimate nature of the process whereby a stimulus to an end-organ causes an impulse in the nerve fibre we cannot as yet penetrate. The less exacting problem of what is the precise quality of the stimulus is as we have seen still unsolved for the pain sense. For the thermal and tactile senses the stimulus can be reduced to the simple physical processes of heat transference and movement respectively. In the case of touch we can even define in some detail the mechanisms by which very light touches are enabled to produce the movements which are essential to adequate stimulation of the touch-spots. Each touch-spot is found to be placed close to a hair and the latter can be seen to move when the touch-spot is pressed on and sensation aroused. It is probable that the rigid root of the hair acts as a lever which magnifies the movement set up by the actual touch. The adequacy of the mechanism is shown by the experimentally established fact that the touch-spots of a rather coarse hairy skin are slightly more sensitive than those of a fine smooth skin. When the projecting part of a hair itself is gently touched a vague tickling sensation is felt quite unlike the clear light “pat” elicited by proper stimulation of a touch-spot. The hair is too flexible to transmit the whole movement intact to the end-organ and a sub-minimal stimulus results. This sensation of “tickle” is comparable with the sensation of itching which is

probably the result of sub-minimal stimulation of pain nerves. It seems likely that the great reduction in hairiness shown by man’s skin in comparison with that of other animals was favoured by the precision it gave to touch through the elimination of tickling sensations. The hair bulb is then the ordinary means by which movement is transmitted to-tactile end-organs. Where the skin is hairless however, as it is in some of its most sensitive parts, other mechanisms are necessary. The simplest substitute is to keep the sur-

face layers of the skin flexible by reducing the amount of horny

t

oa

material in them and to keep them moist. This is the condition of the red surface of the lips which is highly sensitive to touch but at the expense of a high degree of vulnerability. No such solution of the problem is possible in the fingers which must be kept sensitive and yet allowed a thick and horny protective covering. There the thick horny layer is grown on long closely parallel ridges with grooves between: the grooves are lines of diminished rigidity and permit the thick epidermis to remain highly flexible and therefore sensitive to touch. These ridges and grooves that by their individual uniqueness and constancy have proved so gratifying to the criminologist, are thus seen to have another and perhaps a higher function in serving the great sense of touch. Bibliographical Note.—The sensory functions of the skin are not usually dealt with very fully in text-books of physiology. An

elaborate account of the subject (with references to the work of other investigators) will be found in Sir Henry Head’s “Studies in Neurology”—1920. A recent important contribution by Sir E. Sharpey-Schafer appears in the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology—August 1928.

SKIN AND EXOSKELETON, in anatomy. The skin is

the covering of the whole body, and is continuous at the different orifices with the mucous membrane. It acts as a protective layer, as a regulator of the temperature, as an excretory organ and as a tactile and sensory organ in which nerves end. The skin varies in thickness from -smm. in the eyelids to 4 or more mm. in the palms and soles; it is also very thick over the back of the body. Two main layers are recognized, superficially the epidermis and more deeply the dermis or true skin. The epidermis under the microscope is seen to consist of five layers. On the sur-

face is the horny layer or stratum corneum (see fig. 1) composed of layers of scale-like cells, the walls of which are turned into the horny substance keratin. Deep to this is a thin layer of scale-like

cells without keratin known as the stratum lucidum. Deeper still is a layer, the stratum granulosum, in which the cells are not so

STRATUM CORNEUM

* *

a, A

a

a

att

ye

t:

nA

Alexnae

ai

i

STRATUM GERMINATIVUM m

NERVOUS PAPILLA OF CORIUM

RN E

yeaa A

FROM CUNNINGHAM, “TEXT-BOOK OF ANATOMY" (OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS) FIG. 1—VERTICAL SECTION OF EPIDERMIS AND PAPILLAE OF

CORIUM

flattened and contain granules of a substance known as eleidin. In the fourth layer, stratum mucosum or stratum Malpighii, the cells are polygonal and are connected together by delicate pricklelike processes. It is in thé deeper layers of these cells that the

pigment of the negro’s skin is found. The fifth and deepest layer

of the epidermis is the stratum germinativum, in which there is only one layer of columnar cells. The whole of the epidermis is non-vascular. The true skin, dermis or corium is composed of a felted network of white fibrous tissue with a small number of yellow elastic fibres interspersed. It is divided into two layers.

SKIN AND

754

EXOSKELETON

The hair follicle always projects somewhat obliquely into the The superficial or papillary layer lies next to the epidermis and is raised into a number of papillae or conical projections which fit skin, and attached to the side toward which it is leaning is a small into corresponding depressions on the deep surface of the epi- band of non-striated muscular fibres called arrector pili. When dermis. In sensitive parts like the palms and soles these papillae this acts it diminishes the obliquity of the hair and so makes it are specially prominent and form wavy lines, each of which con- “bristle” or “stand on end,” while a general contraction of these sists of a double row between which the ducts of the sweat glands small muscles leads to the familiar condition of “gooseflesh.” Nails.—The nails are specially thickened parts of the epiderpass on their way to the surface. So large are the papillae in these mis, and are divided into a root and a body. The former is concealed by a fold of skin, and the corium on which it lies is known

as the nail matrix. The body of the nail also lies on the corium, or true skin, which forms the mail bed and is very sensitive. DUCT OF SWEAT GLAND

EPIDERMIS

HAIR PAPILLAE OF CORIUM

SEBAC EOUS GLANDS

esr 48oe7

aha Air

a Sah

Tay

IG ai ator oa hi teria

5

ak

PS FE

Scns Ne

NG

mG

FSN

ES

og seers eS

a

i

aS

Glands.—Sebaceous glands are found wherever there are hairs,

however rudimentary, and open by their ducts into the superficial part of the hair follicle (see fig. 2). Their deeper or secreting part divides into a number of bag-like alveoli composed of

ERECTOR MUSCLE OF HAIR

HAIR FOLLICLE

T

RN

n

(Paks

ae LY

Š

g e

fy)

a

D

This

body of the nail is formed by the stratum germinativum and stratum mucosum in its deeper part, and more superficially by the stratum lucidum, which is here very much thickened and converted into keratin or horn. Near the root of each nail is a semilunar area which is more opaque than the rest and forms the white lunula. j

SUBCUTANEOUS FATTY TISSUE

AA

GLOMERULUS OF SWEAT GLAND

cells, which secrete oil droplets. There may be two or three glands to each hair follicle, and their size does not vary directly with that of the hair, since they are very large in the nose, where the hairs are quite rudimentary. They are also found on the labia minora and nipples, where no hairs are. Sudoriparous or

sweat glands (see fig. 2) are found all over the surface of the body, PAPILLA OF HAIR

OBLIQUE SECTION ‘THROUGH A

PACINIAN CORPUSCLE

FROM CUNNINGHAM, “TEXT-BOOK OF ANATOMY" (OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS) FIG. 2.—VERTICAL SECTION OF THE SKIN

situations that the epidermis is also raised into ridges, and these in the fingers form the characteristic whorls so valuable for purposes of identification. The papillae contain leashes of blood-vessels, and in some of them are special tactile corpuscles in which the nerves end (see NERVOUS SYSTEM). In the deeper or reticular layer of the true skin the fibrous feltwork is looser and encloses pellets of fat. It also contains a network of blood-vessels and nerves, and in some places a layer of striped or unstriped muscle. Where hairs are present the hair follicles lie in this deeper layer, which gradually merges with the

subcutaneous fatty tissue (see fig. 2). As appendages of the skin are found the hairs, the nails and the sebaceous and sweat glands. Hair.—The hairs are found in man on the scalp, eyelids, eyebrows, armpits, pubic region, vestibule of the nose, external auditory meatus, face, ventral surface of the trunk and dorsal surfaces of the leg, forearm and hand; indeed the only places which are quite free from them are the palms of the hands, soles of the feet and the glans penis. In some places, such as the armpits, pubic region and the face of the male they grow to a considerable length at and after puberty. In section it is only the straight hairs

which are circular; wavy and curly hairs are oval. In the centre of each hair is the medulla or pith, though this is not always present; it is composed of nucleated cells containing pigment, fat and air spaces. Outside this is the fibrous layer or cortex, also containing pigment and air spaces, while most superficially is the cuticle made up of overlapping scales. The hair grows at its root from a hair follicle (see fig. 2), which is a tubular inpushing of the epidermis into the true skin or, in the case of large hairs,

deeper still into the superficial fascia. It is divided into an inner

but are specially numerous on the palms and soles. It is estimated that in the palm there are nearly 3,000 to a square inch, while in the skin of the back they do not reach soo to the same arca. In the armpits and groins they are very large. Each consists of a single long tube, lined by columnar epithelium, and coiled up into a ball or glomerulus in the subcutaneous tissue, after which it pierces the corium and epidermis to reach the surface at the porus sudoriferus. Where the stratum corneum of the epidermis is thick the duct is twisted like a corkscrew as it goes through. The glands of Moll in the eyelids and the ceruminous or wax glands of the ear are modified sweat glands; the former, when inflamed, cause a “sty.” EMBRYOLOGY The skin is derived partly from the ectoderm and partly from the mesoderm of the embryo. The whole of the epidermis and Its appendages are ectodermal, and in the early embryo consist of a single layer of cells; later on this becomes double, and the superficial layer, after the sixth month, is cast off and mixes with the secretion of the large sebaceous glands to form the soapy vernix caseosa with which the foetus is coated at birth. In the meantime the cells of the deeper layer divide and form the various layers of the epidermis already enumerated. The mesodermal cells belong to the mesenchyme, and form the fibrous tissue of the true skin as well as the arrectores pilorum muscles and, in the scrotum, the dartos layers of unstriped muscle. In the sixth month

fatty tissue appears in the deeper parts, and so the fat of the superficial fascia or sub-cutaneous tissue is formed. The nails are said to appear as thickenings of the epidermis at about the ninth week, quite at the tips of the digits. Later on they shift to the

dorsal side, and in doing so carry the nerves in the nail bed with them. This is the only explanation available of the fact that the ventral nerves to the tips of the fingers encroach on the dorsal area. By about the twelfth week the nails are perfectly formed, but they do not reach the level of the finger tips until the eighth month. The hairs are developed in the third month of foetal life

by, ingrowths of the stratum mucosum of the epidermis into the

corium. During the fourth and fifth months the body becomes covered by fine unpigmented hairs which are known as lanugo; layers of the epidermis, the latter the deeper layers. At the bot- these begin to disappear about the eighth month, but some remain tom of the follicle the hair enlarges to form the bulb, and into until after birth. On the scalp, however, the hair at birth is often the lower part of this a vascular papilla projects from the true more deeply pigmented than that which succeeds it. The sebaskin. The cells of the hair are derived from, and are continuous ceous and sweat glands, like the hair follicles, are ingrowths of at the bulb with those of the outer root sheath, and therefore the stratum mucosum of the epidermis into the corium. The forwith the deeper layers of the epidermis. mer become very large in the later months of embryonic life, and outer root sheath, the former representing the more superficial

SKIN

AND

EXOSKELETON

and secrete a large part of the above-mentioned vernix caseosa., The development of the mammary gland from modified sebaceous glands has already been referred to (see MAMMARY GLAND). For further details see J. P. M‘Murrich, Development of the

Human Body (London, 1923); J. C. Heisler, Text-book of Em-

A

1908).

(London, 1907); Quain’s Anatomy, vol. i. (London, COMPARATIVE

ANATOMY

In the larval (gastrula) stage of the Amphioxus (lancelet) cilia are present on the surface, and in the superficial epidermal cells of some fishes and amphibian larvae there is a striated layer on the free edge which is looked upon as a relic of ancestral cilia. Skin Glands.—The skin glands of the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) and fishes are generally unicellular and secrete slime which protects the surface of the body. Some of the teleostean fish have poison glands at the bases of their dorsal fins and opercula.

a

In the mud fish (Dipnoi) and amphibians multicellular spherical glands appear as involutions of the ectoderm. Sometimes, as in the so-called parotids of the toad, these form large masses. Reptiles and birds are singularly wanting in skin glands, though the latter have a large uropygial gland at the root of the tail which secretes oil to lubricate the feathers; it is the chief constituent of the “‘parson’s nose” of the fowl. In mammals, except the Cetacea, the sebaceous and sudoriparous glands already described in man are found; some of the former sometimes attain a large size, as in the interdigital gland of the sheep, Miiller’s gland at the back of the pig’s knee and the suborbital gland of ruminants. In addition to these, special scent-producing glands are often found in different parts, the most remarkable of which, perhaps, are the scent glands beneath the tail of the skunk, while in male monotremes there is a special poison gland in the leg which is connected with a spur in the foot.

Pigment.—Pigment cells are present both in the dermis and

epidermis of fishes and amphibians, and the pigment may be either intra- or extra-cellular. In many cases it is under the control of the nervous system, so that forms like the flat-fish and the common frog can adapt their colouration to that of their background. In animals permanently excluded from the light, pigment is absent. In reptiles movable pigment cells are often found, as in the chameleon, while in birds the pigment is sometimes of great brilliancy in the necks and wattles. In mammals, as in man, the pigment is confined to the cells of the stratum mucosum layer of the epidermis. Scales.—In the elasmobranch fishes scales are found composed of enamel superficially, and of dentine and bone deeply. They are developed from the epidermis and dermis, and in almost every way resemble the teeth of these animals, which are only modifications of them. The bony basal part of each scale is plate-like, hence this kind of scale is known as placoid. In the ganoid fishes, such as the sturgeon, much larger plaques called ganoid scales form a complete armature. In the teleostean fishes the scales overlap like tiles and are either cycloid, having a smooth border, or ctenoid, in which the free posterior border is serrated. Existing amphibians are usually remarkable for absence of any skin armour, though in fossil forms (Stegocephala) it was very complete. The reptilian class is specially noticeable for the production of epidermal scales, which undergo many modifications. In the Ophidia they are cast off periodically in one mass as the snake’s slough, while in the Chelonia they form the different varieties of tortoiseshell. Bony structures, developed in the dermis, may underlie these epidermal horny thickenings, and are very strongly developed in the dorsal and ventral bony shields of the Chelonia (carapace and plastron), which secondarily fuse with the true endoskeleton. The armadillo is the only mammal which has a true bony exoskeleton. Feathers,—Birds are remarkable for the possession of feathers, which are highly modified scales. The embryonic or down feathers are simple, and consist of a brush of hair-like barbs springing from, a basal quill or calamus. From. the whole length of each barb a series of smaller barbules comes off like branches of a shrub. The adult or contour feathers are formed at the bottom of the same

793

follicles which lodge the down feathers and, by their growth, push these out. At first they are nothing more than enlarged down feathers, but soon one of the barbs grows enormously, and forms a main shaft or rachis to which the other barbs are attached on either side. From the sides of the barbs grow the barbules, just as in the down feathers, and these, in the case of the large wing feathers (remiges) and tail feathers (rectrices), are connected by minute hooks so that the feather vane, as opposed to the shaft, has a more resistant texture than it has in the feathers of the back or breast. The bird’s moult is comparable to the casting of the scales in the reptiles. Hairs.—Hairs are only found in the mammalian class, and are divided into the long tactile bristles or vibrissae and the smaller hairs which maintain the warmth of the body. In some animals the hair of the body is composed of long, stiff hairs, which are probably specialized for protective purposes, and short, soft hairs, which form the fur and keep in the warmth. Sometimes these long hairs are greatly enlarged and hardened to form protective spines as in the porcupine, hedgehog, spiny mouse and spiny ant-eater (Echidna).

Horns.—Horns are of three kinds: (z) antlers, (2) hollow horns and (3) hairy horns of the rhinoceros. Antlers are growths of true bone and, except for their very vascular covering of skin (velvet), are not exoskeletal structures. They grow with great rapidity, and in the deer family are renewed each year, As soon as their growth is finished the skin covering dries up and strips off. The small horns of giraffes are also bony structures though permanent. The hollow horns of the ruminants (Bovidae) are cases of hardened epidermis which fit over a bony core and are permanent. They are found in both sexes, and in this differ from the antlers of the deer, which, except in the reindeer, are confined to the male. In the prongbuck (Antilocapra) the hollow horns are shed periodically. The hairy horns of the rhinoceros are a mass of hairs cemented together by cells, The hairs grow from dermal papillae, but differ from true hairs in not being sunk into hair follicles.

Claws and Hoofs.—These are modifications of nails, but whereas in nails and claws the structures are confined to the dor-

sal aspect of the digits, in hoofs they spread to the plantar surface as well. It has been shown in the embryological section of this article that the nail appears at the very tip of the digit, and in this position it remains in many amphibians, e.g. giant salamander, while in hoofed mammals it develops both ventrally and dorsally. In the Felidae the claws are retractile, but the real movement occurs between the middle and terminal phalanges of the digits.

Spurs.—Spurs are quite distinct from nails and claws; they are

very common in birds as horny epidermal sheaths covering bony outgrowths of the radial side of the carpus, metacarpus or metatarsus. The spur-winged goose has a carpal spur; in the screamers (Palamedea and Chauna) the spur or spurs are metacarpal, while in many gallinaceous birds (e.g. common fowls and pheasants) metatarsal spurs are found. In the mammals the male monotremes (Echidna and Ornithorhynchus) have spurs attached to an extra

(? sesamoid) bone in the hind leg, perforated for the duct of the already mentioned poison gland. Beaks.—-Certain fishes belonging to the family Mormyridae

have ‘a fleshy prolongation of the lower lip, and are hence termed beaked fishes.. In the Amphibia Siren and the tadpoles of most Anura (frogs and toads) have small horny beaks. In the Reptilia horny beaks are found in the Chelonia while in birds beaks are constant and replace the teeth in modern species. In mammals a horny beak is found in Ornithorhynchus, though it coexists with true teeth in the young and with horny pads in adult specimens. In all these cases the beaks are formed from cornified epidermal scales,

Baleen,—The baleen which is found in the mouths of the Balaenidae or whalebone whales is a series of flattened triangular horny plates arranged on either side of the palate. The inner edges and, apices of these are frayed out into long fibres which act as strainers. In Balaena mysticetus, the Greenland whale, there are nearly four hundred of these plates, the longest of which often

754

SKIN DISEASES

rhinoceros exceed ten feet. In its development baleen resembles

fibres horn in that it consists of a number of epidermal hair-like

not cemented together and growing from dermal papillae, though

f from true hair follicles. ComFor further details and literature see R. Windersheim, parative Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (Cam(London, 1907); S. H. Reynolds, The Vertebrate Skeleton P.) G. (F. bridge, 1897).

dilated capillaries, and horny thickenings which may become malignant, has been shown to be due to the sun’s rays.

This is

met with on the unprotected parts, namely the arms, hands and face, of people long exposed to the sun, in countries where its rays are intense, such as India, South Africa, Australia, etc.; 1t 1s now

designated as chronic solar dermatitis, and corresponds closely to

a chronic burn from the X-rays. In Australia the ears of sheep sometimes develop cancer as the result of exposure to the sun’s

: ally rays on the plains. SKIN DISEASES. The diseases of the skin do not essenti Microbial Action.—The réle of micro-organisms and parasites of the other organs of the body. But skin has

differ from those

certain differences from other organs, some dependent on its structure and some on its exposed position. There are no depths to be attacked, and any diseases, if they spread, must do so superficially; spreading as they often do equally in all directions, the diseases of the skin have a tendency to assume a circular form, independently of any parasitic cause,: though when such cause 1s present the patches are of a more perfectly circular shape. Further, from the extent of its superficial area and its exposed posltion, the skin is liable to be attacked by more forms of irritation, parasitic or other, than any other organ of the body. Classification.—The classification of skin diseases, at first based on naked-eye appearances, and, later, on the underlying pathological changes, is becoming simplified by the adoption of an etiological basis, and, as our knowledge of their causation becomes more complete, such an ideal becomes possible, and is being atternpted in the more recent text-books. At the present time, however, the cause of certain skin diseases remains obscure, but, as the gaps in our knowledge become gradually filled in, the

in causing skin disease is highly important. Bacteria (see BacTERIOLOGY) have been shown to be the cause, not only of the common forms of septic impetigo, but of a variety of scaly affections, previously regarded as forms of eczema, which are now included under the heading of Dermo-épidermites microbiennes. Ultra-microscopic organisms, capable of passing through a Berkefeld filter, which have become prominent lately in connection with

cancer (see CANCER; Fitter-Passinc Viruses), would seem to

be responsible for the small epidermal growths, known as Mollus-

cum contagiosum, and it is more than probable that similar organisms will be found to be the cause of other types of benign and malignant epithelial growths. In the Tropics, the so-called Calabar swellings have been found to be of filarial origin, and the Oriental sore to be due to a parasite of the trypanosome family. Focal Infection.—Focal infection, in the sense of protein poisoning from bacteria in some crypt or tissue, or in the alimentary tract, has of late years been advanced as a possible cause of Lupus erythematosus, circumscribed patches of eczema, and group of the unclassified affections becomes correspondingly other erythematous conditions, and the improvement in them which sometimes follows the injection of an autogenous vaccine diminished. Of the new forms of skin disease which have been recognized bas been taken as evidence of an etiological connection. Nervous System.—Although certain affections of the skin, in recent years, the most numerous have been those occurring in tropical countries, and of them a considerable number are due to such as Herpes zoster, or shingles, have been proved to be of fungi, and constitute the group of the tropical dermato-mycoses. nervous origin, the trend of recent research has gone to show that In Great Britain the cutaneous lesions associated with diseases the influence of the nervous system as a cause of cutaneous disease of the blood have been the subject of careful study, especially has been overrated, and that a number of affections, which were those which occur in connection with the leukaemias and vaguely attributed to reflex nervous disturbances, are either of toxic origin, or due to imperfect action of a ductless gland, or to lymphadenoma. Ringworm.—It is now established that the disease, popularly some disordered state of the blood. Anaphylaxis.—The doctrine of anaphylaxis (qg.v.) has conknown as ringworm, is due to a number of mould-fungi, which vary in different climates and countries, like other members of the tributed to our knowledge of certain cutaneous phenomena, and vegetable kingdom, and have a wide distribution in the animal has explained the liability to recur of a dermatitis due to local kingdom, occasionally even in birds, from which they are capable irritation, or to the presence in the blood of some foreign protein. Therapeutics.—Recent advances in treatment have been reof being transmitted readily to man. Certain resistant forms of dermatitis, affecting various parts of the body, but more especially markable. Internal treatment has become based more on general the groins and the extremities, which may closely resemble medical principles and on the discovery and correction of some eczema, are not variants of that protean disease, but the result underlying disturbance in an organ or system than on so-called of the presence in the skin of certain ringworm fungi. This type specific medication. That sheet-anchor of the earlier physicians— of ringworm has increased since the World War, as it was common arsenic—has lost its position as a panacea for chronic skin affecamong the troops, especially those who went through the Gallipoli tions, and any value it may have in the treatment of psoriasis, campaign, or served in the East, and was brought home and pemphigus, etc. is being regarded more as the result of its value spread by them. as a nerve tonic than as a specific drug. It has attained, however, Eczema.—Eczema, the commonest of skin affections, is no a new importance in its organic preparations, in the treatment of longer regarded as a disease due to a single cause, but as a form syphilis (see VENEREAL DISEASE). of cutaneous reaction, due to a variety of irritants, acting either Organo-therapy.—The increase in our knowledge of the ductlocally, from without, or circulating in the blood, possibly in an less glands (see ENpocriNoLocy) has added organo-therapy to individual predisposed by some lowered resistance. In the group our methods of treatment, and thyroid medication has proved to of the eczemas it is customary now to include the various Forms be of benefit in various skin affections in childhood, associated with of occupational dermatitis. These are attracting. attention, as retarded development, and especially in mild ichthyosis, in which they are responsible for considerable disablement. The list of eczematous changes are so liable to be superimposed. irritants, chemical and physical, which may cause them, is conVaccine Therapy.—The value of vaccines (see VACCINE tinually being extended, and the problem of their prevention is THERAPY) in the treatment of skin diseases has been overrated, receiving the close attention of the Public Health Authorities and their use in the past was too promiscuous. They are of most (see INDUSTRIAL WELFARE). value in acute suppurating lesions of staphylococcic origin, such Actinic Action.—The actinic rays of light have been shown to as recent boils. The development in local treatment has been be an important factor in causing inflammation of the skin: For even more striking than that from internal medication. years it has been known that they are responsible for the peculiar Refrigeration; Diathermy.—Refrigeration, with carbon eruption of the face and hands which recurs in summer in individ- dioxide as the freezing agent, is a useful means of destroying uals sensitive to light (Hydroa cestivale), and for the more serious vascular naevi, moles, warts, superficial rodent ulcers, and of freckled affection which goes on to cutaneous cancer (Xeroderma ameliorating Lupus erythematosus of the fixed type. Diathermy pigmentosum). It is only recently, however, that the peculiar has proved of great value in inoperable cases of rodent ulcer, and dry, atrophic, freckled condition of the skin, dotted over Sih for cauterisation of malignant growths in the mouth or naso-

SKINNER—SKOBELEV pharynx (see ELECTRO-THERAPY).

Radiotherapy.—The greatest advances in late years, how-

ever, have taken place in connection with radiotherapeutics (see RONTGENOLOGY). The newer methods of X-ray dosage, made possible by the use of the Coolidge tube, have increased the usefulness of the X-rays as a means of healing chronic ulcers, relieving local irritations, reducing epidermal thickening and causing the defluvium of the hair for the cure of ringworm of the scalp. Radium has proved to be of special service in the treatment of rodent ulcers and hypertrophic scars (see RaptumM THERAPY). The value of the actinic rays of light, when applied locally, in the treatment of tuberculosis of the skin, and in healing chronic ulcers, has been greatly enhanced by its use over the whole cutaneous surface, in the form of actinic ray baths, which have been found to improve the general health by stimulating metabolism and increasing the bactericidal power of the blood. See HELIOTHERAPY. BrBLioGRAPHY.—J. M. H. MacLeod, Diseases of the Skin (London 1920 bibl.) ; J. H. Sequeira, Diseases of the Skin, 4th ed. (1927) ; Norman Walker, Introduction to Dermatology, 8th ed. (1925); O. S. Ormsby, Practical Treatise on Diseases of the Skin (3rd ed. Philadelphia, 1927, bibl.) ; H. W. Stelwagon, Treatise on Diseases of the Skin (oth ed. Philadelphia, 1921, bibl.). (J. M. H. MacL.)

SKINNER,

JAMES

(1778-1841), British soldier, born in

India, son of Lieut.-Colonel Hercules Skinner and a Rajput lady, entered the Mahratta army under de Boigne and remained in the same service under Perron until 1803, when, on the outbreak of the Mahratta War, he refused to serve against his countrymen. He joined Lord Lake, and raised a regiment of ir-

regular horse called “Skinner’s Horse” or the ‘Yellow Boys,” which became the most famous regiment of light cavalry in the India of that day. He died at Hansi on Dec. 4, 1841. See J. Baillie Fraser, Military Memoir Skinner (1851).

of Lieut.-Colonel James

SKINNER’S CASE, the name usually given to the celebrated dispute between the House of Lords and the House of Commons over the question of the original jurisdiction of the former house in civil suits. In 1668 a London merchant named Thomas Skinner presented a petition to Charles II. asserting that he could not obtain any redress against the East India company, which, he asserted, had injured his property. The case was referred to the House of Lords, and Skinner obtained a verdict for £5,000. The company complained to the House of Commons which declared that the proceedings in the other House were illegal. The Lords defended their action, and after two conferences between the Houses had produced no result the Commons ordered Skinner to be put in prison on a charge of breach of privilege; to this the Lords replied by fining and imprisoning Sir Samuel Barnardiston, the chairman of the company. Then for about a year the dispute slumbered, but it was renewed in 1669, when Charles II. advised the two Houses to stop all'proceedings and to erase all mention of the case from their records. This was done and since this time the House of Lords has tacitly abandoned all claim to original jurisdiction in civil suits.

755

Skippon his major-general, a post which carried with it the command of the foot and the duty of arranging the line of battle. At the end of 1644 Essex’s desertion at Lostwithiel left Skippon in command; compelled to surrender without firing a shot, he bore himself with calmness and fortitude in this adversity. Soon after the second battle of Newbury he became major-general of the New Model Army. In this capacity he supported Fairfax as loyally as he supported Essex, and at Naseby refused to quit the field. He only reappeared at the siege of Oxford, which he directed. Under the Commonwealth he held office, military and civil, but ceased to influence passing events. He was a member of Cromwell’s House of Lords, and was universally respected and beloved. He died in March 1660. Skippon was a deeply religious man, and wrote several books of devotion for the use of soldiers. See Vicars, English Worthies

(1647).

SKIPTON, an urban district in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 26 m. N.W. of Leeds, via the L.M.S., and Leeds and Liverpool canal. Pop. (1931) 12,434. It is situated in the hilly district of the upper valley of the Aire where it is joined by the Eller Beck from the north. It is the nodal town of the Craven Gaps, the lowest ways through the Pennines from Trent to Tyne, and so has become an important route centre, and the principal market town of Craven. During the middle ages, the Craven Gaps were the chief routes through the Pennines along which the Angles, and later the Danes, moved westwards, and Skipton was the capital of Craven. At the Norman conquest, it became part of the possessions of Earl Edwin and was granted to Robert de Romille, who built the castle in the 11th century. It was taken by the parliamentary forces in 1645 and was partly demolished in 1648, but was later restored; all that remains of the ancient Norman buildings is the west doorway of the inner castle. In the castle grounds are the remains of the chapel of St. John. The church of the Holy Trinity, mainly Perpendicular, was also partly destroyed during the Civil War, but has been restored. The grammar school was founded in 1548. There are woollen and cotton factories in the town, and a large limestone quarry near by. (M. K. M.)

SKIRRET,

known botanically as Sium Sisarum

(family

Umbelliferae), a fleshy-rooted perennial, the roots of which are boiled, and afterwards served up like salsify. SKOBELEV, MIKHAIL DIMITRIEVICH (1843-1882), Russian general, was born near Moscow on Sept. 29, 1843. After graduating as a staff officer at St. Petersburg he was sent to Turkestan in 1868 and, with the exception of an interval of two years, during which he was on the staff of the grand duke Michael in the Caucasus, remained in Central Asia until 1877. He commanded the advanced guard of General Lomakine’s column from Kinderly Bay, in the Caspian, to join General Verefkin, from Orenburg, in the expedition to Khiva in 1874, and, after great suffering on the desert march, took a prominent part in the capture of the Khivan capital. Dressed as a Turkoman, he intrepidly explored in a hostile country the route from Khiva to Igdy, and also the old bed of the Oxus. In 1875 he was given a command See Lord Holles, The Grand Question concerning the Judicature of in the expedition against Khokand under General Kaufmann. the House of Peers (1689); L. O. Pike, Constitutional History of the For his great services he was promoted to be major-general and House of Lords (1894) ; and H. Hallam, Constitutional History, vol. appointed the first governor of Fergana. In the Turkish War of iii. (1885). 1877 he seized the bridge over the Sereth at Barborchi in April, and in June crossed the Danube with the 8th corps. He comSKINS: see Hives. SKIPPON, PHILIP (d. 1660), English soldier, was born at manded the Caucasian Cossack Brigade in the attack of the West Lexham, Norfolk. At an early age he adopted the military Green Hills at the second battle of Plevna. He captured Lovtcha profession and in 1622 served with Sir Horace Vere in the Pala- on Sept. 3, and distinguished himself again in the desperate fighttinate. He took part in most of the battles and sieges of the ing on the Green Hills in the third battle of Plevna. In command time in the Low Countries. At the sieges of Breda in 1625 and of the 16th Division, he took part in the investment of Plevna 1637 he was wounded, and under his old commander, Lord Vere, and also in the fight of Dec. 9, when Osman Pasha surrendered, he was present when Bois-le-Duc (’s Hertogenbosch) and Mae- with his army. In January 1878 he crossed the Balkans in a stricht were attacked in 1629. A veteran of considerable ex- severe snowstorm, defeating the Turks at Senova, near Schipka, perience, Skippon returned to England in 1639, and was ap- and capturing 36,000 men and go guns. Dressed in white uniform pointed to a command in the (Honourable) Artillery Company. and mounted on a white horse, and always in the thickest of the In January 1642 Skippon was made commander of the City fray, he was known and adored by his soldiers as the “White troops. He was not present at Edgehill, but he cheered his raw General.” He returned to Turkestan after the war, and in 1880 militiamen at Turnham Green, in the face of the king’s victorious and 1881 further distinguished himself in retrieving the disasters army. Essex, the Lord General of the Parliament forces, made inflicted by the Tekke Turkomans, captured Geok-Tepe, and,

756

SKOPLJE—SKRAM

5,444, including 1,465 women. Of these 703 men and 160 women after much slaughter, reduced the Akhal-Tekke country to submutilated themselves. Repressive measures proving useless, had mission. He was advancing on Askabad and Kalat i-Nadiri when ul attempt was made to kill the sect by ridicule: unsuccessf an at command the given was he was disavowed and recalled. He dressed up in women’s clothes and paraded with were Skoptsi y in Minsk. In the last years of his short life he engaged activel caps on through the villages. In 1876 130 Skoptsi were politics, and made speeches in Paris and in Moscow in the begin- fools’ in a batch to transportation. To escape prosecution sentenced a g ning of 1882 in favour of a militant Panslavism, predictin sect have emigrated, generally to Rumania, where the of desperate strife between Teuton and Slav. He was at once re- some as Lipovans. Of late years, there is said to be known are they on hotel, Moscow a at called to St. Petersburg. He was staying many Skoptsi to consider their creed fulfilled among tendency a his way from Minsk to his estate close by, when he died suddenly merely. living chaste by 1882. 7, of heart disease on July eu, The Empire of the

SKOPLJE, the capital of southern Serbia, Yugoslavia (Turk-

ish Usküb). It lies on a fertile plain, with the Vardar running through it, and is completely encircled by a Turkish cemetery. Pop. (1921) 41,066, comprising Serbs, Albanians, Turks, Bulgars and a few gipsies. The agricultural production of the district includes maize, oats and barley, and silkworm culture is extensively carried on. There is an important opium market and Skoplje is the distributing centre for a very large area. At the outbreak of the World War (1914-18) it possessed a steam flour mill, a brewery, distilleries, tanneries, braid, soap, horseshoe and

Bretrocrapuy.—See

Anatole

Leroy-Beauli

Tsars (Eng. trans., 1896), vol. iii.; E. Pelikan, Geschichtlch-medizin-

ische Untersuchungen iiber das Skopzentum in Russland (Giessen, 1876) ; K. K. Grass, Die geheime heilige Schrift der Skopzen (Leipzig, 1904) and Die russischen Sekten (Leipzig, 1907, etc.).

SKOULOUDIS, STEPHEN (1836-1928), Greek statesman,

a Chiot, was born an Ottoman subject, in Constantinople in 1836.

He founded the Banque de Constantinople, and after retiring from business lived in Athens and became a Hellenic subject. He was several times elected member of the Greek chamber (1879 and 1892-1906). He was appointed minister in Spain in 1883, and minister of marine in the Trikoupis cabinet of 1892. As minister for foreign affairs in the Ralli cabinet of 1897, his knowledge of the Turks enabled him to exert his influence on the terms of peace after the war of 1897. He then resigned office, and retired

sugar factories, and was the centre of the silver filigree industry. The principal buildings are the citadel, the palace of the former Turkish governor,a Roman aqueduct,many churches and mosques, a School of Agriculture, an electric power station, an Institute of Tropical Diseases, two banks, several schools, including into private life until 1912, when Venizelos obtained his appointone for girls, and a university. The second urban Serbian school ment on the delegation to meet the Turks in London. In Nov. in Macedonia was opened here in 1830, and the first Macedonian 1915 he became prime minister, in succession to Zaimis. Soon newspaper published here in 1908. It is the seat of a Greek Ortho- after his appointment he announced his policy of benevolent dox bishop, a Roman Catholic and a Bulgarian bishop. Skoplje is neutrality. The confidence of the Allies was, however, shaken by

the headquarters of one of the five Army provinces, and is strate-

his reported intention, at the instigation of German ministers, to disarm Serbian troops who were being forced into Greek territory the Balkans, severgl main arteries of communication, and four by the German and Bulgarian advance, and the commercial railways, converging upon it. Antimony, saltpetre, and veins of blockade of Greece by the Allies (Nov. 18) was followed by an pure magnesite are found in the district and there is said to be ultimatum which Skouloudis accepted, After six months’ conmuch gold at Kara Dagh to the north. tinued effort to satisfy both sides in the world conflict, Skouloudis The name is derived from Scupi, an ancient town whose ruins resigned on June 19, 1916, shortly after the evacuation of Fort lie near by, and which was destroyed by an earthquake in 518, and Rupel by the Greek garrison. A charge of treasonable correrebuilt by Justinian. In the 13th century Skoplje was taken by spondence was afterward brought against him, but was not proved, King Milutin of Serbia and made his capital, and his successor, He died on Aug. 20, 1928. Stephen Dushan was crowned here in 1346, and here composed SKOWHEGAN, the shire-town of Somerset county, Maine, his famous Code. U,S.A., on the Kennebec river, 40 m. N. of Augusta. It is on SKOPTSI, a secret religious sect of Russia. It is an off- Federal highways 2 and 201, and is served by the Maine Central shoot of the sect known as the “People of God” or Khlysti (see railroad, Pop, (1930) 6,433. The town has an area of 50 square Russia: Religion). It was in 1771 in the government of Orel that miles, Water-power is abundant, and there is a large hydrothe Skoptsi were first discovered by the authorities. A peasant, electric plant. The town manufactures woollens, worsteds, worsted Andrei Ivanov, was convicted of having persuaded thirteen other yarns, shoes and various other commodities. Skowhegan was gically the most important point in Macedonia, and perhaps in

peasants to castrate themselves. His assistant was another peasant, known as Selivanov. A legal investigation followed. Ivanov was knouted and sent to Siberia: Selivanov fled, but was arrested in 1775. Skoptsism, however, increased, and Selivanov escaped from Siberia and proclaimed himself the Son of God incarnate in the person of Peter III. Peter had been popular among the

Raskoluiki (schismatics, or dissidents) because he granted them

liberty of conscience, and among the peasants because when pillaging the convents he divided their lands among the labourers.

Selivanov claimed the title “God of Gods and King of Kings,” and announced his accomplishment of the salvation of believers through a self-inflicted mutilation. For eighteen years he lived in

St. Petersburg, in the house of one of his disciples, receiving double homage as Christ and tsar. In 1797 he was rearrested by order of Paul I. and imprisoned in a madhouse. Under Alexander I. Selivanov regained his liberty, but in 1820 was again shut up,

this time in a monastery at Sùzdal, where he died in 1832 in his hundredth year. Skoptsism was, however, not exterminated, and grave scandals constantly arose. The most remarkable feature of this extraordinary sect has always been the type of people who

joined it.

Nobles, military and naval officers, civil servants,

priests and merchants were to be found in its ranks, and so rapidly did the numbers increase that 515 men and 2490 women’ were transported to Siberia between 1847 and 1866 without seri-

ously threatening its existence. In 1872 many trials of Skoptsi took place all over Russia. In 1874 the sect numbered at least

settled about 1770. It became a separate town in 1823, under the name of Milburn, and in 1836 adopted the old Indian name of the locality, said to mean a “spearing” or “watching” place,

SKRAM, PEDER (c. 1500-1581), Danish senator and naval hero, born between 1491 and 1503, at his father’s estate at Urup

near Horsens in Jutland,

He first saw service in the Swedish

war of Christian II. at the battle of Brannkyrka, 1518, and at the battle of Uppsala two years later he saved the life of the Danish standard-bearer.

an estate in Norway.

For his services he was rewarded with

During “Grevens Fejde,” or “the Count’s

War,” Skram was sent by the Danish government to assist Gus-

tavus Vasa, then in alliance with Christian IIT. against the partisans of Christian TI., to organize the untried Swedish fleet; and Skram seems, for the point is still obscure, to have shared the chief command with the Swedish Admiral Mans Some. Skram greatly hampered the movements of the Hanseatic fleets’ who fought on the side of Christian II., captured a whole Liibeck squadron off Svendborg, and prevented the revictualling of Copenhagen by Lübeck, But the incurable suspicion of Gustavus I.

minimized the successes of the allied fleets throughout 1535. Skram’s services were richly rewarded by Christian III. As a senator he contributed to the victory of the Danish party over

the German in the councils of Christian ITI. In x555, feeling too infirm to go to sea, he resigned his post of admiral; but when the Scandinavian Seven Years’ War broke out seven years later, the new king, Frederick II., offered Skram the chief command.

SKRZYNECKI—SKULL He put to sea in August 1562, and compelled the Swedish admiral, after a successful engagement off the coast of Gotland, to take refuge behind the Skerries. He was superseded at the end of the year by Herluf Trolle. Skram was twice (1565-1568) unsuccessfully besieged by the Swedes in bis castle of Laholm, which he and his wife defended with great intrepidity. Skram died at Urup on July 11, 1581. Skram’s audacity won for him the nickname of “Denmark’s

dare-devil,” and he contributed perhaps more than any other

Dane of his day to destroy the Hanseatic dominion of the Baltic. His humanity was equally remarkable; he often imperilled his life by preventing his crews from plundering. See Axel Larsen, Dansk-Norske Heliehistorier (Copenhagen, 1893).

SKRZYNECKI, JAN ZYGMUNT (1787-1860), Polish general, organised the Polish army at the revolution of 1830. After his defeat by Diebitsch at Ostrolenka he had to resign his command. He took refuge at Cracow, where he died. SKRZYNSKI, ALEXANDER, Count (1882), Polish statesman, was born at Zagorzany, Galicia. Educated at Cracow and Munich, he entered the diplomatic service in 1906 and was appointed secretary to the ambassador to the Holy See

in 1910. When the World War broke out he was secretary to the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador in Paris. After a short military service at the beginning of the War, he completed his studies for the Bar, receiving the degree of Doctor of the Law at the University of Vienna. When the new Polish State was established, he was appointed Polish Minister Plenipotentiary at Bucharest, and later succeeded in concluding a Polish-Rumanian political treaty in 1921. In Dec. 1922, after the murder of Narutowicz, the first international President of the Republic, Skrzynski became Minister of Foreign Affairs. He threw himself energetically into the task of settling all open questions, inaugurated a pacific policy based on the final stabilisation of frontiers and gained the necessary confidence of the Powers. When a Cabinet of the Right was formed in May 1923, Skrzynski thereby lost office, and he was appointed in the following month Polish delegate to the League of Nations. In Aug. 1924 he again became Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Grabski Cabinet. By a number of conventions, the regulation of the British and American debts, the concordat with the Vatican, the rapprochement with Czechoslovakia, Skrzynski strengthened Poland’s international position, taking an active part in the League of Nations in elaborating the scheme for the Geneva Protocol and in securing settlement of the Danzig disputes in a manner favourable to Poland. He tried to disarm the suspicions of Moscow as

to the new configuration of Europe by receiving Chicherin at Warsaw (Sept. 1924). In the negotiations in connection with the German proposals with regard to the Locarno Pact (1925), Skrzynski sought to reconcile Polish interests with the general scheme of the conference, and signed an arbitration agreement with Germany and also a convention with France in accordance therewith. After the fall of Grabski’s Government Nov. 13, 1925, Skrzynski was entrusted with the formation of a government by Wojciechowski, the President of the Republic, and with the participation of the Socialists formed a coalition cabinet in which he himself was Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs.

In May 1926, however, the Socialists seceded from the Cabinet on account of the refusal of their financial proposals, which involved inflation. After the Pilsudski coup d’état of that month Skrzynski remained in retirement. See also POLAND.

SKUA, sea-birds forming the genus Stercorarius of the Lari-

dae (see GULL). Except during the breeding season, when they obtain their own food, the skuas live almost exclusively by preying upon gulls, which they compel to disgorge what they have caught. For this purpose they are swift of flight, powerfully armed and endowed with great courage. The largest species, equalling a herring gull (Larus argentatus) in size, is S. skua, the great skua or bonxie. The plumage is dark brown above, lighter beneath, with a patch of white at the base of the primaries. It breeds in the Faeroes, Shetlands, and Iceland, laying its two dark

137

mont hen, from the Pacific, closely resembles it. Maccormick’s skua (S. maccormicki) breeds on the Antarctic continent, where it plunders the penguin colonies. The Arttic or Richardson’s skua (S. crepidatus) is interesting as showing great variety in the colour of the underside from dark to white, with a thin dark collar. In the Arctic, skuas nest only in years when food is plentiful. The skuas have a remarkable injury-feigning performance to lure intruders from the nest. If this does not succeed, they swoop at the intruder’s head. Some species may strike severe blows. American ornithologists assign three of the skuas, which they call jaegers, to the genus Stercorarius: the pomarine jaeger (S. pomarinus), the parasitic jaeger (S. parasiticus), and the long-tailed jaeger (S. longicaudus).

SKULL, the skeleton of the head, composed of 22 bones, 8 of which form the skeleton of the cranium, 14 that of the face. Except the lower jaw, which is movable, the bones are united by immovable joints. In the following article the skull is considered as a whole, and for this purpose a normal European skull is studied from in front, from above, from the side, from behind and from below. Afterwards the interior is considered by means of sections. MENTAL The Skull from in Front PROMINENCE (see fig. 1).—The forehead reFIG. 1.—SKULL, FULL FACED gion is formed by the frontal bone, the two halves of which usually unite in the second year. The lower limit of the forehead is formed by the upper margin of the orbit on each side, and by the articulation between the frontal and nasal bones near the mid line. At the junction of the inner and middle third of each supra-orbital margin is the supra-orbital notch for the nerve of that name. Above each supra-orbital margin is an elevation, better marked in adult males, called the supra-ciliary ridge, while between these ridges in the middle line there is a slight prominence, the glabella. Below the forehead the two nasal bones form the skeleton of the upper part of the nose; they articulate with one another in the mid line, but laterally they are joined by a suture to the nasal processes of the maxillae which run up to articulate with the frontal at the internal orbital process, thus forming the inner margin of the orbit. Externally the malar bones articulate with the frontal at the external orbital process and form the lower and outer quadrant of the orbital margin. The maxillae or upper jaws form the greater part of the skeleton of the face; they complete the lower and inner quadrant of the orbit, and below the nasal bones leave the anterior nasal aperture between them, and project slightly at the middle of the lower border of this aperture to form the anterior nasal spine. About a quarter of an inch below the infra-orbital margin and just below the articulation with the malar the infra-orbital foramen, for the infra-orbital branch of the fifth nerve, is seen on each side. The lower parts of the maxillae form the alveolar margin in which all the upper teeth are set. Laterally each maxilla is prolonged out into the zygomatic process, which supports the malar bone. Below the maxillae the mandible or lower jaw is seen in perspective. The horizontal part or body is in two halves up to the second year, but after that complete bony union takes place, forming the symphysis. Above the body of the mandible is an alveolar margin containing the sockets of the lower teeth, while below, near the mid line, the bone projects forward to a variable extent

and so forms the mental prominence, one of the special characteristics of a human skull. Below the second bicuspid tooth on each side is the mental foramen for the exit of the mental branch of the fifth nerve. The Orbit—Each orbit is a pyramidal cavity, the base of the pyramid being in front and the apex behind, at the optic foramen,

olive éggs in a nest in the heather. Out of the breeding season it where the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery pass through. The occurs all over the north Atlantic. S. antarcticus, the Port Eg- four sides of the pyramid form the roof, floor, inner and outer

SKULL

758

walls of the orbit. The roof and floor are arched from side to side, the inner wall is antero-posterior and parallel with its fellow

of the opposite orbit; the outer wall slopes backward and inward, the two opposite sides therefore converge as they run back. Seven bones enter into the composition of the orbit, viz. the frontal, sphenoid, maxilla, malar, lacrymal, ethnoid and palate. Between the roof and the outer wall, behind, is a slit in the sphenozdal fisPARIETAL

CORONAL SUTURE SQUAMOUS-TEMPORAL

SQUAMOUS SUTURE

FRONTAL BONE EXTERNAL MEATUS

ALI-SPHENOID TYMPANIC NASAL

LAMEDOIDAL

SUTURE Os PLANUM OF ETHMOID

SUPRA-OCCIPITAL LACHRYMAL

‘Ol AL MASTOID-TEMPOR

SUPERIOR MAXILLA

MALAR

"MANDIBLE

STYLOID-TEMPORAL

BASI-HYAL

CERATO-HYAL

THYRO-HYAL

FIG.

2.—PROFILE

OF

THE

SKULL

sure which transmits the third, fourth, first division of the fifth and sixth cranial nerves and the ophthalmic vein. Another slit (spheno-maxillary fissure) lies in the line of junction of the outer wall and floor, it leads into the spheno-maxillary and zygomatic fossae and transmits the second division of the fifth nerve and some veins. The Skull from Above.—When looked at from above the frontal bone is seen forming the anterior part of the vertex and articulating with the two parietals posteriorly by a nearly transverse serrated suture (coronal suture). Running back from the middle of this is the median sagittal suture extending as far as the lambda behmd. The point where the sagittal and coronal sutures join is the bregma, the site of the lozenge-shaped anterior fontanelle in the infant’s skull, but this closes during the second year of life. Small ossicles called Wormian bones are often found in the cranial sutures. About two-thirds of the way back the sagittal suture becomes less serrated and on each side the small parzezal foramen may be seen. This only transmits a small emissary vein (see VEINS) in the adult, but, as will be seen later, is of morphological interest. As middle life is reached, the cranial sutures tend to become obliterated and the bones can no longer be separated; this fusion begins at the places where the sutures are least deeply serrated, and as a rule the sagittal suture disappears between the two parietal foramina, between thirty and forty years of age.

The Skull from the Side (fig. 2).—The calvaria or brain case

forms all the upper part, while the face is below the anterior half. Taking the calvaria first the side view of the frontal bone extends back as far as the coronal suture. On each side is an elevation, the frontal eminence, better seen in female than in male skulls. The junction between the frontal and malar at the outer margin of the orbit (external angular process) is an important landmark for measurements, and from it a curved line (the temporal crest) runs back crossing the coronal suture to reach the parietal bone: as it runs back this line divides into two. The quadrilateral outline of the parietal bone is seen as well as its articulations; above it touches its fellow of the opposite side; in front, the frontal; below, the great wing of the sphenoid or alisphenoid, the squamous part of the temporal and the mastoid part of the temporal, while behind it articulates with the supra-occipital, through the lambdoid suture. All four angles of the parietal are points of special interest; the antero-superior angle or bregma lies nearly above the

ear opening or external auditory meatus in the temporal bone. The antero-inferior angle where the frontal, parietal and alisphenoid meet is the pterion and is the site of an occasional

better seen behind while the posterior inferior angle, where the parietal,

supra-occipital

and mastoid

temporal bones meet,

is

known as the asterion and marks the lateral sinus within the cranium. A little above and behind the middle of the parietal bone, and just above the superior temporal crest, is the parietal eminence where ossification starts. The squamous part of the temporal bone overlaps the parietal at the squamous suture, while from its lower part the zygomatic process projects forward to ar-

ticulate with the malar. At the root of this process is the glenozd

cavity where the condyle of the lower jaw articulates, and just behind this is the external auditory meatus. Behind this again the

mastoid temporal is prolonged down into a nipple-shaped swelling, the mastoid process, containing air cells and only found in the

adult human skull, while just in front of the external audi-

tory meatus is the styloid process, connected with the hyoid bone by the stylo-hyoid ligament (dotted). In the side view of the face the nasal and maxillary bones are seen, and from this point of view it will be noticed that just below the nasal aperture the maxillae, where they join, are produced forward intoa little spur, the anterior nasal spine, which is a purely human characteristic. At the side of the maxilla the lozenge-shaped malar bone is placed; it forms the anterior part of the zygomatic arch. When the mandible is disarticulated and removed the posterior part of the maxilla is seen, and behind it the external pterygoid plate of the sphe-

noid. Between these two bones there is a vertical slit-like opening into a cave, the spheno-masxillary fossa, which communicates with the orbit through the spkeno-mawillary fissure, with the nasal

cavity through the spheno-palatine foramen, with the cranial cavity through the foramen rotundum, and with the mouth through the posterior palatine canal, as well as having other smaller openings. The side view of the mandible or lower jaw shows the body, and the ramus projecting up from the back part of it at an angle of from rr0° to 120° in the adult. Before the teeth come and after they are lost the angle is greater. At the upper part of the ramus are two projections; the most anterior is the coronoid process for the attachment of the temporal muscle, while posteriorly is the condyle which articulates with the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone. The Skull from Behind—From this point of view the posterior ends of the parietal bones, with the sagittal suture between them, are seen. Below these comes the supra-occipital bone separated from them by the lambdoid suture which is deeply serrated and a frequent site of Wormian bones. Where the sagittal and lambdoid sutures meet is the lambda. In the mid line about a

hand’s breadth (23~3in.) below the lambda is the external occipi-

tal protuberance or inion, for the attachment of the ligamentum nuchae, while running out on each side from this are the superior curved lines which attach muscles of the neck. The Skull from Below (fig.

3).—Starting from in front, the superior alveolar arcade with the teeth sockets is seen. This in a

MAGNUM

FIG, 3.—SKULL

FROM

BELOW

European skull approaches ‘a semicircle, but in lower races the sides become more parallel. Within the arcade is the hard palate formed by the maxillae in front, and the palate bones behind. At the front of the median suture between the maxillae is

the anterior palatine canal. In young skulls a suture runs outward

from the anterior palatine canal to between the lateral incisor and canine sockets, and sometimes another runs from the same place to between the central and lateral incisor teeth.

At each postero-lateral angle of the palate are the posterior palatine canals for the descending palatine nerves. The posterior

margin of the hard palate is a free edge which forms the lower boundary of the posterior nasal apertures and attaches the soft palate (see Puarynx). Behind the alveolar arcade on each side Wormian bone. The posterior superior angle is the lambda and is are the external and internal pterygoid plates of the sphenoid;

SKULL

739

the external is a muscular process for the attachment of the pterygoid muscles, while the internal ends below in the hook-like hamular process which is directed backward and outward. Dividing the posterior nasal aperture into two is the vertical hind edge of the vomer, which articulates above with the body of the sphenoid (basi-sphenoid), and just behind this the sphenoid is united by bone with the basioccipital, though up to twenty years of age there is a synchrondrosis (see Jornts) called the basilar suture between

vault and the base may be examined. The vault shows the cerebral aspects of parts of the frontal, parietal and occipital bones, and of the sutures between them. In the mid line is a shallow antero-posterior groove for the superior longitudinal blood sinus, and on each side of this irregular depressions are often seen for the Pacchionian bodies (see Brain). The base is divided into three fossae, anterior, middle and posterior, each being behind and on a lower level than the one in front of it. them. Passing back in the mid line the foramen magnum is The anterior cranial fossa is formed by the cribriform plate of seen, through which pass the spinal cord and its membranes, the the ethmoid, near the mid line, freely perforated for the passage vertebral arteries and the spinal accessory nerves. A little in front of the olfactory nerves. In the mid line, near the front, is a of this is a small tubercle, the pharyngeal spine, to which the con- triangular plate rising up which attaches the falx cerebri (see strictors of the pharynx are attached. On each side of the fora- Brain) and is called the crista galli. On each side of this is men magnum and in front of its mid transverse diameter are the the nasal slit for the nasal branch of the first division of the fifth condyles, which articulate with the atlas, while just above these nerve. On each side of the cribriform plate is the orbital plate are the anterior condylar foramina, one on each side, for the exit of the frontal, while the back part of the fossa has for its floor of the hypoglossal nerves. the body of the sphenoid (pre-sphenoid) near the mid line and External to the pterygoid plates the base of the skull is formed the lesser wing (orbito-sphenoid) on each side. Each lesser wing by the ali-sphenoid, which projects backward into a point, the is prolonged back into a tongue-like process, the anterior clinoid spine of the sphenoid, and just in front of this is the small fora- process, just internal to which is the optic foramen, and the two men spinosum for the passage of the middle meningeal artery. In foramina are joined by the optic groove for the optic commissure. front and a little internal to the foramen spinosum is a larger Behind this groove is a transverse elevation, the olivary eminence, opening, the foramen ovale, through which the third division of which marks the junction of the pre- and basi-sphenoid parts of the fifth nerve leaves the skull. Into the re-entering angle between the body of the sphenoid bone. the ali-sphenoid and basi-occipital is fitted the petrous part of the The middle cranial fossa is like an hour-glass placed transtemporal, which, however, does not quite fill the gap but leaves a versely, as there is a central constricted, and two lateral exspace on each side of the site of the basilar suture to be closed in panded, parts. The central part forms the pituitary fossa for the by fibro-cartilage, and this is known as the middle lacerated fora- pituitary body (see BRAIN) and is bounded behind by the wallmen. On the lower surface of the petrous bone is the round open- like dorsum sellae, at the sides of which are the posterior clinoid ing of the carotid canal through which the internal carotid artery processes. The olivary eminence, pituitary fossa and dorsum and its accompanying sympathetic nerves pass into the skull, while sellae together resemble a Turkish saddle and are often called the more externally the styloid process projects downward and for- sella turcica. The lateral expanded part of the middle cranial ward. Between the styloid process and the occipital condyle fossa is bounded in front by the great wing of the sphenoid lies the jugular or posterior lacerated foramen through which (alisphenoid), behind by the front of the petrous part of the tempass the lateral and inferior petrosal sinuses, and the glosso- poral (periotic) and laterally by the squamous part of the tempharyngeal, vagus and spinal accessory nerves. The bone which poral (sguamosal). Between the alisphenoid and orbitosphenoid bounds this foramen behind, and bears the posterior two-thirds of is the sphenoidal fissure already noticed in the orbit, and a little the occipital condyle, is the ex-occipital part of the occipital. A behind this, piercing the alisphenoid, is the posterior opening of little behind and external to the styloid process is the tip of the the foramen rotundum, through which the second division of the mastoid process, just internal to which is the deep antero-posterior fifth nerve passes into the spheno-maxillary fossa. Further back groove for the digastric muscle, and internal to that another the alisphenoid is pierced by the foramen ovale and foramen slighter groove for the occipital artery. Behind the styloid process spinosum, both of which have been already noticed. From the and between it and the mastoid is the stylo-mastoid foramen latter a groove for the middle meningeal artery runs forward through which the facial nerve passes, while in front of the process and outward, and soon divides into anterior and posterior the glenoid cavity can be seen in its entirety, bounded in front branches, the former of which deepens into a tunnel ‘near the by the eminentia articularis and divided into an anterior part and pterion. At the apex of the petrous bone and at the side of the a posterior tympanic plate by the Glaserian fissure. Just internal dorsum sellae is the middle lacerated foramen, already noticed, and running inward to this from an aperture in the petrous bone is a groove for the great superficial petrosal nerve which is overlaid by the Gasserian ganglion of the fifth nerve. OLIVARY EMINENCE OPTIC FORAMEN FORAMEN

OVALE

FORAMEN

SPINOSUM

PITUITARY

FOSSA

POSTERIOR CLINOID PROCESSES

The posterior crantal fossa is pentagonal in outline, having an anterior border formed by the dorsum sellae, two antero-lateral borders, by the upper borders of the petrous bones, and two postero-lateral curved borders, by the grooves for the lateral sinuses. In the middle of this fossa is the foramen magnum. In

front of the foramen magnum the floor of the fossa is formed by

the basi-occipital and basi-sphenoid bones, which unite soon after twenty and form a steep slope, downward and backward, known MIDDLE LACERATED FORAMEN as the clivus. This is slightly grooved from side to side, and lodges the pons and medulla (see BRarn) and the basilar artery. FROM CUNNINGHAM, “TEXT-BOOK OF ANATOMY” (OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS) On each side of the basi-occipital the posterior surface of the FIG. 4.—BASE OF THE SKULL SHOWING INTERNAL ASPECT petrous bone bounds the fossa, and lying over the suture between to the glenoid cavity is the opening of the bony Eustachian tube. them is the groove for the inferior petrosal venous sinus which The posterior part of the base behind the foramen magnum is leads backward and outward to the jugular foramen already noformed by the supra-occipital part of the occipital bone, so that ticed. About the middle of the posterior surface of the petrous all the four parts of the bone, which are separate up to the third bone is the internal auditory meatus, through which pass the facial year, help in the formation of that large opening. Between the and auditory nerves, the pars intermedia (see NERVES, CRANIAL) foramen magnum and the external occipital protuberance and and the auditory artery. Close to the antero-lateral part of the superior curved line already noticed, the bone attaches the deep foramen magnum is the inner opening of the anterior condylar muscles of the neck. foramen which is sometimes double for the two bundles of the The Interior of the Cranium (fig. 4).—If the roof of the hypoglossal nerve, and a little in front of and outside this is a skull be sawn off the interior or cerebral surface of both the heaping up of bone called the tuberculum jugulare, which marks

=60

SKULL

the union of the basi- and ex-occipital bones. The hindmost limit of the posterior fossa in the mid line is marked by an elevation

For further details see any standard Quain, Gray, Cunningham, etc.

anatomical

textbook—

called the internal occipital protuberance, and at this point the EMBRYOLOGY grooves for the superior longitudinal, and two lateral sinuses join to form the żorcular Herophili (see Verns). Running from the The notochord (see SKELETON: Axial) extends forward to the internal occipital protuberance toward the foramen magnum in ventral surface of the middle cerebral vesicle (see BRAIN) or as the mid line is the internal occipital crest, which attaches the far as the place where the dorsum sellae will be. It is partly surrounded by the mesenchyme just as it is completely in the rest of the axial skeleton, and this mesenchyme extends dorsally on ORBITO-SPHENOID FRONTAL S INUS each side to wrap round the nerve cord, which is here the brain. PITUITARY FOSSA PRE-SPHENOID In this way the brain becomes enclosed in a primitive membranous cranium, the inner part of which persists in its primitive conBASI-SPHENOID MES-ETHMOID dition as the dura mater, while the outer part may chondrify, | PETROUS-TEMPORAL SEPTAL CARTILAGE chondrify and ossify, or ossify without a cartilage stage. On each oF NOSE side of the notochord a basicranial plate of cartilage is formed BASI-OCCIPITAL which soon meets its fellow of the opposite side, and forms the or SonENOID FORAMEN MAGNUM: floor of the skull as far forward as the dorsum sellae, and as far VOMER back as the external occipital protuberance. Laterally it comes EX-OCCIPITAL PALATE

in contact with the mesenchyme

surrounding

the internal ear,

Syupuysis or | | which is also chondrifying to form the cartilaginous pertotic capLOWER JAW nag E sule, and the two structures fuse together to form a continuous FIG. 5,—SECTION THROUGH THE SKULL IMMEDIATELY TO THE RIGHT floor for the back of the skull. In the hinder occipital region of the OF THE MESIAL PLANE calf there are evidences of four vertebrae having been incorpofalx cerebelli (see BRAIN) and on each side of this is the cere- rated with the basicranial plate, that is to say that the plate and bellar fossa. its coalesced vertebrae represent five mesodermic somites. The From the internal occipital protuberance the two wide grooves same is true for man. Moreover, the primitive membranous skull for the lateral venous sinuses run nearly horizontally outward till shows signs of metameric segmentation in the way in which the they reach the posterior inferior angles of the parietal bones; cranial nerves pierce the dura mater one behind the other. These here they turn downward with an S-shaped curve, grooving the segments, however, had lost their distinctness even before the carmastoid portion of the temporal and later on the exoccipital tilaginous cranium had become developed, so that there is no real bones, until they reach the jugular foramina. To the edges of the segmental value in the elements of this, still less in those of the horizontal parts of these grooves, and to the upper edge of the bony skull. The only place in which segmental elements can be petrous bones the tentorium cerebelli is attached. è distinguished is in the occipital region, which is in structure transiThe Skull in Sagittal Section.—If the skull be sawn down tional between the head and vertebral column. The notochord, it just to the right of the mid line and the left half be looked at, has been shown, ends just behind the place where the stomodae the appearance will be that reproduced in fig. 5. The section um of pouches up through the cranial base to form the anterior part of the cranial bones shows that they are formed of an outer and the pituitary body (see Bran). Where it ends two curved bars of inner table of hard bone, while between the two is a layer of can- cartilage are formed, which run forward till they meet the olfaccellous tissue called the diploë. In certain places the diploé is in- tory capsules, which are also now chondrifying. These vaded by ingrowths from the air passage which separat e the two prechordal cartilages or trabeculae cranii and enclose bars are the tables and form the air sinuses of the skull, though it is between them important the cranio-pharyngeal canal by which the pituitary body ascends, not to confuse these with the intracranial blood or venous sinuses. but later on, as they grow, they join together and cut off the pituiIn the section under consideration two of these spaces, the frontal tary body from the pharynx. By the growth and the sphenoidal air sinuses are seen. Behind the outward they form frontal sinus the floor of the prechordal part of the chondro-cranium, so that is the crista galli already mentioned, while below is the bony sep- from them is developed that part of the cartilaginous skull which tum of the nose formed, by the mes-ethmoid plate, the vomer and will later on be part of the basisphenoid, the presphenoid, orbitothe line of junction of the palatine processes of the two maxillae sphenoid and alisphenoid regions. It was assumed that this process and two palate bones. The re-entering angle between the mes- held good for man, but later research showed that the anterior part of the base of the skull chondrifies in the same way PRE-SPHENOID appears on a pond and that the trabeculae are at no time that ice structures. Chondrification of the nasal capsules is later definite than that of the parts of the skull behind, so that there is a steady progress ANGLE

HYOID

ORBITO-SPHENOIDS

in the process from the occipital to the ethmoidal region,

There is a median centre of chondrification, the mesethmoi d cartilage, which

projects down into the fronto-nasal Process TORY SYSTEM), and two lateral ectethmoid cartilages (see OxracALI-SPHENOID tually join with the mesethmoid to form the cartilaginowhich evenFROM ARTHUR THOMPSON IN CUNNINGHAM, us ethmoid. “TEXTBOOK OF ANATOMY" (OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS) The cartilaginous base of the cranium is now formed, but the FIG. 6.—OSSIFICATION OF SPHENOID vault is membranous. While the base has been alt anterior visceral arches have been also formi developing the two ethmoid and vomer is filled in the recent ng and have state by the septal an attachment to d the cranium, but the formation and fate ofgaine cartilage. these 1s record ed in the article SKELETON (Visceral). About Below the face is the inner surface of the sixth the the mandible, and half-way down the latter body and ramus of week of foetal life ossification begins at different points is the inferior dental membranous vault in foramen where the inferior dental] branc of the skull. In this way the frontal, pariet the h of the fifth nerve ac- supra-occipital, al, companied by its artery passes into and a little later the squamous part the inferior dental canal in poral bones of the temthe substance of the bone to supply are formed. About the eighth week, too, the lower teeth. the lachrymal, nasal and vomer appear in the membr If the cut surface of the right half ane lying superficial to of the skull be looked at, the different outer wall of the nasal cavity will parts of the olfactory capsule. All be seen with the three turbi- bones, these are dermal nated bones each overhanging its comparable to the deeper parts of own meatus, but the anatomy of the scales of fishes, and devel oped this part has already been dealt with in the article on the ‘olfactory the ectode in the mesenchyme lying deep to and in contact with system (q.v.). rm. It is therefore necessary to think i of the primitive skull as a three-layered structure, the deepest layer persisting as

SKULL

OI

the dura mater, the middle forming the chondro-cranium, which bone, while the styloid process is a part of the second visceral arch. ossifies to form the base, and a superficial layer close to the skin The mastoid process is not present at birth, but appears about or mucous membrane (ectoderm), from which the bones of the the second year and becomes pneumatic about puberty. From vault and superficial parts of the olfactory capsules are derived. what has been seen of the skull bones in this necessarily concenAt the four angles of the parietal, ossification is checked for some trated and abridged account, it is obvious that they do not cortime to form fontanelles, of which the bregma is the most impor- respond to the traces of segmentation as indicated by the cranial tant, and at each of these points, as well as elsewhere in the nerves, and for this and other reasons the “vertebrate theory of sutures, accessory centres of ossification may occur to form the skull” is no longer believed in. Wormian bones. For further details and references see The Development of the Along the middle line of the base of the skull the same progress Human Body, J. P. McMurrich (London, 1923) and other standof ossification from behind forward is seen that was noticed in ard anatomical textbooks previously named. the process of chondrification. Bilateral centres for the basiCOMPARATIVE ANATOMY occipital appear about the sixth week, for the basisphenoid in the In this section only those parts of the skull which form the eighth, and for the presphenoid in the tenth, while the lateral mass of the ethmoid does not oésify till the fifth month and the meseth- covering for the brain and the capsules for the olfactory and moid not until the first year of extrauterine life. In the lateral MASTO-SQUAMOSAL SUTURE, SQUAMO-ZYGOMATIG part of the base the exoccipitals and alisphenoids begin to ossify WITH FORAMEN FOR TRANSMISSION OF about the eighth week and the presphenoids about the tenth. In VESSELS connection with the alisphenoid there is a small extra centre of FORAMEN OVALE morphological interest only, which forms a little tongue-shaped process called the lingula, projecting back into the middle laceraiii f mn a ated foramen and apparently corresponding to the sphenotic bone : UIN y ugo of lower vertebrates. Eppes f INNER WALL OF TYMPANUM | MASTOID PROCESS The auditory or periotic capsule, like the olfactory, is late in ossifying; it has four centres (pro-otic, epiotic, opisthotic and pterotic) which do not come until the fifth month. FENESTRA ROTUNDA TYMPANIC RING Some parts of the chondro-cranium do not ossify at all; this is FROM ARTHUR THOMPSON IN CUNNINGHAM, “TEXTBOOK OF ANATOMY" (OXFORD MEDICAL the case in the anterior part of the mesethmoid, which remains PUBLICATIONS) as the septal cartilage of the nose, while, as has been already FIG. 8.—OUTER SURFACE OF THE RIGHT TEMPORAL BONE AT BIRTH pointed out, a buffer of cartilage persists between the basioccipital auditory apparatus are considered. Those parts of the face and and basisphenoid until the twentieth year of life. jaws which are developed in connection with the visceral arches From what has been said it is evident, and it will be still mere are dealt with in the article SKELETON (Visceral). In the Acrania evident if the article SkELeETon (Visceral) be looked at, that some (Amphioxus) the enlarged anterior end of the nerve cord is merely of the bones of the adult skull are compounded of various contri- surrounded by fibrous tissue continuous with the sheath of the butions from the different elements which make up the adult rest of the nerve cord; there is therefore, in a sense, no true cranium. These, recapitulated, are (1) the dura mater or endo- cranium. cranium, which in man does not ossify except perhaps in the In the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) a cartilaginous cracrista galli. (2) The chondro-cranium or meésocranium. (3) The nium is developed, the anterior’ part of which forms an unpaired superficial part of the mesenchyme (ectocranium) from which olfactory capsule connected with the rest of the cranium by fibrous dermal bones ate formed. (4) The olfactory and auditory sense tissue only. In the floor, just in front of the anterior end of the capsules. (5) The visceral arches. (6) Some fused vertebrae notochord, an aperture; the basi-cranial fontanelle, remains unposteriorly. chondrified for the passage of the pituitary diverticulum into The occipital bone (fig. 7) for example, has the basioccipital, the skull. s exoccipital and basal part of the supta-occipital derived from the In the Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays) and Holocephali (Chimaera) among the fishes the skull is still a complete cartilaFISSURE BETWEEN INTERPARIETALS J ginous box, though calcification of the cartilage often takes place. Taking the skull of the dogfish as a type, two large olfactory cap[matey INTERPARIETAL (FROM MEMBRANE) sules are seen in front, and behind these the cranial brain-box is narrowed, being excavated at its sides for the great orbits. More FISSURE BETWEEN SUPRA-OCCIPITAL posteriorly the auditory capsules widen the skull, and on the posAND INTERPARIETAL terior (caudal) aspect the foramen magnum is seen with an occipital condyle on each side of it for the first vertebra to articulate SUPRA-OCCIPITAL (FROM CARTILAGE) with. On the upper (dorsal) surface of the skull are two apertures in the middle line; the more anterior of these forms a rudimentary OSSICLE OF KERKRING median orbit for the pineal eye (see Brarn). The posterior fontanelle is a depression which leads into two lateral tubes, each of EX OCCIPITAL which passes into the auditory capsule and is known as an agueductus vestibuli (see EAR). BASILAR CENTRE In the cartilaginous ganoid fishes (sturgeon), which, like the elasmobranchs, are of great antiquity, the chondro-cranium is FROM ARTHUR THOMPSON IN CUNNINGHAM, “TEXTBOOK OF ANATOMY” (OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS) partly ossified so that ali- and orbito-sphenoids are found; in FIG. 7.—OSSIFICATION OF OCCIPITAL BONE ’ addition to this a large number of dermal bones have made their chondro-cranium and fused vertebrae, while the vault part of the appearance, such as nasals, frontals, parietals, supra and post temsupra-occipital has four dermal centres of ossification correspond- porals, while in the roof of the mouth and pharynx a long meming to the interparietal and preinterparietal bones of lower mambrane bone, the parasphenoid, is formed, and lies ventral to and mals, The bone of Kerkring is an abnormality, the meaning of strengthens the cartilaginous base of the skull. These fish are which is not understood. important morphological landmarks, because in them the almost The temporal (fig. 8) is also a very composite bone; in it the unchanged chondro-cranium coexists with a dermal ectocranium. petro-mastoid portion represents the auditory sense capsule; the In the bony ganoids such as the “bow fin” (Amia) the dermal tabular external auditory meatus is formed by the outgrowth of bones are still more numerous and, among others, squamosals, the tympanic ring which is probably part of the first visceral arch pro-otics and exoccipitals appear. These fish are also remarkable (see SKELETON, Visceral): the squamo-zygomatic part is a dermal for a fusion of the anterior part of the vertebral column with the

762

SKULL—SKULL-CAP

occipital region of the skull, an arrangement recalling that in the skull of the calf embryo mentioned in the section on embryology. In the bony fishes (Teleostei) the membrane or dermal bones are still more numerous, and many of them are unrepresented in the mammalian skull, while others, which are there quite rudimentary, are very large. The chondro-cranium tends to disappear in the vault, but the base is fully ossified. Among other cartilage bones the five ossifications of the auditory capsule are seen, the pro-, epi-, opisth-, pter- and sphen-otics, all of which are found as centres of ossification in man. In the cod, for example, the sphenotic, which is represented in man by the little lingula sphenoidalis, is larger than the alisphenoid. In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) the chondro-cranium is very slightly ossified, only exoccipitals being found, but there is the same coalescence with anterior vertebrae which was noticed in the ganoids. Dermal bones are plentiful. In the Amphibia the chondro-cranium persists and is only ossified in front by the girdle bone or sphenethmoid, and behind by the pro-otics and exoccipitals, the latter of which bear the two condyles. The anterior fontanelle is well marked in the chondro-cranium, but is completely overlaid and concealed by the dermal fronto-parietals. The membrane bones though large are much less numerous than in the bony fishes. In the Reptilia the skull varies immensely in the different orders, but speaking broadly, the chondro-cranium is less distinct than in the Amphibia, except in the ethmoidal region. In the base of the skull the basioccipital and basisphenoid are tending to replace the membranous parasphenoid, and instead of two exoccipital condyles only one in the mid line is present, though this in many forms (e.g., Chelonia) consists of three parts, a median borne on the basioccipital and two lateral on the exoccipitals. The parietal foramen is usually definitely marked in the-dermal part of the skull and forms a median orbit for the pineal eye; this is especially the case in the Lacertilia (lizards). Except in the Ophidia (snakes) and Amphisbaenidae (worm-like lizards) there is a fibro-cartilag~ inous septum between the orbits so that the cranial cavity does not reach forward to the ethmoidal region. The pro-, epi- and opisthotic bones are all developed, but the epiotic usually fuses with the supra-occipital and the opisthotic with the exoccipital. | In the Crocodilia the first attempt at pheumaticity is seen in the basisphenoid, which is traversed by a complicated system of Eustachian passages leading eventually to the tympanum. In the class Aves the general scheme of the reptilian skull is maintained, though the bones fuse together very early, thus obliterating the sutures between them. Almost all of them have air in their interior, and so are said to be pneumatic. The single occipital condyle, if looked at in a young specimen, is seen to consist of a basioccipital and two exoccipital elements , though these are indistinguishable in the adult. The parasph enoid is represented by a broad plate which is called the basitemp oral. The pro-, epi- and opisth-otic bones fuse together to form the auditory capsule. In the Mammalia the calvaria varies considerably in the different orders, the characteristic features being best marked in adult males. Usually the different bones are interlocked by sutures in man, until adult life, but in some orders (e.g., Monotr , as emata, Edentata and Carnivora) they fuse together quite early. In the basicranium the cartilage bones presphenoid, basisphenoid and basioccipital, are so well developed that the parasp henoid has disappeared. In the basisphenoid of the rabbit the craniopharyngeal canal (see section on embryology) persists as a foramen at the bottom of the pituitary fossa. In the lower orders the face lies well in front of the brain case, as it does in reptiles and amphibians, but as the Primates are reache d of the calvaria causes it to overlie the face. the increasing size Many of the bones are pneumatic, the process reaching its maxim um in the elephant and the adult male gorilla. The periotic capsule blends with the Squamosél and tympanic to form the petrou s bone, though it is practically only

mammals in which there is one large crescentic condyle surrounding the anterior half of the foramen magnum. Ossification of the processes of the dura mater occurs in the tentorium cerebelli of the carnivora and in the falx cerebri of the ornithorhynchus and porpoise. The orbits are in most mammals continuous with the temporal fossae. Sometimes, as in many of the ungulates and in the lemurs, they are outlined by a bony ring, but it is not until the higher Primates are reached that the two cavities are shut off and even then a vestige of their original continuity remains in the spheno-mazxillary fissure. BrsrrocrapHy.—A. A. R. Green, An X-Ray Atlas of the Skull (1918) 5; J. R. Whitaker, Anatomy of Brain & Spinal Cord. For other works see bibl. of SKELETON. (F. G. P.)

SKULL, SURGERY

OF. Fractures of the vault of the

skull may occur without the bone being driven in to compress the brain, and in such cases their existence may be revealed only after death. But if there is also a severe scalp wound the line of fracture may be traced in the bare bone as a thin red crack. The patient with a suspected fracture of the skull is put to bed in a dark, quiet room, and is watched. It may be that the crack has extended across a bony groove in which an artery is running, and, the artery being torn, haemorrhage may take place within the skull and symptoms of compression of the brain may supervene. Compression of the brain may be the direct and immediate

result of a head-injury, a piece of the vault of the skull being driven in, and a local or a general paralysis of muscles being at once observed. In addition to the muscular paralysis, there may be insensibility, laborious breathing, dilated pupils that do not react to light. In such cases the treatment is trephining. Fractures of the base of the skull are always serious, in that they may run across important nerves and large blood-vessels; passing through the roof of the nose, or the ear, they may communicate with air-cavities. Thus, the dangers of sepsis are added to those of concussion or compression of the brain. Fractures of the base of the skull are often associated with bleeding from the nose, mouth or ear, or with extravasation of blood over the eyeball. Facial paralysis is the result of the line of fracture passing across the bony channel in which the seventh or facial nerve is running. When the fracture passes across the temporal bone and the middle ear, and ruptures the membrane of the tympanum, not only blood may escape from the ear, but an apparently unlimited amount of cerebro-spinal fluid. When the fracture extends through the anterior part of the base of the skull this same clear fluid may escape from the nose. In, both cases its appearance implies that the dura mater has been lacerated and the sub-dural space opened. l Concussion of the brain (stunning) may result from. a blow upon the head or from a fall from a height.

The symptoms may be those of mere giddiness and a feeling of stupidity, which may quickly pass off, or they may be those of severe shock (see SHocx). The person

may die from the concussion, or he may slowly or quickly recover. As a rule, the pupils react to light. One of the first signs of returning consciousness is that the person vomits, and after this he gradually comes round. As a result of the injury, however, he may remain irritable, liable to headache or to lapses of memory. See also BRAIN, SURGERY OF.

SKULL-CAP

tu sog.

(Scutellaria), the com-

4 mon name for a numerous genus of herbs i and subshrubs of the mint family (Labi| atae, g.v.), comprising some 200 species

MD FLOWER PRES. Of nearly world-wide distribution.

SKULL-CAP

They (scuTeL- Pave numerous blue, violet, yellow, scarlet

LARIA), AN HERB com. Or white flowers, borne MON IN DAMP AND SHADY or in axillary or terminain opposite pairs in man that the second visceral arch ossifie l, slender, ones on to PLACES , sided spikelike racemes. The corolla has a this as a styloid process. There are usually two occipital condyles long tube, dilated at the throat which have basi- and exoccipital elements, and surmounted with two unequal though there are many lips, the upper usually entire and the lower notched. The persist-

SKUNK—SKY ent calyx bears a conspicuous protuberance on the upper lip, giving it a helmet-like appearance, whence the common name. Two species occur in the British Isles, the common or marsh skull-cap

(S. galericulata), with handsome violet-blue flowers, and the lesser skull-cap (S. minor). Besides the common skull-cap, which is found across the continent, some 25 other species occur in North America.

763

must be something capable of reflecting light in the wider sense of that term.

A theory that received much support in the past attributed the reflections to thin bubbles of water, similar to soap-bubbles, in which form vapour was supposed to condense. According to it, sky blue would be the blue of the first order in Newton’s scale

of colours. The theory was developed by R. Clausius (Pogg. Ann.

SKUNK, a North American carnivorous mammal, belonging

vols. 72, 76, 88), who regarded it as meeting the requirements of

to the family Mustelidae and noted for its evil smell arising from

the case. It must be noticed, however, that the angle of maximum polarization would be about 76° instead of 90°. Apart from the difficulty of seeing how the bubbles could arise, there is a formidable objection, mentioned by E. W. Brücke (Pogg. Ann. 88, 363), that the blue of the sky is a much richer colour than the blue of the first order. Brücke also brought forward an experiment of great importance, in which he showed that gum mastic, precipitated from an alcoholic solution poured into a large quantity of water, scatters light of a blue tint. He remarks that it is impossible to suppose that the particles of mastic are in the form of bubbles. Another point of great importance is well brought out in the experiments of John Tyndall (Phil. Mag. [4], 137, 388) upon clouds precipitated by the chemical action of light. Whenever the particles are sufficiently fine, the light emitted laterally is blue in colour and, in a direction perpendicular to the incident beam, is completely plane-polarized. The dependence of the amount of scattering upon the wavelength of the light can be settled in the case of very small particles by an application of the method of dimensions. The particle acts as a centre for a radiating beam. The amplitude of the

a secretion of the anal glands. This is under the control of the

animal, which can propel the yellow liquid to a distance of 8 or r2ft. The common skunk (Mephitis mephitica) inhabits North {

America from Hudson bay to (gil? Texas and eastward. About the þras. size of a cat, though more heavily built, it has black fur, with a streak of white on the back. The muzzle is long and pointed, the f

white tail long and bushy. In- É sects form its staple diet, but it

i

+

oe

édi

ANN

;

ce

b

Æ

THE COMMON SKUNK

will also eat mice, eggs, frogs, and carrion, and occasionally rob hen-roosts. The skunk evinces little dread of man or other animals, and its normal gait is a walk. No animal attacks it knowingly, and its leisurely gait and conspicuous coloration well advertise its disagreeable properties. During very severe weather the animal hibernates. Six to ten young are brought forth each spring. Several other forms inhabit Central and South America. (See C. H. Merriam, Mammals of the Adirondack Region;

W. H. Hudson, A Naturalist in La Plata.) It lives in dens or burrows, and is chiefly nocturnal in its habits. Since colonial times, it has been trapped, and sometimes reared for its valuable fur. See U.S. Dept. Agr. Reports Bulletins. Com.

Reports on Fur Production Census.

SKUNK CABBAGE

(Symplocarpus foetidus or Spathyema

foetida), a fleshy herbaceous plant of the arum family, Araceae (g.v.), so called because of its fetid odour and large leaves, native to eastern North America dnd north-eastern Asia. It grows in swampy places and in very early spring (March or sometimes February) it sends up from thick rootstocks grotesque, swollen, shell-like, purple-brown spathes, each enclosing many small flowers borne in a short thick cluster. These are soon followed by numerous ovate leaves, 1 to 3 ft. long, and later by large globular masses of fleshy berries. The similar western skunk cabbage (Lysichiton kamtschatcense) occurs from California to Alaska and also in Siberia.

SKY, the apparent covering of the atmosphere, the overarching heaven. (M.Eng. skie, cloud; O.Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence “scum,”

Lat. obscurus, dark, etc.) The Colour of the Sky.—It is a matter of common observation that the blue of the sky is highly variable, even on days that are free from clouds. The colour usually deepens toward the zenith and also with the elevation of the observer. It is evident that the normal blue is more or less diluted with extraneous white light, having its origin in reflections from the grosser particles of foreign matter with which the air is usually charged. Closely associated with the colour is the polarization of the light from the sky. This takes place in a plane passing through the sun, and attains a maximum about 9go° therefrom. Under favourable conditions more than half the light is polarized. As to the origin of the normal blue, very discrepant views have been held. Some writers, even of good reputation, have held that the blue is the true body colour of the air, or of some ingredient in it such as ozone. It is a sufficient answer to remark

that on this theory the blue would reach its maximum development in the colour of the setting sun. It should be evident that what we have first to explain is the fact that we receive any light from the sky at all. Were the atmosphere non-existent 'ot absolutely transparent, the sky would necessarily be black. There

light sent out by it at a distance R varies inversely as R; it is also proportional to the volume of the particle when this is small compared with the wave-length of the light. Thus the ratio of 2

the scattered to the incident intensity varies asic; that is a quantity whose dimensions are those of the fourth power of a length. The ratio of intensities must, however, be a pure number; and since the wave length A is the only other linear quantity that can be concerned, the ratio must also depend on the inverse fourth

power of X. Lord Rayleigh’s Theory.—A more detailed investigation was

conducted by the third Lord Rayleigh (Phil. Mag. XLI., 107, 275) based on an elastic-solid theory of light. This enquiry showed that both the intensity and the polarization could be satisfactorily accounted for on such a theory, if (and only if) the vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of polarization and the difference between the substance of the particles and that of the surrounding medium is one of density only. Later (Phil. Mag. XII. 81-101, 1881) Rayleigh examined the question from the point of view of the electromagnetic theory in which the particles are treated as dielectric spheres. Maxwell’s equations can be applied exactly in the case of vanishingly small spheres. The azimuth of the electric displacement travelling in any direction in the scattered wave is at right angles to that direction and is in the plane containing the scattered ray and the azimuth of the incident displacement; further the intensity: is proportional to the square of the sine of the angle between these two lines.

It follows that when this angle is zero the scattered

light in the given direction is zero. This occurs in the direction at right angles to the incident ray. Thus, in this case, if unpolarized light is incident the light scattered at right angles is completely polarized.

According to either theory, sunlight in penetrating through the earth’s atmosphere should fall off according to an exponential

law for each colour.

os

In order to test the theory Rayleigh compared the bl of the sky taken from

through white paper.

near

For different wave-lengths the §

culated from the formula are given together with obseg for comparison :— Fraunhofer line Calculated Observed .

`-

the zenith with sunlighpe,,, i

X

us

764

SKY

As regards the polarization of the dispersed light as dependent It appears that the sky light when compared with that diffused on the angle at which it is emitted, we find that although, when through white paper was bluer than that required by theory; but this may possibly arise from yellowness of the paper or from terms of the second order are included, the scattered light no the yellowness of the sunlight when it reaches us compared with longer vanishes in the same direction as before, the peculiarity is not lost but merely transferred to another direction. The angle its colour at higher levels. i A much more important calculation has reference to the size 6 through which the displacement occurs is measured backwards, and number of the particles concerned in the production of the i.e., towards the incident ray, and its value is given by blue of the sky. Since the light scattered by each particle is 9 AK kc? S proportional to the square of its volume the total amount scat(23) tered per unit volume depends not only upon the quantity of matAK being the difference of dielectric constants. ter therein but upon its fineness of division also. Assuming that Experiments upon this subject are not difficult. In a darkened the molecules of the air are the effective scatterers Rayleigh in 1899 calculated (taking Maxwell’s value 19X10 for the num- room a beam of sunlight (or electric light) is concentrated by a ber of molecules per unit volume of a gas at standard pres- large lens of 2 or 3 ft. focus; and in the path of the light is placed a glass beaker containing a dilute solution of sodium thiosure and temperature) that sunlight should diminish to = of its sulphate (hyposulphite of soda). On the addition, well stirred, of a small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid, a precipitate of sul. value in passing through a distance of 83 kilometres in normal phur slowly forms, and during its growth manifests exceedingly air. This value might agree roughly with the visibility of Mount well the phenomena under consideration. The more dilute the Everest from Darjeeling but Rayleigh considered that it implied solutions, the slower is the progress of the precipitation. A too high a visibility since there is certainly suspended matter to strength such that there is a delay of 4 or 5 minutes before any be reckoned with as well. Small particles of saline or other mat- effect is apparent will be found suitable, but no great nicety of ter (including organic germs) must play a part and to them may adjustment is necessary. be attributed much of the bluish haze by which the moderately Polarization—In the optical examination we may, if we distant landscape is often suffused. prefer it, polarize the primary light; but it is usually more conAmerican Investigations.—In recent years considerable at« venient to analyze the scattered light. In the early stages of the tention has been paid to this question in America where advan- precipitation the polarization is complete in a perpendicular directage could be taken of the remarkable clearness and dryness of tion, and incomplete in oblique directions. After an interval the the air above Mount Wilson in California. F. E. Fowle in these polarization begins to be incomplete in the perpendicular direcinvestigations has obtained values of the transparency coefficients tion, the light which reaches the eye when the nicol is set to for zenith observations for 30 different wave-lengths between minimum transmission being of a beautiful blue, much richer

0-34 x and 2-24 wu (u=one millionth of a metre). The logarithms of the observed coefficients were plotted as ordinates against the corresponding quantities of precipitable atmospheric moisture as abscissae. The curves which were very nearly straight were extrapolated to zero moisture so as to obtain the transparencies for perfectly dry air. From these values for dry air the number of molecules per c.c. was calculated by means of Rayleigh’s formula. The value obtained was 2-710, while the best value

obtained by Millikan by other methods is 2-705

101%. The con-

clusion drawn from this result is that for the clear air above Mt. Wilson the scattering is almost entirely due to the molecules of air themselves. (Fowle, Astroph. J. 1914.) Tyndall’s Residual Blue.—The experiments of Tyndall upon precipitated clouds have been mentioned. When the precipitated particles are very fine, the light dispersed in a perpendicular direction is sky-blue and fully polarized. At a further stage of their growth the particles disperse in the perpendicular direction a light which is no longer fully polarized. When quenched as far as possi-

than anything that can be seen in the earlier stages. This is the moment to examine whether there is a more complete polarization in a direction somewhat oblique; and it is found that with @ positive there is, in fact, a direction of more complete polarization, while with @ negative the polarization is more imperfect than in the perpendicular direction itself.

The polarization in a distinctly oblique direction, however, is

not perfect, a feature for which more than one reason may be put forward. In the first place, with a given size of particles, the direction of complete polarization indicated by (23) is a function of the colour of the light, the value of @ being 3 or 4 times as large for the violet as for the red end of the spectrum. The experiment

is, in fact, much improved by passing the primary light through a coloured glass. Not only is the oblique direction of maximum

polarization more definite and the polarization itself more com-

plete, but the observation is easier than with white light in consequence of the uniformity in the colour of the light scattered in

various directions. If we begin with

ble by rotation of a nicol prism, it exhibits a residue of a more in- the gradually increasing obliquity a blue glass, we may observe of the direction of maximum tense blue colour; and further it is found that the direction of polarization; and then by exchanging the blue glass for a red one, the most nearly complete polarization becomes inclined to the we may revert to the original condition of things, and observe the direction of the primary rays. transition from perpendicularity to obliquity over again. The Electromagnetic Theory.—A discussion of these and other change in the wave-length of the light has the same effect in this questions upon the basis of the electromagnetic theory of light is respect as a change in the size of the particles, and the comparison given in the Phil. Mag., 1881, 12, p. 81. Here we must be content gives curious information as to the rate of growth. with a statement of some of the results. So long as the particles But even with homogeneous light it would be unreasonable to are supposed to be very small and to differ little from their envi- expect an oblique direction of perfect polarization. So long as the ronment in optical properties, there is little difference between the particles are all very small in comparison with the wave-length, electric and the elastic solid theories. Whatever may be the shape there is complete polarization in the perpendicular direction; or size of the particles, there is no scattered light in a direction but when the size is such that obliquity sets in, the degree of parallel to the primary electric displacements. In order to render obliquity will vary with the size of the particles, and the polarizaan account of ‘Tyndall’s “residual blue” it is necessary to pursue tion will be complete only on the very unlikely condition that the the approximation further, taking for simplicity the case of spherisize is the same for them all. It must not be forgotten, too, that cal shape. We learn that the light dispersed in the direction a very moderate increase of dimensions may carry the particles primary vibration is not only of higher order in the difference of of optical quality, but is also of order #2c? in comparison with that beyond the reach of our approximations. The fact that at this stage the polarization is a maximum, when dispersed in other directions, where c is the radius of the sphere, the angle through which the light is turned exceeds a right angle, and k= 27r/^. The incident light being white, the intensity of the component colours scattered in this direction varies as the inverse is the more worthy of note, as the opposite result would probably have been expected. By Brewster’s law this angle in the eighth power of the wave-length, so that the resultant light is a case of regular reflection from a plate is less than a right angle; rich blue. so that not only is the law of polarization for a very small par-

SK YE—SLANG ticle different from that applicable to a plate, but the first effect of an increase of size is to augment the difference. Sunset Colours.—The simple theory of the scattering of light by small particles suffices to explain not only the blue of the zenith, but the comparative absence of small wave-lengths from the direct solar rays, and the brilliant orange and red coloration

of the setting sun and of the clouds illuminated by his rays. The

705

Holdings Act of 1886, and by sums spent in recent years by the Board of Agriculture. The old black huts have been replaced, in those parishes where stone is obtainable, by well-built houses. The many ejections between 1840 and 1880 and the emigration that followed was mainly responsible for the serious decline of the population. The railways to Strome Ferry, Kyle of Loch Alsh and Mallaig, by rendering markets more accessible, effected an improvement in the fisheries, which have always been a mainstay of the inhabitants. The fisheries include herring, cod, ling and salmon, and seals are not uncommon, Whiskey is distilled at

hyposulphite experiment here again affords an excellent illustration. But we must not expect a simple theory to cover all the facts. It is obvious that the aerial particles are illuminated not only by the direct solar rays, but also by light dispersed from other Carbost and there are marble quarries. The inhabited isles off the coast of Skye are mainly situated parts of the atmosphere and from the earth’s surface. On this and other accounts the coloration of the sky is highly variable. near the eastern shore. Of these the principal is Raasay (pop. The transition from blue to orange or red at sunset is usually 368). Brochel Castle, now a ruin, stands on the eastern coast. through green, but exceptional conditions may easily disturb the The island is 13 m. long, by about 34 m. at its widest. Off its normal state of things. The brilliant sunset effects observed in north-western shore lies the isle of Fladday. To the north of Europe after the Krakatoa eruption may naturally be attributed Raasay, separated by a narrow strait, is Rona, pop. 98 (Seal to dust of unusual quality or quantity in the upper regions of the Island, from the Gaelic roz, a seal), 44 m. long with a maximum breadth of 13 m., with a lighthouse. Scalpay, immediately south atmosphere. To illustrate further the complications that arise when the of Raasay, has a hill of 1,298 ft. The other isles are Pabbay in particles are not infinitely small it may be mentioned that if the Broadford Bay, Ornsay in the Sound of Sleat, and Soay near solution of “hypo” prepared as above be observed for a longer Loch Scavaig. Portree (pop. 1,628 in parish), the capital, lies at the head time it becomes more opaque owing to the growth of the sulphur particles and afterwards becomes more transparent again even of a fine harbour about the middle of the eastern seaboard. though kept well stirred; and further that in this last stage it Steamers run daily to and from Mallaig and Kyle of Loch Alsh, transmits blue more than red and consequently scatters red more and there is, besides, other communication by steamer with Oban than blue. This is a complete reversal of the blue-sky effect. and other ports. There is a factory for tweeds, plaids, carpets (Keen and Porter, Roy. Soc. Proc. A. 89, 370, 1914.) A similar and other woollens. The exports are principally sheep, cattle, phenomenon had previously been observed by Captain Abney and wool, salmon and other fish, and the town is the headquarters of by W. Ritz. Abney says in connection with certain suspensions the fishing fleet. The name of the town was derived from the

of silver bromide in collodion: “In some cases J obtained it in such a state which, when viewed by transmitted light, appeared of a sky-blue colour inclining to green,” (Abney, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Pt. IL, p. 653, 1880; W, Ritz, Comptes Rendus 143, 167, 1906.) This phenomenon is well known to preparers of emulsions for photographic plates. Related to abnormalities of colour we may expect to find corresponding abnormalities in polarization. Of this nature are the neutral points, where the polarization changes character, observed by F. J. D. Arago, J. Babinet and Sir D. Brewster for an account of which reference may be made to Mascart, Traité d’Optique: (R.; A. W. Po.)

SKYE, largest island of the Inner Hebrides, Inverness-shire, From the mainland it is separated by the Sound of

Scotland.

Sleat, Kyle Rhea, Loch Alsh and the Inner Sound, and from the Outer Hebrides by the Minch and Little Minch. At Kyleakin, on the western end of Loch Alsh, the channel is only about + m, wide, and there is a ferry. The length of the island from S.E. to N.W. is 484 m., but its coast is deeply indented, so that no part of the interior is more than 5 m. from the sea. It has a total area of 428,966 acres. The population was 23,082 in 1841, but in 1921 only 11,03r (or 17 to the sq.m.), 1,062 of whom spoke Gaelic only and 9,201 Gaelic and English. The chief arms of the sea are Lochs Snizort and Dunvegan in the N., Loch Bracadale in the W., Lochs Scavaig and Eishort in the S. and Loch Sligachan in the E. The jagged mass of the Cuil-

line (Coolins) dominates the view whether by land or sea, Their highest point is Sgurr Alasdair (3,309 ft.), and at least six other

peaks exceed 3,000 ft. To the north of Loch Slapin stands the

group of Red Hills of which the highest points are Ben Caillich and Ben Dearg More and near Loch Ainort rises Ben Glamaig. About 8 m. N. of Portree is the curious basaltic group of the Storr, consisting of pinnacles and towers, the most remarkable of which, “The Old Man” forms a landmark for sailors, Most of the land is moor and hill pasture, with cultivated patches here and there, chiefly on Lochs Snizort and Bracadale, the Sound of Sleat, Kyleakin and Portree, The crofting system is still general, Turnips and potatoes are grown, but the climate

is better adapted for sheep and cattle (West Highland) than for crops, and the sheep farms carry famous stocks, principally blackfaced with some Cheviots. The condition of the crofters, which

was pitiable in the extreme, has been improved by the Crofters’

fact that James V. landed there on the occasion of his tour in the Western Highlands. The place thus became, in Gaelic,

Port-an Righ, or the King’s Harbour. It was to Portree that Flora Macdonald (1722-1790) conducted Prince Charles Edward

when he escaped from Benbecula. Among other places in Skye associated with the Young Pretender are Prince Charles’s Point near Monkstadt, on the west of the peninsula of Trotternish, where he landed with Flora Macdonald, and Kingsburgh, on the eastern shore of Loch Snizort. The castle of the Macleods of Macleod, on a rocky promontory

at Dunvegan, was erected in the gth century and extended by later chieftains. —The MacCrimmons, the famous race of hereditary pipers, hailed from this quarter of Skye and were attached

to the Macleods of Dunvegan. At Duntulm is the ruined castle of the Macdonalds, another of the great Skye chieftains, SKYSCRAPER: see ARCHITECTURE. SLADE, FELIX (1790-1868), English art collector and

patron, was born at Lambeth, London, in Aug. 1790. He collected books, engravings and glass. He died unmarried on March 29, 1868, leaving personalty to the value of £160,000. He bequeathed the bulk of his art collection to the British Museum, and £35,000 for the endowment of art professorships, to be known as Slade Professorships, at Oxford, Cambridge and University College, London. University College received the additional bequest of six art scholarships.

SLAG.

A waste substance of many kinds formed during

smelting operations, Thus, in the blast furnace, limestone is charged with the coke and iron-ore to form with the ash of the fuel and the gangue of the ore a lime silicate or “‘slag,” which is run out of the furnace liquid, taking with it the sulphur. Blast furnace slags are of variable composition, the quantity of lime-

stone used varying with the nature of the ore.

In the basic process of steel manufacture, which employs phosphoric ores, the resulting slag, rich in phosphorus (as soluble calcium phosphates) is known as “hasic slag” and forms a very valuable manure. See IRON AND STEEL; METALLURGY; Basic SLAG.

SLANDER: see LIBEL AND SLANDER. SLANG, the current name for 4 particular kind of speech. At one moment a word or locution may be felt definitely as slang, but in another set of circumstances the same word or locution may not produce this impression at all. Subject to these

766

SLANG

observations, slang may be regarded as the employment of an

tion have a good deal of the colour of slang. Among such terms

horrid, lovely. usual word in an unusual sense or of an unusual word in an usual are the words like awful, terrible, Thus the common adjective of approval in Elizabethan days sense. Thus to beat it would be slang, but to depari, to go away would be standard English. Slang is thus denied the kind of was fair, and in the 18th century it was elegant. Both of these approval which is accorded to standard English. But in its origins terms are now archaic. A later synonym was nce, which in turn and in its intent, slang is not merely an attempt to do violence to tends to be replaced by wonderful. Such counter-words are demoaccepted customs. This is a by-product of its use, not the cause vised for the purpose of avoiding the precise definition of exgeneral and ments which call for nothing more than a quick of it. pression. Quite meaningless expressions are often utilized in this INVENTION OF SLANG you like to be the iceAmong the impulses which lead to the invention of slang, the way, for example the archaic How would you know about that? do What or man, old your is So or man? two most important seem to be the desire to secure increased the group to vivacity and the desire to secure increased sense of intimacy in Here is a kind of shorthand language which enables its realize express experiences analysis. and to elaborate without the use of language. Slang originates and flourishes best in the The Slang of Trade—Distinction must be made between soil of the colloquial speech. On this level a slang word or phrase may attain a very wide currency, like nut, bean, and similar terms technical language and this intimate colloquial language of the for head, but if such a word passes into literary use it ceases to group which may be called slang. Some technical words in trades be slang. The verb walk, for example, comes from Anglo-Saxon and professions were in the beginning probably slang words. Thus wealcan, meaning to roll, and it is not an unreasonable as- the first tailor who called his smoothing-iron a goose, probably sumption that it comes by the way of a slang extension of the raised a smile and certainly started a fashion in tailoring circles. Early Thieves’ Cant.—The first extensive records of Engolder term. This notion of locomotion by means of the legs seems to have something peculiarly appealing to the fancy of language lish slang occur in the cant or canting language of thieves and innovators; cf. beat it, vamoose, mosey, saunter, skidoo, slide, vagabonds in the 16th century. To a certain extent this proslip, slope, and other metaphorical extensions. The word poi- fessional cant of thieves was probably a secret language, but this boiler used for work done for a livelihood bears the marks of could hardly have been the main motive in the invention of the slang origin. But the word is not now notable or striking. The cant. Thieves and vagabonds were a group with a strong sense of phrase go to pot, “go to ruin,” is also of doubtful origin, and corporate unity and one also with certain sporting attitudes that the word poż in this phrase may not have been the same to begin would be highly favourable to the development of a class language. In his treatise On the Excellency of the English Tongue, written with as the word pot, “vessel.” It suggests the modern phrase, about 1595, Richard Carew mentions as one of the excellences of in the soup, of similar meaningAn element of humour is almost always present in slang, English its ability to express the same thing in a variety of usually as humorous exaggeration. Thus to call a hat a ld is ways: “for example, when wee would be rid of one, wee vse to amusing because it puts a hat and a pot-lid in the same class. So when an alluring woman is called a vamp, from vampire. Slang is rarely or never bitter in its implied judgments. It places things in their proper places with a smile. When a male charmer is called sheik and the sheik’s female counterpart skeba, this is obviously the language of a world that takes its passions lightly. Lower Slang Forms.—On a lower rhetorical level are the forms of slang which are humorous merely because the sound of the slang words is humorous. Thus the word skeezicks as a

saye Bee going, trudge, pack, be faring, hence, awaye, shifte, and by circumlocution, rather your roome than your companye, Letts

see your backe, come againe when I bid you, when you are called,

sent for, intreated, willed, desiered, inuited, spare vs your place, another in your steede, a shipp of salte for you, saue your credite, you are next the door, the dooreis open for you, there’s noe bodye holdes you, no bodie teares your sleeue, etc.” No one can doubt

that some of these phrases mentioned by Carew are the equivalents of what would be called slang phrases in our day. When

disrespectful name for a man seems to mean nothing more than

Chaucer wrote There been no sterres, god wot, than a paire, this

what is suggested by the undignified sound of the word. Some of these slang words may have an onomatopoeic colour, like bif, “a blow,” fummox, “disconcert,” jfiabbergast, of similar meaning, but, if so, the associations are frequently slight and remote. On a still lower rhetorical level come abbreviations employed as casual adornments of colloquial conversation, like sec for second,

suggests the modern equivalents Zhere’s more than one pebble on

the beach, There’s more than one tin can in the alley, etc.

American

Slang—The

mixture of races and the general

breaking of old associations which accompanied the first great western migrations were peculiarly favourable to the development of a highly flavoured colloquial style. And in general it may be as Watt a sec, or ever so. Perhaps, the lowest level is reached in said that the frontier in America, after the colonial period, has language mutilations like ciricutous for circuitous, pictureaskew always been a border line of romance between reality and unreality for picturesque, gust for guest. Oaths on the other hand scarcely

fall within the limits of inclusion of slang. In their origins they usually accompany a more powerful emotional experience than

that which produces slang. Certain inventive geniuses, however, produce oaths which haye a good deal of the playfulness and ingenuity of slang. Slang develops most freely in groups with a strong realization of group activity and interest, and groups without this sense of unity, e.g., farmers, rarely invent slang terms. The stage, prizefighting, baseball, football, and other sports are productive of an extraordinarily rich crop of slang. The language of many

newspaper correspondents who write about sports is often unintelligible except to the initiated. School boys and college students also invent slang freely, and the slang of one school will often be quite different from that of another school. It is possible to have

a fashionable as well as a vulgar lection of genteel and imgenious the fashionable slang terms of demned, and almost any novel

slang. In Swift’s Complete ColConversation (1738), many of the day are ridiculed and conof modern “smart” society will

provide numerous illustrations. An element of secrecy sometimes enters into this use of the group language. School boys thus invent a secret language of their own. Many of the terms that pass current in cultivated conversa-

in which slang expressions have made a vigorous growth.

Australia has slang probably for a similar reason, that the occu-

pying of the country has been in no little degree an exhilarating and romantic adventure. tralian Slang.

(See Lists: American Slang and Aus-

The Earliest Example—The

earliest use of the word

“slang” hitherto discovered occurs in Toldervy’s History of Two Orphans, published in 1756. A more unequivocal instance is

quoted in J. C. Hotten’s Slang Dictionary (1864) from a book

entitled Jonathan Wild’s Advice to his Successor: “Let proper

Nurses be assigned to take care of these Babes of Grace young thieves). . . . The Master who teaches them should man well versed in the Cant Language, commonly called the Patter, in which they should by all means excel.” Four

(że. be a Slang years

later, in 1762, the word is found with a different and now obsolete

meaning, in Foote’s play The Orators. A fast young Oxford man,

invited to attend a lecture on oratory, is asked, “Have you not

seen the bills?” He replies, “What, about the lectures? ay, but

that’s all slang, I suppose.” Here the word seems to be equivalent

to “humbug.”

In the first edition of Hugh Kelly’s comedy, The School for Wives, there is a passage (omitted in some of the later reprints) in which one of a company of sharpers, who pretend to be for-

SLANG eigners and speak broken English, says: “There’s a language called slang, that we sometimes talk in. .. . Its a little rum tongue, that we understand among von another.”

Francis Grose’s

Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue (1785) has the entry, “Slang, the cant language.” It may be that the word is genuinely dialectal—an inheritance from the language of the Scandinavian settlers in the north of England—as shown by the coincidence of its uses with those of the modern Norwegian verb slengja (etymologically equivalent to the English “to sling”) and related words, as given in the dictionary of Ivar Aasen. Slengja kjeften (literally, to sling the jaw), means to pour out abuse. The French synonym is argot. The known history of European slang begins (leaving out of account the meagre references in German documents hereafter to be mentioned) about the time of the “Ballades” of François Villon in the 15th century. The French argot of these compositions contains much that is still obscure, but the origin of some of its words is evident enough. Facetious expressions relating to the destined end of the malefactor are prominent. Paroir and montjoye (for which latter the less ironical monte à regret was substituted) are nicknames for the scaffold. Acollez, hanged, corresponds to the English “scragged”; the synonymous grup seems to be an onomat-~ opoeic formation suggestive of choking. There are some derivatives formed with the suffix art: riflart is a police-officer, abrouart, fog. A few words from foreign languages occur: audi nos, prayer, is the Latin audi nos of the litanies; arton, bread, is obviously Greek, and its appearance in the 1sth century is somewhat hard to account for. Moller, to eat, may perhaps be the Latin molere, to grind. Anse, the ear, is no doubt the Latin ansa, handle. In Germany the word Rotwalsch (the modern Rotwelsch, still the name for the cant of vagrants) occurs as early as the middle of the 13th century. The earliest attempt at a vocabulary of “Rotwelsch” is that of Gerold Edilbach, compiled about 1490. A second vocabulary, containing nearly the same set of words, is contained in the famous Liber vagatorum, first printed in 1510 in High German; versions in Low German and the dialect of the Lower Rhine appeared shortly afterwards. An edition of this work printed in 1529 has a preface by Martin Luther. The most remarkable feature of the jargon represented in these early glossaries is the large number of Hebrew words that it contains. There are some words from Italian, as bregan, to beg, from pregare, and barlen, to speak, from parlare. The language of the gipsies seems to have contributed nothing, nor are there any words from Latin or Greek. Some of the words are ordinary German words used metaphorically, like wetterhan (weathercock) for a hat, zwicker (twitcher)

for the hangman, brief (letter) for a playing-card. Others are descriptive compounds such as breitfuss (broad-foot) for a duck or goose, or derivatives formed by means of the suffixes -hart (or -art) and -ling, as grunhart (from griin, green), a field, glathart (from glatt, smooth), a table, fuckart (from flug, flight), a bird, funckart (from funke, spark), fire, flossart (from floss, stream), water, flossling, a fish, lissling (from lissnen, to listen), the ear. It is noteworthy that modern Dutch thieves’ cant, as presented in the dictionary of I. Teirlinck, is closely similar in its principles of formation, and in many of its actual words, to that of the early German vocabularies.

The earliest English “cant” or “Pedlars’ French,” as exhibited in R. Copland’s The Hye Waye to the Spyttel House (1517), John Awdeley’s Fraternitye of Vacabondes (1561), Thomas Harman’s Caueat for Commen Cursetours (1567) and various later writers, bears a close resemblance in its general character to the German Rotwelsch of the Liber vagatorum, the most noteworthy point of difference being the absence of Hebrew words. _BrsLiocraPHy.—English: Most of the authorities for the early history of English vagrant slang are reprinted in vol. ix. of the Extra Series of the Early English Text Society, edited by E. Viles and F. J. Furnivall (1869), which contains John Awdeley’s The Fratermtye of Vacabondes (from the edition of 1575), Thomas Harman’s Caueat for Commen Cursetours (1567-73), and The Groundwork of Connycatching (anonymous, 1592), besides extracts

from other early works which furnish glossaries. The Dictionary of the Canting Crew, by B. E. (no date, but printed at the end of the 17th century; photographic reprint by J. S. Farmer), is valuable

767

as containing the earliest known record of many words still in use; while mainly treating of thieves’ and vagrants’ language, it includes much that belongs to slang in the wider sense. Among the many later works, only the following need be mentioned here: Francis Grose’s Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue (3rd ed. 1796); The Slang Dictionary, anonymous but understood to be by the publisher, J. C. Hotten (new ed. 1874), a work of considerable merit, with an excellent bibliography; A Dictionary of Slang, Jargon and Cant, by A. Barrere and C. G. Leland (1889); and Slang and its Analogues by J. S. Farmer and W. E. Henley (1890-1904), which surpasses all similar works in extent of vocabulary and abundance of illustrative matter, though the dates and even the text of the quotations are often inaccurate. A supplement to Farmer and Henley’s Slang and its Analogues is J. Redding Ware’s Passing English of the Victorian Era (1909). For the slang of public schools see The Winchester Word-book, by R. G. K. Wrench (1901), and The Eton Glossary, by C. R. Stone (1902). For a collection of American college slang words, see H. J. Savage’s College Slang Words, in Dialect Notes V. 139-148 (1922), and for a more extended bibliog~ raphy in general, see Kennedy’s Bibliography of Writings on the English Language, pp. 419-435 (1927). : ; French: The earliest systematic treatment of argot is found in La Vie généreuse des Mattois, Gueux Bohémiens et Cagoux, by Pechon de Ruby (a pseudonym), which went through several editions in the early part of the 17th century and has been reprinted in 1831 and 1868. The slang of the rsth century is discussed in Le Jargon au quinzième siècle, by Auguste Vitu (1883), which includes an edition of the Ballades of Villon; in Le Jargon et jobelin de F. Villon, by Lucien Schöne (1887), and in L’Argot ancien (1907), and in Les Sources de lArgot ancien (1912) by L. Sainéan. Francisque Michel’s Études de philologie comparée sur Pargot (1856) is important for its rich collection of material and its copious references to sources. Later works deserving attention are Dictionnaire de la langue verte, by Alfred Delvau (2nd ed. 1867), and Dictionnaire de Pargot, by Lorédan Larchey (1889). For modern slang, taken in a very comprehensive sense, the chief authority is Lucien Rigaud, Dictionnaire de Pargot moderne (1881). For the special slang of printers, see Eugéne Boutmy, Dictionnaire de largot des typographes (1883). A collection of slang terms that gained currency during the Great War is contained in L. Sainéan’s L’Argot des Tranchées (1915). German: An admirable collection of the original documents for the history of thieves’ and vagrant slang from the earliest period has been published by F. Kluge, under the title Rotwelsch (1901). An earlier book of great importance is by Avé-Lallemant, Das deutsche Gaunertum (1858). For modern popular slang see A. Genthe, Deutsches Slang (1892). University slang is ably treated in Deutsche Studentensprache, by F. Kluge (1895). (H. BR.; G. P.K

BRITISH SLANG

The following list gives well-established slang of a general type dating from the eighteenth century. Abram-men, beggars pretending madness to palliate their thefts. Adam-tiler, a pickpocket’s ally. Alsatia, White Friars, an old district of London. Ambrol, navy word for admiral. Babbler, a chatterbox. Baggage, a worthless woman. Balderdash, (a) unpleasant mixtures of wine, ale, etc.; (b) rubbish, trash, nonsense. Bandy, crooked; as, band y-legged. Banter, ridicule. Barnacle, a good job, easily got.

Bawbee, a halfpenny. Bean, head. Beldam, a scolding old woman.

Biff, a blow; to biff, to strike. Bilk, to cheat. Blab, to divulge secrets. Blockhead, a silly fellow; fool.

Bob, a shilling. Bobby-dazzler, anything flashing or brightly coloured. Bog-landers, Irishmen. Bone, to steal. Booze, liquor. Boss, (a) master; chief; (b) to boss, mess up something; a boss shot, a futile effort. Bounce, bragging, boasting. Brass, (a) impudence; “brazenfaced”; (b) money. Browbeat, to bully. Cackle, to tell a secret. Cant, hypocrisy.

Carrots, a red-haired person. Char, a task; work of any kind. Chink, money. Chit, a child. Chop, to change; barter.

Clack, a woman’s tongue. Claret, blood; as, “tap his claret’’; make one’s nose bleed. Clink, gaol; a cold cell. Clodhopper, a ploughman. Clout, a handkerchief. Cocksure, very certain. Cod, to cod, to deceive. Cold tea, brandy. Corker, very good. Cosset, to spoil with affection. Cove, a man; fellow. Coxcomb, a fool. Crack, to boast; glorify. Cully, a man; fop; rogue. Cut out for, suited to. Dab, an expert. Dace, twopence. Dag, a gun. Darbies, handcuffs. Dive, to pick a pocket. Dowdy, coarse or ill-favoured. Drub, to beat. Dubber, a lock-picker. Duds, clothes. Dunderhead, a stupid fellow. Egg on, to urge. Famms, hands. Fambles, hands. Fib, (a) to beat; (b) a lie. File, to rob.

SLANG

768

Old Nick, the Devil. Fin, hand. Pad, a highwayman. Fleece, rob or plunder. Peeper, a looking-glass. Fiyers, shoes. Peepers, eyes. Í Fob, (a) a cheat, to fob off, to Phiz, face (from physiognomy). cheat; (b) a small pocket. Pickled, drunk. Fop, a fool; dandy. Pig, sixpence. Freshman, a novice in a univerPinch, to steal. sity. Pins, legs. Gad, to go about aimlessly; idle. Poke, a bag or sack. Game, gamie, lame. Ponk, to stink; also, a bad smell. Giglamps, spectacles. Prig, (a) a thief; (b) to steal. Glaziers, eyes. Puke, to be sick; vomit. Gob, the mouth. Quack, an unqualified doctor. Grinders, teeth. Rant, to talk big. Half seas over, almost drunk. Rap, to exchange. Heave, to rob. Reach-me-downs, a suit of readyHedge, to make secure a desperate made ill-fitting clothes. bet. Ready, ready money; cash, Hick, a foolish, easy person. Rhino, ready money. Hob, a plain country fellow. Ripper, something excellent. Hodge, a country clown. Rub, to run away. Hog, a shilling. Rum, queer; strange. Hoof it, to walk. Runt, a short, insignificant man. Huckster, a sharp fellow. Sack, (a) pocket; (b) to get the Hussy, a reproach for a woman. sack, to lose one’s job. Jabber, useless chatter. Sawny, a fool. Jackanapes, a young rascal. Scab, a scoundrel. Jade, a lazy woman. Scout, a watch. Jail-birds, prisoners. Shark, a sharper; trickster. Jolly, to tease. Sharp-set, very hungry. Josh, to tease. Shaver, a young boy. Kid, to delude; deceive. Shop, a prison. Lace, to beat; strike. Sice, sixpence. Lag, a prisoner. Simkin or simp, a fool. Lid, a hat. Sly-boots, a seemingly silly, but Lift, to steal. subtle, fellow. Loon, a fool or a knave. Snaffle, to appropriate. Lubber, a heavy, dull fellow. Sock, (a) a pocket; (b) to beat. Lugs, the ears. Split, inform against someone. Mab, a slattern. Sponge, To sponge on someone, to Minx, a forward girl or woman. live or drink at another's cost. Moppet, a pretty, saucy girl. Stumps, legs. Mumchance, one who sits mute. Swag, booty; plunder. Nab, (a) a hat, cap, or a head; Swap, to change; barter. (b) to take. Tanner, a sixpence. Nark, a police spy. Tar, a sailor. Neb, the bill of a bird. Tomboy, a boyish girl. Nincompoop, a fool. Tippler, a drunkard. Nob, the head. Tope, to drink. N Nub, the neck. Truck, change or barter. Numskull, a foolish person. Tube, deep level railway. Oaf, a fool. Wag, a joking, humorous fellow. Ogles, eyes. Zany, an idiot, fool, or jester. Old Harry, the Devil. See A New Dictionary of the Terms, ancient and modern, of the Canting Crew (1690); Raymond Postgate, Murder, Piracy and Treason (Appendix and Bibl.) (1926).

British War Slang.—The slang which became current during the World War was characterized by novelty: Anzac, from Australian and New

Zealand Auxiliary (or Army) Corps. Aussie, an Australian soldier. Big Bertha, the German gun that bombarded Paris from tance of 76 miles.

a dis-

Billy, a cooking tin or pannikin.

Blighty, England (from Hindustani, bzlati, homeland). Blimp, 2 small, non-rigid, streamline, dirigible airship (perhaps from limp balloon). Brass hat, an officer of the general headquarters staff. Bully, pressed beef. Canuck, a Canadian soldier. C.B., confined to barracks. Chatty, verminous. Coal-box, trench-mortar dis-

charge. Cold feet, funk; nervousness. Conchy, conscientious objector. Cushy,’a safe job, Cuthbert, a conscientious objector.

Daisy cutter, an explosive shell.

Doughboy, an American soldier, Dug-out, a trench cave.

Dum-dum,

a soft-nosed

Fag, a cigarette. Fritzy, a German soldier. Humdinger, a swift,

splendid,

fine

bullet. good,

something

or

other (borrowed slang). Iron rations, emergency rations, Jerry, enemy soldiers. Joy-ride, “jumping” a rationlorry, or an aeroplane, without official sanction. Joy-stick, the altitude control of an aeroplane. Napoo, no more (French). No bon, no good (French). Old Contemptibles, the 1914 British forces. Packet, to get a, to be wounded. Pigsticker, bayonet. Pill-box, small blockhouse,

Rooty, bread (from Hindustani, roti) (Indian army slang) Sausage, observation balloon Swing the lead, to malinger. T.B.D., torpedo-boat destroyer V.A.D., a nurse of the Voluntary Aid Detachment. Waacs, members of the Women’s

Auxiliary Army Corps. Whizz bang, a high-explosive shell.

Wrens, members of the Women’s Royal Naval Service.

AMERICAN SLANG All in, exhausted physically All set, in readiness to begin : Applesauce, insincere talk; “bunk” fine! boy) the Attaboy (that’s Back number, superannuated Back-talk, impertinence

Balled up, confused; mixed up Banana oil (ejac.) nonsense! Bat, a spree Bawl out, to rebuke sharply Bean, head Beanery, cheap eating-place Beat it, get out; make a rapid exit Beef (to), to complain Beezer, head Berry, dollar

Big boy, a term Big cheese, the Blah, nonsense; Blink (on the), Block, head Blooey

Blow

(to

of admiration “boss” or chief piffle out of repair

go),

in, to spend

to

with

explode

great

lavishness

Blues, to be woebegone Blurb, publishers’ advertisement Bo (abbr. of hobo, g.v.): mate Boloney, nonsense Bone, dollar Bonehead, a fool Boob, a stupid person Boost, a recommendation Bootlegger, dealer in prohibited

liquor Boy-friend, fiancé, or close friend (used by opposite sex only) Bottom dollar, last dollar Break even, to come out

of a

game neither winner nor loser Break (to make a) faux pas Breaks (to get the), to be in luck Bring home the bacon, come home victorious in any effort Broke, penniless Buck, dollar Buck (pass the), to shift a responsibility to another Buddy, close companion Bull, police

Bulldoze, to intimidate; to bully

Bull (throwing the), boasting Bum, vagrant Bun, head Bunk, nonsense; rubbish Busted, without funds Butt in, interfere Cagey, wary of giving confidence Call down (to), to correctCall-down, a rebuke Can, to discharge; to throw out

Canned music, that which is played by mechanical means. Can you beat it? (equivalent to “Did you ever !”) Case-note, dollar

Caught with the goods, caught in the act Chase yourself, get out Cheap skate, a poor spender Cheese it, run; look out Chesty, puffed up; vain Chicken feed, small money Chow, food; a meal

Chump, a simpleton

Cinch (also lead-pipe cinch, and hence shortened to “a pipe,” q.v.), a sinecure Classy, handsome; stylish; chic Cop, policeman Crab, to spoil (as to crab an act) Crack, a shot (figuratively, as a

dirty crack—a mean hit) Crash, severe blow; vb., to deal a

heavy blow Crook, thief

Crust, presumption Cuckoo, crazy Cute, petite; amusing; attractive. Date, an appointment; heavy date an extra important appointment Dead-beat, worthless fellow Dead above the ears, brainless Doggy, stylish Dome, head Dope, the facts in a situation; also drugs, as cocaine. Dough, money Down and out, at the end of one’s „resources

Double-cross, to betray. Drag, Dry, Dub, Duck

influence. opposed to liquor a stupid person, a silly out, to escape

Dumbbell, a fool

->

Š

Eats, food; a meal

Easy, gullible; easily duped Edge, to have the; to have the advantage take Fade out, to disappear; quick leave Fake, an imposture Fall down on, to fail at Fall for, to be infatuated with Fan, fanatic, ardent admirer Fat-head, brainless person, a fool

Fire, to dismiss from a position

Fifty-fifty, divide equally Fixin’s, trimmings; extras, as at a meal Fizzle, a failure

Flapper, young girl Flat tire, a deflated scheme

Flivver, to pull a, to blunder Flop, a failure Four-flusher, one who promises

without

performing

Frame, to, to fabricate

evidence

Frame-up, a trumped-up piece of

evidence Fresh, impertinent Fritz, on the, out of repair Frost, a failure

Gab, impudent talk Gaff, chaffing; standing the gaff

—standing the pace Get away with, to carry through an action undetected Get down to brass tacks, deal with the bare facts Get the gate, be discharged Get one’s goat, try one’s patience

Get one’s hooks on, get hold of Get the bulge, gain an advantage Get wise to, to become aware of Gink, chap Girl-friend, fiancée or close friend Give-away (usually dead giveaway), betrayal Give a ring, to telephone Go fish!, Go along! Go, to make a, to succeed Go-getter, a practical, energetic person Go over big, to, to succeed Going some, doing well Gold-digger, a woman who habitually wheedles money, gifts, etc., from gullible males Good-night!, This is the end! Grand, a thousand dollars

Gravy, profit

Grouch, a sour, peevish person Grub, food Guff, nonsense

SLANG Gush, to be effusive Gyp, to cheat Guy, fellow, as, a regular guy Hand-picked, carefully selected Hang, to get the, to understand Hard-boiled, callous Has-been, discarded favourite Hash-house, cheap eating-place Heebey-Jeebies, the nerves Hick, a country bumpkin

Highbrow, intellectual (n. or adj.) High-hat, supercilious High stepper, one who leads a

gay or fast life Hike, a long walk Hitch, ride; sometimes stolen, on a passing vehicle Hitch-hike, long-distance walk interspersed with begged or proffered rides in passing vehicles HRO mampi often shortened to 0’

Hock, to pawn; in hock—in pawn Hold on, Wait a minute! Hooey, bunk, falseness Horn in, to intrude

Hot air, exaggerated statements Hot dog, excl. of approval Hot stuff, good work Hunch, presentiment I'l say, I agree TIl tell the world, I'll say as much Inside dope, confidential information Iron-man, silver dollar Jack, money Jack up, to remind, to jog Jag (to have a jag on), drunken spree; to be drunk Jazz-baby, usually a young woman who is fond of jazz Jazz-hound, a dance fiend Jazz up, to make lively Jinx, hoodoo Joint, an establishment, as a dance-hall, restaurant, etc. Jolly, to keep another person cheerful by saying what he wishes to hear Josh, to tease Junk, anything poor in quality Kale, money Keep your shirt on, keep cool

Kick, to complain

Kid (vb.), to tease Knob, head Knock, condemn or criticize Lemon, undesirable person Let down, to cease relations without warning Let up, to cease Limit, last endurable stage of any

situation, as “Isn’t that the limit?” Line, to get a, to gather information about Lit, inebriated Live wire, energetic person

Lounge-lizard, man who haunts tearooms for flirtation

Low-brow, uncultured Low-down (n.), all the important information Make, on the, on the road to a

successful career

Make a getaway, escape

Make the grade, acconiplish the task in hand (origin of a motorcar on a hill)

Main squeeze, the chief Mazuma, money

Melon, financial term, signifies distribution of unusual dividend Miffed, piqued Miss out, to let an opportunity slip by

Mixér, one who meets all types of persons easily

Monkey-business,

foolish

Monkey-shines, buffoonery

trifling

Moonshine, privately distilled whiskey Nail, to arrest; to catch at the psychological moment Neck, to embrace Nerve, impudent cheek Nifty, stylish; chic Nix! No! N.G., no good Nothing doing, no chance whatever Number, to get one’s, to see through another’s motives Nut, idiot ae yoy enthusiastic about one’s base .

Off one’s trolley }badiy mistaken O.K., approved Old stuff, out of date

Once-over (also called the doubleQO), intense scrutiny Outfit, group of people, especially a business organization Pan out, to result Pass out, lose consciousness

Pass up, to let slip Peach, a pretty girl Peeved, annoyed

Pep, energy, vim Petting, amorous fondling Petting party, social gathering with amorous fondling Phohey, bogus; not genuine Pickled, intoxicated Pie-eyed, intoxicated

Piffled, half intoxicated Pinch, arrest Pipe, a simple task

Pipe (vb.), look at! (derisive) Plant, factory Played out, exhausted Poppycock, nonsense Poor fish, an ineffective person Pronto, immediately Pull, influence

Pull off, to initiate through a plan Punch, vigour

and

carry

Punk, utterly worthless Put across, to accomplish by one’s own effort Put the skids under one, get rid of one Put wise, to acquaint with the facts in a situation Put over, to accomplish

Put-up job, a conspiracy Queen, 2 lovely girl

Quéer, to, to compromise, damage Racketeer, a gangster who extracts money for protection Razz, to heckle Razz (abbr. of raspberry), to get

the, to be made fun of

Regular fellow (or guy), agreeable or “good” person Ritzy, stylish Rooked, cheated Root, to shout for Rooter, ardent defender Rotten, worthless Rough, unfair

Rough up, to treat harshly

Roughneck, rowdy Rubberneck, a sightseer Rube, a rustic Rum-hound, one who drinks to excess

Run into the ground, to overdo Rustle, to gather; to go in quest of, as to rustle food

Sap, a,brainless person Sand, grit; courage Sec, second Shake a leg, move on

Shine (take a shine to), to become

769

suddenly fond of Shoestring, on a, with very little capital Shoot! Go ahead! Sidestep, to evade Simoleon, dollar

Simp, simpleton

Sit in, join with

ae up, to make a rapid estimate o Skin, cheat (n. and vb.) Skin-game, fraudulent enterprise Skirt, woman, girl Slob, an untidy, careless person Slop, sentiment Slush, sentiment Small-time stuff, unimportant Snap, sinecure Snap out of it (or into it), to shift rapidly to or from some position or procedure Snooty, critical Sob sister, a woman reporter who writes over-sentimentally Sock, a severe blow Soft snap, a sinecure Solid ivory, stupid, unintelligent Soup and fish, formal dinner dress Souse, an habitual drinker Sparkler, diamond Speakeasy, place where liquor is sold and drunk illegally Spondulix, money Squarehead, a Swede Squeal, to betray an accomplice Stand for, endure; tolerate Stand-up, failure to meet an appointment : Steady, fiancé (both sexes) Steep, exorbitant Step on it, hurry up Step out, go out on pleasure Stewed, intoxicated Strapped, without money;

“broke”

String, to jolly String to it, with a; under conditions or limitations (usually something is given “with a

string to it”)

Stuck with, foisted with thing undesirable Stuck on, infatuated by

some-

Stuff, the (as “That’s the stuff—~ that’s the real thing”), the real thing Stung, taken in; cheated Stunt, trick, usually acrobatic

Sugar daddy, a rich elderly man who lavishes money and gifts on young women (also called sugar papa) Swag, loot Swat, to hit, also a blow Swell, superfine; as a swell time, a swell girl, a swell idea. Talk turkey, to speak frankly Tear, a wild spree Tell it to Sweeney, same as Tell it to the Marines! (an expression of incredulity) Tickle the ivories, play the piano Tip, a hint Tip off, to inform Tony, aristocratic Up and coming, promising Up on one’s toes, alert, eager Up to snuff, competent, up to expectation Velvet, clear profit Walk-over, an easy task Wet, opponent of prohibition Whale (as a whale of a show); a splendid specimen Wire-puller, a person who contrives for his own ends Whiz, a wonder Wow, a great success Wheels (to have), to be mentally unsound Wild about, very fond of; infatuated by

Willies, the, an attack of “‘nerves”

Wise-~crack, smart remark Yank, to snatch, to drag away Yegg, a thief Yellow, cowardly Yellow streak, a vein of cowardice

BrsriocrapHy.—See Maitland’s Slang Dictionary (1891); R. H. Thornton, American Glossary (1912); C. H. Durling, The Jargon Book (1919); G.M. T ucker, American English (1921); F. N. Scott, “List of American Slang” given in Tract No. 24 of the “Society for Pure English” (Oxford, 1926).

AUSTRALIAN Abo, aboriginal, a journalese term.

Aussie, an Australian citizen and, during

the World

War,

espe-

ciàlly, an Australian soldier.

Baal, a term of dislike (native word). Back-blocks, inland settlements and towns. Bananalander, a Queensland citizen. Billabong, a small off-shoot from a river which in wet weather rejoins the main stream lower down. Billy or Billy-Can, a tin container used for cooking purposes. Blackfellow, an Australian aborigine. Bluey, a swagman’s blanket.

Bonzer, something good—satisfac-

tory. Bosker, adjective of Bonzer. Boss-Cockie, a small farmer employing labour, but also working himself. Brumby, a wild horse. Buckjumper, a refractory horse.

Budgeree;

good

or

palatable

(native word). Bush, woods, forest. Bushranger, an armed highway-

SLANG

man. Chow, a Chinese. Coo-ee, the Australian hail (native word). Cornstalk, a citizen of New South Wales.

Corroboree, a noise, uproar (native word).

Cossie, a swimming costume. Creek, a stream, brook. Damper, a large scone. Digger, friend, comrade,

Diggings, a gold-mining centre. Dilly-bag, a stnall domestic bag. Dingo, a native dog. Dinkum, true; genuine. Fossicker, one who looks for gold in rocky crevices. Gazob, a fool.

Gin, a native woman.

Groper, a West Australian. Gully, a rugged valley. l Gum-sucker, a citizen of Victoria. Hard-hitter, a bowler hat, a derby. Hide, impudence, cheek. Humpy, a hut. Jackaroo, a young man

of good position who joins a station to

learn sheep and cattle farming. Joey, a young kangaroo.

779 John, a policeman. Jumbuck, sheep. Kid-stakes, foolery. Knock-down, an introduction. Larrikin, a hooligan. Lolly, a sweetmeat. Lubra, an aboriginal woman. Mauldy, left-handed. Maorilander, a New Zealander. Never-never, remote unsettled districts. Nuggety, short and sturdy. Orchardist, a fruit-grower. Outback, districts far inland from the coast. Outer, a betting ground overlooking a racecourse. Outlaw, a savage horse. Overlander, a drover taking cattle from one state to another. Poddy, a land-fed calf. Pointer, an opportunist who takes mean advantages. Possie, a job. Push, a band of larrikins. Ready up, a conspiracy. Ringer, the quickest shearer of a gang. Rouse-about, an odd-job man in a shearing shed. Run, a track of grazing land. Scrub, a stretch of bush undergrowth. Shake-down, a makeshift bed. Shanghai, a catapult. Shanty, (a) a crude hut; (b) a “sly-grog” shop in the bush. A “blind tiger” or “speak-easy.”

SLATE—SLATER Shelf, an informer. Shicker, intoxicants, “booze.” Shielah, a girl. ; Springer, a cow approaching the milking period. Squirt, a revolver. Squatter, a “pastoralist”; an owner of a sheep- or cattle-run. Station, a cattle-run—sheep-run. Sticky-beak, an inquisitive person. Stockman, a man in charge of cattle on a run. Sundowner, an outback Swagman; see SWAGGIE. Swag, a bundle containing tent, blanket, etc. Swaggie, a sundowner; a wanderer with his kit, tramping from place to place. Take-down, a thief—a cheat. Tipslinger, a racecourse tipster. To go bung, to collapse financially (as a bank). To shake, to steal. To sling off, to poke fun at. To sool, to urge on, as dogs. Too right, a term of agreement Tray-bit, a threepenny bit. Trooper, 2 mounted policeman. Tucker, food. Waddy, a heavy stick or club. Woop-woop, a New South Wales word for country districts. Wowser, a straight-laced person. Yabber, to talk (native word). Yacker, work (native word). Yarraman, a horse (native word). Ziff, a beard. .

See Jice Doone, Timely Tips for New Australians, London, n.d.

SLATE, in geology, a fissile, fine-grained argillaceous rock which cleaves or splits readily into thin slabs having great tensile strength and durability. Some other rocks that occur in thin beds are improperly called slate, because they can be used for roofing and similar purposes. Stonefield slate, a thinly bedded limestone occurring near Oxford, is one of the best known. True slates do not, as a rule, split along the bedding, but along planes of cleavage, which may intersect the bedding at any angle, usually, in the case of good roofing slates, at high angles. The original material was a fine clay, sometimes with sand or volcanic dust, and the bedding of the sediment as originally laid down may be indicated by alternating bands, differing in colour or in lithological character, sometimes to be seen on the cleavage faces of the slates. Cleavage is a superinduced structure, the result of pressure acting on the rock at some time when it was deeply buried beneath the earth’s surface. On this account slates are found chiefly among the rocks of the older geological systems,

although some occur in regions where comparatively recent rocks have been folded and compressed as a result of mountain building movements in the earth’s crust. In thin sections for microscopical examination, slates show much colourless mica in small, irregular scales, which in the best average about two thousand to the inch in breadth, and six thousand to the inch in thickness. Green chlorite in flakes is also usually abundant, the principal other ingredient being quartz, in minute lensshaped grains. In colour, slates may be black, blue, purple, red, green or grey; dark slates usually owe their colour to carbonaceous material or to finely divided sulphide of iron, reddish and purple

varieties to the presence of oxide of iron in the form of haematite,

and green ‘varieties to the presence of much chlorite. Slates are

widely used for roofing purposes, for not only are they easily

prepared and fixed, but they are weatherproof and durable. North Wales ‘provides most of the slate used in the British Isles, but slate of economic importance also occurs in North Devon, the Lake District, Scotland (Ballachulish) and Ireland (Kilkenny). There are also important quarries in France (the

The material is sometimes removed by means of “channelling

machines,” which make cuts in the face of the rock allowing a block to be wedged off; or, when blasting is resorted to, advantage is taken of the joints and other planes of weakness in the rock. The masses, dislodged by whatever means had been adopted, are divided into blocks small enough to be sent to the sheds where they are split and dressed.

In “making” slates, the splitter takes blocks about 3 inches thick, and a chisel, placed in a certain position against the edge of the block is lightly tapped with a mallet; a crack appears in the direction of cleavage, and slight leverage with the chisel serves to split the block into two pieces with smooth and even surfaces. This is repeated until the original block is converted into 16 or

18 separate “slates,” the thickness of which depends upon many circumstances, such as quality of rock, size required, and purpose for which it is to be used, the average thickness of a roofing tile of the best kinds of slate being about $ in. The slates are afterwards trimmed to size, either by hand, in which case they are cut between a fixed sharp edge and a movable knife acting on the principle of a printer’s guillotine, or by means of machine-driven rotating knives. A detailed bibliography of works relating to the origin, distribution and utilization of slate will be found in The Slates of Wales (National

Museum of Wales, 1927).

SLATE

CLUB.

F.J.N.)

A society of persons who pay periodically

small sums with the purpose of accumulating a fund which is shared out at a special time—in England, usually Christmas. The funds are not invested but merely retained by the secretary; the aim is thus “automatic saving.” (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.)

SLATER, JOHN FOX (1815-1884), American philanthropist, son of John Slater (Samuel Slater’s brother and partner), was born in Slatersville (R.I.), March 4, 1815. At 17 he entered his father’s woollen mill in Hopeville (Conn.), of which he took charge in 1836. He helped to endow the Norwich Free academy. He died in Norwich (Conn.), May 7, 1884. In 1882 he had made over to a board of ro trustees, incorporated in New York State, $1,000,000 for “the uplifting of the lately emancipated population of the Southern States, and their posterity, by conferring on them the benefits of Christian education.” Its largest beneficiaries have been the Hampton Normal and Agricultural institute, Hampton (Va.), the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial institute of Tuskegee (Ala.), Spelman seminary in Atlanta (Ga.), Claflin university in Orangeburg (S.C.), and Fisk university, in Nashville (Tenn.). At Winston-Salem (N.C.), is the Slater State Normal and Industrial school, founded in 1892. Other State normal schools for negroes, as well as the school boards of certain Southern cities, have received assistance from the fund. SLATER, SAMUEL (1768-1835), American textile manufacturer, was born in Belper, Derbyshire, England, on June 9, 1768. In 1783 he was apprenticed to a partner of Richard Arkwright in spinning cotton. Learning that the Pennsylvania legislature had granted £100 in 1789 to the inventor of a power carding machine, he removed to the United States in that year, but was unable because of British laws to bring with him drawings of cotton-spinning machinery. In a ae went to Pawtucket THE CARD -1.), where he entered into a AFTER AN a gents partnership with William Almy

SAMUEL SLATER, FROM THE orIc- and designed from memory ma-

INAL IN THE U.S. NAT. MUSEUM chines for cotton-spinning, and turned out some yarn. In 1799 he established in his mills one of the first Sunday schools in America. In 1801 he built a factory in Rehoboth (Mass.), and with his brother John established in 1806 the manufacturing village of Ardennes), Bohemia, Germany (near Coblenz) and in the United Slatersville (R.I.). He , States; it is sometimes obtained from open quarries, and some- In 1815-16 at Oxford, began the manufacture of woollen cloth now Webster (Mass.), where he had built times from underground workings or mines, cotton mills in 1812. In his. later years he was interested in other

SLATIN—SLAUGHTER-HOUSE textile mills, and in iron foundries in Rhode Island. He died at Webster (Mass.), April 21, 1835. He has been called the “father of American manufactures.” See G. S. White, Memoir of Samuel Slater, and ed. (1846).

SLATIN, SIR RUDOLF CARL VON (1857); Anglo-Austrian soldier and administrator in the Sudan, was born on June 27, 1857, at Ober St. Veit near Vienna. At the age of seventeen he made his first journey to the Sudan, reaching Khartum by the Nile route in October 1875 in company with Theodor von Heuglin (g.v.). Thence he went through Kordofan to Dar Nuba, exploring the mountains of that region. He returned to Khartum in consequence of a revolt of the Arabs against the Egyptian government. There Slatin met Dr. Emin (Emin Pasha) and with him purposed visiting Gordon at Lado, Gordon at that time being governor of the equatorial provinces. Slatin, however, was obliged to return to Austria without accomplishing his desire, but Emin went to Lado, and at Slatin’s request recommended the young traveller to Gordon for employment in the Sudan. In 1878, while Slatin was serving as a lieutenant in the crown prince Rudolf’s regiment in the Bosnian campaign he received a letter from Gordon inviting him to the Sudan, of which country Gordon had become governor-general. Slatin arrived at Khartum in January 1879. After a brief period during which he was financial inspector, Slatin was appointed mudir (governor) of Dara, the south-western part of Darfur, a post he held until early in 1881, when he was promoted governor-general of Darfur and given the rank of bey. While administering Dara, Slatin conducted a successful campaign against one of the Darfur princes in revolt, and as governor of Darfur he endeavoured to remedy many abuses. He had soon to meet the rising power of the mahdi Mohammed Ahmed (g.v.). Early in 1882 the Arabs in southern Darfur were in revolt. With insufficient resources and no succour from Khartum, Slatin gallantly defended his province. Though victorious in several engagements he lost ground. His followers attributing his non-success to the fact that he was a Christian, Slatin nominally adopted Islam. But all hope of maintaining Egyptian authority vanished with the news of the destruction of Hicks Pasha’s army, and in December 1883 Slatin surrendered, refusing to make any further sacrifice of life in a hopeless cause. In the camp of the mahdi an attempt was made to use him to induce Gordon to surrender. This failing, Slatin was placed in chains, and on the morning of Jan. 26, 1885, an hour or two after the fall of Khartum, the head of Gordon was brought to the camp and shown to the captive. Slatin was kept at Omdurman by the khalifa, being treated alternately with savage cruelty and comparative indulgence. At length, after over eleven years’ captivity, he was enabled, through the instrumentality of Sir Reginald (then Major) Wingate of the Egyptian Intelligence Department, to escape, reaching Egypt in March 1895. In a remarkable book, Fire and Sword in the Sudan, written in the same year and issued in English and German in 1896, Slatin gave not only, as stated in the sub-title, “a personal narrative of fighting and serving the dervishes” but a connected account of the Sudan under the rule of the khalifa. Raised to the rank of pasha by the khedive, Slatin received from Queen Victoria the C.B. He served as staff offcer in the campaigns of 1897-98 which ended in the capture of Omdurman and was made a K.C.M.G. and in 1906 was ennobled by the emperor of Austria. He was inspector-general of the Sudan from 1900 to the outbreak of the World War. His mastery of Arabic and his profound knowledge of the land and peoples proved invaluable in the work of reconstruction. In 1907 he was made an honorary majorgeneral in the British army, and in 1912 was made G.C.V.O. During the World War he presided over the Austrian Red Cross for the Aid of Prisoners of War.

SLATING: see Roors.

SLATINGTON, a borough of Pennsylvania, 16 m. N.W. of Allentown. Pop. (1920), 4,014; and in 1930, 4,134. There are some 20 slate quarries in the neighbourhood, and the borough manufactures roofing and electrical slates and blackboards, and

' has knitting mills, silk mills, rug and garment factories. Slatington was settled about 1737 and incorporated in 1864.

771

SLAUGHTER-HOUSE

Slaughter-houses are

or Asarrom.

of two kinds, those which belong to individual butchers (private)

and those which belong to public authorities (public). Private slaughter-houses in existence in England before the passing of the Public Health Act 1875 were in most instances established without licence by the local authority, but after 1890 urban authorities adopting Part III. of the Public Health (Amendment) Act of that year could license for limited periods of not less than one year all slaughter-houses coming into existence after such adoption. In London, slaughter-houses have been licensed since 1855. In countries where the inspection of meat is compulsory, private slaughter-houses tend to be superseded by public abattoirs. Public slaughter-houses are of great antiquity and owe their beginnings to Roman civilization. They existed in many large towns of Germany in mediaeval times under the name of Kutielhéfe, some of which continued to exist within recent years. Their use, however, was not obligatory but shortly after the middle of the roth century the prevalence of trichinosis compelled a return to the compulsory use of them (Schwarz, Bau, Einrichtung

und Betrieb öffentlicher Schlacht- und Viehhéfe). In France, in the 15th and 16th centuries, numerous towns had public slaughterhouses. By decrees of Napoleon I. in 1807 and 1810 they were made compulsory in all large towns, the needs of Paris being determined by a Commission, which recommended the establishment of five abattoirs or public slaughter-houses. In 1838 the requirement was extended to all towns, and the slaughter-houses had to be situated at a distance from dwelling-houses. In 1867 the large abattoir of La Villette was constructed in Paris, two of the above five being closed, In 1898 the additional abattoir of Vaugirard was opened, and Villejuif alone remained open for the slaughter of horses for human food. In Prussia there were 321 public slaughter-houses in 1897. A work published later (Les Abattoirs publics, by J. de Loverdo, H. Martel and Mallet, 1906) gives the number of public slaughterhouses as 839 in Germany, 84 in England, 912 in France and nearly 200 in Austria. In some countries slaughter-houses are primitive. In the British dominions overseas advance is being made. New Zealand has a number of public slaughter-houses and vigorous inspection. Under the Meat Supervision Act of Victoria regulations have been made for Melbourne. Cattle are killed in public slaughter-houses and the carcases are stamped, thus showing in which slaughter-house they have been killed. These steps are necessitated by the frozen meat trade.

Construction.—The

planning

and

construction

of public

slaughter-houses have been the subject of excellent treatises by German writers, among whom may be mentioned Dr. Oscar Schwarz, of Stolp, and Herr Osthoff, a former city architect of Berlin. The slaughter-house should be situated outside the town, or so placed as to be isolated, and approached by wide roads, so

that if cattle are driven through them there should not be interference with the traffic. If possible, the slaughter-house should be connected with the railway system by a branch line, with a platform which has an impervious surface capable of being readily cleansed and disinfected. The most convenient shape of the site is a rectangle or square, having one side abutting on the principal road and another. side bounded by the railway. A cattle-market is usually provided in connection with the slaughter-house, and the position should be such that cattle brought by train can be taken immediately into the cattle-market and from the market or the railway to the slaughter-house. The cattle-market should be entirely separate from the slaughter-house area. Osthoff states (Schlachthéfe fiir kleine und mittelgrosse Städte) that the area of the slaughter-house should be as follows :— Sq. Metres 0-40 per inhabitant.:

Towns of 5,000- 7,000 inhabitants ”? ”

23 7,000~10,000 97, L0,000—50,000

” ”?

$ .

9

”?

29

.

OVEF 50,000

. -

0°35 0°30

5 y

> ”

0°25

9

”

In these figures it is assumed that the population derives

20t o o 60 the whole of its meat-supply from this source. © The parts required, according to Dr. Oscar ‘Schwarz, are: (1)

f

772

SLAUGHTER-HOUSE (2) a slaughtering-hall, with a special

mission of inquiry was appointed by President Roosevelt, and as

room for scalding swine; (3) cattle lairs; (4) room for scalding and cleansing tripe and intestines; (5) an engine-house; (6)

inspection law. This act required the department of agriculture

an administrative block;

separate slaughtering-room, with lairs for animals suffering from, or suspected to be suffering from, contagious disease. ; In small towns the slaughtering-hall and room for cleansing intestines may, to save cost of construction, be under the same

roof. A necessary adjunct is a cold chamber, to which carcases can be removed from the slaughtering-hall. The actual slaughtering compartment has been built on two plans—one providing a separate slaughtering-room for each butcher, the other a common

slaughtering-hall. The latter is greatly to be preferred, inasmuch as it is the only arrangement which gives adequate opportunity for inspection by the officials whose duty it is to examine the meat. The slaughter-house in Berlin was constructed on the separateroom system; but the system gave rise to difficulties of inspection. During recent years in Germany the practice has been to construct

slaughter-houses with common halls. Schwarz gives the following as the most convenient arrangement of the buildings: The administrative building (with the house of the superintendent) at the entrance, so that from it the entrance and whole place can be seen. In the vicinity should be a weighing-machine for cattle. The centre of the area is occupied by the slaughtering-halls, and the lairs

belonging to them are only separated from them by a road or passage way. The manure-house and tripe-house must be easily

accessible from all the slaughtering-halls, but not in direct com-

munication with them. The manure-house must abut upon a road, to enable its contents to be removed without passing through the premises. Next to the tripé and pig-scalding houses is the engine-house. The building for diseased animals, with the slaughtér-house for them, must be isolated from all other buildings. All buildings should be so ar-

ranged that they may be capable of extension as the population of the town increases. Cold chambers, although not absolutely essential for small slaughter-houses, are necessary when the slaughter-house is of any sizé. The cold chamber should bé situated opposite the slaughtering-halls, so that carcases can be conveyed

by overhead catriers directly from these halls to it. Great atten-

tion should be paid to adequate lighting and ventilation, the construction of walls, floors and fittings which are impermeable and can be readily cléansed, and the provision of an abundant watersupply. The floor of the slaughtering-hall is cement or granolithic pavement which must not be so smooth as to be slippery. The floor must have an adequate fall, so that the washings may discharge into the drainage. Slaughter-houses in Germany pay their own expenses, the fees received for the use of the slaughter-house, and for examination of meat and stamping after examination, providing a sufficient sum for this purpose. The fees vary in different places. The corporation of the City of London have erected a slaughter-

a result of its report there was passed in 1906 a national meat

to appoint inspectors to examine and inspect all cattle, sheep,

swine and goats before being allowed to enter into any slaughtering, packing, meat-canning, rendering or similar establishments

engaged in interstate commerce.

All such animals found to show

any symptoms of disease must be set apart and slaughtered separately. All carcases must be inspected and labelled as either

“inspected and passed” or “inspected and condemned.”

Inspec-

tion and examination is now carried out very carefully at all stages of the industry, from inspection of the animals before they enter the slaughtering establishments up to the finished product. The important feature of the Chicago and certain other western

American cities slaughter-houses is their adaptation for rapidly dealing with the animals which they receive. At the Chicago slaughter-houses the cattle to be slaughtered are driven up a winding viaduct, by which, in certain of the houses, they eventually reach the roof. Each animal now passes into a narrow pen, where

it is at once stunned by a blow on the head. It then falls through a trap-door in the pen into an immense slaughtering-room, where

the hind legs are secured, and the animal hoisted to a trolley running on an overhead rail, which leads past numerous workmen, each deputed to carry out a special duty in preparing the carcase

on its way to the cooling room which is reached in less than

one hour after it has been killed. Any particular carcase or part

thereof can be switched out of the line for special inspéction with-

out interfering with the onward movement of the others and can be switched back into line if passed by the inspectors. The méthod of dealing with sheep and swine is essentially the same. One firm alone deals daily with some 10,000 sheep, 12,000 hogs and 3,000 cattle.

Method of Killing.—In 1904 a British departmental (Ad-

miralty) committee on the humane slaughtering of animals recommended that all animals should bé stunned before being bled, and, with.a view to sparing animals awaiting slaughter the sights and smells of the slaughtet-house, that ‘“cattlé should, when possible, be slaughtered screened off from their fellows.” The aforesaid committee state that they practically tested a large number of appliances designed for felling and stunning animals previous to “pithing,” among which they mention the Bruneau and Bazter masks, the Greener patent killer, the Blitz instrument

and the

Wackett punch, all of which are suitable for quiet cattle or horses. In view of the difficulty of adjusting these instruments in the case of wild or restive animals, the committee express the opinion that ' the poll-axe when used by an expert is on the whole the most satisfactory implement, but they recommend that no man should be permitted to usé the poll-axe on a living animal until he has gone through

a thorough course

of training, firstly upon

animal and secondly upon dead bodies.

a dummy

Calves, the committee

house at their cattle market in Islington in which slaughtering is state should be stunned by a blow on the head with a club. With done in a large hall divided by partitions into separate compartments. The compartments are not let to separate butchers but are

respect to the method of slaughter of sheep the committee discuss thé method usually adopted in England, which is “‘to lay the sheep

used in common. The partitions do not extend to the ceiling, but on.a wooden crutch, and then to thrust a knife through the neck are sufficiently high to prevent the slaughtering in one compart- below the ears, and with a second motion to insert the point, from ment being seen by the occtipants of other compartments, and thus within, between the joints of the vertebrae, thus severing the spinal they necessarily provide less opportunity for inspection than is ‘cord.”’ Observations made for the committee by Professor Starling afforded by the open-slaughtering halls of Getmariy. The accom- showed that the interval between the first thrust of the knife and modation is estimated as sufficient for the slaughter of 400 cattle, complete loss of sensibility varied from five to thirty seconds, 1,200 sheep and 1,200 calves and pigs per day. and they theréfore recommended that sheep should be stunned Slaughter-houses in U.S.A.—The centralization of the béfore being stuck, a practice required in Denmark, many parts of slaughtering and packing industries in the United States has not Germany, and Switzerland. It is necessary that the sheep should required slaughter-houses on the same plan as in Europe. Acts be struck on thé top of the head between the ears and not on of Congress of 1896, 1891 and 1895 endeavoured to provide some the forehead. The insensibility produced by the blow was found amount of inspection, but sufficient appropriations were never to last fully twenty seconds, a period sufficiently long for the made to carry it out, and there were also certain loopholes in the killing to be completed if the animal is laid on the crutch before legislation. Although theretwere from time to time frequent cases being stunned. The stunning of pigs, the committee recommended, of sickness directly traceable to the consumption of canned meats should be insisted upon in all cases, and not, as sometimes at prèsfrom the great packing centres, it was not until the publication ent, only practised in the case of large pigs which give trouble or of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle (1906), which dealt with the con- with a view to the avoidance of noise. Recently in England use of | ditions in the Chicago packing yards, that steps were taken ade- the “humane killer” has been advocated. quately to-guard the public against insanitary conditions. A comThe Jewish method of slaughter by cutting the throat was con-

”

SLAVE

COAST—SLAVERY

demned by the committee after careful observation, the chief objection being that it fails in the primary requirements of rapidity, freedom from pain and instantaneous loss of sensibility. (S. F. M.; X.) BIBLioGRAPHY.—F. G. McHugh, Need for Public Abattoirs and Abolition of Private Slaughter-Houses to Facilitate Inspection, J. Roy. San. Inst. 1927, xlvii., 537; P. Bellon, Abattoirs de Marseille, Ann. d'hyg. Paris r924, ii., 284; H. Martel and others, Les abattoirs industriels aux États Unis, Rec. de méd. vét. Paris 1921, xevii., 476, 513, 579, 646; A. M. Trotter, Equipment and Control of Public Abattoirs, J Roy. San. Inst. London, 1920-21, xli,, 323; R. Edelmann, Textbook of Meat Hygiene, 5th ed, London, 1925; G. Barbier, A propos d’un abattoir intercommunal; Conditions Sanitaires imposées à ouverture dun abattoir public. Rec. de méd. vét. Paris, 1916, xcii., 35.

SLAVE

COAST

in West Africa extends from the Gold

Coast, that is the river Volta, eastward to the Niger delta; (see GUINEA). During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, this region was a principal resort of the Europeans engaged in the slave trade. The various districts are now known as Togoland, Dahomey, Lagos, etc. The coast forms the Bight of Benin.

SLAVERY.

It appears to be true that, in the words of

Dunoyer, the economic régime of every society which has recently become sedentary is founded on the slavery of the industrial professions. In the hunter period the savage warrior does not enslave his vanquished enemy, but slays him; the women of a conquered tribe he may, however, carry off and appropriate as wives or as servants, for in this period domestic labour falls almost altogether on their sex. In the pastoral stage slaves will be captured only to be sold, with the exception of a few who may be required for the care of flocks or the small amount of cultivation which is then undertaken. It is in proportion as a sedentary life prevails, and agricultural exploitation is practised on a larger scale, whilst warlike habits continue to exist, that the labour of slaves is increasingly introduced to provide food for the master, and at the same time save him from irksome toil. Of this stage in the social movement slavery seems to have been, as we have said, a universal and inevitable accompaniment. But wherever theocratic organizations established themselves slavery in the ordinary sense did not become a vital element in the social system. The members of the lowest class were not in a state of individual subjection: the entire caste to which they belonged was collectively subject. It is in the communities in which the military order obtained an ascendancy over the sacerdotal, and which were directly organized for war, that slavery (as the word is commonly understood) had its natural and appropriate place. It is not merely that in its first establishment slavery was an immense advance by substituting for the immolation of captives, often accompanied by cannibalism, their occupation in labour for the benefit of the victor. This advantage, recalled by an old though erroneous! etymology, is generally acknowledged, But it is not so well understood that slavery discharged important offices in the later social evolution—first, by enabling military action to prevail with the de_ gree of intensity and continuity requisite for the system of incorporation by conquest which was its final destination; and, secondly, by forcing the captives, who with their descendants came to form the majority of the population in the conquering community, to an industrial life, in spite of the antipathy to regular and sustained labour which is deeply rooted in human nature. As regards the latter consideration, it is enough to say that nowhere has productive industry developed itself in the form of voluntary effort; in every country of which we have any knowledge it was imposed by the strong upon the weak,

713

discipline of constraint. From the former point of view the freeman, then essentially a warrior, and the slave were mutual auxiliaries, simultaneously exercising different and complementary functions—each necessary to the community. In modern slavery, on the other hand, where the occupations of both parties were industrial, the existence of a servile class only guaranteed for some of them the possibility of self-indulgent ease, whilst it imposed on others the necessity of indigent idleness. It was in the Roman State that military action—in Greece often purposeless and, except in the resistance to Persia, on the whole fruitless—worked out the social mission which formed its true justification. Hence at Rome slavery also most properly found its place, so long as that mission was in progress of accomplishment. As soon as the march of conquest had reached its natural limit, slavery began to be modified; and when the empire was divided into the several States which had grown up under it, and the system of defence characteristic of the middle ages was substituted for the aggressive system of antiquity, slavery gradually disappeared, and was replaced by serfdom. We have so far dealt with the political results of ancient slavery, and have found it to have been in certain respects not only useful but indispensable. When we consider its moral effects, whilst endeavouring to avoid exaggeration, we must yet pronounce its influence to have been profoundly detrimental. In its action on the slave it marred in a great measure the happy effects of habitual industry by preventing the development of the sense of human dignity which lies at the foundation of morals. On the morality of the masters—whether personal, domestic or social—the effects of the institution were disastrous. GREECE

We find slavery fully established in the Homeric period. The prisoners taken in war are retained as slaves, or sold (IĮ. xxiv. 752) or held at ransom (JI. vi. 427) by the captor. Sometimes the men of a conquered town or district are slain and the women carried off (Od. ix. 40). Not unfrequently free persons were kidnapped by pirates and sold in other regions, like Eumaeus in the Odyssey. The slave might thus be by birth of equal rank with his master, who knew that the same fate might befall himself or some of the members of his family. The institution does not present itself in a very harsh form in Homer, especially if we consider (as Grote suggests) that “all classes were much on a

level in taste, sentiment and instruction.” The male slaves were employed in the tillage of the land and the tending of cattle, and the females in domestic work and household manufactures. The principal slaves often enjoyed the confidence of their masters and had important duties entrusted to them; and, after lengthened and meritorious service, were put in possession of a house and property of their own (Od. xiv. 64). Grote’s idea that the women slaves were in a more pitiable condition than the males does not seem justified, except perhaps in the case of the aletrides, who turned the household mills which ground the flour consumed in the family, and who were sometimes overworked by unfeeling

masters (Od. xx. 110-119), Homer marks in a celebrated couplet his sense of the moral deterioration commonly wrought by the condition of slavery (Od. xvii. 322). Historic Period—Sources of Slavery.—It is, however, in historic Greece, where we have ample documentary information,

that it is most important to study the system. The sources of slavery in Greece were: (1) Birth, the condition being hereditary. This was not an abundant source, women slaves being less numerous than men, and wise masters making the union of the sexes and was wrought into the habits of the people only by the stern rather a reward of good service than a matter of speculation IServus is not cognate with servare, as has often been supposed, it (Xen. Oecon. 9, 5), It was in general cheaper to buy a slave is really related to the Homeric efpepo and the verb efpw, with which than to rear one to the age of labour. (2) Sale of children by the Latin sero is to be connected. It may be here mentioned that slave their free parents, which was tolerated, except in Attica, or their was Originally a national name; it meant a man of Slavonic race captured and made a bondman to the Germans. “From the Euxine to the exposure, which was permitted, except at Thebes. The conseAdriatic, in the state of captives or subjects, . , , they [the Slavonians] quence of the latter was sometimes to subject them to a servitude overspread the land, and the national appellation of ‘the Slaves has worse than death, as is seen in the plays of Plautus and Terence, been degraded by chance or malice from the signification of glory which, as is well known, depict Greek, not Roman, manners. to that of servitude” (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. lv.). The historian alludes to the derivation of the national name from slava, glory. See Freemen, through indigence, sometimes sold themselves, and at Athens, up to the time of Solon, an insolvent debtor became the Skeat’s Etym, Dict., s-v.; see also SLAVS,

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SLAVERY

slave of his creditor. (3) Capture in war. Not only Asiatics and Thracians thus became slaves, but in the many wars between Grecian States, continental or colonial, Greeks were reduced to slavery by men of their own race. Callicratidas pronounced against the enslavement of Greeks by Greeks, but violated his

own principle, to which, however, Epaminondas and Pelopidas appear to bave been faithful. (4) Piracy and kidnapping. The descents of pirates on the coasts were a perpetual source of danger; the pirate was a gainer either by the sale or by the redemption of his captives. If ransomed, the victim became by Athenian law the slave of his redeemer till he paid in money or labour the price which had been given for him. Kidnappers (andrapodisiae) carried off children even in cities, and reared them as slaves. Whether from hostile forays or from piracy, any Greek was exposed to the risk of enslavement. (5) Commerce. Besides the sale of slaves which took place as a result of the capture of cities or other military operations, there was a systematic slave trade. Syria, Pontus, Lydia, Galatia, and above all Thrace were sources of supply. Egypt and Ethiopia also furnished a certain number, and Italy a few. Of foreigners, the Asiatics bore the greatest value, as most amenable to command, and most versed in the arts of luxurious refinement. But Greeks were highest of all in esteem, and they were much sought for foreign sale. Greece proper and Ionia supplied the petty Eastern princes with courtesans and female musicians and dancers. Athens was an important slave market, and the State profited by a tax on the sales; but the principal marts were those of Cyprus, Samos, Ephesus and especially Chios. Employment of Slaves.—The slaves were employed either in domestic service—as household managers, attendants or personal escorts—or in work of other kinds, agricultural or urban. In early Attica, and even down to the time of Pericles, the landowners lived in the country. The Peloponnesian War introduced a change; and after that time the proprietors resided at Athens, and the cultivation was in the hands of slaves. In manufactures and commerce, also, servile gradually displaced free labour. Speculators either directly employed slaves as artisans or commercial and banking agents, or hired them out, sometimes for work in mines or factories, sometimes for service in private houses, as cooks, flute-players, etc., or for viler uses. There were also public slaves; of these some belonged to temples, to which they were presented as offerings, amongst them being the courtesans who acted as hieroduli at Corinth and at Eryx in Sicily; others were appropriated to the service of the magistrates or to public works;: there were at Athens 1,200 Scythian archers for the police of thé city; slaves served, too, in the fleets, and were employed in the armies—commonly as workmen, and exceptionally as soldiers. The condition of slaves at Athens was not in general a wretche d one. Demosthenes (Zn Mid. p. 530) says that, if the barbari ans from whom the slaves were bought were informed of the mild treatment they received, they would entertain a great esteem for the Athenians. Plautus in more than one place thinks it necessa ry to explain to the spectators of his plays that slaves at Athens enjoyed such privileges, and even licence, as must be surprising to a Roman audience. The slave was introduced with certain customary rites into his position in the family; he was in practice, though not by law, permitted to accumulate a private fund of his own; his marriage was also recognized by custom; though in general excluded from sacred ceremonies and public sacrifices, slaves were admissible to religious associations of a private kind; there

were some popular festivals in which they were

allowed to participate; they had even special ones for themselves both at Athens and in other Greek centres, Their remains were deposited in the family tomb of their master, who sometim es erected monuments m testimony of his affection and regret. They often lived on terms of intimacy either with the head of the house or its younger members; but it is to be feared that too often this intimacy

[GREECE

rendered by the slave. Aristophanes and Plautus show us how often resort was had to the discipline of the lash even in the case of domestic slaves. Those employed in workshops, whose overseers were themselves most commonly of servile status, had probably a harder lot than domestics; and the agricultural labourers were not unfrequently chained, and treated much in the same way as beasts of burden. The displeasure of the master sometimes dismissed his domestics to the more oppressive labours of the mill or the mine. A refuge from cruel treatment was afforded by the temples and altars of the gods and by the sacred groves.

Nor did Athenian law leave the slave without protection. He had, as Demosthenes boasts, an action for outrage like a freeman, and his death at the hand of a stranger was avenged like that of a citizen (Eurip. Hec. 288), whilst, if caused by his master’s violence, it had to be atoned for by exile and a religious expiation. Even when the slave had killed his master, the relatives of the house could not themselves inflict punishment; they were obliged to hand him over to the magistrate to be dealt with by legal process. The slave who had just grounds of complaint against his master could demand to be sold; when he alleged his right to liberty, the law granted him a defender and the sanctuaries offered him an asylum till judgment should be given. Securities

were taken against the revolt of slaves by not associating those of the same nationality and language; they were sometimes fettered to prevent flight, and, after a first attempt at escape, branded to facilitate their recovery. There were treaties between States for the extradition of fugitives, and contracts of mutual assurance between individuals against their loss by flight. Emancipation.—The slave could purchase his liberty with his peculium by agreement with his master. He could be liberated by will, or, during his master’s life, by proclamation in the theatre, the law courts or other public places, or by having his name inscribed in the public registers, or, in the later age of Greece, by sale or donation to certain temples—an act which did not make the slave a hierodulus but a freeman. Conditions were sometimes attached to emancipation, as of remaining for life or a definite time with the former master, or another person named by him, or of performing some special service; payments or rights of succession to property might also be reserved. By manumission the Athenian slave became in relation to the State a metic, in relation to his master a client. He was thus in an intermediate condition between slavery and complete freedom. If the freed-

man violated his duties to his patron he was subject to an action

at law, and if the decision were against him, he was again reduced to slavery. He became a full member of the State only, as in the case of foreigners, by a vote in an assembly of 6,000 citizens; and even this vote might be set aside by a graphé paranomon. Slaves who had rendered eminent services to the public, as those who fought at Arginusae and at Chaeronea, were at once admitted to the status of citizens in the class of (so-called) Plataeans. But it would appear that even in their case some civic rights were reserved and accorded only to their children by a female citizen. The number of freedmen at Athens seems never to have been '

great.

(See further Greece:

Ancient History.)

Theoretic Views on Slavéry.—It is well known that Aris-

totle held slavery to be necessary and natural, and, under just conditions, beneficial to both parties in the relation—views which were correct enough from the political side, regard being had to the contemporary social state.

His practical motto, if he is

the author of the Economics attributed to him, is—“‘no outrage,

and no familiarity.” There ought, he says, to be held out to the Slave the hope of liberty as the reward of his service. Plato condemned the practice, which the theory of Aristotle also by plication sets aside as inadmissible, of Greeks having Greeks imfor Slaves. In the Laws he accepts the institution as a necessary though embarrassing one, and recommends for the safety of the masters that natives of different countries should be mixed and that they

should. all be well treated. But, whilst condemning harshness was founded, not on mutual respect, as in the heroic towards them, he encourages the feeling example of Ulysses and Eumaeus, but on insolent of contempt for them as self-assertion a Class. The later moral schools of Greece on ithe one side and as scarcely at all concern a spirit of unworthy compliance on the themselves with the institution. The Epicurean had no ether, the latter having its raison d’étre scruple in degrading services | about the servitude of those whose labours contributed to his

ROME]

SLAVERY

tao

time of the Punic Wars. Employment of Slaves.—There were servi publici as well as privati. The service of the magistrates was at first in the hands of freemen; but the lower offices, as of couriers, servants of the law courts, of prisons and of temples, were afterwards filled by slaves. The execution of public works also came to be largely committed to them—as the construction of roads, the cleansing of the sewers and the maintenance of the aqueducts. Both kinds of functions were discharged by slaves, not only at Rome, but in the rural and provincial municipalities. The slaves of a private Roman were divided between the familie rustica and the familia urbana. At the head of the familia rustica was the villicus, himself a rises slave, with the wife who was given him at once to aid him and “premature modernism” which has been remarked in him, groups above the ordinary feelings of his time in regard to the slaves. to bind him to his duties. Under him were the several care the and exploitation the of branches different the in employed masters, their to fidelity As Paley says, he loves “to record their their sympathy in the trıals of life, their gratitude for kindness of the cattle and flocks, as well as those who kept or prepared who and considerate treatment, and their pride in bearing the char- the food, clothing and tools of the whole staff and those sports. rural of species the-various in master the on adto attended acter of honourable men. . . . He allows them to reason, vise, to suggest; and he even makes them philosophize on the A slave prison (ergastulum) was part of such an establishment, the offences of follies and the indiscretions of their superiors” (compare Med. and there were slaves whose office it was to punish who disz4; Orest. 869; Hel. 728; Ion. 854; Frag. Melan. 506; Phrix. 823). their fellows. To the familia urbana belonged those charged the duties of domestic attendance, the service of the (For the Helots ın Laconia, see HeLorTS.) toilet, bath, table and kitchen, besides the entertainment of the ROME master and his guests by dancing, singing and other arts. ‘There We have already observed that the Roman system of life was were, besides, the slaves who accompanied the master and mistress that in which slavery had its most natural and relatively legiti- out of doors and were chosen for their beauty and grace as guards mate place; and accordingly it was at Rome that, as Blair has of honour, for their strength as chairmen or porters, or for their remarked, the institution was more than anywhere else “extended readiness and address in remembering names, delivering messages in its operations and methodized in its details.” of courtesy and the like. There were also attached to a great Sources of Slavery.—We must distinguish from the later household physicians, artists, secretaries, librarians, copyists, preslavery at Rome what Mommsen calls “the old, in some measure parers of parchment, as well as pedagogues and preceptors of difinnocent” slavery, under which the farmer tilled the land along ferent kinds—readers, grammarians, men of letters and even with his slave, or, if he possessed more land than he could man- philosophers—all of servile condition, besides accountants, manage, placed the slave—either as a steward, or as a sort of lessee agers and agents for the transaction of business. Actors, comic obliged to render up a portion of the produce—over a detached and tragic, pantomimi, and the performers of the circus were comfarm. Though slaves were obtained by the early victories of Rome monly slaves, as were also the gladiators. These last were chosen over her Italian neighbours, no large number was employed on the from the most warlike races—as the Samnites, Gauls and Thrasmall holdings of those periods, But the extension of properties cians. Familiae of gladiators were kept by private speculators, who in the hands of the patricians, and the continued absences of citi- hired them out; they were sometimes owned by men of high rank. zens required by the expanding system of conquest, necessarily Several special examples and other indirect indications show brought with them a demand for slave labour, which was increas- that the wealthier Romans possessed large familiae. This may be ingly supplied by captives taken in war. Of the number furnished inferred from the columbaria of the house of Livia and of other from this source a few particulars from the time of the mature great houses. The slaves of Pedanius Secundus, who, in spite of a republic and the first century of the empire will give some idea. threatened outbreak of the indignant populace, were all put to In Epirus, after the victories of Aemilius Paullus, 150,000 cap- death because they had been under their master’s roof when he tives were sold. The prisoners at Aquae, Sextiae and Vercellae was murdered, were 400 in number. Pliny tells us that Caecilius, were 90,000 Teutons and 60,000 Cimbri. Caesar sold on a single a freedman of the time of Augustus, left by his will as many as occasion in Gaul 63,000 captives. But slavery, as Hume has 4,116. The question as to the total number of slaves at Rome or shown, is unfavourable to population. Hence a regular com- in Italy is a very difficult one, and it is not, perhaps, possible to merce in slaves was established, which was based on the “sys- arrive with any degree of certainty at an approximate estimate. tematically-prosecuted hunting of man,” and indicated an entire Gibbon supposes that there were in the Roman world in the reign perversion of the primitive institution, which was essentially con- of Claudius at least as many slaves as free inhabitants. But Blair nected with conquest. The pirates sold great numbers of slaves at seems right’ in believing that this number, though probably corDelos, where was the chief market for this kind of wares; and rect for an earlier period, is much under the truth for the age to these sales went on as really, though more obscurely, after the which it is assigned. He fixes the proportion of slaves to free successful expedition of Pompey. There was a regular importa- men as that of three to one for the time between the conquest tion to Rome of slaves, brought to some extent from Africa, Spain of Greece (146 B.c.) and the reign of Alexander Severus (A.D. and Gaul, but chiefly from Asiatic countries—Bithynia, Galatia, 222-235). The entire number of slaves in Italy would thus have Cappadocia and Syria. | been, in the reign of Claudius, 20,832,000. There were other sources from which slavery was alimented, Laws.—By the original Roman law the master was clothed though of course in a much less degree. Certain offences reduced with absolute dominion over the slave, extending to the power of the guilty persons to slavery (servi poenae), and they were emwhich is not surprising when we consider the nature ployed in public work in the quarries or the mines. Originally, a life and death, The slave could not possess property of any potestas. patria the of insolvent his hold could creditor father could sell his children. A was legally his master’s. He was, acquired he whatever kind; debtor as a slave, or sell him out of the city (trans Tiberim). to enjoy and accumulate chance permitted practice in however, consein usury with d overwhelme debtors, of The enslavement of what he produced, under the share a or savings, or earnings military on absence quence of losses by hostile raids or their own not enter into a contract with could master A peculium. of name service, led to the secession to the Mons Sacer (493 B.C.). The of theft before the law; for, him accuse he could nor slave, his virtue (by lien creditor’s the Poetelian law (326 B.c.) restricted not a subtraction, but only a was this anything, took slave the if the of a nexum) to the goods of his debtor, and enacted that for union of a male and female ‘slave The property. of displacement, debtors of hear we but chains; in put be should debtor no future marriage; it was a cohabitation addicti to their creditors by the tribunals long after—even in the had not the legal character of a

own indulgence and tranquillity. The Stoic regarded the condition of freedom or slavery as an external accident, indifferent in the eye of wisdom; to him it was Irrational to see in liberty a ground of pride or in slavery a subject of complaint; from intolerable indignity suicide was an ever-open means of escape. The poets—especially the authors of the New Comedy—strongly inculcate humanity, and insist on the fundamental equality of the slave. The celebrated “homo sum” is a translation from Alexis, and the spirit of it breathes in many passages of the Greek drama. A fragment of Philemon declares, as if in reply to Aristotle, that not nature, but fortune, makes the slave. Euripides, as might be expected from his humanitarian cast of sentiment, and the

770

SLAVERY

be termi(contubernium) merely, which was tolerated, and might e of capabl not re, therefo was, slave a ; master the by nated at will, given have to seems ent sentim general the crime of adultery. Yet

of husa stronger sanction to this sort of connection; the names stage, the on slaves to n relatio in used freely are band and wife and even in the laws, and in the language of the tombs. For enterslave ing the military service or taking on him any State office a as ed examin be general in not could He death. with was punished a witness, except by torture. A master, when accused, could offer

his slaves for the “question,” or demand for the same purpose the slaves or killed could not the latter

of another; and, if in the latter case they were injured in the process, thelr owner was indemnified. A slave accuse his master, except of adultery or incest (under name being included the violation of sacred things or

places); the case of high treason was afterwards added to these.

An accused slave could not invoke the aid of the tribunes. The penalties of the law for crime were specially severe on slaves. Treatment of Slaves.—Columella, like Xenophon, favours a certain friendliness and familiarity in one’s intercourse with his farm slaves. Cato ate and drank the same coarse victuals as his slaves, and even had the children suckled by his wife, that they might imbibe a fondness for the family. But he had a strict eye to profit in all his dealings with them. He allowed the contubernium of male and female slaves at the price of a money payment from their peculium. Columella regarded the gains from the births as a sufficient motive for encouraging these unions, and thought that mothers should be rewarded for their fecundity; Varro, too, seems to have taken this view. The immense extension of the rural estates (Jatifundia) made it impossible for masters to know their slaves, even if they were disposed to take trouble for the purpose. Effective superintendence even by overseers became less easy; the use of chains was introduced, and these were worn not only in the field during working hours but at night in the ergastulum where the slaves slept. Urban slaves had probably often a life as little enviable, especially those who worked at trades for speculators. Even in private houses at Rome, so late as the time of

Ovid, the porter was chained. In the familia urbana the favourites of the master had good treatment, and might exercise some influence over him which would lead to their receiving flattery and

gifts from those who sought his vote or solicited his support. Doubtless there was often genuine mutual affection; slaves sometimes, as in noted instances during the civil wars, showed the noblest spirit of devotion to their masters. Those who were not inmates of the Lousehold, but were employed outside of it as keepers of a shop or boat, chiefs of workshops, or clerks in a mercantile business, had the advantage of greater freedom of action. The slaves of the Jeno and the lanista were probably in most cases not only degraded but unhappy. The lighter punishments inflicted by masters were commonly personal chastisement or banishment from the town house to rural labour; the severer were employment in the mill (pistrinum) or relegation to the mines or quarries. To the mines also speculators sent slaves; they worked half-naked, men and women, in chains, under the lash and guarded by soldiers. Vedius Pollio, in the time of Augustus, was said to have thrown his slaves, condemned sometimes for trivial mistakes or even accidents, to the lampreys in his fshpond. Cato advised the agriculturist to sell his old oxen and his old slaves, as well as his sick ones; and sick slaves were exposed

in the island of Aesculapius in the Tiber; by a decree of Claudius slaves so exposed could not be reclaimed by their masters, in case of their recovery. Though the Roman slaves were not, like the Spartan Helots, kept obedient by systematic terrorism, their large numbers were a constant source of danger. The law under which the slaves of Pedanius were put to death, probably introduced under Augustus and more fully enacted under Nero, is sufficient proof of this anxiety, which indeed is strongly stated by Tacitus in his narra-

tive of the facts. There had been many conspiracies amongst the slaves in the course of Roman history, and some formidable insurrections. The growth of the latifundia made the slaves more and more numerous and formidable. Free labour was discountenanced. Cato, Varro and Columella all agree that slave labour was to be

[ROME

preferred to free except in unhealthy regions and for large occasional operations, which probably transcended the capacity of the permanent familia rustica. Cicero and Livy bear testimony to the

disappearance of a free plebs from the country districts and its

replacement by gangs of slaves working on great estates.

worst

form of such predial slavery

existed

The

in Sicily, whither

Mommsen supposes that its peculiarly harsh features had been

brought by the Carthaginians.

In Sicily, accordingly, the first

really serious servile insurrections took place. The rising under Eunus in 133 B.C. was with some difñculty suppressed by Rupilius.

Partial revolts in Italy succeeded; and then came the second Sicil-

ian insurrection

under Trypho

and Athenio,

followed

by the

Servile War in Italy under Spartacus (g.v.). Clodius and Milo

used bands of gladiators in their city riots, and this action on the part of the latter was approved by Cicero. In the First Civil War they were to be found in both camps, and the murderers of OctaCaesar were escorted to the Capitol by gladiators. Antony, vius, and Sextus Pompeius employed them in the Second Civil War; and it is recorded by Augustus on the Monumentum Ancyranum that he gave back to their masters for punishment about 30,000 slaves who had borne arms against the State. Blair, in comparing the Greek and Roman systems of slavery, points with justice to the greater facility and frequency of emancipation as the great superiority of the latter. No Roman slave, he says, “needed to despair of becoming both a freeman and a citizen.’ Manumission was of two kinds—justa or regular, and minus

justa, Of manumissio justa there were four modes: (1) by adop-

tion, rarely resorted to; (2) by testament, already recognized in the Twelve Tables; (3) by census, which was of exceptional use,

and did not exist later than the time of Vespasian; and (4) by vindicta, which was the usual form. In the last method the master turned the slave round, with the words “liber esto,” in the presence of the praetor, that officer or his lictor at the same time striking the slave with his rod. The manumissio minus justa was effected by a sufficient manifestation of the will of the master, as by letter, by words, by putting the pileus (or cap of liberty) on the slave, or by any other formality which had by usage become significant of the intention to liberate, or by such an act as making the slave the guardian of his children. This extra-legal sort of manumission was incomplete and precarious; even after the lex Junia Norbana (A.D. 19), which assimilated the position of those so liberated to that of the Latin colonists, under the name of Latini juniores, the person remained in the eye of the law a slave till his death and could not dispose of his peculium by gift or testamentary disposition. A freedman, unless he became such by operation of law, remained client of his master, and both were bound by mutual obligations arising out of that relation. These obligations existed also in the case of freedmen of the State, of cities, temples and corporations. The freedman took his former master’s name; he owed him deference (obsequium) and aid (oficium); and neglect of these obligations was punished, in extreme cases even with loss of liberty. Conditions might be annexed by the master to the gift of freedom, as of continued residence with him, or of general service or some particular duty to be performed, or of a money payment to be made. But the praetor Rutilius, about the beginning of the rst century B.C., limited the excessive imposition of such conditions, and his restrictions were carried further by the later jurists and the imperial constitutions. Failing natural heirs of an intestate freedman, the master, now patron, succeeded to his property

at his death; and he could dispose by will of only half his possessions, the patron receiving the other half. Freedmen and their sons were subject to civil disabilities; the third generation became ingenut (full citizens). Thus the slave element tended to merge itself in the general popular body. l It was often a pecuniary advantage to the master to liberate the slave; he obtained payment which enabled him to buy a substitute and at the same time gained a client. This, of course,

presupposes the recognition of the right of the slave to his pecu-

lium; and the same is implied in Cicero’s statement that a diligent slave could in six years purchase his freedom, Augustus set himself against the undue multiplication of manumissions, probably

SLAVERY

ROME]

considering the rapid succession of new citizens a source of social instability, and recommended a similar policy to his successor. The lex Aelia Sentia (about a.p. 3) forbade manumission, except in strictly limited cases, by masters under 20 years of age or of slaves under 30; and the lex Furia Caninia (about A.D. 7) fixed the proportion of a man’s slaves which he could liberate by testament, and forbade more than 100 being so enfranchised, whatever might be the number of the familia. Under the empire the freedmen rose steadily in influence; they became admissible to the

rank of equites and to the senate; they obtained provincial Governments, and were appointed to offices in the imperial household which virtually placed them at the head of administrative departments,

(See article on Narcissus.)

on the other - Service, in the they entered labour began

Freedmen of humbler rank,

hand, filled the minor offices in the administrative city cohorts, and in the army; and we shall find that largely into the trades and professions when free to revive. They appeared also in literature, e.g.,

Tiro, the amanuensis of Cicero; Hyginus, the librarian of Augustus; Livius Andronicus, Caecilius, Statius, Terence, Publilius Syrus, Phaedrus and Epictetus,

In the 2nd century of the Christian era we find a marked change with respect to the institution of slavery, both in the region of thought and in that of law. Already the principles of reason and humanity had been applied to the subject by Seneca. But it was in the 2nd century, as we have said, that “‘the victory of moral ideas” in this, as in other departments of life, became “decisive. . ., Dio Chrysostom, the adviser of Trajan, is the first Greek writer who has pronounced the principle of slavery to be contrary to the law of nature” (Mark Pattison), And a parallel change is found in the practical policy of the State, The military vocation

of Rome was now felt to have reached its normal limits; and the ` emperors, understanding that, in the future, industrial activity must prevail, prepared the abolition of slavery as far as was then possible, by honouring the freedmen, by protecting the slave against his master, and by facilitating manumissions. The general tendency both of the imperial constitutions and of the maxims of

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able to freedom. The emperor could confer liberty by presenting a gold ring to a slave with the consent of the master, and the legal process called restitutio natalium made him a full citizen. Influence of Christianity.—The rise of Christianity in the Roman world still further improved the condition of the slave. The sentiments it created were not only favourable to the humane treatment of the class in the present, but were the germs out of which its entire liberation was destined, at a later period, in part to arise. It is sometimes objected that the Christian Church did not denounce slavery as a social crime and insist on its abolition. We have seen that slavery was a fundamental element of the old Roman constitution. When the work of conquest had been achieved, it could not be expected that a radical alteration should be suddenly wrought either in the social system

which was in harmony with it, or even in the general ideas which had grown up under its influence. The latter would, indeed, be gradually affected; and accordingly, we have observed a change in the policy of the law, indicating a change in sentiment with respect to the slave class, which does not appear to have been at all due to Christian teaching. But the institution itself could not be at once seriously disturbed. The results must have been disastrous,

most of all to the slave population itself, Before that end could be accomplished, an essentially new social situation must come into existence. But in the meantime much might be done towards further mitigating the evils of slavery, especially by impressing on master and slave their relative duties and controlling their behaviour towards one another by the exercise of an independent moral authority. This was the work open to the Christian priesthood, and it cannot be denied that it was well discharged. Whilst the fathers agree with the Stoics of the and century in representing slavery as an indifferent circumstance in the eye of religion and morality, the contempt for the class which the Stoics too often exhibited is in them replaced by a genuine sympathy. They protested against the multiplication of slaves from motives of vanity in the houses of the great, against the gladiatorial combats

sale of children, and of giving them in pledge for debt, are forbidden. Diocletian forbade a free man to sell himself. Kidnappers

(ultimately abolished by against the consignment which was often a school aged the emancipation of

withdrawn from the yoke of his creditor. While the slave trade was permitted, the mutilation of boys and young men, too often

that still marked the institution. But a stronger influence of Chris-

the legists is in favour of liberty. The practices of exposure and

(plagiariz) were punished with death. The insolvent debtor was

practised, was punished with exile and even with death. In red-

hibitory actions (for the annulment of sales), if a slave were returned to the seller, so must also be his parents, brothers and personae contubernio conjunctae. In the interpretation of testaments it was to be assumed that members of the same family were not to be separated by the division of the succession, The law also favoured in special cases the security of the peculium, though in general principle it still remained the property of the master. The State granted to public slaves the right of bequeathing half their possessions; and private persons sometimes permitted similar dispositions even to a greater extent, though only

within the familia. Hadrian took from masters the power of life and death and abolished the subterranean prisons. Antoninus Pius punished him who killed his own slave as if he had killed another’s. Already in the time of Nero the magistrates had been ordered to receive the slave’s complaint of ill-treatment; and the lex Petronia, belonging to the same or an earlier period, forbade masters to hand over their slaves to combats with wild beasts. M. Aurelius gave to masters an action against their slaves for any cause of complaint, thus bringing their relation more directly under the surveillance of law and public opinion. A slave’s oath could still not be taken in a court of law; he was interrogated by

the “question”; but the emperors and jurists limited in various

ways the application of torture, adding, however, as we have men-

tioned, to the cases in which it could previously be appealed to that of the crime of majestas. For certain alleged offences of the master the slave could bring an action, being represented for the purpose by an adsertor. Emancipation was facilitated. The power of imposing conditions on testamentary manumissions was restricted, and these conditions interpreted in the sense most favour-

the noble self-devotion of a monk) and of slaves to the theatrical profession, of corruption. The Church also encourindividual slaves and the redemption of captives. And its influence is to be seen in the legislation of the

Christian emperors, which softened some of the harshest features

tianity appears in Theodosius, and this influence is at the highest in the legislation of Justinian. Its systematic effort is, in his own words, “pro libertate, quam et fovere et tueri Romanis legibus et

praecipue nostro numini peculiare est.” Law still refused in general to recognize the marriages of slaves; but Justinian gave them a legal value after emancipation in establishing rights of succession, Unions between slaves and free women, or between a freeman and the female slave of another, continued to be forbidden, and were long punished in certain circumstances with atrocious severity. As witness, the slave was still subject to the question; as criminal, he was punished with greater rigour than the freeman. If he accused his master of a crime, unless the charge was of treason, he was burnt, But he could maintain a legal claim to his own liberty, not now merely through an adsertor, but in

person. A female slave was still held incapable of the offence of adultery; but Justinian visited with death alike the rape of a slave or freedwoman and that of a free maiden. Already the master who killed his slave had been punished as for homicide, except in the case of his unintended death under correction; Constantine treated as homicide a number of specially enumerated acts of

cruelty. Even under Theodosius the combats of the amphitheatre were permitted, if not encouraged, by the State authorities; these sports were still expected from the candidates for public honours. Combats of men with beasts were longest continued; they had not ceased even in the early years of the reign of Justinian. A new process of manumission was now established, to be performed in the churches through the intervention of the ministers of reli-

gion; and it was provided that clerics could at any time by mere

expression of will liberate their slaves. Slaves who were admitted

to holy orders, or who entered a monastery, became freemen.

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under certain restrictions framed to prevent fraud or injustice. Justinian abolished the personal conditions which the legislation of Augustus had required to be satisfied by the master who emancipated and the slave who was manumitted, and removed the limitation of number. The liberated slave, whatever the process by which he had obtained his freedom, became at once a full citizen, his former master, however, retaining the right of patronage, the abolition of which would probably have discouraged emanclation. j Transition to Serfdom.—The slavery of the working classes was not directly changed into the system of personal freedom. There was an intermediate stage which has not always been sufhiciently discriminated from slavery. We mean the régime of serfdom. In studying the origin of this transitional state of things, four principal considerations have to be kept in view. (1) As Gibbon observes, the completion of the Roman system of conquest reduced the supply of slaves. It is true that, when the barbarian invasions began in the 3rd century, many captives were made, who, when not enrolled in the army, were employed in agriculture or domestic service; but the regular importation was increasingly diminished. This improved the condition of the slave by rendering his existence an object of greater value to his master. It was clearly to the interest of each family to preserve indefinitely its own hereditary slaves. Hence the abolition of the external slave trade tended, in fact, to put an end to internal sales, and the slaves became attached to the households or lands of their masters. (2) The diminished supply of slaves further acted in the direction of the rehabilitation of free labour. A general movement of this kind is noticeable from the 2nd century onwards. Freemen had always been to some extent employed in the public service. In private service superior posts were often filled by freedmen; the higher arts—as medicine, grammar, painting—were partly in the hands of freedmen and even of ingenui; the more successful actors and gladiators were often freedmen. In the factories or workshops kept by wealthy persons slave labour was mainly employed; but free artisans sometimes offered their services to these establishments or formed associations to compete with them. We have seen that free persons had all along been to some extent employed in the cultivation of land as hired labourers, and, as we shall presently find, also as tenants on the great estates. How all this operated we shall understand when we examine the remarkable organization of the State introduced by Diocletian and his successors. (3) This organization established in the Roman world a personal and hereditary fixity of professions and situations which was not very far removed from the caste system of the East. The purpose of this was doubtless to resist by a strong internal consolidation the shock of the invasions, to secure public order, to enforce industrious habits, and to guarantee the financial resources of the State. Personal independence was largely sacrificed, but those still more important ends were in a great measure attained. This system, by diminishing the freeman’s mastery over himself and his power to determine his occupation, reduced the interval between him and the slave; and the latter on the one hand, the free domestic servant and workshop labourer on the other, both passed insensibly into the common condition of serfdom. (4) The corresponding change, in the case of the rural slaves, took place through their being merged in the order of coloni. The Roman colonus was originally a free person who took land ‘on lease contracting to pay to the proprietor either a fixed sum annually or (when a colonus partiarius) a certain proportion of the produce of the farm. Under the emperors of the 4th century the name designated a cultivator who, though personally free, was attached to the soil, and transmitted his condition to his descendants; and this became the regular status of the mass of Roman cultivators. The class of coloni appears to have been composed partly of tenants by contract who had incurred large arrears of rent and were detained on the estates as debtors (obaerati), partly of foreign captives or Immigrants who were settled in this condition on the land, and partly of small proprietors and other poor men who voluntarily adopted the status as an improvement in their position. They paid a fixed proportion of the produce (pars agraria) to the owner of the estate, and gave a determinate amount of labour (operae) on

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the portion of the domain which he kept in his own hands (mansus dominicus). The law for a long time took no notice of these customary tenures, and did not systematically constitute them until the 4th century.

It was, indeed, the requirements of the

fiscus and the conscription which impelled the imperial Govern-

ment to regulate the system. The coloni were inscribed (adscripti) on the registers of the census as paying taxes to the State, for which the proprietor was responsible, reimbursing himself for the amount. In a constitution of Constantine (a.D. 332) we find the colonus recognized as permanently attached to the land. If he abandoned his holding he was brought back and punished; and anyone who received him had not only to restore him but to pay a penalty. He could not marry out of the domain; if he took for wife a colona of another proprietor, she was restored to her original locality, and the offspring of the union were divided between the estates. The children of a colonus were fixed in the same status. They and their descendants were retained, in the words of a law of Theodosius, “quodam aeternitatis jure,” and by no process could be relieved from their obligations. By a law of Anastasius, at the end of the 5th century, a colonus who had voluntarily come into an estate was by a tenure of 30 years for ever attached to it. The master (dominus) could inflict on his coloni “moderate chastisement,” and could chain them if they attempted to escape, but they had a legal remedy against him for unjust demands or injury to them or theirs. In no case could the rent or the labour dues be increased. The colonus could possess

property of his own, but could not alienate it without the consent of the master. Thus, whilst the members of the class were personally free, their condition had some incidents of a semiservile character. They are actually designated by Theodosius, “servi terrae cui nati sunt.” And Salvian treats the proposition “coloni divitum fiunt” as equivalent to “vertuntur in servos.” This is, indeed, an exaggeration; the colonatus was not an oppressive system; it afforded real security against unreasonable demands and wanton disturbance, and it was a great advance on the system of the familia rustica. But the point which is important is that there was a certain approximation between the condition of the colonus and the slave which tended towards the fusion of both in a single class. Besides the coloni there were on a great estate—and those of the 4th century were on a specially large scale—a number of predial slaves, who worked collectively under overseers on the part of the property which the owner himself cultivated. But it was a common practice to settle certain of the slaves (and possibly also of the freedmen) on other portions of the estate, giving them small farms on conditions similar to those to which the coloni were subject. These slaves are, in fact, described by Ulpian as quasi coloni. They had their own households and were hence distinguished as casati. In law these slaves were at first absolutely at the disposal of their masters; they had no property in the strict sense of the word, and could be sold to another proprietor and separated from their families. But the landlord’s interest and the general tone of feeling alike modified practice even before the intervention of legislation; they were habitually continued in their holdings, and came to possess in fact a perpetual and hereditary

enjoyment of them.

By a law of Valentinian I. (377) the sale

of these slaves was interdicted unless the land they occupied was at the same time sold. The legal distinction between the coloni and the slave tenants continued to exist after the invasions; but the practical difference was greatly attenuated. The colonus often occupied a servile mansus, and the slave a mansus originally appropriated to a colonus. Intermarriages of the two classes became frequent. Already at the end of the 7th century it does not appear that the distinction between them had any substantial existence. The influence of the Northern invasions on the change from slavery to serfdom was, in all probability, of little account. The change would have taken place, though perhaps not so speedily, if they had never occurred. For the developments of the middle ages see SERFDOM and VILLEINAGE. MODERN

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TRADE

Not very long after the disappearance of serfdom in the most

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advanced communities comes into sight the new system of colonial slavery, which, instead of being the spontaneous outgrowth of social necessities and subserving a temporary need of human development, was politically as well as morally a monstrous aberration. Spanish Colonies.—In 1442, when the Portuguese under Prince Henry the Navigator were exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa, one of his officers, Antam Gonsalves, who had captured some Moors, was directed by the prince to carry them back to Africa. He received from the Moors in exchange for them ten blacks and a quantity of gold dust. This excited the cupidity of his fellow-countrymen; and they fitted out a large number of ships for the trade, and built several forts on the African coast. Many negroes were brought into Spain from these Portuguese settlements, and the colonial slave trade first appears in the form of the introduction into the newly discovered western world of descendants of these negroes. When Nicolas de Ovando was sent out in 1502 as governor of Haiti, whilst regulations, destined to prove illusory, were made for the protection of the natives of the island, permission was given to carry to the colony negro slaves, born in Seville and other parts of Spain, who had been instructed in the Christian faith. It appears from a letter of Ovando in 1503 that there were at that time numbers of negroes in Haiti; he requested that no more might be permitted to be brought out. In 1510 and the following years King Ferdinand ordered a number of Africans to be sent to that colony for the working of the mines. Before this time Columbus had proposed an exchange of his Carib prisoners as slaves against live stock to be furnished to Haiti by Spanish merchants. He actually sent home, in 1494, above 500 Indian prisoners taken in wars with the caciques, who, he suggested, might be sold as slaves at Seville. But, after a royal order had been issued for their sale, Queen Isabella, interested by what she had heard of the gentle and hospitable character of the natives and of their docility, procured a letter to be written to Bishop Fonseca, the superintendent of Indian affairs, suspending the order until enquiry should be made into the causes for which they had been made prisoners, and into the lawfulness of their sale. Theologians differed on the latter question, and Isabella directed that these Indians should be sent back to their

native country.

Bartolomé de las Casas, the celebrated bishop of Chiapa, accompanied Ovando to Haiti, and was a witness of the cruelties from which the Indians suffered under his administration. He came to Spain in 1517 to obtain measures in their favour, and he then made the suggestion to Charles that each Spanish resident in Haiti should have licence to import a dozen negro slaves. Las Casas, in his Historia de las Indias (lib. iii. cap. ror), confesses the error into which he thus fell. Other good men appear to have given similar advice about the same time, and, as has been shown, the practice was not absolutely new; indeed, the young king had in 1516, whilst still in Flanders, granted licences to his courtiers for the importation of negroes into the colonies, though Jimenes, as regent of Castile, by a decree of the same year forbade the practice. The suggestion of Las Casas was no doubt made on the ground that the negroes could, better than the Indians, bear the labour in the mines, which was rapidly exhausting the numbers of the latter. He has sometimes on this plea been exonerated from all censure; but, though entitled to honour for the zeal which he showed on behalf of the natives, he must bear the blame for his violation or neglect of moral principle. His advice was unfortunately adopted. “Charles,” says Robertson, “granted a patent to one of his Flemish favourites, containing an exclusive right” of supplying 4,o00 negroes annually to Haiti, Cuba, Jamaica and Porto Rico. “The favourite sold his patent to some Genoese merchants for 25,000 ducats”; these merchants obtained the slaves from the Portuguese; and thus was first systematized the slave trade between Africa and America. England.—-The first Englishman who engaged in the traffic was Sir John Hawkins (q.v.). The English slave traders were at first altogether occupied in supplying the Spanish settlements. Indeed, the reign of Elizabeth passed without any English colony

779

having been permanently established in America. But in 1620 a Dutch ship from the coast of Guinea visited Jamestown in Virginia, and sold a part of her cargo of negroes to the tobaccoplanters. This was the beginning of slavery in British America; the number of negroes was afterwards continually increased— though apparently at first slowly—by importation, and the fieldlabour was more and more performed by servile hands, so that in 1790 the State of Virginia contained 200,000 negroes. The African trade of England was long in the hands of exclusive companies; but by an act of the first year of William and Mary it became free and open to all subjects of the Crown. The African company, however, continued to exist, and obtained from time to time large parliamentary grants. By the Treaty of Utrecht, the asiento, or contract for supplying the Spanish colonies with 4,800 negroes annually, which had previously passed from the Dutch to the French, was transferred to Great Britain; an English company was to enjoy the monopoly for a period of 30 years from May 1, 1713. But the contract came to an end in 1739, when the complaints of the English merchants on one side and of the Spanish officials on the other rose to such a height that Philip V. declared his determination to revoke the asiento, and Sir Robert Walpole was forced by popular feeling into war with Spain. Between 1680 and 1700 about 140,000 negroes were exported by the African company, and 160,000 more by private adventurers, making a total of 300,000. Between 1700 and the end of 1786 as many as 610,000 were transported to Jamaica alone, which had been an English possession since 1655. Bryan Edwards estimated the total import into all the British colonies of America and the West Indies from 1680 to 1786 at 2,130,000, being an annual average of 20,095. The British slave trade reached its utmost extension shortly before the War of American Independence. It was then carried on principally from Liverpool, but also from London, Bristol and Lancaster: the entire number of slave ships sailing from those ports was 192 and in them space was provided for the transport of 47,146 negroes. During the war the number decreased, but on its termination the trade immediately revived. When Edwards wrote (1791), the number of European factories on the coasts of Africa was 40; of these 14 were English, 3 French, 15 Dutch, 4 Portuguese and 4 Danish. As correct a notion as can be obtained of the numbers annually exported from the continent about the year 1790 by traders of the several European countries engaged in the traffic is supplied by the following statement: “By the British, 38,000; by the French, 20,000; by the Dutch, 4,000; by the Danes, 2,000; by the Portuguese, 10,000; total 74,000.” Thus more than half the trade was in British hands. The hunting of human beings to make them slaves was greatly aggravated by the demand of the European colonies. The native chiefs engaged in forays, sometimes even on their own subjects, for the purpose of procuring slaves to be exchanged for Western commodities. They often set fire to a village by night and captured the inhabitants when trying to escape. Thus all that was shocking in the barbarism of Africa was multiplied and intensified by this foreign stimulation. Exclusive of the slaves who died before they sailed from Africa, 124% were lost during their passage to the West Indies; at Jamaica 44% died whilst in the harbours or before the sale and one-third more in the “‘seasoning.” Thus, out of every lot of 100 shipped from Africa'17 died in about g weeks, and not more than so lived to be effective labourers in the islands. The circumstances of their subsequent life on the plantations were not favourable to the increase of their numbers. In Jamaica there were in 1690, 40,000; from that year till 1820 there were imported 800,000; yet at the latter date there were only 340,000 in the island. One‘cause which prevented the natural increase of population was the inequality in the numbers of the sexes; in Jamaica alone there was in 1789 an excess of 30,000 males. -Movement Against the Slave Trade.—When the nature of the slave trade: began to be understood by the public; all that was

best in England was adverse to it. Among those who denounced it—besides some whose names are now little known, but aré recorded in the pages of Clarkson—were Baxter, Sir‘ Richard Steele

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[MODERN

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(in Inkle and Yarico), the poets Southern (in Oroonoko), Pope,

earnest and unremitting exertions were made by the persons so

Thomson, Shenstone, Dyer, Savage and above all Cowper (see

associated in investigating facts and collecting evidence, in forming branch committees and procuring petitions, information and support of those who pleaded the cause in parliament. To the

his Charity, and Task, bk. 2), Thomas Day (author of Sandford and Merton), Sterne, Warburton, Hutcheson, Beattie, John Wesley, Whitfield, Adam Smith, Millar, Robertson, Dr. Johnson, Paley, Gregory, Gilbert Wakefield, Bishop Porteus, Dean Tucker. The question of the legal existence of slavery in Great Britain and Ireland was raised in consequence of an opinion given in 1729 by Yorke and Talbot, attorney-general and solicitor-general at the time, to the effect that a slave by coming into those countries from the West Indies did not become free, and might be compelled by his master to return to the plantations.

Holt had expressed a contrary

opinion;

Chief-justice

and the matter was

brought to a final issue by Granville Sharp in the case of the negro Somerset. It was decided by Lord Mansfield, in the name of the whole bench, on June 22, 1772, that as soon as a slave set his

foot on the soil of the British islands he became free. In 1776 it was moved in the House of Commons by David Hartley, son of the author of Observations on Man, that “the slave trade was contrary to the laws of God and the rights of men”; but this motion—the first which was made on the subject—failed. The first persons in England who took united practical action against the slave trade were the Quakers, following the expression of sentiment which had emanated as early as 1671 from their founder George Fox. In 1727 they declared it to be “not a commendable or allowed” practice; in 1761 they excluded from, their society all who should be found concerned in it, and issued appeals to their members and the public against the system. In 1783 there was formed among them an association “for the relief and liberation of the negro slaves in the West Indies, and for the discouragement of the slave trade on the coast of Africa.” This was the first society established in England for the purpose. The Quakers in America had taken action on the subject still earlier than those

in England. The Pennsylvanian Quakers advised their members against the trade in 1696; in 1754 they issued to their brethren a strong dissuasive against encouraging it in any manner: in 1774 all persons concerned in the traffic, and in 1776 all slave holders who would not emancipate their slaves, were excluded from mem-

bership, The Quakers in the other American provinces followed the lead of their brethren in Pennsylvania. The individuals among

the American Quakers who laboured most earnestly and indefatigably on behalf of the Africans were John Woolman (1720~73)

original members were afterwards added several remarkable persons, amongst whom were Josiah Wedgwood, Bennet Langton (Dr.

Johnson’s friend), and, later, Zachary Macaulay, Henry Brougham and James Stephen.

In consequence of the numerous petitions presented to parlia-

ment, a committee of Privy Council was appointed by the Crown

in 1788 to enquire concerning the slave trade; and Pitt moved that the House of Commons should early in the next session take the subject into consideration. Wilberforce’s first motion for a committee of the whole House upon the question was made on March 19, 1789, and this committee proceeded to business on May 12 of the same year. After an admirable speech, Wilberforce laid on the table 12 resolutions which were intended as the basis of a future motion for the abolition of the trade. The discussion of these was postponed to the next session, and in 1790gx evidence was taken upon them. At length, on April 18 of the latter year, a motion was made for the introduction of a bill to prevent the further importation of slaves into the British colonies in the West Indies. Opinion had been prejudiced by the insurrections in St. Domingo and Martinique, and in the British island of Dominica; and the motion was defeated by 163 votes against 88. Legislative sanction was, however, given to the establishment of the Sierra Leone company, for the colonization of a district on the west coast of Africa and the discouragement of the slave trade there. It was hoped at the time that that place would become the centre from which the civilization of Africa would proceed; but this expectation was not fulfilled. On April 2, 1792 Wilberforce again moved that the trade ought to be abolished; an amendment in favour of gradual abolition was carried, and it was finally resolved that the trade should cease on Jan. 1, 1796. When a similar motion was brought forward in the Lords the consideration of it was postponed to the following year, in order to give time for the examination of witnesses by a committee of the House. A bill in the Commons in

the following year to abolish that part of the trade by which

British merchants supplied foreign settlements with slayes was lost on the third reading; it was renewed in the Commons in

1794 and carried there, but defeated in the

Lords. Then followed and Anthony Benezet (1713-84), the latter a son of a French several years during which efforts were made by the abolitionists Huguenot driven from France by the revocation of the Edict of in parliament with little success. But in 1806, Lord Grenville Nantes. The former confined his efforts chiefly to America and, and Fox having come into power, a bill was passed in both Houses indeed, to his co-religionists there; the latter sought, not without to put an end to the British slave trade for foreign supply, and to success, to found a universal propaganda in favour of abolition. forbid the importation of slaves into the colonies won by the A Pennsylvanian society was formed in 1774 by James Pember-

ton and Dr. Benjamin Rush, and in 1787 (after the war) was

reconstructed on an enlarged basis under the presidency of Franklin. Other similar associations were founded about the same time in different parts of the United States. The next important movement took place in England. Dr. Peckard, vice-chancellor of the University of Cambridge, who entertained strong convictions against the slave trade, proposed in 1785 as subject for a Latin prize dissertation the question, “An liceat invitos in servitutem

dare.” Thomas Clarkson obtained the first prize, translated his

British arms in the course of the war. On June 10 of the same year Fox brought forward a resolution “that effectual measures should be taken for the abolition of the African slave trade in such a manner and at such a period as should be deemed advisable,” which was carried by a large majority. A similar resolution was successful in the House of Lords. A bill was then passed through. both Houses forbidding the employment of any new vessel

in the trade. Finally, in 1807, a bill was presented by Lord Grenville in the House of Lords providing for the abolition

of the trade, was passed by a large maj ority, was then sent to the Commons (where it was moved by Lord Howick), was there amended and passed, and received the royal assent on March 25. The bill enacted that no vessel should clear out for slaves from any port within the British dominions after May r, 1807, Sp no slave should be landed in the colonies after March I, 1808. Ramsay, who had lived 19 years in St. Christopher, pubIn 1807 the African Institution was formed, with the primary lished an Essay on the Treatment and Conversion ofandthehad African objects of keeping a vigilant watch on the slave traders and Slaves in the British Sugar Colonies, The distribution of Clark- procuring, if possible, the abolition of the slave trade by the other son’s book led to his forming connections with many persons of European nations, It was also to be made an instrument for influence, and especially with William Wilberforce (¢.v.), A com- promoting the instructio n of the negro races and diffusing inmittee was formed on May 22, 1987, for the abolition of the slave formation respecting the African continent. trade, under the presidency of Granville Sharp. It is unquestionThe act of 1807 was habitually violated, as the traders knew able that the principal motive power which originated and sus- that, if one voyage in three was successful, they were abundantly tained their efforts was Christian principle and feeling. The

essay into English in an expanded form, and published it in 1786 with the title Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species. In the process of its publication he was brought into contaçt with several persons already deeply interested in the question; amongst others with Granville Sharp, William Dillwyn (an American by birth, who had known Benezet), and the Rev. James

most

remunerated for their losses. This state of things, it was piain,

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MODERN TRADE]

must continue as long as the trade was only a contraband commerce, involving merely pecuniary penalties. Accordingly, in 1811, Brougham carried through parliament a bill declaring the traffic to be a felony punishable with transportation. Some years

later another act was passed, making it a capital offence; but this was afterwards repealed. The law of 1811 proved effectual and brought the slave trade to an end so far as the British dominions were concerned. French Abolition.—The abolition of the French slave trade was preceded by struggles and excesses. The western part of St. Domingo, nominally belonging to Spain, had been occupied by buccaneers, who were recognized and supported by the French Government, and had been ceded to France at the Peace of Ryswick in 1697. So vast was the annual importation of enslaved negroes into this colony before 1791 that the ratio of the blacks to the whites was as 16 to r. In that year there were in French St. Domingo 480,000 blacks, 24,000 mulattoes and only 30,000 whites. The French law for the regulation of slavery in the plantations, known as the Code Noir (framed under Louis XIV. in 1685), was humane in its spirit; but we are informed that its provisions were habitually disregarded by the planters, whilst the free mulattoes laboured under serious grievances and were exposed to irritating indignities. A “Société des Amis des Noirs” was formed in Paris in 1788 for the abolition, not only of the slave trade, but of slavery itself. The president was Condorcet, and amongst the members were the duc de la Rochefou-

cault, the abbé Gregoire, Brissot, Claviére, Pétion and La Fayette; Mirabeau was an active sympathizer. The great motor of the parallel effort in England was the Christian spirit; in France it was the enthusiasm of humanity which revolutionary movement. There were mulattoes in Paris, who had come from the rights of the people of colour in

was associated with the in 1789 a number of San Domingo to assert that colony before the of the Rights of Man in

national assembly. The Declaration Aug. 1789 seemed to meet their claims, but in March 1790 the assembly, alarmed by rumours of the discontent and disaffection of the planters in San Domingo, passed a resolution that it had not been intended to comprehend the internal govern-

ment of the colonies in the constitution framed for the mother country. Vincent Ogé, one of the mulatto delegates in Paris, disgusted at the overthrow of the hopes of his race, returned to San Domingo, and on landing in Oct. 1790 addressed a letter to the governor announcing his intention of taking up arms on behalf of the mulattoes if their wrongs were not redressed. He rose accordingly with a few followers, but was soon defeated and forced to take refuge in the Spanish part of the island. He afterwards surrendered, was tried and sentenced to be broken on the

wheel. When the news of this reached Paris, it created a strong feeling against the planters; and on the motion of the abbé Gregoire it was resolved by the assembly on May 15, 1791 “that the people of colour resident in the French colonies, born of free parents, were entitled to, as of right, and should be allowed, the enjoyment of all the privileges of French citizens, and among others those of being eligible to seats both in the parochial and colonial assemblies.” On Aug. 23 a rebellion of the negroes broke out in the northern province of San Domingo, and soon extended to the western province, where the mulattoes and blacks combined. Many enormities were committed by the insurgents, and were avenged with scarcely inferior barbarity. The French assembly, fearing the loss of the colony, repealed on Sept. 24 the decree of the preceding May. This vacillation put an end to all hope of a reconciliation of parties in the island. Civil commissioners sent out from France quarrelled with the governor and called the revolted negroes to their assistance. The white inhabitants of Cape Francois were massacred and the city in great part

destroyed by fire. The planters now offered their allegiance to Great Britain; and an English force landed in the colony. But it was insufficient to encounter the hostility of the republican troops and the revolted negroes and mulattoes; it suffered from disease, and was obliged to evacuate the island in 1798. On the departure of the British the Government remained in the hands of Toussaint l’Ouverture (g.v.). Slavery had disappeared; the

781

blacks were employed as hired servants, receiving for their remuneration the third part of the crops they raised; and the population was rapidly rising in civilization and comfort. The whole island was now French, the Spanish portion having been ceded by the Treaty of Basle. The wish of Toussaint was that San Domingo should enjoy a practical independence whilst recognizing the sovereignty and exclusive commercial rights of France. The issue of the violent and treacherous conduct of Bonaparte towards the island was that the blacks drove from their soil the forces sent to subdue them, and founded a constitution of their own, which was more than once modified. There can be no doubt that the Government of the Restoration, in seeking to obtain possession of the island, had the intention of reestablishing slavery, and even of reopening the slave trade for the purpose of recruiting the diminished population. But Bonaparte abolished that trade during the Hundred Days, though he also failed to win back the people of San Domingo, or, as it was now called by its original name, Haiti, to obedience. The Bourbons, when again restored, could not reintroduce the slave trade; the notion of conquering the island had to be given up; and its independence was formally recognized in 1825. (See

Harri.) Progress

of the Movement.—England had not been the first European Power to abolish the slave trade; that honour belongs to Denmark; a royal order was issued on May 16, 1792 that the traffic should cease in the Danish possessions from the end of 1802. The United States had in 1794 forbidden any participation by American subjects in the slave trade to foreign countries; they now prohibited the importation of slaves from Africa into their own dominions. This act was passed on March 2, 1807; it did not, however, come into force till Jan. 1, 1808. At the Congress of Vienna (Nov. 1814) the principle was acknowledged that the slave trade should be abolished as soon as possible; but the determination of the limit of time was reserved for separate negotiation between the Powers. It had been provided in a treaty between France and Great Britain (May 30, 1814) that no foreigner should in future introduce slaves into the French colonies, and that the trade should be absolutely interdicted to the French themselves after June 1, 1819. This postponement of abolition was dictated by the wish to introduce a fresh stock of slaves into Haiti, if that island should be recovered. Bonaparte, as we have seen, abolished the French slave trade during his brief restoration, and this abolition was confirmed at the second Peace of Paris on Nov. 20, 1815, but it was not effectually carried out by French legislation until March 1818. In Jan. 1815 Portuguese subjects were prohibited from prosecuting the trade north of the equator, and the term after which the traffic should be everywhere unlawful was fixed to end on Jan. 21, 1823, but was afterwards extended to Feb. 1830; England paid £300,000 as a compensation to the Portuguese. A royal decree was issued on Dec. ro, 1836, forbidding the export of slaves from any Portuguese possession. But this decree was often violated. It was agreed that the Spanish slave trade should come to an end in 1820, England paying to Spain an indemnification of £400,000. The Dutch trade was closed in 1814; the Swedish had been abolished in 1813. By the Peace of Ghent, Dec. 1814, the United States and England mutually bound themselves to do all in their power to extinguish the traffic. It was at once prohibited in several of the South American States when they acquired independence, as in La Plata, Venezuela and Chile. In 1831 and 1833 Great Britain entered into an arrangement with France for a mutual right of search within certain seas, to which most of the other Powers acceded; and by the Ashburton Treaty (1842) with the United States provision was made for the joint maintenance of squadrons on the west coast of Africa. By all these measures the slave trade, so far as it was carried on under the flags of European nations or for the supply of their colonies, ceased to exist. , Anti-slavery Movement.—Meantime another and more radical reform had been in preparation and was already in progress, namely, the abolition of slavery itself in the foreign possessions of the several States of Europe. When the English slave trade

SLAVERY

782

had been closed, it was found that the evils of the traffic, as still continued by several other nations, were greatly ageravated. In consequence of the activity of the British cruisers the traders made great efforts to carry as many slaves as possible in every

voyage, and practised atrocities to get rid of the slaves when capture was imminent.

It was, besides, the interest of the cruisers,

who shared the price of the captured slave-ship, rather to allow the slaves to be taken on board than to prevent their being shipped at all. Thrice as great a number of negroes as before, it was said, was exported from Africa, and two-thirds of these were murdered on the high seas. It was found also that the abolition of the British slave trade did not lead to an improved treatment of the negroes in the West Indies. The slaves were overworked now that fresh supplies were stopped, and their numbers rapidly decreased. In 1807 there were in the West Indies 800,000; in 1830 they were reduced to 700,000. It became more and more evident that the evil could be stopped only by abolishing slavery altogether. An appeal was made by Wilberforce in 1821 to Thomas Fowell Buxton to undertake the conduct of this new question in parliament. An anti-slavery society was established in 1823, the principal members of which, besides Wilberforce and Buxton, were Zachary Macaulay, Dr. Lushington and Lord Suffield. Buxton moved on May 5, 1823, that the House should take into consideration the state of slavery in the British colonies. The object he

and his associates had then in view was gradual abolition by establishing something like a system of serfdom for existing slaves, and passing at the same time a measure emancipating all their children born after a certain day. Canning carried against Buxton and his friends a motion to the effect that the desired ameliorations in the condition and treatment of the slaves should be recommended by the home Government to the colonial legislatures, and enforced only in case of their resistance, direct action being taken in the single instance of Trinidad, which, being a Crown colony, had no legislature of its own. A well-conceived series of measures of reform was accordingly proposed to the colonial authorities. Thereupon a general outcry was raised by the planters at the acquiescence of the Government in the principles of the anti-slavery party. A vain attempt being made in Demerara to conceal from the knowledge of the slaves the arrival of the order in council, they became impressed with the idea that they had been set free, and accordingly refused to work, and, compulsion being resorted to, offered resistance. Martial law was proclaimed; the disturbances were repressed with great severity; and the treatment of the missionary Smith, which was taken up and handled with great ability by Brougham, awakened strong feeling in England against the planters. The question, however, made little progress in parliament for some years, though Buxton, William Smith, Lushington, Brougham, Mackintosh, Butterworth and Denman, with the aid of Z. Macaulay, James Stephen, and others, continued the struggle, only suspending it during a period allowed to the local legislatures for carrying into effect the measures expected from them. In 1828 the free people of colour in the colonies were placed on a footing of legal equality with their fellow-citizens. In 1830 the public began to be aroused to a serious prosecution of the main issue. It was becoming plain that the planters would take no steps tending to the future liberation of the slaves, and the leaders of the movement determined to urge the entire abolition of slavery at the earliest practicable period. The Government continued to hesitate and to press for mitigations of the existing system. At length in 1833 the Ministry

[UNITED

STATES

to be made for their religious and moral instruction. Many thought the postponement of emancipation unwise. Immediate

liberation was carried out in Antigua, and public tranquillity was

so far from being disturbed there that the Christmas of 1833 was the frst for 20 years during which martial law was not proclaimed in order to preserve the peace. Notwithstanding pro-

tracted and strenuous opposition on the part of the Government, the House of Commons passed a resolution against the continuance of the transitional system. When this was done the local legislatures saw that the slaves would no longer work for the masters;

they accordingly cut off two years

of the indentured

apprenticeship, and gave freedom to the slaves in Aug. 1838 instead of 1840. The example of Great Britain was gradually followed by the other European States, and some American ones had already taken action of the same kind. The immediate emancipation of the slaves in the French colonies was decreed by the Provisional Government of 1848. In 1858 it was enacted that every slave belonging to a Portuguese subject should be free in 20 years from that date, a system of tutelage being established in the meantime. This law came into operation on April 29, 1878, and the status of slavery was thenceforth illegal throughout the Portuguese possessions. The Dutch emancipated their slaves in 1863. Several of the Spanish American States, on declaring their independence, had adopted measures for the discontinuance of slavery within their limits. It was abolished by a decree of the Mexican republic on Sept. 15, 1829. The Government of Buenos Aires enacted that all children born to slaves after Jan. 31, 1813, should be free; and in Colombia it was provided that those born after July 16, 1821, should be liberated on attaining their eighteenth

year. Three of the most important slave systems still remained in which no steps towards emancipation had been taken—those of the Southern United States, of Cuba and of Brazil. Slavery in the United States.—Slavery was far from being approved in principle by the most eminent of the fathers of the American Union. Washington in his. will provided for the emancipation of his own slaves; he said to Jefferson that it was “‘among

his first wishes to see some plan adopted by which slavery in his country might be abolished by law,” and again he wrote that to this subject his own suffrage should never be wanting.

John

Adams declared his abhorrence of the practice of slave-holding, and said that “every measure of prudence ought to be assumed for the eventual total extirpation of slavery from the United States.” Franklin’s opinions we have already indicated; and Madison, Hamilton and Patrick Henry all reprobated the principle of the system. Jefferson declared in regard to slavery, “TI tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just.” The last-named statesman, at the first Continental Congress after the

evacuation by the British forces, proposed a draft ordinance

(March 1, 1784) for the government of the North-west Territory, in which it was provided that “after the year 1800 there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any of the said states, otherwise than in punishment of crime.” This proviso, however, was lost; but in the ordinance of 1787 (July 13) for the government of the territory of the United States north-west of the Ohio river, which was introduced by Nathan Dane and probably drafted by Manasseh Cutler, slavery was forbidden in the territory. At the Convention of Philadelphia in 1787, where the constitution was drafted, the sentiments of the framers were

against slavery; but South Carolina and Georgia insisted on its recognition as a condition of their joining the Union, and even an engagement for the mutual rendition of fugitive slaves was embodied in the Federal pact. The words “slave” and “slavery” sum of 20 millions sterling was voted as compensation to the were, however, excluded from the constitution, “because,” as . planters. A system of apprenticeship for seven years was estab- Madison says, “they did not choose to admit the right of lished as a transitional preparation for liberty. The slaves were property in man” in direct terms; and it was at the same time bound to work for their masters during this period for three- provided that Congress might interdict the foreign slave trade fourths of the day, and were to be liable to corporal punishment after the expiration of 20 years. It must not be forgotten that if they. did not give the due amount of labour. The master was, either before or soon after the formation of the Union the in.return, to supply them with food and clothing: All ‘children Northern States—beginning with Vermont in 1777, and ending under six years of age were to be at once free, and provision was with New Jersey in 1804—either abolished slavery or adopted of Earl Grey took the question in hand and carried the abolition witk little difficulty, the measure passing the House of Commons on Aug. 7, 1833, and receiving the royal assent on the 28th. A

è

VARIOUS

SLAVERY

COUNTRIES]

measures to effect its gradual abolition within their boundaries. But the principal operation of (at least) the latter change was simply to transfer Northern slaves to Southern markets. We cannot follow in detail the several steps by which the slave power for a long time persistently increased its influence in the Union. The acquisition of Louisiana in 1803, which gave a

4

as

Ke

He

4 acy SPARS

A

a mT

T

ESAS Tar Shad Uh

CION vases

T AA

A

crystallized into geoforms. Snow forms

usually within, below or between cloud strata, and at various ` heights within the atmosphere, according to the latitude and the temperature prevailing within the clouds. Snow forms in great quantities within lofty clouds in all latitudes. In the tropics, however, it melts into raindrops as it falls, except when it alights Fic. 1.~-SOLID HEXAGONAL FORM upon high mountains. Although OF SNOWFLAKE, HIGH CLOUD TYPE most common to the polar region, it doubtless forms in even greater quantity within the north F

AE `

5

w

>

ae

B »>

: §

’

a

“

temperate regions, because the air contains much more moisture at lower latitudes than at the poles. Over the polar regions and upon the tops of lofty mountains perpetual snow covers most of the land to a depth in most cases

of many feet. On mountain or plateau regions therein, and on high mountains elsewhere, it accumulates to so great an extent and depth that the pressure of the upper masses converts it into ice, thus forming glaciers, which in the polar regions cover thousands of square miles. In the higher latitudes of the temperate regions it often accumulates to the depth of from one to four or more feet during the winter. FIG. 2.—TABULAR FORM OF SNOWIt rarely falls in quantity or FLAKE, HIGH CLOUD TYPE remains long on the ground on low lands below 30° of latitude. Owing to many causes, both topographical and meteorological, the amount of snowfall varies markedly upon mountain tops and other locations even when situated upon the same parallel degree of latitude. The limit of perpetual snow upon mountains approximates 1,oooft. at 70°; 5,000ft. at 60°; 7,o00ft. at 50°; 10,000ft. at 40°; 13,000ft. at 30°; 15,000ft. at 20° and 17,000ft. at the equator.

The crystalline varieties of snow are for the most part transparent, and have brilliant facets that reflect light and give them a white appearance in the mass. They vary in size from Too to

SNOW

855

3 of an inch in diameter, and fall to earth either singly or bunched together into flakes. Flake formation occurs most commonly during the mild, moist snowfalls when the temperature at the ground Is 32° or above. Their size depends both upon the temperature wherein they form and the depth of the cloud strata through

greater freedom of movement while arranging themselves in crystal form than is possible when most crystals are formed. Often the air and clouds wherein they form are in a state of agitation, and vary within their different parts in density, tem-

which they fall or float. Intensely cold clouds are always relatively dry, hence tend to produce the smaller, slow growing and solid type of crystal. Conversely,

Sometimes snow crystallizes among a multitude of uncongealed fluid droplets, called cloud. Contrary to popular belief, however, the true crystals are not made of such, though they may collect and freeze upon them in a white opaque manner, or upon themselves to make granular snow, the “‘graupeln” of the Germans. True snow crystals are formed directly from the invisiFIG. 5.—STAR FORM OF SNOW. ble and vastly smaller atoms and FLAKE, LOW CLOUD TYPE molecules of water floating between the cloud droplets. Among the many proofs of this, aside from general considerations, is the fact that scanty snowfalls frequently occur from clear skies. As a result of various unfavourable conditions in cloudland, such as winds, overcrowding, the presence of fluid cloud droplets, etc., the majority of tabular

warmer clouds (usually the lower clouds) contain much more moisture and tend to produce the larger, fast growing, branchy type of crystals. Water being a product of the joining of the two gases, hydrogen two parts, oxygen one part, its nuclear atoms have such an arrangement as to favour the formation of trianguFIG. 3.—FERN STELLAR FORM OF lar or hexagonal forms and to SNOWFLAKE, LOW CLOUD TYPE divide into three or six. The great mass of the crystals of snow have forms whereby they can be roughly grouped into two main classes, columnar and tabular forms. Comprised in the columnar forms are hexagonal columns, both hemihedral and holohedral, and the long, slender, needle-like columns. Grouped in the tabular class are all those, whether solid or branching, that form on a thin, tabular plane. Among the rarer forms are the three or four vaned crystals, twin crystals, four-sided plates and compound forms. The latter consist of a hexagonal column having solid or branching tabular forms attached at one or both ends, and rarely also at the middle of the column. There are in addition many irregular snow forms, among them icy spicules growing outward at many angles from a granular nucleus, frost-like forms and forms due to twinning, etc. During extreme cold or snowfall from very lofty, cold clouds, tiny columns and solid hexagonal or triangular plates usually predominate. The order of the types in furnishing the bulk of the snowfall is as follows: branching tabular forms, granular forms, plates with branching exteriors, plate forms, columns, needle forms, compound forms. The columnar and needle-like forms are, each in their respective classes, much alike, though they vary in size, length, thickness, etc. Compound crystals show much greater variation one from another, owing to the differences in the size, aspect, interior details, etc., of the end plates. Often the bar connecting the end plates is exceedingly short, resembling a tiny thick hexagonal plate. As a result, the end plates grow outward very close together. When one

perature

and

water

content.

snow crystals fail to attain their natural beauty and symmetry. The most wonderful forms seem to occur within the anterior quadrants of widespread general storms, or during snowfalls that occur between two closely lying storms. The formation of crystals may be determined by some law. It is likely that almost every cyclonic storm produces perfect forms somewhere within its FIG. 6.—TRIANGULAR FORM OF anterior quadrants. There is SNOWFLAKE, HIGH CLOUD TYPE, doubtless a somewhat invariable FORMED IN ZERO WEATHER rule of distribution of the various types of snow within cyclonic storms, columns, or columns and solid plates to one quadrant, granular forms to another, branching crystals to others, etc. The feature of chief beauty and interest about the tabular snow crystals, in addition to beauty of outline, is the richness

j

of their interior designs.

This

richness of interior is due to the presence of minute air tubes and shadings therein, which appear of the end plates is smaller than dark when viewed under certain the opposite one, it converts the conditions. These interior air crystals into the semblance of tubes and shadings frequently aptiny parachutes, and they fall pear in the semblance of tiny with the smaller plate downward. rods, dots, lines, etc., often arBy far the most important, ranged in a marvellously symvaried and beautiful snow crysmetrical manner and outlining tals are those that comprise the geometrical forms. They are tabular class. Crystals of this caused as a result of the bridging class assume delicate, starry, branching forms, solid plate FIG. 7.—COMPOSITE FORM OF over and inclusion of air as the forms and those exhibiting all SNOWFLAKE, HIGH AND LOW CLOUDS branches, segments and various 4.—BRANCHING STELLAR gradations between the solid and adornments grow and unite one to another. Because of this they FIG. FORM OF SNOWFLAKE, FROM ME- wholly open forms. Rarely is it outline more or less perfectly the various stages of growth and the DIUM HEIGHT CLOUDS that any two of them are just transitional forms that the crystals assumed in cloudland. Their alike. The beauty of outline and richness of interior of such arrangement doubtless depends largely upon habits of growth. In crystals are so great as to have attracted the attention and admira- case of branchy growth they are arranged for the most part at : tion of all students of the snow from the earliest times to the angles of 60° alongside the main and secondary rays. In cases of present. They far transcend in beauty, diversity and perfect more solid growth they are often arranged with their greater dimensions in hexagonal order around the nucleus. symmetry the crystals of any mineral species, The rare beauty of the more perfect specimens of snow crystals The conditions under which the snow crystals form is unique. They crystallize while floating about unsupported in a fluid, the has attracted the attention and excited the admiration of natural-

=

air, of small and varying density.

This permits the atoms and

molecules of which snow, like all other crystals, is built a much

ists from quite early times. We find in the Bible, in the Book of Job, the query, “hast thou entered into the.treasures of the snow?”

SNOWDEN—SNOW-LINE

856

In his budget, introduced in April 1924, while limited by the Many naturalists through the years have made attempts to draw commitments of his predecessor, Snowden endeavoured to relieve Dr. them among observers, many times later During them. the burden of taxation on the poor by his reduction in the food Scoresby and Dr. Glaisher of England, Prof, Squinabol of Italy, in his contingent Old Age PenMrs. Chickering of the United States and Dr. Dobrowolski of duties, and by making provision, features of the thrift oppressive the of removal the for Act, sions aid the recently More them. of drawings Poland, made excellent fast At stood he disqualification. by his free trade same the time, of photography has been employed to portray these evanescent forms. W. A. Bentley of Jericho, Vt., seems to have been the principles and repealed the McKenna duties on imported motorcars, clocks, musical instruments, etc.; he also terminated the pioneer photomicrographer of duties imposed under the 1922 Safeguarding of Industries Act. snow crystals. Securing the first

Later in the session he introduced plans of constructive work designed to relieve the prevalent unemployment. At the London

photomicrographs in 1885, he has continued the work up to the present, making 4,800 photomicrographs, no two alike. In 1903 and soon afterwards Dr. Neuhauss of Berlin, Dr. Nordens-

conference in July-Aug. with the bankers which German loan in October of the exchequer for the

graphs of crystals. The formation and deposition

ef the snow, occurring over so large a portion of the earth’s sur- FIG. 8.—SOLID TABULAR FORM OF SNOWFLAKE, HIGH CLOUD TYPE face and in such enormous quantities as almost to defy computation, constitute a phenomenon of great magnitude and import. The snow forms one of the links in a natural system of continental irrigation, to make possible vegetal and animal life thereon. In winter it conserves the heat of the earth and protects vegetation. It has also served a useful purpose as an aid in transportation, as its icy mantle forms an excellent roadbed over which produce, etc., can be easily drawn in sleds. Snow when compacted and pressed into glacial ice or when melted and converted into streams, rivers, etc., also plays an important

part in inland erosion, in the

tearing down of mountains and

A

mse

the conversion of rocks into soil. Yet, like the beneficent, lifegiving rain, the snow sometimes becomes a destructive agent. The

and as a minister, Most of his life was spent in the service of Socialism; he was also a powerful advocate of the emancipation

of women and of temperance. In the promotion of these causes, as in his work for peace and in his opposition to Communism, he was notably assisted by his wife, herself a speaker and writer of wide appeal. He was member of the Liquor Control Board during the War, and served on royal commissions on the civil service, canals and venereal disease. He is the author of various books, among them A Socialist Budget

(1907); A Living Wage (1912); Socialism and Syndicalism Wages and Prices (1920); Labour and National Finance Labour and the New World (1921).

(1913); (1920);

SNOWDON (Wyddfa, view-place; Eryri, eagle-place), the highest peak in Wales, formed principally of Ordovician volcanic rocks, slates and grits. (See H. Williams, in Quart, Journ. Geol. Soc., 1927, p. 346.) It consists of five “arêtes” converging on the

summit, with cirques (g.v.), which contain small lakes between them. Surrounding the peak are the Llanberis pass (g.v.), Aber-

melting of the snows of winter

Pegi

floods which do great damage. A heavy fall of snow, if accompanied with severe winds, piles the

pn

glaslyn pass and the Rhyd-ddu pass. Several lakes occur in the valleys rising up to these passes. A rack-and-pinion railway

signe wake

sometimes produces disastrous E4

i ys

(opened 1897) ascends from Llanberis to the summit (4% miles).

R x PAL

See, for full description, Mountains of Snowdonia

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bhe ra Bi P52> ag tt E ae

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ways and railroads, thus delaying trafic. Not the least of the de- FIG. 9.—-BRANCHING FORM OF structive effects of the snow is SNOWFLAKE, MILD WEATHER TYPE the breaking of trees, telephone poles, etc., by the weight of a damp, heavy fall of snow upon them. In mountain regions the snow sometimes accumulates so deeply upon the sides of mountains that great masses break off and descend as destructive avalanches into the valleys, doing great damage and sometimes burying and destroying whole villages. (W. A. BeN.) ` fis P”

(1925).

SNOWDROP, Gelanthus nivalis, the best known representa-

PIR

x

SNOWDEN, PHILIP (1864-

he took charge of the discussions in the successful flotation of the year. Snowden became chancellor time in June 1929.

Snowden’s power, both in the Labour movement and outside, was due as much to gifts of character as of brain. As a speaker, he was equally powerful both as a private member in opposition

kiold of Sweden and Herr Sigson of Russia also made photomicro-

snow into deep drifts along high-

1924, ended of that second

`

>

), British statesman, was

tive of a small Old World genus of the family Amaryllidaceae, all the species of which have bulbs, linear leaves and erect flowerstalks, destitute of leaves but bearing at the top a solitary pendulous bell-shaped flower. The snowdrop is a doubtful native of Great Britain, but is largely cultivated for market in Lincolnshire. Other distinct species of snowdrop are the Crimean snowdrop, Œ. plicatus, with broad leaves folded like a fan, and G. Elwesi, a native of the Levant, with large flowers. All the species thrive in almost any soil or position.

SNOW-LEOPARD

RT

3

or OUNCE 3

the high mountain

born on July 18, 1864, at Cowling, Yorkshire. Educated at an elementary school, he read widely, and became a clerk in the cus-

toms and excise department of the Civil Service. Joining the Independent Labour Party in the year after it was founded (1893) he became one of its most effective speakers and, in 1903, and again in 1917 its chairman. He was a member of the I.L.P. for 34 years, but resigned his membership in Dec. 1927, giving as his reason his conviction that the body ought to be merged in the Labour Party and that its continued separate existence was neither

(Felis uncia), a large

member of the cat family, from

Gem BY COURTESY SOCIETY

regions

of

Central Asia. It resembles the leopard in general conformation, but has longer fur, grey in colour, marked with large dark ro-

settes.

OF

THE

N.Y.

SNOW LEOPARD OR OUNCE

ZOOLOGICAL

(FELIS

UNCIA) A NATIVE OF CENTRAL ASIA

The head and body are

about aft. 4in. long, the tail 3ft., and the height 2ft. This animal

lives among

rocks,

and

preys

upon wild sheep and goats, large

desirable nor necessary. His first parliamentary attempts, for Keighley and Blackburn, failed, but, in 1906, he was returned for

rodents, and birds. It even kills ponies.

Blackburn as Labour M.P. In the House he at once made his mark, notably on financial matters. When war broke out in 1914 he was in Australia, On his return he at once ranged himself with J. R. MacDonald and shared much of the latter’s unpopularity. Defeated in the 1918 election, he won Colne Valley for Labour in 1922, and held the seat with increased majorities in

unmelted in the form of a permanent snowfield. Snow-fields occur in any latitude at sufficiently high altitudes, or at any altitude in sufficiently high latitudes. About 78° latitude the snow-line reaches

1923 and 1924. His appointment as chancellor of the exchequer in MacDonald’s cabinet was a matter of course.

SNOW-LINE,

the line above which

the snows

remain

sea-level; in lower latitudes it shows a progressive rise, but many factors in addition to temperature influence its height, e.g.,

total snowfall, humidity of atmosphere and aspect. In Lapland It is about 4,000 ft. above sea-level; in the Alps about 9,000 ft.; on the south side of the Himalayas about 13,000 ft., but on the

SNOW-PLANT—SOAP north side over 16,500 ft.; on the east side of the equatorial Andes about 16,000 ft., but 18,500 ft. on the western side.

SNOW-PLANT

(Sarcodes sanguinea), 2 North American

saprophytic herb of the family Pyrolaceae, so named because it often blooms in moist places in the vicinity of melting snow. It is Closely allied to the Indian-pipe (g.v.) and, by reason of its bright red or crimson colour throughout, presents a striking appearance. It grows in pine woods on mountain slopes from southern Oregon to Lower California and eastward to Nevada. The single, fleshy, scaly stem, 6 to 15 in. high, rises from a ball of brittle roots and bears at its summit a cylindrical cluster of nodding, bell-shaped crimson flowers.

857

and similar races in its programmes. See Lake Placid Club

Winter Sports; Appalachia, organ of the

Appalachian Club.

{F. K. B.)

SNUFF, the name of a powdered preparation of tobacco used

for inhalation (see Tosacco). The practice of inhaling snuff became common in England in the 17th century, and throughout the 18th century it was universal. At first each quantity was fresh grated (Fr. réper), whence the coarser kinds were later known as “rappee.” This entailed the snuff-taker carrying with him a grater; early 18th-century graters made of ivory and other material are in existence. The art and craft of the miniature painter, the enameller, jeweller and gold- and silver-smith was

SNOW PLOUGH. Acontrivance for clearing rail tracks of bestowed upon the box. The humbler snuff-takers were content

snow. The oldest and most common form is the wedge plough, with a sharp prow. The rotary plough is the most powerful machine. It burrows into the drifts after the manner of an auger, and whirls the snow clear of the track. The rotary element con-

with boxes of silver, brass or other metal, horn, tortoise-shell or wood. The mull (g.v.), a silver-mounted ram’s head, is a large table snuff-box.

sists of a large fan-like wheel driven by an engine on a truck. As a rule the truck is non-propelling, being pushed by a locomotive. The scoop is about rz ft. in diameter, and the blades or

mals and still life, was born at Antwerp, where he was baptized on Nov. 11, 1579 and where he died on Aug. 19, 1657. In 1593 he was studying under Pieter Breughel the younger, and afterwards under Hendrick van Balen, the first master of Van Dyck. He visited Italy in 1608. On Oct. 23, 1611 he married Margaretha de Vos, the sister of the painters Cornelis and Paul de Vos. He devoted himself to painting flowers, fruit and subjects of still life, but afterwards turned to animal-painting, and executed with the greatest skill and spirit hunting pieces and combats of wild animals. His composition is rich and varied, his drawing correct and vigorous, his touch bold and thoroughly expressive of the different textures of furs and skins. Rubens frequently employed him to paint animals, fruit and still life in his own pictures, and he assisted Jordaens in a similar manner. In the lion and boar hunts which bear the name of Snyders the hand of Rubens sometimes appears. He was appointed principal painter to the archduke Albert, governor of the Low Countries, for whom he executed some of his finest works. One of these, a “Stag-Hunt,”’ was presented to Philip III., who commissioned the artist to paint several subjects of the chase. The Prado museum, Madrid, is rich in the works of Snyders; others may be seen in the galleries of London, Hampton Court, Paris, Antwerp, Brussels, Dresden, Munich, Leningrad and Vienna.

knives aré made of cast-steel; a large wheel may weigh 12 tons.

SNOW-SHOES, a form of footgear devised for travelling

over snow. Nearly every American Indian tribe has its own particular shape of shoe, the simplest and most primitive being those of the far north. The Eskimos possess two styles, one being triangular in shape and about 18in. in length, and the other almost circular. Southward the shoe becomes gradually narrower and longer, the largest being the hunting snow-shoe of the Crees, which is nearly 6ft. long and turned up at the toe. Of snowshoes worn by people of European race that used by lumbermen is about 3$ft. long and broad in proportion, while the tracker’s shoe is over 5ft. long and very narrow. This form has been copied by the Canadian snow-shoe clubs, who wear a shoe about 34ft. long and 15 to 18in. broad, slightly turned up at the toe and termi-

nating in a kind of tail behind.

Snow-shoes are made of a single strip of some tough wood, usually hickory, curved round and fastened together at the ends and supported in the middle by 4 light cross-bar, the space within the frame thus made being filled with a close webbing of dressed caribou or neat’s-hide strips, leaving a small opening just behind the cross-bar for the toe of the moccasined foot. They are fastened to the moccasin by leather thongs, sometimes by

buckles. The method of walking is to lift the shoes slightly and

slide the overlapping inner edges over each other, thus avoiding the unnatural and fatiguing “straddle-gait” that would otherwise be necessary. Immoderate snow-shoeing leads to serious lameness of the feet arid ankles which the Canadian voyageurs call mal de

raquette. Snow-shoe racing is very common in the Canadian snow-

shoe clubs, and one of the events is a hurdle-race over hurdles 3it. 6in. high, Owing to the thick forests of America the showshoe has been found more suitable for use than the Norwegian skz (q.v.) which is much used in less-wooded districts. (X.) The United States—While enjoying practically the same snow conditions as Canada, the United States snow belt has never taken up the organization of its interest in snow-shoeing in a

SNYDERS, FRANS

(1579-1657), Flemish painter of ani-

SOANE, SIR JOHN (1753-1837), English architect and art collector, was born on Sept. 10, 1753 at Whitchurch, near Reading, and died in Lincoln’s Inn Fields on Jan. 20, 1837. He came of a family whose name of Swan he altered to Soan or Soane. His talent as a boy attracted the attention of George Dance, junior, the architect, whose pupil he became. He won the Royal Academy’s silver (1772) and gold (1776) medals, and a travelling studentship, and went to Italy to study (1777-1780).

Returning

to England he began to practice as an architect, and in 1784 married a rich wife. He became architect to the Bank of England, which he enlarged and rebuilt in the Roman Corinthian style and did other important public work. He also erected many country houses, the designs for which he published in a book in 1788. He

became

an A.R.A.

(1795), R.A.

(1802)

and professor

of

architecture to the Royal Academy (1806). In his house in Lin-

the snow-shoe clubs of Canada, with their well-known snow-shoe

coln’s Inn Fields he brought together a valuable antiquarian museum (now the Soane Museum), which in 1835 he presented to

competitions, the United States interest in snow-shoeing is more

the nation with an endowment.

casual. Still the snow-shoeing intérest in the United States is consid-

_ See A. E, Bullock, Sir John Soane, His Life, Work and Influence, Archit. Assoc. Notes xx. (1965); H. J. Birnstingl, Sir John Soane

great number of specialized snow-shoe clubs.

Compared with

erable; it usually ties itself to a general out-of-door winter programme. The men’s and women’s colleges in the snow belt conduct snow-shoe cross-country races, obstacle races and snow-shoe hikes.

Dartmouth college has an annual inter-collegiate snow-shoe contest in which Canadian colleges figure. Lake Placid, N.Y., con-

ducts club and inter-collegiate snow-shoe contests. Practically every winter carnival held in the United States includes snowshoe obstacle races and cross-country races.

The Appalachian club of the United States promotes mountain climbing on snow-shoes. The Dartmouth Outing club members each year make an ascent of Mt. Washington on snow-shoes. The Intercollegiate Winter Sports Union includes sriow-shoe dashes

(1925); A. T. Bolton, The Portrait of Sir John Soane (1927).

SOAP, a chemical compound, ot mixture of chemical com-

pounds, resulting from the interaction of fatty oils and fats with alkalis, z.e., the salts of the fatty acids. In a scientific definition, the compounds of fatty acids with basic metallic oxides, lime, magnesia, lead oxide, etc., should also be included under soap; but, as these compounds are, insoluble in water, while the very essence of a soap in its industrial relations is solubility, it is customary to use the term “Soap” for the compounds of fatty acids with potash, soda and amtonia; the water-insoluble soaps

of the other bases may be termed “metallic soaps” or “plasters.”

Soap appears to have been first made by boiling goat’s tallow

858

SOAP

and causticised beech ashes (Pliny) ; the resulting soft potash soap was converted into hard soda soap by treating the paste repeatedly with salt. Later wood ashes were replaced by soda ashes from sea-plants, kelp, barilla, etc. In the 13th century the industry was introduced from Italy and Germany into France, and the manufacture of olive oil soap established at Marseilles. In England the trade flourished from the 14th century; during the reign of Charles I. a monopoly of soap-making was farmed to a corporation of soap-boilers in London. From 1712 to 1853 an excise duty ranging from 1d. to 3d. per lb. was levied on soap made in the United Kingdom; despite this heavy impost (equal,

when 3d., to more than the cost of the soap) the industry expanded with considerable rapidity. In 1793, when the duty was 24d. on hard, and rid. on soft soap, the revenue yielded was a little over £400,000; in 1815 it was almost £750,000; In 1835, when the duty was levied at 14d. and rd. respectively (and a drawback allowed for soap used in manufactures) the revenue approached £1,000,000. In 1852, the last year in which soap was taxed, it amounted to £1,126,046, with a drawback on exportation of £271,000. The processes and extent of the manufacture were revolutionized during the first half of the 18th century as a result of Chevreul’s classical researches on the constitution of oils and

fats, and by the introduction of the Leblanc process (invented 1791) for the manufacture of soda from brine. It was some time, however, before manufacturers could be induced to substitute the new article for natural barilla soda; in fact, Muspratt, the founder of the English alkali industry, had to distribute gratis scores of tons of the manufactured soda in order to popularise the material. The progress of the industry was assisted by further improved processes of caustic alkali manufacture, and by the utilisation of coconut, palm and other oils to supplement the tallow and olive oil exclusively used in older times. Chemistry of Soap.—Previous to Chevreul’s researches on the fats (1811-1823) it was believed that soap consisted of a simple binary compound of fat and alkali. Claude J. Geoffroy in 1741 pointed out that the “fat” (actually fatty acids) recovered from ‘a solution of soap by neutralisation with mineral acid, differed from the original fatty substance by dissolving readily in alcohol, in which ordinary fats were insoluble. The significance of this fact was overlooked, and equally unheeded was a not less important discovery by Scheele in 1783. In preparing lead plaster by boiling olive oil with oxide of lead and a little water—a process palpably analogous to that of the soapboiler—he obtained a sweet substance which, termed by him “Olsiiss” (principium dulce oleorum), is now known as glycerin.

viscid solutions, which on agitation yield a tenacious froth or “lather,” and an indisposition to crystallize: hot concentrated solutions are slimy and, on cooling, set to jellies. Soaps give an alkaline reaction in water solution (due to hydrolysis) and have an acrid taste: in the pure condition—a state never reached in commercial practice—they have neither smell nor colour. Almost without exception potash soaps, even if made from the solid fatty acids are “soft” (glutinous jelly) and soda soaps, including those made from the fluid olein are hard; there are, however, considerable variations in consistency according to the prevailing fatty acids. Almost all soda soaps are precipitated from aqueous solution by the addition of sufficient common salt. Potash soap, with the same reagent, undergoes double decomposition—a proportion being converted into the soda soap with

the formation of potassium chloride. Soaps can occur in several physical modifications. In the condition of “neat soap? as found in the pan (containing 30% water) soda soaps display the phenomenon of anisotropy or “liquid crystals.” As the neat soap cools the characteristic long thin “curd fibres,” which exhibit many of the properties of true crystals, grow from and through the mass of fluid crystals. Transparent solid soaps (g.v. below) are supercooled solid solutions in which crystallisation has been retarded; they are optically homogeneous (isotropic) and may be true colloidal gels. In old specimens crystallisation of fibres may occur, and the formation of these can be induced by “seeding” with fibre crystals. The

“figging” (growth of irregular opaque masses) in potash soft soap is due to the crystallising out of harder constituent soaps of the mixture, the bulk consisting of fluid crystals and isotropic jelly. From alcoholic solutions of pure soaps, such as sodium palmitate,

true crystals can be obtained.

In aqueous solution soap was originally regarded as an ordinary colloid; the solution, however, possesses a high electrical conductivity, which is normally associated with electrolytes. These apparently conflicting facts are reconciled by McBain (to whom much of the recent physico-chemical investigation of soap solutions is due) by the theory of “colloidal electrolytes,” postulating the occurrence of the “‘ionic micelle,” or multiply-charged and heavily hydrated colloidal aggregate of ionised molecules. In alcoholic solution, soap behaves as a simple unhydrolysed nonelectrolyte. When dissolved in water, soap suffers hydrolysis to an extent dependent on the dilution, resulting in the precipitation of acid soaps (¢.g., sodium hydrogen palmitate), and the liberation of a small amount of free alkali and infinitesimal quantities of free fatty acid. Detergent Power.—The detergent power of soaps was origThese discoveries of Geoffroy and Scheele formed the basis of inally attributed to the alkali formed by hydrolysis (Berzelius), Chevreul’s researches by which he established the constitution of but recent work has proved (McBain, Hillyer and others) that oils and the true nature of soap. In the article Oms it is pointed the amount of such alkali is far too minute to account for the out that all fatty oils and fats are mixtures of glycerides, i.e., of cleansing properties; moreover, hydrolysis is greater in cold dilute compounds (esters) of the trihydric alcohol glycerol (glycerin) solution, whereas the detergent power of hot relatively concenand some fatty acid such as palmitic acid, etc. Under suitable trated solutions is far superior. The detergent action is now conditions, the decomposition of a glyceride into acid and glyc- considered to be due to the soap itself, and principally a erin (“hydrolysis” or “saponification”) takes place when the result of its physical characters. Spring considers that soap forms glyceride is distilled in superheated steam, or boiled in water a “colloidal absorption compound” with the dirt, whereby the with a certain proportion of caustic alkali. In the latter case latter is hindered from re-deposition on the fabric whence its the alkali combines with thé fatty acid to form its potash or removal was facilitated by the low surface tension between soap soda salt (soap), thus: solution and grease. In support of the theory, he cites the obCsH5(0.CO.CisHa)st+ 3NaOH = 3 Na0.CO.CuHs +C;Hs(OH); servation that lamp-black suspended in soap solution is not removed by filtration. It has also been suggested that the soap Palmitin + Caustic Soda= Soap -+ Glycerin “lubricates” the dirt particles, rendering them less adherent and (Sodium Palmitate) more easily removable by rubbing, and that soap may exert a (It may be remarked that the term “saponification” is used ae or emulsifying action on oils and grease in the dirty scientifically to denote the decomposition by water—hydrolysis— abric. of an ester, in this case a glyceride, into its constituent alcohol The concentration of a soap solution has considerable inand D ; it does not necessarily connote the formation of fluence on the cleansing power; as a rule, the best results are ‘soap”, i obtained with 0-25-0-5% solutions (laundry practice). The most important constituent fatty acids of the natural fats Soap Materials— Almost any fat can be utilised in the manare palmitic, stearic and oleic acids, and it is sufficient to regard ufacture of soap, the choice being determined by the price of these as the principal fatty bodies concerned in soap-making. the oil or fat and the quality and type of soap required. The The general characters of a soap are a certain greasiness to the most important of the animal oils used are tallow and grease touch, ready solubility in water, with formation of more or less (toilet soap), and of the vegetable oils, cottonseed, coconut (cold-

SOAP

859

process, marine soaps) palm, castor (transparent soaps) and readily saponified by relatively concentrated solutions (about olive (textile, toilet soaps) oils. Sulphur extracted olive oil is 309) of caustic alkali (Zyes) at low temperatures. Further, very sultable for the manufacture of potash soft soaps for the tex- tallow when admixed with these oils may be saponified under tile industries. Linseed oil is the principal ingredient of soft the same conditions. The process is simple and consists in melting soaps for other purposes. This is infrequently used in America, the fats at about 60° C (or, in some cases, at a lower temperature) soya bean or comoile being more commonly substituted. Rosin and running exactly sufficient lye with constant stirring; the (the residue from the distillation of crude oil of turpentine) is mixture is thoroughly stirred (‘‘crutched”) until it thickens an important ingredient of yellow (“primrose”) household and (perfume, colouring matter, etc., may be crutched in as required) washer soaps. Lower grade soaps (brown) are made from bone and then discharged into the cooling “frames” which may be lagged to prevent over-rapid cooling. The process of saponification completes itself in the frame with the evolution of considerable heat; the soap is ready for distribution in two or three days. The method has the advantage of rapidity, and the extreme simplicity of the plant renders it valuable for districts where it is difficult to obtain or transport machinery. The disadvantages are that the glycerin (unnecessary except in toilet soaps) is Manufacturing Processes.—The processes for the manufac- retained in the soap and its value lost, and that it is difficult to ture of soap fall into three classes: formation of soaps by (1) ensure complete saponification: excess fat renders the soap liable Neutralization of fatty acids with alkali (caustic or carbonate). to rancidity, but, with modern methods of scientific control, the This is not strictly “saponification” but a simple combination presence of excess alkali, which was formerly regarded as the similar to the formation of rosin soap. The method enables great drawback of cold process soaps, can be avoided. The the manufacturer to employ fats from which the glycerin has process finds considerable application in the manufacture of the been removed by other methods of hydrolysis, and such ma- cheaper toilet soaps and transparent soaps (@.v.). (2) A. (ii.) Hydrated (Semi-boiled) Hard and Soft Soaps. terials as the “oleine” (liquid fatty acids) which is a by-product of the candle-stearine industry, and “soap-stock fatty acids” —These are made by boiling the fatty material and the caustic recovered from the refining of fatty oils. The soap is made lye with open steam until saponification is complete. (In the by pouring the melted fatty acids slowly into the preheated al- case of soft soap a little potassium carbonate—‘pearl ash’’*—is kali solution in the soap-pan, the mass being kept boiling by added to improve the appearance.) The mixture is boiled down steam to avoid the formation of lumps (“bunching”). The boiling by closed steam to the required concentration and the soap framed is continued and the soap “finished” as in the boiling process (see or packed into tins (soft soap). The use of soda yields hard soaps below). The production of soft soap by this method has increased while potash produces jelly-like translucent soft soaps. No lye latterly, especially on the Continent, as thereby loss of glycerin is separated and no glycerin recovered. If soft soap is made by inclusion in the soap is avoided. A slight advantage gained entirely from linseed oil the transparency is retained at low by using the cheaper sodium carbonate instead of caustic alkali temperatures; if the stock contains notable proportions of cottonis counterbalanced by the additional care needed to avoid losses seed or maize oils the soap is liable to become dull (“blind”) in by boiling-over due to the evolution of carbon dioxide. The winter. The use of a proportion of tallow or of caustic soda gives various methods of saponification or fat-splitting, by which fatty rise to stellate clusters of crystals of harder soaps (figging). Marine soaps and the bulk of soft soaps are manufactured by this acids may be prepared from oils may be briefly mentioned. In the Krebitz process lime soaps are formed, washed free process, which is more suitable for fats of high free fatty acid from glycerin, and the fatty acids liberated by treatment with content than the cold process. Attempts have been made to reduce the time necessary for mineral acid. The processes of hydrolysis by steam in the presence of catalysts (lime and magnesia in the autoclave process, saponification by hydrolysing the fats under pressure, and a sulphonated fatty acid compounds in the Twitchell method) are continuous process has been suggested; these methods, however, outlined in the article CaANpLE. The only other fat-splitting have not yet attained commercial practice. To obtain a high-grade product by these methods of manufacprocess of importance (principally used in India) is the fermentation process, in which hydrolysis is obtained by the action of ture it is essential that all the materials employed shall be of the ferment lipase, contained in considerable amounts in castor good quality; for, necessarily, all that enters the soap-pan appears seeds. The process is a reproduction of the natural hydrolysis in the final product. (2) B. Boiled, Settled or Fitted Soaps.—In this process the of oils by living organisms. The ferment is added, in the form of an emulsion of freshly crushed castor seeds, to the oil to be stock (fats) is saponified with an indefinite amount of caustic saponified, and the whole is maintained at a temperature of about soda; the excess alkali, together with the glycerin of the fats is 25° C until the reaction ceases. The fatty acids from the various recovered in the lyes which are separated from the soap by processes are separated by settling, and washed. In most cases the “sraining.” Soap-pan charges vary from 10-30 tons as a rule, and acids are purified by wet distillation with superheated steam. the process is conducted in the following stages (“changes”). (1) Pasting or Saponification—The melted fats are intro(2) Saponification of oils and fats by caustic alkalis—(A) by processes whereby the glycerin is moz recovered from the soap: duced into the soap-pan, a weak caustic soda lye (about 10%) is including the production of (i.) cold process soaps, (ii.) hydrated added and the whole boiled with open steam from perforated coils. (semi-boiled) soaps and soft soaps. (B) by processes whereby The injected steam suffices to keep the soap masses in a state the glycerin is recovered in lyes separated from the soap: exem- of vigorous agitation. As saponification proceeds, stronger lye is plified by the boiling process for the production of curd and added with continued boiling until saponification is almost com“fitted” or “settled” soaps, which is the method employed at plete, as judged by the taste and texture of the emulsion formed. present on the largest scale. (See below.) (3) Formation of soap In order to break this emulsion and to separate the lye, the paste by double decomposition—This method is illustrated by the old- is subjected to (2) Graining or salting out. Boiling is continued est process of hard soap manufacture, namely, the production of and salt is sprinkled on the paste, or brine added, until the soap, On allowing the soda soap by double decomposition of potash soap by salt. In which is insoluble in salt solution, separates. floating as a curdy surface, the to rises soap the settle, to mixture by made are earths alkaline the of soaps the process, another saponification of fats with lime, magnesia, etc.; these are decom- heterogeneous mass of “open grains” enclosing small amounts posed by sodium carbonate forming the soda soap and precipi- of lye. The almost neutral brine solution, termed “spent lye,” tating the carbonate of the metal. These processes are very little which contains the glycerin derived from the stock, separates below. The spent lye is run off from the bottom of the pan and employed in modern practice, and are not used in America. (2) A (i.) Soap-making by the Cold Process——This de- subsequently treated for glycerin (g.v.) recovery. In the case soaps are soluble in salt pends on the fact that fats of the coconut oil group are very of coconut and palm-kernel oils, whose

fat, kitchen grease and low grade tallows. As a result of the increased demand for first quality oils for edible purposes, there has been considerable employment recently of hardened oils ¢.g., whale, soya-bean, etc. For alkalis, caustic soda is usually employed; sodium carbonate may be substituted if the soap is to be made from fatty acids. Caustic potash is used for the production of soft soaps.

860

SOAP

solutions (whence their use at sea as “marine soaps”), the graining or “cutting” of the soap is accomplished by the use of strong caustic soda a8 in the clear boiling change described below. After graining the soap is just “closed” (grainy structure dissolved ) by the addition of water, and the next operation (3) of “making the

soap” or “boiling on strength”

(“clear-boiling,” or “strength

change”), is performed by boiling up with excess of strong lye which again opens the soap. The mixture is boiled with continued additions of lye until the last traces of fat are saponified, ż.2., until permanent “strength” or alkalinity is observed and the soap remains “open.” After settling for several hours, the “half-spené lye” settles out underneath the soap. This contains considerable quantities of alkali and a small amount of glycerin; it is withdrawn and used for the early stages of the pasting of a fresh batch of material. Curd Soap.—The soap may be removed and framed at this stage; the product is known as genuine “curd” soap, and usually contains traces of soda and salt. After clear boiling it is usual practice to give the soap one or two

duct of rapid chilling is not quite identical with, nor so satisfactory for some uses as, the soap obtained by slow spontaneous cooling. The cold soap is cut into bars and slabs (by wires stretched on

frames). The bars are air-dried for a day, to form a sort of crust, which is sufficiently firm to enable the brand, etc., to be stamped on the tablet. This process completes the manufacture of soap for household and technical use. Toilet Soaps.—These may be made as already described by

the cold-process, or be prepared from a neat settled soap by the simple crutching in of perfume, colouring matter, etc., before framing. Similar soaps are made by remelting a genuine or curd soap in special pans for the admixture of perfumes, etc. In this method only cheap perfumes are employed, as considerable quantities are necessary to compensate for the loss by evaporation from the hot mixture. The bulk of high-grade toilet soap is made from settled soap by the milling process, originally introduced from France. The soap from the frames is cut into bars and reduced to fine shavings or chips, which are exposed to warm air in drying chambrine washes to remove entangled lye. The soap then undergoes bers until the moisture content (originally 30%) is reduced to (4) finishing or fitting (in the U.S.A. called “settling change”), about 15%. The chips are mixed with perfume, colouring matwhich consists in once more closing the soap by the addition of ters, glycerin, or superfatting material, such as lanolin, etc., as just sufficient steam and water, and boiling until the soap is required, and “milled” by passing through a series of smooth brought to the right condition of hydration and openness. The granite rollers. On leaving the rolls the soap sheet is again shredded workman in charge adjusts the coarseness of the “fit” according and re-milled, and the process repeated several times until the to the type of soap handled; the art consists in bringing the soap material is homogeneous. The soap ribbons are then forced through to such a condition that impurities shall separate in the subsequent a “plodder,” a machine which compresses and extrudes the soap through a heated nozzle in the form of a bar with a glossy sur“settling” (3—7 days). The material in the pan settles into four distinct layers: (1) a face. The bar is cut into short blocks, which are finished for “fob” or crust of solidified soap foam at the surface, which is distribution by moulding in stamping machines to the shape skimmed off and added to the next batch fitted: (2) a layer of required for the final tablet. Elaborate blends of essential oils (g.v.), both natural and synclean “neat soap” (“settled” soap) comprising 75-80% of the ‘contents of the pan, testing 63-64% fatty acids and containing thetic, are used for the perfuming of soaps. It is necessary to about 30% of water. Such a soap is termed “genuine soap,” select such perfumes as will not discolour or decompose in the since in practice it is not possible to produce a commercial soap presence of the materials of the soap. Many brands of toilet in the pan (without drying) containing less water: (3) a layer soap are associated with particular perfumes, e.g., “Brown Wind(about 1:5-20% of the total) of darker discoloured soap termed sor” is characterised by the odour of oil of cassia. Vegetable “nigre,” containing the separated impurities, chiefly metallic soaps, colouring matters, such as chlorophyll, are popular, but the coal(of iron, etc.), excess alkali and salt. Nigres from several batches tar dyes have also large application. Shaving soaps should be may be united and worked up separately as a lower quality soap, made from a good tallow base; usually a mixture of potash and but are usually added to the charge for the next lower grade of soda is used for the saponification in order to obtain a suitable soap. Bleaching of the nigres is occasionally practised: (4) a consistency. Occasionally gum tragacanth is added to increase the small amount of alkaline liquor containing sodium carbonate, stability of the lather. Floating soaps are made by stirring kapok chloride and traces of hydroxide. fibre or, more generally, air into the soap, so that on cooling In America the practice of skimming off the crust is not the tablet possesses a density less than that of water. A solid’ common. The “genuine” soap, or settled soap, is pumped off, transparent soap may be prepared by the cold process by the use bringing the crust and the nigre together. Nigres are also gen- of a mixture of coconut and castor oils, with the addition of small erally added to the next charge of the same grade of soap rather amounts of rosin, glycerin, alcohol or sugar (all bodies conthan to a lower quality soap. If the kettle to which the nigre is taining one or more hydroxyl groups in the molecule). Excess of added appears too dark, it is “pitched” or settled so that the nigre glycerin tenders the soap liable to sweating, and it is usual to add from this contains the most of the impurities. This nigre, only rosin and sugar syrup to obtain transparency. Better quality obtained once or twice a year, is added to a soap of lower quality. transparent soaps are produced by the older method of dissolvThe pan is “cleansed” by running off the liquid hot neat soap ing a settled soap, usually a “primrose” or tallow-rosin base in into frames, or into crutching pans for the addition of rosin soap alcohol. The solution is concentrated until the mixture sets to a (washer soaps), or medicaments, perfume, colouring matter, etc. solid cloudy mass on cooling. This is cut and moulded into tablets, (toilet soaps, g.v.), or for “running,” “liquoring” or “filling” and these are stored in drying chambers for 3-6 months. The (household soaps). Running or liquoring genuine soap consists in bulk of the alcohol evaporates and the soap gradually becomes the addition of alkaline solutions; soda and sodium silicate are clear and transparent. commonly used, and pearl ash is often added to improve the Household and “Washer” Soaps.—The best grade household appearance. These materials exert a certain cleansing action Soaps consist of tallow-rosin, curd and settled soaps (€.g., 20% and cannot be considered as sheer adulterants such as the “fillers,” rosin, 40% tallow, 40% coconut, cottonseed oils, etc.). Lower of which sodium sulphate, talc, chalk, starch, barytes, etc., are grades are made from bone-fat , kitchen grease and other lowtypical. In the presence of silicate and salt it is possible to grade oils and fats. All qualities are made, from a genuine soap produce a firm soap containing more than the 30% of water char- (63% fatty acids) through all gradations of carbonated, silicated, acteristic of genuine soap. Rosin may be added to the charge, “filled” and “run” soaps down to “scouring” soaps, which may preferably during the strength boil, but it is more usual to contain as little as 10% fatty acids. saponify it separately, and to add the resultant rosin soap in the Soap powders consist of powdered dried soap admixed with crutching pan; its presence imparts good lathering power to the sodium carbonate and silicate, and frequently oxidising agents soap and it possesses a fair detergent action. such as persulphates or perborates. After crutching, the soap is run into the frames to cool. MachinMottled Soaps.—If somewhat low-grade fatty material, e.g., ery to effect more rapid cooling has been introduced recently and kitchen-grease, low quality olive oils, is used in the preparation has an increasing vogue, especially on the Continent; the pro- of curd soaps, it is necessary to finish on a stronger lye, produc-

SOAP-BARK—SOBAT ing a coarse-grained curd.’ By careful control of the clear-boiling stage, followed by slow cooling in the frames the soap crystallises fractionally: harder soaps separate first, the more liquid portions solidifying later are segregated into translucent veins in which are trapped any impurities (usually coloured) such as iron soaps, etc. The crude barilla soda used in the earlier days of the soap industry frequently contained impurities of a blue colour, causing a blue “mottle.” If excessive water were added to the soap this marbling was not produced; consequently the presence of “mottle” was regarded as a guarantee of a genuine soap. Such

a soap is termed “curd mottled’ or “genuine mottled.” Now, however, the colour is usually supplied by the deliberate addition to a curd soap of e.g., ultramarine (blue) or manganese dioxide (black mottle). Further, it has been found possible to produce “artificial mottled” soaps from heavily liquored low grade soaps; the presence of mottle, therefore, can no longer be accepted as an indication of genuineness.

Textile Soaps.—Soap is used to a large extent in the manufacture of silk, woollen and cotton goods. In the preparation of

woollen goods it is required at three stages: scouring of raw wool to remove the wool-grease, scouring the yarns and cloth after oiling, in fulling and milling. Soap is used for “de-gumming” raw silk, for cleansing silk and cotton before and after dyeing, and in the dye-bath, as well as for calico printing. For all these purposes a potash-olive oil soap is to be preferred; on account of the expense, however, it is frequently replaced for cheaper goods by soda soaps, and by soaps made from kitchen grease, bone-fat, palm and ground-nut oils, etc. The absence of free caustic alkali is imperative for all purposes; for de-gumming silk and for cleaning cotton slight alkalinity (due to free carbonate) is permissible. The soaps should be readily soluble and should not contain rosin, or maize or cottonseed oils, which contain substances that are liable to act as resists to the dyes. Ammonia soaps and soaps made from sulphonated oils have recently been introduced for wool scouring. Medicated Soaps.—Disinfectant soaps are manufactured by the addition of disinfectants such as coal-tar phenols (e.g., carbolic acid), birch tar, horax, thymol, icthyol, mercury salts, etc., before framing or during the milling process. Lysol preparations consist of soap solutions containing cresol. Soap itself possesses a slight germicidal action and apparently enhances the disinfectant power of certain other substances such as thymol, etc. Heavily medicated soaps are used in the treatment of certain skin, diseases, as also the metallic soaps of zinc, copper, mercury and lead. Two preparations of hard soap (sodium oleate) are used in medicine: (1) Emplastrum saponis, made with lead plas-

ter; (2) Pilula saponis composita, which contains one in five parts of opium. A preparation of the green soft olive oil soap, known

SOI

forms a lather with water, owing to the presence of a glucoside saponin, which has a marked surface tension action. The same, or a closely similar substance, is found in soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), in senega root (Polygala Senega) and in sarsaparilla. The saponins are poisonous, having a marked haemolytic (blood-

destroying) action. They (with few exceptions) have the general formula CrpHen—sOi, and by the action of dilute acids they are hydrolysed into sugars and sapogenins, which are usually inert pharmacologically.

SOAP PLANTS, the name given to numerous herbs, shrubs

and trees which contain the poisonous glucoside saponin. Various parts of such plants form a lather in water and may be used for cleansing purposes, as the soap bark (g.v.). Other examples are the soapwort (qg.v.) or bouncing Bet and the cowherb (Vaccaria vulgaris). In the south-western United States various plants called amole by the Indians are similarly utilized, especially the small agave (Agave heteracantha) and the soap-root (Chlorogalum pomeridianum). Other soap plants of the western United States are the zygadene and the sand lily (g¢q.v.).

SOAPWORT

(Saponaria officinalis), a perennial herb of the

pink family, Caryophyllaceae (g.v.), called also bouncing Bet, native to Europe and western Asia, common in Great Britain and widely naturalized in North America, often planted in borders and rockeries. It is a stout, smooth, sparingly branched perennial, 2 to 3 ft. high, with lance-shaped leaves and pink or whitish

flowers, borne in dense clusters. The leaves and roots contain saponin, which makes a froth with water, and can be used for

washing delicate fabrics.

(See Soap PLANTS.)

SOBAT, a river of north-east Africa, the most southerly of the

great eastern affluents of the Nile. It is formed by the junction of various streams which rise in the south-west of the Abyssinian

highlands and north-west of Lake Rudolf. The length of the Sobat, reckoning from the source of the Baro, the chief upper stream, to the confluence with the Nile is about 460 miles. The

Baro rises in about 36° 10’ E., 7° 50’ N. at an altitude of some 7,000 ft. The Baro descends the escarpment of the plateau between great walls of rock, dropping 3,000 ft. in 45 miles. It then flows through a narrow gorge at an, altitude of about 2,000 ft., the mountains on either side towering 3,000 to 4,000 ft. above the river bed. Just east of 35’ E. the Birbir joins the Baro. Some

40 m. lower down the hills are left behind and the river flows

west across a vast plain. From Gambela, a town on its north bank

20 m. below the Birbir junction, the river is navigable by steamers during flood time (June-December) to the point of confluence with the White Nile. In about 33° 20’ E,, 8° 30’ N., it is joined by the Pibor. This river issues from the swamp region east of Bor on the Bahr-el-Jebel stretch of the Nile, It is Joined from the east and south by various streams from the Kaffa plateau. Of

as opodeldoc (Linamentum saponis) is a domestic remedy for

these the chief are the Gelo—which breaks through a gap in the

dissolved in benzene it forms a paper varnish. The oleates and linoleates and rosinates of lead, cobalt and manganese are used extensively as “driers” for paints and oil varnishes. BrstiocRaPpHy.—Chemistry of soap:—McBain, Colloid Chemistry of Soap; 3rd and 4th Reports on Colloid Chemistry _of the British

for some distance through a region of swamps. Just beyond the swamps and some 40 m. below the confluence, is the fortified post of Nasser. From Nasser to the junction of the Sobat with the Nile the river has a course of about 180 miles. As it approaches the Nile the Sobat flows in a well-defined channel cut in the. alluvial plains through which it passes. The banks become steep,

stiffness and sprains. The chief use of hard soap is in enemata; mountains in a series of magnificent, cascades—and the Akobo. it also forms the basis of many pills. Given in warm water it The Akobo rises in about 6° 30’ N., 35° 30’ E. The whole region of the lower Pibor and Baro is one of swamps, caused by the rivers forms a ready emetic in cases of poisoning. Metallic Soaps.—Besides their use in pharmacy the soaps of overflowing their banks in the rainy season. At its junction with the alkaline earths and heavy metals have extensive application the Baro the Pibor is over 100 yd. wide, with a depth of & ft. in the arts. Lime soaps are the principal constituents of many and a speed of 2-3 ft. per second. Below the confluence of the Pibor and Baro the united stream, lubricating greases; aluminium oleate is used as an “oil thickener” paper; and textiles known as the Sobat, takes a decided north-west trend, passing waterproofing now for and oils for paint and varnish

Association

(H.M.

Stationery

Office, 1920-22);

MacLennan,

J. Soc.

Chem. Ind. 42, 393T., 1923 (microscopic structure). General and —G. Martin, Modern Soap and Detergent. Industry Technological:

the slope rapid and the current strong. The Sobat enters the Nile almost at right angles in 9° 22 N., 31° 31° E. Itis 400 ft. wide at its mouth and has a depth of 18 to 20 ft. at low water and of 30 ft. when in flood. The colour of the water when in moderate flood Candles, and Glycerine (1906); W. H. Simmons, Soap (Pitman’s it is from this circumstance that the Nile gets Common Commodities af Commerce, 1917) (elementary); British is that of milk, and its name of Bahr-el-Abiad, i.e., White river. In full flood the Pharmaceutical Codex (pharmacy). (E. L.; G. H, W.) The amount of alluvium SOAP-BARK, the inner bark of Quillaja Saponaria, a large colour of the Sobat is a pale brick red. of water distree of the rose family (Rosaceae), which grows în Chile, Re- brought down is considerable, The average volume stage in low at second per cum, 100 from varies it charged since soap, for substitute a as employed duced to powder, it is

(1924 with bibliography) ; Simmons and Appleton, Handbook of Soap Manufacture (1908); J. Lewkowitsch, Chemical Technology of Qils, Fats and Waxes, vol. iii. (1923); L. L. Lamborn, Modern Soaps,

862

SOBRAON—SOCIAL

ANTHROPOLOGY

April to 770 in October and November when it is in full flood. includes the study of the human frame, of racial distinctions, of For the part played by the Sobat in the annual rise of the Nile civilisation, of social structure and of man’s mental reactions to see NILE. The Sobat was ascended for some distance in 1841 by the Egyptian expedition despatched in the previous year to explore the upper Nile. The post of Nasser was founded in 1874 by

General C. G. Gordon when governor of the equatorial provinces of Egypt, and it was visited in 1876 by Dr. W. Junker, the German explorer. The exploration of the river system above Nasser was carried out in the last decade of the roth century by

the Italian explorer V. Bottego; by Colonel (then Captain) Marchand, of the French army, who, on his way from Fashoda to France, navigated the Baro up to the foot of the mountains; and by Captain M. S. Wellby, Majors H. H. Austin and R. G. T. Bright, of the British army, and others. By the agreement of May 15, 1902, between Great Britain and Abyssinia the lower courses of the Pibor and Baro rivers to their point of confluence form the frontier between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia. (See NILE, SUDAN and ABYSSINIA.)

his environment.

The problems connected with the human body,

such as race, heredity, miscegenation, are the subject matter of Physical Anthropology. Social, called also Cultural Anthropology, studies questions of the culture and social organisation of primi- ` tive tribes and nations. As a rule a somewhat vague line of demarcation is drawn between peoples of simpler culture and those more highly developed, such as the modern inhabitants of Europe and N. America. The study of higher civilisations is then assigned to Sociology. The distinction, however, is unsatisfactory and it would be more correct to say that Social Anthropology is a branch of Sociology, as applied to primitive tribes. Since the study of living peoples uses methods and controls sources of information entirely different from those at the disposal of archaeology and pre-history, Social Anthropology has to restrict its scope to the study of the modern living representatives of primitive mankind. Social Anthropology begins really with a pre-scientific interest

in the strange customs and beliefs of distant and barbarous peoples, and in this form it is as old, at least, as the Father of History. Indeed traces of such pre-scientific interest can be found in the early inscriptions, paintings, reliefs and sacred writings of the Orient and even in the quaint and highly coloured stories which one primitive tribe tells of another. We have not yet succeeded in eliminating this cruder curiosity in “Ye Beastly Devices of Ye Heathen” from modern anthropology, where the thirst for the romantic, the sensational and the thrilling still plays some havoc with the sober scientific attitude. In the establishment of this latter and of sound methods of SOCAGE. A free tenement held in fee simple by services of research the lead in Great Britain was taken by General Pittan economic kind, such as the payment of rent or the performance Rivers E. B. Tylor, J. F. MacLennan and J. Lubbock (Lord of some agricultural work, was termed in mediaeval English law Avebury); in Germany by A. Bastian and even earlier by Herder, a socage tenement. In a borough a similar holding was called a Grimm and the Völker-psychologists; in France by Boucher de burgage tenement. The term is derived from O. Eng. soc, which Perthes and Perrault. means primarily suit, but can also signify jurisdiction and a franSOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY AS A SCIENCE chise district (see Soke). Historically two principal periods may be distinguished in the evolution of the tenure. At the close of During the last quarter of the preceding century and at the the Anglo-Saxon epoch we find a group of freemen differentiated beginning of this, Social Anthropology gradually crystallised into from the ordinary ceorls because of their greater independence a scientific study. The specific nature of cultural process was and better personal standing. They are classified as sokemen in recognised, as well as the complexity of social organisation and of opposition to the villani in Domesday Book, and are chiefly to primitive custom and belief. The vastness of the problem, the be found in the Danelaw and in East Anglia. There can hardly be human interest and the dramatic beauty of anthropological facts a doubt that previously most of the Saxon ceorls in other parts were brought home to scholars and laymen alike by the works of of England enjoyed a similar condition. In consequence of the W. Robertson Smith, Sir J. Frazer, E. A. Westermarck, E. Norman Conquest and of the formation of the common law the Crawley and E. Sidney Hartland, to mention a few outstanding tenure was developed into the lowest form of freehold. Legal names. At the same time, scientific movements of great conseprotection in the public courts for the tenure and services deemed quence were developing on the Continent (Durkheim and Wundt). certain, appear as its characteristic feature in contrast to villein- Most important of all, the man of science began to go out into age. Certainty and legal protection were so essential that even the field himself and to study native races personally by direct villein holdings were treated as villein socage when legal protection observation. The lead to this was given in Great Britain by the was obtainable for it, as was actually the case with the peasants Cambridge Expedition organised by A. C. Haddon and in which on ancient demesne who could sue their lords by the little writ such eminent anthropologists as W. H. R. Rivers and C. G. Seligof right and the Monsiraverunt. The Old English origins of the man received their training in field-work. Equally fruitful were tenure are still apparent even at this time in the shape of some the pioneering researches of Spencer and Gillen in Australia and of its incidents, especially in the absence of feudal wardship and B A of the Polynesian Society in New Zealand and the marriage. Minors inheriting socage come under the guardianship acific. not of the lord but of the nearest male relative not entitled to In America, where the interest in anthropology had a historical succession. An heiress in socage was free to contract marriage basis in both friendly and hostile contacts between settlers and without the interference of the lord. Customs of succession were redskins, modern scientific research received perhaps the first also peculiar in many cases of socage tenure, and the feudal rule official recognition in the foundation of the Bureau of American -of primogeniture was not generally enforced. Commutation, the Ethnology. Early pioneers of anthropology, J. W. Powell, J. enfranchisement of copyholds, and the abolition of military Mooney, but above all L. H. Morgan, laid the foundations of tenures in the reign of Charles IT. led to a gradual absorption of scientific field-work and theoretical interest in the North American socage in the general class of freehold tenures. Indians. Later the work of Franz Boas and his school continued

SOBRAON, a decisive battle in the first Sikh War (see SIKH

Wars}. It was fought on Feb. 16, 1846, between the British (15,ooo) under Sir Hugh Gough and the Sikhs (20,000) under Tej Singh and Lal Singh. The Sikhs had fortified themselves in a bend on the left bank of the Sutlej, with the river in their rear. The battle began with a two hours’ artillery duel, in which the Sikh guns were the more powerful, and the British heavy guns expended their ammunition. Then the infantry advanced with the bayonet, and after a fierce struggle took the Sikh entrenchments. The Sikh losses were estimated at from 5,000 to 8,000. This battle ended the first Sikh War.

see Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, i. 27x ff.; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond, 66 ff. (1907) ; P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England, 113 ff., 196 ff. (1892) ; English Society im the trth Century, 431 ff. (1908). (P. Vx.)

SOCCER: see FOOTBALL, ASSOCIATION. SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY, Anthropology is the science

of man and of his culture at various levels of development.. It

the scientific tradition of American social anthropology. The value of the scientific study of native races was recognised in the official patronage given to colonial research by the Dutch Govern-

ment and by the German Colonial Office. The last 20 years have been characterised by a great extension

of scientific field work among primitive peoples, by further development of the theoretical work of the opening years of the century

SOCIAL

ANTHROPOLOGY

= by important discussions of the methods and aims of anthropology. MODERN

SCHOOLS

In spite of much fuller knowledge of primitive cultures, modern theory presents great diversity. Two dominant tendencies are recognised in modern anthropology. The one, usually described as the “evolutionary” or “comparative”? or “independent origins” school, is based on the assumption that a preponderant part in the formation of human culture has been played by independent evolution taking place on the same lines in various parts of the world. Similarities in custom, institution and belief are in this school explained on the principle that human nature produces at the same level of development identical or similar forms. The “diffusionist” school on the other hand place all the emphasis on cultural borrowing by one people from another. Similarities in implements and weapons, in beliefs and legends, in social organisation and decorative art are explained by spread from one or several original centres (see below). Only a few extremists, however, belong to either school exclusively or maintain that one factor only accounts for all similarities of culture, either independent evolution or diffusion. The majority of anthropologists recognise—and are unquestionably correct in doing so—that cultural change is always a mixture of both independent development and partial borrowing from other people. In reality the main tendencies of modern Social Anthropology can be stated thus. Psychological Interpretation of Culture.—Continuing the direct tradition of the German folk-psychologists, as well as of the British classical school, Wundt, Vierkandt, Krueger and their collaborators attempt to explain systematically the phenomena of language, custom, belief and social organisation by references to psychological processes. Quite as exclusively psychological are the contributions of the psycho-analysts, who account for totemism, taboo, initiation ceremonies, in fact for the whole field of primitive cultures, by unconscious mental mechanisms. Psychological interest is also predominant in the works of Frazer, Van Gennep, Sumner, Crawley and Westermarck. All these writers belong on the whole to the evolutionist school. The extreme representative of the diffusionist school, Graebner, maintains that all the regularities of cultural process are “laws of mental life” and that “their scientific and methodical study is possible only from the psychological point of view” (Graebner, p. §82, 1923), while Pater Schmidt, Wissler, Lowie, Kroeber and Rivers constantly use psychological interpretations. Thus, no anthropologist nowadays wishes completely to eliminate the study of mental processes, but both those who apply psychological explanations from the outset and those who want to use them after culture has been “historically analysed” forget that interpretation of culture in terms of individual psychology is as fruitless as mere historical analysis; and that to dissociate the studies of mind, of society and of culture, is to foredoom the results.

863

The historical hypotheses of Frobenius, Rivers, Schmidt and Graebner, the sweeping identifications of “culture complexes” all over the globe, will not so easily pass muster. They suffer from a lifeless and inorganic view of culture and treat it as a thing which can be preserved in cold storage for centuries, transported across oceans and continents, mechanically taken to pieces and

recompounded. Historical reconstructions within limited areas, such as have been done upon American material for instance, in so far as they are based on definite records or on archaeological evidence, give results which can be empirically verified, and therefore are of scientific value. Dr. B. Laufer’s study on the potter’s wheel and certain contributions to the history of American culture (T. A. Joyce, A. V. Kiddler, N. C. Nelson, H. J. Spinden,

L. Spier) are methodologically acceptable, though they belong to archaeology rather than to the science of living races and cultures. Such sound works must be clearly distinguished from the productions in which a conjectural history is invented ad hoc in order to account for actual and observable fact, in which therefore the known and empirical is “explained” by the imaginary and unknowable.

Sociological Theories of Culture—Robertson Smith is undoubtedly the spiritual father of this movement. He was the first to see that religion must be accounted for quite as much by its social nature, by what it does for tribal cohesion, as by its meaning and value for the individual. The great American Anthropologists, Powell and Morgan, also contributed toward our understanding of clan solidarity in savage societies. Durkheim, inspired by their work as well as by that of Bachofen, Wilken and Sir James Frazer, developed a sociological theory of early culture. Kohler and the school of comparative jurisprudence in Germany, Steinmetz in Holland and later, Rivers in England, also studied primitive society from the sociological point of view, overemphasising perhaps the solidarity of and the lack of differentiation within the early horde and clan. The doctrine of primitive legal cohesion and of social structure by direct solidarity given by Durkheim, Steinmetz and Kohler; the subtle and stimulating interpretation of primitive magic, sacrifice and religion by Durkheim, Hubert and Mauss; the recent analysis of contract and gift by Mauss and Davy, show an enormous advance upon any previous work in the greater precision of concepts, in the consistent application of the sociological interpretation, in the conscious attempt to preserve native classification, nomenclature and perspective. It is impossible to adopt these views unreservedly because they tend to lapse into metaphysical vagueness. In order to avoid the explanation of culture in terms of individual mental processes, yet fully aware that psychology cannot be excluded, these. anthropologists compromise by introducing the conception of collective consciousness, which sociologists and anthropologists alike (Ginsberg, Maclver, Radin) have shown to be untenable. The sociological school exaggerates the social nature of primitive man, the importance of the clan and the solidarity of kinship. They neglect the role of individual initiative and variation, the part played by self-interest and the institution s Culture.—A of The Distribution, Contact and Diffusion of the individual family. influential and one-sided as the psychological‘trend is the interTheories of Specific Difference of Primitive Mentality.— principle the by culture of pretation of similarities and analogies on the soil of the sociological school, but laying more stress Grown by of mechanical transmission. First vigorously propounded purely psychological side, other theories seek to account the on distribuof study the ethnology, of Ratzel as the main problem belief and custom by the alleged specific character of savage for Ankermann, tion and diffusion has been followed up by Frobenius, mental structure in primitive man. Basing their conclusions on Graebner, Pater W. Schmidt, Pater Koppers and subsequently by a number of interesting but probably exaggerated and distorted J. W. and Smith the late Dr. Rivers. In England Prof. Elliot by such observers as Cushing and Dennett, and on a Perry have carried the diffusionist argument even farther, deriving statements mass of obviously immature and superficial accounts by missionall culture the world over from Egypt. aries and other amateurs, the writers of this school aver that its in lies The merit of moderate anthropological diffusionism savage is prelogical and mystical, impervious to experience, geographical rather than in its historical contributions. As a the in a world of “dim participations” (Crawley, Lévy-Bruhl, living is it m, substratu cal survey of facts correlated to their geographi Danzel, H. Werner, Graebner). These views have but Vierkandt, a valuable method of bringing out the influence of physical habitat among theoretical anthropologists, whose position currehcy limited distriThe on. transmissi as well as the possibilities of cultural by Carveth Read. Modern field-workers, expounded well been. has Lowie, butions mapped out for America by Boas, Spinden, about the savage from first-hand speak to equally competent Wissler, Kroeber, Rivet and Nordenskiöld; the survey of Melof comparative psychology problems with deal to and knowledge given provinces n of Australia

anesian cultures given by Graebner; by W. Schmidt; of Africa prepared by Ankermann and Herskovits, will possess lasting value.

and epistemology through training, have one and all criticised

adversely these points of view (Boas, Rivers, Radin, Kroeber).

864.

SOCIAL

ANTHROPOLOGY

None the less, by posing the problem of primitive knowledge and | dence, and as serving only to give a greater insight into the mentality, by stirring up opinion and forcing anthropologists to mechanism of culture in its various phases; social organisation, make up their minds, the writers of this school, above all M. belief and material outfit. The functional view of culture is implicit in the work of many Lévy-Bruhl, have made valuable contribution to Science. The Functional Analysis of Culture.—This type of theory of the leading writers of the comparative school and in the best aims at the explanation of anthropological facts at all levels of achievements of modern field-work, The Comparative school development by their function, by the part which they play within however has allowed the evolutionary view to overshadow the the integral system of culture, by the manner in which they are functional method, while most American anthropologists have related to each other within the system, and by the way in which failed to disentangle the empirical interpretation of culture in this system is related to the physical surroundings. It aims at terms of function from reconstruction in terms of conjectural histhe understanding of the nature of culture, rather than at con- tory. They have thus lapsed into a type of explanation which at jectural reconstructions of its evolution or of past historical best belongs to archaeology, and so have greatly sterilised their otherwise splendid field-work and stimulating theory. events. Recently, however, and among a small number of anthropoloTwo factors contribute toward the development of the functional point of view. The modern specialist field-worker soon gists only, the functional method has been applied systematically recognises that in order to see the facts of savage life, it is and exclusively in field-work and theory (R. W. Firth; B. necessary to understand the nature of the cultural process. De- Malinowski; G. Pitt-Rivers; A. Radcliffe-Brown; Richard Thurnscription cannot be separated from explanation, since in the words wald). ae functional method by showing what culture does for a ef a great physicist, “explanation is nothing but condensed description.” Every observer should ruthlessly banish from his primitive community, establishes its value and thus utters a work conjecture, preconceived assumptions and hypothetical warning against too hasty interference with native belief and institutions and too wasteful an exploitation of native labour and schemes, but not theory. The field-worker who lives among savages soon discards the resources. By demonstrating how primitive custom and law antiquarian outlook. He sees every implement constantly used; work, it furnishes the administrator with practical hints of how every custom backed up by strong feeling and cogent ideas; every to frame and administer native regulations. By inquiring into detail of social organisation active and effective. He perceives, savage economic organisation, the functional method can teach above all, that culture, provides primitive man with the means of how to manage indigenous labour and how to trade with the satisfying his wants, and of mastering his surroundings. ‘The natives. By a sympathetic study of early belief and ritual, it can functional view of culture lays down the principle that in every instruct the missionary how to graft a new creed upon the old one type of civilisation, every custom, material object, idea and without destroying what is good and sound in it. The functional method, concerned as it is with the actual belief fulfils some vital function, has some task to accomplish, working and mechanism of primitive culture, supplies the right represents an indispensable part within a working whole. The better a custom is understoad, the clearer it becomes theoretical foundation for the practical application of anthrothat it does not sit loosely, within its context, that it is not pology (see ANTHROPOLOGY, APPLIED), for which mere antiquara simply detachable unit like a petrifact in a rock, but that ian reconstructions, whether historical or evolutionary, are irrele-

it is organically connected with the rest of the culture, A “superstition” is always a powerful mental force, whether as a restraint, or as an incentive to action. Magic, again, in many of its forms, Is an indispensable economic force. Sorcery plays a conspicuous part in the political organisation and the legal arrangements of most tribes. Religion, through the moral integration of the group, invariably provides the basis of a tribal constitution. This mutual telation of customs, aspects and institutions; the work which they do for each other; the function which they fulfil within the whole scheme of culture—this it is that interests the exponent

of the functional method.

This method insists, therefore, not only on the dynamic nature of culture, but alsa upon its organic unity. Culture must not be treated as a loose agglomeration of customs, as a heap of anthropological curiosities, but as a connected living whole. The functional method protests against the tearing away of a custom, in-

stitution or aspect from its cultural context. “Magic,” “cannibalism,” “sociology,” “religion,” “pottery,” “mother-in-law taboos,” “marriage,” and many other such labels, have given rise

to the water-tight compartment method of collecting evidence in a field, of writing it up, and of dealing with anthropological eory. The functional view of anthropology refuses to regard cultural process as a mere natural growth—through the biological

simile of evolution. It refuses also to see in it a simple shifting of disconnected items from place to place—through the mechanical simile of diffusion, The functional method insists on the recognition of the process of culture as a process sui generis, which must be studied by special methods, without borrowing from physics, biology or the limbo of untrammelled conjecture: culture is alive, it is dynamic, all its elements are interconnected, and each fulfils a specific function in the integral scheme. The

discovery of cultural functions makes it possible for this method

ee down the laws of the functional correlations of anthropology.

Modern field-work thus regards a theory as purely empirical, never to be taken beyond the limits of induction set by the evi-

vant.

And indeed recently the future

of relations

between

Europeans and native peoples has come to be recognised as one

of the momentous problems of our times. A number of important movements and works indicate the recognition of the necessity for a closer co-operation between the Anthropologist and the man who controls tropical colonies. From the official side there may be quoted Lord Lugard’s policy of imdirect or dependent rule, so brilliantly vindicated in his own administration and so well expounded in his hook on The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa; the recent appointment of several Government

Anthropologists in British Colonies; and the charter of the Mandated Territories. From the missionary point of view may be mentioned J. H. Qldham’s excellent. book Christianity and the Race Problem, while as a scientific approach to practical Anthropology, The Clash of Culture and the Contact of Races by

G. Pitt-Rivers is a pioneering piece of work. ` The following analysis of some of the main aspects of primitive organisation will best illustrate the subject matter, the aims and the methods of-Social Anthropology. THE CULTURAL

FUNCTION

OF MARRIAGE

AND

FAMILY

This is perhaps the most debated and the most instructive of all anthropological problems. The Institutions of Marriage and Family.—Careful inductive comparison reveals one important fact: marriage and family are almost universal, and can be traced through all types and levels of culture. Their universality can be accounted for by the functional analysis of these institutions. Two functions of paramount importance are fulfilled by any institution which regulates mating and propagation: the maintenance of racial

quality and the maintenance of the continuity of culture. Saciological considerations prove that. the individual family based on

monogamous marriage provides the best opportunities for effective sexual selection. It also supplies the best training for the future cultural work and sociological orientation of the young

individual. The importance of the family as the early social and

cultural pattern for later life has been independently established

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Bn

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by anthropology and psycho-analysis. The family is the link fluences of cultural progress working before our very eyes. With between instinctive endowment and the acquisition of cultural all this, although the clan is of great benefit for society and inheritance, in that it permits the biological bonds between parent culture, it never becomes an absolute necessity like the family. and infant gradually to ripen into social ties. It also eliminates It is rather a symptom of advancing social differentiation than its a number of dangers due to the disruptive factors of the sexual inevitable effect. Thus, although the family and marriage are instinct. (A. L. Kroeber; J. C. Flügel; R. H. Lowie; A. R. Rad- found to be universal, there exist tribes without any sub-divisions into clans, moieties or matrimonial classes. Further, since the cliffe-Brown; B. Malinowski.) Regulated Licence.—The various customs of regulated licence clan is associated with the general scheme of development, it do not allow of a simple and satisfactory solution. As culture cannot be regarded as a fortuitous index of this or that culture. Mother-right and Father-right (¢.v.)—The correlated advances and larger numbers of men and women come into contact, the experimental component of the sexual instinct drives phenomenon of unilateral kinship also plays a very important part people towards indiscriminate mating. Freedom in pre-nuptial in diffusionist schemes. Mother-right and father-right respectively intercourse, festive licence, religious prostitution, lewd marriage have been taken by Ankermann, Graebner, Rivers, W. Schmidt ceremonies are the rule in savage and barbarous communities, and Koppers as principal indices in their classification of cultures. with the exception of those of the lowest level (Schmidt and But the question arises, is either mother-right or father-right an Koppers). Again, in some tribes the institution of marriage independent element, or are they both always linked together? suffers temporary obliteration in the form of wife-lending or Tt seems in fact that mother-right and father-right are never exchange, jus primae noctis sexual over-rights of chiefs and found in isolation, but always co-exist—one of them emphamagicians and similar relaxations of the matrimonial bond. These sised by the tribal law and the economic arrangements, the other, customs have been explained as “survivals of primitive promis- though subordinate, never completely absent. Until the problem cuity.” That such an explanation is untenable has been con- thus raised has been solved, until the proof is given that mothervincingly shown by Westermarck. There are two ways of right and father-right can exist as exclusive, sharply defined stages regulating intercourse between the sexes: either by suppressing or sociological principles, their use as indices of culture, and all irregular mating, or by allowing a well-defined and limited evidence of its spread must remain meaningless. Here again, licence. Biology and psycho-analytic theory teach that stern functional analysis of the methods of reckoning descent leads to repression and rigid sex morals are not a complete solution of a clear definition of such concepts, indispensable for their use the problems here involved. Anthropology, moreover, shows that in any speculative construction. (Cf. B. Malinowski, Sex and this problem is éspecially present at low levels of culture. Ac- Repression, Pt. iv.) Problem of Sex.—Thus the family, the clan, sexual restriccording to some authorities, 4 regulated and limited licence should be considered as an imperfect but effective way of dealing with tions, as well as sexual liberties, are not the stages of a transthe disruptive forces of sex. Such regulation, moreover, is in no formation nor fortuitous indices of cultural type or cultural savage tribe found to be subversive to the fundamental institu- stratum, but correlated, component parts of one big institution; ‘tions of marriage and the family which exist in spite of it every- the institution which controls the mating of sexes, the procreation of offspring and the education of the young, and fulfils the where. At the same time, there is not one single tribe where sexual integral function of racial and cultural continuity. The nature of licence is found untrammelled, where anything approaching pro- its component elements is explained by the part which they play miscuity obtains. Two forms of regulation are found everywhere: within this integral scheme. The functional method might also the strict prohibition of the wife’s adultery safeguards the bonds be extended to all the other aspects of organisation—territorial, of marriage and is only now and then over-ruled by exceptional political, legal and economic. Each is related to an essential need customs; the prohibition of incest within the household safe- of human society, its distribution over the locality, defence, guards the integrity of the family. This is very often extended maintenance of order, and the production of necessaries and values. to exogamy which embraces the whole clan. ECONOMIC ORGANISATION The Clan (g.v.).—The clan and the classificatory principle of researches of anthropologists in Melanesia, in recent the Until subbe to not analysis sociological closer a on kinship appear America, in Africa, and in MicroNorth-West in Zealand, New more of stitutes for the family and household, but the outcome students (M. extended co-operation in matters other than sexual mating and nesia revealed a wealth of material, and theoreticalB. Malinowski) Firth, W. R. Thurnwald, R. Buecher, K. Weber, functions clan The Krnsure.) (See the rearing of children. chiefly in economic, legal and above all in ceremonial matters. laid stress on the cultural importance of primitive economics, occupational view of It is also closely connected with age-grades, secret societies and there reigned in anthropology the simple stages or types, the occupational of Schemes husbandry. primitive districeremonial the with men’s clubs wherever these exist; tending of herds, the bution of wealth (the kala, the potlach or the kakari), with magical collecting of food, hunting, fishing, the were set forward as production specialisation and co-operation. Thus, in its functional definition, raising of crops and industrial or analytical economics, as descriptive matter‘of subject only the of extension the clan represents the non-sexual and non-genetic the kinship principle beyond the household and above the natural it is called. In all such views, primitive man is regarded as having but function of the family. Exogamy again appears as an additional elementary needs, and proceeding reasonably and naturally simple bond of solidarity—a natural extension of the principle of incest he has left over he devotes running side by side with the extension of the kinship principle. to satisfy them. The little spare time and to the satisfaction of superfluities, of production casual the to of groupings wider the and As the link between the individual are usually placed however, activities, latter which hobbies, his local and political type, the clan is of special importance. economics. Thus we read in an authoriof domain the outside of side one of s over-emphasi the to due always is clan The in Anthropology (Edn. 1912, kinship—an over-emphasis necessary to eliminate any ambiguity tative work, Notes and Queries is a supply of food; maintenance of essential first “The 260) p. in the transmission of hereditary rights and obligations. This has actual food quest and the communities simple many in and of terminology his in Lowie Dr. by up been aptly summed . . . occupy by far the greater part bilateral and unilateral kinship. The clan appears therefore as operations arising from it little opportunity for the the natural result of the two influences which come into the fore- of the people’s time and energy, leaving again, we are told by And needs.” lesser any of satisfaction the on tradition of continuity the ground as culture advances; savage “has no means the generally that (Buxton) writer another The one hand and the extension of co-operation on the other. can carry about on his person clan allows of the establishment of greater cohesion within each to acquire more wealth than he family.” The main questions cut short generation and across succeeding generations. The explanation or on the persons of his are those of the incentives to proassumptions priori a such by here given accounts for the institution, neither by an accident, labour and of the primitive forms of organisation the of duction, communism primitive hypothetical a by nor ideas, nor by specific the apportionment wealth. of of inin sexual matters, but by reference to certain deep-seated =

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The Economic Motive.—lIs it true then that primitives work only to satisfy their primary needs? In the lowest stages of culture people are ready to endure thirst and hunger, but are bent upon stimulants or narcotics. We know of tribes without clothing, but of none without ornaments. There are natives without fixed habitations yet keen on the display of such wealth as they possess. At higher levels, under more favourable conditions, certain commodities are actually produced far in excess of actual needs. And this, moreover, is not done “in exchange for food or for the means of obtaining it,” as current opinion usually runs (Wotes and Queries). Nor is it carried out through economic foresight. Large quantities of accumulated food and wealth are employed instead for festive display, for ceremonial yet useless donations, sometimes even for mere destruction, often on a gigantic scale. All such customs serve merely for the manifestation of the wealth of the owner, of his generosity, of his economic power. In the South Seas, the accumulated food is employed for the production of objects of value by the feeding of artisans, who devote themselves to the polishing of axe-blades, to carving, to the making of shell ornaments or of mats (Thurnwald, R. W. Firth). Some of these early forms of valuable tokens of wealth have a distinctly religious character, serve in ritual ceremonies, are associated with belief and possess elaborate mythical pedigrees (Mauss). Finally there is one very important fact which contradicts the merely utilitarian view of primitive economic incentives; the products of savage industries in general, far from being made with the minimum of effort required for their utility, show a lavishness of artistic detail, of decoration and pedantic finish, which would put to shame any civilised artisan. The joy in the work, the satisfaction of perfect craftsmanship, the artistic passion for the general appearance of the finished product dominate savage industry and enterprise (B. Malinowski). It is clear from this evidence that the “‘first essentials of maintenance,” the primary needs and the requirements of practical

utility, do not exclusively control the economic effort of primitive

man. Nor is their aim always to achieve the utilitarian maximum of effect by the minimum of effort. To understand the driving forces of early production, it is, therefore, not sufficient to make reference to man’s animal needs. It is just as necessary to realise the natives’ ideas of value; their pleasure in the integral effect of their work in which artistic, sporting, social and even religious motives are mixed with those of pure utility. The Character of Early Production.—The well-known scheme of K. Buecher, who would place the whole range of primitive husbandry within the limits of the “Individual search for food” and of “closed household economy” is the clearest expression of the view that primitive man works for himself and his family alone, and that he knows no production on a wider, a communal or tribal scale. A fuller insight into the nature of primitive labour reveals the existence of organisation. Even in the lowest cultures there are tasks which transcend the forces of one individual or of one family—the felling of trees, drive-hunting, the very collecting of food. At higher stages, such pursuits as communal hunting and fishing, the making of gardens, the construction of houses and canoes require some type of organised labour. This points to a

definite specialisation, distribution and synchronisation in time,

a division of functions, an integration of the individual contributions to the common end. If we enquire what are the elements of the economic organisation, it soon becomes clear that we must distinguish between moral or persuasive, and social or coercive

factors. K. Buecher in a later work (Arbeit und Rhythmus) has

drawn attention to the great importance of rhythm for successful work. Many other stimulants and incentives could be mentioned,

the most efficient of which is unquestionably work in company. Conversation, jokes, mutual assistance and interest relieve the tedium of solitary labour, while emulation, example and the satisfaction of pride are under primitive conditions possible only in

communal work. The best worker is always recognised as such among savages, and his leadership is followed. Much more important, however, is the moral prestige enjoyed by supernatural ex-

‘ pert knowledge which, in the form of magic, always controls vital and difficult economic pursuits.

Marking the dates, inaugurating

the successive stages, imposing periods of rest and setting the time limits, it acts as an organising, co-ordinating influence (B. Malinowski in Argonauts of the Western Pacific).

Social coercion is the other important force in economic organisation. As soon as distinctions of rank and power arise they are used as means of extorting labour, while, on the other hand, economic inequalities function as indices of social status. Primitive Ownership.—This economic problem has been discussed in some detail by anthropologists. But while, on the one hand, the writers, who, like Buecher, assume an atomised economic production, admit only of individual or personal ownership, those following Morgan, and influenced by a strong social-

istic bent, Engels, Bebel, Cunow, make the savage into a communist. As a matter of fact, property, which is but one form of legal relationship, is neither purely individualistic nor communal, but always mixed (B. Malinowski, Crime and Custom). The misuse of such conceptions as “communism,” associated with an incorrect application of the concept of “money” may be exemplified in a scheme recently put forward by the late Dr. Rivers. Dr. Rivers designates certain forms of valuables found in Melanesia, such as mats, arrows, pigs’ jawbones and, above all, shell discs, as “money,” following the usage of white traders, missionaries and planters. Dr. Rivers to justify the use of this word, insists that these objects “are used for no other purpose” and “have a very definite scale of value,” but he gives in other contexts a definite and concrete account of several ways in which these objects are used “for other purposes,” and thus stultifies his first criterion. The second criterion is obviously insufficient for identifying a commodity as “money.” All objects have in our

economy “a very definite scale of value,” yet we do not apply the word money to a pair of slippers, a motor-car or a picture by Raphael, still less do we use these things as money.

Now the taking of terminological liberties with well-defined concepts has its dangers. “Money” has no sooner been introduced into the argument than “communism” crops up and the two are related by a remarkable piece of reasoning. “The subject of communism in property is closely connected with that of money. A thoroughly communistic people can have no use for money among themselves. If they possess anything which can be regarded as currency it can only be used in transactions with other peoples. The use of money should therefore be associated with the disappearance of communism; if it can be shown that Melanesian money is due to immigrant influence, and especially to that of the Kava people, we shall have gone far to establish the conclusions already suggested” (History of

Melanesian Society, vol. 2, p. 385).

And again: “A thoroughly communistic people would have no need for money, and any explanation of the communism of Polynesia will

ee

Pp. 392).

furnish also the explanation of the absence of money”

And as an “historical explanation” of these facts: “The explanation of the absence of money in Polynesia and of the communism of its people is to be found in the special mode of settlement of the Kava people” (p. 393). What a “thoroughly communistic people” are is difficult to say.

The Bolshevik regime aspires to that title, but they have not done away with money, they use it in fact for internal purposes with-

out qualms or difficulties. On the other hand, the Central Australians, the Fuegians and the Melanesians of Eastern New Guinea have a keen sense of individual property, yet they use no money or currency.

The fact is that neither in primitive nor

in advanced cultures is there any correlation between communism and absence of money. Under a system of rigid individual property, exchange takes place in the form of direct barter; in a highly developed economic organisation with money and banking systems, the community may control almost completely the resources of the individual and establish thorough-going communism. . It can be very seriously doubted whether Dr. Rivers has ever

SOCIAL

ANTHROPOLOGY

proved that in some parts of the Western Pacific there exists communism and in others individualism, nor as we have seen is his statement that certain objects are money functionally correct. The absence of money on the other hand which Dr. Rivers

explains by the existence of communism can be very simply accounted for by the absence of any need for it under primitive conditions. The moral of this criticism is that we need in Anthro- pology far greater precision in the use of terms and the definition of concepts and far richer and minuter observations on economic matters. We can dispense on the other hand with daring speculations about absence of property or presence of monetary systems in pre-historic Oceania. Summary.—To sum up briefly, it is incorrect to assume that man for a long time has lived in a semi-natural primitive stage of individual acquisition of food and primary utilities. Equally untrue is the correlated assumption that he lifted himself out of this condition by the gradual application of the economic principle of maximum of effect for the minimum of effort. Instead, from the outset, artificial, cultural, non-instinctive aims have been indispensable to him and his culture. Early types of value and symbols of wealth have spurred him from the outset to economic effort. This effort is organised and standardised by tradition. The real problem, therefore, consists in gaining insight into the primitive forms of condensed wealth, into the mixture of motives and impulses which drive man and in studying the manner in which these primitive incentives control organised effective effort. All the conclusions arrived at show that for the discussion of economic problems it is necessary to consider the relations of early wealth to religion and to magic as well as its function in primitive social structure. The borderland questions—the influence of economics on social structure; the problem of wealth as the foundation of rank, power and status; the rule of give-and-take in social obligations; ceremonial distribution of goods, and its economic importance— are gradually coming into the forefront of anthropological interest, and open up entirely new horizons in theory and field-work. They bring it into close contact with the disciplines of economics, history and sociology (Buecher, Schwiedland, M. Weber, K.

Lamprecht). The relation between the various larger aspects of culture opens a new type of problem. Social organisation is largely dependent upon economic foundations, while economics cannot be studied without a knowledge of the various groups within the tribe. Religion and magic are not independent, but are intimately associated with economic pursuits, with power and prestige, with domestic life and everyday necessities.

867d

heit) respectively. We must reject the implication of the first theory, that magic preceded science, and that once it fulfilled that function. It must be placed to the credit of this theory, however, that it does full justice to the practical context of magic. The second theory emphasising the central conception of impersonal ubiquitous force—mana, orenda, wakan—rightly appreciates the difference between belief and knowledge; and brings out the mystical character of magic (Marett, Hubert and Mauss, Preuss). The functional theory reconciles the two points of view. Let us start from the close association of magic with practical activities. First, every practical pursuit amongst savages is always primarily based upon knowledge and is never exclusively controlled by magic. There are in all savage cultures certain activities in which technical ability, guided by knowledge, completely suffices. In others, the help of magic is also invoked. What are the respective contributions of knowledge and of magic to such a mixed activity? In its essentials the division of function between the two is very simple; as far as his knowledge goes, as far as he can safely rely on experience, reason and technical ability, the native—whether in his gardening or fishing, the building of craft, in warfare or sailing—does not use magic. No savage has ever been observed to select the tree for his dug-out by divination, to bring forth seedings by formulae without having planted them. Only where, in spite of knowledge and effort, the results still turn unaccountably against him, only when forces completely beyond his mental grasp and practical control baffle him—in dealing with garden pests, with the supply of fish and animals, in securing favourable wind or weather, in preventing disaster at sea or in war, above all in dealing with bodily decay, disease or personal accidents—does the savage resort to supernatural means of filling the lacunae in his practical power. The type of belief met in magic is always an affirmation of man’s power to deal with the situation by a rite or spell. This belief simply repeats in a standardised manner, what hope all the time has whispered within the individual’s own mind. Again,

the rite repeats in a fixed, definite form what sion of emotions already contains, only, as out with a purpose and with the conviction to an end. When we compare the forms of the fixed

the natural expresa rite, it is carried that it is a means

magical ritual, they are remarkably akin to the response of disturbed equilibrium occurring under similar conditions. Black magic, which corresponds to the sentiment of hate, and which replaces the outbursts of impotent rage, contains in its most typical ritual of stabbing, pointing the bone, mimic destruction, and in the text of its formulae, a reproduction of the various gestures, words and types of be-

haviour, which we can watch in the natural vent of ‘the emotions. Exorcism of evil powers repeats in word and deed the reactions Here the functional view is put to its acid test. What can be of fear. In all practical activities, the goal is brought vividly before the function of primitive belief and superstition, of animism considered'as valueless, crude and mistaken, of magic, regarded as- the mental vision at moments of uncertainty and suspense—a spurious and fallacious pseudo-science, of totemism, of barbarous state of mind which we call “hope.” Now magical ritual, which burial ceremonies and of cruel initiation rites? Yet the method bridges over the fateful moments, invariably expresses the sughere set forth stands or falls with the possibility of defining the gestions of hope and baffled desire. Sir J. Frazer’s apposite term whole of the supernatural. It is bound to show in what way belief of “imitative magic” and his exhaustive illustrations of his point and ritual work for social integration, technical and economic of view are another way of stating the present theory. Here it efficiency, for culture as a whole—indirectly therefore for the is only suggested that the association of “ideas,” designated by Frazer as the cause of “imitative magic,” can only be accounted biological and social welfare of each individual member. The great majority of modern theories in fact come near for by our theory of imperfect biological adjustment induced by to the posing of this problem and to its solution. It is implied culture. Baffled instinct arouses emotional tension as well as a in the whole structure of Frazer’s Golden Bough, in the contri- conflict of ideas and an impasse in conduct. Through magic, culbutions of Westermarck to the moral side of religion, in Durk- ture prescribes the adequate ideas, standardises the valuable heim’s analysis of the integrative function of public ceremonial, emotional tone and establishes a line of conduct which carries in the additions of Hubert and Mauss to his theories, in Marett’s man over the dangerous moment. This new type of explanation, based on the functional method, analysis of magic, in Crawley’s vitalistic view of religion, above all, in the analysis of Andaman belief and ceremonial by A. Rad- shows how cultural behaviour, in the very act of bestowing imcliffe-Brown. But too often the functional view is still smothered mense benefits and advantages on man, also opens up new probby evolutionary or historical discussions—as to whether magic lems and creates new needs. To satisfy these a new type of preceded religion, as to what was the primitive form of religion, behaviour, ritual practices, and a new mental adjustment, faith or mystical outlook, come into being, thus providing an answer and so on. Magic (q¢.v.).—The majority of theories dealing with magic to the question which is always essential: What actual benefit range between two views that are apparently opposed, which does magic confer upon man, what is its positive contribution to label magic as primitive science or primitive stupidity (Urdumm- culture? It is a remedy for specific maladjustments and mental THE SUPERNATURAL

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conflicts, which culture creates in allowing man to transcend his biological equipment. Social Consequences—lIn its traditional aspect, magic leads to important social consequences. It is the essence of magical lore that every word of a formula must be spoken correctly, without omission or alteration, every detail of the rite performed. Since magical knowledge can live only in man’s memory, the correct transmission, the legitimate filiation of magic are essential to man’s confidence in its efficiency. The inheritance of magic is always one of the most important problems of descent and of the modes of reckoning kinship. As a rule, magic is handed on within the family circle.

In this connection it is important to stress that all forms of magic usually perform an important social role. No magic can

be regarded as anti-social in the sense in which Durkheim and his

school attempt to define it. Even sorcery or black magic functions as a legitimate though dangerous weapon, of which one of the main uses is the enforcing of an established power and the biddings of law. The actual manner in which magic is connected with practical activities makes it, as we have seen, the very skeleton of economic organisation. It supplies most of the coordinating and driving forces of labour, it develops the qualities of forethought, of order, of steadiness and punctuality, which are essential to all successful enterprise. Thus magic fulfils an indispensable function within culture. It satisfies a definite need which cannot be satisfied by any other factor of primitive civilisation.

Totemism.—Totemism (g.v.) is a belief which affirms an inti-

mate bond between a group of men and an animal or vegetable species, or sometimes a class of objects. It raises therefore two problems, the first as to the nature of the belief, the second as to the social organisation with which it is linked. Most theories have seen its origin in some small or accidental detail of social organisation or belief, as in nicknames, guardian spirits, transmigration of souls and, recently, in the Freudian theory of parricide. To the functional theory the real problem,

however, is: what is the function of a type of belief which affirms

the affinity between man and animal, is correlated with clan organisation, and leads to moral and ritual rules associated with the multiplication, killing and eating of animals? Man’s interest in his surroundings is primarily practical. He has to collect food, construct his dwelling and roam about his district to hunt or fish. In the forefront of importance are the animals in his territory—those which feed him, those whose skins clothe him, whose’ feathers, teeth and claws supply him with ornaments and those which threaten his safety or comfort. Hence all animal life has an intense interest and significance for him. i : Now in dealing with the animal kingdom, in obtaining the useful and defending himself against the dangerous or repulsive species, primitive man, where his natural means fail him has recourse to the supernatural. The magical claims over any aspect of nature lead always to an assertion of a sort of affinity or kinship between the magician and the object controlled. Indeed most magic implies mythological descent from animals or affiliation to them. Thus we see that the native’s practical interest in the animal or vegetable kingdom leads through magic directly to the assertion of a mutual bond. Magic has a tendency to become specialised and departmental, exclusive and hereditary in a kinship group or clan. The subdivisien of the tribe into totemic clans seems to be best explained therefore, by the hypothesis that such clans were originally magical bodies engaged in controlling, through spell and rite, certain animal or vegetable speċies for the welfare of the tribe. Thus is assigned to totemism a definite cultural function. Selective interest in vitally relevant factors of the environment, man’s capacity to control it, are embodied in a system of beliefs which standardise, enhance and sacralise these culturally valuable mental states. By endorsing man’s confidence and his hopes of effective control, by making these tendencies substantial in an

explicit mythological dogrna, totemism contributes to individual

happiness, to social cohesion and to the general efficiency of culture.

In recent work (Frazer, Crawley, Van Gennep, Miss Jane Har-

rison) much stress has been laid upon the association of religion with the crises of life. In fact in most religions, savage or civi-

and preglised, the main phases of human life history—conception

nancy, birth and puberty, marriage and death—are associated with belief, ritual and mythological stories. Religion therefore fulfils at vital crises an indispensable function in the scheme of human culture. oe Culture entails a transformation of direct instinctive response

into a mode of behaviour governed by purposive ends, that is, by cultural values. But here in the very act of bestowing her blessings, culture heaps up burdens and creates difficulties. The fruit of knowledge is a dangerous thing, and in giving man forethought, culture gives him also the terrors and pangs of despondency; it makes him probe into his own destiny, and ponder over the ultimate things of human existence. Belief in immortality, early ideas of spirits, gods and beneficent powers, give man comfort and

dispel his early misgivings. The role of religion consists in the establishment of spiritual ends, dogmatic realities and moral rules of conduct. In totemism, which sacralises important factors of the environment; in the belief in immortality and in the associated ideas about communion with spirits and their influence on human fate; in the consecration of food and of indispensable elements of culture, such as fire, standard implements, tokens of wealth; in surrounding tribal tradition and order with the halo of sanctity, religion is the source of social and cultural values. Again since man is to adventure in pursuits for which he is not equipped instinctively—to move through water, jungle and desert, to invade and conquer cold, arid and tropical places—culture has to provide him with a mental force to carry him across the gaps in instinctive endowment. The necessary confidence in his own powers of controlling his environment by spell and rite are given to man in magic. PRIMITIVE

KNOWLEDGE

Reason, the capacity to know, to invent and to evolve theories, has been regarded as the distinctive mark of man, dividing Homo sapiens from other living beings. Perhaps over-confident exaggeration of this has led to the recent reaction which denies to the primitive mind any power of reasoning and of observation. But had primitive technique been studied not as a self-contained object, but in its functional dependence upon knowledge on the one hand and magic on the other, the theory of a primitive mystical and prelogical mentality could never have been erected. Primitive man shows a rational behaviour, an unimpeachable logic and a definite power of empirical observation, not only in his technology, but also in his major economic pursuits and in his sociological behaviour. Language.—This subject has been so far but imperfectly studied by anthropologists, and its cultural theory is as yet hardly outlined. The study of dead languages by grammarians and philologists has caused speech to be regarded as a self-contained phenomenon governed by special laws of its own. It was a considerable step forward when, some time ago, the study of language was taken up by psychologists, who began to treat it in correlation with thought and other phenomena (Lazarus, Steinthal, Wundt). The structural features of language were explained as an adequate expression of reasoning, of emotional states, of

aesthetic needs and of the characteristics of the human will.

Even this, however, is not sufficient. Recent developments in linguistics, as well as in the philosophy of language, have set forth the view that language cannot at any stage of development be regarded as an adequate expression of logical, metaphysical, aesthetic or scientific categories (J. Dewey,

Jespersen, Ogden and Richards). Language, in all societies and at all stages of development, is an essential part of human action (Dewey). Communication by spoken word is indispensable for any concerted activity and enters into all aspects of culture as a

working element. (See LANGUAGE.) From the functional point of view, a word which designates an

implement is as much an essential manner of using that implement as is any type of bodily skill required to handle it. The master of a craft, however primitive, must be able to give his

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orders in case of emergency in a technically adequate and theo- | origin of the world, give the reasons for death, furnish revelaretically correct manner, and the bodily reactions of his vocal tions of future existence, and promise immortality, narrate the apparatus are as essential to the practical issue as the manual beginnings of magic, and so on. The explanatory character, howdexterity of his crew. Language plays a similar part in warfare, ever, is prominent only as long as the story is considered without In economic pursuits, in ceremonial activities. In religious and its cultural context. In all cases where the associated ideas and magical ritual, the spoken word is conceived and felt by man to feelings have been observed; where we know the conditions under which the myth is recited or enacted; above all where the pracbe a creative act which produces a definite practical effect. But if speech, in its primitive forms, is an indispensable instru- tical influence of the myth has been studied—we are able to assign ment of cultural behaviour, its structure must be correlated to a definite cultural function to it. Thus, in connection with magic, pragmatic needs and to the requirements of action rather than to we find stories which are not intended to explain the ritual or the logical, reflective or oratorical necessities. Hence the categories phenomenon governed by magic, but are meant to substantiate the of primitive speech must be a compromise between rational and belief in magical efficiency. All such stories give us an account logical conditions, sociological and practical needs, and certain of an extremely successful, miraculous precedent. Around the various religious rites and ceremonies, there cluster stories which limitations imposed by material culture. The problem of meaning cannot be treated by the study of vouch for the efficiency of the religious acts in obtaining the language, torn out of its cultural context. The classical philolo- desired effect. - Again, we have a class of myths which confirm the existence of gist has already summoned the archaeologist to his assistance. The study of living languages of the primitive type, helped out privileges, give the antecedents of rank and power, or enforce by the study of living cultures, would, no doubt, reveal to us duties and which, in general, strengthen traditional law and order. infinitely more than can be reached by the study of dead speech. Wherever myth, that is a sacred story, has been studied in conA word is as sterile without the knowledge of how it is used in nection with the sources of its sanctity as well as with its sacralislive context, as behaviour remains mysterious without its accom- ing results, it can be shown that it has served to strengthen faith panying flow of speech. Life is neither verbiage nor a pantomime. by reference to an original Golden Age, to miraculous precedents Speech has been given man for action, and as mere loquacity in the dim past. The study of myth in conjunction with ritual and it is a disease of culture. (See PHILOLOGY.) institution has been carried out only in limited areas; ¢.g., in the Mythology as Primitive Science. (See Mytruotocy.)—In Andaman islands (A. Radcliffe-Brown), in Central Australia order to vindicate the autonomy of knowledge within primitive (Spencer and Gillen), in Melanesia (B. Malinowski), in Northculture, it is still necessary to deal with the view that, at low western America (Boas and others), in Polynesia (Elsdon Best). levels of culture, myth is a substitut® for science. We read in the All the facts we know, however, prove that myth is in no way authoritative handbook already mentioned:— comparable to primitive science, but that instead it functions as Myths are stories which, however marvellous and improbable a religious warrant, vouching for the truth of belief, the efficacy to us, are nevertheless related in all good faith, because they are of ritual, and the fitness and justice of moral or social duty. intended or believed by the teller, to explain by means of someTHE IDENTIFICATION OF CULTURE thing concrete and intelligible, an abstract idea, or such vague and difficult conceptions as creation, death, distinctions of race or - The functional method seems at first sight to be of especially animal species, the different occupations of men and women; the application to artifacts, to material objects fashioned by man easy preor origins of rites and customs, or striking natural objects for his cultural uses. Food stuffs ready for consumption, man’s historic monuments; the meaning of the names of persons and equipment in protective shelter and clothing, his tools and places. Such stories are sometimes described as aetiological, weapons, are all obviously means to an end. because their purpose is to explain why something exists or The Place of Artifacts in Culture—But this very facility happens (Notes and Queries, pp. 210 and 211). its dangers. The purposive character of most artifacts has has beand We are thus told that primitive man evolves stories the implement into the typical representative of material made lieves in them, in order to explain abstract ideas. As a matter hence, all these have generally been regarded as repreobjects; aspect an but science, primitive of of fact myth is not a form technique of culture. It is deemed sufficient to state the senting of religion, magic and morality; its function is not to explain are made and how they are handled. In Notes objects these how queries nor to illuminate abstract or obscure points, but to is devoted to “technology,” the description one-third Queries and tradienhance ‘to and strengthen belief, to substantiate morals and of the handling of artifacts. In the production manual of tion, in short to bring home to primitive man all that has to be this study is defined as an anthropology Folklore, of Handbook Myth). Malinowski, (B. accepted believed, obeyed and cut out. All this is incorrect, considerations technological with scheme To establish our point, we have to place myth within the autonomous, self-contained an not is culture” “material since of primitive culture and to show its pragmatic function. Myth law or economics, each of religion, as such culture, of province is that word, the of sense is a part of folklore in the narrower culture is an indisMaterial function, specific a fulfils which of oral tradition. Man in all ages and all climes possesses a body of every single aspect, every pursuit and inaccessory pensable several into divided readily be can which of concrete stories stitution, and thus fulfils a general function. classes. On the other hand, the bald technological treatment is not Of these, the first serves predominantly for amusement and to do justice to any class of artifacts. The objects of sufficient or dramatic less or more describe recreation. Stories of this class consumption or use, as well as tools and implements, immediate none funny adventures of men and animals, ogres and hobgoblins, correlated to economics and must be studied essentially are within studied when tales, Such real. as regarded of which are The proper analysis of a weapon immediately context. its within view of point native the their cultural context and regarded from of the manner in which it is wielded, thus description the to leads are found to play an important part in native life, in that they and war magic and, finally, to the warfare of methods the to make or idleness enforced of seasons out enhance sociability, fill political tribe. organisation the of up the substance of amicable gatherings. There is no single type of human activity without its material Another class of stories, taken more seriously, refer to imporThere is not one artifact, however practical or simple, accessories. conare and s generation past tant exploits and heroic deeds of be properly understood without its context of living could which sidered to be true. The sociological function of such stories is belief as well as technique, social organisation including culture, firmly more bonds kinship knit pride, that they develop family knowledge. traditional as well as and serve to increase communal or tribal solidarity. to define form by function, the two categories begin we Once and sacred as regarded are which stories finally are There

connected in a specific manner with magical and religious cult, with social organisation and with the body of tribal custom and

moral rules. These and these only could be regarded as “explanatory” stories, in that among other subjects, they account for the

of meaningless form and of fortuitous coincidence break down completely. An object can be defined and identified only by its

use, the study of use leads us again to connect the object with the pursuit, the institution, the aspect. The real identities of

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culture appear to lie in the organic connection of its parts, in the function which a detail fulfils within its scheme, in the relation between the scheme, the environment and the human needs. Meaningless details disappear, shape becomes alive with meaning and with function, and a testimony of irrelevant form falls away as worthless. The method of formal treatment breaks down completely. Summary.—The outer framework of material culture is correlated in a clear and direct manner to the satisfaction of man’s biological needs. It constitutes the milieu which man evolves to interpose between himself and the rigours, dangers and insufficiencies of his physical surroundings. But this material apparatus has to be operated by men collectively, organised and controlled by the body of tradition, scientific as well as religious and magical. Thus indirectly most elements of social cohesion as well as certain beliefs and ideas can be correlated with man’s primary needs, and explained by the biological function which they fulfil and the survival value which they possess. But this is not sufficient, and here an extremely important addition has to be made: the facts of social organisation impose certain conditions upon human behaviour, imply restrictions and create new wants, which again call forth specific cultural arrangements. Thus, higher forms of organised labour need some compulsion, supplied by political inequalities, and some moral framework, supplied by certain forms of magic. Mental development running side by side with higher technical ability brings about fear, thought and reflection which make man anticipate his destiny and probe into the past and future of his world. The beliefs of primitive man about future life, the beginnings of the world and spiritual powers have to be correlated with his increasing mental outlook as well as with the widening social horizon and the development of cultural values. Social cohesion requires some means of enforcing the various rules imposed upon the individual for the common good, and this brings about the sanctions and inducements, which constitute the essence of primitive law. In all this the functional view avoids the effort of attributing priority to any one aspect of culture. Material objects, social grouping, traditional and moral values, as well as knowledge, are all welded into a functional system. To explain any item of culture, material or moral, means to indicate its functional place within an institution, which has to be thus explained with reference to its aspect and this again has to be placed within the system of culture. Finally, anthropology hopes, with the help of her sister sciences, to state the place of culture in the scheme of organic evolution; to show how it is correlated to the instinctive animal equipment of the human species; to demonstrate how it has allowed man to

rise above the brute level, to control his surroundings, to develop his knowledge, his faith and his conscience. BIBLiocRAPHY.—Elsdon Best, The Maori (1924), and many other books and articles; F. Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man (1911) and numerous other books and articles; L. H. D. Buxton, Primitive Labour (1924); G. Davy, La Foi Jurée (1922); T. W. Danzel, Kultur und Religion des Primitiven Menschen (Stuttgart, 1924); R. B. Dixon, The Building of Cultures (1928) ; E. Durkheim, Les Formes Elémentaires de la Vie Religieuse (1912) ; E. Evans-Pritchard, publications in Africa and other journals; R. W. Firth, “Some Features of Primitive Industry” Economic Journal (1926) ; ‘Proverbs in Native Life” Folklore (1926) ; Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori (1929) ; J. C. Fligel, The Psycho-analytic Study of the Family (1921); J. G. Frazer, The

Golden Bough, 3rd ed. (1907-15) ; Totemism and Exogamy (1910); B. Freire-Marreco, “Tewa Kinship Terms from Pueblo of Hano,”

Wirtschaftsforschung,” Anthropos (1915-16) ; A. L. Kroeber in Univ, of Calif. Pub. Ethnology, vol. 11-13,

and 1920); Anthropology

psychologie

(1915);

16 and 17 (1911-17, I9z7g

(1924); F. Krueger, Ueber Entwicklungs-

L. Lévy-Bruhl,

Sociétés Inférieures (1910);

Les Fonctions

Mentales

The Soul of the Primitive

des

(1928) ;

R. H. Lowie, Primitive Society (1920); Primitive Religion (1924); Lord Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (1923) ;

R. M. Maclver Community (1920); B. Malinowski, “The Economic Aspect of the Intichiuma

Westermarck

Ceremonies,”

(1912); The Family among

in Festkrift

tillagnad Edw.

the Australian Aborigines

(1913); “Natives of Mailu,” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Australia, vol. 30 (1915) ; “Baloma,” Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst., vol. 44 (1916) ; “Primitive Economics of the Trobriand Islanders,” Economic Journal (1921);

Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922); The Problem of Meaning

in Primitive Languages,” in C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning (1923); “Magic, Religion and Science” in

J. Needham, Science, Religion and Reality (1925); Crime and Custom in Primitive Society (1926); Sex and Repression (1926); “Myth” (1926); “The Life of Culture” in Culture, a Symposium (1928); The

Sexual Life of Savages

R. R. Marett, Anthropology

in North

Western

M elanesia (1929) ;

(1912), Threshold of Religion, 2nd

ed. (1914); M. Maus, “Essai sur le Don,” L’Année Sociologique (1925) ; W. Miiller-Wismar, Ergebnisse der Sudsee Expedition, 1908~ro (1917-18) ; Miss M. A. Murray, Witch Cult in Western Eurape (1921) ; J. L. Myres ed., Notes and Queries in Anthropology, 4th ed. (1913) ; E. V. Nordenskiöld, Comparative Ethnographical Studies (trans. 1919) ; J. H. Oldham, Christianity and the Race Problem (1924) ; W. Flinders Petrie, Social Life in Ancient Egypt (1923); W. J. Perry, The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia (1918); The Children of the Sun (1923) ; A. L.-F. Pitt-Rivers, The Evolution of Culture (1906) ; G. Pitt-Rivers, The Clash of Culture and the Contact of Races (1927); A. RadcliffeBrown,

“Three Tribes

of W. Australia,” in Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst.

(1913); Andaman Islanders (1922); “The Methods of Ethnology,” in South African Journal of Sc. (1923) ; “The Mother’s Brother,” ibid. (1924); P. Radin, “The Winnébago Tribe,’ Bur. Amer. Ethn. Ann. Rep., No. 37 (1923); “Social Organisation of the Winnebago Indians,” Canadian Geol. Sur. Mus. Bull., No. 10 (1915); Primitive Man as Philosopher (1927); R. S. Rattray, Ashanti (1923); Religion and Art in Ashanti (1927); C. Read, Man and His Superstitions (1925); W. H. R. Rivers, Presidential Address, Section H., British Association (1911); History of Melanesian Society, 2 vol. (1914); Kinship and Social Organisation (1914) ; Social Organisation (1924) ; E. Sapir, Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Culture (1916); “Social Organisation of Nars River Indians,” Canadian Geol. Sur. Mus. Bull. No. 19, Anthrop, Ser. 7 (1915); Language (1922); W. Schmidt, Die Stellung der Pygmdenvolker in der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen (x910) ; W. Schmidt and W. Koppers, Der Mensch aller Zeiten (1924) ; E. Schwiedland, Volkswirtschaftslehre, 3 vol. (1923); B. Z. Seligman,

“Marital Gerontocracy in Africa,” Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst. (1924) ; C. G. Seligman, Melanesia~s of British New Guinea (1910) ; C. G. and B. Z. Seligman, The Veddas (1911) ; E. W. Smith and A. M. Dale, The Ilaspeaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia (1920); G. Elliott Smith, The Migrations of Early Culture (1915) ; Ships as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Cultures (1917); The Evolution of the Dragon (1919) ; W. B. Spencer, Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia (1914); W. B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia (1899) ; Northern Tribes of Central Australia (x905); Across Australia (1912); The Arunta (1927); R. Thurnwald, Das Rechtsleben der Eingeborenen der Deutschen Sudseeinseln (1910); For-

schungen auf den Salomoinseln u. dem. Bismarckarchipel (1912); “Psychologie des Primitiven Menschen,” Handbuch d. vgl. Psychologie (1922) ; Die Gemeinde der Baénaro (1921); “Die Gestaltung der Wirtschaftsentwicklung aus ihren Anfangen heraus,” in Hrinnerungsgabe fur Max Weber, vol. xı (1923); M. Weber, Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Soziologie und Sozial Politik (1924); E. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas (1912, 2nd ed. 1917) ; Marriage Ceremonies in Morocco (1914); History of Human Marriage, sth ed. (1921) ; Hutton Webster, Rest Days (1916) ; Primitive Secret Societies (1908) ; C. Wissler, The American Indian, 2nd ed. (1922); Man and Culture (1923). (B. Ma.)

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ARCHITECTURE

comprises all buildings for

human residence, recreation, entertainment or health. In this work, several of these are discussed under their own headings; American Anthropologist, vol. 16 (1924) ; S. Freud, Totem and Taboo (1919); A. Van Gennep, L'Etat Actuel du Probleme Totemique; E. W. thus the reader should also consult Hosprra, PLannine, House Gifford, “Californian Kinship Terminologies,” Univ. of Calif. Pub. PLANNING, STADIUM, and THEATRE ARCHITECTURE. This article in Ethnol., vol. 18 (1922); M. Ginsberg, The Psychology of Society is concerned with contemporary developments, in the designing (1921); A. A. Goldenweiser, Early Civilisation (1923); F. Graebner, of private dwellings, apartment houses (flats), and hotels in Methode der Ethnologie (Heidelberg, 1911); “Ethnologie” in G. v. Schwalbe and E. Fischer, Anthropologie, Teil 2, Ab. § (1923); A. C. Europe and the United States. See also ARCHITECTURE and the Haddon (and others), Reports of the Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits; L. T. Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution (1915); A. M. Hocart,

Kingship (1927); W. Hoernlé, articles in the South African Jour. of Science, American Anthropologist and Varia Africana; H. Hubert et Mauss, Mélanges de PHistoire des Religions (x910); J. H. Hutton, The Sema Nagas (1921); The Angami Nagas (1921); T. A. Joyce and E. Torday, Les Bushongo (1910); H. A. Junod, The Life of a South African Tribe, 2nd ed. (1927); W. Koppers, “Ethnologische

comprehensive list of related articles under the heading ARCHITECTURAL ÅRTICLES. (X.) I. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE

Domestic buildings have always furnished a clue to the manner

of life of their inhabitants; first of the individual, then of the community of individuals, and finally of that grouping of com-

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munities which forms a nation. They are something almost of the soil, since they are so much something of the race. Domestic architecture has always reacted to outside influences, but fundamentally it has developed in a much more local way. Each section of a country, with its own individual habits and traditions of living, has had its local expression of domestic architecture, and yet all these varied expressions have had something in common, namely a reflection of the mental outlook and the physical customs of each individual race of peoples. Outside influences have tinged development, but no one country has ever completely mislaid the national characteristics of its home building. Very gradually, however, as international relations have increased, the barriers of race have been lowered, and the domestic architecture of one country has reacted increasingly to the influences of another. To-day intellectual movements spread with growing rapidity. Interchange of ideas makes for greater community of outlook; and in architecture there have crept in certain features which are a common expression of requirements shared by people in many countries. England.—English domestic architecture provides an illustration of this theory, though house building in Great Britain has for so long set a standard to the world that it has itself been a main source of inspiration, and as such has latterly been compara-

tively immune from foreign influences. Prof. Santayana, in his essay on “English Architecture,” mentions that “strictly speaking, there is no English architecture at all, only foreign architecture adapted and domesticated in England. But how thoroughly and admirably domesticated. . . . How gently, for instance, how pleasantly, the wave of Italian architecture broke on