Educational Psychology [14 (Global) ed.] 9780134774329, 1292331526, 9781292331522, 9781292331584

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Key Features • Increased coverage of topics like the impact of technology and virtual learning environments; the brain, neuroscience, and teaching; and diversity in today’s classrooms. • Point/Counterpoint sections that raise questions and present for and against perspectives; for example, Pill or Skills for Students with ADHD, Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently? • Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships offer guidelines for involving all families in their children’s learning.

• Reaching Every Student sections that present ideas for assessing, teaching, and motivating each and every student in today’s inclusive classrooms. • Lessons for Teachers sections that discuss research-based principles for teaching. • Put Yourself in Their Place sections that develop empathy in learners. • Stop and Think activities that enable students to apply concepts discussed, locking in what they’ve learned. Available separately for purchase with this book is MyLab Education, the teaching and learning platform that empowers instructors to personalize learning for each student. MyLab Education helps students bridge the gap between theory and practice through video examples, podcasts, self-checks, application exercises, etc.

Educational Psychology FOURTEENTH EDITION

FOURTEENTH EDITION

• Chapter-opening Teacher’s Casebook sections that present realistic classroom scenarios with the question “What Would You Do?”. The answer provided at the end of the chapter presents perspectives of expert and experienced teachers.

Educational Psychology

The fourteenth edition of Anita Woolfolk’s Educational Psychology continues to emphasize the educational implications and applications of research in child development, cognitive science, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment. Theory and practice go together in this book, showing how research can be applied to solve everyday problems of teaching. This book offers unique and crucial knowledge to learners by being packed with real-world issues, lesson segments, case studies, and practical ideas from experienced teachers.

GLOBAL EDITION

GLOB AL EDITION

GLOBAL EDITION

This is a special edition of an established title widely used by colleges and universities throughout the world. Pearson published this exclusive edition for the benefit of students outside the United States and Canada. If you purchased this book within the United States or Canada, you should be aware that it has been imported without the approval of the Publisher or Author.

Anita Woolfolk

Woolfolk

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EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY FOURTEENTH EDITION GLOBAL EDITION

ANITA WOOLFOLK THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, EMERITA

Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong Tokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • São Paulo • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan

Credits and acknowledgments for material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text. Cover image © Irina_QQQ/Shutterstock Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change. Please contact https://support.pearson.com/getsupport/s/contactsupport with any queries on this content. Pearson Education Limited KAO Two KAO Park Hockham Way Harlow Essex CM17 9SR United Kingdom and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com © Pearson Education Limited, 2021 Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Educational Psychology, 14th Edition, ISBN 978-0-13-477432-9 by Anita Woolfolk, published by Pearson Education © 2019. Acknowledgments of third-party content appear on the appropriate page within the text, which constitutes an extension of this copyright page. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms, and the appropriate ­ contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights and Permissions department, please visit www.­pearsoned.com/permissions/. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. This eBook is a standalone product and may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. It also does not provide access to other Pearson digital products like MyLab and ­Mastering. The publisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time. ISBN 10: 1-292-33152-6 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-33152-2 eBook ISBN 13: 978-1-292-33158-4 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Typeset in ITC Garamond Std 10/12 by SPi Global

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To my husband, Wayne K. Hoy A remarkable scholar, A demanding and caring mentor, A dedicated father and grandfather, And a wonderful companion in life. The best is yet to be…

ABOUT THE AUTHOR So you will know your author a bit better, here is some information. Anita Woolfolk Hoy was born in Fort Worth, Texas, where her mother taught child development at TCU and her father was an early worker in the computer industry. She is a Texas Longhorn—all her degrees are from the University of Texas, Austin, the last one a PhD. After graduating, she was a psychologist working with children in elementary and secondary schools in 15 counties of central Texas. She began her career in higher education as a professor of educational psychology at Rutgers University, and then moved to The Ohio State University in 1994. Today she is Professor Emerita at Ohio State. Anita’s research focuses on motivation and cognition, specifically, students’ and teachers’ sense of efficacy and teachers’ beliefs about education. For many years she was the editor of Theory Into Practice, a journal that brings the best ideas from research to practicing educators. With students and colleagues, she has published over 150 books, book chapters, and research articles. Anita has served as Vice-President for Division K (Teaching & Teacher Education) of the American Educational Research Association and President of Division 15 (Educational Psychology) of the American Psychological Association. Before completing this fourteenth edition of Educational Psychology, she collaborated with Nancy Perry, University of British Columbia, to write the second edition of Child Development (Pearson, 2015), a book for all those who work with and love children.

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PREFACE Many of you reading this book are enrolled in an educational psychology course as part of your professional preparation for teaching, counseling, speech therapy, nursing, or psychology. The material in this text should be of interest to everyone who is concerned about education and learning, from the nursery school volunteer to the instructor in a community program for adults learning English. No background in psychology or education is necessary to understand this material. It is as free of jargon and technical language as possible, and many people have worked to make this edition clear, relevant, and interesting. Since the first edition of Educational Psychology appeared, there have been many exciting developments in the field. The fourteenth edition continues to emphasize the educational implications and applications of research on child development, cognitive science, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment. Theory and practice are not separated in the text, but are considered together. The book is written to show how information and ideas drawn from research in educational psychology can be applied to solve the everyday problems of teaching. To help you explore the connections between research and practice, you will find in these pages a wealth of examples, lesson segments, case studies, guidelines, and even practical tips from experienced teachers. As you read this book, I believe you will see the immense value and usefulness of educational psychology. The field offers unique and crucial knowledge to any who dare to teach and to all who love to learn.

NEW CONTENT IN THE FOURTEENTH EDITION Across the book, there is increased coverage of a number of important topics. Some of these include: • Increased coverage of the brain, neuroscience, and teaching emphasized in Chapter 2 and also integrated into several other chapters. • Increased coverage of the impact of technology and virtual learning environments on the lives of students and teachers today. • Increased emphasis on diversity in today’s classrooms (see especially Chapters 1 to 6). Portraits of students in educational settings make diversity real and human for readers. In a number of chapters there are new exercises asking readers to “Put Yourself in Their Place” as a way to develop empathy for many students and situations. • Increased coverage of effective application of learning principles as identified by the Institute for Educational Sciences (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/PracticeGuide/1) Key content changes in each chapter include: • Chapter 1: My goal is that this text will provide the knowledge and skills that will enable students to build a solid foundation for an authentic sense of teaching efficacy in every context and for every student, so there is new information on the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). Also, the section on research now includes mixed methods (complementary methods) (see Table 1.2) and evidence-based practice. • Chapter 2: New information on the brain and brain imaging techniques, synaptic plasticity, brain development in childhood and adolescence, and implications for teaching. Also, there is greater critical analysis of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories.

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• Chapter 3: Updated section on physical changes in puberty, cultural differences in play, childhood obesity, eating disorders and the Web sites that promote them, parenting, aggression, racial identity, and self-concept. • Chapter 4: New sections on biases in labeling, neuroscience and intelligence, problems with learning styles, ADHD, student drug use, seizure disorders and other serious health concerns, and autism spectrum disorders. • Chapter 5: New information on language development, emergent literacy, language diversity, and bilingual education. • Chapter 6: New coverage of intersectionality, ethnicity and race, prejudice, expanded coverage of stereotype threat, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, and creating culturally compatible classrooms. • Chapter 7: Expanded coverage of ethical issues in behavioral approaches, reasons for classroom disruptions, and teaching implications of behavioral learning. • Chapter 8: Updated coverage of the brain and cognitive learning, multitasking, working memory and cognitive load, concept teaching, desirable difficulty, effective practice, and teaching implications of cognitive learning theories. • Chapter 9: All new section on teaching for complex learning and robust knowledge, updated discussion of metacognitive strategies, retrieval practice, worked examples, argumentation, and critical thinking. • Chapter 10: New sections on designing learning environments, facilitating in constructivist classrooms, scaffolding, asking and answering deep questions, and the flipped classroom. Updated discussion of collaboration, learning in a digital world, and computational thinking. • Chapter 11: Updated coverage of modeling, self-efficacy and agency, teacher efficacy, self-regulated learning, and emotional self-regulation. New section on grit. • Chapter 12: Chapter reorganized around five broad themes in motivation. Updated treatment of expectancy-value-cost theory. New section on mindsets. Updated material on flow and on the TARGET framework for motivation. • Chapter 13: New sections on the role of relationships, social skills, and mentoring in classroom management. Updated material on dealing with discipline problems, bullying and cyberbullying, restorative justice, and culturally responsive classroom management. • Chapter 14: Updated research on teaching, homework, and teacher expectations as well as new sections on learning targets, the Common Core, asking deep questions, and giving feedback. • Chapter 15: New sections on formative and interim assessment, guidance for using different types of test formats and rubrics, and assessing complex thinking. Updated material on discussing test results with families, controversies around high-stakes testing, value-added assessment, and PARCC and SBAC tests.

A CRYSTAL CLEAR PICTURE OF THE FIELD AND WHERE IT IS HEADED The fourteenth edition maintains the lucid writing style for which the book is renowned. The text provides accurate, up-to-date coverage of the foundational areas within educational psychology: learning, development, motivation, teaching, and assessment, combined with intelligent examinations of emerging trends in the field and society that affect student learning, such as student diversity, inclusion of students with special learning needs, education and neuroscience, educational policy, and technology.

MyLab for Education The most visible change in the fourteenth edition (and certainly one of the most significant changes) is the expansion of the digital learning and assessment resources embedded in the etext. Designed to bring you more directly into the world of K–12 classrooms

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and to help you see the very real impact that educational psychology concepts have on learning and development, these digital learning and assessment resources also: • Provide you with practice using educational psychology concepts in teaching situations. • Help you and your instructor see how well you understand the concepts presented in the book and the media resources. • Help you more deeply think about and process educational psychology and how to use it as a teacher (and as a learning tool). The online resources in MyLab for Education include: • Video Examples. In almost all chapters, embedded videos provide illustrations of educational psychology principles or concepts in action. These video examples most often show students and teachers working in classrooms. Sometimes they show students or teachers describing their thinking or experiences.

• Podcasts. In all chapters, AnitaTalks podcasts provide direct links to relevant selections from Anita Talks About Teaching, a series of podcasts in which Dr. Woolfolk discusses how the chapters in this text relate to the profession of teaching.

• Self-Checks. Throughout the chapters you will find MyLab for Education: Self-Check quizzes. There are four to six quizzes in each chapter, with one at the end of each major text section. They are meant to help you assess how well you have mastered the concepts covered in the section you just read. These self-checks are made up of self-grading multiple-choice items that not only provide feedback on whether you answered the questions correctly or incorrectly, but also offer with rationales for both correct and incorrect answers.

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• Application Exercises. Also at the end of each major section, you can find one or two application exercises that can challenge you to use chapter content to reflect on teaching and learning in real classrooms. The questions you answer in these exercises are usually constructed-response items. Once you provide your own answers to the questions, you will receive feedback in the form of model answers written by experts.

• Practice for Your Licensure Exam. Every chapter ends with an exercise that can give you an opportunity to apply the chapter’s content while reading a case study and then answering multiple-choice and constructed-response questions similar to those that appear on many teacher licensure tests. By clicking on the MyLab for Education hotlink at the end of a Connect and Extend to Licensure exercise, you can complete the activity online and get feedback about your answers.

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• Classroom Management Simulations. In the left-hand navigation bar of MyLab for Education, you will be able to access interactive simulations that engage you in decision making about classroom management strategies. These interactive cases focus on the classroom management issues teachers most frequently encounter on a daily basis. Each simulation presents a challenge scenario at the beginning and then offers a series of choices to solve each challenge. Along the way you receive mentor feedback on your choices and have the opportunity to make better choices if necessary. • Study Modules. In the left-hand navigation bar of MyLab for Education, you will also find a set of Study Modules. These interactive, application-oriented modules provide opportunities to learn foundational educational psychology concepts in ways other than reading about them. The modules present content through screen-capture videos that include animations, worked examples, and classroom videos. Each module consists of three parts. In the first part, begin with the Learn section that presents several key concepts and strategies. Then work through the problems in the Apply section. These will give you practice applying the concepts and principles to actual teaching and learning scenarios. The third part of each module is a multiple-choice test in the Assess section. This test includes higherorder questions that assess not only what you can remember about the module’s content but also how well you can apply the concepts and strategies you’ve learned to real-life classroom situations. • Video Analysis Tool. Our widely anticipated Video Analysis Tool is also available in the left-hand navigation bar of MyLab for Education. The Video Analysis Tool helps you build your skills in analyzing teaching. Exercises provide classroom videos and rubrics to scaffold your analysis. Timestamp and commenting tools allow you to easily annotate the video and connect your observation to educational psychology concepts you have learned in the text.

Additional Text Features With an unswerving emphasis on educational psychology’s practical relevance for teachers and students in classrooms, the text is replete with current issues and debates, examples, lesson segments, case studies, and practical ideas from experienced teachers. Point/Counterpoint sections in each chapter present two perspectives on a controversial question related to the field; topics include debates on the kinds of research that should guide education (p. 48), brain-based education (pp. 70–71), the self-esteem movement (p. 135), pills or skills for students with ADHD (p. 179), the best way to teach English language learners (p. 231), should girls and boys be taught differently? (pp. 272–273), using rewards to encourage student learning (pp. 318–319), what’s wrong with multitasking? (p. 335), teaching critical thinking and problem solving (p. 395), problem-based education (pp. 424–425), are “grittier” students more successful? (p. 470–471), the value of trying to make learning entertaining (p. 512), zero tolerance (p. 560), the Common Core standards (p. 586), and holding children back (p. 642). Guidelines appear throughout each chapter, providing concrete applications of theories or principles discussed. See, for example, pages 80, 114, 119, 166, 183, 214, 227, 256, 302, 336, 360, 391, 436, 445, 465, 513, 543, 556, 590, 602, 636, and 644. Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships sections offer specific guidelines for involving all families in their children’s learning—especially relevant now, when demand for parental involvement is at an all-time high and the need for cooperation between home and school is critical. See, for example, pages 112, 172, 229, 400, 528, 573, 597, and 651. Teachers’ Casebook sections present students with realistic classroom scenarios at the beginning of each chapter and ask “What Would You Do?”—giving students the opportunity to apply all the important topics of the chapter to these scenarios via application questions. Students may then compare their responses to those of veteran

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teachers appearing at the end of each chapter. See, for example, pages 99, 203, 287, 406–407, and 533. Reaching Every Student sections present ideas for assessing, teaching, and motivating ALL of the students in today’s inclusive classrooms. See, for example, page 93. Lessons for Teachers are succinct and usable principles for teaching based on the research. See, for example, page 507–508. Put Yourself in Their Place experiences develop empathy by asking students to imagine how they would feel in different situations. See pages 225, 226, 260, 306, 379, 505, and 643. Stop and Think activities give students firsthand experience with the concept being discussed, as on pages 246, 332, 337, 493, 498, 506, 539, 583, and 638.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS Many supplements to the textbook are available to enhance readers’ learning and development as teachers. ONLINE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL. Available to instructors for download at http:// www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/ is an Instructor’s Manual with suggestions for learning activities, supplementary lectures, group activities, and additional media resources. These have been carefully selected to provide opportunities to support, enrich, and expand on what students read in the textbook. ONLINE POWERPOINT® SLIDES. PowerPoint slides are available to instructors for download at http://www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/. These slides include key concept summarizations and other graphic aids to help students understand, organize, and remember core concepts and ideas. ONLINE TEST BANK.  The Test Bank that accompanies this text contains both multiplechoice and essay questions. Some items (lower-level questions) simply ask students to identify or explain concepts and principles they have learned. But many others (higherlevel questions) ask students to apply those same concepts and principles to specific classroom situations––that is, to actual student behaviors and teaching strategies. The lower-level questions assess basic knowledge of educational psychology. But ultimately, it is the higher-level questions that can best assess students’ ability to use principles of educational psychology in their own teaching practice. TESTGEN®.  TestGen is a powerful test generator available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. Instructors install TestGen on a personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create their own tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter and ready for your use in creating a test, based on the associated textbook material. Assessments––including equations, graphs, and scientific notation––can be created in either paper-and-pencil or online formats.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS During the years I have worked on this book, from initial draft to this most recent revision, many people have supported the project. Without their help, this text simply could not have been written. Many educators contributed to this edition and previous editions. Ellen L. Usher (University of Kentucky) contributed her remarkable scholarship and delightful writing to revise Chapters 6 and 11. Carol Weinstein wrote the section in Chapter 13 on spaces for learning. Michael Yough (Purdue University) looked over several chapters including Chapter 5, “Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education.” Chapter 5 was also improved by suggestions from Alan Hirvela, The Ohio State University. Jerrell Cassady, Ball State University, provided invaluable guidance for Chapter 12, “Motivation in Learning and Teaching.” The portraits of students in Chapters 1 and 6 were provided by Nancy Knapp (University of Georgia). As I made decisions about how to revise this edition, I benefited from the ideas of colleagues around the country who took the time to complete surveys, answer my questions, and review chapters. For their revision reviews, thanks to Karen Banks, George Mason University; Marcus Green, North Carolina State University; Cheryl Greenberg, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Michelle Koussa, University of North Texas; Nicole Leach, Mississippi State University; and Lu Wang, Ball State University. Many classroom teachers across the country and around the world contributed their experience, creativity, and expertise to the Teachers’ Casebook. I have thoroughly enjoyed my association with these master teachers, and I am grateful for the perspective they brought to the book: AIMEE FREDETTE • Second-Grade Teacher Fisher Elementary School, Walpole, MA ALLAN OSBORNE • Assistant Principal Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA BARBARA PRESLEY • Transition/Work Study Coordinator—High School Level, BESTT Program (Baldwinsville Exceptional Student Training and Transition Program) C. W. Baker High School, Baldwinsville, NY CARLA S. HIGGINS • K–5 Literacy Coordinator Legend Elementary School, Newark, OH DAN DOYLE • History Teacher, Grade 11 St. Joseph’s Academy, Hoffman, IL DANIELLE HARTMAN • Second Grade Claymont Elementary School, Ballwin, MO DR. NANCY SHEEHAN-MELZACK • Art and Music Teacher Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA JACALYN D. WALKER • Eighth-Grade Science Teacher Treasure Mountain Middle School, Park City, UT JANE W. CAMPBELL • Second-Grade Teacher John P. Faber Elementary School, Dunellen, NJ JENNIFER L. MATZ • Sixth Grade Williams Valley Elementary, Tower City, PA JENNIFER PINCOSKI • Learning Resource Teacher, K–12 Lee County School District, Fort Myers, FL JESSICA N. MAHTABAN • Eighth-Grade Math Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ JOLITA HARPER • Third Grade Preparing Academic Leaders Academy, Maple Heights, OH KAREN BOYARSKY • Fifth-Grade Teacher Walter C. Black Elementary School, Hightstown, NJ KATIE CHURCHILL • Third-Grade Teacher

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Oriole Parke Elementary School, Chicago, IL KATIE PIEL • Kindergarten to Sixth-Grade Teacher West Park School, Moscow, ID KEITH J. BOYLE • English Teacher, Grades 9–12 Dunellen High School, Dunellen, NJ KELLEY CROCKETT Meadowbrook Elementary School, Fort Worth, TX KELLY L. HOY • Fifth-Grade Humanities Teacher Katherine Delmar Burke School, San Francisco, CA KELLY MCELROY BONIN • High School Counselor Klein Oak High School, Spring, TX LAUREN ROLLINS • First Grade Boulevard Elementary School, Shaker Heights, OH LINDA GLISSON AND SUE MIDDLETON • Fifth-Grade Team Teachers St. James Episcopal Day School, Baton Rouge, LA LINDA SPARKS • First Grade John F. Kennedy School, Billerica, MA LOU DE LAURO • Fifth-Grade Language Arts John P. Faber School, Dunellen, NJ M. DENISE LUTZ • Technology Coordinator Grandview Heights High School, Columbus, OH MADYA AYALA • High School Teacher of Preperatoria Eugenio Garza Lagüera, Campus Garza Sada, Monterrey, N. L. Mexico MARIE HOFFMAN HURT • Eighth-Grade Foreign Language Teacher (German and French) Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington, OH MICHAEL YASIS L. H. Tanglen Elementary School, Minnetonka, MN NANCY SCHAEFER • Grades 9–12 Cincinnati Hills Christian Academy High School, Cincinnati, OH PAM GASKILL • Second Grade Riverside Elementary School, Dublin, OH PATRICIA A. SMITH • High School Math Earl Warren High School, San Antonio, TX PAUL DRAGIN • English as a Second Language, Grades 9–12 Columbus East High School, Columbus, OH PAULA COLEMERE • Special Education Teacher—English, History McClintock High School, Tempe, AZ SARA VINCENT • Special Education Langley High School, McLean, VA THOMAS NAISMITH • Science Teacher Grades 7–12 Slocum Independent School District, Elkhart, TX VALERIE A. CHILCOAT • 5th-/6th-Grade Advanced Academics Glenmount School, Baltimore, MD On this edition, I was again privileged to work with an outstanding editorial group. Their intelligence, creativity, sound judgment, style, and enduring commitment to quality can be seen on every page of this text. Kevin Davis, Director and Publisher, guided the project from reviews to completion with the eye of an artist, the mind of a scholar, and the logistical capacity of a high-powered computer. He proved to be an excellent collaborator with a wise grasp of the field and a sense of the future. Casey Coriell, Editorial Assistant, kept everything running smoothly and kept my e-mail humming. On this edition I was fortunate to have the help of Kathy Smith. She carefully and expertly read and reread every page—and improved the writing and logic in every chapter. Her expertise and dedication set the standard for everyone in this project. Alicia Reilly was the outstanding developmental editor with the perfect combination of vast knowledge,

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organizational ability, and creative thinking. The text features, Teachers’ Casebook, and excellent pedagogical supports would not exist without her tireless efforts. Content and Media Producers Janelle Rogers, Lauren Carlson and Daniel Dwyer from Pearson and Gail Gottfried kept all aspects of the project moving forward with amazing skill, grace, and good humor. Somehow they brought sanity to what could have been chaos and fun to what might have been drudgery. Now the book is in the able hands of marketing managers Christopher Barry and Krista Clark. I can’t wait to see what they are planning for me now! What a talented and creative group—I am honored to work with them all. Finally, I want to thank my family and friends for their kindness and support during the long days and nights that I worked on this book. To my family, Marion, Bob, Eric, Suzie, Lizzie, Wayne K., Marie, Kelly, and the newest member, Amaya—you are amazing. And of course, to Wayne Hoy, my friend, colleague, inspiration, passion, husband— you are simply the best. —ANITA WOOLFOLK HOY

GLOBAL EDITION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Pearson would like to thank the following people for their work on the Global Edition:

Contributor Albert Lee Kai Chung, Nanyang Technological University

Reviewer Rijul Saxena, Defence Institute of Psychological Research

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BRIEF CONTENTS 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology   30 PART I STUDENTS

2 3 4 5

Cognitive Development   58 The Self, Social, and Moral Development   100 Learner Differences and Learning Needs   148 Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education   204

6 Culture and Diversity   244 PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

7 8 9 10 11 12

Behavioral Views of Learning   288 Cognitive Views of Learning   326 Complex Cognitive Processes   366 Constructivism and Designing Learning Environments   408 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation   452 Motivation in Learning and Teaching   488

PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING

13 Managing Learning Environments   534 14 Teaching Every Student   578 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing   618 14

CONTENTS Preface   5

and Evidence-Based Practices   47 • Teachers as Researchers   47

CHAPTER 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology   30 Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What Would You Do?   30 Overview and Objectives   31 Learning and Teaching Today   32 Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology   32 Confidence in Every Context   33 High Expectations for Teachers and Students   34 Do Teachers Make a Difference?   35 Teacher–Student Relationships   35 • The Cost of Poor Teaching   36

What is Good Teaching?   37 Inside Three Classrooms   37 A Bilingual First Grade   37 • A Suburban Fifth Grade   37 • An Inclusive Class   37 • So What is Good Teaching?   38 • Models of Good Teaching: Teacher Observation and Evaluation   38

Beginning Teachers   41 The Role of Educational Psychology   42 In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching   42 Educational Psychology Today   42 Is It Just Common Sense?   42 Helping Students   42 • Answer Based on Research   43 • Skipping Grades   43 • Answer Based on Research   43 • Students in Control   43 • Answer Based on Research   43 • Obvious Answers?   43

Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning   44 Correlation Studies   44 • Experimental Studies   45 • ABAB Experimental Designs   45 • Clinical Interviews and Case Studies   45 • Ethnography   46 • The Role of Time in Research   46 • What’s The Evidence? Quantitative versus Qualitative Research   46 • Mixed Methods Research   47 • Scientifically Based Research

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education?   48 Theories for Teaching   50 Supporting Student Learning   51 Summary and Key Terms   53 Practice Using What You Have Learned  55 Connect and Extend to Licensure   56 Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What Would They Do?   57

PART I STUDENTS CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Development   58 Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do?   58 Overview and Objectives   59 A Definition of Development   60 Three Questions Across the Theories   60 What Is the Source of Development? Nature versus Nurture   61 • What Is the Shape of Development? Continuity versus Discontinuity   61 • Timing: Is It Too Late? Critical versus Sensitive Periods   61 • Beware of Either/Or   61

General Principles of Development   62 The Brain and Cognitive Development   62 The Developing Brain: Neurons   63 The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex   66 Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence   67 Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works   69 Culture and Brain Plasticity   69

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education   70 Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching   70 Does Instruction Affect Brain Development?   70 • The Brain and Learning to Read   70 • Emotions, Learning, and the Brain   71

Lessons for Teachers: General Principles   72 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development   73 Influences on Development   74

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Basic Tendencies in Thinking   74 Organization   74 • Adaptation   75 • Equilibration   75

Four Stages of Cognitive Development   75

Connect and Extend to Licensure   98 Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would They Do?   99

Infancy: the Sensorimotor Stage   76 • Early Childhood to the Early Elementary Years: The Preoperational Stage   77

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children   78 Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-Operational Stage   78

GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child   80 High School and College: Formal Operations   80 Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage?   82

Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory   82 The Trouble with Stages   82

GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations   82 Underestimating Children’s Abilities   83 • Cognitive Development and Culture   83

Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development   84 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective   85 The Social Sources of Individual Thinking   85 Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development   86 Technical Tools in a Digital Age   87 • Psychological Tools   87

The Role of Language and Private Speech   87 Private Speech: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared   88

The Zone of Proximal Development   89 Private Speech and the Zone   89 • The Role of Learning and Development   90

Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory   90 Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers   90 Piaget: What Can We Learn?   91 Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking   91 • Activity and Constructing Knowledge   91

Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?   92 The Role of Adults and Peers   92 • Assisted Learning   93

An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind   93 Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle”   93 Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers   94 GUIDELINES: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching   95 Summary and Key Terms   95 Practice Using What You Have Learned  97

CHAPTER 3 The Self, Social, and Moral Development   100 Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do?   100 Overview and Objectives   101 Physical Development   102 Physical and Motor Development   102 Young Children   102 • Elementary School Years   102 • The Adolescent Years   103 • Early and Later Maturing   103

GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom   104 Play, Recess, and Physical Activity   104 Cultural Differences in Play   105 • Exercise and Recess   105

Reaching Every Student: Inclusive Athletics   105 Challenges in Physical Development   106 Obesity   106 • Eating Disorders   107

GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents   108 Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development   108 The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model   108 Families   109 Family Structure   109 • Parenting Styles   110 • Culture and Parenting   111

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Connecting with Families   112 Attachment   112 • Divorce   112

GUIDELINES: Helping Children of Divorce   114 Peers   114 Cliques   115 • Crowds   115 • Peer Cultures   115  •  Friendships   115 • Popularity   116  •  Causes and Consequences of Rejection   117  •  Aggression   117 • Relational Aggression   118  •  Media, Modeling, and Aggression   118

GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation   119 Video Games and Aggressive Behavior   119

Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support   120 Academic and Personal Caring   120

Teachers and Child Abuse   121 Society and Media   122

CON TEN TS Identity and Self-Concept   123 Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development   124 The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative   124 • The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority   125

GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry   126 Adolescence: The Search for Identity   127 • Identity and Technology   128 • Beyond the School Years   128

Racial and Ethnic Identity   128 GUIDELINES: Supporting Identity Formation   129 Multidimensional and Flexible Ethnic Identities   129 Black Racial Identity: Outcome and Process   130 • Racial and Ethnic Pride   131

Self-Concept   131 The Structure of Self-Concept   131 • How Self-Concept Develops   132 • Self-Concept and Achievement   133

Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence   133 Self-Esteem   134 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem?   135 Understanding Others and Moral Development   135 Theory of Mind and Intention   136 Moral Development   136 Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development   136  •  Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory   137

Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices   138 Moral versus Conventional Domains   138 • Implications for Teachers   139

Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology   140 Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating   141 Who Cheats?   141 • Dealing with Cheating   143

Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers   143 Summary and Key Terms   143 Practice Using What You Have Learned  145 Connect and Extend to Licensure   146 Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would They Do?   147

17

Intelligence   150 Language and Labels   150 Disabilities and Handicaps   150 • Person-First Language   151 • Possible Biases in the Application of Labels   152

What Does Intelligence Mean?   152 Intelligence: One Ability or Many?   153

Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences   153 What Are These Intelligences?   154 • Critics of Multiple Intelligences Theory   154 • Gardner Responds   154 • Multiple Intelligences Go to School   155

Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers   156 Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence   156 Neuroscience and Intelligence   157 Measuring Intelligence   157 Binet’s Dilemma   158 • What Does an IQ Score Mean?   158 • Group versus Individual IQ Tests   158 • The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting Smarter?   158

GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores   159 Intelligence and Achievement   159

Gender Differences in Intelligence and Achievement   160 Heredity or Environment?   160

Learning to Be Intelligent: Being Smart About IQ   161 Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters   161 Assessing Creativity   162 OK, But So What: Why Does Creativity Matter?   163 What Are the Sources of Creativity?   163 Creativity and Cognition   164 • Creativity and Diversity   164

Creativity in the Classroom   164 Brainstorming   165 • Creative Schools   165

GUIDELINES: Applying and Encouraging Creativity   166 Learning Styles   167 Learning Styles/Preferences   167 Cautions About Learning Styles   167 • The Value of Considering Learning Styles   168

Beyond Either/Or   169 Individual Differences and the Law   169 IDEA   169 Least Restrictive Environment   170 • Individualized Education Program   170 • The Rights of Students and

CHAPTER 4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs   148 Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every student: What Would You Do?   148 Overview and Objectives   149

Families   171

Section 504 Protections   172 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Productive Conferences   172 Students with Learning Challenges   173 Neuroscience and Learning Challenges   173 Students with Learning Disabilities   174 Student Characteristics   175 • Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities   176

18

C O N TENT S

Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders   177 Definitions   178 • Treating ADHD with Drugs   178  •  Alternatives/Additions to Drug Treatments   178

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD?   179 Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD   179 Students with Communication Disorders   180 Speech Disorders   180 • Language Disorders   181

Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties   182

Overview and Objectives   205 The Development of Language   206 What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences   206 The Puzzle of Language   206 • Beware of Either/Or Choices 207

When and How Does Language Develop?   207 Sounds and Pronunciation   207 • Vocabulary and Meaning   207 • Grammar and Syntax   208 • Pragmatics: Using Language in Social Situations   209  •  Metalinguistic Awareness   209

Suicide   183

GUIDELINES: Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems   183 Drug Abuse   185 • Prevention   185

Students with Intellectual Disabilities   186 GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities   187 Students with Health and Sensory Impairments   187 Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities   187 Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy)   188 • Other Serious Health Concerns: Asthma, Sickle Cell Disease, and Diabetes   188 • Students with Vision Impairments   189 • Students Who Are Deaf   189

Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome   190 Interventions   191

Response to Intervention   191 Students Who Are Gifted and Talented   194 Who Are These Students?   194 What Is the Origin of These Gifts?   195 • What Problems Do Students Who Are Gifted Face?   195

Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and Talented   196 Recognizing Gifts and Talents   196

Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents   197 Acceleration   198 • Methods and Strategies   198

Summary and Key Terms   199 Practice Using What You Have Learned  201 Connect and Extend to Licensure   202 Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would They Do?   203

CHAPTER 5 Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education   204 Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Clash in the Classroom: What Would You Do?   204

Emergent Literacy   209 Inside-Out and Outside-In Skills   210 • Building a Foundation   211 • When There Are Persistent Problems   212

Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity   213 Languages and Emergent Literacy   213 • Bilingual Emergent Literacy   213

GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy   214 Diversity in Language Development   215 Dual-Language Development   215 Second-Language Learning   215 • Benefits of Bilingualism   216 • Language Loss   216

Signed Languages   217 What Is Involved in Being Bilingual?   217 Contextualized and Academic Language   218 GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning   220 Dialect Differences in the Classroom   221 Dialects   221 Dialects and Pronunciation   221 • Dialects and Teaching   221

Genderlects   222 Teaching Immigrant Students   222 Immigrants and Refugees   223 Classrooms Today   224 Four Student Profiles   224

Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds   225 Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations   226 Working with Families: Using the Tools of the Culture   226 GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELLs   227 Funds of Knowledge and Welcome Centers   227 Student-Led Conferences   228

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Welcoming All Families   229 Teaching Immigrant Students Who Are English Language Learners   230 Two Approaches to English Language Learning   230 •  Research on Bilingual Education   230

CON TEN TS POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach Students Who Are ELLs?   231 Visual Strategies   232 • Literature Response Groups   232  •  Bilingualism for All: Two-Way Immersion   233

Sheltered Instruction   233 Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts   236 Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities   237 Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students   239 Summary and Key Terms   239 Practice Using What You Have Learned  241 Connect and Extend to Licensure   242 Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Clash in the Classroom: What Would They Do?   243

CHAPTER 6 Culture and Diversity   244 Revised by Ellen L. Usher

19

Who Is Affected by Stereotype Threat?  264 • Short-Term Effects: Test Performance   264 • Long-Term Effects: Disidentification   265 • Combating Stereotype Threat and Discrimination   266

Gender in Teaching and Learning   267 Sex and Gender   267 Gender Identity   267 Gender Roles   268 Gender Bias in Curriculum Materials and Media   270 Gender Bias in Teaching   270 Sexual Orientation   271

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently?   272 Discrimination Based on Gender Expression and Sexual Orientation   273 GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching   274 Creating Culturally Compatible Classrooms   276 Culturally Relevant Pedagogy   277 Self-Agency Strand   279 • Relationship Strand   279

Diversity in Learning   279 Social Organization   279 • Cultural Values and Learning Preferences   280 • Cautions (Again) About Learning Styles/Preferences Research   280 • Sociolinguistics   281 • Cultural Discontinuity   281

Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would You Do?   244 Overview and Objectives   245 Today’s Diverse Classrooms   246 American Cultural Diversity   246 Meet Two More Students   248 Cautions: Interpreting Cultural Differences   249 Cultural Conflicts and Compatibilities   249 • Dangers in Stereotyping   250

Economic and Social Class Differences   250 Social Class and Socioeconomic Status   250 Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly Mobile Students   252 Poverty and School Achievement   252 Health, Environment, and Stress   254 • Low Expectations—Low Academic Self-Concept   254 • Peer Influences and Resistance Cultures   254 • Home Environment and Resources   255 • Summer Setbacks   255

GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty   256 Tracking: Poor Teaching   256

Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning   257 Terms: Ethnicity and Race   257 Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement   258 The Legacy of Inequality   260 What Is Prejudice?   261 • The Development of Prejudice   261 • From Prejudice to Discrimination   263

Stereotype Threat   264

Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student   281 Know Yourself   282 • Know Your Students   282 • Respect Your Students   282 • Teach Your Students   283

GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching   283 Summary and Key Terms   284 Practice Using What You Have Learned  285 Connect and Extend to Licensure   286 Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would They Do?   287

PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION CHAPTER 7 Behavioral Views of Learning   288 Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would You Do?   288 Overview and Objectives   289 Understanding Learning   290 Ethical Issues   291 Goals   291 • Strategies   291

Learning Is Not Always What It Seems   291 Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning   292

20

C O N TENT S

GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning   294 Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses   294 Types of Consequences   295 Reinforcement   295 • Punishment   296

Neuroscience of Reinforcement and Punishment   297 Reinforcement Schedules   298

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?   318 Criticisms of Behavioral Methods   318 Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers   319 Summary and Key Terms   320 Practice Using What You Have Learned  322 Connect and Extend to Licensure   323 Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would They Do?   324

Extinction   299

Antecedents and Behavior Change   299

CHAPTER 8

Effective Instruction Delivery   299 • Cueing   300

Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis   300 Methods for Encouraging Behaviors   301

Cognitive Views of Learning   326

Reinforcing with Teacher Attention   301 • Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle   301

GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately   302 Shaping   303 • Positive Practice   303

GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors   304 Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences   304 Contingency Contracts   304 • Token Reinforcement Systems   305 • Group Consequences   306

Handling Undesirable Behavior   308 Negative Reinforcement   308 • Reprimands   309  •  Response Cost   309 • Social Isolation   309  •  Some Cautions About Punishment   309

GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment   310 Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems   311 Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and SelfManagement   311 Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral Assessments   312 Positive Behavior Supports   313 Self-Management   315 Goal Setting   315 • Monitoring and Evaluating Progress   315

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management   316 Self-Reinforcement   316

Challenges and Criticisms   317 Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning   317 Enactive and Observational Learning   317 • Learning and Performance   317

Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would You Do?   326 Overview and Objectives   327 Elements of the Cognitive Perspective   328 The Brain and Cognitive Learning   328 The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition   329 General and Specific Knowledge   329 • Declarative, Procedural, and Self-Regulatory Knowledge   330

Cognitive Views of Memory   330 Sensory Memory   332 Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Memory   332 • Perception   332 • The Role of Attention   334 • Attention and Multitasking   334

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What’s Wrong with Multitasking?   335 Attention and Teaching   335

GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention   336 Working Memory   337 Capacity of Working Memory   337 • The Central Executive   338 • The Phonological Loop   338  •  The Visuospatial Sketchpad   339 • The Episodic Buffer 339 • The Duration and Contents of Working Memory 339

Cognitive Load and Retaining Information   339 Two Kinds of Cognitive Load   340 • Retaining Information in Working Memory   340 • Levels of Processing Theory   341 • Forgetting   342

Individual Differences in Working Memory   342 Developmental Differences   342 • Individual Differences   343

Is Working Memory Really Separate?   343 Long-Term Memory   344 Capacity and Duration of Long-Term Memory   344 Contents of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative) Memories   345

CON TEN TS Propositions and Propositional Networks   345 

Metacognitive Development for Younger Stu-

•  Images   345 • Two Are Better Than One: Words

dents   370 • Metacognitive Development for

and Images   346 • Concepts   346 • Prototypes,

Secondary and College Students (Like You)   371

Exemplars, and Theory-Based Categories   346  •  Teaching Concepts   347 • Schemas   347  •  Episodic Memory   349

Contents of Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memories   349 Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory   350 Spreading Activation   351 • Reconstruction   351  •  Forgetting and Long-Term Memory   351

Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory   352 Teaching for Deep, Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications   352 Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections   352 Elaboration   352

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Organizing Learning   353 Organization   353 • Imagery   353  •  Context   355  •  Desirable Difficulty   355 • Effective Practice   355

Reaching Every Student: Make it Meaningful   356 Mnemonics   356

If You Have to Memorize . . .  357 Lessons for Teachers: Declarative Knowledge   358 Development of Procedural Knowledge   359 Automated Basic Skills   359

GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and Remember   360 Domain-Specific Strategies   361

Summary and Key Terms   361 Practice Using What You Have Learned  363 Connect and Extend to Licensure   364 Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would They Do?   364

CHAPTER 9 Complex Cognitive Processes   366 Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would You Do?   366 Overview and Objectives   367 Metacognition   368 Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation   368 Individual Differences in Metacognition   369 Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition   370

21

Learning Strategies   372 Being Strategic About Learning   372 Deciding What Is Important   374 • Summaries   374  •  Underlining and Highlighting   374 • Taking Notes   374

Visual Tools for Organizing   375 Retrieval Practice: Powerful But Underused   377 Reading Strategies   378 Applying Learning Strategies   378 Appropriate Tasks   378 • Valuing Learning   378 • Effort and Efficacy   379

Reaching Every Student: Teaching How to Learn   379 Problem Solving   379 Identifying: Problem Finding   380 Defining Goals and Representing the Problem   381 Focusing Attention on What Is Relevant   381 • Understanding the Words   381 • Understanding the Whole Problem   382 • Translation and Schema Training: Direct Instruction in Schemas   383 • Translation and Schema Training: Worked Examples   384 • Worked Examples and Embodied Cognition   385 • The Results of Problem Representation   386

Searching for Possible Solution Strategies   386 Algorithms   386 • Heuristics   387

Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back   387 Factors That Hinder Problem Solving   388 Some Problems with Heuristics   388

GUIDELINES: Applying Problem Solving   389 Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving   390 Knowing What Is Important   390 • Memory for Patterns and Organization   390 • Procedural Knowledge   390 • Planning and Monitoring   390

GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student   391 Critical Thinking and Argumentation   392 What Critical Thinkers Do: Paul and Elder Model   392 Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects   394 Argumentation   394 Two Styles of Argumentation   394

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?   395 Lessons for Teachers   396

Teaching for Transfer   397 The Many Views of Transfer   397 Teaching for Positive Transfer   398 What Is Worth Learning?   398 • Lessons for Teachers: Supporting Transfer   399 • Stages of Transfer for Strategies   399

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Promoting Transfer   400

22

C O N TENT S

Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge   400 What Is Robust Knowledge?   400 Recognizing and Assessing Robust Knowledge   401 Teaching for Robust Knowledge   401 Practice   402 • Worked Examples   402  •  Analogies   402 • Self-Explanations   402

Summary and Key Terms   403 Practice Using What You Have Learned  405 Connect and Extend to Licensure   405 Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would They Do?   406

Cognitive Apprenticeships in Reading: Reciprocal Teaching   425 • Applying Reciprocal Teaching   426

Collaboration and Cooperation   426 Collaboration, Group Work, and Cooperative Learning   427 • Beyond Groups to Cooperation   427  •  What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning   428

Tasks for Cooperative Learning   430 Highly Structured, Review, and Skill-Building Tasks   430 • Ill-Structured, Conceptual, and ProblemSolving Tasks   430 • Social Skills and Communication Tasks   430

Setting Up Cooperative Groups   431 Assigning Roles   431 • Giving and Receiving

CHAPTER 10 Constructivism and Designing Learning Environments   408 Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What Would You Do?   408 Overview and Objectives   409 Cognitive and Social Constructivism   410 Constructivist Views of Learning   410 Cognitive Constructivism   411 • Social Constructivism   412

How Is Knowledge Constructed?   412 Knowledge: Situated or General?   412 Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered Teaching   414 Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks   414 • Social Negotiation   415 • Multiple Perspectives and Representations of Content   415  •  Understanding the Knowledge Construction Process   415 • Student Ownership of Learning   415

Designing Constructivist Learning Environments   415 Assumptions to Guide the Design of Learning Environments   416 Facilitating in a Constructivist Classroom   416 Scaffolding   417 • Advance Organizers as Scaffolding   418 • Facilitating Through Asking and Answering Deep Questions   419

GUIDELINES: Facilitating Deep Questioning   420 Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning   420 Examples of Inquiry   421 • Problem-Based Learning   421 • Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning   423 • Being Smart About Problem-Based Learning   423

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching Approaches?   424 Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching   424

Explanations   432

Designs for Cooperation   432 Reciprocal Questioning   433 • Jigsaw   434  •  Constructive/Structured Controversies   434

Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely   435 GUIDELINES: Using Cooperative Learning   436 Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice   436 Designing Learning Environments in a Digital World   438 Technology and Learning   438 Technology-Rich Environments   438 • Virtual Learning Environments   439 • Personal Learning Environments   439 • Immersive Virtual Learning Environments   440 • Games   440

Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities for Young Children   441 Computational Thinking and Coding   442

GUIDELINES: Using Computers   443 Media/Digital Literacy   444

GUIDELINES: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy   445 The Flipped Classroom   446 Summary and Key Terms   447 Practice Using What You Have Learned  449 Connect and Extend to Licensure   450 Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What Would They Do?   451

CHAPTER 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation   452 Revised by Ellen L. Usher Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would You Do?   452 Overview and Objectives   453

CON TEN TS Social Cognitive Theory   454 A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura   454 Beyond Behaviorism   454 Triadic Reciprocal Causality   455 Modeling: Learning by Observing Others   457 Elements of Observational Learning   458 Attention   458 • Retention   458 • Production   458 • Motivation and Reinforcement   459

Observational Learning in Teaching   459 Directing Attention   459 • Fine Tuning Already-Learned Behaviors   460 • Strengthening or Weakening Inhibitions   460 • Teaching New Behaviors   460 • Arousing Emotion   460

GUIDELINES: Using Observational Learning   461 Agency and Self-Efficacy   462 Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem   462 Sources of Self-Efficacy   463 Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching   464 GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Efficacy   465 Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy   466 Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will   467 What Influences Self-Regulation?   468 Knowledge   468 • Motivation   469 • Volition   469

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are “Grittier” Students More Successful?   470 Development of Self-Regulation   472

A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning   472 Reaching Every Student: Examples of Self-Regulation in Two Classrooms   474 Writing   474 • Math Problem Solving   475

Technology and Self-Regulation   475 Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior Modification   476 Emotional Self-Regulation   477 GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional SelfRegulation   479 Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning   479 Teacher Stress, Efficacy, and Self-Regulated Learning   479 Designing Classrooms for Self-Regulation   480 Complex Tasks   480 Control   481 Self-Evaluation   481 Collaboration   482 Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning   482 Summary and Key Terms   484 Practice Using What You Have Learned  485 Connect and Extend to Licensure   486 Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would They Do?   487

23

CHAPTER 12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching   488 Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would You Do?   488 Overview and Objectives   489 What Is Motivation?   490 Meeting Some Students   490 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation   491 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Lessons for Teachers   492

What You Already Know About Motivation   492 Needs and Self-Determination   493 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs   493 Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness   494 Self-Determination in the Classroom   495 • Information and Control   495 • The Need for Relatedness   496

Needs: Lessons for Teachers   496 GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy   497 Goals and Goal Orientations   497 Types of Goals and Goal Orientations   498 Four Achievement Goal Orientations in School   498  •  Wait—Are Performance Goals Always Bad?   499  •  Social and Work-Avoidance Goals   500 • Goals in Social Context   501

Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance   501 Goals: Lessons for Teachers   502 Expectancy-Value-Cost Explanations   502 Costs   502 Tasks Value   503 Lessons for Teachers   503 Attributions and Beliefs About Knowledge, Ability, and Self-Worth 503 Attributions in the Classroom   504 Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions   505 Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs   505 Mindsets and Beliefs About Ability   506 Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers   507 Beliefs About Self-Worth   508 Learned Helplessness   508 • Self-Worth   508

Self-Worth: Lessons for Teachers   509 GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Worth   510 How Do You Feel About Learning? Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety   510 Tapping Interests   510 Two Kinds of Interests   510 • Catching and Holding Interests   511

24

C O N TENT S

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?   512 Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity   512 GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity   513 Flow   514 Emotions and Anxiety   514 Neuroscience and Emotion   514 • Achievement Emotions   515 • Arousal and Anxiety   516 • Anxiety in the Classroom   516 • How Does Anxiety Interfere with Achievement?   517

Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety   517 GUIDELINES: Coping with Anxiety   518 Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers   518 Motivation to Learn in School: On Target   519 Tasks for Learning   519 Beyond Task Value to Genuine Appreciation   519  •  Authentic Tasks   520

Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment   521 Supporting Choices   521 • Recognizing Accomplishment   521

Grouping, Evaluation, and Time   522 Grouping and Goal Structures   522 • Evaluation   523  •  Time   523 • Putting It All Together   523

Diversity in Motivation   525 Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation   526 Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations   526 • Do I Want To Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning   526 • What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused on the Task   527

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Motivation to Learn   528 Do I Belong in This Classroom?   528

Summary and Key Terms   529 Practice Using What You Have Learned  531 Connect and Extend to Licensure   532 Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources are Thin: What Would They Do?   533

PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING CHAPTER 13 Managing Learning Environments   534 Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would You Do?   534

Overview and Objectives   535 The What and Why of Classroom Management   536 The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation   538 The Goals of Classroom Management   539 Access to Learning   539 • More Time for Learning   539  •  Management Means Relationships   540  •  Management for Self-Management   541

Creating a Positive Learning Environment   541 Some Research Results   541 Routines and Rules Required   542 Routines and Procedures   542 • Rules   542

GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines   543 Rules for Elementary School   544 • Rules for Secondary School   544 • Consequences   545 • Who Sets the Rules and Consequences?   545

Planning Spaces for Learning   546 Personal Territories and Seating Arrangements   546 • Interest Areas   547

Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class   547 Effective Managers for Elementary Students   547

GUIDELINES: Designing Learning Spaces   548 Effective Managers for Secondary Students   549

Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning   550 Encouraging Engagement   550 Prevention Is the Best Medicine   550 GUIDELINES: Keeping Students Engaged   551 Withitness   551 • Overlapping and Group Focus   552  •  Movement Management   552 • Student Social Skills as Prevention   552

Caring Relationships: Connections with School   552 Teacher Connections   552 • School Connections   554 • Creating Communities of Care for Adolescents   554

Dealing with Discipline Problems   555 Stopping Problems Quickly   555 GUIDELINES: Creating Caring Relationships   556 If You Impose Penalties   557 Teacher-Imposed Penalties versus Student Responsibility   557 GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties   558 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?   560 What About Zero Tolerance?   560 Bullying and Cyberbullying   560 Victims   561 • Why Do Students Bully?   562  •  What Can Teachers Do? Bullying and Teasing   562  •  Cyberbullying   563

Special Problems with High School Students   564 GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations   565

CON TEN TS The Need for Communication   566 Message Sent—Message Received   566 Empathetic Listening   566 When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, Assertive Discipline, and Problem Solving   567 “I” Messages   567 • Assertive Discipline   568  •  Confrontations and Negotiations   568

Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Justice   570

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Seatwork and Homework   593 Seatwork   593

GUIDELINES: Effective Direct Instruction   594 Homework   595 • The Case Against Homework   595 • Homework for Older Students   595 • Beware of Either/Or   596

Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback   596 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Homework   597

Peer Mediation   570 • Restorative Justice   570

Kinds of Questions   597  •  Asking Deep Ques-

Research on Management Approaches   571 Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management   571 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Classroom Management   573 Summary and Key Terms   573 Practice Using What You Have Learned  575 Connect and Extend to Licensure   576 Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would They Do?   577

tions   598 • Fitting The Questions to the Students   599 • Responding to Student Answers   599 • Group Discussion   600

Fitting Teaching to Your Goals   601 Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design   601 GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions   602 Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching   604 Within-Class and Flexible Grouping   604 The Problems with Ability Grouping   604 • Flexible Grouping   604

CHAPTER 14 Teaching Every Student   578 Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do?   578 Overview and Objectives   579 Research on Teaching   580 Characteristics of Effective Teachers   580 Clarity and Organization   580 • Enthusiasm and Warmth   581

Knowledge for Teaching   581 Research on Teaching Strategies   582 The First Step: Planning   583 Research on Planning   583 Learning Targets   584 An Example of State-Level Goals: The Common Core   585

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are the Common Core Standards a Valuable Guide for Teaching?   586

GUIDELINES: Using Flexible Grouping   605 Adaptive Teaching   605 Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms   606 Technology and Differentiation   607 Teacher Expectations   609 Two Kinds of Expectation Effects   609 Sources of Expectations   609 Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement?   610 Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations   611 GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations   612 Summary and Key Terms   613 Practice Using What You Have Learned  615 Connect and Extend to Licensure   616 Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do?   617

Classrooms Targets for Learning   586

Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies   587 The Cognitive Domain   587 • The Affective Domain   588  •  The Psychomotor Domain   589 • Another Take on Learning Targets   589

Planning from a Constructivist Perspective   589 GUIDELINES: Using Learning Targets   590 Teaching Approaches   591 Direct Instruction   591 Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions   591 • Why Does Direct Instruction Work?   592 • Evaluating Direct Instruction   592

CHAPTER 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing   618 Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do?   618 Overview and Objectives   619

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C O N TENT S

Basics of Assessment   620 Measurement and Assessment   620 Formative, Interim, and Summative Assessment   621

Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity   621 Reliability of Test Scores   622 • Validity   622 • Absence of Bias   623

Classroom Assessment: Testing   624 Interpreting Any Test Score   624 Norm-Referenced Test Interpretations   625  •  Criterion-Referenced Test Interpretations   625

Using the Tests from Textbooks   626 Selected-Response Testing   626 Using Multiple-Choice Tests   627 • Writing Multiple-Choice Questions   628

Constructed Responses: Essay Testing   628 Constructing Essay Tests   628 • Evaluating Essays   628

GUIDELINES: Writing Multiple-Choice Items   629 Assessing Traditional Testing   630 Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments   630 Informal Assessments   631 Exit Tickets   631 • Journals   631 • Involving Students in Assessments   631

Authentic Assessments: Portfolios and Exhibitions   632 Portfolios   634 • Exhibitions   634

Evaluating Portfolios and Performances   634 Scoring Rubrics   634

GUIDELINES: Creating Portfolios   636 GUIDELINES: Developing a Rubric   637 Reliability, Validity, Generalizability   637 • Diversity and Bias in Performance Assessment   637

Assessing Complex Thinking   638 Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers   638 Grading   638 Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading   639 Effects of Grading on Students   641 The Value of Failing?   641 • Retention in Grade   641

Grades and Motivation   641 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children Be Held Back?   642 Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families   643

Standardized Testing   643 Types of Scores   643 Measurements of Central Tendency and Standard Deviation   643

GUIDELINES: Using Any Grading System   644 The Normal Distribution   646 • Percentile Rank Scores   646 • Grade-Equivalent Scores   647 • Standard Scores   647

Interpreting Standardized Test Reports   648 Discussing Test Results with Families   650

Accountability and High-Stakes Testing   650 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Conferences and Explaining Test Results   651 Making Decisions   652 • What Do Teachers Think?   652 • Documented Problems with High-Stakes Testing   652

New Directions: PARCC and SBAC   653 In Sum: Using High-Stakes Testing Well   653

GUIDELINES: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing   654 Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests   655 Teacher Accountability and Evaluation   656 Value-Added Measures   656

Quality Standardized Assessment: Lessons for Teachers   656 Summary and Key Terms   657 Practice Using What You Have Learned  659 Connect and Extend to Licensure   660 Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do?   661

Licensure Appendix  A-1 Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index  N-1 Subject Index  S-1

SPECIAL FEATURES TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

Helping Students to Use Formal Operations   82

Leaving No Student Behind   30

Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom   104

Leaving No Student Behind   57

Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents   108

Symbols and Cymbals   58

Family and Community Partnerships—Connecting with Families   112

Symbols and Cymbals   99 Mean Girls   100 Mean Girls   147 Including Every Student   148 Including Every Student   203 Cultures Clash in the Classroom   204 Cultures Clash in the Classroom   243 White Girls Club   244 White Girls Club   287 Sick of Class   288 Sick of Class   324 Remembering the Basics   326 Remembering the Basics   364 Uncritical Thinking   366 Uncritical Thinking   406

Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching   95

Helping Children of Divorce   114 Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation   119 Encouraging Initiative and Industry   126 Supporting Identity Formation   129 Interpreting IQ Scores   159 Applying and Encouraging Creativity   166 Family and Community Partnerships—Productive Conferences   172 Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems   183 Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities   187 Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy   214 Promoting Language Learning   220 Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELLs   227

Learning to Cooperate   408

Family and Community Partnerships—Welcoming all Families   229

Learning to Cooperate   451

Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty   256

Failure to Self-Regulate   452

Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching   274

Failure to Self-Regulate   487

Culturally Relevant Teaching   283

Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin   488

Applying Classical Conditioning   294

Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin   533

Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately   302

Bullies and Victims   534 Reaching and Teaching Every Student   578

Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors   304

Reaching and Teaching Every Student   617

Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment   310

Giving Meaningful Grades   618

Family and Community Partnerships—Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management   316

Bullies and Victims   577

Giving Meaningful Grades   661

Gaining and Maintaining Attention   336

GUIDELINES

Family and Community Partnerships—Organizing Learning   353

Family and Community Partnerships—Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children   78

Helping Students Understand and Remember  360

Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child   80

Applying Problem Solving   389

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SP EC I AL FEAT U R E S

Becoming an Expert Student   391

Writing Multiple-Choice Items   629

Family and Community Partnerships—Promoting Transfer   400

Creating Portfolios   636

Facilitating Deep Questioning   420

Using Any Grading System   644

Using Cooperative Learning   436 Using Computers   443

Family and Community Partnerships—Conferences and Explaining Test Results   651

Supporting the Development of Media Literacy   445

Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing   654

Developing a Rubric   637

Using Observational Learning   461 Encouraging Self-Efficacy   465

POINT/COUNTERPOINT

Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation   479

What Kind of Research Should Guide Education?   48

Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy   497

Brain-Based Education   70

Encouraging Self-Worth   510 Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity   513

What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ SelfEsteem?   135

Coping with Anxiety   518

Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD?   179

Family and Community Partnerships––Motivation to Learn   528

What Is the Best Way to Teach Students Who Are ELLs?   231

Establishing Class Routines   543

Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently?   272

Designing Learning Spaces   548

Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?   318

Keeping Students Engaged   551

What’s Wrong with Multitasking?   335

Creating Caring Relationships   556

Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?   395

Imposing Penalties   558 Handling Potentially Explosive Situations   565 Family and Community Partnerships—Classroom Management   573

Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching Approaches?   424 Are ”Grittier” Students More Successful?   470

Using Learning Targets   590

Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?   512

Effective Direct Instruction   594

Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?   560

Family and Community Partnerships—Homework   597

Are the Common Core Standards a Valuable Guide for Teaching?   586

Productive Group Discussions   602 Using Flexible Grouping   605 Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations   612

Should Children Be Held Back?   642

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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK:  Leaving No Student Behind

WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

LEARNING, TEACHING, AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY It is your second year as a teacher in the Lincoln East school district. Over the last 4 years, the number of students from immigrant families has increased dramatically in your school. In your class, you have two students who speak Somali, one Hmong, one Farsi, and four Spanish speakers. Some of them know a little English, but many have very few words other than “OK.” If there had been more students from each of the language groups, the district would have given your school additional resources and special programs in each language, providing you extra help, but there are not quite enough students speaking most of the languages to meet the requirements. In addition, you have several students with special needs; learning disabilities, particularly problems in reading, seem to be the most common. Your state and district require you to prepare all your students for the achievement tests in the spring, and the national emphasis is on readiness for college and career by the end of high school—for everyone. Your only possible extra resource is a student intern from the local college. CRITICAL THINKING • What would you do to help all your students to progress and prepare for the achievement tests? • How would you make use of the intern so that both she and your students learn? • How could you involve the families of your non-English-speaking students and students with learning disabilities to support their children’s learning?

Anita Woolfolk Hoy

OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES Like many students, you may begin this course with a mixture of anticipation and wariness. Perhaps you are required to take educational psychology as part of a program in teacher education, speech therapy, nursing, or counseling. You may have chosen this class as an elective. Whatever your reason for enrolling, you probably have questions about teaching, schools, students—or even about yourself—that you hope this course may answer. I have written the 14th edition of Educational Psychology with questions such as these in mind. In this first chapter, we begin with the state of education in today’s world. Teachers have been both criticized as ineffective and lauded as the best hope for young people. Do teachers make a difference in students’ learning? What characterizes good teaching—how do truly effective teachers think and act? What do they believe about students, learning, and themselves? When you are aware of the challenges and possibilities of teaching and learning today, you can appreciate the contributions of educational psychology. After a brief introduction to the world of the teacher, we turn to a discussion of educational psychology itself. How can principles identified by educational psychologists benefit teachers, therapists, parents, and others who are interested in teaching and learning? What exactly is the content of educational psychology, and where does this information come from? Finally, we consider an overview of a model that organizes research in educational psychology to identify the key student and school factors related to student learning (J. Lee & Shute, 2010). My goal is that you will become a confident and competent beginning teacher, so by the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective1.1

Describe the key elements of the No Child Left Behind Act and its successor, the Every Student Succeeds Act, and discuss the continuing impact of testing and accountability for teachers and students.

Objective1.2

Discuss the essential features of effective teaching, including different frameworks describing what good teachers do.

Objective1.3

Describe the methods used to conduct research in the field of educational psychology and the kinds of questions each method can address.

Objective1.4

Recognize how theories and research in development and learning are related to educational practice.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Learning and Teaching Today Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology Confidence in Every Context High Expectations for Teachers and Students Do Teachers Make a Difference? What Is Good Teaching? Inside Three Classrooms Beginning Teachers The Role of Educational Psychology In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching Educational Psychology Today Is It Just Common Sense? Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning

LEARNING AND TEACHING TODAY Welcome to my favorite topic—educational psychology—the study of development, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment in and out of schools. I believe this is one of the most important courses you will take to prepare for your future as an educator in the classroom or the consulting office, whether your “students” are children or adults learning how to read or individuals discovering how to improve their diets. In fact, there is evidence that new teachers who have course work in development and learning are twice as likely to stay in teaching (National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 2003). This may be a required course for you, so let me make the case for educational psychology, first by stepping into classrooms today.

Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology Who are the students in American classrooms today? Here are a few statistics about the United States.

• T  he United States is a land of immigrants. About 25% of U.S. children under 18 are living in immigrant families Theories for Teaching (Turner, 2015). It is likely that by 2060, nearly 20% of the Supporting Student Learning U.S. population will be foreign born, and people of HisSummary and Key Terms panic origin will comprise almost 30% of that population. By 2044, more than half of the U.S. population will be Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: members of some minority group (Colby & Ortman, 2015). What Would They Do? • Almost 15 million children—about 22% of all children— live in poverty, defined in 2017 by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services as an income of $24,600 for a family of four ($30,750 in Alaska and $28,290 in Hawaii). And in the public schools, just over half the students qualify for free or reduced cost lunches—a rough indicator of poverty (Southern Education Foundation, 2015). At 22%, the United States has the second highest rate of child poverty among the 35 economically advantaged countries of the world, just above Romania and below Bulgaria. Iceland, the Scandinavian countries, Cyprus, and the Netherlands have the lowest rates of child poverty, about 7% or less (Ann E. Casey Foundation, 2015; Children’s Defense Fund, 2015; National Center for Child Poverty, 2013; UNICEF, 2012). • The typical Black household has about 6% of the wealth of the typical White household. The figure for Hispanic households is 8% (Shin, 2015). • About one in six American children have a mild-to-severe developmental disability such as speech and language impairments, intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, or autism. Over half of these children spend most or their time in general education classes (Centers for Disease Control, 2015c). • In 2012, for children ages birth to 17, 20% had parents who were divorced or separated, 11% were living with someone who had an alcohol or drug problem, 7% had a parent who had served time in jail, and 9% lived with someone who was mentally ill (Child Trends, 2013). Based on statistics such as these, Erica Turner (2015) concluded, “American society and schools are more diverse and more unequal than ever” (p. 4). In contrast, because of the effects of mass media, these diverse students share many similarities today, particularly the fact that most are far more technologically literate than their teachers. For example: • Infants to 8-year-olds spend an average of almost 2 hours each day watching TV or videos, 29 minutes listening to music, and 25 minutes working with computers or

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computer games. In 2013, 75% of homes with children under age 8 had a smartphone, tablet, or other mobile device (Common Sense Media, 2012, 2013b). Today the numbers probably have increased. • According to a 2015 Pew Research survey, 92% of 13- to 17-year-olds said they went online daily, and 24% were online “almost constantly.” This is possible because 88% of teenagers have access to some kind of mobile phone and most of these (73%) are smartphones. And 71% of teens use more than one social media site; Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat are the most popular (Lenhart, 2015). These statistics are dramatic but a bit impersonal. As a teacher, counselor, recreational worker, speech therapist, or family member, you will encounter real children. In this book, you will meet many individuals such as Josué, a bright first grader whose first language is Spanish, struggling to care about learning read in a language that offers only, “run Spot, run”; Alex, an 11-year-old who has created 10 languages and 30 or 40 alphabets; Jamie Foxx, a very bright third-grade student in a small, Texas town whose teacher rewards him for working hard all week by letting him do stand-up comedy for the class on Fridays; Tracy, a failing high school student who does not understand why her study strategies are failing her; Felipe, a fifth-grade boy from a Spanish-speaking family who is working to learn school subjects and make friends in a language that is new to him; Ternice, an outspoken African American girl in an urban middle school who is hiding her giftedness; Trevor, a second-grade student who has trouble with the meaning of symbol; Allison, head of a popular clique and tormentor of the outcast Stephanie; Eliot, a bright sixth-grade student with severe learning disabilities; and Jessie, a student in a rural high school who just doesn’t seem to care about her sinking grade-point average (GPA) or school in general. Even though students in classrooms are increasingly diverse in race, ethnicity, language, and economic level, teachers are much less diverse—the percentage of White teachers is increasing (now about 90%), while the percentage of Black teachers is falling, down to about 7%. Clearly, it is important for all teachers to know and be able to work effectively with all their students. Several chapters in this book are devoted to understanding these diverse students. In addition, many times within each chapter, we will explore student diversity and inclusion through research, cases, and practical applications.

Confidence in Every Context Schools are about teaching and learning; all other activities are secondary. But teaching and learning in the contexts just described can be challenging for both teachers and students. This book is about understanding the complex processes of development, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment so that you can become a capable and confident teacher. Much of my own research has focused on teachers’ sense of efficacy, defined as a teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn. This confident belief appears to be one of the few personal characteristics of teachers that predict student achievement (Çakırog˘lu, Aydın, & Woolfolk Hoy, 2012; Woolfolk Hoy, Hoy, & Davis, 2009). Teachers with a high sense of efficacy work harder and persist longer even when students are difficult to teach, in part because these teachers believe in themselves and in their students. Also, they are less likely to experience burnout and more likely to be satisfied with their jobs (Fernet, Guay, Senécal, & Austin, 2012; Fives, Hamman, & Olivarez, 2005; Klassen & Chiu, 2010). I have found that prospective teachers tend to increase in their personal sense of efficacy as a consequence of completing student teaching. But sense of efficacy may decline after the first year as a teacher, perhaps because the support that was provided during student teaching is gone (Woolfolk Hoy & Burke-Spero, 2005). Teachers’ sense of efficacy is higher in schools when the other teachers and administrators have high expectations for students and the teachers receive help from their principals in solving instructional and management problems (Capa, 2005). Efficacy grows from real success

Teachers’ sense of efficacy  A teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn.

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C HAP T ER O NE

with students, not just from the moral support or cheerleading of professors and colleagues. Any experience or training that helps you succeed in the day-to-day tasks of teaching will give you a foundation for developing a sense of efficacy in your career. This book was written to provide the knowledge and skills that form a solid foundation for an authentic sense of efficacy in teaching.

High Expectations for Teachers and Students In 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act. Actually, NCLB was the latest authorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), first passed in 1965. In a nutshell, NCLB required that all students in grades 3 through 8 and once more in high school take annual standardized achievement tests in reading and mathematics. In addition, they had to be tested in science once in each grade span: elementary, middle, and high school. Based on these test scores, schools were judged to determine if their students were making adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward becoming proficient in the subjects tested. States and schools had to develop AYP goals and report scores separately for several subgroups, including racial and ethnic minority students, students with disabilities, students whose first language is not English, and students from low-income homes. But no matter how states defined these standards, NCLB required that all students reach proficiency by the end of the 2013–2014 school year. You probably noticed—this did not happen. For a while, NCLB dominated education. Testing expanded. Schools and teachers were penalized if they did not perform. For example, if a school underperformed for 5 years, federal money could be taken away, teachers and principals could be fired, and schools could be converted to charter schools or closed. As you can imagine, or may have experienced yourself, such high-stakes penalties pushed teachers and schools to “teach to the test” or worse. The curriculum narrowed and much time was spent on drill and practice. Cheating was a problem and graduation requirements were dumbed down in some high schools to avoid receiving penalties (Davidson, Reback, Rockoff, & Schwartz 2015; Meens & Howe, 2015; Strauss, 2015). With all this focus on test preparation, some schools and states seemed to make progress toward their AYP goals, but too many schools were labeled as failing. A closer look at these successes and failures showed that the states used very different formulas and procedures for calculating AYP, so we can’t really compare results across states (Davidson et al., 2015). All in all, NCLB requirements were widely criticized as “blunt instruments, generating inaccurate performance results, perverse incentives, and unintended negative consequences” (Hopkins et al., 2013, p. 101). NCLB was supposed to be reauthorized in 2007 or 2008, but this process was not completed until December 10, 2015 when President Barack Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). The main differences between ESSA and NCLB are that the requirement for proficiency for all students by a certain date has been dropped, most control is returned to the states to set standards and develop interventions, and penalties are no longer central to the law. A few key changes include:

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)  The 2015 replacement for the No Child Left Behind Act. ESSA drops the requirement for proficiency for all students by a certain date has been dropped and returns most control to the states to set standards and develop interventions.

1. Schools still must test the same subjects in the same grades, and at least 95% of students must participate in the testing. But the local districts now can decide when to test, whether to break one big test into several smaller tests, and even how to find better tests that really capture important student learning. Accountability plans have to be submitted to the Department of Education. In these plans, test scores and graduation rates have to be given greater weight than other more subjective measures, but at least one additional measure of school quality such as school climate and safety or student engagement must be included, along with measures of progress toward English language proficiency for English learners (Korte, 2015). 2. The schools still have to gather data about different subgroups of students, but they are not penalized if the students in these groups do not perform, unless the underperformance persists over time.

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35

3. Only schools at the bottom 5% of test scores, schools that graduate less than two-thirds of their students, and schools where subgroups consistently underperform will be considered failing. The states must intervene in these schools with “evidence-based” programs, but ESSA leaves the decisions about which interventions to use to the state (Strauss, 2015). 4. States are allowed to adopt the Common Core Standards (see Chapter 14), but there are no federal incentives or pressures to do so. The goal is for high school graduates to be college and career ready. 5. States are now required to fund “equitable services” for children in private and religious schools if those students are eligible for special services. This could be a problem for many states that do not have enough money now to adequately fund these services in public schools (Strauss, 2015). 6. ESSA also emphasizes increased access to preschool by including new funding for early childhood education (Wong, 2015). Even though these seem to be major changes, the actual effects for many states and schools may not be too dramatic. By 2015, the Secretary of Education had waived the requirement to reach 100% proficiency for 42 states and the District of Columbia. To get the waivers, the states had to show they had adopted their own testing and accountability programs and were making progress toward the goal of college or career readiness for all their graduates. In other words, these 42 states and the District of Columbia already were operating under the main provisions of ESSA (Meens & Howe, 2015; Wong, 2015). One provision of the ESSA of interest to all teachers and teacher educators is a provision that establishes teacher education academies. The types of academies favored are nontraditional, non-university, and for-profit programs that don’t have to meet the standards of university programs. Many teacher educators worry that this step will lower the quality of new teachers (Strauss, 2015). Time will tell how the new ESSA law unfolds, especially with the election of Donald Trump as President. Many excellent teachers still believe they are spending too much time preparing for tests and not enough time supporting student learning in subjects not tested, such as social studies, art, music, physical education, and technology (Cusick, 2015). But no matter what policies the government adopts, capable and confident teachers will be required. Is that true? Do teachers really make a difference? Good question.

MyLab Education

Podcast 1.1 In this podcast, textbook author Anita Woolfolk talks about the importance of teachers in students’ lives. Did you know that “teacher involvement and caring are the most significant predictors of a student’s engagement in school from first grade through twelfth grade?” Listen to learn more.

Do Teachers Make a Difference? You saw in the statistics presented earlier that many American children are growing up in poverty. For a while, some researchers concluded that wealth and social status, not teaching, were the major factors determining who learned in schools (e.g., Coleman, 1966). In fact, much of the early research on teaching was conducted by educational psychologists who refused to accept these claims that teachers were powerless in the face of poverty and societal problems (Wittrock, 1986). How can you decide whether teaching makes a difference? Perhaps one of your teachers influenced your decision to become an educator. Even if you had such a teacher, and I hope you did, one of the purposes of educational psychology in general and this text in particular is to go beyond individual experiences and testimonies, powerful as they are, to examine larger groups. The results of many large-group studies speak to the power of teachers in the lives of students, as you will see next. TEACHER–STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS.  Bridgett Hamre and Robert Pianta (2001) monitored all the children who entered kindergarten one year in a small school district and continued in that district through the eighth grade. The researchers concluded that the quality of the teacher–student relationship in kindergarten (defined in terms of level of conflict with the child, the child’s dependency on the teacher, and the teacher’s affection for the child) predicted a number of academic and behavioral outcomes through the eighth grade, particularly for students with many behavior problems.

MyLab Education

Video Example 1.1 A bilingual teacher conducts a discussion with immigrant high school students. She asks students to discuss what teachers can do to help English learners and students from different cultures.

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Even when the gender, ethnicity, cognitive ability, and behavior ratings of the student were accounted for, the relationship with the teacher still predicted aspects of school success. So students with significant behavior problems in the early years are less likely to have problems later in school if their first teachers are sensitive to their needs and provide frequent, consistent feedback. It appears that the connection between teacher relationships and student outcomes is widespread. Deborah Roorda and her colleagues (2011) reviewed research from 99 studies around the world that examined the connections between teacher–student relationships and student engagement. Positive teacher relationships predicted positive student engagement at every grade, but the relationships were especially strong for students who were at risk academically and for older students. As an example, Russell Bishop and his colleagues (2014) observed 1,263 secondary teachers who taught the indigenous Maori students of New Zealand. The researchers found that when teachers established warm, caring relationships with their students, similar to those of an extended family, the students were more engaged. In fact, without such relationships there was no engagement. So evidence is mounting for a strong association between the quality of teacher–child relationships and school performance. THE COST OF POOR TEACHING.  In a widely publicized study, researchers examined how students are affected by having several effective or ineffective teachers in a row (Sanders & Rivers, 1996). They looked at fifth graders in two large metropolitan school systems in Tennessee. Students who had highly effective teachers for third, fourth, and fifth grades scored at the 83rd percentile on average on a standardized mathematics achievement test in one district and at the 96th percentile in the other (99th percentile is the highest possible score). In contrast, students who had the least effective teachers 3 years in a row averaged at the 29th percentile in math achievement in one district and 44th percentile in the other—a difference of over 50 percentile points in both cases! Students who had average teachers or a mixture of teachers with low, average, and high effectiveness for the 3 years had math scores between these extremes. Sanders and Rivers concluded that the best teachers encouraged good-to-excellent gains in achievement for all students, but lower-achieving students were the first to benefit from good teaching. The effects of teaching were cumulative and residual; that is, better teaching in a later grade could partially make up for less effective teaching in earlier grades, but could not erase all the deficits traced to poor teachers (Hanushek, Rivkin, & Kain, 2005; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2001). Another study about test score gains from the Los Angeles public schools may be especially interesting to you. Robert Gordon and his colleagues (2006) measured the test performance of elementary school students in beginning teachers’ classes. Teachers were ranked into quartiles based on how well their students performed during the teachers’ first 2 years. Then the researchers looked at the test performance of students in classes with the top 25% of the teachers and the bottom 25% during their third year of teaching. After controlling for the effects of students’ prior test scores, their families’ wealth, and other factors, they found that the students working with the top 25% of the teachers gained an average of 5 percentile points more compared to students with similar beginning of the year test scores, while students in the bottom 25% lost an average of 5 percentile points. If these losses accumulate, then students working with poorer teachers would fall farther and farther behind. In fact, the researchers speculated that “. . . having a top-quartile teacher four years in a row would be enough to close the black-white test score gap” [of about 34 percentile points] (R. Gordon, Kane, & Staiger, 2006, p. 8). Effective teachers who establish positive relationships with their students appear to be a powerful force in those students’ lives. Students who have problems seem to benefit the most from good teaching. So an important question is, “What makes a teacher effective? What is good teaching?” MyLab Education Self-Check 1.1

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WHAT IS GOOD TEACHING?

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II®

Educators, psychologists, philosophers, novelists, journalists, filmmakers, mathematicians, scientists, historians, policy makers, and parents, to name only a few groups, have examined this question; there are hundreds of answers. And good teaching is not confined to classrooms. It occurs in homes and hospitals, museums and sales meetings, therapists’ offices, and summer camps. In this book we are primarily concerned with teaching in classrooms, but much of what you will learn applies to other settings as well.

Teacher Professionalism (IV, A2) Begin your own development by reading educational publications. One widely read periodical is Education Week. You can access it online at edweek.com.

Inside Three Classrooms To begin our examination of good teaching, let’s step inside the classrooms of three outstanding teachers. The three situations are real. The first two teachers worked with my student teachers in local elementary and middle schools and were studied by one of my colleagues, Carol Weinstein (Weinstein & Romano, 2015). The third teacher became an expert at helping students with severe learning difficulties, with the guidance of a consultant. A BILINGUAL FIRST GRADE.  Most of the 25 students in Viviana’s class have recently emigrated from the Dominican Republic; the rest come from Nicaragua, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Honduras. Even though the children speak little or no English when they begin school, by the time they leave in June, Viviana has helped them master the normal first-grade curriculum for their district. She accomplishes this by teaching in Spanish early in the year to aid understanding and then gradually introducing English as the students are ready. Viviana does not want her students segregated or labeled as disadvantaged. She encourages them to take pride in their Spanish-speaking heritage and uses every available opportunity to support their developing English proficiency. Both Viviana’s expectations for her students and her commitment to them are high. She has an optimism that reveals her dedication: “I always hope that there’s somebody out there that I will reach and that I’ll make a difference” (Weinstein & Romano, 2015, p. 15). For Viviana, teaching is not just a job; it is a way of life. A SUBURBAN FIFTH GRADE.  Ken teaches fifth grade in a suburban school in central New Jersey. Students in the class represent a range of racial, ethnic, family income, and language backgrounds. Ken emphasizes “process writing.” His students complete first drafts, discuss them with others in the class, revise, edit, and “publish” their work. The students also keep daily journals and often use them to share personal concerns with Ken. They tell him of problems at home, fights, and fears; he always takes the time to respond in writing. Ken also uses technology to connect lessons to real life. Students learn about ocean ecosystems by using a special interactive software program. For social studies, the class plays two simulation games that focus on history. One is about coming of age in Native American cultures, and the other focuses on the colonization of America. Throughout the year, Ken is very interested in the social and emotional development of his students; he wants them to learn about responsibility and fairness as well as science and social studies. This concern is evident in the way he develops his class rules at the beginning of the year. Rather than specifying do’s and don’ts, Ken and his students devise a “Bill of Rights” for the class, describing the rights of the students. These rights cover most of the situations that might need a “rule.” AN INCLUSIVE CLASS.  Eliot was bright and articulate. He easily memorized stories as a child, but he could not read by himself. His problems stemmed from severe learning difficulties with auditory and visual integration and long-term visual memory. When he tried to write, everything got jumbled. Dr. Nancy White worked with Eliot’s teacher, Mia Russell, to tailor intensive tutoring that specifically focused on Eliot’s individual learning patterns and his errors. With his teachers’ help, over the next years, Eliot became an expert on his own learning and was transformed into an independent learner; he knew which strategies he had to use and when to use them. According to Eliot, “Learning that stuff is not fun, but it works!” (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006, pp. 184–185).

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What do you see in these three classrooms? The teachers are confident and committed to their students. They must deal with a wide range of students: different languages, different home situations, and different abilities and learning challenges. They must adapt instruction and assessment to students’ needs. They must make the most abstract concepts, such as ecosystems, real and understandable for their particular students. The whole time these experts are navigating through the academic material, they also are taking care of the emotional needs of their students, propping up sagging self-esteem, and encouraging responsibility. If we followed these teachers from the first day of class, we would see that they carefully plan and teach the basic procedures for living and learning in their classes. They can efficiently collect and correct homework, regroup students, give directions, distribute materials, and deal with disruptions—and do all of this while also making a mental note to find out why one of their students is so tired. Finally, they are reflective—they constantly think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.

MyLab Education

Video Example 1.2 Teachers must be both knowledgeable and inventive. They must be able to use a range of strategies, and they must also be capable of inventing new strategies. In this video, the teacher knows her students and uses strategies that help each student learn. Observe how she supports students who are English language learners, and observe her method of grouping students to meet diverse needs.

SO WHAT IS GOOD TEACHING?  Is good teaching science or art: the application of research-based theories or the creative invention of specific practices? Is a good teacher an expert explainer—“a sage on the stage” or a great coach—“a guide by the side”? These debates have raged for years. In your other education classes, you probably will encounter criticisms of the scientific, teacher-centered sages. You will be encouraged to be inventive, student-centered guides. But beware of either/or choices. Teachers must be both knowledgeable and inventive. They must be able to use a range of strategies, and they must also be capable of inventing new strategies. They must have some basic research-based routines for managing classes, but they must also be willing and able to break from the routine when the situation calls for change. They must know the research on student development, and they also need to know their own particular students who are unique combinations of culture, gender, and geography. Personally, I hope you all become teachers who are both sages and guides, wherever you stand. Another answer to “What is good teaching?” involves considering what different models and frameworks for teaching have to offer. We look at this next. MODELS OF GOOD TEACHING: TEACHER OBSERVATION AND EVALUATION.  In the last few years, educators, policy makers, government agencies, and philanthropists have spent millions of dollars identifying what works in teaching and specifically how to identify good teaching. These efforts have led to a number of models for teaching and teacher evaluation systems. We will briefly examine three to help answer the question, “What is good teaching?” Another reason to consider these models is that when you become a teacher, you may be evaluated based on one of these approaches, or something like them—teacher evaluation is a very hot topic these days! We will look at Charlotte Danielson’s Framework for Teaching, the high-leverage practices identified by TeachingWorks at the University of Michigan, and the Measures of Effective Teaching project sponsored by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Danielson’s Framework for Teaching.  The Framework for Teaching was first published in 1996 and has been revised three times since then, the latest in 2013 (see danielsongroup.org for information about Charlotte Danielson and the Framework for Teaching). According to Charlotte Danielson (2013):

Reflective Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.

The Framework for Teaching identifies those aspects of a teacher’s responsibilities that have been documented through empirical studies and theoretical research as promoting improved student learning. While the Framework is not the only possible description of practice, these responsibilities seek to define what teachers should know and be able to do in the exercise of their profession. (p. 3)

Danielson’s Framework has 4 domains or areas of responsibility: Planning and Preparation, Classroom Environment, Instruction, and Professional Responsibilities. Each domain is further divided into 5 or 6 components, making a total of 22 components for the

LE AR NI NG, TE ACH I NG, AND E D UCATI O NAL P SY CH OLOG Y

entire framework. For example, Domain 1: Planning and Preparation, is divided into 6 components: 1a Demonstrating knowledge of content and pedagogy 1b Demonstrating knowledge of students 1c Setting instructional objectives 1d Demonstrating knowledge of resources 1e Designing coherent instruction 1f Designing student assessments When the Framework is used for teacher evaluation, each of these 22 components is further divided into elements (76 in all), and several indicators are specified for each component. For example, component 1b, demonstrating knowledge of students, includes the elements describing knowledge of • • • • •

child and adolescent development the learning process students’ skills, knowledge, and language proficiency students’ interests and cultural heritage students’ special needs

Indicators of this knowledge of students include the formal and informal information about students that the teacher gathers when planning instruction, the students’ interests and needs the teacher identifies, the teacher’s participation in community cultural events, opportunities the teacher has designed for families to share their cultural heritages, and any databases the teacher has for students with special needs (Danielson, 2013). The evaluation system further defines four levels of proficiency for each of the 22 components: unsatisfactory, basic, proficient, and distinguished, with a definition, critical attributes, and possible examples of what each level might look like in action. Two examples of distinguished knowledge of students are a teacher who plans lessons with three different follow-up activities designed to match different students’ abilities and a teacher who attends a local Mexican heritage event to meet members of her students’ extended families. Many other examples are possible, but these two give a sense of distinguished knowledge of students (component 1b). You can see that it would take extensive training to use this framework well for teacher evaluation. When you become a teacher, you may learn more about this conception of good teaching because your school district is using it. For now, be assured that you will gain knowledge and skills in all 22 components in this text. For example, you will gain knowledge of students (component 1b) in Chapters 2 through 6. TeachingWorks.  TeachingWorks is a national project based at the University of Michigan and dedicated to improving teaching practice. Project members working with experienced teachers have identified 19 high-leverage teaching practices, defined as actions that are central to teaching and useful across most grade levels, academic subjects, and teaching situations. The TeachingWorks researchers call these practices “a set of ‘best bets,’ warranted by research evidence, wisdom of practice, and logic” (teachingworks.org/work-ofteaching/high-leverage-practices). These practices are specific enough to be taught and observed, so they can be a basis for teacher learning and evaluation. See Table 1.1 on the next page for these 19 practices. Again, you will develop skills and knowledge about all of these practices in this text. (For a more complete description of the 19 high-leverage practices, see teachingworks.org/work-of-teaching/high-leverage-practices.) When you compare the high-leverage practices in Table 1.1 with the Danielson components listed earlier, do you see similarities and overlaps? Measures of Teacher Effectiveness.  In 2009, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation launched the Measures of Teaching Effectiveness (MET) Project, a research partnership between 3,000 teachers and research teams at dozens of institutions. The goal was clear from the title—to build and test measures of effective teaching. The Gates Foundation

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TABLE 1.1  •  TeachingWorks 19 High-Leverage Teaching Practices These practices are based on research evidence, the wisdom of practice, and logic. 1. Making content (e.g., specific texts, problems, theories, processes) explicit through explanation, modeling, representations, and examples 2. Leading a whole-class discussion 3. Eliciting and interpreting individual students’ thinking 4. Establishing norms and routines for classroom discourse and work that are central to the subject-matter domain 5. Recognizing particular common patterns of student thinking and development in a subject-matter domain 6. Identifying and implementing an instructional response or strategy in response to common patterns of student thinking 7. Teaching a lesson or segment of instruction 8. Implementing organizational routines, procedures, and strategies to support a learning environment 9. Setting up and managing small group work 10. Engaging in strategic relationship-building conversations with student 11. Setting long- and short-term learning goals for students referenced to external benchmarks 12. Appraising, choosing, and modifying tasks and texts for a specific learning goal 13. Designing a sequence of lessons toward a specific learning goal 14. Selecting and using particular methods to check understanding and monitor student learning during and across lessons 15. Composing, selecting, and interpreting and using information from quizzes, tests and other methods of summative assessment 16. Providing oral and written feedback to students on their work 17. Communicating about a student with a parent or guardian 18. Analyzing instruction for the purpose of improving it 19. Communicating with other professionals Source: Reprinted with permission from TeachingWorks (2014), High-leverage practices. Retrieved from http:www. teachingworks.org/work-of-teaching/high-leverage-practices

tackled this problem because research shows that teachers matter; they matter more than technology or funding or school facilities. In pursuing the goal, the project members made a key assumption. Teaching is complex; multiple measures will be needed to capture effective teaching and provide useful feedback for personnel decisions and professional development. In addition to using student achievement gains on state tests, the MET researchers examined many established and newer measures of effectiveness and content knowledge. The final report of the project (MET Project, 2013) identified the following three measures that are used together as a valid and reliable way of assessing teaching that leads to student learning: 1. Student gains on state tests. 2. Surveys of student perceptions of their teachers based on the Tripod Student Perception Survey developed by Ron Ferguson at Harvard University (R. F. Ferguson, 2008). This survey asks students to agree or disagree with statements such as “My teacher takes time to help us remember what we learn” (for K–2 students); “In class we learn to correct our mistakes (upper elementary students); and “In this class, my teacher accepts nothing less than our full effort” (secondary students) (from Cambridge Education, Tripod Project, Student Survey System). 3. Classroom observations from the Danielson (2013) Framework for Teaching. Remember, teaching is complex. To capture effective teaching, these measures have to be used accurately and together. Also, in both state tests and tests of higher-level thinking, the best combination of reliability and prediction of student gains comes when gains on standardized tests are weighted between 33% and 50% in assessing effectiveness, with student perception and class observation results providing the rest of the information (MET Project, 2013). Are you surprised that evaluating a teacher’s content knowledge for the subject taught did not make the cut in measuring teacher effectiveness? So far, math seems to be the one area where teacher knowledge is related to student learning, but with better

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measures of teacher knowledge, we may find more relationships (Gess-Newsome, 2013; Goe, 2013; MET Project, 2013). Is all this talk about expert teachers and effective teaching making you a little nervous? Viviana, Ken, and Mia are experts at the science and art of teaching, but they have years of experience. What about you?

Beginning Teachers STOP & THINK Imagine walking into your first day of teaching. List the concerns, fears, and worries you have. What assets do you bring to the job? What would build your confidence to teach? • Beginning teachers everywhere share many concerns, including maintaining classroom discipline, motivating students, accommodating differences among students, evaluating students’ work, dealing with parents, and getting along with other teachers (Conway & Clark, 2003; Melnick & Meister, 2008; Veenman, 1984). Many teachers also experience what has been called “reality shock” when they take their first job because they really cannot ease into their responsibilities. On the first day of their first job, beginning teachers face the same tasks as teachers with years of experience. Student teaching, while a critical element, does not really prepare prospective teachers for starting off a school year with a new class. If you listed any of these concerns in your response to the Stop & Think question, you shouldn’t be troubled. They come with the job of being a beginning teacher (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Cooke & Pang, 1991). With experience, hard work, and good support, seasoned teachers can focus on the students’ needs and judge their success by their students’ accomplishments (Fuller, 1969; Pigge & Marso, 1997). One experienced teacher described the shift from concerns about yourself to concerns about your students in this way: “The difference between a beginning teacher and an experienced one is that the beginning teacher asks, ‘How am I doing?’ and the experienced teacher asks, ‘How are the children doing?’” (Codell, 2001, p. 191). My goal in writing this book is to give you the foundation for becoming an expert as you gain experience. One thing experts do is listen to their students. Table 1.2 shows some advice a first-grade class gave to their student teacher: It looks like the students know about good teaching, too. TABLE 1.2   •  Advice for Student Teachers from Their Students The students in Ms. Amato’s first-grade class gave this advice as a gift to their student teacher on her last day. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Teach us as much as you can. Give us homework. Help us when we have problems with our work. Help us to do the right thing. Help us make a family in school. Read books to us. Teach us to read. Help us write about faraway places. Give us lots of compliments, like “Oh, that’s so beautiful.” Smile at us. Take us for walks and on trips. Respect us. Help us get our education.

Source: Nieto, Sonia, Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education, 4th ed., © 2004. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

I began this chapter claiming that educational psychology is the one of the most important courses you will take. OK, maybe I am a bit biased—I have been teaching the subject for over four decades! So let me tell you more about my favorite topic. MyLab Education Self-Check 1.2

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Teacher Professionalism (IV, A1) Your professional growth relies on your becoming a member of a community of practice. The national organizations listed here have hundreds of affiliations and chapters across the country with regular conferences, conventions, and meetings to advance instruction in their areas. Take a look at their Web sites to get a feel for their approaches to issues related to professionalism. •  National Council of Teachers of English (ncte.org) •  International Reading Association (reading.org) •  National Science Teachers Association (nsta.org) •  National Council for the Social Studies (ncss.org) •  National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (nctm.org)

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THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY For as long as the formal study of educational psychology has existed—over 100 years— there have been debates about what it really is. Some people believe educational psychology is simply knowledge gained from psychology and applied to the activities of the classroom. Others believe it involves applying the methods of psychology to study classroom and school life (Brophy, 2003). A quick look at history shows that educational psychology and teaching have been closely linked since the beginning.

In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching In one sense, educational psychology is very old. Issues Plato and Aristotle discussed— the role of the teacher, the relationship between teacher and student, methods of teaching, the nature and order of learning, the role of emotion in learning—are still topics in educational psychology today. But let’s fast forward to recent history. From the beginning, psychology in the United States was linked to teaching. At Harvard in 1890, William James founded the field of psychology and developed a lecture series for teachers entitled Talks to Teachers about Psychology. These lectures were given in summer schools for teachers around the country and then published in 1899. James’s student, G. Stanley Hall, founded the American Psychological Association. Teachers helped him collect data for his dissertation about children’s understandings of the world. Hall encouraged teachers to make detailed observations to study their students’ development—as his mother had done when she was a teacher. Hall’s student John Dewey founded the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago and is considered the father of the progressive education movement (Berliner, 2006; Hilgard, 1996; Pajares, 2003). Another of William James’s students, E. L. Thorndike, wrote the first educational psychology text in 1903 and founded the Journal of Educational Psychology in 1910.

Educational Psychology Today What is educational psychology today? The view generally accepted is that educational psychology is a distinct discipline with its own theories, research methods, problems, and techniques. Educational psychologists do research on learning and teaching and, at the same time, work to improve educational policy and practice (Anderman, 2011). To understand as much as possible about learning and teaching, educational psychologists examine what happens when someone (a teacher or parent or software designer) teaches something (math or weaving or dancing) to someone else (student or co-worker or team) in some setting (classroom or theater or gym) (Berliner, 2006; Schwab, 1973). So educational psychologists study child and adolescent development; learning and motivation—including how people learn different academic subjects such as reading or mathematics; social and cultural influences on learning; teaching and teachers; and assessment, including testing (Alexander & Winne, 2006). But even with all this research on so many topics, are the findings of educational psychologists really that helpful for teachers? After all, most teaching is just common sense, isn’t it? Let’s take a few minutes to examine these questions.

Is It Just Common Sense? In many cases, the principles set forth by educational psychologists—after spending much thought, time, and money for research—sound pathetically obvious. People are tempted to say, and usually do say, “Everyone knows that!” Consider these examples. Educational psychology  The discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes; applies the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as well.

HELPING STUDENTS.  When should teachers provide help for lower-achieving students as they do class work? Commonsense Answer.  Teachers should offer help often. After all, these lower-achieving students may not know when they need help or they may be too embarrassed to ask for help.

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ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH.  Sandra Graham (1996) found that when teachers provide help before students ask, the students and others watching are more likely to conclude that the student who was given assistance does not have the ability to succeed. The student is more likely to attribute failures to lack of ability instead of lack of effort, so motivation suffers. SKIPPING GRADES.  Should a school encourage exceptionally bright students to skip grades or to enter college early? Commonsense Answer.  No! Very intelligent students who are several years younger than their classmates are likely to be social misfits. They are neither physically nor emotionally ready for dealing with older students and would be miserable in the social situations that are so important in school, especially in the later grades. ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH.  Maybe. The first two conclusions in the report A Nation Deceived: How Schools Hold Back America’s Brightest Children are: (1) Acceleration is the most effective curriculum intervention for children who are gifted, and (2) for students who are bright, acceleration has long-term beneficial effects, both academically and socially (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004). One example of positive long-term effects is that mathematically talented students who skipped grades in elementary or secondary school were more likely to go on to earn advanced degrees and publish widely cited articles in scientific journals (Park, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2013). Whether acceleration is the best solution for a student depends on many specific individual characteristics, including the intelligence and maturity of the student as well as the other available options. For some students, moving quickly through the material and working in advanced courses with older students can be a very positive experience (Kretschmann, Vock, & Lüdtke, 2014). See Chapter 4 for more on adapting teaching to students’ abilities. STUDENTS IN CONTROL.  Does giving students more control over their own learning— more choices—help them learn? Commonsense Answer.  Of course! Students who choose their own learning materials and tasks will be more engaged and thus learn more. ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH.  Not so fast! Sometimes giving students more control and choice can support learning, but many times it does not. For example, giving lower-ability students choice in learning tasks sometimes means the students just keep practicing what they already do well instead of tackling tougher assignments. This happened when hairdressing students were given choices. The lower-ability students kept practicing easy tasks such as washing hair but were reluctant to try more difficult projects such as giving permanents. When they developed portfolios to monitor their progress and received regular coaching and advice from their teachers, the students made better choices—so guided choice and some teacher control may be useful in some situations (Kicken, Brand-Gruwel, van Merriënboer, & Slot, 2009). OBVIOUS ANSWERS?  Years ago, Lily Wong (1987) demonstrated that just seeing research results in writing can make them seem obvious. She selected 12 findings from research on teaching. She presented 6 of the findings in their correct form and 6 in exactly the opposite form to both college students and experienced teachers. Both the college students and the teachers rated about half of the wrong findings as “obviously” correct. Recently, Paul Kirschner and Joren van Merriënboer (2013) made a similar point when they challenged several “urban legends” in education about the assertion that learners (like the hairdressing students just described) know best how to learn. These current, strongly held beliefs about students as self-educating digital natives who can multitask, have unique learning styles, and always make good choices about how to learn have no strong basis in research, but they are embraced nonetheless.

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You may have thought that educational psychologists spend their time discovering the obvious. The preceding examples point out the danger of this kind of thinking. When a principle is stated in simple terms, it can sound simplistic. A similar phenomenon takes place when we see a professional dancer or athlete perform; the well-trained performer makes it look easy. But we see only the results of the training, not all the work that went into mastering the individual movements. And bear in mind that any research finding— or its opposite—may sound like common sense. The issue is not what sounds sensible, but what is demonstrated when the principle is put to the test in research—our next topic (Gage, 1991).

Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning STOP & THINK Quickly, list all the different research methods you can think of. • Educational psychologists design and conduct many different kinds of research studies. Some of these are descriptive studies—their purpose is simply to describe events in a particular situation.

CORRELATIONS DO NOT SHOW CAUSATION When research shows that landscaped lawns and school achievement are correlated, it does not show causation. Community wealth, a third variable, may be the cause of both school achievement and landscaped lawns.

ion

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Negative correlation A relationship between two variables in which a high value on one is associated with a low value on the other. Example: height and distance from top of head to the ceiling.

Community wealth lea

Positive correlation A relationship between two variables in which the two increase or decrease together. Example: calorie intake and weight gain.

lea

Correlations Statistical descriptions of how closely two variables are related.

FIGU RE 1.1

C o rrelat

Descriptive studies  Studies that collect detailed information about specific situations, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or a combination of these methods.

CORRELATION STUDIES.  Often, the results of descriptive studies include reports of correlations. You will encounter many correlations in the coming chapters, so let’s take a minute to examine this concept. A correlation is a number that indicates both the strength and the direction of a relationship between two events or measurements. Correlations range from +1.00 to –1.00. The closer the correlation is to either +1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship. For example, the correlation between adult weight and height is about .70 (a strong relationship); the correlation between adult weight and number of languages spoken is about .00 (no relationship at all). The sign of the correlation tells the direction of the relationship. A positive correlation indicates that the two factors increase or decrease together. As one gets larger, so does the other. Weight and height are positively correlated because greater weight tends to be associated with greater height. A negative correlation means that increases in one factor are related to decreases in the other, for example, the less you pay for a theater or concert ticket, the greater your distance from the stage. It is important to note that correlations do not prove cause and effect (see Figure 1.1). For example, weight and

More Likely Assumption

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height are correlated—but gaining weight obviously does not cause you to grow taller. Knowing a person’s weight simply allows you to make a general prediction about that person’s height. Educational psychologists identify correlations so they can make predictions about important events in the classroom. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES.  A second type of research—experimentation—allows educational psychologists to go beyond predictions and actually study cause and effect. Instead of just observing and describing an existing situation, the investigators introduce changes and note the results. First, a number of comparable groups of participants are created. In psychological research, the term participants (also called subjects) generally refers to the people being studied—such as teachers or ninth graders. One common way to make sure that groups of participants are essentially the same is to assign each person to a group using a random procedure. Random means each participant has an equal chance of being in any group. Quasi-experimental studies meet most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. In experiments or quasi-experiments, for one or more of the groups studied, the experimenters change some aspect of the situation to see if this change or “treatment” has an expected effect. The results in each group are then compared, often using statistics. When differences are described as statistically significant, it means that they probably did not happen simply by chance. For example, if you see p < .05 in a study, this indicates that the result reported could happen by chance less than 5 times out of 100, and p < .01 means less than 1 time in 100. A number of the studies we will examine attempt to identify cause-and-effect relationships by asking questions such as this: If some teachers receive training in how to teach spelling using word parts (cause), will their students become better spellers than students whose teachers did not receive training (effect)? This actually was a field experiment because it took place in real classrooms and not in a simulated laboratory situation. In addition, it was a quasi-experiment because the students were in existing classes and had not been randomly assigned to teachers, so we cannot be certain the experimental and control groups were the same before the teachers received their training. The researchers handled this by looking at improvement in spelling, not just final achievement level, and the results showed that the training worked (Hurry et al., 2005). ABAB EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.  The goal of ABAB designs is to determine the effects of a therapy, teaching method, or other intervention by first observing the participants for a baseline period (A) and assess the behavior of interest; then trying an intervention (B) and noting the results; then removing the intervention and go back to baseline conditions (A); and finally reinstating the intervention (B). This form of design can help establish a cause-and-effect relationship (Plavnick & Ferreri, 2013). For example, a teacher might record how much time students are out of their seats without permission during a weeklong baseline period (A). The teacher then tries ignoring those who are out of their seats, but praises those who are seated, again recording how many are wandering out of their seats for the week (B). Next, the teacher returns to baseline conditions (A) and records results, and then reinstates the praise-and-ignore strategy (B). When this intervention was first tested, the praise-and-ignore strategy proved effective in increasing the time students spent in their seats (C. H. Madsen, Becker, Thomas, Koser, & Plager, 1968). CLINICAL INTERVIEWS AND CASE STUDIES.  Jean Piaget pioneered an approach called the clinical interview to understand children’s thinking. The clinical interview uses open-ended questioning to probe responses and to follow up on answers. Questions go wherever the child’s responses lead. Here is an example of a clinical interview with a 7-year-old. Piaget is trying to understand the child’s thinking about lies and truth, so he asks, “What is a lie?”

Experimentation Research method in which variables are manipulated and the effects recorded. Participants/subjects  People or animals studied. Random  Without any definite pattern; following no rule. Quasi-experimental studies  Studies that fit most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. Statistically significant  Not likely to be a chance occurrence.

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C HAP T ER O NE What is a lie?—What isn’t true. What they say that they haven’t done.—Guess how old I am.—Twenty. No, I’m thirty.—Was that a lie you told me?—I didn’t do it on purpose.— I know. But is it a lie all the same, or not?—Yes, it is the same, because I didn’t say how old you were.—Is it a lie?—Yes, because I didn’t speak the truth.—Ought you be punished?—No.—Was it naughty or not naughty?—Not so naughty.—Why?—Because I spoke the truth afterwards! (Piaget, 1965, p. 144)

Case study Intensive study of one person or one situation. Ethnography  A descriptive approach to research that focuses on life within a group and tries to understand the meaning of events to the people involved. Participant observation A method for conducting descriptive research in which the researcher becomes a participant in the situation in order to better understand life in that group. Microgenetic studies  Detailed observation and analysis of changes in a cognitive process as the process unfolds over a several-day or several-week period of time. Qualitative research  Exploratory research that attempts to understand the meaning of events to the participants involved using such methods as case studies, interviews, ethnography, participant observation, and other approaches that focus on a few people in depth. Quantitative research  Research that studies many participants in a more formal and controlled way using objective measures such as experimentation, statistical analyses, tests, and structured observations.

Researchers also may employ case studies. A case study investigates one person or situation in depth. For example, Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues conducted in-depth studies of highly accomplished concert pianists, sculptors, Olympic swimmers, tennis players, mathematicians, and neurologists to try to understand what factors supported the development of outstanding talent. The researchers interviewed family members, teachers, friends, and coaches to build an extensive case study of each of these highly accomplished individuals (B. S. Bloom et al., 1985). Some educators recommend case study methods to identify students for gifted programs because the information gathered is richer than just test scores. ETHNOGRAPHY.  Ethnographic methods, borrowed from anthropology, involve studying the naturally occurring events in the life of a group to understand the meaning of these events to the people involved. In educational psychology research, ethnographies might study how students from different cultural groups are viewed by their peers or how teachers’ beliefs about students’ abilities affect classroom interactions. In some studies the researcher uses participant observation, actually participating in the group, to understand the actions from the perspectives of the people in the situation. Teachers can do their own informal ethnographies to understand life in their classrooms. THE ROLE OF TIME IN RESEARCH.  Many things that psychologists want to study, such as cognitive development (Chapter 2), happen over several months or years. Ideally, researchers would study the development by observing their subjects over many years as changes occur. These are called longitudinal studies. They are informative, but time-consuming, expensive, and not always practical: Keeping up with participants over a number of years as they grow up and move can be impossible. As a consequence, much research is cross-sectional, focusing on groups of students at different ages. For example, to study how children’s conceptions of numbers change from ages 3 to 16, researchers can interview children of several different ages, rather than following the same children for 14 years. Longitudinal studies and cross-sectional research examine change over long periods of time. The goal of microgenetic studies is to intensively study cognitive processes while the change is actually occurring. For example, researchers might analyze how children learn a particular strategy for adding two-digit numbers over the course of several weeks. The microgenetic approach has three basic characteristics: The researchers (a) observe the entire period of the change—from when it starts to the time it is relatively stable; (b) make many observations, often using video recordings, interviews, and transcriptions of the exact words of the individuals being studied; and (c) put the observed behavior “under a microscope,” that is, they examine it moment by moment or trial by trial. The goal is to explain the underlying mechanisms of change—for example, what new knowledge or skills are developing to allow change to take place. This kind of research is expensive and time-consuming, so often only one or two children are studied. WHAT’S THE EVIDENCE? QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH.  There is a distinction you will encounter in your journey through educational psychology: the contrast between qualitative research and quantitative research. These are large categories, and like many categories, a bit fuzzy at the edges, but here are some simplified differences. Qualitative Research.  Case studies and ethnographies are examples of qualitative research. This type of research uses words, dialogue, events, themes, and images as data.

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Interviews, observations, and analysis of transcripts are key procedures. The goal is to explore specific situations or people in depth and to understand the meaning of the events to the people involved in order to tell their story. Qualitative researchers assume that no process of understanding meaning can be completely objective. They are more interested in interpreting subjective, personal, or socially constructed meanings. Quantitative Research.  Both correlational and experimental types of research generally are quantitative because measurements are taken and computations are made. Quantitative research uses numbers, measurement, and statistics to assess levels or sizes of relationships among variables or differences between groups. Quantitative researchers try to be as objective as possible in order to remove their own biases from their results. One advantage of good quantitative research is that results from one study can be generalized or applied to other similar situations or people. MIXED METHODS RESEARCH.  Many researchers now are using mixed methods or complementary methods to study questions both broadly and deeply. These research designs are procedures for “collecting, analyzing, and ‘mixing’ both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or series of studies to understand a research problem” (Creswell, 2015, p. 537). There are three basic ways of combining methods. First, a researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, then merges and integrates the data in the analyses. In the second approach, the researcher collects quantitative data first, for example, from surveys or observation instruments, and then follows this by performing in-depth qualitative interviews of selected participants. Often the goal here is to explain or look for causes. Finally, the sequence can be reversed—the researcher first conducts interviews or case studies to identify research questions, then collects quantitative data as guided by the qualitative findings. Here the goal may be to explore a situation deeply (Creswell, 2015). Mixed methods research is becoming more common in educational psychology. SCIENTIFICALLY BASED RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICES.  A requirement of the landmark 2002 NCLB Act was that educational programs and practices receiving federal money had to be consistent with “scientifically based research,” that is, rigorous systematic research that gathers valid and reliable data and analyzes those data with appropriate statistical methods. The 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act that replaced NCLB also requires “evidence-based” interventions in failing schools—strategies grounded in rigorous scientifically based research. For example, the U.S. Institute of Education Sciences (IES) provides a series of Practice Guides that contain recommendations from experts about various challenges educators face—guides to action based on strong evidence from research (http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Publications_Reviews. aspx). In the upcoming chapters we will explore several of these guides, for example, Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning in Chapter 8 (Pashler et al., 2007). Scientifically based research and evidence-based practices fit the quantitative experimental approach described earlier better than qualitative methods such as ethnographic research or case studies, but there is continuing debate about what this means, as you will see in the Point/Counterpoint on the next page. In the final analysis, the methods used—quantitative, qualitative, or a mixture of both—should fit the questions asked. Different approaches to research can ask different questions and provide different kinds of answers, as you can see in Table 1.3, on page 49. TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS.  Research also can be a way to improve teaching in one classroom or one school. The same kind of careful observation, intervention, data gathering, and analysis that occurs in large research projects can be applied in any classroom to answer questions such as “Which writing prompts seem to encourage the most creative writing in my class?” “When does Kenyon seem to have the greatest difficulty concentrating on academic tasks?” “Would assigning task roles in science groups lead to more equitable participation of girls and boys in the work?” This kind of problem-solving

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: W  hat Kind of Research Should

Guide Education?

POINT .

Yes, research should be scientific; educational reforms should be based on solid evidence. 

According to Robert Slavin (2002), tremendous progress has taken place in fields such as medicine, agriculture, transportation, and technology because these fields base their practices on scientific evidence. Randomized clinical trials and replicated experiments are the sources of the evidence: These innovations have transformed the world. Yet education has failed to embrace this dynamic, and as a result, education moves from fad to fad. Educational practice does change over time, but the change process more resembles the pendulum swings of taste characteristic of art or fashion (think hemlines) rather than the progressive improvements characteristic of science and technology. (2002, p. 16)

In his Presidential Address to the First Conference of the International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, Kurt Fischer (2009, pp. 3–4) made a similar point: What happened to education? If research produces useful knowledge for most of the industries and businesses of the world, then shouldn’t it be serving the same function for education? Somehow education has been mostly exempt from this grounding in research. . . . There is no infrastructure in education that routinely studies learning and teaching to assess effectiveness. If Revlon and Toyota can spend millions on research to create better products, how can schools continue to use alleged “best practices” without collecting evidence about what really works? An article in the New York Times suggests lack of evidence is still a problem. Most [educational] programs that had been sold as effective had no good evidence behind them. And when rigorous studies were done, as many as 90 percent of programs that seemed promising in small, unscientific studies had no effect on achievement or actually made achievement scores worse (Kolata, 2013, p. 3).

COUNTERPOINT .

During the past decade, policies in both health care and the treatment of psychological problems have emphasized evidence-based practices (McHugh & Barlow, 2010). Is this right for education?

Experiments and controlled studies are not the only or even the best source of evidence for education.  David Olson (2004) disagrees strongly

with Slavin’s position. He claims that we cannot use medicine as an analogy to education. “Treatments” in education are much more complex and unpredictable than administering one drug or another in medicine. And every educational program is changed by classroom conditions and the way it is implemented. Patti Lather, a colleague of mine at Ohio State, says, “In improving the quality of practice, complexity and the messiness of practice-in-context cannot be fantasized away. To try to do so yields impoverishment rather than improvement. That loss is being borne by the children, teachers, and administrators in our schools” (Lather, 2004, p. 30). David Berliner (2002) makes a similar point: Doing science and implementing scientific findings are so difficult in education because humans in schools are embedded in complex and changing networks of social interaction. The participants in those networks have variable power to affect each other from day to day, and the ordinary events of life (a sick child, a messy divorce, . . . a birthday party, alcohol abuse, a new principal, a new child in the classroom, rain that keeps the children from a recess outside the school building) all affect doing science in school settings by limiting the generalizability of educational research findings. Compared to designing bridges and circuits or splitting either atoms or genes, the science to help change schools and classrooms is harder to do because context cannot be controlled. (p. 19)

Berliner concludes, “A single method is not what the government should be promoting for educational researchers” (Berliner, 2002, p. 20). Some current proponents of evidence-based interventions in education suggest that we benefit from the knowledge and wisdom of both practitioners and researchers. Design-based research does just that. Practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice. Researchers then bring their time and talent to gather and analyze the data to address those problems (Scanlan, 2015). Beware Of Either/Or.  Complex problems in education require a whole range of methods for study as well as input from both researchers and educators. Qualitative research tells us specifically what happened in one or a few situations. Conclusions can be applied deeply, but only to the issue that was studied. Quantitative research can tell us what generally happens under certain conditions. Conclusions can be applied more broadly. Educators must help researchers target the most important problems that need evidence-based solutions.

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TABLE 1.3   •  What Can We Learn? Different approaches to research can ask and answer different questions.

RESEARCH METHOD

PURPOSES/QUESTIONS ADDRESSED

EXAMPLE

Correlational

To assess the strength and direction of the relation between two variables; to make predictions.

Is the average amount of homework completed weekly related to student performance on unit tests? If so, is the relation positive or negative?

Experimental

To identify cause-and-effect relations; to test possible explanations for effects.

Will giving more homework cause students to learn more in science class?

ABAB Experiment

To identify the effects of a treatment or intervention for one or more individuals.

When students record the number of pages they read each night, will they read more pages? If they stop recording, will their amount of reading return to the previous levels?

Case Studies

To understand one or a few individuals or situations in depth.

How does one boy make the transition from a small rural elementary school to a large middle school? What are his main problems, concerns, issues, accomplishments, fears, supports, etc.?

Ethnography

To understand experiences from the participants’ point of view: What is their meaning?

How do new teachers make sense of the norms, expectations, and culture of their new school, and how do they respond?

Mixed Methods

To ask complex questions involving causes, meanings, and relations among variables; to pursue both depth and breadth in research questions.

Based on a study of 20 classrooms using quantitative observational instruments, select the 5 classes with the fewest behavior problems and the 5 with the most problems late in the year. Next interview those teachers and their students and analyze videotapes made the first weeks of school to answer the question: Did the effective and ineffective teachers differ in how they established rules and procedures in their classes?

investigation is called action research. By focusing on a specific problem and making careful observations, teachers can learn a great deal about both their teaching and their students. You can find reports of the findings from all types of studies in journals that are referenced in this book. For years I was editor of the Theory Into Practice journal (tip.ehe. osu.edu). I think this is a terrific journal to inspire and guide action research in classrooms. For a great overview of the past 50 years in educational research and practice, see the Special 50th Anniversary issue of Theory Into Practice (Gaskill, 2013). MyLab Education Self-Check 1.3

Design-based research  Practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice, then researchers gather and analyze the data to address those problems. Action research  Systematic observations or tests of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students.

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Theories for Teaching

MyLab Education

Video Example 1.3 A Spanish teacher conducts research in her classroom and explains the results and the impact on her students. Notice the types of changes her students reported after the teacher implemented formative assessments.

As we saw earlier, the major goal of educational psychology is to understand what happens when someone teaches something to someone else in some setting (Berliner, 2006; Schwab, 1973). Reaching this goal is a slow process. There are very few landmark studies that answer a question once and for all. There are so many different kinds of students, teachers, tasks, and settings; and besides, human beings are pretty complicated. To deal with this complexity, research in educational psychology examines limited aspects of a situation—perhaps a few variables at a time or life in one or two classrooms. If enough studies are completed in a certain area and findings repeatedly point to the same conclusions, we eventually arrive at a principle. This is the term for an established relationship between two or more factors—between a certain teaching strategy, for example, and student achievement. Another tool for building a better understanding of the teaching and learning processes is theory. The commonsense notion of theory (as in “Oh well, it was only a theory”) is “a guess or hunch.” But the scientific meaning of theory is quite different. “A theory in science is an interrelated set of concepts that is used to explain a body of data and to make predictions about the results of future experiments” (Stanovich, 1992, p. 21). Educational psychologists have developed explanations for the relationships among many variables and even whole systems of relationships. There are theories to explain how language develops, why goals affect motivation, and, as noted earlier, how people learn. You will encounter many theories of development, learning, and motivation in this book. Theories are the beginning and ending points of the research cycle. In the beginning, theories provide the research hypotheses to be tested (predictions about what will happen) or the questions examined. For example, Piaget’s theory might suggest the hypothesis that instruction cannot teach young children to think more abstractly, whereas Vygotsky’s theory might suggest the competing hypothesis that instruction will be effective. Of course, at times, psychologists don’t know enough to state hypotheses, so they just ask research questions. An example question might be: “Is there a difference in the Internet usage of male and female adolescents from different ethnic groups?” Research is a continuing cycle that involves: • Clear specification of hypotheses, problems, or questions based on current theories • Systematic gathering and analysis of all kinds of information (data) about the questions from well-chosen research participants in carefully selected situations • Interpretation and analysis of the data gathered using appropriate methods to answer the questions. • Modification and improvement of explanatory theories based on the results of those analyses. • Formulation of new and better hypotheses based on the improved theories . . . and on and on.

Principle Established relationship between factors. Theory Integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions. Hypothesis/hypotheses  A prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research. Empirical  Based on systematically collected data.

This empirical process of collecting data to test and improve theories is repeated over and over. Empirical means “based on data.” When researchers say that identifying an effective antibiotic or choosing a successful way to teach reading is an “empirical question,” they mean that you need data and evidence to make the call. Constructing decisions from empirical analyses protects psychologists from developing theories based on personal biases, rumors, fears, faulty information, or preferences (Mertler & Charles, 2005). Good research is self-correcting. If predictions do not play out or if answers to carefully formulated questions do not support current best understandings (theories), then the theories have to be changed. You can use the same kind of systematic and self-correcting thinking in your work with students. Few theories explain and predict perfectly. In this book, you will see many examples of educational psychologists taking different theoretical positions and disagreeing on the overall explanations of such broad topics as learning and motivation. Because no one theory offers all the answers, it makes sense to consider what each has to offer. So why, you may ask, is it necessary to deal with theories? Why not just stick to principles? The answer is that both are useful. Principles of classroom management,

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for example, will give you help with specific problems. A good theory of classroom management, on the other hand, will give you a new way of thinking about discipline problems; it will give you cognitive tools for creating solutions to many different problems and for predicting what might work in new situations. A major goal of this book is to provide you with the best and the most useful theories of development, learning, motivation, and teaching—those that have solid evidence behind them. Although you may prefer some theories to others, consider them all as ways of understanding the challenges teachers face. I began this chapter by asserting that Educational Psychology is my favorite topic, as well as a key source of knowledge and skills for teaching. I end this chapter with one more bit of evidence for my enthusiasm. Educational psychology will help you support student learning—the goal of all teaching.

Supporting Student Learning In an article in the Educational Psychologist, a major journal in our field, Jihyun Lee and Valerie Shute (2010) reported sifting through thousands of studies of student learning conducted over the course of 60 years, seeking to identify those that had direct measures of student achievement in reading and mathematics. Then they narrowed their focus to studies with strong effects. About 150 studies met all their rigorous criteria. Using the results from these studies, Lee and Shute identified about a dozen variables that were directly linked to K–12 student achievement. The researchers grouped these factors into two categories: student personal factors and school and social-contextual factors, as you can see in Table 1.4. When I read this article, I was pleased to see that my favorite subject, educational psychology, provides a base for developing knowledge and skills in virtually every area except principal leadership (for that subject you have to consult a book I wrote with my husband on principals as instructional leaders—Woolfolk Hoy & Hoy, 2013). As you can see in Table 1.4, this text should help you become a capable and confident teacher who can get students engaged in the classroom learning community—a community that respects its members. This book will guide you toward becoming a teacher who helps students develop into interested, motivated, self-regulated, and confident learners. As a consequence, you will be able to set high expectations for your students, rally the support of parents, and build your own sense of efficacy as a teacher. MyLab Education Self-Check 1.4

TABLE 1.4  •  R esearch-Based Personal and Social-Contextual Factors That Support Student Achievement in K–12 Classrooms STUDENT PERSONAL FACTORS

EXAMPLES

WHERE IN THIS TEXT

Engaging Students’ Behavior

Make sure students attend classes, follow rules, and participate in school activities.

Chapters 5–7, 13

Engaging Students’ Minds and Motivations

Design challenging tasks, tap intrinsic motivation, support student investment in learning, and nurture student self-efficacy and other positive academic beliefs.

Chapters 2, 3, 10, 12

Engaging Students’ Emotions

Connect to student interest, pique curiosity, foster a sense of belonging and class connections, diminish anxiety, and increase enjoyment in learning.

Chapters 3, 5, 6, 10, 12

Student Engagement

continued

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TABLE 1.4  •  R esearch-Based Personal and Social-Contextual Factors That Support Student Achievement in K–12 Classrooms (Continued) STUDENT PERSONAL FACTORS

EXAMPLES

WHERE IN THIS TEXT

Cognitive Strategies

Directly teach knowledge and skills that support student learning and deep processing of valuable information (e.g., summarizing, inferring, applying, and reasoning).

Chapters 7–9, 14

Metacognitive Strategies

Directly teach students to monitor, regulate, and evaluate their own cognitive processes, strengths, and weaknesses as learners; teach them about when, where, why, and how to use specific strategies.

Chapters 7–9, 11

Behavioral Strategies

Directly teach students strategies and tactics for managing, monitoring, and evaluating their action, motivation, affect, and environment, such as skills in:

Chapters 7–14

Learning Strategies

time management test taking help seeking note taking homework management SOCIAL-CONTEXTUAL FACTORS

EXAMPLES

WHERE IN THIS TEXT

Academic Emphasis

Set high expectations for your students, and encourage the whole school to do the same; emphasize positive relations with the school community.

Chapters 11–13

Teacher Variables

If possible, teach in a school with the positive qualities of collective efficacy, teacher empowerment, and sense of affiliation.

Chapters 1, 11, 13

Principal Leadership

If possible, teach in a school with the positive qualities of collegiality, high morale, and clearly conveyed goals.

See Woolfolk Hoy and Hoy (2013).

Parental Involvement

Support parents in supporting their children’s learning.

Chapters 3–6, 12

Peer Influences

Create class and school norms that honor achievement, encourage peer support, and discourage peer conflict.

Chapters 3, 10, 13, 15

School Climate

Social-Familial Influences

Source: Based on Lee, J., & Shute, V. J. (2010). Personal and social-contextual factors in K–12 academic performance: An integrative perspective on student learning. Educational Psychologist, 45, 185–202.

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. SUMMARY Learning and Teaching Today (pp. 32–36) What are classrooms like today? About 25% of U.S. children under 18 are living in immigrant families. It is likely that by 2060, nearly 20% of the U.S. population will be foreign born, and people of Hispanic origin will comprise almost 30% of that population. By 2044, there will be no majority race or ethnic group in the United States; every American will be a member of a minority group. Around 22% of American children currently live in poverty. Over half of school-age students with disabilities receive most of their education in general education classrooms. Even though students in classrooms are increasingly diverse in race, ethnicity, language, and economic level, teachers are much less diverse—the percentage of White teachers is increasing, while the percentage of Black teachers is falling. This book is about understanding the complex processes of development, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment so that you can become a capable and confident teacher with a high but authentic sense of efficacy. What are NCLB and ESSA?  The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2002 required extensive standardized achievement testing in reading and mathematics in grades 3 through 8 (and once more in high school) and in science once in each grade span: elementary, middle, and high school. The law also required that all students in the schools reach full proficiency in these subjects by the end of the 2013–2014 school year; it didn’t happen. Largely because there were major penalties for schools that did not make adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward full proficiency, a number of negative consequences followed in the wake of the tests—cheating, teaching to the test, narrowing the curriculum to a few subjects, driving teachers out of the classroom. In 2015, President Barack Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) that replaced NCLB and returned most of the control to the states. There is still testing in the same grades and subjects, but states and local schools decide when and how to test and how to intervene in the lowest performing schools. ESSA also supports more access to early childhood education and the establishment of teacher education academies outside colleges and universities. What evidence is there that teachers make a difference?  Several studies speak to the power of teachers in the lives of students. The first found that the quality of the teacher– student relationship in kindergarten predicted several aspects of school success through the eighth grade. The second study found similar results for students from preschool through fifth grade, a finding confirmed by almost 100 students in countries around the world. The third study examined math achievement for students in two large school districts as they moved through third, fourth, and fifth grades. Again, the quality of the teacher made a difference: Students who had three high-quality teachers in a row were way ahead of peers who spent 1 or more years with less-competent teachers. In a study that followed children from third through fifth grade, two factors helped children with lower skills in mathematics

begin to close the achievement gap: higherlevel (not just basic skills) instruction and positive relationships with teachers. Similar findings hold for beginning teachers.

What Is Good Teaching? (pp. 37–41) Good teachers are committed to their students. They must deal with a wide range of student abilities and challenges: different languages, different home situations, and different abilities and disabilities. They must adapt instruction and assessment to students’ needs. The whole time these experts are navigating through the academic material, they also are taking care of the emotional needs of their students, propping up sagging self-esteem, and encouraging responsibility. From the first day of class, they carefully plan and teach the basic procedures for living and learning in their classes. What are some research-based models of effective teaching?  Charlotte Danielson describes a Framework for Teaching, which has 22 components organized into four domains or areas of teaching responsibility: Planning and Preparation, Classroom Environment, Instruction, and Professional Responsibilities. This framework is the basis for a widely used system of teacher evaluation. TeachingWorks, a national project based at the University of Michigan and dedicated to improving teaching practice, has identified 19 high-leverage teaching practices, defined as actions that are central to teaching and useful across most grade levels, academic subjects, and teaching situations. Finally, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation launched the Measures of Teaching Effectiveness (MET) Project, a research partnership between 3,000 teachers and research teams at dozens of institutions, that has identified a three-part system for evaluating good teaching that includes gains on state achievement tests (weighted at about 33% to 50%), student perceptions of teachers, and classroom observations using the Danielson Framework for Teaching. The latter two make up the 66% to 50% of the weighting in the evaluations. What are the concerns of beginning teachers?  Learning to teach is a gradual process. The concerns and problems of teachers change as they grow in their ability. During the beginning years, attention tends to be focused on maintaining discipline, motivating students, accommodating differences among students, evaluating students’ work, dealing with parents, and getting along with other teachers. Even with these concerns, many beginning teachers bring creativity and energy to their teaching and improve every year. The more experienced teacher can move on to concerns about professional growth and effectiveness in teaching a wide range of students.

The Role of Educational Psychology (pp. 42–52) What is educational psychology? Educational psychology has been linked to teaching since it began in the United States over a century ago. The goals of educational psychology are

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to understand and to improve the teaching and learning processes. Educational psychologists develop knowledge and methods; they also use the knowledge and methods of psychology and other related disciplines to study learning and teaching in everyday situations. Educational psychologists examine what happens when someone/something (a teacher or parent or computer) teaches something (math or weaving or dancing) to someone else (student or co-worker or team) in some setting (classroom or theater or gym). What are the research methods in educational psychology?  Correlational methods identify relationships and allow predictions. A correlation is a number that indicates both the strength and the direction of a relationship between two events or measurements. The closer the correlation is to either +1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship. Experimental studies allow researchers to detect causes, not just make predictions. Experimental studies should help teachers implement useful changes. Instead of just observing and describing an existing situation, the investigators introduce changes and note the results. Quasi-experimental studies meet most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception being that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. In ABAB experimental designs, researchers examine the effects of treatments on one or more people, often by using a baseline/ intervention/-baseline/-intervention approach. Clinical interviews, case studies, and ethnographies look in detail at the experiences of a few individuals or groups. If participants are studied over time, the research is called longitudinal. If researchers intensively study cognitive processes in the midst of change—as the change is actually happening—over several sessions or weeks, then the research is microgenetic. No matter what method is used, results from the research are used to further develop and improve theories, so that even better hypotheses and questions can be developed to guide future research. What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research? There is a general distinction between qualitative and quantitative research. These are large categories and, like many categories, a bit fuzzy at the edges. Qualitative methods such as case studies and ethnographies use words, dialogue, events, themes, and images as data. The goal is to explore specific situations or people in depth and to understand the meaning of the events to the people involved in order to tell their story. Quantitative research uses numbers, measurement, and statistics to assess levels or sizes of relationships among variables or differences between groups—correlational and experimental

research are examples. Different types of research can answer different questions. Today many researchers are using mixed methods to study questions both broadly and deeply. There are three basic ways of combining methods. First, a researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, then merges and integrates the data in the analyses. Second, the researcher collects quantitative data first, for example, from surveys or observation instruments, and then follows this by performing in-depth qualitative interviews of selected participants. Often the goal here is to explain or look for causes. Finally, the sequence can be reversed—the researcher first conducts interviews or case studies to identify research questions, then collects quantitative data as guided by the qualitative findings. Here the goal may be to explore a situation deeply. Scientifically-based research, which is more consistent with quantitative research, systematically uses observations or experiments to gather valid and reliable data; involves rigorous and appropriate procedures for gathering and analyzing the data; is clearly described so it can be repeated by others; and has been rigorously reviewed by appropriate, independent experts. Evidence-based practices, the kind that must be used to intervene in failing schools under the ESSA law, are grounded in results of systematic, rigorous research. When teachers or schools make systematic observations or test out methods to improve teaching and learning for their students, they are conducting action research. Distinguish between principles and theories.  A principle is an established relationship between two or more factors— between a certain teaching strategy, for example, and student achievement. A theory is an interrelated set of concepts that is used to explain a body of data and to make predictions. The principles from research offer a number of possible answers to specific problems, and the theories offer perspectives for analyzing almost any situation that may arise. Research is a continuing cycle that involves clear specification of hypotheses or questions based on good theory, systematic gathering and analyzing of data, interpretation and analysis of the data gathered using appropriate methods to answer the questions, modification and improvement of explanatory theories based on the results, and the formulation of new, better questions based on the improved theories. What key factors support student learning?  A synthesis of about 150 studies of student learning found two broad categories of influence: student personal factors and school and social-contextual factors. When I read this article, I was pleased to see that my favorite subject, educational psychology, provides a base for developing knowledge and skills in virtually every area except principal leadership.

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. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below.

Teacher–Student Relationships

Applying Danielson’s Framework

Identifying Research Methods and Drawing Conclusions from Data

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

Application Exercise 1.1

Application Exercise 1.2

Application Exercise 1.3

. KEY TERMS Action research (p. 49) Case study (p. 46) Correlations (p. 44) Descriptive studies (p. 44) Design-based research (p. 48) Educational psychology (p. 42) Empirical (p. 50) Ethnography (p. 46) Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) (p. 34)

Experimentation (p. 45) Hypothesis/hypotheses (p. 50) Microgenetic studies (p. 46) Negative correlation (p. 44) Participant observation (p. 46) Participants/subjects (p. 45) Positive correlation (p. 44) Principle (p. 50) Qualitative research (p. 46)

Quantitative research (p. 46) Quasi-experimental studies (p. 45) Random (p. 45) Reflective (p. 38) Statistically significant (p. 45) Teachers’ sense of efficacy (p. 33) Theory (p. 50)

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. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Which of the following does NOT characterize today’s classrooms and teaching around the world? A. Classrooms and schools in many countries today are comprised of students from diverse backgrounds. B. Compared to decades ago, most students today have access to advanced technological devices (e.g., ­computer, TVs, tablets). C. Most students today are expected to master more than one language and skillset. D. Increasing access to social media has exposed students to information and diversity, which makes diversity and inclusion less challenging than ever. 2. Self-efficacy is an important part of effective teaching. Which of the following statements is FALSE regarding self-efficacy in teachers? A. Teachers’ self-efficacy refers to a teacher’s belief that they would be able to handle and help even the most difficult students in a classroom. B. Teachers with a high sense of efficacy persevere longer in their teaching endeavors, which may later produce better student achievements. C. In most cases, a teacher’s self-efficacy starts low when they begin their career and progressively becomes stronger. D. Teachers with a high sense of efficacy are more satisfied with their jobs and experience lower rates of burnout. 3. Often, many of us make some assumptions regarding teaching processes based on common sense or intuitions that are inconsistent with findings from actual research on the ­subject. Given below are some suggestions for teachers on handling situations encountered in the classroom. Which of the following suggestions is TRUE? A. Teachers should actively reach out to lower-achieving students because they might not be aware of their low performance and/or be too embarrassed to seek help. B. We should never encourage exceptionally intelligent students to skip grades because they are not physically, emotionally, and socially ready to deal with older classmates.

C. Teachers should always give students more control over their own learning; for example, they could let students select learning materials that they find engaging. D. Teachers should avoid providing unsought assistance as it leads students to believe that they do not have the ability to succeed.

CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Jenny was interested in introducing electronic clickers—a device that captures students’ responses electronically and helps teachers track and evaluate students’ performance on the spot—to classrooms as she entered the field as a firstyear high school teacher. Her belief in the usefulness of clickers for high school students was inspired by her own experience during her tertiary education as well as by her more recent understanding of the benefits of electronic clickers (e.g., clickers were found to produce higher performance outcomes in classes, encourage attendance, enhance students’ learning experience, aid in identifying important core course concepts, and make the interaction between teacher and students more lively, etc.). She discussed her idea with the school principal. Considering the cost of electronic clickers on the school and the parents, the principal recommended that Jenny first gather some evidence for the positive effects of electronic clickers on her own ­students’ learning outcomes, before they deliberated over ­generalizing its benefits to the entire school. 4. Identify Jenny’s goals and explain briefly whether you agree or disagree that electronic clickers should be introduced in her classroom. 5. If Jenny were to design a study to gather some preliminary evidence for the effect of clickers on her students’ performance, which research method would you recommend, and why?

MyLab Education Licensure Exam

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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK:   Leaving No Student Behind Here is how several expert teachers said they would prepare a highly diverse group of students for spring achievement tests and readiness for college and career. JENNIFER PINCOSKI  •  Learning Resource Teacher: K–12 Lee County School District, Fort Myers, FL

One of the advantages for teachers in this situation is that many of the strategies that are effective for students with learning disabilities are also effective for second-language learners. Even students who are meeting benchmarks will benefit from these supports. Some of these strategies include labeling items throughout the classroom for language/vocabulary acquisition, providing visual supports whenever possible, and using a variety of graphic organizers. Cooperative learning groups and the total physical response (TPR) method can also help in the development of both language skills and content knowledge. Activities can be tiered to match students’ levels of understanding, and, to demonstrate their learning, students can be offered multiple assignment options from which to choose. Exposing students to new vocabulary and content through auditory, visual, AND hands-on instruction will yield the best results. Broken down to its most basic level, this philosophy can be summarized by the proverb, “Tell me and I’ll forget; show me and I’ll remember; involve me and I’ll understand.” Students should be active participants in the learning process, not spectators. JESSICA N. MAHTABAN  •  Eighth-Grade Math Teacher Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ

The first thing to address is survival. Each student must learn his/her name, address, and phone number. It is crucial for all students to know this information in case of any type of emergency. Afterward, the students will become familiar with the classroom routines and expectations. Once the students are comfortable with the routines and expectations, they will be able to focus on language. The intern, administration, parents, and I must meet frequently to work cooperatively on making projects and goals for each student. During any lesson I would provide visual cues (gestures, pictures, objects) with verbal instruction. I would speak to the students in short sentences and give clear examples of what is expected from them. The intern and I will interact with students as they work independently or cooperatively during an activity. We will also check comprehension frequently, so that we can help any student that does not understand.

PAUL DRAGIN  •  ESL Teacher, Grades 9–12 Columbus East High School, Columbus, OH

Multiple obstacles are posed in this situation. The scenario presents two pieces of information that I would key in on. One is that problems in reading seem to be the most common. This is the challenge I would place as the number one priority due to its preeminence in terms of predicting future academic success. Scoring well on the achievement tests and doing well in college are not realistic expectations without reading success. The other piece of information that is advantageous is the student intern from the local college. With reading as the focus, I would instruct the intern on some basic reading diagnostics to get a clearer picture of each student’s reading level. From there, we could choose texts that would be appropriate to increase comprehension and fluency. With two instructors in the room, we would be better equipped for small-group instruction to target the various reading levels. This targeted reading instruction would be a benefit to the intern as well as the students, because the intern’s services would be vital to instruction and together we would assist the students in their reading comprehension and subsequent language acquisition. PAULA COLEMERE  •  Special Education Teacher–English, History McClintock High School, Tempe, AZ

Before even beginning to teach this group of students, I would set my room up for success. Students can be distracted by too many things on the walls; therefore, everything I choose to display would be very deliberate. To do this, I would start with a blank slate and take everything off of the walls. I would label objects, such as the door, pencil sharpener, desks, and so on, with signs to help the students who are English language learners (ELLs) to build vocabulary. I would save an area to create a “word wall” for content area vocabulary; this will aid both the students who are ELLs and the students with special needs. It would be important to me to educate myself on the background of my students and where they come from. This would help me to make a personal connection with each student and it would help me to understand cultural differences when making contact with the family. It is also important to have an understanding of what is happening in their home countries to try to make connections to learning based on their experiences. Finally, graphic organizers would be a key part of my lesson planning because they help students to organize information.

chapter two

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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK:  Symbols and Cymbals

WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT The district curriculum guide calls for a unit on poetry, including lessons on symbolism in poems. You are concerned that many of your fourth-grade students may not be ready to understand this abstract concept. To test the waters, you ask a few students what a symbol is. “It’s sorta like a big metal thing that you bang together.” Tracy waves her hands like a drum major. “Yeah,” Sean adds, “My sister plays one in the high school band.” You realize they are on the wrong track here, so you try again. “I was thinking of a different kind of symbol, like a ring as a symbol of marriage or a heart as a symbol of love, or. . . .” You are met with blank stares. Trevor ventures, “You mean like the Olympic torch?” “And what does that symbolize, Trevor?” you ask. “Like I said, a torch.” Trevor wonders how you could be so dense. CRITICAL THINKING • What do these students’ reactions tell you about children’s thinking? • How would you approach this unit? • What more would you do to “listen” to your students’ thinking so you could match your teaching to their level of thinking? • How would you give your students concrete experiences with symbolism? • How will you decide if the students are not developmentally ready for this material?

Agsandrew/Shutterstock

OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES What is going on with Trevor? In this chapter, you will find out. We begin with a definition of development and examine three basic questions. Psychologists have debated the answers to these questions for many years: nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and critical versus sensitive periods for development. Next we look at general principles of human development that most psychologists affirm. To understand cognitive development, we begin by studying how the brain works and then explore the ideas of two of the most influential cognitive developmental theorists, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piaget’s ideas have implications for teachers about how their students think and what they can learn. We will consider criticisms of his ideas as well. The work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, highlights the important role teachers and parents play in the cognitive development of the child. Vygotsky’s theory is becoming more and more influential in the field of child development. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 2.1 Provide a definition of development that takes into account three agreed-upon principles and describe three continuing debates about development, along with current consensus on these questions. Objective 2.2 Summarize research on the physical development of the brain and possible implications for teaching. Objective 2.3 Explain the principles and stages presented in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, including criticisms of his theory. Objective 2.4 Explain the principles presented in Vygotsky’s theory of development, including criticisms of his theory. Objective 2.5 Discuss implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky ‘s theories for teaching.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives A Definition of Development Three Questions Across the Theories General Principles of Development The Brain and Cognitive Development The Developing Brain: Neurons The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching Lessons for Teachers: General Principles Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

A DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT In the next few chapters, as we explore how children develop, we will encounter some surprising situations. • Leah, a 5-year-old, is certain that rolling out a ball of clay into a snake creates more clay. • A 9-year-old child in Geneva, Switzerland, firmly insists that it is impossible to be Swiss and Genevan at the same time: “I’m already Swiss. I can’t also be Genevan.” • Jamal, a very bright elementary school student, cannot answer the question, “How would life be different if people did not sleep?” because he insists, “People HAVE TO SLEEP!” • A 2-year-old brings his own mother to comfort a friend who is crying, even though the friend’s mother is available, too.

What explains these interesting events? You will soon find out, because you are entering the world of child and adolesBasic Tendencies in Thinking cent development. Four Stages of Cognitive Development The term development in its most general psychological sense refers to certain changes that occur in human Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory beings (or animals) between conception and death. The Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and term is not applied to all changes, but rather to those that Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development appear in orderly ways and remain for a reasonably long Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective period of time. A temporary change caused by a brief The Social Sources of Individual Thinking illness, for example, is not considered a part of development. Human development can be divided into a number of Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development different aspects. Physical development, as you might guess, The Role of Language and Private Speech deals with changes in the body. Personal development is the The Zone of Proximal Development term generally used for changes in an individual’s idenLimitations of Vygotsky’s Theory tity and personality. Social development refers to changes in the way an individual relates to others. And cognitive Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories development refers to changes in thinking, reasoning, and for Teachers decision making. Piaget: What Can We Learn? Many changes during development are simply matters Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? of growth and maturation. Maturation refers to changes that An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind occur naturally and spontaneously and that are, to a large extent, genetically programmed. Such changes emerge over Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic time and are relatively unaffected by environment, except in Middle” cases of malnutrition or severe illness. Much of a person’s Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers physical development falls into this category. Other changes Summary and Key Terms are brought about through learning, as individuals interact with their environment. Such changes make up a large part Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What of a person’s social development. But what about the develWould They Do? opment of thinking and personality? Most psychologists agree that in these areas, both maturation and interaction with the environment (or nature and nurture, as they are sometimes called) are important, but they disagree about the amount of emphasis to Development Orderly, place on each one. Nature versus nurture is one of three continuing discussions in theoadaptive changes we ries of development. Influences on Development

go through between conception and death; these developmental changes remain for a reasonably long period of time.

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Three Questions Across the Theories Because there are many different approaches to research and theory, there are some continuing debates about key questions surrounding development.

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WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF DEVELOPMENT? NATURE VERSUS NURTURE.  Which is more important in development, the “nature” of an individual (heredity, genes, biological processes, maturation, etc.) or the “nurture” of environmental contexts (education, parenting, culture, social policies, etc.)? This debate has raged for at least 2,000 years and has accumulated many labels along the way, including “heredity versus environment,” “biology versus culture,” “maturation versus learning,” and “innate versus acquired abilities.” In earlier centuries, philosophers, poets, religious leaders, and politicians argued the question. Even in scientific explanations, the pendulum has swung back and forth between nature and nurture (Cairns & Cairns, 2006; Overton, 2006). Scientists now bring new tools to the discussion as they can map genes or trace the effects of drugs on brain activity, for example (Gottlieb, Wahlsten, & Lickliter, 2006). Today the environment is seen as critical to development, but so are biological factors and individual differences. In fact, some psychologists assert that behaviors are determined 100% by biology and 100% by environment—they can’t be separated (P. H. Miller, 2011). Current views emphasize complex coactions (joint actions) of nature and nurture. For example, a child born with a very easygoing, calm disposition will likely elicit different reactions from parents, playmates, and teachers than a child who is often upset and difficult to soothe; this shows that individuals are active in constructing their own environments. But environments shape individuals as well—if not, what good would education be? So today, the either/or debates about nature and nurture are of less interest to educational and developmental psychologists. As a pioneering developmental psychologist said over 100 years ago, the more exciting questions involve understanding how “both causes work together” (Baldwin, 1895, p. 77). WHAT IS THE SHAPE OF DEVELOPMENT? CONTINUITY VERSUS DISCONTINUITY.  Is human development a continuous process of increasing abilities, or are there leaps to new stages when abilities actually change? A continuous process would be like gradual improvement in your running endurance through systematic exercise. A discontinuous change (also called qualitative) would be like many of the changes in humans during puberty, such as the ability to reproduce—an entirely different ability. You can think of continuous or quantitative change like walking up a ramp to go higher and higher: Progress is steady. A discontinuous or qualitative change is more like walking up stairs: There are level periods, and then you ascend the next step all at once. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, described in the next section, is an example of qualitative, discontinuous change in children’s thinking abilities. But other explanations of cognitive development based on learning theories emphasize gradual, continuous, quantitative change. TIMING: IS IT TOO LATE? CRITICAL VERSUS SENSITIVE PERIODS.  Are there critical periods during which certain abilities, such as language, need to develop? If those opportunities are missed, can the child still “catch up”? These are questions about timing and development. Many earlier psychologists, particularly those influenced by Freud, believed that early childhood experiences were critical, especially for emotional/social and cognitive development. But does early toilet training really set all of us on a particular life path? Probably not. More recent research shows that later experiences are powerful, too, and can change the direction of development. Most psychologists today talk about sensitive periods—not critical periods. There are “windows of opportunity”—times when a person is especially ready for or responsive to certain experiences (Scalise & Felds, 2017). BEWARE OF EITHER/OR.  As you might imagine, these debates about development proved too complicated to be settled by splitting alternatives into either/or possibilities (Griffins & Gray, 2005). Today, most psychologists view human development, learning, and motivation as a set of interacting and coacting contexts, from the inner biological structures and processes that influence development such as genes, cells, nutrition, and disease, to the external factors of families, neighborhoods, social relationships, educational and health institutions, public policies, time periods, historical events, and so on.

Physical development  Changes in body structure and function over time. Personal development  Changes in personality that take place as one grows. Social development  Changes over time in the ways we relate to others. Cognitive development  Gradual orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated. Maturation Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over time. Coactions  Joint actions of individual biology and the environment—each shapes and influences the other. Sensitive periods Times when a person is especially ready to learn certain things or responsive to certain experiences.

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So the effects of a childhood disease on the cognitive development of a child born in the sixteenth century to a poor family and treated by bloodletting or leeches will be quite different than the effect of the same disease on a child born in 2018 to a wealthy family and given the best treatment available for that time period. Throughout the rest of this book, we will try to make sense of development, learning, motivation, and teaching without falling into the either/or trap.

General Principles of Development Although there is disagreement about exactly how development takes place, there are a few general principles almost all theorists would support.

Computerized axial tomography (CAT) A technique that uses X-ray technology to provide enhanced, 3-dimensional images of the part of the body scanned. Positron emission tomography (PET) A method of localizing and measuring brain activity using computer-assisted motion pictures of the brain. Electroencephalograph (EEG)  A technique that measures electrical patterns in the brain created by neuron movements using electrodes attached to the scalp. Event-related potential (ERP)  Measurements that assess electrical activity of the brain through the skull or scalp. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)  An MRI is an imaging technique that uses a magnetic field along with radio waves and a computer to create detailed pictures of the inside of the body. A functional MRI uses the MRI to measure the tiny changes that take place in the brain during brain activity.

1. People develop at different rates. In your own classroom, you will have a broad range of examples of different developmental rates. Some students will be larger, better coordinated, or more mature in their thinking and social relationships. Others will be much slower to mature in these areas. Except in rare cases of very rapid or very slow development, such differences are normal and should be expected in any large group of students. 2. Development is relatively orderly. People develop abilities in a logical order. In infancy, they sit before they walk, babble before they talk, and see the world through their own eyes before they can begin to imagine how others see it. In school, they will master addition before algebra, Harry Potter before Shakespeare, and so on. But “orderly” does not necessarily mean linear or predictable—people might advance, stay the same for a period of time, or even go backward. 3. Development takes place gradually. Very rarely do changes appear overnight. A student who cannot manipulate a pencil or answer a hypothetical question may well develop this ability, but the change is likely to take time. MyLab Education Self-Check 2.1

THE BRAIN AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT If you have taken an introductory psychology class, you have read about the brain and nervous system. You probably remember that there are several different areas of the brain and that certain areas are involved in particular processes. For example, the brain stem handles basic functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure as well as levels of arousal such as sleeping and wakeful attention. The feathery looking cerebellum coordinates and orchestrates balance and smooth, skilled movements—from the graceful gestures of the dancer to the everyday action of eating without stabbing yourself in the nose with a fork. The cerebellum may also play a role in higher cognitive functions such as learning. The hippocampus is critical in recalling new information and recent experiences, while the amygdala directs emotions and aggression. The thalamus is involved in our ability to learn new information, particularly if it is verbal. The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain to allow communication between them for complex mental processing. The frontal lobe is the area that sets humans apart by enabling us to process information for planning, remembering, making decisions, solving problems, and thinking creatively (Schunk, 2016). Figure 2.1 shows the various regions of the brain. Advances in brain imaging techniques have allowed scientists remarkable access to the functioning brain. For example, computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans give three-dimensional images of the brain. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans can track brain activity under different conditions. An electroencephalograph (EEG) measures electrical patterns in the brain, and event-related potential (ERP) uses EEG data to study the brain as people perform activities such as reading or learning vocabulary words. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) shows how blood flows within the brain when children or adults do different cognitive tasks. Finally, a new approach,

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F IG U RE 2.1 REGIONS OF THE BRAIN Cerebrum Parietal lobe

Corpus callosum

Basal ganglia

Frontal lobe Temporal lobe Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Amygdala

Thalamus Occipital lobe Hippocampus Pons

Cerebellum

Medulla oblongata Brain stem

near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT) uses infrared light through the scalp to assess brain activity. Table 2.1 on the next page summarizes what each of the techniques can and cannot do. Let’s begin our look at the brain by examining its tiny components: neurons, synapses, and glial cells.

The Developing Brain: Neurons A newborn baby’s brain weighs about 1 pound, barely one-third of the weight of an adult brain. But this infant brain has billions of neurons, the specialized nerve cells that accumulate and transmit information (in the form of electrical activity) in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Neurons are a grayish color, so they sometimes are called the gray matter of the brain. One neuron has the information processing capacity of a small computer. That means the processing power of one 3-pound human brain is likely greater than all the computers in the world. Of course, computers do many things, like calculate square roots of large numbers, much faster than humans can ( J. R. Anderson, 2015). These incredibly important neuron cells are tiny; about 30,000 could fit on the head of a pin (Sprenger, 2010). Scientists once believed that all the neurons a person would ever possess were present at birth, but now we know that the production of new neurons, neurogenesis, continues into adulthood, especially in the hippocampus region (Koehl & Abrous, 2011; Scalise & Felde, 2017). Neuron cells send out long arm- and branch-like fibers called axons and dendrites to connect with other neuron cells. The fiber ends from different neurons don’t actually touch; there are tiny spaces between them, about one billionth of a meter in length, called synapses. Neurons share information by using electrical signals and by releasing chemicals that jump across the synapses. Axons transmit information out to muscles, glands, or other neurons; dendrites receive information and transmit it to the neuron cells themselves. Connections between neurons by these synaptic transmissions become stronger with use or practice and weaker when not used. The neural pathways reinforced by use form memory traces that are the end result of learning (Scalise & Felde, 2017; Schunk, 2016). So the strength of these synaptic connections is dynamic—always changing as learning occurs. This is called synaptic plasticity, or just plasticity, a very important concept for educators, as you will see soon. Researchers have found that physical exercise plays a critical role in maintaining a healthy, plastic brain (Doidge, 2015; Dubinsky, Roehrig, & Varma, 2013). Figure 2.2 on page 65 shows these components of the neuron system ( J. R. Anderson, 2015). At birth, each of the child’s approximately 100 to 200 billion neurons has about 2,500 synapses. However, the fibers that reach out from the neurons and the synapses

Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT) A technique that uses an optical fiber to transmit near-infrared light through the scalp and into the brain. Some of the light is reflected back, indicating blood flow and oxygenation in the blood that reveal brain activity. Neurons  Nerve cells that store and transfer information. Neurogenesis The production of new neurons. Synapses  The tiny space between neurons— chemical messages are sent across these gaps. Synaptic plasticity The brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible. Plasticity  The brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible.

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TABLE 2.1  •  Brain Imaging Techniques Advances in brain imaging have led to greater understanding of how the brain functions. Each technique can give some kinds of information, but not others. LIMITATIONS/ WHAT IT CAN’T DO

COMMON NAME

WHAT IT DOES

EXAMPLE USES

CAT Scan Computerized Axial Tomography

Uses X-ray technology to provide enhanced, 3-dimensional images of the brain.

Locating and studying tumors or lesions in the brain.

Cannot use too often because of radiation exposure; does not give detailed information about brain activity.

PET Scan Positron Emission Tomography

Shows the extent of activity in different parts of the brain. A small amount of radioactive glucose is injected into the body and carried to the brain. Greater brain activity in various areas uses more glucose and shows up as brighter colors on computerized brain maps.

Studying how the brain works and which areas are more or less involved in different cognitive activities such as reading; diagnosing brain disease such as tumors, strokes, and dementia.

Because radioactive injections are needed, cannot do many sessions; because there is a brief lag, does not capture fast-paced neural activity; tells more about where in general the activity takes place than when it does.

EEG Electroencephalograph

Measures electrical patterns in the brain created by neuron movements using electrodes attached to the scalp. No drugs or radiation are required.

Studying sleep disorders, epilepsy, language disorders, and cognitive load (Chapter 8).

Does not provide either 2- or 3-dimensional pictures of the brain; reflects activity for the whole brain and cannot show specifically where activity is occurring.

ERP Event-Related Potentials

Provides a calculation based on EEG data that reflects the brain’s response to a stimulus or event.

Studying sensory and cognitive activity, especially language, as well as visual problems and brain disorders.

Is good at assessing speed of neural activity but not at identifying location.

fMRI Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Shows moment-by-moment blood flow within the brain associated with neural activity when children or adults do different cognitive tasks, revealing the amount of work done in certain areas. No radiation or injections are necessary.

Studying brain processes and structures related to perception, emotion, thinking, and action; diagnosing when to use chemicals to treat strokes; mapping patients’ brains before surgery.

Has few limitations and has largely replaced PET scans, but there is a brief lag between changes in brain activity and the changes in blood flow picked up by the fMRI.

NIR-OT Near-infrared Optical Tomography

Uses an optical fiber to transmit near-infrared light through the scalp and into the brain. Some of the light is reflected back, indicating blood flow and oxygenation in the blood that reveal brain activity.

Studying brain processes and changes during particular activities, social interactions, classroom learning. Not invasive, no chemicals or radiation are used; can be mobile and used over longer periods of time.

Has few limitations except it can only detect activity a few centimeters into the brain where the light can penetrate.

between the fiber ends increase during the first years of life, perhaps into adolescence or longer. By ages 2 to 3, each neuron has around 15,000 synapses; children this age have many more synapses than they will have as adults. In fact, they are oversupplied with the neurons and synapses they will need to adapt to their environments. However, only those neurons that are used will survive, and unused neurons will be “pruned.” This pruning is

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F IG U RE 2.2 A SINGLE NEURON Each neuron (nerve cell) includes dendrites that bring in messages and an axon that sends out messages. This is a single neuron, but each neuron is in a network with many others. Axon sends messages to other cells Neuron

Myelin cover on the axon accelerates transmission of impulses

Dendrites receive messages from other neurons Axon

Synapse

Dendrite

In the synapse, neurotransmitters carry information between neurons Neurotransmitters

necessary and supports cognitive development. Researchers have found that some developmental disabilities are associated with a gene defect that interferes with pruning (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Broderick & Blewitt, 2015). Two kinds of overproduction and pruning processes take place. One is called experience-expectant because synapses are overproduced in certain parts of the brain during specific developmental periods, awaiting (expecting) stimulation. For example, during the first months of life, the brain expects visual and auditory stimulation. If a normal range of sights and sounds occurs, then the visual and auditory areas of the brain develop. But children who are born completely deaf receive no auditory stimulation and, as a result, the auditory processing area of their brains becomes devoted to processing visual information. Similarly, the visual processing area of the brain for children blind from birth becomes devoted to auditory processing (C. A. Nelson, 2001; Neville, 2007). Experience-expectant overproduction and pruning processes are responsible for general development in large areas of the brain and may explain why adults have difficulty with pronunciations that are not part of their native language. For example, the distinction between the sounds of r and l is important in English but not in Japanese, so by about 10 months of age, Japanese infants lose the ability to discriminate between r and l; those neurons are pruned away. As a result, Japanese adults learning these sounds require intense instruction and practice. Just think about the cognitive advantages and extra capacities of an infant growing up learning two languages (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015; Hinton, Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008). The second kind of synaptic overproduction and pruning is called experiencedependent. Here, synaptic connections are formed based on the individual’s experiences. New synapses are formed in response to neural activity in very localized areas of the brain. Examples are learning to ride a bike or use a spreadsheet. The brain does not “expect” these behaviors, so new synapses form in response to these experiences. Again, more

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synapses are produced than will be kept after “pruning.” Experience-dependent processes are involved in individual learning, such as mastering unfamiliar sound pronunciations in a second language you are studying. Stimulating environments may help in the pruning process in early life (experienceexpectant period) and also may support increased synapse development in adulthood (experience-dependent period) (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015; J. L. Cook & Cook, 2014). In fact, animal studies have shown that rats raised in stimulating environments (with toys, tasks for learning, other rats, and human handling) develop and retain 25% more synapses than rats who are raised with little stimulation. Even though the research with rats may not apply directly to humans, it is clear that extreme deprivation can have negative effects on human brain development. But extra stimulation will not necessarily improve development for young children who are already getting adequate or typical amounts (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Byrnes & Fox, 1998). So spending money on expensive toys or baby education programs probably offers more stimulation than is necessary, and might be harmful. Pots and pans, blocks and books, sand and water all provide excellent, appropriate stimulation—especially if accompanied by caring conversations with parents or teachers. Look back at Figure 2.2. It appears that there is nothing between the neurons but air. Actually, that is incorrect. The spaces are filled with glial cells, the white matter of the brain. There are trillions of these cells; they greatly outnumber neurons. Glial cells appear to have many functions, such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating (see Figure 2.2) around axon fibers. Myelination, the coating of axon neuron fibers with an insulating fatty glial covering, influences thinking and learning. This process is something like coating bare electrical wires with rubber or plastic. This myelin coating makes message transmission faster and more efficient. Myelination happens quickly in the early years but continues gradually into adolescence, with the child’s brain doubling in volume in the first year of life and doubling again around puberty ( J. R. Anderson, 2015; Ormrod, 2016).

The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex

Glial cells The white matter of the brain. These cells greatly outnumber neurons and appear to have many functions such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating around axon fibers. Myelination  The process by which neural fibers are coated with a fatty sheath called myelin that makes message transfer more efficient. Lateralization The specialization of the two hemispheres (sides) of the brain cortex.

Let’s move from the neuron level to the brain itself, which amazingly is almost 80% water, with the rest being fat and protein (Schunk, 2016). The outer 1/8-inch-thick covering is the cerebral cortex—the largest area of the brain. It is a thin sheet of neurons, but it is almost 3 square feet in area for adults. To get all that area in your head, the sheet is crumpled together with many folds and wrinkles ( J. R. Anderson, 2015). In humans, this area of the brain is much larger than it is in lower animals. The cerebral cortex accounts for about 85% of the brain’s weight in adulthood and contains the greatest number of neurons. The cerebral cortex allows the greatest human accomplishments, such as complex problem solving and language. The cortex is the last part of the brain to develop, so it is believed to be more susceptible to environmental influences than other areas of the brain (Gluck, Mercado, & Myers, 2016). Parts of the cortex mature at different rates. The region of the cortex that controls physical motor movement matures first, then the areas that control complex senses such as vision and hearing, and last, the frontal lobe that controls higher-order thinking processes. The temporal lobes of the cortex that play major roles in emotions, judgment, and language do not develop fully until the high school years and maybe later. Different areas of the cortex seem to have distinct functions, as shown in Figure 2.3. Even though different functions are found in particular areas of the brain, these specialized functions are quite specific and elementary. To accomplish more complex functions such as speaking or reading, the various areas of the cortex must communicate and work together ( J. R. Anderson, 2015). Another aspect of brain functioning that has implications for cognitive development is lateralization, or the specialization of the two hemispheres of the brain. We know that each half of the brain controls the opposite side of the body. Damage to the right side of the brain will affect movement of the left side of the body and vice versa. In addition, certain areas of the brain affect particular behaviors. For most of us, the left hemisphere of the brain is a major factor in language processing, and the right hemisphere handles

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F IG U RE 2.3 A VIEW OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX This is a simple representation of the left side of the human brain, showing the cerebral cortex. The cortex is divided into different areas, or lobes, each having a variety of regions with different functions. A few of the major functions are indicated here. Body movement and coordination

Body sensation

Frontal lobe

Auditory cortex Temporal lobe

Parietal lobe Visual cortex

Occipital lobe

much of our spatial-visual information and emotions (nonverbal information). For some left-handed people, the relationship may be reversed, but for most left-handers, and for females on average, there is less hemispheric specialization altogether ( J. R. Anderson, 2015; Ormrod, 2016). The brains of young children show more plasticity (adaptability) because they are not as specialized or lateralized as the brains of older children and adults. Young children with damage to the left side of the brain are somewhat able to overcome the damage, which allows language development to proceed. Different areas of the brain take over the functions of the damaged area. But in older children and adults, this compensation is less likely to occur after damage to the left hemisphere. These differences in performance by the brain’s hemispheres, however, are more relative than absolute; one hemisphere is just more efficient than the other in performing certain functions. Language is processed “differently, but simultaneously” by the left and right hemispheres (Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010, p. 44). Nearly any task, particularly the complex skills and abilities that concern teachers, requires simultaneous participation of many different areas of the brain in constant communication with each other. For example, the left side of the brain is where grammar and syntax are understood, but the right side is better at figuring out the meaning of a story or interpreting sarcasm, irony, metaphors, or puns, so both sides of the brain have to work together in reading or making sense of literature, films, and jokes. Remember, no mental activity is exclusively the work of a single part of the brain, so there is no such thing as a “rightbrained student” unless that individual has had the left hemisphere removed—a rare and radical treatment for some forms of epilepsy (Ormrod, 2016).

Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence The brain continues to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. In infancy, children identify patterns in their world and in the language(s) spoken by the people who care for them. Infants learn—form neural connections and networks—by exploring, acting, and observing. They are self-directed in this adventure—a good thing because they have so much to learn. During this time a stimulating, responsive, and safe environment is a much better “teacher” than flashcards or structured lessons because young children follow their own interests and curiosities.

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In the elementary school years, children’s brains continue to grow. The different parts of the brain that support various processes such as perception, memory, and emotion become more networked and connected. These interconnections enable children to reflect on their feelings and thoughts—to think about their own thinking. Children also can add to their store of knowledge and hold more information in memory at one time. At this age they are ready to learn more vocabulary and grammar in their first language and also to learn a second language. But they still have limited attention spans, so longer lessons, activities, or directions should be divided into manageable and memorable pieces (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2016). In addition, all of the ideas in Chapter 11 for developing self-regulated learning can support elementary school students as their growing brains open new possibilities for understanding and controlling their own cognitive processes. During adolescence, changes in the brain increase individuals’ abilities to control their behavior in both low-stress and high-stress situations, to be more purposeful and organized, and to inhibit impulsive behavior (Wigfield et al., 2006). But these abilities are not fully developed until the early twenties, so adolescents may “seem” like adults, at least in low-stress situations, but their brains are not mature. They often have trouble avoiding risks and controlling impulses. This is why adolescents’ brains have been described as “high horse power, poor steering” (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2007, p. 6). One explanation for this problem with avoiding risks and impulsive behavior looks to differences in the pace of development for two key components of the brain—the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex of the brain (Casey, Getz, & Galvan, 2008). The limbic system develops earlier; it is involved with emotions and reward-seeking/novelty/ risk-taking/sensation-seeking behaviors. The prefrontal lobe takes more time to develop; it is involved with judgment and decision making. As the limbic system matures, adolescents become more responsive to pleasure seeking and emotional stimulation. In fact, adolescents appear to need more intense emotional stimulation than either children or adults, so these young people are set up for taking risks and seeking thrills. Risk taking and novelty seeking can be positive factors for adolescent development as young people courageously try new ideas and behaviors—and learning is stimulated (Luna, Paulsen, Padmanabhan, & Geier, 2013). But their less mature prefrontal lobe is not yet good at saying, “Whoa—that thrill is too risky!” So in emotional situations, thrill seeking wins out over caution, at least until the prefrontal lobe catches up and becomes more integrated with the limbic system toward the end of adolescence. Then risks can be evaluated in terms of long-term consequences, not immediate thrills (Casey et al., 2008; D. G. Smith, Xiao, & Bechara, 2012). In addition, there are individual differences: Some adolescents are more prone than others to engage in risky behaviors. Teachers can take advantage of their adolescent students’ intensity by helping them devote their energy and passion to areas such as politics, the environment, public service, or social causes (L. F. Price, 2005) or by guiding them to explore emotional connections with characters in history or literature. Connections to family, school, community, and positive belief systems help adolescents “put the brakes” on reckless and dangerous behaviors (McAnarney, 2008). Other changes in the neurological system during adolescence affect sleep; teenagers need about 9 hours of sleep per night, but many students’ biological clocks are reset, making it difficult for them to fall asleep before midnight. Some experts interviewed by Sumathi Reddy (2014) have recommended that ideally high school should start at 9:00 or even 10:00 in the morning—sounds good to me! Yet in many school districts, high school begins by 7:30, which makes 9 hours of sleep impossible to get, so students are continually sleep deprived. Research in neuroscience shows that sleep deprivation impairs the initial formation of memories for facts, so learning suffers. This means that losing sleep to cram for tests actually interferes with learning by shutting down the very parts of the brain needed to remember what you are studying (Scalise & Felde, 2017). Classes that keep students in their seats taking notes for the full period may literally “put the students to sleep.” With no time for breakfast and little for lunch, these students’ nutritional needs are often deprived as well (Sprenger, 2005).

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TABLE 2.2  •  Myths About the Brain COMMON MYTHS

TRUTH

1. You use only 10% of your brain. 2. Listening to Mozart will make children smarter.

1. You use all your brain. That is why strokes are so devastating. 2. Listening won’t, but learning to play a musical instrument is associated with increased cognitive achievement. 3. It takes both sides of your brain to do most things.

3. Some people are more “right brained,” and others are more “left brained.” 4. A young child’s brain can only manage to learn one language at a time. 5. You can’t change your brain. 6. Damage to the brain is permanent. 7. Playing games like Sudoku keeps your brain from aging. 8. The human brain is the biggest brain. 9. Alcoholic beverages kill brain cells. 10. The adolescent’s brain is the same as that of an adult.

4. Children all over the world can and do learn two languages at once. 5. Our brains are changing all the time. 6. Most people recover well from minor brain injuries. 7. Playing Sudoku makes you better at playing Sudoku and similar games. Physical exercise is a better bet to prevent decline. 8. Sperm whales have brains five times heavier than those of humans. 9. Heavy drinking does not kill brain cells, but it can damage the nerve ends called dendrites, and this causes problems with communicating messages in the brain. This damage is mostly reversible. 10. There are critical differences between adolescents’ and adults’ brains, especially in the areas of judgment and risk assessment.

Source: Based on Aamodt & Wang (2008); K. W. Fischer (2009); Freeman (2011); OECD (2007).

Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works What is your conception of the brain? Is the brain a culture-free container that holds knowledge the same way for everyone? Is the brain like a library of facts or a computer filled with information? Do you wake up in the morning, download what you need for the day, and then go merrily on your way? Is the brain like a pipe that transfers information from one person to another—a teacher to a student, for example? Kurt Fischer—a developmental psychologist and Harvard professor—offers a different view, based on neuroscience research. Knowing is actively constructing understandings and actions. Knowledge is based in our activities, and the brain is constantly changing. Experience “sculpts the way that our brains work, changing neurons, synapses, and brain activity” (Fischer, 2009, p. 5). See Table 2.2 for some other myths and truths about the brain. CULTURE AND BRAIN PLASTICITY.  All experiences sculpt the brain—play and deliberate practice, formal and informal learning (Dubinsky et al., 2013). You encountered the term earlier that describes the brain’s capacity for constant change in neurons, synapses, and activity—plasticity. Cultural differences in brain activity provide examples of how interactions in the world shape the brain through plasticity. For example, in one study, when Chinese speakers added and compared Arabic numbers, they showed brain activity in the motor (movement) areas of their brains, whereas English speakers performing the same tasks had activity in the language areas of their brains (Tang et al., 2006). One explanation is that Chinese children are taught arithmetic using an abacus—a calculation tool that involves movement and spatial positions. As adults, these children retain a kind of visual-motor sense of numbers (Varma, McCandliss, & Schwartz, 2008). There also are cultural differences in how languages affect reading. For example, when they read, native Chinese speakers activate additional parts of their brain associated with spatial information processing, probably because the language characters used in written Chinese are pictures. But Chinese speakers also activate these spatial areas of the brain when they read English, demonstrating that reading proficiency can be reached through different neural pathways (Hinton, Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008). So thanks to plasticity, the brain is ever changing, shaped by activity, culture, and context. We build knowledge as we do things, as we manipulate objects and ideas mentally and physically. As you can imagine, educators have looked for applications of neuroscience research for their instruction. We turn to this next.

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education

POINT .

Educators are hearing more and more about brain-based education. Are there clear educational implications from the neuroscience research on the brain?

No, the implications are not clear.  John Bruer,

president of the James S. McDonnell Foundation, has written articles that are critical of the brain-based education craze (Bruer, 1999, 2002). He notes that many so-called applications of brain research begin with solid science, but then move to unwarranted speculation, and end in a sort of appealing folk tale about the brain and learning. He suggests that for each claim, the educator should ask, “Where does the science end and the speculation begin?” One claim that Bruer questions is the notion of right-brain, left-brain learning, a popular idea that has been around for over 30 years, even though neuroscientists keep debunking the claims. For example, in his book for educators, How the Brain Learns, David Sousa suggests that teachers have students engage their “right brains” by generating and using mental imagery. Even though different brain areas are specialized for different tasks, this specialization occurs at very fine levels of analysis, and forming visual images involves many parts of the brain. As we will see later in this book, imagery can be a good learning strategy but not because it enlists the “underutilized” right brain in learning (Bruer, 1999). Kurt Fischer (2009), president of

the International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, has lamented that many neuromyths like those in Table 2.2— blatantly wrong beliefs about how the brain and body work—still are widely accepted. No teacher doubts that the brain is important in learning. As Steven Pinker (2002), professor of psychology at Harvard University, observed, does anyone really think learning takes place somewhere else, like the pancreas? But knowing that learning affects the brain does not tell us how to teach. All learning affects the brain; “this should be obvious, but nowadays any banality about learning can be dressed up in neurospeak and treated like a great revelation of science” (Pinker, 2002, p. 86). Virtually all of the so-called best practices for brain-based education are simple restatements of good teaching based on understandings of how people learn, not how their brains work. For example, we have known for over 100 years that it is more effective to learn in many shorter practice sessions as opposed to one long cramming session. To tie that fact to building more dendrites may give one reason why the strategy works, but it does not offer teachers new strategies (Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010).

Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching There has been vigorous debate between the enthusiastic educational advocates of brain-based education and the skeptical neuroscience researchers who caution that studies of the brain do not really address major educational questions yet. See the Point/ Counterpoint for a slice of this debate.

MyLab Education

Podcast 2.1 Listen as textbook author Anita Woolfolk talks about brain-based education. What does this mean? Are there some clear implications for teachers or is it still too early to say?

DOES INSTRUCTION AFFECT BRAIN DEVELOPMENT?  There are differences in brain activity associated with instruction. For example, the intensive instruction and practice provided to rehabilitate stroke victims can help them regain functioning by forming new connections and using new areas of the brain (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; McKinley, 2011). In a dramatic example of how teaching can affect brain development, K. W. Fischer (2009) describes two children who each had one brain hemisphere removed as a treatment for severe epilepsy. Nico’s right hemisphere was removed when he was 3, and his parents were told he would never have good visual-spatial skills. With strong and constant support and teaching, Nico grew up to be a skilled artist! Brooke’s left hemisphere was removed when he was 11. His parents were told he would lose his ability to talk. Again, with strong support, he regained enough speaking and reading ability to finish high school and attend community college. THE BRAIN AND LEARNING TO READ.  Brain imaging research is revealing interesting differences among skilled and less-skilled readers as they learn new vocabulary. For example, one imaging study showed that less-skilled readers had trouble establishing high-quality representations of new vocabulary words in their brains, as indicated by

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COUNTERPOINT .

Yes, teaching should be brain-based.  Articles in popular magazines such as Newsweek assert, “ . . . it’s naive to say that brain discoveries have no consequences for understanding how humans learn” (Begley, 2007). Do scientists agree? In their article on “Applying Cognitive Neuroscience Research to Education” in the Educational Psychologist, Tami Katzir and Juliana Paré-Blagoev (2006) concluded, “When applied correctly, brain science may serve as a vehicle for advancing the application of our understanding of learning and development. . . . Brain research can challenge common-sense views about teaching and learning by suggesting additional systems that are involved in particular tasks and activities” (p. 70). If we are to guard against overstating the links between brain research and education, then we should not ask whether to teach neuroscience to preservice teachers, but instead, how best to do that teaching (Dubinsky et al., 2013). A number of universities, including Harvard, Cambridge, Dartmouth, the University of Texas at Arlington, University of Minnesota, University of Southern California, Beijing Normal University, Southeast University in Nanjing, and Johns Hopkins are pioneering this process. They have established training programs for educators in brain-education studies (Dubinsky et al., 2013; K. Fischer, 2009; Wolfe, 2010). Other educational psychologists have called for a new professional specialty— neuro-educators (Beauchamp & Beauchamp, 2013). A reading improvement product called FastForword was developed by two neuroscientists, Dr. Michael Merzenich and Dr. Paula Tallal, and is already in use today in classrooms around the country (see www.scilearn.com/results/success-stories/

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case-studies). It specifically uses discoveries in neural plasticity to change the brain’s ability to read the printed word (Tallal & Miller, 2003). In his presidential address for the First Conference of the International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, Kurt Fischer (2009) also noted that the primary goal of that organization is to ground education in solid research from biology, cognitive science, development, and education while avoiding myths and popular misconceptions. Fischer makes the point that we can go from understanding how the brain works to understanding cognitive processes, and then to developing educational practices. But jumping directly from knowledge about the brain to educational practices probably involves too much speculation. Beware of Either/Or.  The application of neuroscience to education actually has been plagued by misapplications because educators and neuroscience researchers have different meanings for the concept of learning; few educators have a background in neurobiology and most neuroscientists can’t create concrete and useful applications of research on the brain because they just don’t know enough about the specifics of teaching in kindergarten to high school classrooms (Beauchamp & Beauchamp, 2013). However, to ignore what we do know about the brain would be irresponsible. Brain-based learning offers some direction for educators who want more purposeful, informed teaching. At the very least, the neuroscience research is helping us to understand why effective teaching strategies, such as distributed practice, work. The person in the best position to create, invent, and apply strategies is a teacher who understands both the way the brain works and how children learn (Scalise & Felde, 2017).

Resources: Podcast on understanding the brain: http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/understandingthebrainthebirthofalearningscience.htm

ERP measurements of electrical activity of the brain. When they encountered one of the new words later, less-skilled readers’ brains often didn’t recognize that they had seen the word before, even though they had learned it in an earlier lesson. If words you have learned previously seem unfamiliar later, you can see how it would be hard to understand what you read (Balass, Nelson, & Perfetti, 2010). Reading is not innate or automatic—every brain has to be taught to read (Frey & Fisher, 2010). Reading is a complex integration of the systems in the brain that recognize sounds, written symbols, meanings, and sequences, and then connect with what the reader already knows. This has to happen quickly and automatically (Wolf et al., 2009). What are some strategies suggested? Use multiple approaches that teach sounds, spelling, meanings, sequencing, and vocabulary through reading, writing, discussing, explaining, drawing, and modeling. Different students may learn in different ways, but all need practice in literacy. EMOTIONS, LEARNING, AND THE BRAIN.  Finally, another clear connection between the brain and classroom learning is in the area of emotions and stress. Let’s step inside a high school math classroom described by Hinton, Miyamoto, and Della-Chiesa (2008, p. 91) for an example: Patricia, a high school student, struggles with mathematics. The last few times she answered a mathematics question she got it wrong and felt terribly embarrassed, which formed an association between mathematics . . . and negative emotions. . . . Her teacher had just asked her to come to the blackboard to solve a problem. This caused an immediate transfer of this emotionally-charged association to the amygdala, which elicits fear. Meanwhile, a slower, cortically-driven cognitive appraisal of the situation

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C HAP T ER T W O is occurring: she remembers her difficulty completing her mathematics homework last night, notices the problem on the board contains complicated graphs, and realizes that the boy she has a crush on is watching her from a front-row seat. These various thoughts converge to a cognitive confirmation that this is a threatening situation, which reinforces her progressing fear response and disrupts her ability to concentrate on solving the mathematics problem.

In Chapter 7 you will learn about how emotions can become paired with particular situations; and in Chapter 12, you will see that anxiety interferes with learning, whereas challenge, interest, and curiosity can support learning. If students feel unsafe and anxious, they are not likely to be able to focus attention on academics (Sylvester, 2003). But if students are not challenged or interested, learning suffers too. Keeping the level of challenge and support “just right” is a challenge for teachers. And helping students learn to regulate their own emotions and motivation is an important goal for education (see Chapter 11). Simply put, learning will be more effective “if educators help to minimize stress and fear at school, teach students emotional regulation strategies, and provide a positive learning environment that is motivating to students” (Hinton, Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008). STOP & THINK As a teacher, you don’t want to fall for overly simplistic “brain-based” teaching slogans. But obviously, the brain and learning are intimately related—this is not a surprise. So how can you be a savvy, “neuroscientific” teacher (Murphy & Benton, 2010)? •

Lessons for Teachers: General Principles What can we learn from neuroscience? One overarching idea is that teachers and students should transform the notion of learning from “using your brain” to “changing your brain”—embrace the amazing plasticity of the brain (Dubinsky et al., 2013). Here are some general teaching implications drawn from Brown, Roedinger, and McDaniel (2014), Driscoll (2005), Dubinsky and colleagues (2013), Murphy and Benton (2010), Sprenger (2010), Scalise and Felde (2017), and Wolfe (2010): 1. Human capabilities—intelligence, communication, problem solving, and so on— emerge from each person’s unique synaptic activity overlaid on his or her genetically endowed brain anatomy; nature and nurture are in constant activity together. The brain can place some limits on learning in the form of genetic brain anomalies in neural wiring or structure, but learning can occur through alternate pathways in the brain (as Nico and Brooke demonstrate). So, there are multiple ways both to teach and to learn a skill, depending on the student. 2. Many cognitive functions are differentiated; they are associated with different parts of the brain. Using a range of modalities for instruction and activities that draw on different senses may support learning—for example, using maps and songs to teach geography. Using different modalities also helps students stay focused and engaged. Assessment should be differentiated, too. 3. The brain is relatively plastic, so enriched, active environments and flexible instructional strategies are likely to support cognitive development in young children and learning in adults. The brain is constantly changing at many levels from cells to connections to remapping skills in new areas in response to an injury—think plasticity! 4. Changing the brain takes time, so teachers must be consistent, patient, and compassionate in teaching and reteaching in different ways, as Nico’s and Brooke’s parents and teachers could tell you. Don’t overwhelm the brain with a heavy cognitive load (see Chapter 8) that presents too much too fast. Give students ways of managing the cognitive load using graphic organizers, visuals, tables, glossaries, notes, and other “external brain” tools. 5. Some learning disorders may have a neurological basis; neurological testing may assist in diagnosing and treating these disorders, as well as in evaluating the effects of various treatments. 6. Learning from real-life problems and concrete experiences helps students construct knowledge and also gives them multiple pathways for learning and retrieving

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information. Knowledge learned should be clearly connected with situations in which it is useful. “Inert” knowledge that is memorized but not used is quickly forgotten. 7. The brain seeks meaningful patterns and connections with existing networks, so teachers should tie new information to what students already understand and help them form new connections. Use both concrete and abstract examples where possible and ask students to think of their own examples. Information that is not linked to existing knowledge will be easily forgotten. Help students recognize patterns by pointing out similarities and differences and teaching how to detect patterns. 8. Because the brain naturally looks for patterns and makes predictions about what to expect, feedback is critical, because feedback is a form of evidence to help the brain correct and improve its predictions. 9. It takes a long time and extensive practice to build and consolidate knowledge. Numerous visits and practice in different contexts and distributed over time (not all at once) help to form strong, multiple connections. Changing the brain (learning) benefits from elaborating, extending, and applying concepts in different situations and subjects over time. Probing questions, worked out examples, annotated and carefully labeled charts and graphs, reflection, and asking students to explain new learning to themselves and each other all help. 10. Large, general concepts should be emphasized over small specific facts so students can build enduring, useful knowledge categories and associations that are not constantly changing. 11. Stories should be used in teaching. Stories engage many areas of the brain— memories, experiences, feelings, and beliefs. Stories also are organized and have a sequence—beginning, middle, end—so they are easier to remember than unrelated or unorganized information. 12. Emotions and health affect learning—positive emotions can support learning and memory, whereas negative emotions can interfere. Emotions also are related to motivation, as you will see in Chapter 12. Stress, lack of sleep, poor nutrition, and lack of exercise all can affect the brain’s ability to learn. 13. Helping students understand how activity (distributed practice, problem solving, making connections, inquiry, etc.) changes their brain and how emotions and stress affect attention and memory can be motivating, leading to greater self-efficacy and self-regulated learning (we talk more about this in Chapter 11). One important message to students is that they are responsible for doing what it takes to change their own brains; they have to work (and play) to learn. For the rest of the chapter, we turn from the brain and cognitive development to examine several major theories of cognitive development, the first offered by a biologist turned psychologist, Jean Piaget. MyLab Education Self-Check 2.2

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was a real prodigy. In fact, in his teens, he published so many scientific papers on mollusks (marine animals such as oysters, clams, octopuses, snails, and squid) that he was offered a job as the curator of the mollusk collection at the Museum of Natural History in Geneva. He told the museum officials that he wanted to finish high school first. For a while, Piaget worked in Alfred Binet’s laboratory in Paris developing intelligence tests for children. The reasons children gave for their wrong answers fascinated him, and this prompted him to study the thinking behind their answers. This question intrigued him for the rest of his life (Green & Piel, 2010). He continued to write until his death at the age of 84 (P. H. Miller, 2016). During his long career, Piaget devised a model describing how humans go about making sense of their world by gathering and organizing information (Piaget, 1954,

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1963, 1970a, 1970b). We will examine Piaget’s ideas closely, because they provide an explanation of the development of thinking from infancy to adulthood. PUT YOURSELF IN A CHILD’S PLACE Can you be in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and in the United States at the same time? Is this a difficult question for you? How long did it take you to answer? •

According to Piaget (1954), certain ways of thinking that are quite simple for an adult, such as the Pittsburgh question in Stop & Think, are not so straightforward for a child. For example, do you remember the 9-year-old child at the beginning of the chapter who was asked if he could be a Genevan? He answered, “No, that’s not possible. I’m already Swiss. I can’t also be Genevan” (Piaget, 1965/1995, p. 252). Imagine teaching this student geography. He has trouble with classifying one concept (Geneva) as a subset of another (Switzerland). There are other differences between adult and child thinking, too. Children’s concepts of time may be different from your own. They may think, for example, that they will some day catch up to a sibling in age, or they may confuse the past and the future. Let’s examine why.

Influences on Development Cognitive development is much more than the addition of new facts and ideas to an existing store of information. According to Piaget, our thinking processes change radically, though slowly, from birth to maturity because we constantly strive to make sense of the world. Piaget identified four factors—biological maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration—that interact to influence changes in thinking (Piaget, 1970a). Maturation is the unfolding of the biological changes that are genetically programmed. Parents and teachers have little impact on this aspect of cognitive development, except to be sure that children get the nourishment and care they need to be healthy. With physical maturation comes the increasing ability to act on the environment and learn from it. When a young child’s coordination is reasonably developed, for example, the child can discover principles about balance by walking on a low balance beam. Thus, activity—exploring, testing, observing, and eventually organizing information— changes our thinking processes. Our cognitive development also is influenced by social transmission, or learning from others. Without social transmission, we would need to reinvent all the knowledge already offered by our culture. The amount people can learn from social transmission varies according to their stage of cognitive development. We’ll return to a discussion of the fourth influence on thinking, equilibration, in the next section. Maturation, activity, and social transmission all work together to influence cognitive development. How do we respond to these influences?

Basic Tendencies in Thinking

Organization Ongoing process of arranging information and experiences into mental systems or categories. Ordered and logical network of relations. Adaptation  Adjustment to the environment.

As a result of his early research in biology, Piaget concluded that all species inherit two basic tendencies, or “invariant functions.” The first of these tendencies is toward organization—the combining, arranging, recombining, and rearranging of behaviors and thoughts into coherent systems. The second tendency is toward adaptation, or adjusting to the environment. ORGANIZATION.  People are born with a tendency to organize their thinking processes into psychological structures—systems for understanding and interacting with the world. Simple structures are continually combined and coordinated to become more sophisticated and thus more effective. Very young infants, for example, can either look at an object or grasp it when it comes in contact with their hands. They cannot coordinate looking and grasping at the same time. As they develop, however, infants organize these two separate behavioral structures into a coordinated higher-level structure of looking

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at, reaching for, and grasping the object. They can, of course, still use each structure separately (Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2002; P. H. Miller, 2016). Piaget gave a special name to these psychological structures: schemes. In his theory, schemes are the basic building blocks of thinking. They are organized systems of actions or thought that allow us to mentally represent or “think about” the objects and events in our world. Schemes can be very small and specific—for example, the sucking-througha-straw scheme or the recognizing-a-rose scheme. Or they can be larger and more general—for example, the drinking scheme or the gardening scheme. ADAPTATION.  In addition to the tendency to organize psychological structures, people also inherit the tendency to adapt to their environment. Two basic processes are involved in adaptation: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves trying to understand something new by fitting it into what we already know—by using our existing schemes. At times, we may have to distort the new information to make it fit. For example, the first time many children see a raccoon, they call it a “kitty.” They try to match the new experience with an existing scheme for identifying animals. Accommodation occurs when we must change existing schemes to respond to a new situation. If we cannot make new data fit any existing schemes, then we must develop more appropriate structures. We adjust our thinking to fit the new information, instead of adjusting the information to fit our thinking. Children demonstrate accommodation when they add the scheme for recognizing raccoons to their other systems for identifying animals. People adapt to their increasingly complex environments by using existing schemes whenever these schemes work (assimilation) and by modifying and adding to their schemes when something new is needed (accommodation). In fact, both processes are required most of the time. Even using an established pattern such as sucking through a straw requires some accommodation if the straw is of a different size or length than the type you are used to. If you have tried drinking juice from box packages, you know that you have to add a new skill to your sucking-through-a-straw scheme: Don’t squeeze the box or you will shoot juice through the straw, straight up into the air and into your lap. Whenever new experiences are assimilated into an existing scheme, the scheme is enlarged and changed somewhat, so assimilation involves some accommodation (Mascolo & Fischer, 2005). There are also times when neither assimilation nor accommodation is used. If people encounter something that is too unfamiliar, they may ignore it. Experience is filtered to fit the kind of thinking a person is doing at a given time. For example, if you overhear a conversation in a foreign language, you probably will not try to make sense of the exchange unless you have some knowledge of the language. EQUILIBRATION.  According to Piaget, organizing, assimilating, and accommodating can be viewed as a kind of complex balancing act. In his theory, the actual changes in thinking take place through the process of equilibration—the act of searching for a balance. Piaget assumed that people continually test the adequacy of their thinking processes in order to achieve that balance. Briefly, the process of equilibration works like this: If we apply a particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works, then equilibrium exists. If the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, then disequilibrium exists, and we become uncomfortable. This motivates us to keep searching for a solution through assimilation and accommodation, and thus our thinking changes and moves ahead. Of course, the level of disequilibrium must be just right or optimal—too little and we aren’t interested in changing, too much and we may be discouraged or anxious and not change.

Four Stages of Cognitive Development Now we turn to the actual differences that Piaget hypothesized for children as they grow. Piaget believed that all people pass through the same four stages in exactly the same order. The stages are generally associated with specific ages, but these are only general guidelines, not labels for all children of a certain age. Piaget noted that individuals may go through long periods of transition between stages and that a person may show

MyLab Education

Video Example 2.1 The children in this video are learning something new about growth by observing a tadpole as it changes from day to day. They can assimilate the idea that the tadpole grows legs, but they need to accommodate their concept of growth to understand why the tadpole’s tail gets smaller.

Schemes  Mental systems or categories of perception and experience. Assimilation  Fitting new information into existing schemes. Accommodation Altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information. Equilibration  Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment. Disequilibrium  In Piaget’s theory, the “out-ofbalance” state that occurs when a person realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understand a situation.

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TABLE 2.3  •  Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development STAGE

APPROXIMATE AGE

Sensorimotor

0–2 years

Learns through reflexes, senses, and movement— actions on the environment. Begins to imitate others and remember events; shifts to symbolic thinking. Comes to understand that objects do not cease to exist when they are out of sight— object permanence. Moves from reflexive actions to intentional activity.

Preoperational

Begins about the time the child starts talking, to about 7 years old

Develops language and begins to use symbols to represent objects. Has difficulty with past and future—thinks in the present. Can think through operations logically in one direction. Has difficulties understanding the point of view of another person.

Concrete Operational

Begins about first grade, to early adolescence, around 11 years old

Can think logically about concrete (hands-on) problems. Understands conservation and organizes things into categories and in series. Can reverse thinking to mentally “undo” actions. Understands past, present, and future.

Formal Operational

Adolescence to adulthood

Can think hypothetically and deductively. Thinking becomes more scientific. Solves abstract problems in logical fashion. Can consider multiple perspectives and develops concerns about social issues, personal identity, and justice.

CHARACTERISTICS

characteristics of one stage in one situation, but traits of a higher or lower stage in other situations. Therefore, remember that knowing a student’s age is never a guarantee you will know how the child thinks (Orlando & Machado, 1996). Table 2.3 summarizes the stages.

Sensorimotor  Involving the senses and motor activity. Object permanence The understanding that objects have a separate, permanent existence. Goal-directed actions  Deliberate actions toward a goal.

INFANCY: THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE.  The earliest period is called the sensorimotor stage, because the child’s thinking involves seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, moving and so on. During this period, infants develop object permanence, the understanding that objects exist in the environment whether they perceive them or not. This is the beginning of the important ability to construct a mental representation. As most parents discover, before infants develop object permanence, it is relatively easy to take something away from them. The trick is to distract them and remove the object while they are not looking—“out of sight, out of mind.” The older infant who searches for the ball that has rolled out of sight is indicating an understanding that objects still exist even when they are not in view (M. K. Moore & Meltzoff, 2004). A second major accomplishment in the sensorimotor period is the beginning of logical, goal-directed actions. Think of the familiar clear plastic container baby toy with a lid and several colorful items inside that can be dumped out and replaced. A 6-month-old baby is likely to become frustrated trying to get to the toys inside. An older child who has mastered the basics of the sensorimotor stage will probably be able to deal with the toy in an orderly fashion by building a “container toy” scheme: (1) get the lid off, (2) turn the container upside down, (3) shake if the items jam, and (4) watch the items fall. Separate lower-level schemes have been organized into a higher-level scheme to achieve a goal. The child is soon able to reverse this action by refilling the container. Learning to reverse actions is a basic accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage. As we will soon see, however, learning to reverse thinking—that is, learning to imagine the reverse of a sequence of actions—takes much longer.

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EARLY CHILDHOOD TO THE EARLY ELEMENTARY YEARS: THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE.  By the end of the sensorimotor stage, the child can use many action schemes. However, as long as these schemes remain tied to physical actions, they are of no use in recalling the past, keeping track of information, or planning. For this, children need what Piaget called operations, or actions that are carried out and reversed mentally rather than physically. At the preoperational stage the child is moving toward mastery, but has not yet mastered these mental operations (so thinking is preoperational). According to Piaget, the first type of thinking that is separate from action involves making action schemes symbolic. The ability to form and use symbols—words, gestures, signs, images, and so on—is thus a major accomplishment of the preoperational period and moves children closer to mastering the mental operations of the next stage. This ability to work with symbols to represent an object that is not present, such as using the word horse or a picture of a horse or even pretending to ride a broomstick horse, is called the semiotic function. In fact, the child’s earliest use of symbols is in pretending— pretending to drink from an empty cup, showing that they know what the object is for. This behavior also shows that their schemes are becoming more general and less tied to specific actions. The drinking scheme, for example, can be used in playing house. During the preoperational stage, there is also rapid development of that very important symbol system, language. Between the ages of 2 and 4, most children enlarge their vocabulary from about 200 to 2,000 words. As the child moves through the preoperational stage, the developing ability to think about objects in symbolic form remains somewhat limited to thinking in one direction only, or using one-way logic. It is very difficult for the child to “think backward,” or imagine how to reverse the steps in a task. Reversible thinking is involved in many tasks that are difficult for the preoperational child, such as the conservation of matter. Conservation is the principle that the amount or number of something remains the same even if the arrangement or appearance is changed, as long as nothing is added and nothing is taken away. You know that if you tear a piece of paper into several pieces, you will still have the same amount of paper. To prove this, you know that you can reverse the process by taping the pieces back together, but a child using preoperational thinking can’t think that way. Here is a classic example of difficulty with conservation. Leah, a 5-year-old, is shown two identical glasses, both short and wide in shape. Both have exactly the same amount of colored water in them. She agrees that the amounts are “the same.” The experimenter then pours the water from one of the glasses into a taller, narrower glass and asks, “Now, does one glass have more water, or are they the same?” Leah responds that the tall glass has more because “It goes up more here” (she points to the higher level on the taller glass). Piaget’s explanation for Leah’s answer is that she is focusing, or centering, attention on the dimension of height. She has difficulty considering more than one aspect of the situation at a time (height and width), or decentering. Thus, children at the preoperational stage have trouble freeing themselves from their own immediate perceptions of how the world appears. This brings us to another important characteristic of the preoperational stage. Preoperational children, according to Piaget, have a tendency to be egocentric, to see the world and the experiences of others from their own viewpoint. This is one reason it is difficult for preoperational children to understand that your right hand is not on the same side as theirs when you are facing them. The concept of egocentrism, as Piaget intended it, does not mean selfish; it simply means children often assume that everyone else shares their feelings, reactions, and perspectives. For example, the 2-year-old at the beginning of this chapter who brought his own mother to comfort a distressed friend— even though the friend’s mother was available—was simply seeing the situation through his own eyes and providing what he would want for his friend. Research has shown that young children are not totally egocentric in every situation, however. Children as young as age 2 describe more details about a situation to a parent who was not present than they provide to a parent who experienced the situation with them. So young children do seem quite able to take the needs and different perspectives of others into account, at least in certain situations (Flavell et al., 2002). And in fairness to

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MyLab Education

Video Example 2.2 In this video, children participate in tasks that show their understanding of conservation of volume and conservation of number. Compare the responses, and identify each child’s stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget’s theory.

Operations  Actions a person carries out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions. Preoperational  The stage before a child masters logical mental operations. Semiotic function The ability to use symbols— language, pictures, signs, or gestures—to represent actions or objects mentally. Reversible thinking  Thinking backward, from the end to the beginning. Conservation Principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance. Decentering  Focusing on more than one aspect at a time. Egocentric  Assuming that others experience the world the way you do.

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GUIDELINES

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS

Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children Encourage families to use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible. Examples 1. When family members use words such as part, whole, or one half, encourage them to demonstrate using objects in the house such as cutting an apple or pizza into parts. 2. Let children add and subtract with sticks, rocks, or colored chips. This technique also is helpful for early concreteoperational students. Make instructions relatively short—not too many steps at once. Use actions as well as words. Examples 1. When giving instructions such as how to feed a pet, first model the process, then ask the child to try it. 2. Explain a game by acting out one of the parts. Help children develop their ability to see the world from someone else’s point of view. Examples 1. Ask children to imagine “how your sister felt when you broke her toy.”

Concrete operations  Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations. Identity  Principle that a person or object remains the same over time. Compensation The principle that changes in one dimension can be offset by changes in another. Reversibility  A characteristic of Piagetian logical operations—the ability to think through a series of steps, then mentally reverse the steps and return to the starting point; also called reversible thinking. Classification Grouping objects into categories.

2. Be clear about rules for sharing or use of material. Help children understand the value of the rules, and work with them to develop empathy by asking them to think about how they would like to be treated. Avoid long lectures on “sharing” or being “nice.” Give children a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more complex skills such as reading comprehension or collaboration. Examples 1. Provide cut-out letters or letter magnets for the refrigerator to build words. 2. Do activities that require measuring and simple calculations—cooking, dividing a batch of popcorn equally. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language. Examples 1. Take trips to zoos, gardens, theaters, and concerts; encourage storytelling. 2. Give children words to describe what they are doing, hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, and smelling.

young children, even adults can make assumptions that others feel or think like they do— think about all the politicians who believe “the people agree with me!” The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships give ideas for working with preoperational thinkers and for guiding families in supporting the cognitive development of their children. LATER ELEMENTARY TO THE MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS: THE CONCRETEOPERATIONAL STAGE.  Piaget coined the term concrete operations to describe this stage of “hands-on” thinking. The basic characteristics of the stage are the recognition of the logical stability of the physical world; the realization that elements can be changed or transformed and still conserve many of their original characteristics; and the understanding that these changes can be reversed. Look at Figure 2.4 to see examples of the different tasks given to children to assess conservation. According to Piaget, the ability to solve conservation problems depends on having an understanding of three basic aspects of reasoning: identity, compensation, and reversibility. With a complete mastery of identity, the student knows that if nothing is added or taken away, the material remains the same. With an understanding of compensation, the student knows that an apparent change in one direction can be compensated for by a change in another direction. That is, if the glass is narrower, the liquid will rise higher in the glass. And with an understanding of reversibility, the student can mentally cancel out the change that has been made. Leah apparently knew it was the same water (identity), but she lacked compensation and reversibility, so she was still moving toward conservation. Another important operation mastered at this stage is classification. This operation depends on a student’s abilities to focus on a single characteristic of objects in a set (e.g., color) and group the objects according to that characteristic. More advanced classification at this stage involves recognizing that one class fits into another. A city can be in a particular state or province and also in a particular country, as you probably

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F IGU RE 2.4 SOME PIAGETIAN CONSERVATION TASKS In addition to the tasks shown here, other tasks involve the conservation of number, length, weight, and volume. These tasks are all achieved over the concrete-operational period. Suppose you start with this

(a) conservation of mass

Then you change the situation to this

Roll out clay ball B

A

Which is bigger, A or B?

A

B

(b) conservation of weight

A

B

B

B

B

A

A

B

C

B

A

Which beaker has more liquid, B or C? A

A

Break candy bar B into B pieces

Which will weigh more, A or B?

When I put the clay back into the water beakers, in which beaker will the water be higher?

Pour water in beaker A into beaker C

(d) conservation of continuous quantity

(e) conservation of number

Roll out clay ball B

Take clay ball out of water and roll out clay ball B

(c) conservation of volume A

The question you would ask a child is

B

C

A B

Which is more candy? A or B

Source: Woolfolk, A., & Perry, N. E., Child Development (2nd ed.), © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

knew when I asked you earlier about Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. As children apply this advanced classification to locations, they often become fascinated with “complete” addresses such as Lee Jary, 5116 Forest Hill Drive, Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada, North America, Northern Hemisphere, Earth, Solar System, Milky Way, Universe. Classification is also related to reversibility. The ability to reverse a process mentally allows the concrete-operational student to see that there is more than one way to classify a group of objects. The student understands, for example, that shapes can be classified by color, and then reclassified by size or by the number of sides. Seriation is the process of making an arrangement of items in order from large to small or vice versa. This understanding of sequential relationships permits a student to construct a logical series in which A < B < C (A is less than B is less than C) and so on. Unlike the preoperational child, the concrete-operational child can grasp the notion that B can be larger than A but still smaller than C.

Seriation Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.

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GUIDELINES Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child Continue to use concrete props and visual aids, especially when dealing with sophisticated material. Examples 1. Use timelines in history and three-dimensional models in science. 2. Use diagrams to illustrate hierarchical relationships such as branches of government and the agencies under each branch.

Use familiar examples to explain more complex ideas. Examples 1. Compare students’ lives with those of characters in a story. After reading Island of the Blue Dolphins (the true story of a girl who grew up alone on a deserted island), ask, “Have you ever had to stay alone for a long time? How did you feel?” 2. Teach the concept of area by having students measure two schoolrooms that are different sizes.

Continue to give students a chance to manipulate and test objects. Examples 1. Set up simple scientific experiments such as the following involving the relationship between fire and oxygen. What happens to a flame when you blow on it from a distance? (If you don’t blow it out, the flame gets larger briefly, because it has more oxygen to burn.) What happens when you cover the flame with a jar? 2. Have students make candles by dipping wicks in wax, weave cloth on a simple loom, bake bread, set type by hand, or do other craft work that illustrates the daily occupations of people in the colonial period.

Give opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels. Examples 1. Give students slips of paper with individual sentences written on each paper, and ask the students to group the sentences into paragraphs. 2. Compare the systems of the human body to other kinds of systems: the brain to a computer, the heart to a pump. Break down stories into components, from the broad to the specific: author, story, characters, plot, theme, place, time.

Make sure presentations and readings are brief and well organized. Examples 1. Assign stories or books with short, logical chapters, moving to longer reading assignments only when students are ready. 2. Break up a presentation, giving students an opportunity to practice the first steps before introducing the next steps.

Present problems that require logical, analytical thinking. Examples 1. Discuss open-ended questions that stimulate thinking: “Are the brain and the mind the same thing?” “How should the city deal with stray animals?” “What is the largest number?” 2. Use sports photos or pictures of crisis situations (Red Cross helping in disasters, victims of poverty or war, senior citizens who need assistance) to stimulate problemsolving discussions.

In any grade you teach, knowledge of concrete-operational thinking will be helpful (see Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child ). In the early grades, the students are moving toward this logical system of thought. In the middle grades, it is in full flower, ready to be applied and extended by your teaching. Students in high school and even adults still commonly use concrete-operational thinking, especially in areas that are new or unfamiliar.

Formal operations Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables.

HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE: FORMAL OPERATIONS.  With the abilities to handle operations such as conservation, classification, and seriation, the student at the concrete-operational stage has finally developed a complete and very logical system of thinking, but this thinking is still tied to physical reality and the way things actually are. The child is not yet able to reason about hypothetical, abstract problems that involve the coordination of many factors at once. Such coordination is part of Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development, formal operations. At this stage the focus of thinking can shift from what is to what might be. Situations do not have to be experienced to be imagined. You met Jamal at the beginning of this chapter. Even though he is a bright elementary school student, he could not answer the question, “How would life be different if

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people did not have to sleep?” because he insisted, “People HAVE TO SLEEP!” In contrast, the adolescent who has mastered formal operations can consider contrary-to-fact questions. In answering, the adolescent demonstrates the hallmark of formal operations— hypothetico-deductive reasoning. The formal-operational thinker can consider a hypothetical situation (people do not sleep) and reason deductively (from the general assumption to specific implications, such as longer workdays, more money spent on energy and lighting, smaller houses without bedrooms, or new entertainment industries). Formal operations also include inductive reasoning, or using specific observations to identify general principles. For example, the economist observes many specific changes in the stock market and attempts to identify general principles about economic cycles from this information. Using formal operations is a new way of reasoning that involves “thinking about thinking” or “mental operations on mental operations” (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). For example, the child using concrete operations can categorize animals by their physical characteristics or by their habitats, but a child using formal operations can perform “second-order” operations on these category operations to infer relationships between habitat and physical characteristics—such as understanding that the physical characteristic of thick fur on animals is related to their arctic habitats (Kuhn & Franklin, 2006). Abstract formal-operational thinking is necessary for success in many advanced high school and college courses. Most math is concerned with hypothetical situations, assumptions, and givens: “Let x = 10,” or “Assume x2 + y2 = z2,” or “Given two sides and an adjacent angle. . . .” Work in social studies and literature requires abstract thinking, too: “What did Wilson mean when he called World War I the ‘war to end all wars’?” “What are some metaphors for hope and despair in Shakespeare’s sonnets?” “What symbols of old age does T. S. Eliot use in The Waste Land ?” “How do animals symbolize human character traits in Aesop’s fables?”

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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Reasoning (II, A1) Be able to distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning. Explain the role that each plays in the learning of concepts.

STOP & THINK You are packing for a long trip, but want to pack light. How many different three-piece outfits (slacks, shirt, jacket) will you have if you include three shirts, three pairs of slacks, and three jackets (assuming of course that they all go together in fashion perfection)? Time yourself to see how long it takes to arrive at the answer. •

The organized, scientific thinking of formal operations requires that students systematically generate all possibilities for a given situation. If asked the Stop & Think question above, the child using formal operations can identify all 27 possible combinations. (Did you get it right?) A concrete-operational thinker might name just a few combinations, using each piece of clothing only once. Another characteristic of this stage is adolescent egocentrism. Unlike egocentric young children, adolescents do not deny that other people may have different perceptions and beliefs; the adolescents just become very focused on their own ideas and thoughts. This leads to what Elkind (1981) calls the sense of an imaginary audience—the feeling that everyone is watching: “Everyone noticed that I wore this shirt twice this week.” “The whole class thought my answer was dumb!” You can see that social blunders or imperfections in appearance can be devastating if “everybody is watching.” Luckily, this feeling of being “on stage” seems to peak in early adolescence by age 14 or 15, although in unfamiliar situations we all may feel our mistakes are being broadcast for everyone to see. The ability to think hypothetically, consider alternatives, identify all possible combinations, and analyze their own thinking has some interesting consequences for adolescents. Because they can think about worlds that do not exist, they often become interested in science fiction. Because they can reason from general principles to specific actions, they often are critical of people whose actions seem to contradict their principles. Adolescents can deduce the set of “best” possibilities and imagine ideal worlds (or ideal parents and teachers, for that matter). This explains why many students at this age develop interests in utopias, political causes, and social issues. Adolescents also can imagine many possible futures for themselves and may try to decide which is best. Feelings about any of these ideals may be strong.

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning  A formaloperations problemsolving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions. Adolescent egocentrism  Assumption that everyone else shares one’s thoughts, feelings, and concerns.

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DO WE ALL REACH THE FOURTH STAGE?  Most psychologists agree that there is a level of thinking more sophisticated than concrete operations, but do we all reach that level? The first three stages of Piaget’s theory are forced on most people by physical realities. Objects really are permanent. The amount of water doesn’t change when it is poured into another glass. Formal operations, however, are not so closely tied to the physical environment. Being able to use formal operations may be the result of practice in solving hypothetical problems and using formal scientific reasoning—abilities that are valued and taught in literate cultures in high school and college. But even in these cultures, not all high school students or adults can perform Piaget’s formal-operational tasks (Shayer, 2003). Formal thinking might develop only in areas where adolescents and adults have experience or interest or take advanced classes (Lehman & Nisbett, 1990; Piaget, 1974). So expect many students in your middle school or high school classes to have trouble thinking hypothetically, especially when they are learning something new. Students sometimes find shortcuts for dealing with problems that are beyond their grasp; they may memorize formulas or lists of steps. These systems may be helpful for passing tests, but real understanding will take place only if students can go beyond this superficial use of memorization. The Guidelines: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations will help you support the development of formal operations in your students.

Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory Although most psychologists agree with Piaget’s insightful descriptions of how children think, many disagree with his explanations of why thinking develops as it does. THE TROUBLE WITH STAGES.  Some psychologists have questioned the existence of four separate stages of thinking, even though they agree that children do go through the changes that Piaget described (Mascolo & Fischer, 2005; P. H. Miller, 2016). One problem with the stage model is the lack of consistency in children’s thinking. For example, children can conserve number (the number of blocks does not change when they are rearranged) a

GUIDELINES Helping Students to Use Formal Operations Continue to use concrete-operational teaching strategies and materials. Examples 1. Use visual aids such as charts and illustrations as well as somewhat more sophisticated graphs and diagrams, especially when the material is new. 2. Compare the experiences of characters in stories to students’ experiences. Give students the opportunity to explore many hypothetical questions. Examples 1. Have students write position papers, then exchange these papers with the opposing side and debate topical social issues such as the environment, the economy, and national health insurance. 2. Ask students to write about their personal vision of a utopia; write a description of a universe that has no sex differences; write a description of Earth after humans are extinct.

Give students opportunities to solve problems and reason scientifically. Examples 1. Set up group discussions in which students design experiments to answer questions. 2. Ask students to justify two different positions on animal rights, with logical arguments for each position. Whenever possible, teach broad concepts, not just facts, using materials and ideas relevant to the students’ lives (Delpit, 1995). Examples 1. When discussing the Civil War, consider racism or other issues that have divided the United States since then. 2. When teaching about poetry, let students find lyrics from popular songs that illustrate poetic devices, and talk about how these devices do or don’t work well to communicate the meanings and feelings the songwriters intended.

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year or two before they can conserve weight (the weight of a ball of clay does not change when you flatten it). Why can’t they use conservation consistently in every situation? Another problem with the idea of separate stages is that the processes may be more continuous than they seem. Changes may seem like discontinuous, qualitative leaps when we look across longer time periods. The 3-year-old persistently searching for a lost toy seems qualitatively different from the infant who doesn’t miss a toy or search when the toy rolls under a sofa. But if we watched a developing child very closely and observed moment-to-moment or hour-to-hour changes, we might see that indeed there are gradual, continuous changes. Rather than appearing all at once, the knowledge that a hidden toy still exists may be a product of the older child’s more fully developed memory: He knows that the toy is under the sofa because he remembers seeing it roll there, whereas the infant can’t hold on to that memory. The longer you require children to wait before searching—the longer you make them remember the object—the older they have to be to succeed (Siegler & Alibali, 2005). Change can be both continuous and discontinuous, as described by a branch of mathematics called catastrophe theory. Changes that appear suddenly, like the collapse of a bridge, are preceded by many slowly developing changes such as gradual, continuous corrosion of the metal structures. Similarly, gradually developing changes in children can lead to large changes in abilities that seem abrupt (Bjorklund, 2012; Dawson-Tunik, Fischer, & Stein, 2004; Siegler & Alibali, 2005). In fairness, we should note that in his later work, even Piaget put less emphasis on stages of cognitive development and gave more attention to how thinking changes through equilibration (P. H. Miller, 2016). UNDERESTIMATING CHILDREN’S ABILITIES.  It now appears that Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of children, particularly younger ones. The problems he gave young children may have been too difficult and the directions too confusing. His subjects may have understood more than they could demonstrate when solving these problems. For example, work by Gelman and her colleagues (Gelman, 2000; Gelman & Cordes, 2001) shows that preschool children know much more about the concept of number than Piaget thought, even if they sometimes make mistakes or get confused. As long as preschoolers work with only 3 or 4 objects at a time, they can tell that the number remains the same, even if the objects are spread far apart or clumped close together. Mirjam Ebersbach (2009) demonstrated that most of the German kindergartners in her study considered all three dimensions—width, height, and length—when they estimated the volume of a wooden block (actually, how many small cubes it would take to make bigger blocks of different sizes). In other words, we may be born with a greater store of cognitive tools than Piaget suggested. Some basic understandings or core knowledge, such as the permanence of objects or the sense of number, may be part of our evolutionary equipment, ready for use in our cognitive development (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Woodward & Needham, 2009). Finally, Piaget argued that the development of cognitive operations such as conservation or abstract thinking cannot be accelerated. He believed that children had to be developmentally ready to learn. Quite a bit of research, however, has shown that with effective instruction, children can learn to perform cognitive operations such as conservation. They do not have to naturally discover these ways of thinking on their own. Knowledge and experience in a situation affect the kind of thinking that students can do (Brainerd, 2003). COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURE.  One final criticism of Piaget’s theory is that it overlooks the important effects of the child’s cultural and social group. Research across different cultures has generally confirmed that although Piaget was accurate about the sequence of the stages in children’s thinking, the age ranges for the stages vary. Western children typically move to the next stage about 2 to 3 years earlier than children in non-Western societies. But careful research has shown that these differences across cultures depend on the subject or domain tested and whether the culture values and teaches knowledge in that domain. For example, children in Brazil who sell candy in the streets instead of attending school appear to fail a certain kind of Piagetian task—class inclusion

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(Are there more daisies, more tulips, or more flowers in the picture?). But when the tasks are phrased within concepts they understand—selling candy—then these children perform better than Brazilian children the same age who attend school (Saxe, 1999). When a culture or context emphasizes a cognitive ability, children growing up in that culture tend to acquire that ability sooner. In a study that compared Chinese first-, third-, and fifthgrade students to American students in the same grades, the Chinese students mastered a Piagetian task that involved distance, time, and speed relationships about 2 years ahead of American students, most likely because the Chinese education system puts more emphasis on math and science in the early grades (Zhou, Peverly, Beohm, & Chongde, 2001). Even concrete operations such as classification may develop differently in different cultures. For example, when individuals from the Kpelle people of Africa were asked to sort 20 objects, they created groups that made sense to them—a hoe with a potato, a knife with an orange. The experimenter could not get the Kpelle to change their categories; they said this way of sorting is how a wise man would do it. Finally, the experimenter asked in desperation, “Well, how would a fool do it?” The subjects promptly created the four neat classification piles the experimenter had expected—food, tools, and so on (Rogoff & Morelli, 1989).

Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development

Executive functioning All those processes that we use to organize, coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional actions, including focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive responses, making and changing plans, and using memory to hold and manipulate information. Neo-Piagetian theories  More recent theories that integrate findings about attention, memory, and strategy use with Piaget’s insights about children’s thinking and the construction of knowledge.

As you will see in Chapter 8, there are explanations for why children have trouble with conservation and other Piagetian tasks. These explanations focus on the development of information processing skills, such as attention, memory capacity, and learning strategies. As children mature and their brains develop, they are better able to focus their attention, process information more quickly, hold more information in memory, and use thinking strategies more easily and flexibly (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Siegler, 2000, 2004). One critical development is improvement in executive functioning. Executive functioning involves all those processes that we use to organize, coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional actions. Executive functioning skills include focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive responses, making and changing plans, and using memory to hold and manipulate information (Best & Miller, 2010; Raj & Bell, 2010). As children develop more sophisticated and effective executive functioning skills, they are active in advancing their own development; they are constructing, organizing, and improving their own knowledge and strategies (Siegler & Alibali, 2005). For example, one classic Piagetian task is to show children 10 daisies and 2 roses, then ask if there are more daisies or more flowers. Young children see more daisies and jump to the answer, “daisies.” As they mature, children are better at resisting (inhibiting) that first response based on appearances and can answer based on the fact that both daisies and roses are flowers. But even adults have to take a fraction of a second to resist the obvious, so inhibiting impulsive responses is important for developing complex knowledge throughout life (Borst, Poirel, Pineau, Cassotti, & Houdé, 2013). Some developmental psychologists have formulated neo-Piagetian theories that retain Piaget’s insights about children’s construction of knowledge and the general trends in children’s thinking but add findings from information processing theories about the role of attention, memory, and strategies (Croker, 2012). Perhaps the bestknown neo-Piagetian theory was developed by Robbie Case (1992, 1998). He devised an explanation of cognitive development suggesting that children develop in stages within specific domains such as numerical concepts, spatial concepts, social tasks, storytelling, reasoning about physical objects, and motor development. As children practice using the schemes in a particular domain (e.g., using counting schemes in the number concept area), accomplishing the schemes requires less attention and working memory space. The schemes become more automatic because the child does not have to “think so hard.” This frees up mental resources and memory to do more, so the child can combine simple schemes into more complex ones and invent new schemes when needed (assimilation and accommodation in action). Kurt Fischer (2009) connected cognitive development in different domains to research on the brain. Even though children may follow different pathways as they

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master skills in speaking, reading, and mathematics, their growth patterns show a similar series of spurts and they go through predictable levels of development. When learning a new skill, children move through three tiers—from actions to representations to abstractions. Within each tier, the pattern is moving from accomplishing a single action to mapping or coordinating two actions together, such as coordinating addition and multiplication in math, to creating whole systems of understanding. At the level of abstractions, children finally move to constructing explanatory principles. This may remind you of sensorimotor, concrete operations, and formal operations in Piaget’s theory. For each skill level, the brain reorganizes itself, too. In this process, skills develop sooner at each level with the chance to practice and quality support. Support and practice are keys in another explanation of cognitive development we will discuss next—Vygotsky’s theory. MyLab Education Self-Check 2.3

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE Psychologists today recognize that culture shapes cognitive development by determining what and how the child will learn about the world—the content and processes of thinking. For example, cultures that prize cooperation and sharing teach these abilities early, whereas cultures that encourage competition nurture competitive skills in their children. The stages observed by Piaget are not necessarily “natural” for all children because to some extent they reflect the expectations and activities of Western cultures, as the Kpelle people described earlier have taught us (Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003; Rogoff, 2003). A major spokesperson for this sociocultural theory (also called sociohistoric) was a Russian Jewish psychologist who was born the same year as Piaget—1896. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky was only 37 when he died of tuberculosis, but during his brief life he produced over 100 books and articles. Some of the translations are now available (e.g., Vygotsky, 1978, 1986, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1993, 1997). Vygotsky began studying learning and development to improve his own teaching. He went on to write about language and thought, the psychology of art, learning and development, and educating students with special needs. His work was banned in Russia for many years because he referenced Western psychologists. But in the past 50 plus years, with the rediscovery of his writings, Vygotsky’s ideas have become major influences in psychology and education and have provided alternatives to many of Piaget’s theories (Gredler, 2009a, 2009b, 2012; Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003; Moll, 2014; Van Der Veer, 2007; Wink & Putney, 2002). Vygotsky believed that human activities take place in cultural settings and that they cannot be understood apart from these settings. One of his key ideas was that our specific mental structures and processes can be traced to our interactions with others. These social interactions are more than simple influences on cognitive development—they actually create our cognitive structures and thinking processes (Palincsar, 1998). In fact, “Vygotsky conceptualized development as the transformation of socially shared activities into internalized processes” ( John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996, p. 192). We will examine three themes in Vygotsky’s writings that explain how social processes form learning and thinking: the social sources of individual thinking; the role of cultural tools in learning and development, especially the tool of language; and the zone of proximal development (Driscoll, 2005; Gredler, 2012; P. H. Miller, 2016).

The Social Sources of Individual Thinking Vygotsky assumed that Every function in a child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and later on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relations between human individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57)

Sociocultural theory  Emphasizes role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society. Children learn the culture of their community (ways of thinking and behaving) through these interactions.

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In other words, higher mental processes, such as directing your own attention and thinking through problems, first are co-constructed during shared activities between the child and another person. Then these co-constructed processes are internalized by the child and become part of that child’s cognitive development (Gredler, 2009a, 2009b; Mercer, 2013). For example, children first use language in activities with others to try to regulate their behavior (“No nap!” or “I wanna cookie.”). Later, however, the child can regulate her own behavior using private speech (“careful—don’t spill”), as you will see in a later section. So, for Vygotsky, social interaction was more than influence; it was the origin of higher mental processes such as problem solving. Consider this example: A six-year-old has lost a toy and asks her father for help. The father asks her where she last saw the toy; the child says “I can’t remember.” He asks a series of questions—did you have it in your room? Outside? Next door? To each question, the child answers, “no.” When he says “in the car?” she says “I think so” and goes to retrieve the toy. (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988, p. 14)

Co-constructed process  A social process in which people interact and negotiate (usually verbally) to create an understanding or to solve a problem. The final product is shaped by all participants. Cultural tools  The real tools (computers, scales, etc.) and symbol systems (numbers, language, graphs) that allow people in a society to communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge.

Who remembered? The answer is really neither the father nor the daughter, but the two together. The remembering and problem solving were co-constructed—between people—in the interaction. But the child (and the father) may have internalized strategies to use the next time something is lost. At some point, the child will be able to function independently to solve this kind of problem. So, like the strategy for finding the toy, higher functions appear first between a child and a “teacher” before they exist within the individual child (Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003; P. H. Miller, 2016). Here is another example of the social sources of individual thinking. Richard Anderson and his colleagues (2001) studied how fourth graders in small-group classroom discussions appropriate (take for themselves and use) argument stratagems that occur in the discussions. An argument stratagem is a particular form such as “I think [POSITION] because [REASON],” where the student fills in the position and the reason. For example, a student might say, “I think that the wolves should be left alone because they are not hurting anyone.” Another strategy form is “If [ACTION], then [BAD CONSEQUENCE],” as in “If they don’t trap the wolves, then the wolves will eat the cows.” Other forms manage participation, for example, “What do you think [NAME]?” or “Let [NAME] talk.” Anderson’s research identified 13 forms of talk and argument that helped to manage the discussion, get everyone to participate, present and defend positions, and handle confusion. The use of these different forms of talking and thinking snowballed: Once a useful argument was employed by one student, it spread to other students, and the argument stratagem form appeared more and more in the discussions. Open discussions—students asking and answering each other’s questions—were better than teacher-dominated discussion for the development of these argument forms. Over time, these ways of presenting, attacking, and defending positions could be internalized as mental reasoning and decision making for the individual students. Both Piaget and Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions in cognitive development, but Piaget saw a different role for interaction. He believed that interaction encouraged development by creating disequilibrium—that is, cognitive conflict motivated change. Thus, Piaget believed that the most helpful interactions were those between peers, because peers are on an equal basis and can challenge each other’s thinking. Vygotsky, on the other hand, suggested that children’s cognitive development is fostered by interactions with people who are more capable or advanced in their thinking—people such as parents and teachers. Of course, students can learn from both adults and peers, and today, computers can play a role in supporting communication across distances or in different languages.

Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development Vygotsky believed that cultural tools, including technical tools (e.g., printing plows, rulers, abacuses, graph paper—today, we would add mobile devices, ers, the Internet, real-time translators for mobile devices and chats, search digital organizers and calendars, assistive technologies for students with

presses, computengines, learning

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challenges, etc.) and psychological tools (signs and symbol systems such as numbers and mathematical systems, Braille and sign language, maps, works of art, codes, and language) play very important roles in cognitive development. For example, as long as the culture provides only Roman numerals for representing quantity, certain ways of thinking mathematically—from long division to calculus—are difficult or impossible. But if a number system has a zero, fractions, positive and negative values, and an infinite quantity of numbers, then much more is possible. The number system is a psychological tool that supports learning and cognitive development—it changes the thinking process. This symbol system is passed from adult to child and from child to child through formal and informal interactions and teachings. TECHNICAL TOOLS IN A DIGITAL AGE.  The use of technical tools such as calculators and spell checkers has been somewhat controversial in education. Technology is increasingly “checking up” on us. I rely on the spell checker in my word processing program to protect me from embarrassment. But I also read student papers with spelling replacements that must have come from decisions made by the word processing program—without a “sense check” by the writer. Is student learning harmed or helped by these technology supports? Just because students learned mathematics in the past with paper-and-pencil procedures does not mean that this is the best way to learn. In fact, the research on calculators has found that rather than eroding basic skills, calculator use has positive effects on students’ problem-solving skills and attitudes toward math (Ellington, 2003, 2013; Waits & Demana, 2000). There is a catch, however. On simple math problems it probably is better to attempt recalling or calculating the answer first before turning to a calculator. Math fact learning and fluency in arithmetic are supported when students self-generate answers before resorting to calculators (Pyke & LeFevre, 2011). PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS.  Vygotsky believed that all higher-order mental processes such as reasoning and problem solving are mediated by (accomplished through and with the help of) psychological tools. These tools allow children to transform their thinking by enabling them to gain greater and greater mastery of their own cognitive processes; they advance their own development as they use the tools. Vygotsky believed the essence of cognitive development is mastering the use of psychological tools such as language to accomplish the kind of advanced thinking and problem solving that could not be accomplished without those tools (Gredler, 2012; Karpov & Haywood, 1998). The process is something like this: As children engage in activities with adults or more capable peers, they exchange ideas and ways of thinking about or representing concepts— drawing maps, for example, as a way to represent spaces and places. Children internalize these co-created ideas. Children’s knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through appropriating or “taking for themselves” the ways of acting and thinking provided by both their culture and other members of their group (Wertsch, 2007). In this exchange of signs and symbols and explanations, children begin to develop a “cultural tool kit” to make sense of and learn about their world (Wertsch, 1991). The kit is filled with technical tools such as graphing calculators or rulers directed toward the external world and psychological tools for acting mentally such as concepts, problem-solving strategies, and (as we saw earlier) argument strategems. Children do not just receive the tools, however. They transform the tools as they construct their own representations, symbols, patterns, and understandings. These understandings gradually change as the children continue to engage in social activities and try to make sense of their world ( John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996; Wertsch, 1991). In Vygotsky’s theory, language is the most important symbol system in the tool kit, and it is the one that helps to fill the kit with other tools.

The Role of Language and Private Speech Language is critical for cognitive development because it provides a way to express ideas and ask questions, the categories and concepts for thinking, and the links between the past and the future. Language frees us from the immediate situation so we can think

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about what was and what might be (Driscoll, 2005; Mercer, 2013). Vygotsky thought that: the specifically human capacity for language enables children to provide for auxiliary tools in the solution of difficult tasks, to overcome impulsive action, to plan a solution to a problem prior to its execution, and to master their own behavior. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 28)

Vygotsky placed more emphasis than Piaget on the role of learning and language in cognitive development. And Vygotsky believed that language in the form of private speech (talking to yourself) guides cognitive development.

Collective monologue  Form of speech in which children in a group talk but do not really interact or communicate. Private speech Children’s self-talk, which guides their thinking and action. Eventually, these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech.

PRIVATE SPEECH: VYGOTSKY’S AND PIAGET’S VIEWS COMPARED.  If you have spent much time around young children, you know that they often talk to themselves as they play. This can happen when the child is alone or, even more often, in a group of children—each child talks enthusiastically, without any real interaction or conversation. Piaget called this the collective monologue, and he labeled all of the children’s self-directed talk “egocentric speech.” He assumed that this egocentric speech is another indication that young children can’t see the world through the eyes of others, so they chat away without taking into account the needs or interests of their listeners. As they mature, and especially as they have disagreements with peers, Piaget believed, children develop socialized speech. They learn to listen and exchange (or argue) ideas. Vygotsky had very different ideas about young children’s private speech. He suggested that rather than being a sign of cognitive immaturity, these mutterings play an important role in cognitive development because they move children in stages toward self-regulation: the ability to plan, monitor, and guide your own thinking and problem solving. First the child’s behavior is regulated by others using language and other signs such as gestures. For example, the parent says, “No!” when the child reaches toward a candle flame. Next, the child learns to regulate the behavior of others using the same language tools. The child says “No!” to another child who is trying to take away a toy, often even imitating the parent’s voice tone. The child also begins to use private speech to regulate her own behavior, saying “no” quietly to herself as she is tempted to touch the flame. Finally, the child learns to regulate her own behavior by using silent inner speech (Karpov & Haywood, 1998). For example, in any preschool room you might hear 4- or 5-year-olds saying, “No, it won’t fit. Try it here. Turn. Turn. Maybe this one!” while they do puzzles. Around the age of 7, children’s self-directed speech goes underground, changing from spoken to whispered speech and then to silent lip movements. Finally, the children just “think” the guiding words. The use of private speech peaks at around age 9 and then decreases, although one study found that some students from ages 11 to 17 still spontaneously muttered to themselves during problem solving (McCafferty, 2004; Winsler, Carlton, & Barry, 2000; Winsler & Naglieri, 2003). Vygotsky called this inner speech “an internal plane of verbal thinking” (Vygotsky, 1934/1987c, p. 279)—a critical accomplishment on the road to higher-order thinking. This series of steps from spoken words to silent inner speech is another example of how higher mental functions first appear between people as they communicate and regulate each other’s behavior, and then emerge again within the individual as cognitive processes. Through this fundamental process, the child is using language to accomplish important cognitive activities such as directing attention, solving problems, planning, forming concepts, and gaining self-control. Research supports Vygotsky’s ideas (Berk & Spuhl, 1995; Emerson & Miyake, 2003). Children and adults tend to use more private speech when they are confused, having difficulties, or making mistakes (R. M. Duncan & Cheyne, 1999). Have you ever thought to yourself something like, “Let’s see, the first step is” or “Where did I use my glasses last?” or “If I read to the end of this page, then I can . . .”? You were using inner speech to remind, cue, encourage, or guide yourself. This internal verbal thinking is not stable until about age 12, so children in elementary school may need to continue talking through problems and explaining their

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reasoning in order to develop their abilities to control their thinking (Gredler, 2012). Because private speech helps students regulate their thinking, it makes sense to allow, and even encourage, students to use private speech in school. Teachers’ insisting on total silence when young students are working on difficult problems may make the work even harder for them. Take note when muttering increases in your class—this could be a sign that students need help. Table 2.4 contrasts Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of private speech. We should note that Piaget accepted many of Vygotsky’s arguments and came to agree that language could be used in both egocentric and problem-solving ways (Piaget, 1962).

The Zone of Proximal Development According to Vygotsky, at any given point in development, a child is on the verge of solving certain problems—“processes that have not matured at the time but are in a period of maturation” (Vygotsky, 1930–1931/1998, p. 201). The child just needs some structure, demonstrations, clues, reminders, help with remembering details or steps, encouragement to keep trying, and so on. Some problems, of course, are beyond the child’s capabilities, even if every step is explained clearly. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the area between the child’s current performance (the problems the child can solve independently without any support) and the level of performance that the child could achieve with adult guidance or by working with “a more fully developed child” (p. 202). It is a dynamic and changing space as student and teacher interact and understandings are exchanged. This is the area where instruction can succeed. Kathleen Berger (2015; 2016) called this area the “magic middle”—somewhere between what the student already knows and what the student isn’t ready to understand or learn yet. PRIVATE SPEECH AND THE ZONE.  We can see how Vygotsky’s beliefs about the role of private speech in cognitive development fit with the notion of the ZPD. Often, an adult uses verbal prompts and structuring to help a child solve a problem or accomplish a task. We will see later that this type of support has been called scaffolding. This support can be gradually reduced as the child takes over the guidance, perhaps first by giving the prompts as private speech and finally as inner speech. As an example, think of the young girl described earlier who had lost her toy. Let’s move forward several years

MyLab Education

Video Example 2.3 In this video, one teacher guides young children in putting together puzzles and another guides a boy to create a pattern by organizing toy trucks based on color. Is the process of organizing toys in a pattern based on color a skill that is in the boy’s zone of proximal development, or is it still too advanced for a child at his developmental level?

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support.

TABLE 2.4  •  Differences Between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories of Egocentric, or Private, Speech PIAGET

VYGOTSKY

Meaning and Purpose

Represents an inability to take the perspective of another and engage in reciprocal communication.

Represents externalized thought; its function is to communicate with the self for the purpose of self-guidance and self-direction.

Course of Development

Declines with age.

Increases at younger ages and then gradually loses its audible quality to become internal verbal thought.

Relationship to Social Speech

Negative; the least socially and cognitively mature children use more egocentric speech.

Positive; private speech develops out of social interaction with others.

Relationship to Environmental Contexts

No relationship

Increases with task difficulty. Private speech serves a helpful self-guiding function in situations where more cognitive effort is needed to reach a solution.

Source: From “Development of Private Speech among Low-Income Appalachian Children,” by L. E. Berk and R. A. Garvin, 1984, Developmental Psychology, 20, p. 272. Copyright © 1984 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.

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in her life and listen to her thoughts as an older student when she realizes that a schoolbook is missing. They might sound something like this: “Where’s my math book? Used it in class. Thought I put it in my book bag after class. Dropped my bag on the bus. That dope Larry kicked my stuff, so maybe. . . .”

The girl can now systematically search for ideas about the lost book without help from anyone. THE ROLE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT.  Piaget defined development as the active construction of knowledge and learning as the passive formation of associations (Siegler, 2000). He was interested in knowledge construction and believed that cognitive development has to come before learning—the child had to be cognitively “ready” to learn. Students can memorize, for example, that Geneva is in Switzerland, but still insist that they cannot be Genevan and Swiss at the same time. True understanding will take place only when the child has developed the operation of class inclusion—that one category can be included within another. But as we saw earlier, research has not supported Piaget’s position on the need for cognitive development to precede learning (Brainerd, 2003). In contrast, Vygotsky believed that learning is an active process that does not have to wait for readiness. He saw learning as a tool in development; learning pulls development up to higher levels, and social interaction is a key in learning. In other words, what develops next is what is affected by learning (Bodrova & Leong, 2012; Gredler, 2012; Wink & Putney, 2002). This means that other people, including teachers, play a significant role in cognitive development. It does not mean that Vygotsky believed memorization is learning. When teachers try to directly communicate their understanding, the result can be a “meaningless acquisition of words” and “mere verbalization” (Vygotsky 1934/1987b, p. 356) that actually hides an understanding vacuum (Gredler, 2012). In Vygotsky’s words, the teacher “explains, informs, inquires, corrects, and forces the child to explain” (p. 216).

Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory Vygotsky’s theory added important considerations by highlighting the role of culture and social processes in cognitive development, but he may have gone too far. As you have seen in this chapter, we may be born with a greater store of cognitive tools than either Piaget or Vygotsky suggested. Some basic understandings, such as the idea that adding increases quantity, may be part of our biological predispositions, ready for use to guide our cognitive development. Young children appear to figure out much about the world before they have the chance to learn from either their culture or their teachers (Schunk, 2016; Woodward & Needham, 2009). The major limitation of Vygotsky’s theory, however, is that it consists mostly of general ideas; Vygotsky died before he could expand and elaborate on his ideas and pursue his research. His students continued to investigate his ideas, but much of that work was suppressed by Stalin’s regime until the 1950s and 1960s (Gredler, 2005, 2009b; Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003). A final limitation might be that Vygotsky did not have time to detail the applications of his theories for teaching, even though he was very interested in instruction. As a result, most of the applications described today have been created by others—and we don’t even know if Vygotsky would agree with them. It is clear that some of his concepts, like ZPD, have been misrepresented at times (Gredler, 2012). MyLab Education Self-Check 2.4

IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGET’S AND VYGOTSKY’S THEORIES FOR TEACHERS Piaget did not make specific educational recommendations, and Vygotsky did not have enough time to develop a complete set of applications. But we can glean some guidance from both men.

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Piaget: What Can We Learn? Piaget was more interested in understanding children’s thinking than in guiding teachers. He did express some general ideas about educational philosophy, however. He believed that the main goal of education should be to help children learn how to learn, and that education should “form not furnish” the minds of students (Piaget, 1969, p. 70). Piaget has taught us that we can learn a great deal about how children think by listening carefully and by paying close attention to their ways of solving problems. If we understand children’s thinking, we will be better able to match teaching methods to children’s current knowledge and abilities; in other words, we will be better able to differentiate instruction. Even though Piaget did not design programs of education based on his ideas, his influence on current educational practice is huge (Hindi & Perry, 2007). For example, the National Association for the Education of Young Children has guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) that incorporate Piaget’s findings (Bredekamp, 2017; Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). UNDERSTANDING AND BUILDING ON STUDENTS’ THINKING.  The students in any class will vary greatly in both their level of cognitive development and their academic knowledge. As a teacher, how can you determine whether students are having trouble because they lack the necessary thinking abilities or because they simply have not learned the basic facts? To do this, Case (1985) suggests you observe your students carefully as they try to solve the problems you have presented. What kind of logic do they use? Do they focus on only one aspect of the situation? Are they fooled by appearances? Do they suggest solutions systematically or by guessing and forgetting what they have already tried? Ask your students how they tried to solve the problem. Listen to their strategies. What kind of thinking is behind repeated mistakes or problems? Students are the best sources of information about their own thinking (Confrey, 1990). An important implication of Piaget’s theory for teaching is what J. Hunt years ago (1961) called, “the problem of the match.” Students must be neither bored by work that is too simple nor left behind by teaching they cannot understand. According to Hunt, disequilibrium must be kept “just right” to encourage growth. Setting up situations that lead to unexpected results can help create an appropriate level of disequilibrium. When students experience some conflict between what they think should happen (a piece of wood should sink because it is big) and what actually happens (it floats!), they may rethink the situation, and new knowledge may develop. Many materials and lessons can be understood at several levels and can be “just right” for a range of cognitive abilities. Classics such as Alice in Wonderland, myths, and fairy tales can be enjoyed at both concrete and symbolic levels. It is also possible for a group of students to be introduced to a topic together, and then work individually on follow-up activities matched to their learning needs. Using multilevel lessons is called differentiated instruction (Gipe, 2014; Tomlinson, 2005b). We will look at this approach more closely in Chapter 14. ACTIVITY AND CONSTRUCTING KNOWLEDGE.  Piaget’s fundamental insight was that individuals construct their own understanding; learning is a constructive process. At every level of cognitive development, you will also want to see that students are actively engaged in the learning process. In Piaget’s words: Knowledge is not a copy of reality. To know an object, to know an event, is not simply to look at it and make a mental copy or image of it. To know an object is to act on it. To know is to modify, to transform the object, and to understand the process of this transformation, and as a consequence to understand the way the object is constructed. (Piaget, 1964, p. 8)

For example, research in teaching mathematics indicates that students from kindergarten to college remember basic facts better when they have learned using manipulative materials such as counting sticks, pattern blocks, fraction strips, or blocks, versus using abstract symbols only (Carbonneau, Marley, & Selig, 2013). Beware, however, of assuming that you can just give students manipulatives to work with and they will learn

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Implications of Piaget’s Theory (I, A2) The music, physical education, and art teachers in a rural, pre-K-to-8 school district work with students who characterize several of Piaget’s stages. How should these three teachers adjust their teaching from level to level over the course of a week?

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automatically. In one study, middle school students learned more science when teachers accompanied manipulatives with strong guidance about how to use them. Research in other subject areas has found similar results (Hushman & Marley, 2015; Marley & Carbonneau, 2014). This active experience, even at the earliest school levels, should not be limited to the physical manipulation of objects. It should also include mental manipulation of ideas that arise out of class projects or experiments (Gredler, 2005, 2012). For example, after a social studies lesson on different jobs, a primary-grade teacher might show students a picture of a woman and ask, “What could this person be?” After answers such as “teacher,” “doctor,” “secretary,” “lawyer,” “saleswoman,” and so on, the teacher could suggest, “How about a daughter?” Answers such as “sister,” “mother,” “aunt,” and “granddaughter” may follow. This should help the children switch dimensions in their classification and center on another aspect of the situation. Next, the teacher might suggest “American,” “jogger,” or “blonde.” With older children, hierarchical classification might be involved: It is a picture of a woman, who is a human being; a human being is a primate, which is a mammal, which is an animal, which is a life form. All students need to interact with teachers and peers in order to test their thinking, to be challenged, to receive feedback, and to watch how others work out problems. Disequilibrium is often set in motion quite naturally when the teacher or another student suggests a new way of thinking about something. As a general rule, students should act on, manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or write about (to the teacher and each other) what they have experienced. Concrete experiences provide the raw materials for thinking. Communicating with others makes students use, test, and sometimes change their thinking strategies. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory (I, A2) Make a list of scaffolding techniques that would be appropriate with different instructional levels and content areas. Think of scaffolding techniques that others have used when you learned things outside of school (e.g., sports, hobbies).

Scaffolding  Support for learning and problem solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner. Teachers and students make meaningful connections between what the teacher knows and what the students know and need in order to help the students learn more.

Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that the main goal of education was the development of higher mental functions, not simply filling students’ memories with facts. So Vygotsky probably would oppose educational curricula that are an inch deep and a mile wide or seem like “trivial pursuit.” As an example of this trivial pursuit curriculum, Margaret Gredler (2009a) described a set of materials for a 9-week science unit that had 61 glossary terms such as aqueous solution, hydrogen bonding, and fractional crystallization— many terms described with only one or two sentences. There are at least three ways that higher mental functions can be developed through cultural tools and passed from one individual to another: imitative learning (one person tries to imitate the other), instructed learning (learners internalize the instructions of the teacher and use these instructions to self-regulate), and collaborative learning (a group of peers strives to understand each other and learning occurs in the process) (Tomasello, Kruger, & Ratner, 1993). Vygotsky was most concerned with the second type, instructed learning through direct teaching or by structuring experiences that encourage another’s learning, but his theory supports learning through imitation or collaboration as well. Thus, Vygotsky’s ideas are relevant for educators who teach directly, intentionally use modeling to teach, or create collaborative learning environments (Das, 1995; P. H. Miller, 2016; Wink & Putney, 2002). That pretty much includes all of us. THE ROLE OF ADULTS AND PEERS.  Vygotsky believed the child is not alone in the world “discovering” the cognitive operations of conservation or classification. This discovery is assisted or mediated by family members, teachers, peers, and even software tools (Puntambekar & Hubscher, 2005). Most of this guidance is communicated through language, at least in Western cultures. In some cultures, observing a skilled performance, not talking about it, guides the child’s learning (Rogoff, 1990). Some people have called this adult assistance scaffolding, taken from Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976). The idea is that children use the help for support while they build a firm understanding that will eventually allow them to solve the problems on their own. Actually, when Wood and his colleagues introduced the term scaffolding, they were talking about how teachers set up or structure learning environments, but Vygotsky’s theory implies more dynamic exchanges that allow the teacher to support students in the parts of the task they cannot do alone—the interactions of assisted learning, as you will see next (Schunk, 2016).

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TABLE 2.5  •  Strategies to Provide Scaffolding and Assisted Learning • Model the thought process for the students: Think out loud as you solve the problem or outline an essay, for example. • Provide organizers or starters such as who, what, why, how, what next? • Do part of the problem. • Give hints and cues. • Encourage students to set short-term goals and take small steps. • Connect new learning to students’ interests or prior learning. • Use graphic organizers: timelines, charts, tables, categories, checklists, and graphs. • Simplify the task, clarify the purpose, and give clear directions. • Teach key vocabulary and provide examples.

ASSISTED LEARNING.  Vygotsky’s theory suggests that teachers need to do more than just arrange the environment so that students can discover on their own. Children cannot and should not be expected to reinvent or rediscover knowledge already available in their cultures. Rather, they should be guided and assisted in their learning (Karpov & Haywood, 1998). Assisted learning, or guided participation, requires first learning from the student what is needed; then giving information, prompts, reminders, and encouragement at the right time and in the right amounts; and gradually allowing the students to do more and more on their own. Teachers can assist learning by adapting materials or problems to students’ current levels; demonstrating skills or thought processes; walking students through the steps of a complicated problem; doing part of the problem (e.g., in algebra, the students set up the equation and the teacher does the calculations or vice versa); giving detailed feedback and allowing revisions; or asking questions that refocus students’ attention (Rosenshine & Meister, 1992). Cognitive apprenticeships (Chapter 10) are examples. Look at Table 2.5 for examples of strategies that can be used in any lesson.

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Video Example 2.4 The children in this class are learning about earthworms. How does the teacher guide the students to encourage them to make their own discoveries?

An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind Deborah Leong and Elena Bodrova (2012) worked for years to develop a curriculum for preschool through second-grade children based on Vygotsky’s theory. In Russia, Dr. Bodrova had studied with students and colleagues of Vygotsky and wanted to bring his ideas to teachers. The result is the Tools of the Mind project that includes curriculum ideas for preschool, kindergarten, and special needs students (see toolsofthemind. org). One key idea taken from Vygotsky is that as children develop mental tools such as strategies for focusing attention, they cease being prisoners of their environment— having their attention “grabbed away” by any new sight or sound. They learn to control their attention. A second key idea is that play, particularly dramatic pretend play, is the most important activity supporting the development of young children. Through dramatic play children learn to focus attention, control impulses, follow rules, use symbols, regulate their own behaviors, and cooperate with others. So a key element of the Tools of the Mind curriculum for young children is play plans, created by the students themselves. Children draw a picture of how they plan to play that day, and then describe it to the teacher, who may make notes on the page and thus model literacy activities. Plans become more complex and detailed as children become better planners. Figure 2.5 on the next page shows Brandon’s simple play plan at the beginning of age 3 and then another plan at the end of age 4. His later plan shows better fine motor control, more mature drawing, increased imagination, and greater use of language.

Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle” Both Piaget and Vygotsky probably would agree that students should be taught in the magic middle (Berger, 2015, 2016), or the place of the “match” ( J. Hunt, 1961)—where they are neither bored nor frustrated. Students should be put in situations where they have to reach to understand but where support from other students, learning materials,

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Distinctions Between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories (I, A2) Consider how two teachers— one based in Vygotskian theory and one based in Piagetian theory—might differ in their concepts of learning and teaching and the instructional techniques that they might prefer.

Assisted learning Providing strategic help in the initial stages of learning, gradually diminishing as students gain independence.

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FIGU RE 2.5 BRANDON’S PLAY PLANS At the beginning of age 3, Brandon’s play plans show that he wants to go to the art center. By the end of age 4, Brandon plans to pretend to be a king. He is beginning to use sounds in writing.

End of age 4

Beginning of age 3 Source: “Brandon’s Plan, Beginning Age 3 Preschool”. Tools of the Mind. http://www.toolsofthemind.org/curriculum/preschool. Used by permission.

or the teacher is also available. Sometimes the best teacher is another student who has just figured out how to solve the problem, because this student is probably operating in the learner’s ZPD. Having a student work with someone who is just a bit better at the activity would be a good idea because both students benefit in the exchange of explanations, elaborations, and questions. In addition, students should be encouraged to use language to organize their thinking and to talk about what they are trying to accomplish, as in Figure 2.5. Dialogue and discussion are important avenues to learning (Karpov & Bransford, 1995; Kozulin & Presseisen, 1995; Wink & Putney, 2002). The Guidelines: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching give more ideas for applying Vygotsky’s insights.

Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers In spite of cross-cultural differences in cognitive development and the different theories of development, there are some convergences. Piaget, Vygotsky, and more recent researchers studying cognitive development and the brain probably would agree with the following big ideas: 1. Cognitive development requires both physical and social stimulation. 2. To develop thinking, children have to be mentally, physically, and linguistically active. They need to experiment with, talk about, describe, reflect on, write about, and solve problems. But they also benefit from teaching, guidance, questions, explanations, demonstrations, and challenges to their thinking. 3. Teaching students what they already know is boring. Trying to teach what the student isn’t ready to learn is frustrating and ineffective. 4. Challenge with support will keep students engaged but not fearful.

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GUIDELINES Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching Tailor scaffolding to the needs of students. Examples 1. When students are beginning new tasks or topics, provide models, prompts, sentence starters, coaching, and feedback. As the students grow in competence, give less support and more opportunities for independent work. 2. Give students choices about the level of difficulty or degree of independence in projects; encourage them to challenge themselves but to seek help when they are really stuck.

Build on the students’ cultural funds of knowledge (N. Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Moll et al., 1992). Examples 1. Identify family knowledge by having students interview each other’s families about their work and home knowledge (agriculture, economics, manufacturing, household management, medicine and illness, religion, child care, cooking, etc.). 2. Tie assignments to these funds of knowledge, and use community experts to evaluate assignments.

Make sure students have access to powerful tools that support thinking. Examples 1. Teach students to use learning and organizational strategies, research tools, language tools (wikis, dictionaries, or computer searches), spreadsheets, and word-processing programs. 2. Model the use of tools; show students how you use an appointment book or calendar app on your smartphone to make plans and manage time, for example.

Capitalize on dialogue and group learning. Examples 1. Experiment with peer tutoring; teach students how to ask good questions and give helpful explanations. 2. Experiment with cooperative learning strategies described in Chapter 10. Source: For more information about Vygotsky and his theories, see tip. psychology.org/vygotsky.html

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. SUMMARY A Definition of Development (pp. 60–62) What are the different kinds of development? Human development can be divided into physical development (changes in the body), personal development (changes in an individual’s personality), social development (changes in the way an individual relates to others), and cognitive development (changes in thinking). What are three questions about development and three general principles? For decades, psychologists and the public have debated whether development is shaped more by nature or nurture, whether change is a continuous process or involves qualitative differences or stages, and whether there are critical times for the development of certain abilities. We know today that these simple either/or distinctions cannot capture the complexities of human development where coactions and interactions are the rule. Theorists generally agree that people develop at different rates, that development is an orderly process, and that development takes place gradually.

The Brain and Cognitive Development (pp. 62–73) What part of the brain is associated with higher mental functions?  The cortex is a crumpled sheet of neurons that serves three major functions: receiving signals from sense organs (such as visual or auditory signals), controlling voluntary movement,

and forming connections. The part of the cortex that controls physical motor movement develops or matures first, then the areas that control complex senses such as vision and hearing, and last, the frontal lobe, which controls higher-order thinking processes. What is lateralization, and why is it important?  Lateralization is the specialization of the two sides, or hemispheres, of the brain. For most people, the left hemisphere is the major factor in language, and the right hemisphere is prominent in spatial and visual processing. Even though certain functions are associated with particular parts of the brain, the various parts and systems of the brain work together to learn and perform complex activities such as reading and constructing understanding. What are some implications for teachers?  Recent advances in both teaching methods and discoveries in the neurosciences provide exciting information about brain activity during learning and brain activity differences among people with varying abilities and challenges and from different cultures. These findings have some basic implications for teaching, but many of the strategies offered by “brain-based” advocates are simply good teaching. Perhaps we now know more about why these strategies work.

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Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (pp. 73–85)

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective (pp. 85–90)

What are the main influences on cognitive development?  Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is based on the assumption that people try to make sense of the world and actively create knowledge through direct experiences with objects, people, and ideas. Maturation, activity, social transmission, and the need for equilibrium all influence cognitive development. In response to these influences, thinking processes and knowledge develop through changes in the organization of thought (the development of schemes) and through adaptation—including the complementary processes of assimilation (incorporating into existing schemes) and accommodation (changing existing schemes).

According to Vygotsky, what are three main influences on cognitive development? Vygotsky believed that human activities must be understood in their cultural settings. He believed that our specific mental structures and processes can be traced to our interactions with others; that the tools of the culture, especially the tool of language, are key factors in development; and that the ZPD is where learning and development are possible.

What is a scheme? Schemes are the basic building blocks of thinking. They are organized systems of actions or thought that allow us to mentally represent or “think about” the objects and events in our world. Schemes may be very small and specific (grasping, recognizing a square), or they may be larger and more general (using a map in a new city). People adapt to their environment as they increase and organize their schemes. As children move from sensorimotor to formal-operational thinking, what are the major changes? Piaget believed that young people pass through four stages as they develop: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete-operational, and formaloperational. In the sensorimotor stage, infants explore the world through their senses and motor activity, and they work toward mastering object permanence and performing goaldirected activities. In the preoperational stage, symbolic thinking and logical operations begin. Children in the stage of concrete operations can think logically about tangible situations and can demonstrate conservation, reversibility, classification, and seria­ tion. The ability to perform hypothetico-deductive reasoning, coordinate a set of variables, and imagine other worlds marks the stage of formal operations. How do neo-Piagetian and information processing views explain changes in children’s thinking over time?  Information processing theories focus on attention, memory capacity, learning strategies, and other processing skills to explain how children develop rules and strategies for making sense of the world and solving problems. Neo-Piagetian approaches also look at attention, memory, and strategies and at how thinking develops in different domains such as numbers or spatial relations. Research in neuroscience suggests that when learning a new skill, children move through three tiers—from actions to representations to abstractions. Within each tier, the pattern is moving from accomplishing a single action to mapping or coordinating two actions together such as coordinating addition and multiplication in math, to creating whole systems of understanding. What are some limitations of Piaget’s theory? Piaget’s theory has been criticized because children and adults often think in ways that are inconsistent with the notion of invariant stages. It also appears that Piaget underestimated children’s cognitive abilities; he insisted that children could not be taught the operations of the next stage but had to develop them on their own. Alternative explanations place greater emphasis on students’ developing information processing skills and ways teachers can enhance their development. Piaget’s work is also criticized for overlooking cultural factors in child development.

What are psychological tools and why are they important?  Psychological tools are signs and symbol systems such as numbers and mathematical systems, codes, and language that support learning and cognitive development. They change the thinking process by enabling and shaping thinking. Many of these tools are passed from adult to child through formal and informal interactions and teachings. Explain how interpsychological development becomes intrapsychological development.  Higher mental processes appear first between people as they are co-constructed during shared activities. As children engage in activities with adults or more capable peers, they exchange ideas and ways of thinking about or representing concepts. Children internalize these co-created ideas. Children’s knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through appropriating, or “taking for themselves,” the ways of acting and thinking provided by their culture and by the more capable members of their group. What are the differences between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s perspectives on private speech and its role in development?  Vygotsky’s sociocultural view asserts that cognitive development hinges on social interaction and the development of language. As an example, Vygotsky describes the role of children’s self-directed talk in guiding and monitoring thinking and problem solving, whereas Piaget suggests that private speech is an indication of the child’s egocentrism. Vygotsky, more than Piaget, emphasized the significant role played by adults and more-able peers in children’s learning. This adult assistance provides early support while students build the understanding necessary to solve problems on their own later. What is a student’s ZPD?  At any given point in development, there are certain problems that a child is on the verge of being able to solve and others that are beyond the child’s capabilities. The ZPD (zone of proximal development) is the place where the child cannot solve a problem alone but can succeed under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more advanced peer. What are two criticisms or limitations of Vygotsky’s theory?  Vygotsky may have overemphasized the role of social interaction in cognitive development; children figure out quite a bit on their own. Also, because he died so young, Vygotsky was not able to develop and elaborate on his ideas. His students and others since have taken up that work.

Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers (pp. 90–95) What is the “problem of the match” described by Hunt? The “problem of the match” is that students must be neither bored by work that is too simple nor left behind by teaching they

CO GNI TI V E D EVELOPMEN T cannot understand. According to Hunt, disequilibrium must be carefully balanced to encourage growth. Situations that lead to unexpected results can help create an appropriate level of disequilibrium. What is active learning? Why is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development consistent with active learning? Piaget’s fundamental insight was that individuals construct their own understanding; learning is a constructive process. At every level of cognitive development, students must be able to incorporate information into their own schemes. To do this, they must act on the information in some way. This active experience, even at the earliest school levels, should include both physical manipulation of objects and mental manipulation of ideas. As a general rule, students should act, manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or write about what they have experienced.

Concrete experiences provide the raw materials for thinking. Communicating with others makes students use, test, and sometimes change their thinking abilities. What is assisted learning, and what role does scaffolding play?  Assisted learning, or guided participation in the classroom, requires scaffolding—understanding the students’ needs; giving information, prompts, reminders, and encouragement at the right time and in the right amounts; and then gradually allowing the students to do more and more on their own. Teachers can assist learning by adapting materials or problems to students’ current levels, demonstrating skills or thought processes, walking students through the steps of a complicated problem, doing part of the problem, giving detailed feedback and allowing revisions, or asking questions that refocus students’ attention.

. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. Scheme, Assimilation, and Accommodation

Piagetian Concepts in a First Grade Lesson

Using Cultural Tools To Guide Learning

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Application Exercise 2.1

Application Exercise 2.2

Application Exercise 2.3

. KEY TERMS Accommodation (p. 75) Adaptation (p. 74) Adolescent egocentrism (p. 81) Assimilation (p. 75) Assisted learning (p. 93) Classification (p. 78) Coactions (p. 61) Co-constructed process (p. 86) Cognitive development (p. 61) Collective monologue (p. 88) Compensation (p. 78) Computerized axial tomography (CAT) (p. 62) Concrete operations (p. 78) Conservation (p. 77) Cultural tools (p. 86) Decentering (p. 77) Development (p. 60) Disequilibrium (p. 75) Egocentric (p. 77) Electroencephalograph (EEG) (p. 62)

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Equilibration (p. 75) Event-related potential (ERP) (p. 62) Executive functioning (p. 84) Formal operations (p. 80) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (p. 62) Glial cells (p. 66) Goal-directed actions (p. 76) Hypothetico-deductive reasoning (p. 81) Identity (p. 78) Lateralization (p. 66) Maturation (p. 61) Myelination (p. 66) Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT) (p. 63) Neo-Piagetian theories (p. 84) Neurogenesis (p. 63) Neurons (p. 63) Object permanence (p. 76) Operations (p. 77) Organization (p. 74)

Personal development (p. 61) Physical development (p. 61) Plasticity (p. 63) Positron emission tomography (PET) (p. 62) Preoperational (p. 77) Private speech (p. 88) Reversibility (p. 78) Reversible thinking (p. 77) Scaffolding (p. 92) Schemes (p. 75) Semiotic function (p. 77) Sensitive periods (p. 61) Sensorimotor (p. 76) Seriation (p. 79) Social development (p. 61) Sociocultural theory (p. 85) Synapses (p. 63) Synaptic plasticity (p. 63) Zone of proximal development (ZPD) (p. 89)

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. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Classes at Star Community High School began at 7:30 a.m. The new principal, however, wanted to start classes at a later time of 10:00 a.m. The principal submitted a proposal to the local education office and provided several reasons for the recommended change. Imagine you were the officer tasked to handle the proposal and to verify the reasons cited by the principal. In your review, you found that several of the reasons made claims that were not s­ upported by research, EXCEPT: A. Teenagers undergo neurological developments that reset their biological clock, making many of them unable to sleep before midnight, and hence, they would not get the ideal 9 hours of sleep if school started at 7:30 a.m. B. Research consistently and conclusively shows that schools that start later in the day (e.g., 10:00 a.m.) have better academic performance than schools that begin early (e.g., 7:30 a.m.). C. Schools that begin too early may lead many students to experience sleep deprivation, and sleep deprivation is related to failure in memory retrieval; so, performance would suffer. D. It is better to give students more time for breakfast and less time for lunch, given that the former supplements students with nutritions needed to energize their day, while the latter generally leads to drowsiness in afternoon classes. 2. Miss McClintock discovered that five of the children in her class were developmentally advanced. All of the students’ language skills were exploding! Although many of the students still had trouble sharing, a few appeared to understand that by sharing, everyone could be happy. Finally, there was even one child who could solve conservation problems. According to Piagetian theory, in what stage are the students in Miss McClintock’s class? A. Formal operations B. Concrete operations C. Preoperational D. Sensorimotor 3. You want to maximize your students’ learning outcomes and you recently read a book written by Vygotsky. Which of the following strategies would LEAST likely be employed by you? A. Whenever appropriate, you will utilize technological tools and interactive devices to assist with your teaching. B. You will put students in the same classroom into groups for discussions to facilitate their learning of challenging topics.

C. You will assign additional challenge questions at the end of each class and provide appropriate assistance to your students in solving these. D. You will encourage students to think about certain problems and talk to themselves about the issues they are working on, before soliciting answers from them. 4. Which of the following is TRUE about cognitive development and teaching? A. Teachers should provide more social stimulations and reduce physical stimulations in the classroom because the former is more important for early cognitive development. B. Students will benefit if most of their learning comes through direct instructions from a more experienced teacher. C. Repeatedly teaching students what they already know is important to reinforce their memory and to consolidate their knowledge. D. Providing students with challenging questions will not intimidate them, but keep them engaged, if appropriate supports are given.

CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case When planning for instruction, Mr. Gething remembered that students should be neither bored nor frustrated. Although this made sense to him, he was unsure how he would compensate for the diverse group of students he had in his second-period language arts class. Some students had difficulty with the English language, and other students planned to participate in the school’s annual Shakespearean play. He knew that by grouping students of mixed ability, he could occasionally draw on the talents of his knowledgeable students to assist the less-advanced students. He also understood that without guidelines, students might not accomplish anything. 5. Explain the theory of learning Mr. Gething is initially drawing on, and identify the individual credited with it. 6. What is the term for the assistance that the more knowledgeable class members may provide to the less-advanced students in order to help them succeed? List some ­strategies these students might use to assist their peers.

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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK:  Symbols and Cymbals Here is how several expert teachers said they would help their students understand abstract concepts. LINDA GLISSON AND SUE MIDDLETON • Fifth-Grade Team Teachers St. James Episcopal Day School, Baton Rouge, LA

To begin the lesson, I would have the students use a dictionary to define the word symbolism (root word—symbol) to discover that it means “something that stands for or represents something else.” I would then give them a brief “across the curriculum” exercise in ways they incorporate symbols and symbolism into their thinking every day. Examples follow. Social studies, American history: The American flag is just a piece of cloth. Why then do we recite a pledge to it? Stand at attention when it passes in a parade? What does it stand for? English, literature— fables and fairy tales: What does the wolf usually represent (stand for)? The lion? The lamb? Art: What color stands for a glorious summer day? Evil? Goodness and purity? I would continue with math symbols, scientific symbols, and music symbols and lead the students toward contributing other examples such as symbols representing holidays. I would then tell them about their own examples of symbolism that I had recorded. The students’ participation in and enthusiasm for the exercises would serve to determine whether they were ready for the material. DR. NANCY SHEEHAN-MELZACK  •  Art and Music Teacher Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA

Even very young children can recognize symbols if the symbol is presented first and the explanation required second. A drawing of an octagon on a pole has always elicited the answer, “A stop sign,” whenever I have shown it. Children recognize symbols, but the teacher needs to work from their concrete knowledge to the more abstract concept, and there are a great many symbols in their daily life on which one can draw. Children as young as first-graders can recognize traffic sign shapes, letters

of the alphabet, and numbers, and further can recognize that they stand for directions, sounds, and how many. When they talk about these very common symbols, they can also realize they all use them for the same meaning. VALERIE A. CHILCOAT • Fifth/Sixth-Grade Advanced Academics Glenmount School, Baltimore, MD

Concrete examples of symbolism must come from the students’ own world. Street signs, especially those with pictures and not words, are a great example. These concrete symbols, however, are not exactly the same as symbolism used in poetry. The link has to be made from the concrete to the abstract. Silly poetry is one way to do this. It is motivating to the students to read or listen to, and it can provide many examples of one thing acting as another. This strategy can also be used in lower grades to simply expose children to poetry containing symbolism. KAREN BOYARSKY • Fifth-Grade Teacher Walter C. Black Elementary School, Hightstown, NJ

You can tell a lot about students’ thinking simply by interpreting their reactions. Knowing how to interpret students’ reactions is just as important as any other assessment tool you might use. In this case, it is clear that the students are confused about the concept of symbolism. This is a difficult concept even for many fifth-graders to understand and should be approached slowly. One approach to this topic would be to present students with pictures of familiar symbols, such as McDonald’s Golden Arches, the Nike Swoosh, or the Target logo. Students could attempt to explain what each of these symbols mean. A discussion about why manufacturers choose to use symbols instead of words would follow. Another approach would be to have the students interpret comparisons that use like or as. For example, “Sue is as pretty as a flower.” The teacher would guide the student to see that the author is using a flower to symbolize Sue’s looks.

chapter three

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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Mean Girls

WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

THE SELF, SOCIAL, AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT You have seen it before, but this year the situation in your middle school classroom seems especially vicious. A clique of popular girls has made life miserable for several of their former friends—who are now “rejects.” The discarded friends have committed the social sins of not fitting in—they wear the wrong clothes or aren’t “pretty” enough or aren’t interested in boys yet. To keep the status distinctions clear between themselves and “the others,” the popular girls spread gossip about their former friends, often disclosing the intimate secrets revealed when the “out” girls and the “in” girls were best friends—only a few months ago. Today, you discover that Stephanie, one of the rejected girls, has written a long, heart-baring e-mail to her former best friend, Alison, asking why Alison is “acting so mean.” The now-popular Alison forwarded the e-mail to the entire school, and Stephanie is humiliated. She has been absent for 3 days since the incident. CRITICAL THINKING • How would you respond to each of the girls? • What—if anything—would you say to your other students? • Are there ways you can address the issues raised by this situation in your classes? • Reflecting on your years in school, were your experiences more like those of Alison or Stephanie?

Agsandrew/Shutterstock

OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES Schooling involves more than cognitive development. As you think back on your years in school, what stands out—highlights of academic knowledge or memories of feelings, friendships, and fears? In this chapter, we examine the latter, which comprise personal, social, and moral development. We begin by looking at a basic aspect of development that affects all the others—physical changes as students mature. Then we explore Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory and use it as a framework for examining three major influences on children’s personal and social development: families, peers, and teachers. Families today have gone through many transitions, and these changes affect the roles of teachers. Next, we explore ideas about how we come to understand ourselves by looking at self-concept and identity, including racial-ethnic identity. Erikson’s psychosocial theory provides a lens for viewing these developments. Finally, we consider moral development. What factors determine our views about morality? What can teachers do to foster such personal qualities as honesty and cooperation? Why do students cheat in their academic work, and what can be done? By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 3.1 Describe general trends, group differences, and challenges in physical development through childhood and adolescence. Objective 3.2 Discuss how the components of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model influence development, especially the impact of families, parenting styles, peers, and teachers. Objective 3.3 Describe general trends and group differences in the development of identity and self-concept. Objective 3.4 Explain theories of moral development including those of Kohlberg, Gilligan, Nucci, and Haidt, and discuss how teachers can deal with one moral challenge for students—cheating.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Physical Development Physical and Motor Development Play, Recess, and Physical Activity Reaching Every Student: Inclusive Athletics Challenges in Physical Development Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT This chapter is about personal and social development, but we begin with a kind of development that is a basic concern of all individuals and families—physical development. PUT YOURSELF IN THEIR PLACE  How tall are you? What grade were you in when you reached that height? Were you one of the tallest or shortest students in your middle or high school, or were you about average? Did you know students who were teased because of something about their physical appearance? How important was your physical development to your feelings about yourself? •

Families Peers Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support Teachers and Child Abuse Society and Media Identity and Self-Concept

Physical and Motor Development For most children, at least in the early years, growing up means getting bigger and stronger, and becoming more coordinated. It also can be a frightening, disappointing, exciting, and puzzling time.

YOUNG CHILDREN.  Preschool children are very active. Their gross-motor (large muscle) skills improve greatly durRacial and Ethnic Identity ing these early years. Between ages 2 and about 4 or 5, Self-Concept preschoolers’ muscles grow stronger, their brains develop Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic to better integrate information about movements, their balCompetence ance improves, and their center of gravity moves lower, so they are able to run, jump, climb, and hop. By age 2, most Self-Esteem children stop “toddling.” Their awkward, wide-legged gait Understanding Others and Moral Development becomes smooth and rhythmic; they have perfected walkTheory of Mind and Intention ing. During their third year, most children learn to run, Moral Development throw, and jump, but these activities are not well controlled until age 4 or 5. Most of these movements develop naturally Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and if the child has normal physical abilities and the opportuPersonal Choices nity to play. Children with physical problems, however, may Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist need special training to develop these skills. And because Model of Moral Psychology they can’t always judge when to stop, many preschoolers Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating need interludes of rest scheduled after periods of physical exertion (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Thomas & Thomas, 2008). Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers Fine-motor skills such as tying shoes or fastening butSummary and Key Terms tons, which require the coordination of small movements, Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would also improve greatly during the preschool years. Children They Do? should be given the chance to work with large paintbrushes, fat pencils and crayons, big pieces of drawing paper, oversized Legos, and soft clay or play dough to accommodate their current skills. During this time, children will begin to develop a lifelong preference for their right or left hand. By age 5, about 90% of students prefer their right hand for most skilled work, and 10% or so prefer their left hand, with more boys than girls being left-handed (R. S. Feldman, 2004; E. L. Hill & Khanem, 2009). Handedness is a genetically based preference, so don’t try to make children switch. Some research even indicates that left-handed children are more likely than their right-handed peers to develop advanced verbal and mathematical skills (Berk & Meyers, 2016). Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS.  During the elementary school years, physical development is fairly steady for most children. They become taller, leaner, and stronger, so they are better able to master sports and games. There is tremendous variation among

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children, however. A particular child can be much larger or smaller than average and still be perfectly healthy. Because children at this age are very aware of physical differences but are not the most tactful people, you may overhear comments such as “You’re too little to be in third grade. What’s wrong with you?” or “How come you’re so fat?” Throughout elementary school, many of the girls are likely to be as large as or larger than the boys in their classes. Between the ages of 11 and 14, girls are, on average, taller and heavier than boys of the same age. This size discrepancy can give girls an advantage in physical activities, but some girls may feel conflict over this and, as a result, downplay their physical abilities (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). THE ADOLESCENT YEARS.  Puberty marks the beginning of sexual maturity. It is not a single event, but a series of changes involving almost every part of the body. The sex differences in physical development observed during the later elementary years become even more pronounced at the beginning of puberty. But these changes take time. The earliest visible signs of puberty in girls are the growth of nipples and budding of breasts at around age 9 for African American girls and 10 for European American and Canadian girls. At about the same time, boys’ testes and scrotums begin to grow larger. On average, between ages 12 and 13, girls have their first menstrual period (called menarche), but the range is from age 10 to 16½, with African American girls experiencing menarche about six months earlier on average than European American and Canadian girls. Boys have their first sperm ejaculation (called spermarche) between the ages of 12 to 14. Boys develop facial hair over the next several years, reaching their final beard potential by about age 18 or 19—with some exceptions who take longer to develop their final facial hair. Less-welcome changes in puberty are increases in skin oiliness, skin acne, and body odor. Girls reach their final height around ages 14 to 16, several years ahead of boys. So there is a time in middle school, as in late elementary school, when many girls are taller than their male classmates. Most boys continue growing until about age 19, but both boys and girls can continue to grow slightly until about age 25 (Thomas & Thomas, 2008; Wigfield, Byrnes, & Eccles, 2006). EARLY AND LATER MATURING.  Psychologists have been particularly interested in the academic, social, and emotional differences between adolescents who mature early and those who mature later. For girls, maturing way ahead of classmates can be a definite disadvantage. Being larger and more “developed” than everyone else your age is not a valued characteristic for girls in many cultures (D. C. Jones, 2004; Mendle & Ferrero, 2012). Early maturation is associated with emotional difficulties such as depression, anxiety, lower achievement in school, drug and alcohol abuse, unplanned pregnancy, suicide, greater risk of breast cancer in later life, and eating disorders, especially in societies that define thinness as attractive, at least for European American girls. Researchers have found fewer problems for early-maturing African American girls, but studies of these girls are limited (DeRose, Shiyko, Foster, & Brooks-Gunn, 2011; Stattin, Kerr, & Skoog, 2011). The timing of maturation is not the only factor affecting girls; social influences are powerful too. In a study of Native American (United States) and First Nations (Canada) girls, Melissa Walls and Les Whitbeck (2011) found early maturating girls were more likely to abuse alcohol and drugs, but this association was influenced by social factors such as early dating and the attitudes of peers toward drugs. Maturing early can place girls in dating and friendship contexts where it is difficult to say no to drugs. Later maturing girls seem to have fewer problems, but they may worry that something is wrong with them, so adult reassurance and support are important. Early maturity in males is associated with popularity. The early maturing boy’s taller, broad-shouldered body type fits the cultural stereotype for the male ideal. Even so, recent research points to more disadvantages than advantages for early maturation in boys. Early maturing boys tend to engage in more delinquent behavior––and this is true for White, African American, and Mexican American boys. They also appear to be at

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Human Development (I, A2) Explain how development in one domain (e.g., physical, emotional) can affect development in other domains.

MyLab Education

Video Example 3.1 Teenager Josh articulately describes some of the challenges that adolescents face, including his early maturation, a friend’s eating disorder, peer pressure, sexual relationships, and his after-school job.

Puberty  The physiological changes during adolescence that lead to the ability to reproduce. Menarche  The first menstrual period in girls. Spermarche  The first sperm ejaculation for boys.

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GUIDELINES Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom Address students’ physical differences in ways that do not call unnecessary attention to the variations. Examples 1. Try to seat smaller students so they can see and participate in class activities, but avoid seating arrangements that are obviously based on height. 2. Balance sports and games that rely on size and strength with games that reflect cognitive, artistic, social, or musical abilities, such as charades or drawing games. 3. Don’t use, and don’t allow students to use, nicknames based on physical traits. 4. In preschool classes, keep a good supply of left-handed scissors. Help students obtain factual information on differences in physical development. Examples 1. Set up science projects on sex differences in growth rates. 2. Have readings available that focus on differences between early and late maturers. Make sure that you present the positives and the negatives of each.

3. Find out the school policy on sex education and on informal guidance for students. Some schools, for example, encourage teachers to talk to girls who are upset about their first menstrual period, while other schools expect teachers to send the girls to talk to the school nurse (if your school still has one—budget cuts have eliminated many). 4. Give the students models in literature or in their community of accomplished and caring individuals who do not fit the culture’s ideal physical stereotypes. Accept that concerns about appearance and the opposite sex will occupy much time and energy for adolescents. Examples 1. Allow some time at the end of class for socializing. 2. Deal with some of these issues in curriculum-related materials. For more information about accommodations for physical differences in your classroom, see dos.claremontmckenna.edu/PhysicalLearningDiff.asp.

greater risk for depression, victimization by bullies, eating disorders, early sexual activity, and for abusing alcohol, illicit drugs, and cigarettes (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Mendle & Ferrero, 2012; Westling, Andrews, Hampson, & Peterson, 2008). Boys who mature late may have a more difficult time initially because they are smaller and less muscular than the “ideal” for men (Harter, 2006). However, some studies show that in adulthood, males who matured later tend to be more creative, tolerant, and perceptive. Perhaps the trials and anxieties of maturing late teach these boys to be better problem solvers (Brooks-Gunn, 1988; Steinberg, 2014). All adolescents can benefit from knowing that there is a very wide range for timing and rates in “normal” maturation and that there are challenges for both early and late maturers. See the Guidelines: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom.

Play, Recess, and Physical Activity Maria Montessori once noted, “Play is children’s work,” and Piaget and Vygotsky would agree. The brain develops with stimulation, and play provides some of that stimulation at every age. In fact, some neuroscientists suggest that play might help in the important process of pruning brain synapses during childhood (Pellis, 2006). Other psychologists believe play allows children to experiment safely as they learn about their environment, try out new behaviors, solve problems, and adapt to new situations (Pellegrini, Dupuis, & Smith, 2007). Babies in the sensorimotor stage learn by exploring, sucking, pounding, shaking, throwing—acting on their environments. Preoperational preschoolers are beginning to play simple games with predictable rules. They love make-believe play and use pretending to form symbols, explore language, and interact with others. Elementary school age children also like fantasy, but this fantasy play becomes more complex as children create characters and rules, for example, rules about how to bow to and obey the “Queen of everything.” They also are beginning to play more

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complex games and sports, and thus learn cooperation, fairness, negotiation, and winning and losing as well as developing more sophisticated language. As children head toward adolescence, play, games, and sports continue to be part of their physical and social development (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Play is particularly important for both children’s happiness and their social and cognitive development (Hopkins, Dore, & Lillard, 2015; Lillard et al., 2013). CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAY.  Consistent with so many other topics, there are cultural differences in play, as Vygotsky probably would emphasize. In some cultures, such as American or Turkish communities, adults, particularly mothers, often are play partners with their children. But in other cultures such as East Indian, Indonesian, or Mayan, adults are not seen as appropriate play partners for children; siblings and peers are the ones who teach younger children how to participate in play activities (Callaghan et al., 2011; Vandermass-Peler, 2002). In some families and cultures, children spend more time helping with chores and less time in solitary or group play. There are characteristic forms of play across cultures: Alaska Native children tell dream stories, Chinese children fly kites, Cameroonian children hunt for mice (Berger, 2015), and my Californian granddaughter went through a period when she was Elsa from Frozen and I always had to be Anna. Now we discuss our favorite ponies from My Little Pony and do experiments as she teaches me to be a “scientist.” Different materials and “toys” are used as available in different cultural groups—everything from expensive video games to sticks, rocks, and banana leaves. Children use what their culture provides to play. Also, teachers in the United States and Australia may place less emphasis on the value of play for children’s learning compared to teachers in other countries such as Norway, Sweden, New Zealand, and Japan, where a “play pedagogy” may be part of the curriculum (Lillemyr, Søbstad, Marder, & Flowerday, 2011; Synodi, 2010). EXERCISE AND RECESS.  Physical activity and participation in athletics have benefits for all students’ health, well-being, leadership skills, social relationships, brain development, and even learning. Because most of today’s children do not get much physical activity in their daily lives, schools have a role in promoting active play. There are good, academic reasons for recess and exercise. Exercise promotes blood flow and increased neurotransmitters in the brain, in addition to improving mood and helping students focus attention (Berger, 2015). Other researchers note that students in Asian countries, who consistently outperform U.S. students on international reading, science, and mathematics tests, have more frequent recess breaks throughout the school day. One study of 11,000 elementary students found that those who had daily recess of 15 minutes or longer every day were better behaved in class than students who had little or no recess. This was true even after controlling for student gender and ethnicity, public or private school setting, and class size (Barros, Silver, & Stein, 2009). Unfortunately, physical education (PE) time in the United States is being cut to allow for more academic time focused on test preparation (Ginsburg, 2007; Zhu, Boiarskaia, Welk, & Meredith, 2010). One strong caution in the call for more physical activity in schools: Research on concussions related to sports injuries indicates that full-impact contact sports should be avoided, at least for students under age 12 or so, and protective equipment is critical (Berger, 2015).

Reaching Every Student: Inclusive Athletics The sports participation of students with disabilities is limited in most schools. Recess breaks may be especially important for students with attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). If more breaks were provided, fewer students, especially boys, might be diagnosed with ADHD (Pellegrini & Bohn, 2005). But this could change. Federal laws state that schools have the legal obligation “to provide students with disabilities an equal opportunity to participate alongside their peers in after-school athletics and clubs. . . . [S]chools may not exclude students who have an intellectual, developmental, physical, or

MyLab Education

Video Example 3.2 As this video suggests, recess, school sports, and lessons that include physical activity help to foster not only motor development but also social and cognitive skills. Physical activity and participation in athletics has benefits for all students’ health, well-being, academic success, leadership skills, and their social relationships.

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any other disability from trying out and playing on a team, if they are otherwise qualified” (Duncan, 2013). Schools are not expected to change their standards for making or staying on a team, but they are expected to make reasonable accommodations, such as using a visual starter instead of a starting gun in races where a participant is deaf. Also, some sports participation for students with disabilities such as wheelchair basketball could be added to the extracurricular options. One reason for concern about physical activity for children is the increase in childhood obesity, as you will see next.

Challenges in Physical Development Physical development is public. Everyone sees how tall, short, heavy, thin, muscular, or coordinated you are. As students move into adolescence, they feel “on stage,” as if everyone is evaluating them; and physical development is part of what is being evaluated. So physical development also has psychological consequences (Thomas & Thomas, 2008). OBESITY.  If you have seen the news lately, you know that obesity is a growing problem in America, especially for children. In fact, between 1980 and 2012, the percentage of children ages 6 to 11 who were obese increased from 7% to 18%, while the percentage of 12- to 19-year-olds who were obese increased from 5% to 21% (Centers for Disease Control, 2015a). Obesity usually is defined as being more than 20% heavier than average compared to others of the same age, sex, and body build. Figure 3.1 shows some state-by-state rates of obesity for high school students in the United States. There is some good news, however. From 2004 to 2012, there was a significant decrease in obesity for preschool children (2 to 5 years old)—down from almost 14% to a little over 8% (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2014). The consequences of obesity are serious for children and adolescents: diabetes, strain on bones and joints, respiratory problems, and a greater chance of heart problems and obesity as adults. Obesity also has negative effects for children’s play with friends or participation in sports, as children with obesity often are the targets of cruel teasing. Like

FIGU RE 3.1 PERCENTAGE OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN SELECTED STATES WHO HAD OBESITY, 2015

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Not available and the statements would still be true (but not equalities as specified in the problem above). Bill Wetta, a student at Ashland University, offered another solution that used both Arabic and Roman numerals. You can move one matchstick to make the first V an X. Then VI = II becomes XI = II, or eleven (in Roman numerals) equals 11 (in Arabic numerals). Just this morning I received another creative approach from Ray Partlow, an educational psychology student in Newark, Ohio. He noted, “Simply remove a matchstick from the V from the left-hand side, and place it directly on top of the I, getting II = II.” Covering one matchstick with another opens up a whole new set of possibilities! Can you come up with any other solutions? Be creative!

Functional fixedness  Inability to use objects or tools in a new way. Response set  Rigidity; the tendency to respond in the most familiar way. Representativeness heuristic  Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well the events match your prototypes—what you think is representative of the category.

SOME PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS.  We often apply heuristics automatically to make quick judgments; that saves us time in everyday problem solving. The mind can react automatically and instantaneously, but the price we often pay for this efficiency may be bad problem solving, which can be costly. Making judgments by invoking stereotypes leads even smart people to make dumb decisions. For example, we might use representativeness heuristics to make judgments about possibilities based on our prototypes—what we think is representative of a category. Consider this: If I ask you whether a slim, short stranger who enjoys poetry is more likely to be a truck driver or an Ivy League classics professor, what would you say?

You might be tempted to answer based on your prototypes of truck drivers or professors. But consider the odds. With about 10 Ivy League schools and 4 or so classics professors per school, we have 40 professors. Say 10 are both short and slim, and half of those like poetry—we are left with 5. But there are at least 3.5 million truck drivers in the United States. If only 1 in every 5,000 of those truck drivers were short, slim poetry lovers, we would have 700 truck drivers who fit the description. With 700 truck drivers versus 5 professors, it is 140 times more likely that our stranger is a truck driver (Myers, 2005).

CO M PLE X CO GNI TI V E P ROCESSES

Teachers and students are busy people, and they often base their decisions on what they have in their minds at the time. When judgments are based on the availability of information in our memories, we are using the availability heuristic. If instances of events come to mind easily, we think they are common occurrences, but that is not necessarily the case; in fact, it is often wrong. People remember vivid stories and quickly come to believe that such events are the norm, but again, they often are wrong. For example, after you watch a few TV programs during “Shark Week” you may overestimate how many people actually are killed by sharks each year. Data may not support a judgment, but belief perseverance, or the tendency to hold on to our beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence, may make us resist change. The confirmation bias is the tendency to search for information that confirms our ideas and beliefs: This arises from our eagerness to get a good solution. You have often heard the saying “Don’t confuse me with the facts.” This aphorism captures the essence of the confirmation bias. Most people seek evidence that supports their ideas more readily than they search for facts that might refute them. For example, once you decide to buy a certain car, you are likely to notice reports about the good features of the car you chose, not the good news about the cars you rejected. Our automatic use of heuristics to make judgments, our eagerness to confirm what we like to believe, and our tendency to explain away failure combine to generate overconfidence. Students usually are overconfident about how fast they can get their papers written; it typically takes twice as long as they estimate (Buehler, Griffin, & Ross, 1994). In spite of their underestimation of their completion time, they remain overly confident of their next prediction. The Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving give some ideas for helping students become good problem solvers.

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Availability heuristic  Judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available in your memory, assuming those easily remembered events are common. Belief perseverance The tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence. Confirmation bias Seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming evidence.

GUIDELINES Applying Problem Solving Ask students if they are sure they understand the problem. Examples 1. Can they separate relevant from irrelevant information? 2. Are they aware of the assumptions they are making? 3. Encourage them to visualize the problem by diagramming or drawing it. 4. Ask them to explain the problem to someone else. What would a good solution look like? Encourage attempts to see the problem from different angles. Examples 1. Suggest several different possibilities yourself, and then ask students to offer some. 2. Give students practice in taking and defending different points of view on an issue. Let students do the thinking; don’t just hand them solutions. Examples 1. Offer individual problems as well as group problems, so that each student has the chance to practice.

2. Give partial credit if students have good reasons for “wrong” solutions to problems. 3. If students are stuck, resist the temptation to give too many clues. Let them think about the problem overnight. Help students develop systematic ways of considering alternatives. Examples 1. Think out loud as you solve problems. 2. Ask, “What would happen if?” 3. Keep a list of suggestions. Teach heuristics. Examples 1. Use analogies to solve the problem of limited parking in the downtown area. How are other “storage” problems solved? 2. Use the working-backward strategy to plan a party.

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Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving Most psychologists agree that effective problem solving is based on having an ample store of knowledge about the problem area (Belland, 2011; Schoenfeld, 2011). To solve the matchstick problem, for example, you had to understand Roman and Arabic numbers as well as the concept of square root. You also had to know that the square root of 1 is 1. Let’s take a moment to examine this expert knowledge. KNOWING WHAT IS IMPORTANT.  Experts know where to focus their attention. For example, knowledgeable baseball fans (I am told) pay attention to the moves of the shortstop to learn if the pitcher will throw a fastball, curveball, or slider. But those with little knowledge about baseball may never see the movements of the shortstop, unless a hit is headed toward that part of the field (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011). In general, experts know what to pay attention to when judging a performance or product such as an Olympic high dive or a prize-winning chocolate cake. To nonexperts, most good dives or cakes look about the same, unless of course they “flop”! MEMORY FOR PATTERNS AND ORGANIZATION.  The modern study of expertise began with investigations of chess masters (De Groot, 1965; D. P. Simon & Chase, 1973). Results indicated that masters can quickly recognize about 50,000 different arrangements of chess pieces. They can look at one of these patterns for a few seconds and remember where every piece on the board was placed. It is as though they have a “vocabulary” of 50,000 patterns. Michelene Chi (1978) demonstrated that third- through eighth-grade chess experts had a similar ability to remember chess piece arrangements. For all the masters, patterns of pieces are like words. If you were shown any word from your vocabulary store for just a few seconds, you would be able to remember every letter in the word in the right order (assuming you could spell the word). But a series of letters arranged randomly is hard to remember, as you saw in Chapter 8. An analogous situation holds for chess masters. When chess pieces are placed on a board randomly, masters are no better than average players at remembering the positions of the pieces. The master’s memory is for patterns that make sense or could occur in a game. So expertise in chess is based on extensive domain-specific knowledge of possible patterns and moves stored in long-term memory. A similar phenomenon occurs in other fields. There may be an intuition about how to solve a problem based on recognizing patterns and knowing the “right moves” for those patterns. Experts in physics, for example, organize their knowledge around central principles (e.g., Boyle’s or Newton’s laws), whereas beginners organize their smaller amounts of physics knowledge around the specific details stated in the problems (e.g., levers or pulleys) (K. A. Ericsson, 1999; Fenton, 2007). PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE.  In addition to representing a problem very quickly, experts know what to do next and can do it. They have a large store of productions or if–then schemas about what action to take in various situations. So, the steps of understanding the problem and choosing a solution happen simultaneously and fairly automatically (K. A. Ericsson & Charness, 1999). Of course, this means that experts must have many, many schemas available. A large part of becoming an expert is simply acquiring a great store of domain knowledge or knowledge that is particular to a field. To do this, you must encounter many different kinds of problems in that field, observe others solving problems, and practice solving many yourself. In fact, “expertise in any substantial domain requires years of practice with the intention of improving performance” (Tricot & Sweller, 2014, p. 275). Some estimates are that it takes 10 years or 10,000 hours of deliberate, focused, sustained practice to become an expert in most fields (A. Ericsson, 2011; K. A. Ericsson & Charness, 1994; H. A. Simon, 1995). Experts’ rich store of knowledge is elaborated and well practiced, so that it is easy to retrieve from long-term memory when needed ( J. R. Anderson, 2015). PLANNING AND MONITORING.  Experts spend more time analyzing problems, drawing diagrams, breaking large problems down into subproblems, and making plans. A novice might begin immediately—writing equations for a physics problem or drafting the

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first paragraph of a paper—but experts plan out the whole solution and often make the task simpler in the process. As they work, experts monitor progress, so time is not lost pursuing dead ends or weak ideas (Schunk, 2016). We all can be experts in one area— studying. The Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student provide a ideas for you and your students. So what can we conclude? Experts (1) know where to focus their attention; (2) perceive large, meaningful patterns in given information and are not confused by surface features and details; (3) hold more information in working and long-term memories, in

GUIDELINES Becoming an Expert Student Be clear about your goals in studying. Examples 1. Target a specific number of pages to read and outline. 2. Write the introduction section of a paper. Make sure you have the necessary declarative knowledge (facts, concepts, ideas) to understand new information. Examples 1. Keep definitions of key vocabulary available as you study. 2. Use your general knowledge. Ask yourself, “What do I already know about ?” 3. Build your vocabulary by learning two or three new words a day using them in everyday conversation. Find out what type of test the teacher will give (essay, short answer), and study the material with that in mind. Examples 1. For a test with detailed questions, practice writing answers to possible questions. 2. For a multiple-choice test, use mnemonics to remember definitions of key terms. Make sure you are familiar with the organization of the materials to be learned. Examples 1. Preview the headings, introductions, topic sentences, and summaries of the text. 2. Be alert for words and phrases that signal relationships, such as on the other hand, because, first, second, however, since. Know your own cognitive skills, and use them deliberately. Examples 1. Use examples and analogies to relate new material to something you care about and understand well, such as sports, hobbies, or films. 2. If one study technique is not working, try another—the goal is to stay involved, not to use any particular strategy. 3. If you start to daydream, stand up from your desk and face away from your books, but don’t leave. Then sit back down and study.

Study the right information in the right way. Examples 1. Be sure you know exactly what topics and readings the test will cover. 2. Spend your time on the important, difficult, and unfamiliar material that will be required for the test or assignment. Resist the temptation to go over what you already know well, even if that feels good. 3. Keep a list of the parts of the text that give you trouble, and spend more time on those pages. 4. Process the important information thoroughly by using mnemonics, forming images, creating examples, answering questions, making notes in your own words, and elaborating on the text. Do not try to memorize the author’s words—use your own. Monitor your own comprehension. Examples 1. Use questioning to check your understanding. 2. When reading speed slows down, decide if the information in the passage is important. If it is, note the problem so you can reread or get help to understand. If it is not important, ignore it. 3. Check your understanding by working with a friend and quizzing one another. Manage your time. Examples 1. When is your best time for studying? Morning, late night? Study your most difficult subjects then. 2. Study in shorter rather than longer blocks, unless you are really engaged and making great progress. 3. Eliminate time wasters and distractions. Study in a room without a television or your roommate, then turn off your phone and stay off social media—maybe even off the Internet altogether. 4. Use bonus time—take your educational psychology notes to the doctor’s office waiting room or laundry room. You will use time well and avoid reading old magazines. Based on ideas from: ucc.vt.edu/ study skills resources and Wong, L. (2015). Essential Study Skills (8th ed.) Stamford, CT: Cengage.

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part because they have organized the information into meaningful and interconnected schemas and procedures; (4) take a great deal of time to analyze a given problem; (5) have automatic procedures for accomplishing pieces of the problem; and (6) are better at monitoring their performance (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). One consequence of developing expertise is that experts forget how difficult it was to learn something and how long it took. As a teacher, you will have to be sensitive about what it means for students to not understand. Sometimes the best teacher is another student who has just mastered the material, not an expert who cannot remember what it was like not to know. When the area of problem solving is fairly well defined, such as chess or physics or computer programming, then these skills of expert problem solvers hold fairly consistently. In these kinds of domains, even if students do not have the extensive background knowledge of experts, they can learn to approach the problem like an expert by taking time to analyze the problem, focusing on key features, using the right schema, and not trying to force old but inappropriate solutions on new problems (Belland, 2011). But when the problem-solving area is less well defined and has fewer clear underlying principles, such as problem solving in economics or psychology, then the differences between experts and novices are not as clear-cut (Alexander, 1992). MyLab Education Self-Check 9.3

CRITICAL THINKING AND ARGUMENTATION

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Thinking Skills (II, A1) A nearly universal goal of educational programs across the country is the development of thinking skills. Describe what a teacher can do to cultivate these skills in the classroom. Search for Teaching Thinking Skills at edutopia.org for more ideas.

Critical thinking Evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution.

Virtually every article I read before writing this section began with a claim about how essential critical thinking is today. Critical thinking skills are useful in almost every life situation—even in evaluating the media and political ads that constantly bombard us (Huber & Kuncel, 2016). When you see a group of gorgeous people extolling the virtues of a particular brand of orange juice as they frolic in skimpy bathing suits, you must decide if sex appeal is a relevant factor in choosing a fruit drink (remember Pavlovian advertising from Chapter 7). Critical thinking is “an effortful and deliberate cognitive process that entails reflection on and evaluation of available evidence” (Wentzel, 2014, p. 579). The goal of critical thinking is to influence beliefs and guide actions. But what if you have the cognitive skills to make reasoned judgments and still don’t use these skills in a given situation to evaluate claims by politicians or Web sites? You need the disposition to act and bring your critical thinking cognitive skills to those specific issues. The Delphi Report, written by a panel of experts who study critical thinking, addressed this by listing three categories of skills necessary for critical thinking: cognitive skills (interpretation, analysis, evaluation of claims and arguments, self regulation, etc.); affective dispositions (inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, honesty in facing your own biases, ability to understand the views of others, willingness to reconsider and revise your views, etc.); and approaches to specific problems (diligence in seeking and focusing on relevant information, clarity in stating the questions, reasonableness in selecting and applying criteria, etc.) (Abrami et al., 2015). So critical thinking involves intentionally bringing your clearest thinking to shape your beliefs and direct your actions.

What Critical Thinkers Do: Paul and Elder Model Richard Paul and Linda Elder (2014; Elder & Paul, 2012) suggest the model in Figure 9.8 as a way of describing what critical thinkers actually do. As you can see, at the center of critical thinking are the elements of reasoning, which entail drawing conclusions based on reasons. But to reason well—to think critically—we should apply the standards such as clarity, accuracy, logic, and fairness, as indicated in Figure 9.8. With practice in clear, accurate, logical (etc.) reasoning, we develop intellectual traits such as humility, integrity, perseverance, and confidence. Research results are clear: Critical thinking skills and the dispositions to apply those skills can be taught at all grade levels (Abrami et al., 2015). So how would you do that

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F IG U RE 9.8 PAUL AND ELDER’S MODEL OF CRITICAL THINKING Critical thinkers routinely apply the intellectual standards to the elements of reasoning to develop intellectual traits. THE STANDARDS clarity accuracy relevance logic breadth

precision significance completeness fairness depth

must be applied to

THE ELEMENTS

as we learn to develop

purposes questions points of view information

inferences concepts implications assumptions

INTELLECTUAL TRAITS intellectual humility intellectual autonomy intellectual integrity intellectual courage

intellectual perseverance confidence in reason intellectual empathy fairmindedness

Source: Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2012). Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life (3rd ed., p. 58). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

in your classes? When he analyzed over 340 interventions to teach critical thinking with students ages 6 through adulthood in primary through graduate schools, three elements emerged as effective: dialogue, authentic instruction, and mentorship. • Dialogue: Teachers pose questions and encourage students to dialogue through whole class and small group discussion, debates, Socratic dialogue, or written exchanges. • Authentic Instruction: Teachers focus the dialogue on problems that make sense to the students using role-plays, simulations, case studies, or ethical dilemmas, for example. • Mentorship: One-to-one mentoring for students from teachers, coaches, or other adults also supports the development of critical thinking (Abrami et al., 2015). No matter what approach you use to develop critical thinking, it is important to follow up with additional practice. One lesson is not enough. For example, if your class examined a particular historical document to determine if it reflected bias or propaganda, you should follow up by analyzing other written historical documents, contemporary advertisements, or news stories. Unless thinking skills become overlearned and relatively automatic, they are not likely to be transferred to new situations (Mayer & Wittrock, 2006). Instead, students will use these skills only to complete the lesson in social studies, not to evaluate the claims made by friends, Web sites, politicians, car manufacturers, sales people, or diet plans.

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Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects

MyLab Education

Video Example 9.3 The students in this video are presenting various formulas for calculating the volume of a sphere. Notice the critical thinking skills involved as students analyze and evaluate formulas presented by classmates. Also notice the role of the teacher’s questions.

Critical thinking could be useful in any subject. But many critical thinking skills are specific to a particular subject and serve to guide actions in that subject (Huber & Kuncel, 2016). For example, to teach history, Jeffrey Nokes and his colleagues investigated (1) using traditional texts versus multiple readings and (2) direct teaching of critical thinking skills versus no direct teaching of critical thinking skills (Nokes, Dole, & Hacker, 2007). The multiple texts included historical fiction, excerpts from speeches, government documents, photographs, charts and historical data, and short sections from texts. The history critical thinking skills taught were: • Sourcing: Looking at the source of the document before reading and using that information to help interpret and make inferences about the reading. Is the source biased? Can I trust it? • Corroboration: Making connections between the information in different texts and noting similarities and contradictions. • Contextualization: Understanding the time, place, people, and culture that comprise the context for the event, with all the political and social forces that might be operating. Students who learned with multiple texts instead of traditional textbooks actually learned more history content. Also, students were able to learn and apply two of the three critical thinking skills, sourcing and corroboration, when they were directly taught how to use the skills. Contextualization proved more difficult, perhaps because the students lacked the background knowledge to fill in contextual information. So critical thinking for specific subjects can be taught along with the subject. But as you can see in the Point/Counterpoint, educators don’t agree about the best way to foster critical thinking in schools.

Argumentation The ability to construct and defend a position is essential in mathematics, physical and social sciences, politics, persuasive writing, and critical thinking, to name just a few areas. Both Piaget and Vygotsky would agree that cognitive development is supported by social interactions, dialogue, challenging misunderstandings, and argument. Like critical thinking, argumentation—the process of constructing and critiquing arguments—is considered an important 21st Century skill and is reflected in the Common Core Standards (Asterhan & Schwarz, 2016).

Argumentation The process of debating a claim with someone else.

TWO STYLES OF ARGUMENTATION.  There are two styles or argumentation— disputative and deliberative. The heart of disputative argumentation is supporting your position with evidence and understanding and then refuting your opponent’s claims and evidence. It is a competitive process where the goal is to convince an opponent to switch sides. The basic question is who is right. With deliberative argumentation, the goal is to collaborate in comparing, contrasting, and evaluating alternatives, then arrive at a constructive conclusion. The basic question is which idea is right (Asterhan & Babichenko, 2015). Both kinds of argumentation are difficult. Students often concede right away or else they hold on to their initial beliefs without engaging in the argument. But true learning comes with considering, understanding, and refuting arguments, then improving knowledge based on a consideration of the evidence (Asterhan & Babichenko, 2015). Children are not good at argumentation, adolescents are a bit better, and adults are better still, but not perfect. Children don’t pay very much attention to the claims and evidence of the other person in the debate. Adolescents understand that their opponent in a debate has a different position, but they tend to spend much more time presenting their own position than they do trying to understand and critique their opponent’s claims. It is as if the adolescents believe “winning an argument” means making a better

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Should Schools Teach Critical

Thinking and Problem Solving?

Problem solving and critical thinking can and should be taught.  In a special issue of Educational

Psychology Review, Karen Murphy and her colleagues (2014) made this claim: “Perhaps one of the most important aims of formal education is to equip students with the ability to think critically and analytically about complex topics” (p. 561). This claim is not new, Murphy says. It goes back at least to philosophers before Socrates. But today educators and policy makers argue strongly for investing in programs and practices that teach critical thinking to children and adolescents. Closer to home for you, Peter Facione (2011) claims that critical thinking is related to GPA in college and to reading comprehension. How can students learn to think critically? Some educators recommend teaching thinking skills directly with widely used techniques such as the Productive Thinking Program or CoRT (Cognitive Research Trust). Other researchers argue that learning computer programing languages will improve students’ minds and teach them how to think logically. There is evidence that attending college improves general critical thinking skills and dispositions even without specific interventions fostering critical thinking (Huber & Kuncel, 2016).

COUNTERPOINT .

POINT .

The question of whether schools should focus on process or content, higher-order thinking skills or academic information has been debated for years. Some educators suggest that students must be taught how to think, while other educators assert that students cannot learn to “think” in the abstract. They must be thinking about something—some content. Should teachers focus on content knowledge or critical thinking?

Critical thinking and problem-solving skills do not transfer. According to E. D. Hirsch, a vocal critic

of critical thinking programs:

But whether such direct instruction of critical thinking or self-monitoring does in fact improve performance is a subject of debate in the research community. For instance, the research regarding critical thinking is not reassuring. Instruction in critical thinking has been going on in several countries for over a hundred years. Yet researchers found that students from nations as varied as Israel, Germany, Australia, the Philippines, and the United States, including those who have been taught critical thinking continue to fall into logical fallacies. (1996, p. 136)

The CoRT program has been used in over 5,000 classrooms in 10 nations. But Polson and Jeffries (1985) report that “after 10 years of widespread use we have no adequate evidence concerning the effectiveness of the program” (p. 445). A focus on general critical thinking skills is wasteful when so many of the important skills are specific to a particular domain and when general critical thinking skills tend to develop on their own (Huber & Kuncel, 2016). Beware of Either/Or  One clear message from current research on learning is that both subject-specific knowledge and learning strategies are important. Students today need to be critical consumers of all kinds of knowledge, but critical thinking alone is not enough. Students need the knowledge, vocabulary, and concepts to understand what they are reading, seeing, and hearing. The best teachers can teach both math content and how to learn math at the same time and can provide instruction in both history and how to critically assess history sources.

presentation, but they don’t appreciate the need to understand and weaken the opponent’s claims (Kuhn & Dean, 2004; Nussbaum, 2011). Children and adolescents focus more on their own positions because it is too demanding to remember and process both their own and their opponent’s claims and evidence at the same time—the cognitive load is just too much. In addition, argumentation skills are not natural. They take both time and instruction to learn (Kuhn, Goh, Iordanou, & Shaenfield, 2008; Udell, 2007). But what has to be learned? In disputative argumentation, to make a case while understanding and refuting the opponent’s case, you must be aware of what you are saying, what your opponent is saying, and how to refute your opponent’s claims. This

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takes planning, evaluating how the plan is going, reflecting on what the opponent has said, and changing strategies as needed—in other words, metacognitive knowledge and skills for argumentation. Deanna Kuhn and her colleagues (2008) designed a process for developing metacognitive argumentation skills. They presented a sixth-grade class with the following dilemma. The Costa family has moved to the edge of town from far away Greece with their 11-year-old son Nick. Nick was a good student and soccer player back home in Greece. Nick’s parents have decided that in this new place, they want to keep Nick at home with them, and not have him be at the school with the other children. The family speaks only Greek, and they think Nick will do better if he sticks to his family’s language and doesn’t try to learn English. They say they can teach him everything he needs at home. What should happen? Is it okay for the Costa family to live in the town but keep Nick at home, or should they be required to send their son to the town school like all the other families do? (p. 1313)

Based on their initial position on the dilemma, the 28 students in the class were divided into two groups—“Nick should go to school” or “Nick should be taught at home.” These two groups were divided again into same-gender pairs and all the “Nick should go to school” pairs moved to a room next door to their class. For about 25 minutes, each pair from one side “debated” a pair in the other room using instant messaging (IM). Later in the week the process was repeated, but with different pairs debating. In all, there were seven IM debates, so every “go to school” pair debated every “stay home” pair over several weeks. After four of the seven sessions, the pairs were given a transcript of the dialogue from their last debate, along with worksheets that scaffolded their reflection on their own arguments or the arguments of their opponents. The students evaluated their arguments and tried to improve them, with some adults coaching. These reflective sessions were repeated three times. Next, there was a “showdown” debate—the entire “go to school” team debated the entire “stay home” team via one computer per team and a smart board. For this debate, half of the members of each team prepared as experts on their position and half as experts on the opponent’s arguments. After winter break and again after spring break, the whole process was repeated with new dilemmas. So what happened? The process improved the skill of disputative argumentation— competitive debating. The pairs, IM, and reflection strategies were successful for most students in helping them take into account the opponent’s position and create strategies for rebutting the opponent’s arguments. Working in pairs seemed to be especially helpful. When adolescents and even adults work alone, they often do not create effective counterarguments and rebuttals (Kuhn & Franklin, 2006). Kuhn’s study focused on disputative argumentation—a classic competitive debate style. But what about deliberative, collaborative argumentation? Recently Christa Asterhan and her colleagues have contrasted deliberative argumentation with disputative argumentation and found that the latter, collaborative approach was better for learning subject matter and for changing beliefs. Maybe the debate style of disputative argumentation focuses students on winning and on how they perform, so they are more resistant to change—and learning often requires change (Asterhan & Schwarz, 2016). LESSONS FOR TEACHERS.  It seems that to improve students’ debating and persuasion skills, to help them learn to argue, disputative argumentation is a good approach. The strategies developed by Kuhn are useful here. But to learn subject matter, to argue to learn, deliberative argumentation makes sense. With this approach teachers encourage students to discuss and dispute in order to construct the best understanding based on evidence.

MyLab Education Self-Check 9.4

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TEACHING FOR TRANSFER STOP & THINK Think back for a moment to one of your high school classes in a subject that you have not studied in college. Imagine the teacher, the room, the textbook. Now remember what you actually learned in class. If it was a science class, what were some of the formulas you learned? Oxidation reduction? Boyle’s law? •

If you are like most of us, you may remember that you learned these things, but you will not be quite sure exactly what you learned. Were those hours wasted? This question relates to the important topic of learning transfer. Let’s begin with a definition of transfer. Whenever something previously learned influences current learning or when solving an earlier problem affects how you solve a new problem, transfer has occurred. Shana Carpenter (2012) defines transfer simply as “the application of learned information to novel contexts” (p. 279). So transfer is doing something new, not just reproducing a previous application of the information. If students learn a mathematical principle in one class and use it to solve a physics problem days or weeks later in another class, then transfer has taken place. However, the effect of past learning on present learning is not always positive. Functional fixedness and response set (described earlier in this chapter) are examples of negative transfer because they are attempts to apply inappropriate strategies to a new situation. Transfer has several dimensions (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Carpenter, 2012). You can transfer learning across subjects (math skills used in science problems), across physical contexts (learned in school, used on the job), across social contexts (learned alone, used with your family or team), across time periods (learned in college, used months or years later), across functions (learned for academics, used for hobbies and recreation), and across modalities (learned from watching the Home and Garden cable channel, used to discuss ideas for a patio with a landscape architect). So transfer can refer to many different examples of applying knowledge and skills beyond where, when, and how you learned them.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Transfer of Learning Successful transfer of learning from the school to other contexts is evidence of superior instruction. What can teachers do to optimize transfer of knowledge and skills to the broader world?

The Many Views of Transfer Transfer has been a focus of research in educational psychology for over 100 years. After all, the productive use of knowledge, skills, and motivations across a lifetime is a fundamental goal of education (Goldstone & Day, 2012; Shaffer, 2010). Early work focused on specific transfer of skills and the general transfer of mental discipline gained from studying rigorous subjects such as Greek or mathematics. But in 1924, E. L. Thorndike demonstrated that no mental discipline benefit is derived from learning Greek. Learning Greek just helps you learn more Greek. So, thanks to Thorndike, you were not required to take Greek in high school. More recently, researchers have distinguished between the automatic, direct use of skills such as reading or writing in everyday applications and the thoughtful transfer of knowledge and strategies to arrive at creative solutions to problems (Bereiter, 1995; Bransford & Schwartz, 1999). Automatic transfer probably benefits from practice in different situations, but thoughtful transfer requires more than practice. Michelene Chi and Kurt VanLehn (2012) describe thoughtful transfer as involving two processes—initial learning and reusing or applying what was learned. For thoughtful transfer to succeed, students must first actually learn the underlying principle or concept, not just the surface procedure or algorithm. So, essential to thoughtful transfer in the initial learning stage is mindful abstraction, which is the deliberate identification of a principle, main idea, strategy, or procedure that is not tied to one specific problem or situation but could apply to many. Such an abstraction becomes part of your metacognitive knowledge, available to guide future learning and problem solving. Table 9.3 on the next page summarizes the types of transfer.

Transfer Influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive (not reproductive) uses of cognitive tools and motivations.

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TABLE 9.3  •  Kinds of Transfer

Definition

DIRECT APPLICATION

PREPARATION FOR FUTURE LEARNING

Automatic transfer of highly practiced skill

Conscious application of abstract knowledge to a new situation Productive use of cognitive tools and motivations

Key Conditions

Extensive practice Variety of settings and conditions

Examples

Mindful focus on abstracting a principle, main idea, or procedure that can be used in many situations

Overlearning to automaticity

Learning in powerful teaching–learning environments

Driving many different cars

Applying KWL or READS strategies

Finding your gate in an airport

Applying procedures from math in designing a page layout for the school newspaper

Teaching for Positive Transfer Here is a great perspective on transfer from David Perkins and Gavriel Salomon (2012): Schools are supposed to be stopovers in life, not ends in themselves. The information, skills, and understandings they offer are knowledge-to-go, not just to use on site. To be sure, often Monday’s topics most conspicuously serve the Tuesday problem set, the Friday quiz, or the exam at the end of the year. However, in principle those topics are an investment toward thriving in family, civic, cultural, and professional lives. (p. 248)

Years of research and experience show that students will not always take advantage of knowledge-to-go. They may (seem to) learn new concepts, problem-solving procedures, and learning strategies Monday, but they may not use them for the year-end exam or even Friday unless prompted or guided. For example, studies of real-world mathematics show that people do not always apply math procedures learned in school to solve practical problems in their homes or at grocery stores (Lave, 1988; Lave & Wenger, 1991). This happens because learning is situated—tied to specific situations. Because knowledge is learned as a tool to solve particular problems, we may not realize that the knowledge is relevant when we encounter a problem that seems different, at least on the surface (Driscoll, 2005; Singley & Anderson, 1989). How can you make sure your students will use what they learn, even when situations change? WHAT IS WORTH LEARNING?  First, you must answer the question “What is worth learning?” The learning of basic skills such as reading, writing, computing, cooperating, and speaking will definitely transfer to other situations, because these skills are necessary for later work both in and out of school—writing job applications, reading novels, paying bills, working on a team, locating and evaluating health care services, among others. All later learning depends on positive transfer of these basic skills to new situations. Teachers must also be aware of what the future is likely to hold for their students, both as a group and as individuals. What will society require of them as adults? As a child growing up in Texas in the 1950s and 1960s, I studied nothing about computers, even though my father was a computer systems analyst; yet now I spend hours at my Mac each day. Back then I learned to use a slide rule. Now, calculators and computers have made this skill obsolete. My mom encouraged me to take advanced math and physics instead of typing in high school. Those were great classes, but I struggle with typing

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every day at my computer—who knew? Undoubtedly, changes as extreme and unpredictable as these await the students you will teach. For this reason, the general transfer of principles, attitudes, learning strategies, self-motivation, time management skills, and problem solving will be just as important for your students as the specific transfer of basic skills. LESSONS FOR TEACHERS: SUPPORTING TRANSFER.  For basic skills, greater transfer can also be ensured by overlearning, practicing a skill past the point of mastery. Many of the basic facts students learn in elementary school, such as the multiplication tables, are traditionally overlearned. Overlearning helps students develop automated basic skills as we saw in Chapter 8. For higher-level transfer, students must first learn and understand. Students will be more likely to transfer knowledge to new situations if they have been actively involved in the learning process. Strategies include having students compare and contrast two examples, then identify the underlying principles; asking students to explain to themselves or each other the worked-out examples provided by the teacher; or identify for each step in a problem solution the underlying principle at work. Students also can learn an new concept, then explain it to peers, discuss it in small groups, or make videos to be used in peer learning (Chi & VanLehn, 2012; Hoogerheide,. Loyens, & van Gog, 2014; Pai, Sears, & Maeda, 2015). Students should be encouraged to form abstractions that they will apply later, so they know transfer is an important goal. It also helps if students form deep connections between the new knowledge and their existing structures of knowledge as well as connections to their everyday experiences (Perkins & Salomon, 2012; Pugh & Phillips, 2011). Finally, one of the most powerful strategies for supporting transfer is retrieval practice through frequent testing and applying knowledge (Carpenter, 2012). Positive transfer is encouraged when skills are practiced under authentic conditions, similar to those that will exist when the skills are needed later. Students can learn to write by corresponding with email pen pals in other countries. They can learn historical research methods by studying their own family history. Some of these applications should involve complex, ill-defined, unstructured problems, because many of the problems to be faced in later life, both in school and out, will not come to students complete with instructions. One last kind of transfer is especially important for students—the transfer of the learning strategies we encountered earlier. Learning strategies are meant to be applied across a wide range of situations. STAGES OF TRANSFER FOR STRATEGIES.  Gary Phye (1992, 2001; Phye & Sanders, 1994) describes three stages in developing strategic transfer. In the acquisition phase, students should not only receive instruction about a strategy and how to use it but also rehearse the strategy and practice being aware of when and how they are using it. In the retention phase, more practice with feedback helps students hone their strategy use. In the transfer phase, students should be given new problems that they can solve with the same strategy, even though the problems appear different on the surface. To enhance motivation, teachers should point out to students how using the strategy will help them solve many problems and accomplish different tasks. These steps help build both procedural and self-regulatory knowledge—how to use the strategy as well as when and why. Some students will learn productive strategies on their own, but all students can benefit from direct teaching, modeling, and practice of learning strategies and study skills. This is one important way to prepare all of your students for the future. Newly mastered concepts, principles, and strategies must be applied in a wide variety of situations and with many types of problems (Z. Chen & Mo, 2004). The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships on the next page give ideas for enlisting the support of families in encouraging transfer.

Overlearning Practicing a skill past the point of mastery.

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GUIDELINES

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS

Promoting Transfer Keep families informed about their child’s curriculum so they can support learning. Examples 1. At the beginning of units or major projects, send a letter summarizing the key goals, a few of the major assignments, and some common problems students have in learning the material for that unit. 2. Ask parents for suggestions about how their child’s interests could be connected to the curriculum topics. 3. Invite parents to school for an evening of “strategy learning.” Have the students teach their family members one of the strategies they have learned in school. Give families ideas for how they might encourage their children to practice, extend, or apply learning from school. Examples 1. To extend writing, ask parents to encourage their children to write letters or emails to companies or civic organizations asking for information or free products. Provide a shell letter form for structure and ideas, and include addresses of companies that provide free samples or information. 2. Ask family members to include their children in some projects that require measurement, halving or doubling recipes, or estimating costs.

3. Suggest that students work with grandparents to do a family memory book. Combine historical research and writing. Show connections between learning in school and life outside school. Examples 1. Ask families to talk about and show how they use the skills their children are learning in their jobs, hobbies, or community involvement projects. 2. Ask family members to come to class to demonstrate how they use reading, writing, science, math, or other knowledge in their work. Make families partners in practicing learning strategies. Examples 1. Focus on one learning strategy at a time. Ask families to simply remind their children to use a particular strategy with homework that week. 2. Develop a lending library of books, Website resources, and DVDs to teach families about learning strategies. 3. Give parents a copy of the Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student on page 391, rewritten for your grade level.

MyLab Education Self-Check 9.5

BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: TEACHING FOR COMPLEX LEARNING AND ROBUST KNOWLEDGE We began this chapter by talking about complex cognitive skills and higher-order learning. Then we went on to explore metacognition and learning strategies, problem solving and expertise, critical thinking and argumentation, and transfer of learning to new situations. Even though research in educational psychology has examined these topics for years, lately, some researchers have focused specifically on complex learning and teaching for robust knowledge (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). In many ways this current focus brings together much of what we have learned in this chapter.

What Is Robust Knowledge? The study of expertise points to three important characteristics of robust knowledge—it is deep, connected, and coherent. Deep knowledge is knowledge about underlying principles that allows experts to recognize the same principle-based features in seemingly different problems. For example, having robust knowledge in math enables students to see immediately that river current problems and airplane wind problems can be solved with the same underlying principles. Connected knowledge means many separate bits of information are linked—problem-solving steps are linked automatically within a problem, abstract principles are linked to specific features of a problem, concepts are linked

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to appropriate procedures, and principles are connected across different disciplines and domains. Coherent knowledge is consistent and has no contradictions. Experts are much better than novices at detecting inconsistencies in knowledge (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). As teachers, we want all our students to develop robust knowledge.

Recognizing and Assessing Robust Knowledge How can we tell that someone has robust knowledge in a particular field? Table 9.4 contrasts novices with experts in the content and structure of their knowledge. As you can see, in terms of perceiving and representing the problem, novices focus on surface features, whereas experts focus on the structure and larger concepts underlying the problem. Experts can recall from their long-term memory many important details about the problem domain (such as math or physics or history), but novices rely mostly on what they can hold in their working memory, and they often get overwhelmed. They just don’t have enough connected, relevant knowledge to bring to the workbench of working memory to solve the problem. In actually solving the problem, novices have to rely on general problem-solving strategies such as working backwards or trial-and-error. This takes a long time, is filled with errors and wrong turns, and often fails. Experts, on the other hand, quickly and accurately apply the appropriate domain-specific strategy for that particular problem type. Finally, because novices’ knowledge is based on surface details of problems, they have no principles or conceptual knowledge to transfer to new situations, whereas the flexible, deep, connected, coherent knowledge of experts gives them abundant useful knowledge to transfer to new situations and problems.

Teaching for Robust Knowledge What are some instructional strategies that help students move from novice to expert skill—that help them develop robust knowledge that is deep, connected, and coherent? In the next chapter we explore several teaching approaches such as inquiry and problem-based learning that target the construction of robust knowledge. Here, let’s

TABLE 9.4  •  What Robust Knowledge Looks Like in Action This table contrasts the knowledge of novices and experts, based on how they perceive and represent problems, their working and long-term memory, problem-solving strategies, and ability to transfer knowledge to novel situations. NOVICES: LACKING ROBUST KNOWLEDGE

EXPERTS: WITH ROBUST KNOWLEDGE

Perception of Problem

Focuses on surface details like “It’s a pulley problem”

Focuses on structure of underlying principles: “Newton’s Law applies here.”

Memory

Relies on working memory that quickly gets filled

Recalls many critical details, has vast store of connected knowledge in long-term memory

Problem Solving

Relies on general strategies; long, error-filled, often unsuccessful process

Quickly applies domain-relevant reasoning strategies to identify accurate solutions

Transfer

Has inflexible knowledge focused on surface details—does not have useful knowledge to transfer to novel situations

Has flexible knowledge—useful for applying to many situations

Source: Based on Richey, J. E., & Nokes-Malach, T. J. (2015). Comparing Four Instructional Techniques for Promoting Robust Knowledge. Educational Psychology Review, 27, p. 186.

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examine four strategies that we have covered in this chapter and that can be incorporated into most teaching approaches: practice, worked examples, analogies, and self-explanation (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). PRACTICE.  You have read about practice in several chapters of this book. Overlearning, or practicing even after you can do a skill or procedure, makes performance smooth, fast, and automatic—with little drain at all on working memory. Retrieval practice or testing is better than restudying for remembering information. Practice can be very effective in developing procedural knowledge of how to do things, but it is not that beneficial by itself in helping students learn to do analogous things—solve new problems; form abstract concepts and deep, principle-based understandings; or connect knowledge across situations. In fact, if your students are very practiced at one procedure in math or art or writing, they may try to apply it even when that procedure or skill is inappropriate, so developing robust knowledge takes more than practice. WORKED EXAMPLES.  Worked examples can support the development of robust knowledge by managing cognitive load so that students’ working memory is not overwhelmed. This leaves enough working memory available to recognize and remember key features and deeper structures in the problem. Instead of trying to solve a problem by trial and error, students see the pathway and target their cognitive resources on learning. But worked examples and practice share some of the same obstacles to developing robust knowledge. Students can get better at doing the kind of problem in the examples, but not at doing different kinds of problems. One solution is to interleave (interweave or alternate) worked examples with practice problems and with other worked examples that have steps left out. This makes students think more deeply about what they are doing and why. But the best use of worked examples requires students to explain to themselves why each step in the example is necessary. This helps students develop connections between steps, basic principles, and procedures. Self-explanation is a powerful strategy, as you will soon see. ANALOGIES.  To use analogies, students map the similarities or shared features between two examples, cases, problems, time periods, works of art, and so on. Using analogies can support transfer as students apply what they know to recognize similar processes at work in seemingly different situations. The students are also building robust conceptual knowledge by linking key features in the problems to underlying principles. One problem, however, is that novices may identify analogies based on superficial similarities that have nothing to do with deep structure or underlying principles—for example, “both paintings are blue” instead of “both paintings are examples of cubism.” The careful selection of cases or problems plus some teacher guidance are important here. SELF-EXPLANATIONS.  To build robust knowledge, the big winner is self-explanation. Explaining each step in a worked example, drawing a model, explaining to a peer, providing evidence, telling why, justifying an answer—these self-explanations are better than detailed explanations by the teacher in building robust knowledge. You will learn in the next chapter that students who explain in a cooperative learning group learn more than students who receive explanations. Self-explanation encourages connections (why, what else, how, when…?) and coherence (does that make sense? Are there any contradictions in the explanation?). MyLab Education Self-Check 9.6

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. SUMMARY Metacognition (pp. 368–371) What is metacognition? Metacognition consists of knowledge and skills—knowledge about our own information-processing capabilities, the thinking and learning tasks we face, and the strategies needed. The three metacognitive skills used to regulate thinking and learning are planning, monitoring, and evaluating. Planning involves deciding how much time to give to a task, which strategies to use, how to start, and so on. Monitoring is the real-time awareness of “how I’m doing.” Evaluating involves making judgments about the processes and outcomes of thinking and learning and acting on those judgments. What are some sources of individual differences in metacognition? Individual differences in metacognition may result from different paces of development (maturation) or biological differences among learners. For example, young students may not be able to understand a lesson’s purpose as well as older students. How can teachers help students develop metacognitive knowledge and skills?  With younger students, teachers can help students “look inside” to identify what they can do to read, write, or learn better. Systems such as KWL can help, if teachers demonstrate, explain, and model the strategy. For older students, teachers can build self-reflective questions into assignments and learning materials.

Learning Strategies (pp. 371–379) What are learning strategies? Learning strategies are a special kind of procedural knowledge—knowing how to do something. A strategy for learning might include mnemonics to remember key terms, skimming to identify the organization, and then writing answers to possible essay questions. Use of strategies and tactics reflects metacognitive knowledge. What key functions do learning strategies play?  Learning strategies help students become cognitively engaged—focus attention on the relevant, important aspects of the material. Second, they encourage students to invest effort, make connections, elaborate, translate, organize, and reorganize to think and process deeply; the greater the practice and processing, the stronger the learning. Finally, strategies help students regulate and monitor their own learning—keep track of what is making sense and notice when a new approach is needed. Describe some procedures for developing learning strategies. Expose students to a number of different strategies, not only general learning strategies but also very specific tactics, such as the graphic strategies. Teach conditional knowledge about when, where, and why to use various strategies. Develop motivation to use the strategies and tactics by showing students how their learning and performance can be improved. Provide direct instruction in content knowledge needed to use the strategies. What is retrieval practice?  This learning strategy is also called the testing effect or active retrieval and is more powerful than restudying. To benefit from this powerful strategy, students can practice recalling what they have learned by

listing key ideas, drawing concept maps, explaining to a friend, teaching another student, completing at KWL worksheet, taking a self-test, or anything else that requires active retrieval of the knowledge. Frequent tests and quizzes, even ungraded ones, are a form of retrieval practice. When will students apply learning strategies?  If they have appropriate strategies, students will apply them if they are faced with a task that requires good strategies, value doing well on that task, think the effort to apply the strategies will be worthwhile, and believe that they can succeed using the strategies. Also, to apply deep processing strategies, students must assume that knowledge is complex and takes time to learn and that learning requires their own active efforts.

Problem Solving (pp. 379–392) What is problem solving?  Problem solving is both general and domain specific. Also, problems can range from well structured to ill structured, depending on how clear-cut the goal is and how much structure is provided for solving the problem. General problem-solving strategies usually include the steps of identifying the problem, setting goals, searching for possible solutions, anticipating possible consequences, acting, and finally looking back to evaluate the outcome. Both general and specific problem solving are valuable and necessary. How can worked examples help students develop powerful schemas for problem solving?  Worked examples help students manage cognitive load (overload) and avoid inefficient trial-and-error learning. Worked examples chunk some of the steps, provide cues and feedback, focus attention on relevant information, and make fewer demands on memory, so the students can use cognitive resources to understand instead of searching randomly for solutions. To get the most benefit from worked examples, however, students have to actively engage—just “looking over” the examples is not enough. Here, self-explanation and using multiple learning channels (vision, touch, movement, hearing) support engagement. Why is the representation stage of problem solving so important?  To represent the problem accurately, you must understand both the whole problem and its discrete elements. Schema training may improve this ability. The problem-solving process follows entirely different paths, depending on what representation and goal are chosen. If your representation of the problem suggests an immediate solution, the task is done; the new problem is recognized as a “disguised” version of an old problem with a clear solution. But if there is no existing way of solving the problem or if the activated schema fails, then students must search for a solution. The application of algorithms and heuristics—such as means-ends analysis, working-backward, analogical thinking, and verbalization— may help students solve problems. Describe factors that can interfere with problem solving.  Factors that hinder problem solving include functional

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fixedness or rigidity (response set). These disallow the flexibility needed to represent problems accurately and to have insight into solutions. Also, as we make decisions and judgments, we may overlook important information because we base judgments on what seems representative of a category (representativeness heuristic) or what is available in memory (availability heuristic), then pay attention only to information that confirms our choices (confirmation bias) so that we hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence (belief perseverance). What are the differences between expert and novice knowledge in a given area?  Expert problem solvers have a rich store of declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge. They organize this knowledge around general principles or patterns that apply to large classes of problems. They work faster, remember relevant information, and monitor their progress better than novices. One consequence of developing expertise is that experts forget how difficult it was to learn something and how long it took. As a teacher, you will have to be sensitive about what it means for students to not understand.

Critical Thinking and Argumentation (pp. 392–396) What is critical thinking? Critical thinking skills include defining and clarifying the problem, making judgments about the consistency and adequacy of the information related to a problem, and drawing conclusions. No matter what approach you use to develop critical thinking, it is important to follow up activities with additional practice. One lesson is not enough—overlearning will help students use critical thinking in their own lives. What is argumentation? There are two styles or argumentation —disputative and deliberative. The heart of disputative argumentation is supporting your position with evidence and understanding and then refuting your opponent’s claims and evidence. It is a competitive process where the goal is to convince an opponent to switch sides. The basic question is who is right. With deliberative argumentation, the goal is to collaborate in comparing, contrasting, and evaluating alternatives, then arrive at a constructive conclusion. The basic question is which idea is right. Argumentation skills are not natural. They take both time and instruction to learn. It is especially difficult for children and adolescents to pay attention to, understand, and refute an opponent’s position with evidence (disputative argumentation). Deliberative argumentation also requires learning and practice.

Teaching for Transfer (pp. 397–400) What is transfer?  Transfer occurs when a rule, fact, or skill learned in one situation is applied in another situation; for example, applying rules of punctuation to write a job application letter. Transfer also involves applying to new problems the principles learned in other, often dissimilar situations. What are some dimensions of transfer?  Information can be transferred across a variety of contexts. Some examples include transfer from one subject to another, one physical location to another, or one function to another. These types of transfer make it possible to use skills developed in one area for many other tasks.

Distinguish between automatic and thoughtful transfer.  Spontaneous application of well-learned knowledge and skills is automatic transfer. Thoughtful transfer involves initial learning and reusing or applying what was learned. Essential in the initial learning stage is mindful abstraction, which is the deliberate identification of a principle, main idea, strategy, or procedure that is not tied to one specific problem or situation but could apply to many. Learning environments should support active constructive learning, self-regulation, collaboration, and awareness of cognitive tools and motivational processes. In addition, students should deal with problems that have meaning in their lives. In addition, teachers can help students transfer learning strategies by teaching strategies directly, providing practice with feedback, and then expanding the application of the strategies to new and unfamiliar situations.

Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge (pp. 400–402) What is robust knowledge? Robust knowledge is deep, connected, and coherent. Deep knowledge is knowledge about underlying principles that allows experts to recognize the same principle-based features in seemingly different problems. Connected knowledge means many separate bits of information are linked—problem-solving steps are linked automatically within a problem, abstract principles are linked to specific features of a problem, concepts are linked to appropriate procedures, and principles are connected across different disciplines and domains. Coherent knowledge is consistent and has no contradictions. How do you recognize robust knowledge? In terms of perceiving and representing the problem, novices focus on surface features, whereas experts focus on the structure and larger concepts underlying the problem. Experts can recall from their long-term memory many important details about the problem domain, but novices rely mostly on what they can hold in their working memory, and they often get overwhelmed. In actually solving the problem, novices have to rely on general problem-solving strategies that take a long time, are filled with errors, and often fail. Experts, on the other hand, quickly and accurately apply the appropriate domain-specific strategy for that particular problem type. Finally, because novices’ knowledge is based on surface details of problems, they have no principles or conceptual knowledge to transfer to new situations, whereas the flexible, deep, connected, coherent knowledge of experts gives them abundant useful knowledge to transfer to new situations and problems. How can teaching develop robust knowledge?  Four strategies that we have covered in this chapter can be incorporated into most teaching approaches: practice, worked examples, analogies, and self-explanation. Each of these four strategies can be useful, but the big winner is selfexplanation. Explaining each step in a worked example, drawing a model, explaining to a peer, providing evidence, telling why, justifying an answer—these self-explanations are better than detailed explanations by the teacher in building robust knowledge.

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. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. Problem Solving and Critical Thinking

Teaching for Transfer

Metacognitive Development and Robust Knowledge

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

Application Exercise 9.1

Application Exercise 9.2

Application Exercise 9.3

. KEY TERMS Algorithm (p. 386) Analogical thinking (p. 387) Argumentation (p. 394) Availability heuristic (p. 389) Belief perseverance (p. 389) CAPS (p. 378) Cmaps (p. 376) Concept map (p. 375) Confirmation bias (p. 389) Critical thinking (p. 392)

Embodied cognition (p. 385) Executive control processes (p. 368) Functional fixedness (p. 388) Heuristic (p. 387) KWL (p. 370) Learning strategies (p. 372) Means-ends analysis (p. 387) Metacognition (p. 368) Overlearning (p. 399) Problem (p. 380)

Problem solving (p. 380) Production deficiency (p. 378) READS (p. 378) Representativeness heuristic (p. 388) Response set (p. 388) Retrieval practice/testing effect (p. 377) Schema-driven problem solving (p. 386) Transfer (p. 397) Verbalization (p. 387) Working-backward strategy (p. 387)

. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Metacognition is broadly defined as the knowledge about our own thinking processes, that is, cognition about cognition. Which of the following cognitive abilities is not related to metacognition? A. Declarative knowledge about your own academic progress B. Procedural knowledge about the use of strategies C. Self-regulatory knowledge to ensure the completion of the task D. Belief perseverance even in the face of contradictory evidence 2. Joshua is interested in teaching his students about dinosaurs. According to research on metacognitive development for younger students, which of the following sequential strategies is the most effective way of teaching the concept?

A. First, ask students, “What would you like to know about dinosaurs?” Then, “What do you already know about dinosaurs?” Finally, after the lesson, “Great! Please write down what you have learned.” B. First, ask students, “What do you already know about dinosaurs?” Then, “What would you like to know about dinosaurs?” Finally, after the lesson, “Great! Please write down what you have learned.” C. First, ask students, “What do you already know about dinosaurs?” Then, “Great! Please write down what you have learned!” Finally, after the lesson, “What do you still want to know about dinosaurs?” D. First, ask students, “What would you like to know about dinosaurs?” Then, “What do you already know about dinosaurs?” Finally, “How can you find out what you want to know about dinosaurs?”

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3. Teachers often neglect to teach their students about when, where, and why they should use various strategies. A strategy is more apt to be retained and appropriately used when educators directly teach which type of knowledge? A. Declarative B. Procedural C. Self-regulatory D. Rote 4. Ms. Tlali provided the following description of a person to her students: “Lewis is a man in his 50s. He likes to read, and he spends a lot of his time with books. He works in solitude and prefers cats over dogs.” She then asked them to identify Lewis’ occupation from among the following options: (1) history teacher, (2) Uber driver, (3) chef, and (4) construction worker. She noticed that most of her students identified Lewis as a (1) history teacher, while, in fact, he was more likely (by probability) to be one among options (2) to (4). What is this an example of? A. Representativeness heuristics B. Availability heuristics C. Confirmation bias D. Belief perseverance

CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Sam walked in during Mr. Tan’s office hours because he was not convinced by the topic discussed in the class earlier that day. “Mr. Tan, earlier today, you told us that there are actually more words with r as the third letter than words that start with the letter r. How is that possible? Look, I can easily remember red, rectangle, radio, radar, and many others, but I have a hard time recalling words that have r as the third letter!” “Sam, I understand that it might be difficult to believe, but if you go and look at the dictionary available in our library, you will discover that there are indeed more words that have r as the third letter as opposed to the first.” A few hours later, Sam returned to Mr. Tan’s office. “Mr. Tan, you are right! I wasn’t even aware that I actually know more words with r as the third letter. After going through the dictionary, I now understand my own knowledge better!” 5. What is the key term that best describes Sam’s argument before going to the library? Give reasons for your answer. 6. Which type of argumentation do you see at work in the discussion between Sam and his teacher? Discuss whether, and to what extent, you think such argumentation has impacted Sam’s critical thinking.

MyLab Education Licensure Exam

. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK:  Uncritical Thinking Here is how some practicing teachers would help students learn to critically evaluate the information they find on the Internet. PAUL DRAGIN  •  ESL Teacher, Grades 9–12 Columbus East High School, Columbus, OH

This common problem does not have an easy fix. A few years ago, a student completed a research paper about 9/11, and the paper was filled with conspiracy theories that the student reported as fact. This dramatic example of undocumented, unsubstantiated research opened my eyes to the need to teach research methods far more explicitly to my students. Here is my general strategy to help ensure more quality research: After allowing the students to explore using Google and other common search engines to get some familiarity with their topic, I direct them to a reference database such as EBSCOhost or ProQuest, which, in our city, can be accessed with a library card via the public library Web site. Limiting the databases they can use reduces the likelihood that inaccurate and highly biased information makes its way into their reports. Demonstrating to them the difference between research-based, scholarly information and general information can go a long way in producing a product that demonstrates actual research.

SARA VINCENT  •  Special Education Teacher Langley High School, McLean, VA

The Internet is a useful tool for students, but it is filled with a plethora of bad information. Luckily, the teacher in the described scenario can fix the problem before the students’ submission of their final drafts. As an English teacher, I often encounter this problem but find that the majority of the students will comply if I set strict citation guidelines. After returning the first drafts to the students, I devote the next lesson to using credible sources rather than using less-reliable sources. I show examples of absurd claims from Internet Web sites. I also show the students how to find appropriate information. The students then exchange papers and complete a peer-editing lesson. In this lesson, students critique areas of their peers’ drafts in which the sources were weak or nonexistent. To create strict citation guidelines, I tell my students that they are not allowed to use any Web site that ends in “.com.” Instead, they only are allowed to use Web sites that end in “.edu” or “.gov,” or they can use online databases such as JSTOR. Choosing to use an inappropriate site results in automatic failure on the assignment. If teachers use these strict guidelines, their students are highly likely to choose credible Web sites.

CO M PLE X CO GNI TI V E P ROCESSES PAULA COLEMERE  •  Special Education Teacher—English, History McClintock High School, Tempe, AZ

I usually teach my research unit after we have done persuasive reading and writing. Because I teach students how to evaluate information for bias during the persuasive unit, I know they have some prior knowledge before we tackle research. I show examples from scholarly journals, books, and general Web sites like Wikipedia. Then, as we discuss, I think aloud to model for students why I would or would not use a source. I typically do not allow my students to use any Web sources and keep them to the sites that are pre-approved in our library’s database. If I were to allow a Web-based source, it would be limited to one. It is extremely helpful to students if you can show them sample research papers that are excellent, satisfactory, and poor. This way, they have an idea of what the finished product should look like. Another strategy would be to read a passage as a class and critically evaluate it together. Thinking critically is a skill that needs to be modeled and taught to kids. It is a mistake to assume they know how to do this on their own. JESSICA N. MAHTABAN  •  Eighth-Grade Math Teacher Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ

The best way to show students how to evaluate information from Web sites is by modeling. I have a PowerPoint presentation that explains to students how to evaluate the authenticity of what they are reading on the Internet. Once the students become familiar with all the key points of how to evaluate Web sites, then I can show various Web sites on the Smart board, and as a class we can discuss and review the validity of the site. We need to teach students how to articulate their thoughts by expanding on their ideas. Teachers can add “Why or why not?” or “explain” to the end of questions. If students are exposed to higher-level thinking questions and learn how to ask and answer these questions, then they can think more critically about school subjects. JENNIFER PINCOSKI  •  Learning Resource Teacher: K–12 Lee County School District, Fort Myers, FL

Understanding that the Internet plays such a significant role in students’ lives and that it does provide reliable information, the class needs to be taught how to appropriately use the Web for research. This involves teaching strategies on how to identify credible information, and providing ample opportunities for practice. To understand that not all information on the Internet is accurate, students need to see real examples—examples that are relevant to them. This could be as simple as exposing them to several different sites that post conflicting information about the same topic and then asking them to define how they would decide which information to believe. Once students recognize that they need to exercise discretion when retrieving information from the Internet, they can be taught HOW to do so. The teacher can provide a list of guiding questions that will help students critically evaluate their sources. The ultimate goal is for students to use the guiding questions independently and apply them across settings; however, in the beginning, students will require a much higher level

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of support. An “I do, we do, you do” approach is probably the best way to assist students in the development and practice of these skills. LAUREN ROLLINS • First-Grade Teacher Boulevard Elementary School, Shaker Heights, OH

The Internet is a fantastic resource when it is used properly. Unfortunately, because anyone can post information on the Internet, it is not always reliable or factual. With respect to evaluating information found on the Internet, I encourage my students to visit multiple sites with multiple viewpoints so they can weigh the relative merits of each. In this way, they practice their critical thinking skills. Using examples of “factual” information found on Web sites that contradict clearly accepted facts will teach the students that they must evaluate information in the context of what they know to be true. This will help them to understand that multiple sources, not just the Internet, should be used. In addition, I devote some time to teaching my students how to properly cite sources from the Internet and other sources. This is an important skill and also a necessary one so that they will not be suspected of plagiarism. LINDA SPARKS • First-Grade Teacher John F. Kennedy School, Billerica, MA

Whenever I assign a new research project, I begin with a specific list of resource instructions. For example, I might state that I want two books, two magazine articles, and three Web sites. After the topic is picked, I have the students pull together their resources and come to me so that I can check them to make sure each student is headed in the right direction. It also gives me a better understanding of what they are researching and I can find out if they have any misconceptions about the project. I find I get better results this way, because the students know I am aware of what they are researching and have their lists of resources. (Even if they don’t use all their sources, I want them to see what is available for them.) I also am more prepared to teach specific writing skills. The first skill I teach before I assign a project as they practice reading articles is how to take that information and transfer it into their own words. Limiting the number of quotes is a way to encourage higher-level thinking processes. Many times, when given the chance, students are more creative than the writers of the articles they read. BARBARA PRESLEY  •  Transition/Work Study Coordinator— High School Level BESTT Program (Baldwinsville Exceptional Student Training and Transition Program), C. W. Baker High School, Baldwinsville, NY

To me, discussion is key: whole-group discussion, small-group discussion, and one-to-one discussion, all the time being prepared to defend or criticize (with legitimate corroboration) topics raised. Students learn well from their mistakes as long as the correction is respectful and meaningful to them personally. They can’t learn to think critically until someone questions their premises and they have to defend their position—as long as the discussions are conducted without malice. They are gaining experience in critical thinking through the process of criticism, both given and received.

chapter ten

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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Learning to Cooperate

WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

CONSTRUCTIVISM AND DESIGNING LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS You want to use cooperative learning with your middle school students. Many students have worked in groups, but few seem to have participated in true cooperative learning. When you surveyed the class members about their experiences, most rolled their eyes and groaned. You take it that their experiences have not been very positive. These students have a wide range of abilities, including some who are truly gifted and talented, several who are just learning English, and a few who are very shy; and then there are others who would take over and dominate every discussion if you let them. You believe that collaboration is a crucial 21st century skill for all students and that learning together can deepen understanding as students question, explain, and build on each other’s thinking. No matter what, you hope the experience of learning together will build both your students’ confidence and your sense of efficacy as a teacher, so you want authentic successes. CRITICAL THINKING • How would you begin to introduce cooperative learning to your students? • What tasks will you choose to start? • How will you establish groups? • What will you watch and listen for to be sure the students are making the most of the experience?

PinkCat/Shutterstock

OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES For the past three chapters, we have analyzed different aspects of learning. We considered behavioral, information processing, and cognitive science explanations of what and how people learn. We have examined complex cognitive processes such as metacognitive skills and problem solving. These explanations of learning focus on the individual and what is happening in his or her “head.” In this chapter, we expand our investigation of learning to include the social context of learning and the notion of constructivism. Constructivism is a broad perspective that calls attention to two critical aspects of learning: social and cultural factors. Sociocultural constructivist theories have roots in cognitive perspectives but have moved well beyond these early explanations. We will explore a number of teaching strategies and approaches that are consistent with constructivist perspectives—teacher facilitation, inquiry, problem-based learning, cooperative learning, cognitive apprenticeships, and reciprocal teaching. Finally, we will examine learning in this digital age, including the considerations about learning in technology-rich environments and the flipped classroom. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 10.1 Explain different perspectives on constructivism as a theory of learning and teaching. Objective 10.2 Identify the common elements in most contemporary constructivist theories. Objective 10.3 Apply constructivist principles to classroom practice including using inquiry, problem-based learning, and cognitive apprenticeships. Objective 10.4 Appropriately incorporate collaboration and cooperative learning in your classes. Objective 10.5 Describe positive and negative influences of technology on the learning and development of children and adolescents.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives

COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Cognitive and Social Constructivism

Consider this situation:

Constructivist Views of Learning How Is Knowledge Constructed? Knowledge: Situated or General? Common Elements of Constructivist StudentCentered Teaching Designing Constructivist Learning Environments Assumptions to Guide the Design of Learning Environments Facilitating in a Constructivist Classroom Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching Collaboration and Cooperation Tasks for Cooperative Learning Setting Up Cooperative Groups

A young child who has never been to the hospital is in her bed in the pediatric wing. The nurse at the station down the hall calls over the intercom above the bed, “Hi Chelsea, how are you doing? Do you need anything?” The girl looks puzzled and does not answer. The nurse repeats the question with the same result. Finally, the nurse says emphatically, “Chelsea, are you there? Say something!” The little girl responds tentatively, “Hello, wall—I’m here.”

Chelsea encountered a new situation—a talking wall. The wall is persistent. It sounds like a grown-up wall. She shouldn’t talk to strangers, but she is not sure about walls. She uses what she knows and what the situation provides to construct meaning and to act. Here is another example of constructing meaning. This time, Kate and her 9-year-old son Ethan co-construct understandings as they buy groceries:

Ethan: (running to get a shopping cart) Do we need the big one? Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Kate: We might—better too big than not big enough. Here Learning Wisely is our list—where do we go first? Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice Ethan: We need ice cream for the party! (Ethan heads toward frozen foods) Designing Learning Environments in a Digital Kate: Whoa! What happened to the ice cream carton you World left out on the kitchen counter? Technology and Learning Ethan: It melted and it wasn’t out that long. I promise! Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities Kate: Right and we may be in this store a while, so let’s start for Young Children with things that won’t melt while we are shopping—I The Flipped Classroom usually buy produce first. Ethan: What’s “produce”? Summary and Key Terms Kate: Things that grow—fruits and vegetables “produced” Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What by farmers. Would They Do? Ethan: OK, the list says cucumbers. Here they are. Wait there are two kinds. Which do you want? The little ones say “local.” What’s local? Kate: Local means from around here—close to us, close to our “location.” Ethan: Is local better? Kate: Maybe. I like to support our local farmers. Where are the small cucumbers from—look at the tiny print on the label. Ethan: Virginia—is that close to us? Kate: Not really—it is about a 6-hour drive from here. . . . Designs for Cooperation

Look at the knowledge being co-constructed about planning ahead, vocabulary, problem solving, and even geography. Constructivist perspectives of learning focus on how people make meaning, both on their own like Chelsea and in interaction with others like Ethan. Constructivism/ constructivist approach  View that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information.

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Constructivist Views of Learning Constructivism is a broad and much debated term. Actually, constructivism is more a

philosophy about knowledge than a scientific theory of learning. Various constructivist perspectives are grounded in the research of Piaget, Vygotsky, the Gestalt psychologists, and the work of Bartlett, Bruner, and Rogoff; in addition, the philosophy of John Dewey

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and the work in anthropology of Jean Lave are also among the many intellectual origins of this philosophy. But even though many psychologists and educators use the term constructivism, they often mean very different things ( J. Martin, 2006; McCaslin & Hickey, 2001; Phillips, 1997). Although there is no single constructivist theory, most constructivist perspectives do agree on two central ideas: Central Idea 1: Learners are active in constructing their own understanding—they create knowledge by going beyond the information they are given (Chi & Wylie, 2014). Central Idea 2: Social interactions are important in this knowledge construction process (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011; Schunk, 2016). One way to organize constructivist views is to describe two forms of constructivism that match these central ideas: cognitive and social construction (Palincsar, 1998; Phillips, 1997). Cognitive constructivists focus on how individuals use information, resources, and even help from others to build understanding—see Central Idea 1. In contrast, social constructivists view learning as increasing our abilities to participate with others in activities that are meaningful in the culture—see Central Idea 2 (Dohn, 2016; Windschitl, 2002). Let’s look a bit closer at each type of constructivism. COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM.  Many psychological theories include some kind of constructivism because these theories embrace the idea that individuals construct their own cognitive structures as they make sense of their experiences (Palincsar, 1998). Because they study individual knowledge, beliefs, self-concept, or identity, they are sometimes called individual constructivists or psychological constructivists; they all focus on the inner psychological life of people. When Chelsea talked to the wall in the previous section, she was making meaning using her own individual knowledge and beliefs about how to respond when someone (or something) talks to you (Piaget, 1971; Windschitl, 2002). When children observe that most plants need soil to grow and then conclude that plants “eat dirt,” they are using what they know about how eating supports life to make sense of plant growth (M. C. Linn & Eylon, 2006). Using these standards, the most recent information processing theories are constructivist because they are concerned with how individuals construct internal representations (propositions, images, concepts, schemas) that can be remembered and retrieved (Mayer, 1996; Schunk, 2016). Some psychologists, however, believe that information processing is “trivial” or “weak” constructivism because the individual’s only constructive contribution is to build accurate internal representations of the outside world, not to construct a unique and individual understanding (Derry, 1992; Garrison, 1995; H. H. Marshall, 1996; Windschitl, 2002). In contrast, Piaget’s psychological (cognitive) constructivist perspective is less concerned with “correct” representations and more interested in meaning as constructed by the individual. Piaget’s special focus was on logic and the construction of universal knowledge such as conservation or reversibility (P. H. Miller, 2016). Such knowledge comes from reflecting on and coordinating our own cognitions or thoughts, not from copying external reality. Piaget saw the social environment as an important factor in development, but did not believe that social interaction was the main mechanism for changing thinking. At the extreme end of individual constructivism is the notion of radical constructivism. This perspective holds that each of us constructs meaning (knowledge) from our own experiences as we try to explain to ourselves what we perceive, but we have no way of understanding or “knowing” the knowledge constructed by others or even whether our knowledge is “correct.” Learning for radical constructivists consists of replacing one construction with another that better explains the person’s current perceptions of reality (Hennessey et al., 2012). A difficulty with this position is that, when pushed to the extreme of relativism, all knowledge and all beliefs are equal because they are all valid individual perceptions. There are problems with this thinking for educators. First, teachers have a professional responsibility to emphasize some values, such as honesty or justice, over others,

MyLab Education

Video Example 10.1 The young students in this science class are investigating earthworms. In pairs, they are finding answers to their questions and constructing their own knowledge with the teacher’s guidance. Notice the active role of the students in building understanding, and making sense of information about earthworms.

Radical constructivism Knowledge is assumed to be the individual’s construction; it cannot be judged right or wrong.

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such as deception and bigotry. All perceptions and beliefs are not equal. Second, there are right answers in many fields such as mathematics, and students will have trouble learning if they hold on to personal misconceptions and naïve constructions. As teachers, we ask students to work hard to learn. If learning cannot advance understanding because all understandings are equally good, then, as David Moshman (1997) noted, “we might just as well let students continue to believe whatever they believe” (p. 230). Also, it appears that some knowledge, such as counting and one-to-one correspondence, is not constructed, but innate. Knowing one-to-one correspondence is part of being human (Geary, 1995; Schunk, 2016). SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM.  In cognitive constructivism, learning means individually possessing knowledge (Central Idea 1), but in social constructivism, learning means belonging to a group and participating with that group in the social construction of knowledge (Central Idea 2) (Dohn, 2016; Mason, 2007). Vygotsky emphasized the second idea, that social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning, just as Ethan’s interactions and activities in the grocery store with his mother shaped his learning about anticipating possible consequences (running out of space in the shopping cart and melted ice cream), the meaning of “produce” and “local,” and geography—where is Virginia? ( J. Martin, 2006). By participating in a broad range of activities with others, learners appropriate the outcomes produced by working together; these outcomes could include both new strategies and knowledge. Appropriating means being able to reason, act, and participate using cultural tools—for example, using conceptual tools such as “force” and “acceleration” to reason in physics (Mason, 2007). Because Vygotsky’s theory relies heavily on social interactions and the cultural context to explain learning, most psychologists classify him as a social constructivist (Palincsar, 1998; Prawat, 1996). However, some theorists categorize him as a cognitive constructivist because he was primarily interested in development within the individual (Moshman, 1997; Phillips, 1997). In a sense, Vygotsky was both. One advantage of his theory of learning is that it gives us a way to consider both the cognitive and the social: He bridges both camps. For example, Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development—the area in which a child can solve a problem with the help (scaffolding) of an adult or more able peer—has been called a place where culture and cognition create each other (M. Cole, 1985). Culture creates cognition when the adult uses tools and practices from the culture (language, maps, computers, looms, or music) to steer the child toward goals the culture values (reading, writing, weaving, dance). Cognition creates culture as the adult and child or several adults together generate new practices and problem solutions to add to the cultural group’s repertoire (Serpell, 1993). So people are both products and producers of their societies and cultures (Bandura, 2001). One way of integrating cognitive and social constructivism is to think of knowledge as both individually constructed and socially mediated (Windschitl, 2002). These two different perspectives on constructivism raise some general questions, create some tensions, and suggest different answers, as you will see next.

How Is Knowledge Constructed? One tension is based on how knowledge is constructed. There are three explanations, shown in Table 10.1, based on Bruning, Schraw, and Norby (2011), Moshman (1982), and Schunk (2016).

Knowledge: Situated or General? Appropriating Being able to internalize or take for yourself knowledge and skills developed in interaction with others or with cultural tools.

A second question that cuts across many constructivist perspectives is whether knowledge is internal, general, and transferable, or bound to the time and place in which it is constructed. Psychologists who emphasize the social construction of knowledge and situated learning affirm Vygotsky’s notion that learning is inherently social and embedded in a particular cultural setting (Cobb & Bowers, 1999; Dohn, 2016; Schoor, Narciss, & Körndle, 2015). What is true in one time and place—such as the “fact” before Columbus’s

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TABLE 10.1  •  How Knowledge Is Constructed TYPE

ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

EXAMPLE THEORIES

External Direction

Knowledge is acquired by constructing a representation of the outside world. Direct teaching, feedback, and explanation affect learning. Knowledge is accurate to the extent that it reflects the “way things really are” in the outside world.

Information processing

Internal Direction

Knowledge is constructed by transforming, organizing, and reorganizing previous knowledge. Knowledge is not a mirror of the external world, even though experience influences thinking and thinking influences knowledge. Exploration and discovery are more important than teaching.

Piaget

Both External and Internal Direction

Knowledge is constructed based on social interactions and experience. Knowledge reflects the outside world as filtered through and influenced by culture, language, beliefs, interactions with others, direct teaching, and modeling. Guided discovery, teaching, models, and coaching as well as the individual’s prior knowledge, beliefs, and thinking affect learning.

Vygotsky

time that the earth was flat—becomes false in another time and place. Particular ideas may be useful within a specific community of practice, such as fifteenth-century navigation, but useless outside that community. What counts as new knowledge is determined in part by how well the new idea fits with current accepted practice. Over time, the current practice may be questioned and even overthrown, but until such major shifts occur, current practice will shape what is considered valuable, and even what is considered knowledge. Situated learning emphasizes that learning in the real world is not like studying in school. It is more like an apprenticeship where novices, with the support of an expert guide and model, take on more and more responsibility until they can function independently. Proponents of this view believe situated learning explains learning in factories, around the dinner table, in high school halls, in street gangs, in the business office, and on the playground. Situated learning is often described as “enculturation,” or forming an identity within a particular community by adopting its norms, behaviors, skills, beliefs, language, and attitudes. The community might be mathematicians or gang members or writers or students in your eighth-grade class or soccer players—any group that has particular ways of thinking and acting. Knowledge is viewed not as individual cognitive structures, but rather as a creation of the community over time. The practices of the community— the ways of interacting and getting things done, as well as the identities and tools the community has created—constitute the knowledge of that community. Learning means becoming more able to participate in those practices, take on those identities, and use the tools (Dohn, 2016; Greeno, Collins, & Resnick, 1996; Mason, 2007). At the most basic level, “situated learning emphasizes the idea that much of what is learned is specific to the situation in which it is learned” ( J. R. Anderson, Reder, & Simon, 1996, p. 5). Thus, some would argue, learning to do calculations in school may help students do more school calculations, because the skills can be applied only in the context in which they were learned—namely, school (Lave, 1997; Lave & Wenger, 1991). But it also appears that knowledge and skills can be applied across contexts that were not part of the initial learning situation, as when you use your ability to read and

Community of practice  Social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true. Situated learning  The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings.

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calculate to do your income taxes, even though income tax forms were not part of your high school curriculum (Schunk, 2016). Learning that is situated in school does not have to be isolated or irrelevant (Bereiter, 1997). As you saw in Chapter 9, a major question in educational psychology—and education in general—concerns the transfer of knowledge from one situation to another. How can you encourage this transfer from one situation to another? Help is on the way in the next section.

Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered Teaching STOP & THINK What makes a lesson student centered? List the characteristics and features that put the student in the center of learning. • MyLab Education

Video Example 10.2 In Mr. Fireng’s middle school science class, the students engage in peer teaching. Students work together in groups to develop expertise about one concept in their science unit, plan a lesson and activities around their concept, and teach that concept to their peers. Observe the student-centered focus of Mr. Fireng’s approach.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Student-Centered Learning (II, A3) Many of the major initiatives to reform content-area curricula (e.g., science, mathematics) emphasize student-centered/ constructivist approaches to learning. Describe the major principles of these approaches, and explain how they differ from teachercentered approaches.

Complex learning environments Problems and learning situations that mimic the ill-structured nature of real life.

We have looked at some areas of disagreement among the constructivist perspectives, but what about areas of agreement? All constructivist perspectives assume that knowing develops as learners, like Chelsea and Ethan, try to make sense of their experiences. “Learners, therefore, are not empty vessels waiting to be filled, but rather active organisms seeking meaning” (Driscoll, 2005, p. 487). Humans construct mental models or schemas and continue to revise them to make better sense of their experiences. We are knowledge inventors, not copy machines or filing cabinets. Our constructions do not necessarily resemble external reality; rather, they are our unique interpretations, like Chelsea’s friendly, persistent wall. This doesn’t mean that all constructions are equally useful or viable. Learners test their understandings against experience and the understandings of other people—they negotiate and co-construct meanings like Ethan did with his mother. Constructivists share similar goals for learning. They emphasize knowledge in use rather than the storing of inert facts, concepts, and skills. Learning goals include developing abilities to find and solve ill-structured problems, critical thinking, inquiry, selfdetermination, and openness to multiple perspectives (Driscoll, 2005). Even though there is no single constructivist theory, many constructivist approaches recommend five conditions for learning: 1. Embed learning in complex, realistic, and relevant learning environments. 2. Provide for social negotiation and shared responsibility as a part of learning. 3. Support multiple perspectives, and use multiple representations of content. 4. Nurture self-awareness and an understanding that knowledge is constructed. 5. Encourage ownership in learning. (Driscoll, 2005; H. H. Marshall, 1992) Before we discuss particular teaching approaches, let’s look more closely at these dimensions of constructivist teaching. COMPLEX LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS AND AUTHENTIC TASKS.  Constructivists believe that students should not be given stripped-down, simplified problems and basic skills drills, but instead should encounter complex learning environments that deal with “fuzzy,” ill-structured problems. The world beyond school presents few simple problems or step-by-step directions, so schools should be sure that every student has experience solving complex problems. Complex problems are not just difficult ones; rather, they have many parts. There are multiple, interacting elements in complex problems and multiple possible solutions. There is no one right way to reach a conclusion, and each solution may bring a new set of problems. These complex problems should be embedded in authentic tasks and activities, the kinds of situations that students would face as they apply what they are learning in the real world. Students may need support (scaffolding) as they work on these complex problems, with teachers helping them find resources, keeping track of their progress, breaking larger problems down into smaller ones, and so on. This aspect of constructivist

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approaches is consistent with situated learning in emphasizing learning in situations where the knowledge will be applied. SOCIAL NEGOTIATION.  Many constructivists share Vygotsky’s belief that higher mental processes develop through social negotiation and interaction, so collaboration in learning is valued. A major goal of teaching is to develop students’ critical thinking and argumentation—the abilities to establish and defend their own positions while respecting the positions of others and working together to negotiate or co-construct meaning. To accomplish this exchange, students must talk and listen to each other. It is a challenge for children in cultures that are individualistic and competitive, such as the United States, to adopt what has been called an intersubjective attitude—a commitment to build shared meaning by finding common ground and exchanging interpretations. MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES AND REPRESENTATIONS OF CONTENT.  When students encounter only one model, one analogy, one way of understanding complex content, they often oversimplify as they try to apply that one approach to every situation. I saw this happen in my educational psychology class when six students were presenting an example of guided discovery learning. The students’ presentation was a near copy of a guided discovery demonstration I had given earlier in the semester, but with some major misconceptions. My students knew only one way to represent discovery learning. Resources for the class should have provided multiple representations of content using different analogies, examples, and metaphors. This idea is consistent with Jerome Bruner’s (1966) spiral curriculum, a structure for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects—the “big ideas”—early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time. Another example, the use of manipulatives in mathematics, allows students different ways to represent the quantities and processes in mathematics (Carbonneau, Marley, & Selig, 2012). UNDERSTANDING THE KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS.  Constructivist approaches emphasize making students aware of their own role in constructing knowledge. The assumptions we make, our beliefs, and our experiences shape what each of us comes to “know” about the world. Different assumptions and different experiences lead to different knowledge, as we saw in Chapter 6 when we explored the role of cultural differences in shaping knowledge. If students are aware of the influences that shape their thinking, they will be more able to choose, develop, and defend positions in a self-critical way while respecting the positions of others. STUDENT OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING.  “While there are several interpretations of what [constructivist] theory means, most agree that it involves a dramatic change in the focus of teaching, putting the students’ own efforts to understand at the center of the educational enterprise” (Prawat, 1992, p. 357). Student ownership does not mean that the teacher abandons responsibility for instruction. Because the design of teaching is a central issue in this book, we will spend the rest of this chapter discussing examples of ownership of learning and student-centered instruction. MyLab Education Self-Check 10.1

DESIGNING CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS Designing learning environments means translating our knowledge about learning and motivation into activities, assignments, assessments, and other resources for instruction (Belland, Kim, & Hannafin, 2013). Educational psychologists are not the only people who study how to design learning environments. In fact, an interdisciplinary field often

Social negotiation Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives. Intersubjective attitude  A commitment to build shared meaning with others by finding common ground and exchanging interpretations. Multiple representations of content Considering problems using various analogies, examples, and metaphors. Spiral curriculum Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time.

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called the learning sciences encompasses research in psychology, education, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning and learning environments. No matter what their focus is, all knowledge workers are interested in how deep robust knowledge in subjects like science, mathematics, and literacy is actually acquired.

Assumptions to Guide the Design of Learning Environments Here are some basic assumptions to guide our consideration of how to design powerful learning environments (Sawyer, 2006): • Experts have deep conceptual knowledge. Experts know many facts and procedures, but just learning facts and procedures will not make you an expert. Experts have deep conceptual understanding that allows them to put their knowledge into action; they can apply and modify their knowledge to fit each situation. • Learning comes from the learner. Better instruction alone will not transfer deep understandings from teachers to students. Learning is more than receiving and processing information transmitted by teachers or texts. Rather, students must actively participate in their own personal construction of knowledge. Again, we are knowledge inventors, not copy machines (de Kock, Sleegers, & Voeten, 2004). • Schools must create effective learning environments. It is the job of the school to create environments where students are active in constructing their own deep understandings so they can reason about real-world problems and transfer their learning from school to their lives beyond the school walls. • Prior knowledge and beliefs are key. Students come into our classrooms filled with knowledge and beliefs about how the world works. Some of these preconceptions are right, some are part right, and some are wrong. If teaching does not begin with what the students “know,” then the students will learn what it takes to pass the test, but their knowledge and beliefs about the world will not change (Hennessey, Higley, & Chesnut, 2012). • Reflection is necessary to develop deep conceptual knowledge. Students need to express and perform the knowledge they are developing through writing, conversations, drawings, projects, skits, portfolios, reports, and so on. But the performance is not enough. To develop deep conceptual knowledge, students need to reflect— thoughtfully analyze their own work and progress. Keith Sawyer (2006) contrasts learning environments designed based on these assumptions with traditional classroom practices that have dominated schooling in many countries for decades. Look at Table 10.2 to see the differences. Even though, as you can see again in Table 10.2, the student is at the center of constructivist perspectives of learning, this does not mean that teachers are irrelevant or obsolete. In constructivist classrooms, teachers are facilitators and learning environment designers.

Facilitating in a Constructivist Classroom Mark Windschitl (2002) suggests the following ways that teachers can encourage meaningful learning. To facilitate learning, teachers:

Learning sciences An interdisciplinary science of learning, based on research in psychology, education, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning.

• Elicit students’ ideas and experiences in relation to key topics, then fashion learning situations that help students elaborate on or restructure their current knowledge. • Provide students with a variety of information resources as well as the tools (technological and conceptual) necessary to mediate learning. • Make their own thinking processes explicit to learners and encourage students to do the same through dialogue, writing, drawings, or other representations. • Encourage students’ reflective and autonomous thinking in conjunction with the conditions listed above. • Employ a variety of assessment strategies to understand how students’ ideas are evolving and then give feedback on the processes as well as the products of their thinking. (p. 137).

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TABLE 10.2  •  How Deep Learning Contrasts with Learning in Traditional Classrooms LEARNING IN TRADITIONAL CLASSROOMS

BUT FINDINGS FROM COGNITIVE SCIENCE SHOW OTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR DEEP LEARNING

Class material is not related to what students already know. Example: Teacher says, “Igneous rocks are. . . .”

Learners relate new understandings to what they already know and believe. Example: Teacher says, “Have any of you seen granite counter tops on TV home shows or maybe you have one in your house? What do they look like . . .?”

Class material presented and learned as disconnected bits of knowledge. “The definition of metamorphic rocks is. . . .”

Learners integrate and interconnect their knowledge in expanding conceptual systems. “We already have learned about two kinds of rocks. We also learned last week about how the earth has changed over the centuries, with some ocean floors becoming land areas. Today we will learn about how marble and diamonds. . . .”

Lessons involve memorizing facts and doing procedures without understanding how or why. “To divide fractions, invert and multiply. . . .”

Learners search for patterns and recognize or invent underlying principles. “Remind me what it means to divide. . . . Ok, so 3/4 divided by 1/2 means how many sets of what are in . . .?”

Learners have trouble understanding ideas that are not straight from the textbook or explained in the same way. “What does your textbook say about . . .?”

Learners evaluate new ideas, even if not in the text, and integrate them into their thinking. “On TV yesterday there was a story about a new drug that is effective in curing one out of 8 cases of. . . . What is the probability of a cure?”

Authorities and experts are the source of unchanging and accurate facts and procedures. “Scientists agree. . . .”

Learners understand that knowledge is socially constructed by people, so ideas require critical examination. “Here are brief summaries of two positions about climate change. Let’s think about how you would determine which position is more supported by evidence . . .?”

Learners simply memorize everything instead of thinking about the purpose of learning and the best strategies for that purpose. “This will be on the test.”

Learners think about why they are learning, monitor their understanding, and reflect on their own learning processes. “How could you use this concept in your own life? How can you tell if you are understanding it?”

Source: Based on Sawyer, R. K. (2006). The New Science of Learning. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences (p. 4). New York: Cambridge University Press.

SCAFFOLDING.  Constructivist approaches include scaffolding to support students’ developing expertise. One implication of Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development is that deep understanding requires that students grapple with problems in their zone of proximal development, where they construct knowledge with support; students need scaffolding in order to work in that zone. Here is a good definition of scaffolding that emphasizes its dynamic interactive nature as well as the knowledge that both teacher and student bring to the learning situation—both are experts on something: “Scaffolding is a powerful conception of teaching and learning in which teachers and students create meaningful connections between teachers’ cultural knowledge and the everyday experience and knowledge of the student” (McCaslin & Hickey, 2001, p. 137). Look back at the grocery store conversation between Ethan and his mother. Notice how the mother used the melted ice cream on the kitchen counter—connecting to Ethan’s experience and knowledge—to scaffold Ethan’s understanding.

Scaffolding  Teachers and students make meaningful connections between what the teacher knows and what the students know and need in order to help the students learn more.

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MyLab Education

Video Example 10.3 In Mr. Fireng’s middle school science class, he provides scaffolding as needed. Observe how he prompts a student who needs a little help to answer the warm-up questions about ticks. Notice how he encourages the student from China when an English word becomes a barrier to her learning. What is the role of social interaction in the learning that is taking place in this classroom?

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Advance Organizers (II, A3) The advance organizer is an important element in many teacher-centered/expository approaches to instruction. Be able to explain the role of the advance organizer in these approaches, and identify the basic types of organizers.

Advance organizer  Statement of inclusive concepts to introduce and sum up material that follows.

The original definition of scaffolding (Wood et al., 1976) included both motivational and cognitive support—helping students stay engaged and interested while also helping them move toward deeper learning (Belland, 2014). Motivational scaffolding includes recruiting the students’ interests and enthusiasm to engage with the learning activity, maintaining the students’ attention and redirecting when the students stray off task, and helping students control their emotions if learning gets frustrating. These motivational supports are important for all students, but especially for students with learning challenges (Radford et al., 2015). Cognitive scaffolding has three characteristics (Radford, Bosanquent, Webster, & Blatchford, 2015; van de Pol, Volman, & Beishuizen, 2010): 1. Contingency Support: The teacher is constantly adjusting, differentiating, and tailoring responses to the students. 2. Fading: The teacher gradually withdraws support as the students’ understanding and skills deepen. 3. Transferring Responsibility: Students assume more and more responsibility for their own learning. There are a number of ways teachers can provide contingency support, including prompting, modeling, and reminders. For example, to study the role of teacher support in the growth of student relational thinking, Tzu-Jung Lin and her colleagues analyzed over 35,000 exchanges during the problem-based discussions in small groups of fourth graders. The researchers found that teachers’ prompts for relational thinking—encouraging logical reasoning, use of analogies, counterargument, alternative hypotheses, and elaborated clarifications—led to better student relational thinking. Once the teacher coached one student to think more deeply, the relational thinking spread to other members of the group—they scaffolded each other. Other effective teacher supports included praising students for using cognitive strategies and prompting the group to stay on task, not interrupt each other, take turns, and be sure everyone contributed (Lin et al., 2015). Fading support can involve moving from concrete to abstract problems. This strategy is in keeping with the U.S. Institute of Education Science’s recommendations that encourage teachers to “Connect and integrate abstract representations of a concept with concrete representations of the same concept” (Pashler et al., 2007, p. 13). One example of the importance of fading comes from three studies of mathematics learning in elementary school (Fyfe, McNeil, & Borjas, 2015). The researchers tested four ways of teaching math to first through third graders: problems presented using concrete material only, problems presented using abstract (numbers only) instruction, problems presented that faded from concrete to abstract, and problems that started abstract and became more concrete. In the three different studies, concrete fading to abstract instruction, like that shown in Figure 10.1, was more effective, even for students with greater prior knowledge in math. To transfer responsibility and support growing expertise, scaffolds should be designed so the students make choices as they learn, consider the consequences of different options, make decisions about strategies, and select paths of action. If students are following this approach, they will be able to assume more and more responsibility for their own learning, so fading will be more successful (Belland, 2011). These kinds of scaffolds also help students to become “self-scaffolding” (Radford et al., 2015). ADVANCE ORGANIZERS AS SCAFFOLDING.  One way to scaffold both learning and motivation is to begin a lesson or activity with an advance organizer (Melrose, 2013). This is the provision of introductory material broad enough to encompass all the information that will follow. The organizers can serve three purposes: They direct your attention to what is important in the upcoming material, they highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented, and they remind you of relevant information you already have. Advance organizers fall into two categories, comparative and expository (Mayer, 1984). Comparative organizers activate (bring into working memory) already existing schemas. They remind you of what you already know but may not realize is relevant to

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F IG U RE 10.1 FADING INSTRUCTION FROM CONCRETE MATERIALS TO ABSTRACT PROBLEMS Elementary age students learned some basic math concepts by beginning with concrete materials—how do you have the give the same number of stickers to the monkey and to the frog?, then moving to a work sheet asking the same question, and finally working with an abstract problem using numbers only.

Source: From Fyfe, E. R., McNeil, N. M., & Borjas, S. (2015). Benefits of “Concreteness Fading” for Children’s Mathematics Understanding. Learning and Instruction, 35, p. 107.

the new topic being discussed. A comparative advance organizer for a history lesson on revolutions might be a statement that contrasts military uprisings with the physical and social changes involved in the Industrial Revolution; you could also compare the common aspects of the French, English, Mexican, Russian, Iranian, Egyptian, and American revolutions (Salomon & Perkins, 1989). In contrast, expository organizers provide new knowledge that students will need in order to understand the upcoming information. In an English class, you might begin a large thematic unit on rites of passage in literature with a very broad statement of the theme and a brief analysis about why it has been so central in literature—something like, “A central character coming of age must learn to know himself or herself, often makes some kind of journey of self-discovery, and must decide what in the society is to be accepted and what should be rejected.” Such an organizer might precede reading novels such as The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. The general conclusion of research on advance organizers is that they do scaffold student learning, especially when the material to be learned is quite unfamiliar, complex, or difficult—as long as two conditions are met (Langan-Fox, Waycott, & Albert, 2000; Morin & Miller, 1998). First, to be effective, the students must understand the organizer. This was demonstrated dramatically in a classic study by Dinnel and Glover (1985). They found that instructing students to paraphrase an advance organizer—which, of course, requires them to understand its meaning—increased the effectiveness of the organizer. Second, the organizer must really be an organizer: It must indicate relations among the basic concepts and terms that will be used in the upcoming lesson. Concrete models, diagrams, concept maps, charts, timelines, or analogies seem to be especially good organizers (D. H. Robinson, 1998; D. H. Robinson & Kiewra, 1995). FACILITATING THROUGH ASKING AND ANSWERING DEEP QUESTIONS.  Studies with students from fourth grade through college in subjects as diverse as science, mathematics, history, and literature show that teachers can facilitate learning by training students to ask and answer deep questions when they read, listen to a lecture, or participate in class discussions. To be effective, you first must to be sure that all your students have the necessary basic facts and knowledge to think deeply about. Then you can identify questions that prompt students to reason about underlying principles and big ideas in the content, make reasoned arguments, and provide evidence (Pashler et al., 2007). It is not easy or natural to ask and answer deep questions. Students have to be supported as they learn these skills. The Guidelines for Facilitating Deep Questioning on the next page, taken from Pashler et al. (2007), give some ideas.

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GUIDELINES Facilitating Deep Questioning Encourage students to think aloud when speaking or writing their explanations as they study or discuss a topic. Examples 1. Present a challenging story and ask a student to think aloud to explain as he or she reads the story, linking the story to personal experiences and prior knowledge. 2. Have students respond to each other’s explanations and consider multiple explanations. 3. Where appropriate, use deliberative argumentation (Chapter 9) to reach a collaborative consensus about what is a good explanation. Ask questions that require an explanation, not just reciting facts or repeating from the text, to answer. Examples 1. “How and why would the destruction of bees affect other life on our planet?” “How would the United States have changed if the other candidate had won the Presidential elections in 1860, 1952, and 2016?”

2. Provide models of good, deep questions and teach students to distinguish between deep questions that require explanations like those above and superficial questions that only require a factual answer such as “What insect pollinates flowers?” “Who were the two main Presidential candidates in 1860, 1952, and 2016?” Ask questions that challenge students’ prior beliefs and assumptions. Examples 1. Ask questions that highlight puzzling or paradoxical situations, such as, “Why is it good for a forest to periodically experience fires?” 2. Ask questions that make students defend their positions with facts and evidence. Source: Based on Pashler, H., Bain, P., Bottge, B., Graesser, A., Koedinger, K., McDaniel, M., & Metcalfe, J. (2007) Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning (NCER 2007–2004). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ncer.ed.gov.

To repeat one of my favorite assertions, teachers are not irrelevant in constructivist classrooms. Rather, they are facilitators and learning environment designers. We have explored facilitation. Now let’s examine several designs for constructivist teaching and learning: inquiry and problem-based learning, cognitive apprenticeships, and reciprocal teaching. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Inquiry Learning (II, A2, 3) Inquiry learning is a studentcentered approach to learning that predates many “traditional” forms of instruction. Describe the basic structure of this approach to learning. What are its strengths and limitations? What roles does the teacher have?

Inquiry learning Approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions.

Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning John Dewey described the basic inquiry learning format in 1910. Educators have developed many adaptations of this strategy, but the form usually includes the following elements (Echevarria, 2003; Lashley, Matczynski, & Rowley, 2002). The teacher presents a puzzling event, question, or problem. The students: • • • •

formulate hypotheses to explain the event or solve the problem, collect data to test the hypotheses, draw conclusions, and reflect on the original problem and the thinking processes needed to solve it.

This is a general picture of inquiry learning, but what is actually going on? Erin Furtak and her colleagues (2012) categorized the actual activities and processes in inquiry as being procedural (hands-on, posing scientific questions, doing science procedures, collecting data, graphing or charting data), epistemic (drawing conclusions based on evidence, generating and revising theories), conceptual (connecting to students’ prior knowledge, eliciting students’ mental models and ideas), or social (participating in class discussions, arguing and debating ideas, giving presentations, working collaboratively). When the researchers analyzed 37 studies conducted from 1996 to 2006 that compared inquiry approaches with the traditional teaching of science, they found that the greatest impact on student learning came when the inquiry approach included epistemic

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activities or a combination of epistemic, procedural, and social activities. So having students collaborate to do hands-on scientific procedures, gather and represent data, draw conclusions, debate ideas, and make presentations was more effective than traditional teacher-centered approaches. But throughout these activities, teacher guidance and scaffolding were important. Just letting the students work completely on their own doing experiments was not effective. EXAMPLES OF INQUIRY.  Shirley Magnusson and Annemarie Palincsar developed a teachers’ guide for planning, implementing, and assessing different phases of inquiry science units, called guided inquiry supporting multiple literacies (GisML, see Figure 10.2 on the next page) (Hapgood, Magnusson, & Palincsar, 2004; Palincsar, Magnusson, Collins, & Cutter). The teacher first identifies a curriculum area and some general guiding questions, puzzles, or problems. For example, the teacher chooses communication as the area and asks this general question: “How and why do humans and animals communicate?” Next, the teacher poses several specific focus questions: “How do whales communicate?” “How do gorillas communicate?” The focus questions have to be carefully chosen to guide students toward important understandings. One key idea in understanding animal communication is the relationships among the animal’s structures, survival functions, and habitat. Animals have specific structures such as large ears or echolocators, which function to find food, attract mates, or identify predators, and these structures and functions are related to the animals’ habitats—large ears for navigating in the dark, for example. Thus, focus questions must ask about animals with different structures for communication, different functional needs for survival, and different habitats. Questions about animals with the same kinds of structures or the same habitats would not be good focus points for inquiry (Magnusson & Palincsar, 1995). The next phase is to engage students in the inquiry, perhaps by playing different animal sounds, having students make guesses and claims about communication, and asking the students questions about their guesses and claims. Then, the students conduct both first-hand and second-hand investigations. First-hand investigations are direct experiences and experiments, for example, measuring the size of bats’ eyes and ears in relation to their bodies (using pictures or videos—not real bats!). In second-hand investigations, students consult books, the Internet, interviews with experts, and other resources to find specific information or get new ideas. As part of their investigating, the students begin to identify patterns. The curved line in Figure 10.2 shows that cycles can be repeated. In fact, students might go through several cycles of investigating, identifying patterns, and reporting results before moving on to constructing explanations and making final reports. Another possible cycle is to evaluate explanations before reporting by making and then checking predictions, applying the explanation to new situations. Inquiry teaching allows students to learn content and process at the same time. In the preceding examples, students learned about how animals communicate and how structures are related to habitats. In addition, they learned the inquiry process itself— how to solve problems, evaluate solutions, debate ideas, and think critically. PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING.  Whereas inquiry learning grew out of practices in science, problem-based learning grew out of research on expert knowledge in medicine (Belland, 2011). Through problem-based learning, students develop knowledge that is useful and flexible, not inert. Inert knowledge is information that is memorized but seldom applied (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1996; Whitehead, 1929). In problem-based learning, students work in groups to confront a real-world, illstructured problem that has no single correct solution (Belland, Kim, & Hannafin, 2013; Lisette et al., 2014). During the first phase, initial problem discussion, the students identify and analyze the problem based on the facts from the scenario, then determine what they already know. It soon becomes clear that the students will need more information, so they identify learning issues. These questions guide the next phase—individual research on the learning issues. After the individual research phase, students return to their groups to report their research results and collaborate to find solutions. As they

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Discovery Learning (I, A1) Many teachers, especially in mathematics and science, believe that meaningful learning in their content areas is best supported by discovery learning. Be prepared to answer questions about the assumptions, techniques, strengths, and limitations of this instructional strategy.

Problem-based learning  Students are confronted with a problem that launches their inquiry as they collaborate to find solutions and learn valuable information and skills in the process.

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suggest hypotheses, apply their new knowledge, and evaluate their problem solutions, they may recycle to research again if necessary, and finally reflect on the knowledge and skills they have gained. Throughout the entire process, students are not alone or unguided. Their thinking and problem solving are scaffolded by the teacher, computer software supports, models, coaching, expert hints, guides and organizational aids, or other students in the collaborative groups—so working memory is not overloaded. For example, as students work, they may have to fill in a diagram that helps them distinguish between “claims” and “reasons” in a scientific argument or write on a whiteboard divided into four columns listing facts, ideas, learning issues, and action plans (Hmelo-Silver, 2003; Hmelo-Silver, Ravit, & Chinn, 2007). In true problem-based learning, the problem is real and the students’ actions matter. For example, during the 2010 Deepwater oil spill, many teachers used the problem as a springboard for learning. Their students researched how this spill compared to others in size, location, expense, causes, and attempted solutions. What could be done? How do currents and tides play a role? What locations, businesses, and wildlife are in the greatest danger? What will be the short-term and long-term financial and environmental impacts? What actions can students take to play a positive role? A number of teachers blogged about using the oil spill in problem-based learning and collected resources for other teachers (see edutopia.org/ and search for “oil spill” to find more resources). Let’s look at these phases more closely as they might take place in an upper-level science class (S. S. Klein & Harris, 2007). 1. The cycle begins with an intriguing challenge to the whole class. For example, in biomechanics it might be “Assume you are a living cell in a bioreactor. What things will influence how long you live?” or “Your grandmother is recovering from a

FIGU RE 10.2 A MODEL TO GUIDE TEACHER THINKING ABOUT INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE INSTRUCTION The straight lines show the sequence of phases in instruction, and the curved lines show cycles that might be repeated during instruction. Share Findings— public reporting

Engage: Guesses, Claims, Hypotheses

General Guiding Questions and Specific Focus Questions Investigate to Identify Relationships first-hand and second-hand investigations

Evaluate: Create Explanations

Prediction

Source: Based on “Designing a Community of Practice: Principles and Practices of the GisML Community,” by A. S. Palincsar, S. J. Magnusson, N. Marano, D. Ford, and N. Brown, 1998, Teaching and Teacher Education, 14, p. 12. Adapted with permission from Elsevier.

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broken hip. In which hand should she hold the cane to help her balance?” The question is framed in a way that makes students bring to bear their current knowledge and preconceptions. 2. Next, students generate ideas to compile what they currently know and believe and what they need to know more about using individual, small-group, or whole-group brainstorming or other activities. 3. Students research the topic individually. Multiple perspectives are added to the process in the form of outside experts (live, on video, or from texts), Web sites, magazine or journal articles, or podcasts on the subject. 4. Students go deeper to research and revise. They consult more sources or hear class lectures, all the while revising ideas and perhaps journaling about their thinking. 5. Students test their mettle by getting feedback from other students or the teacher about their tentative conclusions. Some formative (ungraded) tests might check their understanding at this point. 6. Students come back to their groups, discuss conclusions, and go public with their final conclusions and solutions in the form of an oral presentation, poster/project, or final exam. The teacher’s role in problem-based learning is to identify engaging problems and appropriate resources; orient students to the problem by describing objectives and rationales; organize the students by helping them set goals and define tasks; support, coach, and mentor students as they gather information, craft solutions, and prepare artifacts (models, reports, videos, PowerPoints, portfolios, etc.); and support student reflection on their own learning outcomes and processes (Arends & Kilcher, 2010). RESEARCH ON INQUIRY AND PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING.  Do using inquiry projects or problem-based learning activities lead to greater achievement? The debate has waged for years. Some research results say “yes” (Belland et al., 2013; Furtak et al., 2012; Loyens et al., 2015). But not every educational psychologist agrees that problem-based learning is valuable, at least for all students, as you can see on the next page in the Point/ Counterpoint: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching Approaches? BEING SMART ABOUT PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING.  You don’t have to choose between inquiry and content-focused methods. The best approach in elementary and secondary schools may be a balance of content-focused and inquiry or problem-based methods (Lisette et al., 2014). For example, Eva Toth, David Klahr, and Zhe Chen (2000) tested a balanced approach for teaching fourth graders how to use the controlled variable strategy in science to design good experiments. The method had three phases: (1) In small groups, students conducted exploratory experiments to identify variables that made a ball roll farther down a ramp; (2) the teacher led a discussion, explained the controlled variable strategy, and modeled good thinking about experiment design; and (3) the students designed and conducted application experiments to isolate which variables caused the ball to roll farther. The combination of inquiry, discussion, explanation, and modeling was successful in helping the students understand the concepts. Clearly, scaffolding supports are key factors in successful inquiry and problem-based learning. As Rich Mayer (2004) has observed, students need enough freedom and exploration to get mentally active and engaged, combined with the right amount of guidance to make the mental activity productive. The bottom line is that problem-based learning can be effective for helping students learn to solve ill-structured problems if appropriate scaffolding and teacher facilitation are available. For example, teachers can select and limit the number of research materials for the individual research phase, provide models of questions and answers about the learning issues identified, offer guidance about the characteristics of a good solution, and give feedback along the way (Lisette et al., 2014). Another constructivist approach that relies heavily on scaffolding is cognitive apprenticeships.

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based

Learning Effective Teaching Approaches?

POINT .

Inquiry, discovery learning, and problem-based learning are very appealing, but are they effective? Specifically, do these approaches lead to deep understanding and robust knowledge for most students?

Problem-based learning is overrated. Paul Kirsch-

ner and his colleagues were clear and critical in their article in the Educational Psychologist. Even the title of the article was blunt: “Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching.” They argued: Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006, p. 75) These respected researchers (and others more recently) cited decades of research demonstrating that unguided

discovery/inquiry and problem-based learning are ineffective, especially for students with limited prior knowledge (Kalyuga, 2011; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Tobias, 2010). Louis Alfieri and his colleagues (2011) examined the results from 108 studies going back over 50 years and found that explicit teaching was more beneficial than unassisted discovery, especially for studies published in the most well-rated journals. Their conclusion: “unassisted discovery generally does not benefit learning” (p. 12). But what about problem-based learning in particular? Much of the research on problem-based learning has taken place in medical schools, and results have been mixed. In one study, students learning through problem-based instruction were better at clinical skills such as problem formation and reasoning, but they were worse in their basic knowledge of science and felt less prepared in science (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). A review of problem-based learning curricula in medical schools concluded that this approach was not effective in promoting higher levels of student knowledge (Colliver, 2000).

Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching

Cognitive apprenticeship A relationship in which a less-experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert.

Over the centuries, apprenticeships have proved to be an effective form of education. By working alongside a master and perhaps other apprentices, young people have learned many skills, trades, and crafts. Knowledgeable guides provide models, demonstrations, and corrections, as well as a personal bond that is motivating. The performances required of the learner are real and important and grow more complex as the learner becomes more competent (A. Collins, 2006; Hung, 1999; M. C. Linn & Eylon, 2006). With guided participation in real tasks comes participatory appropriation—students appropriate the knowledge, skills, and values involved in doing the tasks (Rogoff, 1995, 1998). In addition, both the newcomers to learning and the old-timers contribute to the community of practice by mastering and remastering skills—and sometimes improving these skills in the process (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Allan Collins (2006) suggests that knowledge and skills learned in school have become too separated from their use in the world beyond school. To correct this imbalance, some educators recommend that schools adopt many of the features of apprenticeships. But rather than learning to sculpt or dance or build a cabinet, apprenticeships in school would focus on cognitive objectives such as reading comprehension, writing, or mathematical problem solving. There are many cognitive apprenticeship models, but most share six features: • Students observe an expert (usually the teacher) model the performance. • Students get external support through coaching or tutoring (including hints, tailored feedback, models, and reminders). • Students receive conceptual scaffolding, which is then gradually faded as the student becomes more competent and proficient.

COUNTERPOINT .

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Problem-based learning is a powerful teaching approach.  For example, middle school students partici-

pating in problem-based learning showed superior comprehension and better reasoning about why the Columbia Shuttle disaster happened compared to those who had just heard a lecture on the topic (Wirkala, & Kuhn, 2011). In a study of almost 20,000 middle school students in a large urban district who used inquiry-based materials, those who participated in inquiry learning had significantly higher passing rates on standardized tests. African American boys especially benefitted from these methods (Geier et al., 2008). Several other studies point to increases in student engagement and motivation with inquiry learning (HmeloSilver et al., 2007), as long as the learning is supported and students have adequate background knowledge. In an extensive study of a problem-based medical program in the Netherlands, Schmidt and his colleagues (2009) concluded that compared to graduates of conventional programs, graduates of the problem-based learning program performed better in practical medical and interpersonal skills, took less time to graduate, and had small positive differences in their medical knowledge and diagnostic reasoning. In studies of high school economics and mathematics, research favors problem-based approaches for learning more complex concepts and solving multistep word problems. Students who are better at selfregulation and who know when to ask for help may benefit more from problem-based methods (Evensen, Salisbury-Glennon, & Glenn, 2001), but using problem-based methods over time can help all students to develop these self-directed learning skills. In sum, Cindy Hmelo-Silver (2004; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007) reviewed the research and found good evidence that

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problem-based learning supports the construction of flexible knowledge and the development of problem-solving and self-directed learning skills, but less evidence indicates that participating in problem-based learning is intrinsically motivating or that it teaches students to collaborate. Beware of Either/Or  The difference between effective and ineffective inquiry and problem-based learning seems to come down to completely unguided discovery versus guided, supported, and well-scaffolded inquiry and problem-based learning. Alfieri and his colleagues (2011) concluded: [O]ptimal approaches should include at least one of the following: (a) guided tasks that have scaffolding in place to assist learners, (b) tasks requiring learners to explain their own ideas and ensuring that these ideas are accurate by providing timely feedback, or (c) tasks that provide worked examples of how to succeed in the task. (p. 13) But to make the matter a bit more complicated, evidence shows that the value of guidance and feedback depends on the student’s prior knowledge or age. For example, in learning mathematics problem-solving strategies, students with little knowledge benefitted from feedback as they explored possible solutions, but students with some knowledge benefitted more from just exploring solutions independently without feedback and guidance (Fyfe, Rittle-Johnson, & DeCaro, 2012). Also, first-grade students learned some basic mathematics reasoning skills better from unguided discovery learning via computer than from direct instruction—perhaps an example of the value of unstructured play for young children (Baroody et al., 2013).

• Students continually articulate their knowledge—putting into words their understanding of the processes and content being learned. • Students reflect on their progress, comparing their problem solving to an expert’s performance and to their own earlier performances. • Students are required to explore new ways to apply what they are learning—ways that they have not practiced at the master’s side. As students learn, they are challenged to master more complex concepts and skills and to perform them in many different settings. How can teaching provide cognitive apprenticeships? Mentoring in teaching is one example. Another is cross-age grouping. In the Key School, an inner-city public elementary school in Indianapolis, Indiana, students of different ages work side by side for part of every day on a “pod” designed to have many of the qualities of an apprenticeship. The pods might focus on a craft or a discipline. Examples include gardening, architecture, and “making money.” Many levels of expertise are evident in the students of different ages, so students can move at a comfortable pace but still have the model of a master available. Community volunteers, including many parents, visit to demonstrate a skill that is related to the pod topic. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIPS IN READING: RECIPROCAL TEACHING.  The goal of reciprocal teaching is to help students understand and think deeply about what they read

(Oczuks, 2003; Palincsar, 1986; Palincsar & Brown, 1984, 1989). To accomplish this goal, students in small reading groups learn four strategies: summarizing the content of a passage, asking a question about the central point, clarifying the difficult parts of the

Reciprocal teaching  Learning to apply the strategies of questioning, summarizing, predicting, and clarifying; designed to help students understand and think deeply about what they read.

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material, and predicting what will come next. These are strategies skilled readers apply almost automatically but poor readers seldom do—or they don’t know how. To use the strategies effectively, poorer readers need direct instruction, modeling, and practice in actual reading situations. First, the teacher introduces these strategies, perhaps focusing on one strategy each day. As the expert, the teacher explains and models each strategy and encourages student apprentices to practice. Next, the teacher and the students read a short passage silently. Then, the teacher again provides a model by summarizing, questioning, clarifying, or predicting based on the reading. Everyone reads another passage, and the students gradually begin to assume the teacher’s role. The teacher becomes a member of the group and may finally leave as the students take over the teaching. Often, the students’ first attempts are halting and incorrect. But the teacher gives clues, guidance, encouragement, support doing parts of the task (e.g., providing question stems), modeling, and other forms of scaffolding to help the students master these strategies. The goal is for students to learn to apply these strategies independently. APPLYING RECIPROCAL TEACHING.  Although reciprocal teaching seems to work with almost any age student, most of the research has been done with younger adolescents who can read aloud fairly accurately but who are far below average in reading comprehension. After 20 hours of practice with this approach, many students who were in the bottom quarter of their class moved up to the average level or above on tests of reading comprehension. Palincsar has identified three guidelines for effective reciprocal teaching: 1. Shift gradually. The shift from teacher to student responsibility must be gradual. 2. Match demands to abilities. The difficulty of the task and the responsibility must match the abilities of each student and grow as these abilities develop. 3. Diagnose thinking. Teachers should carefully observe the “teaching” of each student for clues about how the student is thinking and what kind of instruction he or she needs. In contrast to some approaches that try to teach 40 or more strategies, an advantage of reciprocal teaching is that it focuses attention on four powerful strategies. But these strategies must be taught; not all students develop them on their own. One study of reciprocal teaching spanning over 3 years found that questioning was the strategy used most often, but students had to be taught how to ask good higher-level questions because most student questions were literal or superficial (Hacker & Tenent, 2002). Another advantage of reciprocal teaching is that it emphasizes practicing these four strategies in the context of actual reading—reading literature and reading texts. Finally, the idea of teacher facilitation through scaffolding and gradually moving the student toward independent and fluid reading comprehension is a critical component in reciprocal teaching and cognitive apprenticeships in general (Rosenshine & Meister, 1994). For some vignettes showing reciprocal teaching, go to readingrockets.org and research “reciprocal teaching.” MyLab Education Self-Check 10.2

COLLABORATION AND COOPERATION Even with all the concern today about test performance and international comparisons, schooling has always been about more than academic learning. Of course, academics are the prime directive, but the ability to collaborate is a core 21st-century capability (Roschelle, 2013). Most corporations are looking for employees who are not only good at the mastery of a particular set of academic skills but who also have the ability to work harmoniously with a wide variety of coworkers as a cooperative team, to demonstrate initiative and responsibility, and to communicate effectively. (E. Aronson, 2000, p. 91)

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Since the 1970s, researchers have examined collaboration and cooperation in schools. Some, like Aronson and Roschelle, believe that learning to successfully collaborate is an important skill in itself, and necessary for success in the future. Other educators claim that collaboration is a means for learning academic material—so we could say the two goals are learning to collaborate and collaborating to learn (Kuhn, 2015). Of course, teachers don’t have to choose. Both goals are valuable. Despite some inconsistencies, the majority of the studies indicate that truly cooperative groups have positive effects—from preschool to college—on students’ empathy, tolerance for differences, feelings of acceptance, friendships, self-confidence, awareness of the perspectives of others, higher-level reasoning, problem solving, decision making, essay writing, and even school attendance (Galton, Hargreaves, & Pell, 2009; Gillies & Boyle, 2011; Solomon, Watson, & Battistich, 2001; Zhang et al., 2016). It is even argued that cooperative learning experiences are crucial in preventing many of the social problems that plague children and adolescents (Gillies, 2003, 2004). About 80% of elementary school teachers and 62% of middle school teachers use some form of peer learning on a regular basis (Ladd et al., 2014b). COLLABORATION, GROUP WORK, AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING.  The terms collaboration, group work, and cooperative learning often are used as if they mean the same thing. Certainly there is some overlap, but there are differences as well. Ted Panitz (1996) suggests collaboration is a philosophy about how to relate to others—how to learn and work. Collaboration is a way of dealing with people that respects differences, shares authority, and builds on the knowledge that is distributed among other people. Cooperation, on the other hand, is a way of working with others to attain a shared goal (Gillies, 2003). Collaborative learning has roots in the work of British teachers who wanted their students to respond to literature in more active ways as they learned. Cooperative learning has American roots in the work of psychologists John Dewey and Kurt Lewin. You could say that cooperative learning is one way to collaborate in schools. Group work, on the other hand, is simply several students working together—they may or may not be cooperating. Many activities can be completed in groups. For example, students can divide up the territory to conduct a local survey. How do people feel about the plan to build a new mall that will bring more shopping and more traffic? Would the community support or oppose the building of a nuclear power plant? If students must learn 10 new definitions in a biology class, why not let them divide up the terms and definitions and teach one another? Be sure, however, that everyone in the group can handle the task. Sometimes, one or two students end up doing the work of the entire group. Group work can be useful, but true cooperative learning requires much more than simply putting students in groups and dividing up the work. Angela O’Donnell and Jim O’Kelly, colleagues of mine from Rutgers University, describe a teacher who claimed to be using “cooperative learning” by asking students to work in pairs on a paper, each writing one part. Unfortunately, the teacher allowed no time to work together and provided no guidance or preparation in cooperative social skills. Students got a grade for their individual part and a group grade for the whole project. One student received an A for his part, but a C for the group project because his partner earned an F—he never turned in any work. So one student was punished with a C for a situation he could not control while the other was rewarded with a C for doing no work at all. This was not cooperative learning—it wasn’t even group work (O’Donnell & O’Kelly, 1994). BEYOND GROUPS TO COOPERATION.  David and Roger Johnson (2009a), two of the founders of cooperative learning in the United States, define formal cooperative learning as “students working together, for one class period to several weeks, to achieve shared learning goals and complete jointly specific tasks and assignments” (p. 373). The Johnson brothers describe five elements that define true cooperative learning groups: • Positive interdependence • Promotive interaction

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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Characteristics of Cooperative Learning (II, A2) Many instructional strategies labeled as cooperative learning lack one or more qualities that are essential components of such techniques. List those essential qualities, and explain the role of each.

MyLab Education

Podcast 10.1 Textbook author Anita Woolfolk shares some ways that she has used cooperative learning in her college classes to take advantage of students as experts in technology.

Collaboration A philosophy about how to relate to others—how to learn and work. Cooperation  Way of working with others to attain a shared goal. Cooperative learning  Situations in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation, and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning is supported by other individuals.

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• Individual accountability • Collaborative and social skills • Group processing Group members experience positive interdependence. The members believe they can attain their goals only if the others in the group attain their goals as well, so they need each other for support, explanations, and guidance. Promotive interaction means that group members encourage and facilitate each other’s efforts. They usually interact faceto-face and close together, not across the room, but they also could interact via digital media around the world. Even though they feel a responsibility to the group to work together and help each other, students must ultimately demonstrate learning on their own; they are held individually accountable for learning, often through individual tests or other assessments. Collaborative and social skills are necessary for effective group functioning. These skills include paying attention and listening even if you don’t agree, disagreeing and sharing your ideas respectfully, taking turns, doing your fair share, working with partners even it they are not your choice, asking for/providing help, giving constructive feedback, reaching consensus, involving every member, encouraging and praising, controlling emotions and frustrations, cheering up partners, and admitting mistakes, among other skills (Ladd et al., 2014a, 2014b). These skills are not natural, even for socially capable students. Often they must be taught and practiced before the groups tackle a learning task. Finally, members monitor group processes and relationships to make sure the group is working effectively and to learn about the dynamics of groups. They take time to ask, “How are we doing as a group? Is everyone working together? What should we do more or less of next time?” Different learning theory approaches favor cooperative learning for different reasons (O’Donnell, 2002, 2006). Information processing theorists point to the value of group discussion in helping participants rehearse, elaborate, and expand their knowledge. As group members question and explain, they have to organize their knowledge, make connections, and review—all processes that support information processing and memory. Advocates of a Piagetian perspective suggest the interactions in groups can create the cognitive conflict and disequilibrium that lead an individual to question his or her understanding and try out new ideas—or, as Piaget (1985) said, “to go beyond his current state and strike out in new directions” (p. 10). Those who favor Vygotsky’s theory suggest that social interaction is important for learning because higher mental functions such as reasoning, comprehension, and critical thinking originate in social interactions and are then appropriated and internalized by individuals. Students can accomplish mental tasks with social support before they can do them alone. Thus, cooperative learning provides the social support and scaffolding students need to move learning forward. To benefit from these dimensions of cooperative learning, groups must be cooperative— all members must participate. Cooperative learning has a long history in American education, moving in and out of favor over the years. Today, evolving constructivist perspectives have fueled a growing commitment to cooperative learning. The approach is now used “in schools and universities throughout most of the world in every subject area and from preschool through graduate school and adult training programs” (D. Johnson & R Johnson, 2009, p. 365). Research supports this wide use. For example, in grades 8 through 12 in Australia, students in cooperative groups that were structured to require positive interdependence and mutual helping learned more in math, science, and English than students in unstructured learning groups (Gillies, 2003). In addition, compared to students in the unstructured groups, students in the structured groups also said learning was more fun. But, as any teacher or parent knows, cooperation is not automatic when students are put into groups. WHAT CAN GO WRONG: MISUSES OF GROUP LEARNING.  Without careful planning and monitoring by the teacher, group interactions can hinder learning and reduce rather

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than improve social relations in classes (Gillies & Boyle, 2011; Kuhn, 2015). For example, if there is pressure in a group for conformity—perhaps because rewards are being misused or one student dominates the others—interactions can be unproductive and unreflective. Without feedback about accuracy, misconceptions might be reinforced, or the worst, not the best, ideas may be combined to construct a superficial or even incorrect understanding (Asterhan, Schwarz, & Cohen-Eliyahu, 2014). Students who work in groups but arrive at wrong answers may be more confident that they are right—a case of “two heads are worse than one” (Puncochar & Fox, 2004). Also, the ideas of low-status students may be ignored or even ridiculed while the contributions of high-status students are accepted and reinforced, regardless of the merit of either set of ideas (C. W. Anderson, Holland, & Palincsar, 1997; E. G. Cohen, 1986). Mary McCaslin and Tom Good (1996) list several other disadvantages of group learning: • Students often value the process or procedures over the learning. Speed and finishing early take precedence over thoughtfulness and learning. • Socializing and interpersonal relationships may take precedence over learning. • Students may simply shift dependency from the teacher to the “expert” in the group; learning is still passive, and what is learned can be wrong. • Status differences may be increased rather than decreased. Some students learn to “loaf” because the group progresses with or without their contributions. Others become even more convinced that they are unable to understand without the support of the group. Deanna Kuhn (2015) sums up the situation: “It is not enough to put individuals in a context that allows collaboration and expect them to engage in it effectively. Intellectual collaboration is a skill, learned through engagement and practice and much trial and error” (p. 51). Without careful attention to task design and support for cooperation, students probably won’t benefit from collaborative activities. How can teachers avoid these problems and encourage true cooperation? Like any instructional activity, cooperative learning has three phases that require teachers’ preparation and participation: before, during, and after the lesson. To insure successful cooperative learning, teachers have to plan before; monitor, support, and consolidate learning during; and reflect on learning after the activity, as shown in Table 10.3.

TABLE 10.3  •  The Teacher’s Role in Cooperative Learning Here are some examples of teacher competencies needed for successful cooperative learning. The teacher plans, monitors, supports, consolidates, and finally reflects. BEFORE THE ACTIVITY

DURING THE ACTIVITY

AFTER THE ACTIVITY

Plan/Design

Monitor

Support

Consolidate

Reflect

Goals/Tasks Materials Group composition Roles/Scripts Instructions Planned assessments

Determine which interactions will lead to learning in this task. Watch for explanations, questions, challenges, shared information, elaboration, and affirmations.

Scaffolding and fading Prompts, cues Resources at different levels Encouragement Feedback Praise Guiding questions

Class presentations Compare/contrast solutions Whole class discussion Individual testing

Revisit learning goals and plans: What did monitoring reveal? Was the support appropriate? Did students learn? What changes should be made for the next time?

Source: Based on Kaendler, C., Wiedmann, M., Rummel, N., & Spada, H. (2015). Teacher Competencies for the Implementation of Collaborative Learning in the Classroom: A Framework and Research Review. Educational Psychology Review, 27, 505–536.

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Tasks for Cooperative Learning Successful teachers interviewed in one study emphasized that group activities must be well planned, students need to be prepared to work in groups, and teachers’ expectations for the task have to be explicitly stated (Gillies & Boyle, 2011). Like so many other decisions in teaching, plans for using cooperative groups begin with a goal. What are students supposed to accomplish? What is the task? Is it a true group task—one that builds on the knowledge and skills of several students—or is the task more appropriate for individuals (E. G. Cohen, 1994; O’Donnell, 2006)? Tasks for cooperative groups may be more or less structured. Highly structured tasks include work that has specific answers—drill and practice, applying routines or procedures, answering questions from readings, computations in mathematics, and so on. Ill-structured complex tasks have multiple answers and unclear procedures, requiring problem finding and higher-order thinking. These ill-structured problems are true group tasks; that is, they are likely to require the resources (knowledge, skills, problem-solving strategies, creativity) of all the group members to accomplish, whereas individuals often can accomplish highly structured tasks just as effectively as groups. These distinctions are important because ill-structured, complex, true group tasks appear to require more and higher-quality interactions than routine tasks if learning and problem solving are to occur (E. G. Cohen, 1994; Gillies, 2004; Gillies & Boyle, 2011). HIGHLY STRUCTURED, REVIEW, AND SKILL-BUILDING TASKS.  A relatively structured task such as reviewing previously learned material for an exam might be well served by a structured technique such as student teams achievement divisions (STAD), in which teams of four students compete to determine which team’s members can amass the greatest improvement over previous achievement levels (Slavin, 1995). Praise, recognition, or extrinsic rewards can enhance motivation, effort, and persistence under these conditions, and thus increase learning. Focusing the dialogue by assigning narrow roles also may help students stay engaged when the tasks involve practice or review. ILL-STRUCTURED, CONCEPTUAL, AND PROBLEM-SOLVING TASKS.  If the task is ill structured and more cognitive in nature, then an open exchange and elaborated discussion will be more helpful (E. G. Cohen, 1994; Ross & Raphael, 1990). Thus, strategies that encourage extended and productive interactions are appropriate when the goal is to develop higher-order thinking and problem solving. In these situations, a tightly structured process, competition among groups for rewards, and rigid assignment of roles are likely to inhibit the richness of the students’ interactions and to interfere with progress toward the goal. Open-ended techniques such as reciprocal questioning (King, 1994), reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994), pair–share (S. Kagan, 1994), or Jigsaw (E. Aronson, 2000) should be more productive because, when used appropriately, they encourage more extensive interaction and elaborative thought in situations where students are being exposed to complex materials. In these instances, the use of rewards may well divert the group away from the goal of in-depth cognitive processing. When rewards are offered, the goal often becomes achieving the reward as efficiently as possible, which could mean having the highest-achieving students do all the work (Webb & Palincsar, 1996). SOCIAL SKILLS AND COMMUNICATION TASKS.  When the goal of peer learning is enhanced social skills or increased intergroup understanding and appreciation of diversity, the assignment of specific roles and functions within the group might support communication (E. G. Cohen, 1994; S. Kagan, 1994). In these situations, it can be helpful to rotate leadership roles so that minority group students and females have the opportunity to demonstrate and develop leadership skills; in addition, all group members can experience the leadership capabilities of each individual (N. Miller & Harrington, 1993). Rewards probably are not necessary, and they may actually get in the way because the goal is to build community, a sense of respect, and responsibility for all team members.

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Setting Up Cooperative Groups How large should a cooperative group be? Again, the answer depends on your learning goals. If the purpose is for the group members to review, rehearse information, or practice, 4 to 5 or 6 students is about the right size. But if the goal is to encourage each student to participate in discussions, problem solving, or computer learning, then groups of 2 to 4 members work best. Also, when setting up cooperative groups, it often makes sense to balance the number of boys and girls. Some research indicates that when there are just a few girls in a group, they tend to be left out of the discussions unless they are the most able or assertive members. By contrast, when there are only one or two boys in the group, they tend to dominate and be “interviewed” by the girls unless these boys are less able than the girls or are very shy. Whatever the case, teachers must monitor groups to make sure everyone is contributing and learning. If a group includes some students who are perceived as different or who are often rejected, then it makes sense to be sure that there are group members who are tolerant and kind. One successful teacher interviewed by Gillies and Boyle (2011) put it this way: I also try to make sure that there are one or two people in the group who have the ability to be tolerant. At least the kid in question will know that, while the other group members may not be his best friends, they won’t give him a hard time. I try to put the least reactive kids in the group with the child in question. This year I’ve had a couple of girls who have been very good with difficult kids. They don’t put up with nonsense but they don’t over-react and are prepared to demonstrate some good social skills. (p. 72)

ASSIGNING ROLES.  Some teachers assign roles to students to encourage cooperation and full participation. Several roles are described in Table 10.4. If you use roles, be sure that they support learning. In groups that focus on social skills, roles should TABLE 10.4  •  Possible Student Roles in Cooperative Learning Groups Depending on the purpose of the group and the age of the participants, having these assigned roles might help students cooperate and learn. Of course, students may have to be taught how to enact each role effectively, and roles should be rotated so students can participate in different aspects of group learning. ROLE

DESCRIPTION

Encourager

Encourages reluctant or shy students to participate

Praiser/Cheerleader

Shows appreciation of others’ contributions, and recognizes accomplishments

Gate Keeper

Equalizes participation, and makes sure no one dominates

Coach

Helps with the academic content, explains concepts

Question Commander

Makes sure all students’ questions are asked and answered

Checker

Checks the group’s understanding

Taskmaster

Keeps the group on task

Recorder

Writes down ideas, decisions, and plans

Reflector

Keeps group aware of progress (or lack of progress)

Quiet Captain

Monitors noise level

Materials Monitor

Picks up and returns materials

Source: Based on Cooperative Learning by S. Kagan. Published by Kagan Publishing, San Clemente, CA. Copyright © 1994 by Kagan Publishing.

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support listening, encouragement, and respect for differences. In groups that focus on practice, review, or mastery of basic skills, roles should support persistence, encouragement, and participation. In groups that focus on higher-order problem solving or complex learning, if you assign roles, they should encourage thoughtful discussion, sharing of explanations and insights, probing, brainstorming, and creativity. Make sure that you don’t communicate to students that the major purpose of the groups is simply to do the procedures—the roles. Roles are supports for learning, not ends in themselves (Woolfolk Hoy & Tschannen-Moran, 1999). Often, cooperative learning strategies include group reports to the entire class. If you have been on the receiving end of these class reports, you know that they can be deadly dull. To make the process more useful for the audience as well as the reporters, Annemarie Palincsar and Leslie Herrenkohl (2002) taught the class members to use intellectual roles as they listened to reports. These roles were based on the scientific strategies of predicting and theorizing, summarizing results, and relating predictions and theories to results. Some audience members were assigned the role of checking the reports for clear relationships between predictions and theories. Other students in the audience listened for clarity in the findings. And the rest of the students were responsible for evaluating how well the group reports linked prediction, theories, and findings. Research shows that using these roles promotes class dialogue and conceptual understanding (Palincsar & Herrenkohl, 2002). GIVING AND RECEIVING EXPLANATIONS.  In practice, the effects of learning in a group vary, depending on what actually happens in the group and who is in it. If only a few people take responsibility for the work, these people will learn, but the nonparticipating members probably will not. Students who ask questions, get answers, and attempt explanations are more likely to learn than students whose questions go unasked or unanswered. In fact, evidence shows that the more a student provides elaborated, thoughtful explanations to other students in a group, the more the explainer learns. Giving good explanations appears to be even more important for learning than receiving explanations (O’Donnell, 2006; Webb, Farivar, & Mastergeorge, 2002). In order to explain, you have to organize the information, put it into your own words, think of examples and analogies (which connect the information to things you already know), and test your understanding by answering questions. These are excellent learning strategies (King, 2002; O’Donnell & O’Kelly, 1994). Good explanations are relevant, timely, correct, and elaborated enough to help the listener correct misunderstandings; the best explanations tell why (Webb et al., 2002; Webb & Mastergeorge, 2003). For example, in a middle school mathematics class, students worked in groups on problems like this: Find the cost of a playing a video game for 20-minutes when the first minute costs $0.25 and each additional minute costs $0.11.

The level of explanation and help students received was significantly related to learning; the higher the level, the more learning. At the highest level, the helper tells how to solve the problem and why. For example, a helper explaining the problem above might say, “OK, it is 25 cents for the first minute, then there are 19 minutes left and each of those minutes costs 11 cents, so you multiply 11 cents by 19. That equals $2.09—then add 25 cents for the first minute so it costs $2.34.” A poor explanation might be just giving the solution, “11 times 19 plus 25” or even just provide the answer—“I got $2.34.” If a helper says, “11 times 19,” then the receiver should say, “Why is it 19?” or “Why do you multiply by 11?” Asking good questions and giving clear explanations are critical, and usually these skills must be taught.

Designs for Cooperation Developing deep understandings in cooperative groups requires that all the group members participate in high-quality discussions that include interpretations, connections, explanations, and evidence supporting claims. We now turn to different strategies that build in structures to support both participation and high-quality discussions.

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F IG U RE 10.3 QUESTION STEMS TO ENCOURAGE DIALOGUE IN RECIPROCAL QUESTIONING After participating in a lesson or studying an assignment on their own, students use these stems to develop questions, create and compare answers, and collaborate to create the best response. What is an everyday application of

?

in your own words?

How would you define

?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of ?

What do you already know about applies to

Explain why

.

influence

How does

?

?

What is the value of What are the reasons for

? ?

What are some arguments for and against

? Your second choice?

What is your first choice about What if Compare How would

? Why?

and why? and

based only on

be different if

Do you agree or disagree with this claim

.

? ? What is your evidence?

RECIPROCAL QUESTIONING.  Reciprocal questioning requires no special materials or testing procedures and can be used with a wide range of ages. After a lesson or presentation by the teacher, students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about the material (King, 1990, 1994, 2002). The teacher provides question stems (see Figure 10.3), and then students are taught how to develop specific questions about the lesson material using the generic question stems. The students create questions and then take turns asking and answering. This process has proved more effective than traditional discussion groups because it seems to encourage deeper thinking about the material as well as forming connections between the lesson and previous knowledge or experience. For example, using question stems like those in Figure 10.3, a small group in Mr. Garcia’s ninth-grade world cultures class had the following discussion about the concept of culture: Sally: In your own words, what does culture mean? Jim: Well, Mr. Garcia said in the lesson that a culture is the knowledge and understandings shared by the members of a society. I guess it’s all the things and beliefs and activities that people in a society have in common. It includes things like religion, laws, music, medical practices, stuff like that. Sally: And dance, art, family roles. Barry: Knowledge includes language. So, I guess cultures include language, too. Jim: I guess so. Actually, I have a question about that: How does a culture influence the language of a society? Barry: Well, for one thing, the language is made up of words that are important to the people of that culture. Like, the words name things that the people care about, or need, or use. And so, different cultures would have different vocabularies. Some cultures may not even have a word for telephone, because they don’t have any. But, phones are important in our culture, so we have lots of

Reciprocal questioning  Students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about lesson material.

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different words for phones, like cell phone, digital phone, desk phone, cordless phone, phone machine, and . . . Jim (laughing): I’ll bet desert cultures don’t have any words for snow or skiing. Sally (turning to Barry): What’s your question? Barry: I’ve got a great question! You’ll never be able to answer it. What would happen if there were a group somewhere without any spoken language? Maybe they were all born not being able to speak, or something like that. How would that affect their culture, or could there even be a culture? (King, 2002, pp. 34–35)

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Forms of Cooperative Learning (II, A2) STAD and Jigsaw are just two of many cooperative learning techniques, each designed for certain instructional purposes.. For ideas that are especially appropriate for older students, go to the Center for Teaching Excellence at Cornell University (cte.cornell.edu/) and search for “collaborative learning” or to the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga (utc.edu) and search for “cooperative learning/”

Jigsaw classroom A learning process in which each student is part of a group and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become “expert” on their piece and then teach it to the others in their group. Constructive/Structured controversy  Students work in pairs within their fourperson cooperative groups to research a particular controversy.

JIGSAW.  Elliot Aronson and his graduate students invented the Jigsaw classroom when Aronson was a professor of social psychology (and I was a student) at the University of Texas at Austin. Some of my friends worked on his research team. Aronson developed the approach “as a matter of absolute necessity to help defuse a highly explosive situation” (E. Aronson, 2000, p. 137). The Austin schools had just been desegregated by court order. White, African American, and Hispanic students were together in classrooms for the first time. Hostility and turmoil ensued, with fistfights in corridors and classrooms. Aronson’s answer was the Jigsaw Classroom. In Jigsaw, each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become “experts” on their piece. Because students have to learn and be tested on every piece of the larger “puzzle,” everyone’s contribution is important—the students truly are interdependent. A more recent version, Jigsaw II, adds expert groups in which the students who are responsible for the same material from each learning group confer to make sure they understand their assigned part and then plan ways to teach the information to their learning group members. Next, students return to their learning groups, bringing their expertise to the sessions. In the end, students take an individual test covering all the material and earn points for their learning team score. Teams can work for rewards or simply for recognition (E. Aronson, 2000; Slavin, 1995). CONSTRUCTIVE/STRUCTURED CONTROVERSIES.  Constructive conflict resolution is essential in classrooms because conflicts are inevitable and even necessary for learning. Piaget’s theory tells us that developing knowledge requires disequilibrium—cognitive conflict. Sidney D’Mello and his colleagues (2014) suggest that confusion can stimulate complex learning as long as students engage to resolve the conflict. One study of tenth graders found that students who were wrong, but for different reasons, were sometimes able to correct their misunderstandings if they argued together about their conflicting wrong answers (Schwarz, Neuman, & Biezuner, 2000). Individuals trying to exist in groups will have interpersonal conflicts, too, which also can lead to learning. In fact, research over the last 40 years demonstrates that constructive/structured controversy in classrooms can lead to greater learning, open-mindedness, seeing the perspectives of others, creativity, motivation, engagement, and self-esteem (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 2009b; Roseth, Saltarelli, & Glass, 2011). Table 10.5 shows how academic and interpersonal conflicts can be positive forces in a learning community. As you can see in Table 10.5, the structured part of constructive/structured controversies is that students work in pairs within their four-person cooperative groups to research a particular controversy, such as whether lumber companies should be allowed to cut down trees in national forests. Each pair of students researches the issue, develops a pro or con position, presents that position and evidence to the other pair, discusses the issue, and then reverses positions and argues for the other perspective. Then, the group develops a final report that summarizes the best arguments for each position and reaches a consensus (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 2009b; O’Donnell, 2006). In addition to these approaches, Spencer Kagan (1994) has developed many cooperative learning structures designed to accomplish different kinds of academic and social tasks.

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TABLE 10.5  •  Constructive/Structured Controversies: Learning from Academic and Interpersonal Conflicts Conflict, if handled well, can support learning. Academic conflicts can lead to critical thinking and conceptual change. Conflicts of interest are unavoidable but can be handled so no one is the loser. CONSTRUCTIVE ACADEMIC CONTROVERSY

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

One person’s ideas, information, theories, conclusions, and opinions are incompatible with those of another, and the two seek to reach an agreement.

The actions of one person attempting to maximize his or her benefits prevents, blocks, or interferes with another person’s maximizing her or his benefits.

Controversy Procedure

Integrative (Problem-Solving) Negotiations

Research and prepare positions.

Describe wants.

Present and advocate positions.

Describe feelings.

Refute opposing position and refute attacks on own position.

Describe reasons for wants and feelings.

Reverse perspectives.

Take other’s perspective.

Synthesize and integrate best evidence and reasoning from all sides.

Invent three optional agreements that maximize joint outcomes. Choose one, and formalize agreement.

Source: From “The Three Cs of School and Classroom Management,” by D. Johnson and R. Johnson. In H. J. Freiberg (Ed.), Beyond Behaviorism: Changing the Classroom Management Paradigm. Copyright © 1999. Adapted with permission from Pearson Education, Inc.

Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely Cooperative learning always benefits from careful planning, but sometimes including students with special needs requires extra attention to planning and preparation. For example, cooperative structures such as scripted questioning and peer tutoring depend on a balanced interaction between the person taking the role of questioner or explainer and the student who is answering or being taught. In these interactions, you want to see and hear explaining and teaching, not just telling or giving right answers. But many students with learning disabilities have difficulties understanding new concepts, so both the explainer and the student can get frustrated, and social rejection for the student with learning disabilities might follow. Because students with learning disabilities often have problems with social relations, it is not a good idea to put them in situations where more rejection is likely. So, when you are teaching new or difficult-to-grasp concepts, cooperative learning might not be the best choice for students with learning disabilities (Kirk et al., 2006). In fact, research has found that cooperative learning in general is not always effective for students with learning disabilities (D. D. Smith, 2006). Gifted students also may not benefit from cooperative learning when groups are mixed in ability. The pace often is too slow, the tasks too simple, and there is just too much repetition. In addition, gifted students often fall into the role of teacher or end up just doing the work quickly for the whole group. If you use mixed-ability groups and include gifted students, the challenges are to use complex tasks that allow work at different levels and keep gifted students engaged without losing the rest of the class (D. D. Smith, 2006). Cooperative learning may be an excellent choice for students who are English language learners (ELLs), however. The Jigsaw cooperative structure is especially helpful because all students in the group, including the students who are ELLs, have information that the group needs, so they also must talk, explain, and interact. In fact, the Jigsaw approach was developed in response to the need to create high interdependence in diverse groups. In many classrooms today, four to six or more languages are

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GUIDELINES Using Cooperative Learning Fit group size and composition to your learning goals. Examples 1. For social skills and team-building goals, use groups of two to five, common interest groups, mixed groups, or random groups. 2. For structured, fact- and skill-based, practice-and-review tasks, use groups of 4 to 6, mixed-ability such as highmiddle and middle-low or high-low and middle-middle group compositions. 3. For higher-level conceptual and thinking tasks, use groups of two to four; select members to encourage interaction. Assign appropriate roles. Examples 1. For social skills and team-building goals, assign roles to monitor participation and conflict; rotate leadership of the group. 2. For structured fact- and skill-based, practice-and-review tasks, assign roles to monitor engagement and ensure low-status students have resources to offer, as in Jigsaw. 3. For higher-level conceptual and thinking tasks, assign roles only to encourage interaction, divergent thinking, and extended, connected discourse, as in debate teams, or to assign a group facilitator. Don’t let roles get in the way of learning. Make sure you assume a supporting role as the teacher. Examples 1. For social skills and team-building goals, be a model and encourager. 2. For structured fact- and skill-based, practice-and-review tasks, be a model, director, or coach.

3. For higher-level conceptual and thinking tasks, be a model and facilitator. Move around the room, and monitor the groups. Examples 1. For social skills and team-building goals, watch for listening, turn taking, encouraging, and managing conflict. 2. For structured fact- and skill-based, practice-and-review tasks, watch for questioning, giving multiple elaborated explanations, attention, and practice. 3. For higher-level conceptual and thinking tasks, watch for questioning, explaining, elaborating, probing, divergent thinking, providing rationales, synthesizing, and using and connecting knowledge sources. Start small and simple until you and the students know how to use cooperative methods. Examples 1. For social skills and team-building goals, try one or two skills, such as listening and paraphrasing. 2. For structured fact- and skill-based, practice-and-review tasks, try pairs of students quizzing each other. 3. For higher-level conceptual and thinking tasks, try reciprocal questioning using pairs and just a few question stems. For more information on cooperative learning, see: http://www.co-operation.org Source: Based on “Implications of Cognitive Approaches to Peer Learning for Teacher Education,” by A. Woolfolk Hoy and M. Tschannen-Moran, 1999. In A. O’Donnell and A. King (Eds.), Cognitive Perspectives on Peer Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

represented. Teachers can’t be expected to master every heritage language spoken by all of their students every year. In these classrooms, cooperative groups can help as students work together on academic tasks. Students who speak two languages can help translate and explain lessons to others in the group. Speaking in a smaller group may be less anxiety provoking for students who are learning another language; so the students who are ELLs may get more language practice with feedback in these groups (D. D. Smith, 2006). The Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning give you ideas for using cooperative learning with all your students.. Cooperative learning is only as good as its design and implementation. Cooperative methods probably are both misused and underused in schools, in part because using cooperative learning well requires time and investment in teaching students how to learn in groups (Kuhn, 2015; Blatchford, Baines, Rubie-Davies, Bassett, & Chowne, 2006).

Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice Years ago, Larry Cremin (1961) observed that progressive, innovative pedagogies require infinitely skilled teachers. Today, the same could be said about constructivist teaching. We have already seen that many varieties of constructivism and many practices flow

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TABLE 10.6  •  Teachers’ Dilemmas of Constructivism in Practice Teachers face conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political dilemmas as they implement constructivist practices. Here are explanations of these dilemmas and some representative questions that teachers face as they confront them. TEACHERS’ DILEMMA CATEGORY

REPRESENTATIVE QUESTIONS OF CONCERN

I. Conceptual dilemmas: Grasping the underpinnings of cognitive and social constructivism; reconciling current beliefs about pedagogy with the beliefs necessary to support a constructivist learning environment.

Which version of constructivism is suitable as a basis for my teaching? Is my classroom supposed to be a collection of individuals working toward conceptual change or a community of learners whose development is measured by participation in authentic disciplinary practices? If certain ideas are considered correct by experts, should students internalize those ideas instead of constructing their own?

II. Pedagogical dilemmas: Honoring students’ attempts to think for themselves while remaining faithful to accepted disciplinary ideas; developing deeper knowledge of subject matter; mastering the art of facilitation; managing new kinds of discourse and collaborative work in the classroom.

Do I base my teaching on students’ existing ideas rather than on learning objectives? What skills and strategies are necessary for me to become a facilitator? How do I manage a classroom where students are talking to one another rather than to me? Should I place limits on students’ construction of their own ideas? What types of assessments will capture the learning I want to foster?

III. Cultural dilemmas: Becoming conscious of the culture of your classroom; questioning assumptions about what kinds of activities should be valued; taking advantage of experiences, discourse patterns, and local knowledge of students with varied cultural backgrounds.

How can we contradict traditional, efficient classroom routines and generate new agreements with students about what is valued and rewarded? How do my own past images of what is proper and possible in a classroom prevent me from seeing the potential for a different kind of learning environment? How can I accommodate the worldviews of students from diverse backgrounds while at the same time transforming my own classroom culture? Can I trust students to accept responsibility for their own learning?

IV. Political dilemmas: Confronting issues of accountability with various stakeholders in the school community; negotiating with key others the authority and support to teach for understanding.

How can I gain the support of administrators and parents for teaching in such a radically different and unfamiliar way? Should I make use of approved curriculums that are not sensitive enough to my students’ needs, or should I create my own? How can diverse problem-based experiences help students meet specific state and local standards? Will constructivist approaches adequately prepare my students for high-stakes testing for college admissions?

Source: M. Windschitl. (2002). Framing Constructivism in Practice as the Negotiation of Dilemmas: An Analysis of the Conceptual, Pedagogical, Cultural, and Political Challenges Facing Teachers. Review of Educational Research, 72, p. 133. Copyright © 2002 by the American Educational Research Association. Reproduced with permission of the publisher.

from these different conceptions. We also know that all teaching today happens in a context of high-stakes testing and accountability. In these situations, constructivist teachers face many challenges. Mark Windschitl (2002) identified four teacher dilemmas of constructivism in practice, summarized in Table 10.6. MyLab Education Self-Check 10.3

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DESIGNING LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS IN A DIGITAL WORLD It seems that computers, smart phones, iPads, tablets, digital readers, wikis, and interactive video games, along with iCloud, Facebook, Twitter, Google, WhatsApp, Snapchat, Instagram, Scratch, . . . and other digital tools and media have changed life for everyone. Homes and schools are filled with media. Many of your students will have had computers, even from early ages. Their immersion in virtual reality games may make traditional school activities seem tame and boring by comparison (Common Sense Media, 2013; Connor-Zachocki, Husbye, & Gee, 2015; Graesser, 2013; Lenhart, 2015; Turkle, 2011). STOP & THINK How many digital devices are you using right now? How many do you own? •

MyLab Education

Video Example 10.4 In this video, high school students develop instruction for younger students to help them learn appropriate and safe behaviors for online exchanges. As you watch, consider how technology supports learning.

For many students, doing homework often involves exchanging messages with friends via email, texting, or cell phones, searching the Web, and downloading resources—all the time listening to music via a phone (D. F. Roberts, Foehr, & Rideout, 2005). These students have never known a world without digital media, so they have been called digital natives, homo zappiens, the Net generation, iGenerations, or Google Generation (Kirschner & van Merriënboer, 2013). Students are at least as expert at using technology as their teachers and most of this expertise was acquired outside of school (Graesser, 2013).

Technology and Learning Does technology use support academic learning? The answer is complex and even surprising. One review concluded that using computer tutorial programs appeared to improve achievement test scores for K–12 students, but simulations and enrichment programs had few effects—perhaps another example that when you teach and test specific skills, children learn the skills. Computers are more likely to increase achievement if they support the basic processes that lead to learning: active engagement, frequent interaction with feedback, authenticity and real-world connection, and productive group work (Graesser, 2013; A. Jackson et al., 2006; Tamim, Bernard, Borokhovski, Abrami, & Schmid, 2011). Computers can be useful to teach basic reading processes such as word decoding or phonological awareness or basic number sense because specialized software can provide individual feedback, move at the right pace for each student, and increase motivation. Well-designed programs also can improve listening and reading comprehension (Baroody et al., 2013; Potocki, Ecalle, & Magnan, 2013; R. Savage et al., 2013). Like any teaching tool, computers can be effective if used well, but just being on a computer will not automatically increase academic achievement. TECHNOLOGY-RICH ENVIRONMENTS.  With all the technology available today, interest in technology-rich learning environments (TREs) is growing. These environments include virtual worlds, computer simulations that support problem-based learning, intelligent tutoring systems, educational games, audio recordings, wikis, hand-held wireless devices, and multimedia environments—to name just a few. There are three kinds of uses for technology in schools. First, teachers can design technology-based activities for their classrooms, for virtual learning environments, or for blended models using both in-class and virtual environments. Second, students can interact with technologies in a variety of ways, such as by using a computer or tablet to complete assignments or by collaborating in a virtual environment with other students or teachers using interactive cloud computing applications. Cloud computing allows computer users online access to applications such as Google documents or Microsoft Web Mail along with computing assets such as network-accessible data storage and processing. Finally, administrators use technology to track teacher, class, and student information in school, district, or statewide systems. You could be involved with any or all three of these uses of technology in your teaching. A golden rule for technology integration

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in any classroom is that you do not need to reinvent the wheel. Focus on identifying centers of expertise where existing resources are available to adapt and build on. VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS.  Virtual learning environments (VLEs) is a broad term that describes many ways of learning in virtual systems. The most traditional VLE is referred to as a learning management system (LMS). LMSs deliver e-learning using applications such as Moodle, BlackBoard, RCampus, and D2L. LMSs are large, complex, and costly—my university uses a system we call “Carmen” to support every course on campus. My Carmen sites have readings, discussion groups, class-built wikis, PowerPoints, Weblinks, a calendar, and many other resources. We taught classes without these assets for decades, but the LMS has expanded our teaching and learning options. To deal with costs, some institutions use free open-source software to construct VLEs. Tools that support open-source software include Moodle, Google Apps, and PBWorks. Betty’s Brain is an example of a VLE developed by Vanderbilt and Stanford Universities (go to http://www.vanderbilt.edu and search betty’s brain for more information). Using this computer-based system, students are challenged to “teach” a topic in science to a computer agent known as Betty. The system provides hypertext resources for the students to use in planning their instruction (and learning the concepts and processes under study). As I have discovered so many times in my life, the best way to learn something is to teach it. Remember, the research on cooperative learning shows that the explainer learns more than the listener (O’Donnell, 2006). Like all good teachers, the students who are working with Betty must keep track of how well she is learning—by asking Betty to answer questions and take quizzes. The computer system also incudes an expert on the topic, Mr. Davis, who grades Betty’s work and mentors the student “teachers.” See Figure 10.4 for an example screen from Betty’s Brain. PERSONAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS.  There are different kinds of VLEs. A personal learning environment (PLE) framework provides tools that support individualized learning

F IG U RE 10.4 BETTY’S BRAIN: A VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Betty’s Brain is a computer-based learning environment that uses learning-by-teaching to engage students in learning about science topics.

Virtual learning environments (VLE) A broad term that describes many ways of learning in virtual or online systems. Learning management system (LMS) Systems that deliver e-learning, provide tools and learning materials, keep records, administer assessments, and manage learning.

Source: Based on http://www.teachableagents.org/research/bettysbrain.php

Personal learning environment (PLE)  Provides tools that support individualized learning in a variety of contexts and situations.

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in a variety of contexts and situations; the learners assume control of how and when their learning occurs. Students working in PLEs can download an assignment at a coffee shop, read the material on the bus, and then post an analysis on the discussion board at 4:00 a.m. from their room. Learning in PLEs can be asynchronous—taking place any time and anywhere. Complex PLEs include tools that assess learners’ knowledge and then adapt the next content to fit their unique needs. Tools that support PLEs include computer-based training modules, e-books, cognitive tutors, quizzes, and self-assessment tools. Many have been very successful. For example, the intelligent tutoring system (ITS) Cognitive Tutors teaches mathematics in schools throughout the United States (Graesser, 2013). Math is one thing, but how about more ill-structured domains like writing? An ITS can help here, too. In one study with tenth graders, Writing Pal improved essay writing, although the students found some aspects of the system annoying (Roscoe & McNamara, 2013). A personal learning network (PLN) is a framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions. PLNs consist of both synchronous (real-time) and asynchronous technologies using interactive Web conferencing, hybrid classes, or online discussions. A PLN can be used for K–12 instructional purposes and also as a resource for professional development. Social networking tools such as Facebook, Twitter, Edutopia, and EdWeb allow the instruction to move outside the school, city, and even country to include learners with similar interests around the globe. Tools that support PLNs include Web conferencing tools, such as Adobe Connect instant messaging, interactive video and audio messaging, social networking, discussion boards, and blogs. IMMERSIVE VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS.  The most complex VLE is an immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE). The IVLE is a simulation of a real-world

environment. The purpose is to learn through enculturation, for example, by being eco explorers in the rainforest or reporters covering a story about an outbreak of food poisoning in a local school (Gee, 2008; Gibson, Aldrich, & Prensky, 2006; Shaffer et al., 2009). IVLEs are designed to be domain specific using realistic scenarios (Bagley & Shaffer, 2009; Shaffer et al., 2009). IVLE experiences mimic tasks required in a professional practicum, such as interviewing sources for a news story about food poisoning, following leads to identify the source of a problem, and crafting an accurate engaging article, thus blending real-world engagement in a virtual scenario. These immersive environments often include cognitive tutors; the technology is programmed to interact as a tutor by providing prompts after analyzing the student’s response.

Personal learning network (PLN)  Framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions. Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE) A simulation of a real-world environment that immerses students in tasks like those required in a professional practicum.

GAMES.  What about educational games? Certainly students use games outside school. One estimate is that American students ages 8 to 18 spend an average of 13 hours a week playing video games—some more and some less, but some up to 30 hours a week. Often students are playing with others who may or may not be in the same room, or even time zone. Over 50% of adults also play video games—you may be one (Arena, 2015; Lenhart, 2015). Many researchers suggest games provide a natural, engaging form of learning and that “combining games with educational objectives could not only trigger students’ learning motivation, but also provide them with interactive learning opportunities” (Sung & Hwang, 2013, p. 44). Games might include a knowledge base developed by experts, a challenge to students in the form of a problem or role-play, and a final product such as creating a database, report, design, or problem solution. But as a teacher, you may not have access to well-designed video games that match or support your curriculum. How can you capitalize on students’ extensive gaming outside school? One suggestion is to think of games as ways of “tilling the soil,” getting students ready for learning by developing prior knowledge (Arena, 2015). For example, Motion Math: Pizza, available from the iTunes App Store, gives students experience with the concept of supply and demand as they operate a pizza store. Angry Birds gives students experience with scientifically accurate trajectories of projectiles—a basis for learning about Newtonian physics. There are curricula that explore conservation of momentum, terminal velocity, and other subjects based on Portal2 (go to the Teach with Portals Web site).Teachers have developed

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semester-long projects based on the game series Civilization. To see other ideas, go to the Educade Web site. Even though not all your students will play the same games, you still can develop lessons around the games they do play. For example, a language arts teacher might assign a persuasive essay requiring each student to convince the rest of the class to play his or her favorite game. This means that student write based on personal expertise and motivation. See Arena (2015) for more ideas. But even with this promise, there is no guarantee that students will learn from all educational games or transfer their learning to situations outside the game ( Jabbar, & Felicia, 2015; Ownston, 2012; Roschelle, 2013). Pieter Wouters and his colleagues in the Netherlands (2013) analyzed 38 studies of serious educational computer games conducted from 1990 to 2012. They concluded that games were more effective than traditional instruction in terms of learning and retention, but not in terms of motivation, the one thing you might think would be an asset for games. Students participating in games learned more when the games were not the only method but were supplemented with other forms of instruction, when there were multiple sessions, and when the students worked in groups. In addition, based on a synthesis of research with K–12 students, Douglas Clark and his colleagues (2016) concluded games designed to enhance learning, particularly games that included scaffolding that adapted the game to students’ individual needs and interests, were more effective than teaching approaches that did not include games. Massive multi-player online games (MMOGs) are interactive gaming environments constructed in virtual worlds in which the learner assumes a character role of avatar. Many of these games have affinity groups—online communities that share knowledge, strategies, role-play scenarios, game modifications, or fan fiction stories and novels based on the games. These groups provide practice in problem solving, communication, reading, and writing. In fact, students who don’t seem to be good readers in school can be very capable readers of even complex text when they are trying to improve their gaming skills—a goal that makes sense to them. The University of Wisconsin Casual Learning Lab is using the wildly popular World of Warcraft as part of an after-school learning program. See wowinschool.pbworks.com/ for some ideas (King, 2015).

Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities for Young Children Digital media are appealing, but are they appropriate for preschool children? This is a hotly debated issue. In making decisions about computers and young children, ask these four questions (Bullard, 2017): • • • •

Is it the best tool for the job? Will it produce added value to the activity? Is the activity itself beneficial to the child? Are the benefits worth the costs?

Developmentally appropriate ways to use computers with 3- and 4-year-olds differ from the ways we use computers in kindergarten and the primary grades. Here are a few guidelines. Computers should not be used to do solitary drill-and-practice activities. Software for young children should include simple spoken directions; the activities should be open-ended and encourage discovery, exploration, problem solving, understanding of cause and effect, and social interaction. Children should be able to remain in control of the activities through a variety of responses. Finally, the content should be appropriate for and respectful of diverse cultures, ages, and abilities (M. A. Fischer & Gillespie, 2003; Frost, Wortham, & Reifel, 2012; Tsantis, Bewick, & Thouvenelle, 2003). There is another important consideration: Do the program’s multimedia features (e.g., embedded videos, zoom-ins, music, added sounds, images) add to learning or take away from it? One danger is that programs will include attractive visuals or sound effects that actually interrupt and interfere with the development of important concepts. For example, do the sounds of a buzz saw and the thud of a falling tree in a Peter Rabbit storytelling program foster distractibility and interfere with understanding the story, plot,

Massive multi-player online games (MMOG) Interactive gaming environments constructed in virtual worlds where the learner assumes a character role, or avatar. Affinity groups Online communities for video game users where they can share knowledge, strategies, role-play scenarios, game modifications, or fan fiction stories and novels based on the games they are playing.

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FIGU RE 10.5 CHECKLIST FOR SELECTING APPROPRIATE SOFTWARE FOR YOUNG CHILDREN When screening software, consider the following criteria: ❑ Does the software have high educational or informational value? Is value added by using the software? Or would this information be better presented in a different format? ❑ Is the software developmentally appropriate for the children using it? According to Haugland (2005), only 20% of software is appropriate for children. Beware of software that is just an electronic work sheet page. The age limit, educational objectives, and educational philosophy should be clearly stated (Peterson, Verenikina, & Herrington, 2008). ❑ Is the software designed so that the child can use it independently (simple and clear directions, uses speech when appropriate, uses picture menus, and organized for intuitive use) (Prairie, 2005)? ❑ If providing simulations, they are realistic and real-world (Peterson, Verenikina, & Herrington, 2008). ❑ Is the child able to exercise control when using the software (sets the pace, can repeat a process, can stop and resume, chooses from multiple paths, and frequently saves)? ❑ Does the software encourage active learning (requires active participation and encourages exploration and further investigation, allows for trial and error)? ❑ Is the software exciting and interesting (utilizes many senses including sound, music, and voice; includes graphics and sounds that are motivating for young children; and is relevant to the group of children using the software)? ❑ Does the software scaffold children’s learning (provides increasing challenges and a variety of levels, provides nonthreatening feedback allowing children to know their progress, provides hints and instruction, and does not penalize for mistakes)? ❑ Is the software anti-bias, containing respectful images of diverse cultures, multiple languages, people of different ages, abilities, colors, and diverse family structures (NAEYC, 1996)? ❑ Does the software promote prosocial values (no violence or implicit violence is present such as “blowing it up” to get rid of mistakes) (Tsantis, Bewick, & Thouvenelle, 2003)? ❑ Is the software preselected to match curricular goals, and is the software tied closely to other curricular activities? Software should support or be supported by the curriculum. ❑ Does the software have high-quality graphics and sounds? Graphics and sound need to add to the quality rather than being distracting. ❑ Is the software accessible for children with special needs? ❑ Does the software provide delight, enchantment, and adventure such as opportunities for free exploration, finding hidden secrets, and elements of surprise (Plowman, McPake, & Stephen, 2012)?

Source: Bullard, J. (2017). Creating Environments for Learning: Birth to Age Eight (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson, p. 348. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

and characters? Maybe (Tsantis et al., 2003). The bottom line is that multimedia elements should focus on meaning and not just provide attractive “bells and whistles.” Figure 10.5 is a checklist for evaluating software for young children. See the Guidelines: Using Computers for more ideas. COMPUTATIONAL THINKING AND CODING.  Using technology for learning and for life has become so pervasive for all ages that some educators argue students should

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GUIDELINES Using Computers IF YOU HAVE ONLY ONE COMPUTER IN YOUR CLASSROOM Provide convenient access. Examples 1. Find a central location if the computer is used to display material for the class. 2. Find a spot on the side of the room that allows seating and view of the screen, but does not crowd or disturb other students if the computer is used as a workstation for individuals or small groups. Be prepared. Examples 1. Check to be sure software needed for a lesson or assignment is installed and working. 2. Make sure instructions for using the software or doing the assignment are in an obvious place and clear. 3. Provide a checklist for completing assignments. Create “trained experts” to help with computers. Examples 1. Train student experts, and rotate experts. 2. Use adult volunteers—parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles, older siblings—anyone who cares about the students. Develop systems for using the computer. Examples 1. Make up a schedule to ensure that all students have access to the computer and no students monopolize the time. 2. Create standard ways of saving student work. IF YOU HAVE MORE THAN ONE COMPUTER IN YOUR CLASSROOM Plan the arrangement of the computers to fit your instructional goals. Examples 1. For cooperative groups, arrange so students can cluster around their group’s computer. 2. For different projects at different computer stations, allow for easy rotation from station to station. Experiment with other models for using computers. Examples 1. Navigator Model—four students per computer: One student is the (mouse and keyboard) driver, another is the “navigator.” “Back-seat driver 1” manages the group’s progress and “back-seat driver 2” serves as the timekeeper. The navigator attends a 10- to 20-minute training session in which the facilitator provides an

overview of the basics of particular software. Navigators cannot touch the mouse. Driver roles are rotated. 2. Facilitator Model—six students per computer: he facilitator has more experience, expertise, or training and serves as the guide or teacher. 3. Collaborative Group Model—seven students per computer: Each small group is responsible for creating some component of the whole group’s final product. For example, one part of the group writes a report, another creates a map, and a third uses the computer to gather and graph census data. NO MATTER HOW MANY COMPUTERS YOU HAVE IN YOUR CLASSROOM Select developmentally appropriate programs that encourage learning, creativity, and social interaction. Examples 1. Encourage two children to work together rather than having children work alone. 2. Check the implicit messages in programs. For example, some drawing programs allow children to “blow up” their projects if they don’t like them, so instead of solving a problem, they just destroy it. Tsantis et al. (2003) recommend a recycle metaphor instead of a “blow it up” option. 3. Look for programs that encourage discovery, exploration, problem solving, and multiple responses. Monitor children as they work at computers. Examples 1. Make sure computers are in areas where adults can observe them. 2. Discuss with children why some programs or Web sites are off limits. 3. Balance computer time with active play such as hands-on projects, blocks, sand, water, and art. Keep children safe as they work at computers. Examples 1. Teach children to shield their identity on the Internet and monitor any “friends” they may be communicating with. 2. Install filtering software to protect children from inappropriate content. Sources: Suggestions from Frost, J. L., Wortham, S. C., & Reifel, S. (2005). Play and Child Development (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 76–80, and Tsantis, L. A., Bewick, C. J., & Thouvenelle, S. (2003, November). Examining Some Common Myths About Computer Use in the Early Years. Beyond the Journal: Young Children on the Web (pp. 1–9). Bullard, J. (2017). Creating Environments for Learning: Birth to Age Eight (3rd Ed.). Boston: Pearson, pp. 342–352.

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learn computational thinking, defined as “knowing how to use data, models, simulations, and algorithmic thinking to formulate and solve problems” (Malby et al., 2017, p. 160), in other words, thinking like a computer scientist. According to the national K–12 Computer Science Standards, computational thinking is a skill that students should begin to develop in elementary school (http://www.csteachers.org). Computational thinking includes, but is not limited to, programming and coding. Since the 1980s and 1990s when Seymore Papert (1980, 1991) introduced LOGO programming and turtle graphics for children, interest has grown in teaching students to code. Some educators claimed that programming teaches students to think logically in all areas, but others said programming just helped students learn to program. Even so, there is ongoing interest in and advocacy for the value of coding as a way to foster computational thinking. High school courses in computing are growing in popularity. For example, between 2010 and 2014, enrollment in computing courses increased by almost 800% (ECS, 2014). See the Exploring Computer Science Web site for ideas about curriculum (exploringcs.org). Simple programing languages available today include Scratch, Alice, GameMaker, Kodable Pro, Cargo-Bot, Kodu, Daisy the Dinosaur, and Greenfoot. There is even a version of Scratch (developed by MIT) called Scratch Jr. that will allow children from kindergarten through second grade to program (Guernsey, 2013)! Many of these languages allow even very young students to build programs by snapping together images of blocks on the computer screen. The way the blocks snap together controls actions of different characters on the computer screen (Grover & Pea, 2013). Costumes, sounds, colors, and other effects can be added. Table 10.7 provides other resources for learning to code. MEDIA/DIGITAL LITERACY.  With the advent of digital media comes a new concern with literacy—media or digital literacy. Today, to be literate—to be able to read, write, and communicate—children have to read and write in many media, not just printed words. Films, videos, DVDs, computers, photographs, artwork, magazines, music, TV, billboards, and more communicate through images and sounds. How do children read these messages? This is a new area of research and application in educational and developmental psychology. As an example of application, consider Project Look Sharp at Ithaca College, directed by Cynthia Scheibe, a developmental psychologist. The goal of the project is to provide materials, training, and support as teachers integrate media literacy and critical thinking about media into their class lessons. Teachers participating in the project help their students become critical readers of media. For example, during the 2016 U.S. Presidential election, Project Look Sharp provided 10 different lesson plans that helped students decode the candidates’ campaign ads, videos, Web sites, articles, and news releases on topics such as racial justice, national security, voting rights, economic inequality, climate change, and immigration. In the first lesson, students view one video ad from each TABLE 10.7  •  Resources for Teaching Coding

Computational thinking  The thought processes involved in formulating problems so you can represent their solution steps and algorithms for computing.

ORGANIZATION

WEBSITE

Girls Who Code

https://girlswhocode.com

Technology Education and Literacy in Schools

https://www.tealsk12.org

Made with Code from Google

https://www.madewithcode.com

Carnegie Mellon Center for Computational Thinking

https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~compthink/

Coding in the Classroom, Edutopia

https://www.edutopia.org/topic/ coding-classroom

Source: Based on Malby, R. W., Verock, R-E., Edwards, S. A., & Woolf, B. P. (2017). Transforming Learning with New Technologies (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson.

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candidate that depicts African American males. Students then decode the videos to determine each candidate’s point of view on protecting African American rights and identify specific ways those attitudes are communicated in the videos. Project Look Sharp suggests questions such as the following to guide discussion of media: 1. Who made—and who sponsored—this message, and why was it made? Who paid for it? 2. Who is the target audience, and how do you know? 3. What are the different techniques used, and why are they used? 4. What messages are communicated (and/or implied)? What is your interpretation, and why? 5. How current, accurate, and credible is the information in this message? 6. What is left out of the message that might be good to know? The Guidelines: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy give more ideas from Scheibe and Rogow (2008) for supporting the development of media literacy in your students—a skill that seems more important than ever.

GUIDELINES Supporting the Development of Media Literacy Use media to practice general observation, critical thinking, analysis, perspective taking, and communication skills. Examples 1. Ask students to think critically about the information presented in advertising, “news” programs, and textbooks. Would different people interpret the messages in differing ways? 2. Foster creativity and communication by having students produce their own media on a topic you are studying. 3. Ask students to compare ways information might be presented in a documentary, TV news report, advertisement, public service announcement, and so on. 4. Give examples of how word selection, background music, camera angles, color, and so on, can be used to set a mood or bias a message. Use media to stimulate interest in a new topic. Examples 1. Have students work in small groups to read, analyze, and discuss a controversial magazine, newspaper, or online article about the topic. 2. Ask students to do a media search for information about a topic. 3. Use a short video, magazine illustration, blog entry, or brief article to stimulate discussion, encouraging students to express what they already know or their opinion about a topic. Help students identify what they already know or believe about a topic based on popular media content. Help them identify erroneous beliefs. Examples 1. What do students “know” about space travel?

2. What have they learned about biology from advertisements? Use media as a standard pedagogical tool. Examples 1. Encourage students to follow (and write about) current events, including tracking a single story across diverse media sources. 2. Assign homework that makes use of different media. 3. Have students express opinions or attempt to persuade using different media, including photographs, collages, videos, poems, songs, animated films. Analyze the effects that media had on historical events. Examples 1. How were Native Americans portrayed in art and in films? 2. What sources of information were available 50 years ago? 100 years ago? Use video effectively. Examples 1. Show short segments, not whole films or programs. 2. Leave the lights on to encourage active viewing and discussion. 3. Before viewing, let students know what they should be looking/listening for. 4. Pause periodically during viewing to point out important information or ask questions. For more ideas, see the Project Look Sharp Web site.

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FIGU RE 10.6 TRADITIONAL AND FLIPPED CLASSROOMS Traditional Classroom

What happens during class

What happens outside of class

Flipped Classroom

Teacher-led instruction with whole groups, small groups, and individuals

Student-led activities with whole groups, small groups, and individuals

Students as learners

Students as teachers and learners

Teacher comes ready to teach by imparting information or directing activities

Students come prepared to learn by doing activities and adding to online information

Students do homework using paper worksheets and writing prompts

Students watch videos or pencasts or listen to podcasts of teacher presentations

Reading assignments come from paper textbooks

Reading assignments come from online textbooks or interactive web resources

Source: Maloy, R. W., Verock, R-E., Edwards, S. A., & Woolf, B. P. (2017). Transforming Learning with New Technologies (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson, p. 42]

The Flipped Classroom Some of you reading this book have viewed Salman Khan’s TED talk about reinventing education. Khan founded a nonprofit educational organization that produces video tutorials on mathematics and many other subjects. If you haven’t checked it out, I recommend you spend some time exploring the Khan Academy Web site. In his TED talk, Khan described one use of his tutorials––to “flip the classroom.” In a flipped classroom what usually happens in class—lessons, lectures, note taking, worksheets, direct teaching—is moved outside class, and what usually happens at home—homework, projects, practice—happens in class under the teacher’s supervision and support. This arrangement allows the individual student to learn at his or her own pace away from school, and transforms the classroom into a more dynamic and interactive group learning space where time can be spent reviewing and applying concepts studied at home, getting further teacher or peer explanation and scaffolding, and assessment with feedback. Invention and creativity should be encouraged. It appears that teachers are listening. In 2014, 78% of teachers in a national survey reported that they had flipped at least one lesson and 45% said they flipped once or twice a week (Malby et al., 2017). What does a flipped classroom look like? Figure 10.6 gives some basics. In many ways the flipped classroom is a good example of constructivist teaching. Teachers are no longer just providers of information. Students use teacher-produced worksheets, minilectures, and outlines as well as readings and other study tools to learn at home. If all the students have access to the Internet, other at-home learning activities can be added such as online resources, video tutorials, and collaborative discussions. In class, the teacher’s role is changed to facilitator and scaffolder of learning. Groups can work on activities at their level, allowing teachers to differentiate instruction to students’ needs. For students who do not have access to powerful learning technologies at home, some class time can be devoted to online research, learning games, wikis, blogs, creating digital portfolios, listening to or creating podcasts, or using learning apps. In college, whole courses might be flipped by putting all the lectures and readings online through Blackboard or Moodle, but in elementary or secondary schools, the teacher may just flip one lesson—doing assignments outside class to prepare for project-based activities in class, for example (Malby et al., 2017). Of course, to take advantage of the flipped classroom, students have to be self-disciplined to engage deeply with the lectures or PowerPoints at home and unsupervised. MyLab Education Self-Check 10.4

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. SUMMARY Cognitive and Social Constructivism (pp. 410–415) Describe two kinds of constructivism.  Constructivism is more a philosophy about knowledge than a scientific theory of learning. Cognitive constructivists such as Piaget are concerned with how individuals make sense of their world, based on individual knowledge and beliefs. Social constructivists such as Vygotsky believe that social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning. By participating in a broad range of activities with others, learners appropriate the outcomes produced by working together; they acquire new strategies and knowledge of their world. In what ways do constructivist views differ about knowledge sources, accuracy, and generality?  Constructivists debate whether knowledge is constructed by mapping external reality, by adapting and changing internal understandings, or by an interaction of external forces and internal understandings. Most psychologists believe there is a role for both internal and external factors, but differ in how much they emphasize one or the other. Also, there is discussion about whether knowledge can be constructed in one situation and applied to another or whether knowledge is situated—specific and tied to the context in which it was learned. What is meant by thinking as enculturation?  Enculturation is a broad and complex process of acquiring knowledge and understanding consistent with Vygotsky’s theory of mediated learning. Just as our home culture taught us lessons about the use of language, the culture of a classroom can teach lessons about thinking by giving us models of good thinking; providing direct instruction in thinking processes; and encouraging practice of those thinking processes through interactions with others. What are some common elements in most constructivist views of learning? Even though there is no single constructivist theory, many constructivist approaches recommend complex, challenging learning environments and authentic tasks; social negotiation and co-construction; multiple perspectives and representations of content; understanding that knowledge is constructed; and student ownership of learning.

Designing Constructivist Learning Environments (pp. 415–426) What are some basic assumptions to guide the design of learning environments?  Key assumptions to guide design are that experts develop deep conceptual knowledge, learning comes from the learner, creating learning environments is the responsibility of the school, students’ prior knowledge is key, and reflection is a critical component of learning. These common assumptions enable researchers from a variety of disciplines to address the same issues of learning from a variety of perspectives. What is scaffolding? Scaffolding involves making connections between teachers’ cultural knowledge and the everyday experience and knowledge of the student by providing supports for learning—prompts, cues, needed information, coaching, and so on. Scaffolding includes both motivational and cognitive support—helping students stay engaged and interested while also helping them move toward deeper

learning. Motivational support includes supports such as connecting to student interests, redirecting attention, and coping with frustration. Cognitive supports include tailoring instruction, fading supports, and gradually transferring responsibility to students. How can teachers facilitate using advance organizers and deep questioning?  Advance organizers facilitate instruction by providing introductory material broad enough to encompass all the information that will follow. The organizers can serve three purposes: They direct your attention to what is important in the upcoming material, they highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented, and they remind you of relevant information you already have. Teachers also can facilitate learning by training students in how to ask and answer deep questions when they read, listen to a lecture, or participate in class discussions. These questions prompt students to reason about underlying principles and big ideas in the content, make reasoned arguments, and provide evidence. Distinguish between inquiry methods and problem-based learning. The inquiry strategy begins when the teacher presents a puzzling event, question, or problem. The students ask questions (only yes–no questions in some kinds of inquiry) and then formulate hypotheses to explain the event or solve the problem; collect data to test the hypotheses about casual relationships; form conclusions and generalizations; and reflect on the original problem and the thinking processes needed to solve it. Problem-based learning may follow a similar path, but the learning begins with an authentic problem—one that matters to the students. The goal is to learn math or science or history or some other important subject while seeking a real solution to a real problem. Describe six features that most cognitive apprenticeship approaches share.  Students observe an expert (usually the teacher) model the performance; get external support through coaching or tutoring; and receive conceptual scaffolding, which is then gradually faded as the students become more competent and proficient. Students continually articulate their knowledge—putting into words their understanding of the processes and content being learned. They reflect on their progress, comparing their problem solving to an expert’s performance and to their own earlier performances. Finally, students explore new ways to apply what they are learning—ways that they have not practiced at the master’s side. Describe the use of dialogue in reciprocal teaching.  The goal of reciprocal teaching is to help students understand and think deeply about what they read. To accomplish this goal, students in small reading groups learn four strategies: summarizing the content of a passage, asking a question about the central point, clarifying the difficult parts of the material, and predicting what will come next. These strategies are practiced in a classroom dialogue about the readings. Teachers first take a central role, but as the discussion progresses, the students take more and more control.

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Collaboration and Cooperation (pp. 426–437) What are the differences between collaboration and cooperation? One view is that collaboration is a philosophy about how to relate to others—how to learn and work. Collaboration is a way of dealing with people that respects differences, shares authority, and builds on the knowledge that is distributed among other people. Cooperation, on the other hand, is a way of working together with others to attain a shared goal. Describe five elements that define true cooperative learning.  Promotive interaction means that group members encourage and facilitate each other’s efforts. They usually interact face-to-face and close together, but they also could interact via digital media around the world. Group members experience positive interdependence; they need each other for support, explanations, and guidance. Even though they work together and help each other, members of the group must ultimately demonstrate learning on their own. They are held individually accountable for learning, often through individual tests or other assessments. If necessary, the collaborative skills important for effective group functioning, such as giving constructive feedback, reaching consensus, and involving every member, are taught and practiced before the groups tackle a learning task. Finally, members monitor group processes and relationships to make sure the group is working effectively and to learn about the dynamics of groups. What are the learning theory underpinnings of cooperative learning and what can go wrong? Learning can be enhanced in cooperative groups through rehearsal and elaboration (information processing theories), creation and resolution of disequilibrium (Piaget’s theory), or scaffolding of higher mental processes (Vygotsky’s theory). But if there is pressure in a group for conformity—perhaps because rewards are being misused or one student dominates the others—interactions can be unproductive and unreflective. Without feedback about accuracy, misconceptions might be reinforced, or the worst, not the best, ideas may be combined to construct a superficial or even incorrect understanding. Students who work in groups but arrive at wrong answers may be more confident that they are right. Also, the ideas of low-status students may be ignored or even ridiculed while the contributions of high-status students are accepted and reinforced, regardless of the merit of either set of ideas. How should tasks match design in cooperative learning?  Teachers have a role before, during, and after cooperative learning. First, they must select an appropriate task. A relatively structured task works well with a structured technique; extrinsic rewards can enhance motivation, effort, and persistence under these conditions; roles, especially those that focus attention on the work to be accomplished, also may be productive. On the other hand, strategies that encourage extended and productive interactions are appropriate when the goal is to develop higher-order thinking and problem solving. The use of rewards may well divert the group away from the goal of in-depth cognitive processing. When the goal of peer learning is enhanced social skills or increased intergroup understanding and appreciation of diversity, the assignment of specific roles and functions within the group might support communication. Rewards probably are not necessary and may actually get in the way because the goal is to build community, a sense of respect, and responsibility for team members. What are some possible strategies for cooperative learning?  Strategies include reciprocal questioning, Jigsaw, constructive/

structured controversy, and many cooperative structures described by Spencer Kagan. But cooperative learning is not for everyone. Sometimes students with learning disabilities and students with more advanced knowledge do not benefit from cooperative learning. What are some dilemmas of constructivist practice?  The first is conceptual: How do I make sense of cognitive versus social conceptions of constructivism and reconcile these different perspectives with my practice? The second dilemma is pedagogical: How do I teach in truly constructivist ways that both honor my students’ attempts to think for themselves, but still ensure that they learn the academic material? Third are cultural dilemmas: What activities, cultural knowledge, and ways of talking will build a community in a diverse classroom? Finally, there are political dilemmas: How can I teach for deep understanding and critical thinking, but still satisfy the accountability demands of parents and the requirements of state achievement testing?

Designing Learning Environments in a Digital World (pp. 438–446) What are some possible uses of technology in education?  Technology such as computers, iPads, tablets, smart phones, digital readers, and interactive gaming systems are extremely popular among young people. In education, virtual learning environment (VTE) is a broad term that describes many ways of learning in virtual systems. There are different kinds of VLEs. The most traditional VLE is referred to as a learning management system (LMS). LMSs deliver e-learning using applications such as Moodle and BlackBoard. A personal learning environment (PLE) framework provides tools that support individualized learning in a variety of contexts and situations; the learners assume control of how and when their learning occurs. A personal learning network (PLN) is a framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions. The most complex VLE is an immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE). The IVLE is a simulation of a real-world environment where students work alone or with others to solve problems, create projects, simulate the skills of experts, visit historical sites, tour world-class museums, or play games that teach and apply academic skills. Technology by itself will not guarantee improvement in academic achievement; like any tool, technology must be used well by confident, competent teachers. Some educators are suggesting that all students should learn computational thinking—thinking like a computer scientist—to formulate and solve problems that can be solved using the computational processes like those applied by computers. Many systems allow even very young students to create computer programs. Also, every student should learn to critically evaluate all the digital media that bombards us today. What is a flipped classroom? One possibility for using technology is the flipped classroom. In a flipped classroom, what usually happens in class—lessons, lectures, note taking, worksheets, direct teaching—is moved outside class, and what usually happens at home—homework, projects, practice—happens in class under the teacher’s supervision and support. For students who do not have access to powerful learning technologies at home, some class time can be devoted to online research, learning games, wikis, blogs, creating digital portfolios, listening to or creating podcasts, or using learning apps.

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. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. Applying Constructivist Perspectives

Social Constructivism in a Mathematics Class

Learning in a Digital World

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

Application Exercise 10.1

Application Exercise 10.2

Application Exercise 10.3

. KEY TERMS Advance organizer (p. 418) Affinity groups (p. 441) Appropriating (p. 412) Cognitive apprenticeship (p. 424) Collaboration (p. 427) Community of practice (p. 413) Complex learning environments (p. 414) Computational thinking (p. 444) Constructive/Structured controversy (p. 434) Constructivism/Constructivist approach (p. 410) Cooperation (p. 427)

Cooperative learning (p. 427) Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE) (p. 440) Inquiry learning (p. 420) Intersubjective attitude (p. 415) Jigsaw classroom (p. 434) Learning management system (LMS) (p. 439) Learning sciences (p. 416) Massive multi-player online games (MMOG) (p. 441) Multiple representations of content (p. 415)

Personal learning environment (PLE) (p. 439) Personal learning network (PLN) (p. 440) Problem-based learning (p. 421) Radical constructivism (p. 411) Reciprocal questioning (p. 433) Reciprocal teaching (p. 425) Scaffolding (p. 417) Situated learning (p. 413) Social negotiation (p. 415) Spiral curriculum (p. 415) Virtual learning environments (VLE) (p. 439)

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CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Scholars have different views on how knowledge is constructed and acquired. Which of the following is NOT one of the widely accepted views? A. Knowledge is acquired by constructing a representation of the outside world, either via direct teaching, feedback, and/or explanation. B. Knowledge is acquired by transforming and (re-)organizing previous knowledge, which is more important than direct teaching. C. Knowledge is acquired by mirroring immediate caregivers, such that more knowledgeable and attentive caregivers lead to more effective learning. D. Knowledge is acquired from social interaction and experience. Any knowledge obtained from the outside world will be filtered by our culture, beliefs, and interaction with others. 2. In Mrs. Shalini’s classroom, students are engaged in learning the importance of healthy diet. She first introduced the key concepts of healthy eating, and then read the first chapter on the topic with the students. She later demonstrated how to summarize the reading, to ask example questions, to clarify key ideas, and to predict upcoming content. Second chapter onward, Mrs. Shalini progressively stepped out of the primary teaching role, and encouraged students to lead the discussion. Which type of learning is this an example of? A. Reciprocal teaching B. Problem-based learning C. Cooperative learning D. Jigsaw classroom 3. Group learning comes with several disadvantages. Which of the following is NOT one of them? A. Students typically find group learning less desirable than learning directly from teachers. Since motivation runs low, learning suffers. B. Groups can induce conformity, such that everyone agrees on mainstream ideas without challenging them, leading to unproductive and unreflective learning. C. Status differences within a group make an impact, such that opinions from high-status students are valued more than low-status students, regardless of merit of ideas.

D. Students may tend to socialize and distract themselves in group learning, leading to ineffective learning outcomes. 4. Monica wanted to incorporate technological tools in her classroom to promote learning. She started by uploading teaching materials online and had students download them prior to coming to class. She also set up a discussion forum on Blackboard so that her students could engage in fruitful intellectual exchanges after class. Which of the following best describes Monica’s technological use? A. Learning Management System B. Personal Learning Environment C. Immersive Learning Environment D. Flipped Classroom

CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Joey was working on a course design for her social science class in the upcoming semester. Instead of having students complete multiple, smaller individual assignments throughout the semester, she wanted to put students into collaborative groups to work on a semester-long research project that would count towards a major portion of their grade. She wanted each group of students to select a research topic, to choose an appropriate study design for that topic, to conduct preliminary analysis and discussion, and, finally, to present their findings to the rest of the class at the end of the semester. 5. Joey was unsure about the appropriate group size for her student groups. She wondered whether or not she should put students of different genders and cultures together. She also toyed with the idea of assigning the role of team lead to a student in each group. Discuss your suggestions for Joey on each of these counts. 6. Consider Jigsaw classroom and Constructive/Structured controversies strategies. Which do you think would be a better option for Joey’s classroom, and why?

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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK  Learning to Cooperate Here is how some practicing teachers responded to the situation described at the beginning of the chapter about the class that hated cooperative learning. PAULA COLEMER  •  Special Education Teacher—English, History McClintock High School, Tempe, AZ

First, cooperative learning should be introduced early in the year and used in a variety of ways. Simple activities such as “think-pair-share” or “tell partner two things you learned” are basic ways of having students learn cooperatively. In addition, Socratic seminars are a great way to get students to dialogue together and gain deeper understanding of a concept. A Socratic seminar begins with the facilitator posing an openended question to the group. Participants are encouraged to learn through a meaningful discussion rather than memorizing bits of information. This takes practice, but if introduced early and practiced throughout the year, students will gain higher-level thinking skills. Finally, when having students do a team activity in class, groups need to be placed together thoughtfully and deliberately by the teacher. Team members need to be taught skills necessary for successful group work such as active listening and how to give and receive constructive criticism. Groups should have a variety of abilities, and students should be assigned specific tasks within the group so everyone has a role and purpose. PAUL DRAGIN  •  ESL Teacher, Grades 9–12 Columbus East High School, Columbus, OH

To introduce cooperative learning, I will begin with some exercises that require no talking, such as puzzles that can only be completed by group cooperation and sharing without any verbal communication. Each group member receives pieces that make up a puzzle; the catch is that some of the pieces belong to another group member’s puzzle. By trading pieces strategically and rapidly, the goal is to be the first group to complete all puzzles. This sets the stage for a discussion about the need to work together, because each person in the group needs something that another team member has in order to complete his or her puzzle. All effective cooperative learning requires the input of each member, and without that input, the activity has no chance of reaching its full potential. The establishment of groups is open to myriad options, and this is a good thing. Randomly assigning students as well as strategically assigning students to work together is an important learning opportunity for each student and better mimics real-world situations where we don’t get to choose our coworkers.

JENNIFER PINCOSKI  •  Learning Resource Teacher, K–12 Lee County School District, Fort Myers, FL

To have effective groups, students need to respect each other and feel accepted by their peers. Therefore, it is important to incorporate some class-building and team-building exercises before the groups jump into academic content. The purpose of these activities is to acquaint students with one another and create a sense of community. It will be easier to establish groups if the teacher collects information about the students first. This information can include anything from preferred learning style to favorite subject to career aspirations. It is also important to understand the students’ levels of academic proficiency. Groups should be fluid, because different types of groups will accomplish different outcomes. Teachers need to identify the objectives of an activity before creating the groups for that activity. In some situations, it might be appropriate to group students who are strong in a skill with students who have deficits in that skill. In other cases, it might be more effective to group together students with similar interests or career goals. It is up to the teacher to determine which type of group will result in the most worthwhile outcome for students. LINDA SPARKS • First-Grade Teacher John F. Kennedy School, Billerica, MA

I have used cooperative learning groups a lot through the years. There are so many things that can be learned and shared from working together. There is always frustration with some students, but overall it seems to work. I also try to set it up in a variety of ways, from letting them select their own groups, picking names out of a hat, and passing out different topics and forming groups based on the topics. I will use assessments to organize a group as well as make sure that each student has a specific task. (Project editor, information manager, organizer, reporter, researcher, etc.) There always seems to be one student ready to take a back seat and let the others in the group do all of the work. We go over the social skills needed to work in a group. We often will post a list in the classroom of simple rules: using appropriate language, speaking quietly and respectfully while working, listening and encouraging team members, and asking for help when needed. While they work in their groups, I will walk around the class and take notes on what is being worked on. I want to make sure there are no misconceptions about the project. After the project is completed, I grade them in a variety of ways. I give a grade to each participant for his/ her contribution to the project, a group grade for the project and/or presentation, and a grade for group participation for the project. Students learn more when they are directly involved in what is being taught. This is yet another style of learning.

chapter eleven

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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK:  Failure to Self-Regulate

WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION You know that your students need to be organized and self-regulating to do well in both their current and their future classes. But many of the students just don’t seem to know how to take charge of their own learning. They have trouble completing larger projects—many wait until the last minute. They can’t organize their work or decide what is most important. Some can’t even keep up with assignments. Their book bags are disaster areas—filled with long overdue assignment sheets and class handouts from last semester crumbled in with school newsletters and permission slips for field trips. You are concerned because they will need to be much more organized and on top of their work as they progress through their education. You have so much material to cover to meet district guidelines, but many of your students are drowning in the amount of work they already have. CRITICAL THINKING • Which organizational skills do students need to be successful in your subject or class? • What could you do to teach these skills, while still covering the material that will be on the proficiency or achievement tests the students will have to take in the spring? • How would you help students develop an authentic sense of efficacy for guiding their own learning?

Tanor/Shutterstock

OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES In the past four chapters, we analyzed different aspects of learning. We considered behavioral and information processing explanations of what and how people learn. We examined complex cognitive processes such as concept learning and problem solving. These explanations of learning focus on the individual and what is happening in his or her “head.” Recent perspectives have called attention to two other aspects of learning that are critical: social and cultural factors. In the previous chapter, we examined psychological and social constructivism. In this chapter, we look at social cognitive theory—a current view of learning and motivation that discusses dynamic interactions among many of the behavioral, personal, and environmental (including social and cultural) factors involved in learning and motivation. Social cognitive theory has its roots in Bandura’s (1977, 1986) early criticisms of behavioral views of learning, as you read in Chapter 7. Social cognitive theory moved beyond behaviorism to focus on humans as self-directed agents who make choices and marshal resources to reach goals. Concepts such as self-efficacy, agency, and self-regulated learning are key in social cognitive theories. These concepts are important in understanding motivation as well, so this chapter provides a good path from learning to the discussion of motivation in the next chapter. We end the chapter with a look back at our tour through different models of instruction. Rather than debating the merits of each approach, we will consider the contributions of these different models of instruction, grounded in different theories of learning. Don’t feel that you must choose the “best” approach—there is no such thing. Even though theorists argue about which model is best, excellent teachers don’t debate. They apply all the approaches, using each one when appropriate. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 11.1 Distinguish between social learning theory and social cognitive theory, including an explanation of triadic reciprocal causality. Objective 11.2 Discuss the roles of observation and modeling in learning, including factors that support learning by observation. Objective 11.3 Define self-efficacy and agency, distinguish these concepts from self-concept and self-esteem, explain the sources of self-efficacy, and discuss self-efficacy for teaching. Objective 11.4 Describe important components of self-regulated learning. Objective 11.5 Apply your knowledge to teach for self-efficacy and self-regulated learning. Objective 11.6 Explain the meaning and different applications of four basic theories of learning.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Social Cognitive Theory A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura Beyond Behaviorism Triadic Reciprocal Causality Modeling: Learning by Observing Others Elements of Observational Learning Observational Learning in Teaching Agency and Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem Sources of Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will What Influences Self-Regulation? A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning Reaching Every Student: Examples of SelfRegulation in Two Classrooms Technology and Self-Regulation Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior Modification Emotional Self-Regulation Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Stress, Efficacy, and Self-Regulated Learning Designing Classrooms for Self-Regulation Complex Tasks Control Self-Evaluation Collaboration Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would They Do?

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Most of what is known today as social cognitive theory is based on the work begun by Albert Bandura in the 1950s at Stanford University. Before we talk about the theory, let’s meet the man.

A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura Albert Bandura’s life story should be a movie. You could say he lived the American dream, except that he is from Canada. His parents were immigrants from Central Europe; they chose the rugged land of northern Alberta for their family farm. Bandura’s parents never went to school, but they valued education. His father taught himself to read in three languages, giving young Albert a great model of self-regulated learning—a concept that figures prominently in social cognitive theory today. While attending high school, Bandura worked many jobs, including a stint as a carpenter at a furniture factory and one as a road worker on the Alaska Highway in the Yukon. He finished his undergraduate degree at the University of British Columbia in 3 years, even though he had to cram all his classes into the morning to have time for his afternoon jobs. Because he needed a morning class to fill one time slot, he enrolled in introductory psychology and found his future profession (Bandura, 2007, p. 46). His next stop was graduate school at the epicenter of psychological research in 1950—the University of Iowa. After earning his PhD (in 3 years again), Bandura joined the faculty at Stanford in 1953—he was 28 years old. More than 65 years later, he is the David Starr Jordan Professor of Social Science in Psychology/Emeritus at Stanford and has taught some of the children of his former students. When I read Bandura’s autobiography I was struck by how much his theories reflected his life as a self-directed, self-regulating learner growing up in a challenging environment. Describing his experiences in his two-teacher high school, Bandura (2007) said: We had to take charge of our own learning. Self-directed learning was an essential means of academic self-development, not a theoretical abstraction. The paucity of educational resources turned out to be an enabling factor that has served me well rather than an insurmountable handicapping one. The content of courses is perishable, but self-regulatory skills have lasting functional value whatever the pursuit might be. (p. 45)

In the next sections we will look at the key features of Albert Bandura’s work and social cognitive theory by considering four topics: moving beyond behaviorism, the concept of triadic reciprocal causality, the power of observational learning, and the key function of self-efficacy in the development of human agency.

Beyond Behaviorism Bandura believed basic behavioral principles were correct as far as they went, but also too limited to explain complex human thinking and learning. In his autobiography, Bandura (2007) describes the shortcomings of behaviorism and the need to put people in social context:

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I found this behavioristic theorizing discordant with the obvious social reality that much of what we learn is through the power of social modeling. I could not imagine a culture in which its language; mores; familial customs and practices; occupational competencies; and educational, religious, and political practices were gradually shaped in each new member by rewarding and punishing consequences of their trial-and-error performances. (p. 55)

As you learned in Chapter 7, Bandura’s early social learning theory included enactive learning (learning through reinforcement and punishment of your own behaviors) and added observational learning, that is learning through modeling and observing others. A formal definition for modeling is changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person (a model) being reinforced or punished for particular behaviors. Over time, Bandura’s explanations of learning included more attention to cognitive (personal) factors such as expectations and beliefs in addition to the social influences of models (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001, 2016). His current perspective, social cognitive theory, retains an emphasis on the role of other people serving as models and teachers (the social part of social cognitive theory), but includes thinking, believing, expecting, anticipating, self-regulating, and making comparisons and judgments (the cognitive part). Social cognitive theory is a dynamic system that explains human adaptation, learning, and motivation. The theory addresses how people develop social, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral capabilities; how people regulate their own lives; and what motivates them (Bandura, 2007; Bandura & Locke, 2003). Many of the concepts from this chapter will help you understand motivation in Chapter 12.

MyLab Education

Video Example 11.1 In this video, students begin the school day with their usual classroom routine. The teacher sees one student working diligently on her assignment right after she arrives, and he reinforces her behavior with a slip of paper and a compliment. Consider how this type of reward might influence other students to model her behavior.

Triadic Reciprocal Causality I claimed earlier that social cognitive theory describes a system. This system, called triadic reciprocal causality, is the dynamic interplay among three kinds of influences: personal, environmental, and behavioral, as shown in Figure 11.1 on the next page. Personal factors (beliefs, expectations, cognitive abilities, motivation, attitudes, and knowledge), the physical and social environment (resources, consequences of actions, other people, models and teachers, and physical settings), and behavior (individual actions, choices, and verbal statements) all influence and are influenced by each other. Figure 11.1 on the next page shows the interaction of person, environment, and behavior in learning settings (Pajares & Usher, 2008; Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). External factors such as models, instructional strategies, classroom environments, or teacher feedback (elements of the environment for students) can affect student personal factors such as goals, sense of efficacy for the task (described in the next section), attributions (beliefs about causes for success and failure), expectations, and self-regulatory processes such as planning, monitoring, and controlling distractions. For example, teacher feedback can lead students to feel either more confident or more discouraged, and then the students adjust their goals accordingly. Environmental factors, such as rewards for turning in homework, and personal factors, such as setting challenging goals, can in turn encourage useful behaviors like effort and persistence that lead to successful learning (Usher & Schunk, 2017). But these behaviors also reciprocally influence personal factors. For example, as students achieve through increased effort (behavior), their self-efficacy and interest (personal factors) are likely to increase. Finally, student behaviors also affect their environment. For example, if students do not persist or if they perform poorly on assignments, teachers may change instructional strategies or learning group assignments, thus changing the learning environment for the students. Think for a minute about the power of triadic reciprocal causality in classrooms. If personal factors, behaviors, and the environment are in constant interaction, then cycles of events are progressive and self-perpetuating. Suppose a student had difficulties in his previous school. The first day at his new school he is late to class because he got lost in the unfamiliar building. The student has a tattoo and several visible pierced body parts. He is anxious about his first day and hopes to do better at this new school, but the teacher’s initial reaction to his late entry and dramatic appearance is a bit hostile. The

Social learning theory  Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others. Modeling  Changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person—a model. Social cognitive theory  Theory that adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory. Triadic reciprocal causality  An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual and the environment on each other.

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FIGU RE 11.1 A SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEW OF RECIPROCAL INFLUENCES IN LEARNING All three forces—personal, social/environmental, and behavioral—are in constant interaction. They influence and are influenced by each other.

• • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Behavioral Factors Academic achievement, school performance Selection of learning activities Choice of courses or major Physical activity Homework completion Effort and persistence Organizational skills Coping skills Interactions with classmates and teachers Withdrawal or engagement

Personal Factors Beliefs, goals, and expectations Thoughts and feelings Cognition and metacognition Memory Background knowledge Motivation Awareness of discrimination or prejudice Mental health Physical and cognitive attributes/deficits Personality Gender, ethnicity, race, age, cultural heritage Academic, social, mental, and verbal ability Curiosity and creativity Intelligence Religion

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Environmental Factors Teacher support and expectations Local, state, and national policies Societal and familial values and norms Classroom/school climate Learning structures (e.g., scaffolding, reinforcement) Social status and support Evaluative messages from others Online environment (e.g., social media) Physical environment (e.g., geography, climate) Psychological climate (e.g., hostile, welcoming) Peer group Exposure to diversity Curriculum and policies Economic resources

Source: From “Social-Self Interaction and Achievement Behavior” by D. H. Schunk, 1999, Educational Psychologist, 34, p. 221. Adapted with permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. and the author.

student feels insulted and responds in kind, so the teacher begins to form expectations about him and becomes more vigilant, less trusting. The student senses the distrust. He decides that this school will be just as worthless as his previous one—and wonders why he should bother to try. The teacher sees the student’s disengagement, invests less effort in teaching him, and the cycle continues. These reciprocal effects are more than hypothetical. When Trevor and Kitty Williams (2010) examined data on high school students’ confidence and achievement in mathematics in 30 different countries, they found evidence that math confidence and math achievement reciprocally influenced each other in 26 of the countries, just as Bandura would predict. You can see that if teachers’ expectations are communicated to students (see Chapter 12), and these expectations affect students’ confidence, then achievement can be influenced as well. In other words, the beliefs and behaviors of one person can create the environment for another!

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Let’s look more closely at two key elements of social cognitive theory: observational learning and self-efficacy. As we examine each of these more closely, we emphasize their implications for teaching. MyLab Education Self-Check 11.1

MODELING: LEARNING BY OBSERVING OTHERS What causes an individual to learn and perform modeled behaviors and skills? Several factors play a role. First, the developmental level of the observer makes a difference in learning. As children grow older, they can focus attention for longer periods of time, more effectively identify the important elements of a model’s behavior to observe, use memory strategies to retain information, and motivate themselves to practice, as you can see in Table 11.1. A second influence is the status of the model. Children are motivated to imitate the actions of others who seem competent, powerful, prestigious, and enthusiastic, so parents, teachers, older siblings, athletes, action heroes, rock stars, or film personalities may serve as models, depending on the age and interests of the child. Third, by watching others who are similar to us, we learn about what behaviors are appropriate and we are able to identify the range of behaviors we probably could accomplish (Schunk et al., 2014). Children and adolescents pay close attention to models they perceive to be similar in age, gender, or race. (When you watch your favorite show, do you pay closer attention to characters who seem similar to you?) All students need to see successful, capable models who look and sound like them, no matter what their ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or gender. Bandura (2016) describes Indian, African, Mexican, and Chinese television novellas and radio programs (like our reality shows) whose main characters deal effectively with social problems such as HIV prevention, women’s rights, and overpopulation. Viewers’ and listeners’ behaviors and beliefs change after exposure to these stories. How? TABLE 11.1  •  Factors That Affect Observational Learning CHARACTERISTIC

EFFECTS ON MODELING PROCESS

Developmental Status

Improvements with development include longer attention span and increased capacity to process information, use strategies, compare performances with memorial representations, and adopt intrinsic motivators.

Model Prestige and Competence

Observers pay greater attention to competent, high-status models. Consequences of modeled behaviors convey information about functional value. Observers attempt to learn actions they believe they will need to perform.

Vicarious Consequences

Consequences to models convey information about behavioral appropriateness and likely outcomes of actions. Valued consequences motivate observers. Similarity in attributes or competence signals appropriateness and heightens motivation.

Outcome Expectations

Observers are more likely to perform modeled actions they believe are appropriate, attainable, and will result in rewarding outcomes.

Goal Setting

Observers are likely to attend to models who demonstrate behaviors that help observers attain goals.

Self-efficacy

Observers attend to models when they believe they are capable of learning or performing the modeled behavior. Observation of similar models affects self-efficacy (“If they can do it, I can too”).

Source: From Schunk, D. H. (2016). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective (7th ed.), p. 131. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

MyLab Education

Video Example 11.2 This teacher models “how to think” as she demonstrates a think-aloud strategy for her students. By modeling, she hopes her students will be able to perform the same skill and use think-aloud to make predictions as they read.

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Look back at Table 11.1 for the answer: The factors related to how people learn from models involve goals, consequences, and expectations. If observers expect that certain actions of models will lead to particular outcomes (e.g., specific practice regimens leading to improved athletic performance) and the observers value those outcomes or goals, then the observers will pay attention to the models and try to reproduce their behaviors. Finally, observers are more likely to learn from models if the observers have a high level of self-efficacy—if they believe they are capable of doing the actions needed to reach the goals, or at least of learning how to do them (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2014). Of course, this works both ways. Watching another person perform a skill successfully can also increase the observers’ beliefs that they can do it too. We’ll examine this more later.

Elements of Observational Learning STOP & THINK Your interview for a position in the middle school is going well. Now you are asked, “Who are your role models as teachers? Do you hear yourself saying or see yourself doing things that other teachers from your past have done? Are there teachers from films or books that you would like to emulate?” •

Through observational learning, we discover not only how to perform a behavior but also what will happen to us in specific situations if we perform it. Observation can be a very efficient learning process. The first time children hold hairbrushes, cups, or baseball bats, they usually brush, drink, or swing as well as they can, given their current muscle development and coordination. Through comparison with a model, we also can identify adjustments that may produce better outcomes. To learn new behaviors or refine current abilities, Bandura (1986) proposed that four elements of observational learning are essential: paying attention, retaining information or impressions, producing behaviors, and being motivated to repeat the behaviors. ATTENTION.  To learn through observation, we have to pay attention. This includes both selective attention (paying attention to the correct cues and information) as well as sustained attention (maintaining focus). In teaching, you will have to ensure students’ attention to the critical features of the lesson by making clear presentations and highlighting important points. In demonstrating a skill (for example, threading a sewing machine, performing a dissection, or operating a lathe), you may need to have students look over your shoulder as you work. Seeing your hands from the same perspective as they see their own directs their attention to the right features of the situation and makes observational learning easier. RETENTION.  To imitate the behavior of a model, you have to remember each step. This involves mentally representing the model’s actions in some way, probably as verbal steps (“Hwa-Rang, the eighth form in Tae Kwan Do karate, is a palm-heel block, then a middle riding stance punch, then …”), or as visual images, or both. Retention can be improved by mental rehearsal (imagining imitating the behavior) or by actual practice. In the retention phase of observational learning, practice helps us remember the elements of the desired behavior, such as the sequence of steps. PRODUCTION.  Once we “know” how a behavior should look and remember the elements or steps, we still may not perform it smoothly without a great deal of practice, feedback, and coaching about subtle points. In the production phase, practice makes the behavior smoother and more expert. Of course, if a child does not have the physical or developmental skills needed to produce the behavior, even extensive practice and feedback may not be enough. The ideal conditions for practice toward expert production will typically involve some form of feedback that compares the learner’s performance to that of the model (e.g., specific teacher feedback, explicit coaching, reviewing video of the performance, deliberate practice of the weak parts).

S O CI AL CO GNI TI V E V I E W S O F LE AR NI NG AND MOT I VATION

MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT.  Social cognitive theory distinguishes between acquisition and performance. We may acquire a new skill or behavior through observation, but we may not perform that behavior until we have some motivation or incentive to do so. Reinforcement can play several roles in observational learning. If we anticipate being reinforced for imitating the actions of a model, we may be more motivated to pay attention, remember, and reproduce the behaviors. In addition, reinforcement is important in maintaining learning through persistence. Without some kind of reinforcing consequence, new behaviors will likely disappear (Schunk, 2016). For example, if an unpopular student adopted the dress of the “in” group, but was ignored or ridiculed, it is unlikely that the imitation would continue. Similarly, learning new academic tasks is usually accompanied by some failure—and reinforcement for progressive gains helps learners maintain focus on their growth rather than on their current struggles. Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcement that can encourage observational learning. First, of course, the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model and receive direct reinforcement, as when a gymnast successfully executes a front flip/roundoff combination and the coach/model says, “Excellent!” But the reinforcement need not be direct—it may be vicarious reinforcement. The observer may simply see others reinforced for a particular behavior and then increase his or her production of that behavior. For example, if you compliment two students on the attractive illustrations in their lab reports, several other students who observe your compliments may turn in illustrated lab reports next time. Most TV ads hope for this kind of effect. People in commercials become deliriously happy when they drive a particular car or drink a specific energy drink, and the viewer is supposed to do the same; the viewer’s behavior is reinforced vicariously by the actors’ obvious pleasure. Punishment can also be vicarious: You may slow down on a stretch of highway after seeing several people get speeding tickets there. A student may curb her comments on Facebook after seeing a friend teased for making a similar post. The final form of reinforcement is self-reinforcement, or controlling your own reinforcers—one aspect of self-regulation described later in this chapter. Self-reinforcers may be intrinsic (e.g., feelings of satisfaction at a job well-done) or extrinsic (e.g., rewarding yourself with a special treat after accomplishing a goal). If one goal of education is to produce people who are capable of educating themselves, then students must learn to manage their own lives, set their own goals, and provide their own reinforcement. In adult life, rewards are sometimes vague and goals often take a long time to reach. Think about how many small steps are required to complete an education and find your first job. In teaching, sometimes self-reinforcement is all that keeps you going in the face of difficult students and demanding parents. Life is filled with tasks that call for this sort of self-regulation (Rachlin, 2004). Social cognitive theory has some powerful implications for teaching. In this section, we will look more closely at using observational learning in teaching.

Observational Learning in Teaching STOP & THINK How would you incorporate observational learning into your teaching? What are the skills, attitudes, and strategies that can be modeled in teaching your subject? •

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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Observational Learning (II, B2) Identify situations in which observational learning may be a wise approach, and describe the essential elements of effective observational learning.

Direct reinforcement  Reinforcement given after successful completion of a task.

We have explored how observational learning takes place and examined the factors that influence it. Let’s now take a look at five possible outcomes of observational learning as they occur in classrooms: directing attention, encouraging existing behaviors, changing inhibitions, teaching new behaviors and attitudes, and arousing emotions (Schunk, 2012).

Vicarious reinforcement  Increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior.

DIRECTING ATTENTION.  By observing others, we not only learn about actions but also notice the objects involved in the actions. For example, in a preschool class, when one child plays enthusiastically with a toy that has been ignored for days, many other children may want to have the toy, even if they play with it in different ways or simply

Self-reinforcement  Controlling (selecting and administering) your own reinforcers.

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carry it around. This happens, in part, because the children’s attention has been drawn to that particular toy. I can remember trying to teach my middle school students difficult vocabulary words by providing definitions. One day I asked students take turns writing a funny sentence on the board that included the target word. Watching their peers stand in front of the class held the students in rapt attention. FINE TUNING ALREADY-LEARNED BEHAVIORS.  All of us have had the experience of looking for cues from other people when we find ourselves in unfamiliar situations. Observing the behavior of others tells us which of our already learned behaviors to use: the proper fork for eating the salad, when to leave a gathering, what kind of language is appropriate, and so on. Adopting the dress and grooming styles of TV or music idols is another example of this kind of effect. STRENGTHENING OR WEAKENING INHIBITIONS.  If class members witness one student breaking a class rule and getting away with it, they may learn that undesirable consequences do not always follow rule breaking. If the rule breaker is a well-liked, high-status class leader, the effect of the modeling may be even more pronounced. This ripple effect (Kounin, 1970) can work for the teacher’s benefit. When the teacher deals effectively with a rule breaker, especially a class leader, the idea of breaking this rule may be inhibited for the other students viewing the interaction. This does not mean that teachers must reprimand each student who breaks a rule, but once a teacher has called for a particular action, following through is an important part of capitalizing on the ripple effect. TEACHING NEW BEHAVIORS.  William James (1899/2001) said, “The teacher who meets with the most success is the teacher whose own ways are the most imitable” (p. 26). Modeling has long been used to teach dance, sports, and crafts, as well as skills in subjects such as food science, chemistry, and welding. Cognitive modeling can also be applied deliberately in the classroom to teach mental skills and to broaden horizons—to teach new ways of thinking, such as thinking through the steps in a complex math problem. Teachers serve as models for a vast range of behaviors, from pronouncing vocabulary words to reacting to the seizure of a student with epilepsy, to being enthusiastic about learning. For example, a teacher might model critical thinking skills by thinking “out loud” about a student’s question. Or a high school teacher concerned about girls who seem to have stereotyped ideas about careers might invite women with nontraditional jobs to speak to the class or expose the girls to exemplary models in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), for example (see engineergirl.org). Teachers can share their love of reading or music or art or history by sharing their favorite books, films, artists, and so on. Studies indicate that modeling can be most effective when the teacher makes use of all the elements of observational learning—attention, retention, production, and especially reinforcement and practice. It is important to select appropriate models, however. For example, students who doubt their own abilities might be best paired with a peer who keeps trying and finally masters the material (Schunk, 2016).

Ripple effect  “Contagious” spreading of behaviors through imitation.

AROUSING EMOTION.  Finally, through observational learning, people may develop emotional reactions to situations they have never experienced personally. Hearing, watching, or reading about a situation are powerful forms of observation. This may be most obvious through fear-inducing observations. News reports of shark attacks have many of us anxious about swimming in the ocean. The tragedies of school shootings reported on television prompt parents, teachers, and students alike to develop new concerns over safety in schools. Some terrible examples of modeling occur with “copy-cat killings” or suicide clusters in schools. When frightening things happen to people who are similar in age or circumstances to your students, they may need to be given an opportunity to talk about their emotions. But not all observations lead to negative emotions. Watching or reading about the courageous acts of others who spend their lives advocating for human and civil rights can lead to emotional responses that promote

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GUIDELINES Using Observational Learning Model behaviors and attitudes you want your students to learn. Examples 1. Show enthusiasm for the subject you teach. 2. Be willing to demonstrate both the mental and the physical tasks you expect the students to perform. I once saw a teacher sit down in the sandbox while her 4-yearold students watched her demonstrate the difference between “playing with sand” and “throwing sand.” 3. Model good problem solving—think out loud as you work through a difficult problem. A language arts teacher might stop and say, “Now let me see if I remember what happened so far,” or “That was a hard sentence. I’m going to read it again.” 4. Model coping skills, persistence, and effort. Engage with a difficult problem, even if you seem to reach a dead end. Try new strategies or take a break and return to the problem later. 5. Model your expectations. I remember seeing my fellow teachers talking to one another during a school assembly while occasionally looking up to chastise students who were doing the same thing! Students detest hypocrisy. Promote desired behaviors by engaging in them yourself. Use peers, especially class leaders, as models. Examples 1. In group work, pair students who do well with those who are having difficulties.

2. When choosing a model, alternate between coping models who work through problems slowly and correct their errors as they work and mastery models who solve problems quickly and without error. 3. Ask students to demonstrate the difference between “whispering” and “silence—no talking.” Make sure students see that positive behaviors lead to reinforcement for others. Examples 1. Point out the connections between positive behavior and positive consequences in stories. 2. Be fair in giving reinforcement. The same rules for rewards should apply to both the students with problems and the students who do not cause trouble. Enlist the help of class leaders in modeling behaviors for the entire class. Examples 1. Ask a well-liked student to be friendly to an isolated, fearful student. 2. Let high-status students lead an activity when you need class cooperation or when students are likely to be reluctant at first. Popular students can model dialogues in foreign-language classes or be the first to tackle dissection procedures in biology. For more information on observational learning, go to www. readwritethink.org/ and search for “modeling.”

social change. Indeed, diverse media have made it possible to bring unimaginable realities that we would never experience to our fingertips, both at home and at school. This can engender new forms of compassion and understanding. Seeing media portrayals of acts of kindness or heroism can arouse emotion that may prompt imitative behaviors or “faith” in humanity. The Guidelines: Using Observational Learning will give you some ideas about using observational learning in the classroom. One final thing you can do to promote healthy observational learning is to help your students select appropriate models. Bandura (2016) pointed out that the environments in which we live are not just externally imposed; we have some say in how we select and create our social environments. For example, high school students choose their classes, their peer groups, their extracurricular activities, and even their social media friends. Helping students reflect on how these social groups influence their behaviors might enable them to choose more wisely. Of course, learners must feel some sense of choice and capability in the matter. Indeed, the next central element of social cognitive theory is self-efficacy, a belief that is especially important in learning and teaching. MyLab Education Self-Check 11.2

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AGENCY AND SELF-EFFICACY Remember that social cognitive theory emphasizes the dynamic interaction of personal, behavioral, and environmental events in shaping human lives. Bandura (1997) placed particular emphasis on the personal factors. Because of people’s capacity for selfinfluence, we have a role in determining what we learn, with whom we interact, and how we act. Bandura (2016) called this human agency—“To be an agent is to exert intentional influence over one’s functioning and over the course of events by one’s actions” (p. 4). Agency involves the ability to make intentional choices and plans, design appropriate courses of action, and then motivate and regulate the execution of these plans and actions. This is the major difference between social cognitive theory and behaviorism: In social cognitive theory, we can change our environments, control our own behavior, support the actions of others, and take charge of our lives. Behaviorism removes the “personal” from the equation, and focuses on predicting behaviors entirely by the reinforcing (or punishing) environment. When we discuss self-regulation later in the chapter, you will see how students and teachers can become more agentic—more self-directing and in charge of their own learning and motivation. Central to our own agency are the beliefs we hold about our own capabilities, referred to as self-efficacy. Consider how learners imagine various outcomes of their behavior. “Will I succeed or fail? Will I be liked or laughed at?” “Will I be more accepted by teachers in this new school?” How students answer these questions depends on their beliefs about their personal competence or effectiveness in a given area. Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (p. 3). Simply put, self-efficacy answers the question, “Can I do this?” We ask ourselves this question about all sorts of situations—Can I do math? Can I keep my cool when my friend talks about me behind my back? Can I teach this group of students? Can I do 10 pushups? Can I stop checking my phone 100 times a day for new messages? Researchers have shown that self-efficacy is essential for positive student outcomes across grade levels and content domains. Students with high self-efficacy exert greater levels of effort, persistence, and resilience when engaged in challenging tasks—as well as experience lower levels of stress and anxiety for the task (Bandura, 1997; Honicke & Broadbent, 2016; Klassen & Usher, 2010). In a study of students going from middle through high school, students with a higher level of self-efficacy for having control over their academic outcomes had higher levels of confidence in their academic abilities, earned higher grades, and were more likely to graduate (Caprara, Pastorelli, Regalia, Scabini, & Bandura, 2005).

Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem

Human agency The capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation, and emotions to reach your goals. Self-efficacy  A person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation.

Most people assume self-efficacy is the same as self-concept or self-esteem, but it isn’t. Although these terms refer to self-beliefs, they differ in important ways. Self-efficacy refers to a “context-specific assessment of competence to perform a specific task” (Pajares, 1997, p. 15). Self-concept, on the other hand, has historically referred to a more global self-perception. One’s self-concept is judged by both external and internal comparisons, using other people or other aspects of the self as frames of reference (Marsh, Xu, & Martin, 2012). But self-efficacy focuses on your ability to successfully accomplish a particular task with no need for comparisons—the question is whether you can do it, not whether others would be successful. Also, self-efficacy beliefs are strong predictors of behavior, but self-concept has typically shown weaker predictive power (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy is “context specific,” which means it varies, depending on the subject or task. For example, my sense of efficacy for singing is really low, but I feel confident in my ability to read a map and navigate (except in certain cities like Rome that are hopeless). Even young students have different efficacy beliefs for different tasks. One study found that by the first grade, students already differentiated among their sense of efficacy for reading, for writing, and for spelling (Wilson & Trainin, 2007).

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Self-efficacy is concerned with judgments of personal competence; self-esteem is concerned with judgments of self-worth (Usher, 2015). Self-esteem is determined in large part by the value we place on our performance in a domain (math, appearance, singing, soccer, etc.) and our concern over what others think about our competence (Harter & Whitesell, 2003). Self-esteem is not affected if we feel incompetent in areas we don’t really value. There is no direct relationship between self-esteem and self-efficacy. It is possible to feel highly efficacious in one area and still not have a high level of selfesteem, or vice versa (Valentine, DuBois, & Cooper, 2004). For example, as I confessed earlier, I have very low self-efficacy for singing, but my self-esteem is not affected, probably because my life does not require singing. But if my self-efficacy for teaching a particular class (my teaching self-efficacy) started dropping after several bad experiences, I know my self-esteem would suffer because I value teaching.

Sources of Self-Efficacy How is it that we come to believe we are capable in one area and hopeless in another? Bandura (1997) identified four sources of self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological and emotional arousal. Mastery experiences refer to how we interpret our own direct experiences—usually this is the most powerful source of efficacy information. Successes raise efficacy beliefs, while failures lower them. Bandura (1997) also refers to these as “enactive” experiences, given that we do not necessarily interpret all of our performances as masterful. Sometimes we have little or no direct experience in a domain. We can therefore base our self-efficacy judgments on other sources, such as the vicarious experiences we have through observing the performances of others. Watching a model not only teaches us new ways of doing things but also alters our beliefs about what we can do. When I was young, my close friend could play a fierce Mozart sonata. With my chin perched at the end of the keyboard, I watched her fingers glide across the keys and said to myself, “If she can play this, then I can too.” When an observer feels similar to the model, the vicarious influence on self-efficacy is stronger (Schunk et al., 2014). In school, a peer’s good performance can enhance other students’ own sense of efficacy. When an esteemed model fails, observers’ self-efficacy decreases. There are some exceptions to this pattern, however. For example, watching someone struggle using poor skills might convince an observer that he can succeed at the same task by implementing better skills. The popularity of skill-based television programs that model how to cook, redesign your kitchen, improve your golf swing, or do yoga demonstrates the influence of vicarious experiences. These are particularly effective when viewers can identify with the subject in the show. In some circumstances, vicarious experiences can be a powerful source of self-efficacy. Keyser and Barling (1981) found that sixth graders relied most on modeling as a source of self-efficacy information. Similarly, models have been shown to play an important role in the self-efficacy of women who have pursued careers in science and engineering (Zeldin, Britner, & Pajares, 2008). A third source of self-efficacy, social persuasion, refers to the evaluative messages students receive from those around them. These messages take many forms, both overt, like a “pep talk” or specific performance feedback, and covert, such as a teacher’s tendency to avoid calling on certain students to answer difficult questions. Social persuasion alone may not always create enduring increases in self-efficacy, but a persuasive boost in self-efficacy can lead a student to make an effort, attempt new strategies, or try hard enough to succeed (Bandura, 1982). Social persuasion from peers or trusted experts such as teachers can counter occasional setbacks that might have instilled self-doubt and interrupted persistence. The potency of persuasion depends on the credibility, trustworthiness, expertise, and/or status of the persuader. During skill development, people may be more inclined to pay attention to what others tell them about their abilities (Bandura, 1997). Social persuasion that highlights prior successes (mastery) in similar tasks, identifies short-term goals and accomplishments, or focuses on the importance of effort are more likely to promote success in boosting

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Modeling (II, B2) Teachers often use modeling to teach students new behaviors. Identify the characteristics that tend to make models effective in instructional contexts.

MyLab Education

Podcast 11.1 Textbook author Anita Woolfolk explains the sources of self-efficacy and how teachers might use this information to invent ways of supporting their students’ sense of efficacy for learning. Why is the belief about yourself so important, and where does it come from?

Mastery experiences Our own direct experiences— the most powerful source of efficacy information. Vicarious experiences  Accomplishments that are modeled by someone else. Social persuasion A “pep talk” or specific performance feedback— one source of self-efficacy.

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TABLE 11.2  •  Sources of Self-Efficacy

MyLab Education

Video Example 11.3 The high school teacher in this video challenges students, but also provides supports. She gives her English learners opportunities to work collaboratively and learn from peer models. Observe the ways her teaching might help students develop a sense of selfefficacy about math skills.

SOURCE

EXAMPLE

Mastery Experiences

Past successes and failures in similar situations, as perceived by the individual. To increase self-efficacy, the success must be attributed to the ability, effort, choices, and strategies of the individual—not to luck or extensive help from others.

Vicarious Experiences

Seeing other people like you succeed on a task or reach a goal that is similar to the one you face.

Social Persuasion

Encouragement, informational feedback, useful guidance from a trusted source, evaluation.

Physiological Arousal

Positive or negative arousal—excitement and a feeling of being “psyched” and ready (increases self-efficacy) or a sense of anxiety and foreboding (decreases self-efficacy).

self-efficacy and initiating successful performance (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2014; Usher & Pajares, 2008). A final source of self-efficacy is the level of physiological or emotional arousal that you experience before or during an activity. For instance, the thought of giving a public speech makes a high school student’s palms sweat and his chest tighten. He interprets this as a sign that he is not capable of speaking. We read our emotions and bodies in ways that alter our perceptions of our capabilities (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2014; Usher & Pajares, 2009). As you think about the task of teaching, are you anxious and worried (lowers self-efficacy) or excited and “psyched” (raises self-efficacy)? At times you can help students reappraise or relabel their arousal—they are not anxious, they are psyched and ready! Table 11.2 summarizes the sources of self-efficacy. Some evidence suggests that students from different group memberships interpret the source of self-efficacy in distinct ways (Usher & Pajares, 2008). For example, Butz and Usher (2015) asked 2,500 upper elementary and middle school students about the sources of their self-efficacy in reading and math. Girls were more likely to list social sources of their self-efficacy (i.e., vicarious experience and social persuasion) than were boys. The researchers also found that students reported different sources of self-efficacy in the two academic disciplines, which suggests that what makes a student confident in one subject area might not work in another. Other cultural differences can affect on how self-efficacy develops. One study found that the math self-efficacy of adolescents in Korea and the Philippines was based more on social persuasion from peers and parents; for U.S. adolescents, vicarious experience from teachers and friends was also an important source of self-efficacy (Ahn, Usher, Butz, & Bong, 2016). All four of the sources in Table 11.2 were identified as supporting self-efficacy development for third-grade students in France ( Joët, Usher, & Bressoux, 2011).

Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching

Physiological or emotional arousal  Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, attentive, wide awake, excited, or tense.

STOP & THINK On a scale from 1 to 100, how confident are you that you will finish reading this chapter today? • Let’s assume your sense of efficacy is around 90 for completing this chapter. Higher self-efficacy leads to greater effort and persistence in the face of setbacks, so even if you are interrupted in your reading, you are likely to return to the task. I believe I can finish writing this section today, so I have resumed work on it after my computer crashed and

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GUIDELINES Encouraging Self-Efficacy Emphasize students’ progress in a particular area. Examples 1. Return to earlier material in reviews, and show how “easy” it is now. 2. Encourage students to improve projects when they have learned more. 3. Keep examples of particularly good work in portfolios as well as work that shows growth and improvement over time, and periodically have students review and reflect on their improvements. Set learning goals for your students, and model a mastery orientation for them. Examples 1. Guide students to set goals that focus on gaining skill, competency, or understanding. 2. Recognize progress and improvement. Avoid nonspecific praise. 3. Share examples of how you have developed your abilities in a given area, and provide other models of achievement who are similar to your students—no supermen or superwomen whose accomplishments seem unattainable. 4. Read stories about diverse students who overcame physical, mental, or economic challenges.

5. Don’t excuse failure because a student has problems outside school. Help the student succeed inside school. Make specific suggestions for improvement, and revise grades when improvements are made. Examples 1. Return work with specific comments noting what the students did right, what they did wrong, and why they might have made the mistakes. 2. Experiment with peer editing. 3. Show students how their revised, higher grade reflects greater competence and raises their class average. Stress connections between past efforts and past accomplishments. Examples 1. Have individual goal-setting and goal-review conferences with students, in which you ask students to reflect on how they solved difficult problems. 2. Confront self-defeating, failure-avoiding strategies directly. For more information on self-efficacy, go to the “P20 Motivation and Learning Lab” at the University of Kentucky.

I had to start over on several pages. Of course, that could make for a late night, because I am going to a San Francisco Giants baseball game at 7:00 tonight and may have to finish the section after the game. Self-efficacy also influences motivation and performance through goal setting. If we have a high sense of efficacy in a given area, we will set higher goals, be less afraid of failure, and find new strategies when old ones fail. If your sense of efficacy for reading this chapter is high, you are likely to set high goals for completing it—maybe you will take some notes, too. If your sense of efficacy is low, however, you may avoid the reading altogether or give up easily when problems arise or you are interrupted with a better offer (Bandura, 1993, 1997; Schunk & Usher, 2012). Research indicates that performance in school is improved and self-efficacy is increased when students (a) adopt short-term goals so it is easier to judge progress; (b) are taught to use specific learning strategies such as outlining or summarizing that help them focus attention; and (c) receive rewards based on achievement, not just engagement, because achievement rewards signal increasing competence (Pajares, 2006). See the Guidelines: Encouraging Self-Efficacy for ideas about how you can support students’ self-efficacy (and your own!). What is the most motivating level of efficacy? Should students be accurate, optimistic, or pessimistic in their estimations? Evidence indicates that a higher sense of self-efficacy supports motivation, even when the belief is a slight overestimation. Children and adults who are optimistic about the future are more mentally and physically healthy, less depressed, and more motivated to achieve (Flammer, 1995; Seligman, 2006). After examining almost 140 studies of motivation, Sandra Graham concluded that these qualities

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MyLab Education

Podcast 11.2 There are three kinds of efficacy judgments at work in schools: student, teacher, and collective. All three kinds are related to student achievement, even after considering the powerful effects of SES. Textbook author Anita Woolfolk describes them and gives ideas for increasing each kind of efficacy.

characterize many African American students. She found that the African American students studied had strong self-concepts, resilience, and high expectations, even in the face of difficulties (Graham, 1996; Graham & Taylor, 2002). Students who show academic resilience are more likely to succeed because they can effectively manage the stressors and barriers in their academic life (Martin & Marsh, 2009). As you might expect, there are dangers in underestimating one’s capabilities because then students are more likely to put forth a weaker effort and give up more easily. But there are dangers in continually overestimating one’s efficacy as well. Students who think that they are better readers than they actually are may not be motivated to go back and repair misunderstandings as they read. They don’t discover that they didn’t really understand the material until it is too late (Pintrich & Zusho, 2002; Usher & Schunk, 2017). In schools, we are particularly interested in self-efficacy for learning mathematics, writing, history, science, sports, and other subjects, as well as self-efficacy for using learning strategies and for handling the many other challenges classrooms present. Consider a few findings from research with students. Self-efficacy is related to school performance for students from third grade through college (Fast et al., 2010; Honicke & Broadbent, 2016; Kenney-Benson, Pomerantz, Ryan, & Patrick, 2006), life satisfaction for adolescents (Vecchio, Gerbino, Pastorelli, Del Bove, & Caprara, 2007), use of deep processing learning strategies for college students (Prat-Sala & Redford, 2010), choice of college major (Pajares, 2002), and performance in college for older students (Elias & MacDonald, 2007). The value of self-efficacy seems to cut across cultural contexts. For example, self-efficacy is related to math/science goals and interests for Mexican American youth (Navarro, Flores, & Worthington, 2007), staying in school for Italian secondary students (Caprara et al., 2008), language performance for French elementary school students ( Joët et al., 2011), academic achievement in math for both male and female middle school students (Kenney-Benson et al., 2006), and mathematics achievement for both Anglo and South Asian Canadian middle school students (Klassen, 2004). Maybe you are thinking, sure, higher self-efficacy is related to higher achievement because students who have more ability have higher self-efficacy. But these relationships between self-efficacy and achievement hold even when we take ability into account. For example, when students with the same ability in math are compared, the ones with higher self-efficacy for math perform better in math (Wigfield & Wentzel, 2007). Self-efficacy encourages higher goals, persistence, and effort. People with high self-efficacy are better equipped to take charge of their own lives—they can act with agency.

Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy

Teachers’ sense of efficacy  A teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn.

You saw in Chapter 1 that much of my own research has focused on teachers’ sense of efficacy, defined as a teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn. This confidence belief appears to be one of the few personal characteristics of teachers that predict student achievement (Klassen, Tze, Betts, & Gordon, 2011; TschannenMoran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998; Woolfolk Hoy, Hoy, & Davis, 2009; Zee & Koomen, 2016). When teachers take responsibility for student success or failure (rather than assigning that responsibility to student ability or to external barriers), then the teachers are more “intentional” in their approaches to reaching their students and are more successful in meeting their learning needs (Putman, Smith, & Cassady, 2009). A review of 165 studies showed that teachers with higher self-efficacy report greater job satisfaction and commitment and lower feelings of burnout (Zee & Koomen, 2016; and see Klassen, Tze, Betts, & Gordon, 2011). Of course, the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and these variables is likely reciprocal—they affect each other. For example, when teachers have a higher sense of efficacy, they teach more effectively and their students learn more, and when students learn more, teacher self-efficacy grows (Holzberger, Philipp, & Kunter, 2013). As with any kind of self-efficacy, there may be both benefits and dangers in overestimating one’s capabilities. Optimistic teachers probably set higher goals, work harder, reteach when necessary, and persist in the face of problems. But when beginning teachers overrate their abilities, they don’t take the steps necessary to improve their

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skills—until they are confronted with serious problems. So some benefits might follow from having doubts about your efficacy. As Wheatley (2002) pointed out, sometimes, “doubt motivates change” (p. 18). How does a sense of one’s teaching capabilities develop? Teachers generally rely on the same four sources described earlier when judging their capabilities, although the interplay of these sources may be more complex for teachers than for students (Morris, Usher, & Chen, 2016). Building a flexible set of instructional tools and strong content knowledge helps teachers gain a sense of mastery for their craft. Social sources might be just as powerful as mastery experience when it comes to self-efficacy for teaching. After all, to find out whether we are effective as teachers, we must assess our students’ learning; teaching is an inherently social act. Evaluations by students, parents, and administrators convey important efficacy-related information. Vicarious experience is another fundamental source of teaching self-efficacy. For example, preservice teachers might watch video playbacks of their own mock lessons or pay close attention to how their cooperating teacher manages the class. Both selfmodeling and social modeling can lead to changes in teaching self-efficacy. Klassen and Durksen (2014) found that self-efficacy generally increased and stress decreased during an eight-week practicum for Canadian preservice teachers; however, this trajectory depended on the level of support the preservice teachers received from their cooperating mentor teachers. Working with a proficient model who is also supportive can boost a new teacher’s self-efficacy. Last, teachers also read their own emotional and physiological states related to teaching as a sign of their efficacy or inefficacy for the task. Feeling relaxed and energized when working with youth can convince an aspiring teacher that he or she is capable of pursuing the career. Anxious daydreaming about classroom catastrophes can undermine self-efficacy. Let’s revisit Bandura’s (1997) powerful assertion that “people’s level of motivation, affective states, and actions are based more on what they believe than on what is objectively true” (p. 2, emphasis added). Both teachers’ and students’ beliefs are guides to what they will do and feel. One area in which self-efficacy plays an important role is in self-regulation. Unless we believe we can regulate the many demands of being human, we will likely spend our time reacting to life’s circumstances rather than proactively exercising our own agency. We turn to this issue next. How you can help your students (and yourself) to lead a self-directed, self-regulated life? MyLab Education Self-Check 11.3

SELF-REGULATED LEARNING: SKILL AND WILL As you may remember from the beginning of this chapter, Albert Bandura said his early education in a tiny school in Canada had given him self-regulation skills that lasted a lifetime. He believes that a major goal of all education is to “equip students with the intellectual tools, self-beliefs, and self-regulatory capabilities to educate themselves throughout their lifetime” (Bandura, 2007, p. 10). Self-regulation is the process we use to activate and sustain our thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach our goals (Perry & Rahim, 2011). When the goals involve learning, we talk about self-regulated learning. Self-regulated learners have the skill and will to learn—they are “metacognitive, motived to learn, and strategic” (Perry & Rahim, 2011, p. 122). This means they have a combination of academic learning skills, self-awareness, self-control, and motivation for learning. Definitions of self-regulation have varied according to which of those features are emphasized (Burman, Green, & Shanker, 2015). To continue learning independently throughout life, you must be self-regulated— what we refer to in conversations as a self-starter. Self-regulation may be even more important today as knowledge about virtually anything is available instantly on the Internet. How do you persist and stay focused on your goal as you browse all that information

Self-regulation  Process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach goals. Self-regulated learning  A view of learning as skills and will applied to analyzing learning tasks, setting goals and planning how to do the task, applying skills, and especially making adjustments about how learning is carried out.

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and are distracted by texts, tweets, and fascinating pictures of cute kittens . . .? Or, as one blog post asked, “Do you control your technological devices or do they control you?” STOP & THINK Think about the class you are taking where you are using this textbook. On a 7-point scale—from 1 = not at all true of me, to 7 = very true of me—answer the following questions: 1. When I study for a test, I try to put together the information from class and from the book. 2. When I do homework, I try to remember what the teacher said in class so I can answer the questions correctly. 3.  I know I will be able to learn the material for this class. 4.  I ask myself questions to make sure I know the material I have been studying. 5.  Even when study materials are dull and uninteresting, I keep working until I finish. •

By answering the questions in the Stop & Think, you have just responded to five items from the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (Midgley et al., 1998; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990). This questionnaire has been used in hundreds of studies to assess students’ self-regulated learning and motivation. How did you do? The first two questions assess your use of cognitive strategies, like those we discussed in Chapter 9. The third question assesses your sense of efficacy for this class. But the last two questions (4 and 5) specifically assess self-regulation Self-regulated learners transform their mental abilities, whatever they are, into academic skills and strategies. Many studies link self-regulated strategy use to measures of academic achievement, especially for middle school and high school students. For younger students, self-regulation of attention and emotion are particularly important for learning and achieving in school (Dent & Koenka, 2016; Valiente, Lemery-Chalfant, & Swanson, 2010). In fact, one study found that when students in a first-grade class had better self-regulated learning skills, individual students in that class improved in vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. So, being in a class with peers who had good self-regulation skills supported literacy development in individual students (Skibbe, Phillips, Day, Brophy-Herb, & Connor, 2012).

What Influences Self-Regulation? The concept of self-regulated learning integrates much of what is known about effective learning and motivation. As you can see from the processes just described, three factors influence skill and will: knowledge, motivation, and self-discipline or volition. In addition, there are developmental differences among students. MyLab Education

Video Example 11.4 The teen in this video answers questions about school—what he likes and dislikes. As you listen, think about comments that indicate his level of self-regulation. Do you think he is a selfregulated learner?

KNOWLEDGE.  To be self-regulated learners, students need knowledge about themselves, the subject, the task, strategies for learning, and the contexts in which they will apply their learning. “Expert” students know about themselves and can reflect on their own learning processes. This “metacognitive knowledge” (remember that metacognition refers to thinking about your own thinking) includes knowing your preferred learning approaches, what is easy and what is hard about learning certain material, coping strategies for handling difficult material, your interests and talents, and how to use your strengths (Efklides, 2011). Experts also know quite a bit about the subject being studied, and they can adapt their knowledge to meet new demands; the more they know, the easier it is to learn more (Alexander, Schallert, & Reynolds, 2009). They are more likely to understand that different learning tasks require different approaches on their part. A simple memory task, for example, might require a mnemonic strategy (see Chapter 8), whereas a complex comprehension task might be approached by means of concept maps of the key ideas (see Chapter 9). Also, these self-regulated learners know that learning is often difficult and knowledge is seldom absolute; there usually are different ways of looking at problems as well as different solutions (Greene, Muis, & Pieschl, 2010; Winne, 2017).

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These expert students not only know what each task requires but also can apply the strategy needed. They can skim or read carefully. They can use memory strategies or reorganize the material. As they become more knowledgeable in a field, they apply many of these strategies automatically. In short, they have mastered a large, flexible repertoire of learning, help-seeking, and coping strategies (see Chapter 9). Finally, self-regulated learners think about the contexts in which they will apply their knowledge—when and where they will use their learning—so they can set motivating goals and connect their present efforts to their accomplishments (Winne, 2017). Clearly, both content knowledge and self-knowledge play an important role in whether students will be self-regulated. Teachers must therefore help students develop both content knowledge and a greater awareness of their own cognitive and learning processes. Later in the chapter, we consider some suggestions for how to do this. MOTIVATION.  Knowing about what is needed to accomplish your learning goals is important, but it may not be sufficient. Motivation also influences the degree to which students regulate their own learning. In Chapter 12 you will learn about many facets of motivation, but let’s consider a few that researchers have found to be related to self-regulated learning. Students who demonstrate greater individual interest in an activity tend to be better at regulating themselves in that activity (Renninger & Hidi, 2016; Thoman, Sansone, & Geerling, in press). My neighbor, a 10-year-old basketball enthusiast, can spend hours shooting hoops in her driveway, drawing elaborate defense plans for her team, and studying the moves of her role models. Activities that are valued, whether for their utility in getting us to the next level or simply for the enjoyment they bring, can lead us to deeper and more systematic engagement (Eccles, Fredricks, & Baay, 2015). Motivational beliefs also influence self-regulation. For example, students who have higher self-efficacy for managing their learning tasks (i.e., self-efficacy for selfregulation) not only use more effective self-regulatory strategies but also perform better in school (Usher & Schunk, 2017). In addition they believe their own intelligence and abilities are improvable ( Job, Walton, Bernecker, & Dweck, 2015). Even if they are not intrinsically motivated by a particular task, they are serious about getting the intended benefit from it. Those who believe in their capabilities can better focus their attention and other cognitive and emotional resources for the task at hand. They know why they are studying, so their actions and choices feel more self-determined and less controlled by others (Zimmerman, 2011). But knowledge and motivation are not always enough. Self-regulated learners need volition or self-discipline. Lyn Corno once said, “Where motivation denotes commitment, volition denotes follow-through” (Corno, 1992, p. 72). VOLITION.  I am one month behind in this project. I have been up writing at 5:00 a.m. every day since I got back from Taiwan (great place!) where I gave a series of talks. I am still jet lagged, barely awake, but I want to keep writing because the deadline for this chapter is very near (well, passed actually). I have knowledge and motivation, but to keep going I need a good dose of volition. Volition is an old-fashioned word for willpower. The more technical definition for volition is protecting opportunities to reach goals. Typically, students need volition to overcome the resistance they feel when they experience a conflict between two desired outcomes (Oettingen, Schrage, & Gollwitzer, 2015). For example, you might need an act of volition to decide between hanging out with friends or reading a book that is needed for a report due in a few weeks. In this way, an act of volition is voluntary, that is, a free will behavior. Volition is influenced by the individual’s level of perceived control for the given task (Efklides, 2011). People are more likely to exercise volitional control when they have experience in sticking with tasks to reach their goals, becoming active agents in achieving success (Metcalfe & Greene, 2007). I can stick with this writing because I have done it before and held the finished book. Self-regulated learners know how to protect themselves from distractions—where to study, for example, so they are not interrupted. They choose methods to cope, even when they feel anxious, drowsy, or lazy (Corno, 2011; Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996). And they know what to do when they are tempted to stop working and

Volition  Will power; selfdiscipline; work styles that protect opportunities to reach goals by applying self-regulated learning.

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are “Grittier” Students More Successful?

POINT .

Most of us would agree that those who passionately persist toward their goals tend to meet with more success. Grit might be one important aspect of the volition component of self-regulation, but does it warrant all the attention it is receiving? Some education researchers have cast doubt on grit as a new construct, citing mixed evidence of its relationship to success. These scholars emphasize that other self-regulatory factors are just as (if not more) important for determining student success. Let’s look at these perspectives more closely.

Grit is essential for student success, and teachers should therefore promote it. The jacket of Paul

Tough’s 2012 bestselling book, How Children Succeed, begins with the age-old question, “Why do some children succeed while others fail?” His answer is in his subtitle: Grit, Curiosity, and the Hidden Power of Character. Tough argues that success in school requires more than outstanding intellectual abilities and talent. To end up at the top of one’s class requires not just talent but a repertoire of “soft” skills—sometimes called “noncognitive factors” (Farrington et al., 2012). For Tough, such skills may be the deciding factor in whether children can escape dire circumstances: “There is no antipoverty tool we can provide for disadvantaged young people that will be more valuable than the character strengths . . . [such as] conscientiousness, grit, resilience, perseverance, and optimism” (p. 189). Tough’s claims lean on the work of psychologist and former school teacher Angela Duckworth, who similarly wondered whether factors other than IQ or talent—things like effort, determination, self-control, persistence, and what she named grit—might actually be just as important in predicting success. To investigate this, Duckworth and her associates asked hundreds of young people to rate their grittiness by responding to items like “I finish whatever I begin,” and “I am diligent” (see www.angeladuckworth.com). They found that

students with higher grit scores also had higher SAT scores and grades (Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). Grittier kids placed higher in the National Spelling Bee competition (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). Chicago high school juniors with more grit were more likely to graduate on time (Eskreis-Winkler, Duckworth, Shulman, & Beal, 2014). These findings often held true even when ability measures (IQ, past GPA) were included as predictors. Teachers’ level of grit was found to predict novice teachers’ effectiveness (Duckworth, Quinn, & Seligman, 2009). How can grit predict success better than one’s previous success? Duckworth (2016) offers her theory: “When you consider individuals in identical circumstances, what each achieves depends on just two things, talent and effort … but effort factors into the calculations twice, not once” (p. 42). In their respective 2016 books, Duckworth and Tough argue that even though grit is a personality trait, it can also be cultivated. Their books highlight stories from numerous paragons of grit and offer tips for how parents, teachers, and leaders can promote gritty individuals. Although both authors have cautioned readers that promoting students’ grit may not be an easy fix, their books are flying off the shelves. The two are frequently invited keynote speakers at meetings for school leaders across the United States. Clearly, grit has found a solid fan base among educators. But grit also has its fair share of critics.

have (another) cup of coffee—the temptation I’m facing now—that, and a beautiful Florida day that beckons me to sweep out the garage (sweeping my garage always looks appealing when I face a tough writing job—cleaning closets is a close second). Volition is deliberate and effortful, but with practice it can become more automatic— a habit or a “work ethic” (Corno, 2011). William James knew this over 100 years ago. One of my favorite James quotes is about making volition a habit. He said: “Do every day or two something for no other reason than that you would rather not do it, so that when the hour of dire need draws nigh, it may find you not unnerved and untrained to stand the test” ( James, 1890, IV, p. 126). You may have heard of two concepts related to volition: self-control and grit. Both concepts have received growing attention in recent years. Self-control has been defined as “the capacity to regulate attention, emotion, and behavior in the presence of temptation” (Duckworth & Gross, 2014, p. 319). Walter Mischel’s famous delay of gratification experiment offers a glimpse into the importance of self-control (Mischel, 2014). He offered 4-yearold children an enticing marshmallow to eat, and promised to give a second marshmallow to those who could postpone eating the first marshmallow until he returned from a 15-minute errand (that’s a long time!). Most children gobbled up the first marshmallow before he returned; but others waited, employing various self-control strategies to help them resist the temptation. (You can view this experiment online in several funny YouTube videos.) Mischel and his colleagues then conducted follow-up studies with these children over a period of many years. They were shocked at what they found. Children who had exercised self-control by waiting for the second marshmallow had higher SAT scores, responded

COUNTERPOINT .

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A focus on grit as the key to success is too narrow.  2014), researchers have found considerable psychometric over-

Education policy makers and researchers have been wary about the phenomenon of grit as a key to success. Grit’s popularity has spawned contentious commentary in media outlets such as The Atlantic (“The Limitations of Teaching ‘Grit’ in the Classroom,” “Is Grit Overrated? The Downsides of Dogged, Single-Minded Persistence”), The New York Times (“Putting Grit in Its Place”), and EdWeek (“Is ‘Grit’ Racist?”). The debate has several prongs (for a summary, see Alfie Kohn’s 2014 article in the Washington Post, “Ten Concerns About the ‘Let’s Teach Them Grit’ Fad”). First, some argue that to focus on grit, an individual-level variable, as the deciding factor in student success is to blame students for their own school (mis)fortunes and to let schools off the hook; this distracts from examining systemic inequalities that place a greater burden on some students than others (Gorski, 2016). Furman University Professor Paul Thomas (2014) is among those who see the promotion of grit as veiled racism/classism: Part of the “grit” narrative includes the assumption that successful students and people (read “White”) are successful primarily because they work hard; they earn their success. The flip side of this “grit” narrative is that unsuccessful students and people (read “African American” and “Latino/a”) are unsuccessful because they simply do not try hard enough. Second, many have noted that grit appears to be a rebranding of well-researched variables such as conscientiousness, willpower, persistence, and resilience (Rimfeld, Kovas, Dale, & Plomin, 2016). Although Duckworth and her associates have tried to draw distinctions among some of these ideas, such as between grit and self-control (Duckworth & Gross,

lap between students’ responses to grit items and to other measures of self-regulation (Muenks, Wigfield, Yang, & O’Neal, 2017). They question grit’s uniqueness. Third, about that relationship between grit and success? Some recent publications show that the relationship is not as conclusive as Duckworth and colleagues’ earlier work suggested. Researchers Credé, Tynan, and Harms (2017) recently completed a meta-analysis using reports from 66,807 students. They found that in some academic settings, grit is unrelated to students’ academic achievement. Results from a recent investigation of Boston-area eighth graders also revealed that grit was not significantly correlated with students’ achievement in math or language arts (West et al., 2016). Furthermore, when researchers have considered grit alongside other variables hypothesized to predict student performance, grit loses its predictive power (Meunks et al., 2016). For example, Usher, Li, Rojas, and Butz (2016) found that self-efficacy (perceived capability in a particular subject area), but not grit (a personality trait), predicted middle school students’ grades, standardized test scores, and teachers’ ratings in math and reading. Perhaps students are unlikely to persist at something unless they believe they can be successful. Beware of Either/Or. The idea that success is within reach to anyone willing to show dedication and persistence strikes a powerful chord. Maybe most of us believe as William James (1907) did that “we are making use of only a small part of our possible mental and physical resources.” We are intrigued by the hopeful idea that empowering (or debilitating) psychological factors can explain the different life outcomes of two people with similar ability. A quick look at Oscar-nominated films reveals our fascination—we pay money to hear and watch stories of dogged perseverance in the face of great odds. They inspire us to consider our own higher potential.

better to stress, had fewer health problems, possessed better social skills, and enjoyed a host of other benefits. Does this mean that some people are just naturally good at self-control and others are not? No, not exactly. Although some children are predisposed for greater self-control, all can learn new self-control strategies (Duckworth, Gendler, & Gross, 2014). Volition is not always a momentary affair. Sometimes it takes years to accomplish a long-term goal (college degree, anyone?). What does it take to stay committed for the long haul? Researchers have recently claimed that it takes true grit—a personality trait characterized by “perseverance and passion to pursue long-term goals” (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007, p. 1087). Angela Duckworth and her colleagues claim that students with more grit do better in school and in life (Duckworth, 2016; Duckworth et al., 2007). Over the past decade, grit has become quite a buzzword in education circles. Recent conferences and publications targeting K–12 and higher education personnel have paid a great deal of attention to the subject. Is grit really an important determinant of student success? The Point/Counterpoint looks at the evidence from diverse psychological perspectives. Ultimately, however, the research evidence does not support such a simple story. Social cognitive theory acknowledges that many factors, both internal and external to the individual, must be considered. Yes, self-regulation matters in how successful a learner will be. And a certain level of grit may be one important aspect of self-regulation. But a one-variable approach is insufficient—appealing as it might be. Focusing too much on grit might lead educators to overlook other problems that affect students’ self-regulation. As this chapter explains, how self-regulated a learner is requires the engagement of cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, and volitional mechanisms, none of which casts

Grit  A a personality trait characterized by determination and persistence.

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the deciding vote on whether a student will ultimately succeed. Of course, we must also consider the larger context in which learning takes place. Is what we are asking students to do worth their perseverance and effort in the first place? Does grit come at the expense of other aspects of a quality and “successful” education—such as one’s physical and psychological health, compassion for others, autonomy, and lifelong curiosity? Once again, it’s not as simple as either/or.

Co-regulation  A transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate selfregulated learning and skills through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from teachers, parents, or peers. Shared regulation  Students and teachers working together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance.

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-REGULATION.  How do students develop knowledge, motivation, and volition? The social cognitive theory perspective emphasizes the interaction of personal factors (e.g., neurobiological development, personal beliefs, cognition), environmental/social factors (e.g., support from family, peers, teachers), and behavioral factors. Dale Schunk (1999) proposed a general model of self-regulation development. During childhood, many self-regulation skills must be learned through observation and emulation of others (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). Control is gradually transferred from the exemplary models (e.g., teachers) to the individual learner. As learners develop success in applying the skills, they begin to internalize modeled strategies and demonstrate greater levels of self-control. They can eventually engage in independent, adaptive self-regulation in novel situations (also implementing self-reinforcement strategies and enhancing their efficacy for self-regulation). Self-regulation relies on cognitive functioning too, as explained in Chapters 8 and 9. Three key executive functions that underlie successful self-regulation are inhibitory control (resisting impulsive urges), working memory (holding information in mind while performing other mental operations), and cognitive flexibility (seeing something from different perspectives). These executive functions are necessary for the self-regulation required to solve complex problems (Diamond, 2012). How can teachers and parents promote better executive functioning among learners of all ages? Adele Diamond and Daphne Ling (2016) reviewed results from 84 research studies that tested various interventions. They found that executive functions are impaired under conditions of stress, poor health, or emotional turmoil. They are enhanced when learners are relaxed, healthy (e.g., physically active), and feel a greater sense of connectedness to others. Executive functions are also sharpened when activities are challenging and when frequent opportunities for sustained practice are provided (Diamond, 2012). Teachers and parents can therefore implement various strategies to foster learners’ development of executive functions. Two social processes support the development of self-regulation: co-regulation and shared regulation. Co-regulation is a transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate and internalize self-regulated learning skills through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from teachers, parents, or peers. Shared regulation occurs when students and teachers work together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance (Hadwin, Järvelä, & Miller, 2017). In Chapter 14 you will read about Lyn Corno’s model of adaptive teaching that intentionally builds student self-regulation development into teaching plans. There are developmental differences in self-regulation. Self-regulation generally improves over time as learners’ neurobiological systems grow and adapt, but environmental stressors and social isolation can thwart development (Blair & Raver, 2015). Even so, early school experiences can help students get back on track. Gender differences in self-regulation have also been observed. In the early grades, girls may be better at regulating their work than boys (Greene, Muis, & Pieschl, 2010; Matthews, Ponitz, & Morrison, 2009; Mischel, 2014). What does self-regulation in action look like? How do knowledge, motivation, and volition work together? Let’s examine a self-regulation model from the perspective of social cognitive theory.

A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning Albert Bandura may have gone from high school graduate to professor at Stanford in 6 years using his self-regulated learning knowledge and skills, but not all of your students will have the ability to be Banduras with established habits of cognition, motivation,

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and volition. In fact, many will be like Tracy, a high school student described here by self-regulation expert, Barry Zimmerman: An important mid-term math exam is two weeks away, and [Tracy] had begun to study while listening to popular music “to relax her.” Tracy has not set any study goals for herself—instead she simply tells herself to do as well as she can on the test. She uses no specific learning strategies for condensing and memorizing important material and does not plan out her study time, so she ends up cramming for a few hours before the test. She has only vague self-evaluative standards and cannot gauge her academic preparation accurately. Tracy attributes her learning difficulties to an inherent lack of mathematical ability and is very defensive about her poor study methods. However, she does not ask for help from others because she is afraid of “looking stupid,” or seek out supplementary materials from the library because she “already has too much to learn.” She finds studying to be anxiety-provoking, has little self-confidence in achieving success, and sees little intrinsic value in acquiring mathematical skill. (Zimmerman, 2002, p. 64)

Clearly, Tracy is unlikely to do well on the test. What would help? For an answer, let’s consider Zimmerman’s (2011) model of self-regulated learning shown in Figure 11.2. According to Zimmerman, self-regulation involves a three-phase cycle—forethought, performance, and reflection. In Phase 1, the forethought phase, Tracy needs to set clear, reasonable goals and plan a few strategies for accomplishing those goals. And Tracy’s motivational beliefs make a difference at this point, too. If Tracy had a high self-efficacy for applying the strategies that she planned, if she believed that using those strategies would lead to math learning and success on the test, if she saw some connections between her own interests and the math learning, and if she were trying to master the material—not just look good or avoid looking bad—then she would be on the road to self-regulated learning (Usher & Schunk, 2017). After thinking about the task at hand, Tracy moves into Phase 2—the performance phase. Performing brings new challenges. Now Tracy must have a repertoire of self-control (volitional) and learning strategies. She might use imagery, mnemonics, attention focusing, and other techniques such as those described in Chapters 8 and 9 to remain engaged (Duckworth et al., 2014; Kiewra, 2002). She also will need

F IG U RE 11.2 ZIMMERMAN’S THREE-PHASE MODEL OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING

Performance

• Task analysis • Motivation • Planning and goal setting

• Self-monitoring • Strategy use • Self-talk

• Attributions for success/failure • Self-reaction • Revision of strategies and beliefs Reflection

Forethought

At all three phases: • Self-observation • Self-evaluation • Self-reaction

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to self-observe—monitor how things are going—so she can change strategies if needed. Actual recording of time spent, problems solved, or pages written may provide clues about when or how to make the best use of study time. Turning off the music might help, too. Finally, Tracy needs to move to Phase 3—the reflection phase—by looking back on her performance and reflecting on what happened. Here, her self-regulation involves an evaluation of her performance. What worked and what didn’t? Why? If she attributes successes to effort and good strategy use and avoids self-defeating actions and beliefs, she might increase her self-efficacy for doing a similar task in the future. She might also revise her goals for next time or give herself a reward for a job well done. If, on the other hand, Tracy reflects on her own weak efforts, she might pretend not to care or assume she is “no good at math.” Each phase in Zimmerman’s model flows into the next, and the cycle continues as students encounter new learning challenges. You might recall that the capacity for self-influence is a hallmark of social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2016). At all phases of the self-regulatory cycle, learners must observe and evaluate themselves. Most of the time, learners’ self-regulation depends on their own self-set or internalized standards. On the other hand, “If adequate self-standards are lacking, people exercise little self-directedness” (Bandura, 1986, p. 363). Part of your role as a teacher is helping learners internalize reasonable standards that will help them become good self-regulators. We have looked at just one theoretical model of self-regulated learning. There are actually several models of self-regulated learning, but all agree that the cognitive processes needed for self-regulated learning require effort (Greene, Muis, & Pieschl, 2010; Puustinen & Pulkkinen, 2001; Usher & Schunk, 2017; Winne, 2011, 2017). Let’s now look at two classroom examples.

Reaching Every Student: Examples of Self-Regulation in Two Classrooms Students differ in their self-regulation knowledge and skills. But teachers must work with an entire classroom, and still “reach every student.” Here are two examples of real situations where teachers did just that. The first involves writing, the second math problem solving—both complex tasks. WRITING.  Carol is a second-grade student described by Nancy Perry and Lynn Drummond (2002). Ms. Lynn was Carol’s teacher; she characterizes Carol as “a very weak writer.” Carol has difficulty finding facts and then transforming those facts into meaningful prose for a research report. Also, she has difficulty with the mechanics of writing, which, according to Ms. Lynn, “holds her back.” Over the course of the year, Ms. Lynn involved her grade 2 and 3 students in three projects about animals. Through this writing, she wanted students to learn how to (a) do research, (b) write expository text, (c) edit and revise their writing, and (d) use the computer as a tool for researching and writing. For the first report, the class worked on one topic together (Chipmunks). They did the fact-finding and writing together, because Ms. Lynn needed to show them how to do research and write a report. Also, the class developed frameworks for working collaboratively as a community of learners. When they wrote the second report (on Penguins), Ms. Lynn offered students many more choices and encouraged them to depend more on themselves and one another. Finally, for the third report, students chose an animal, conducted a self-regulated research project, and wrote a report. Now that they knew how to do research and write a report, they could work alone or together and succeed at this complex task. Carol worked with a third-grade boy who was doing research on a related topic. He showed Carol how to use a table of contents and offered advice about how to phrase ideas in her report. Also, Carol underlined words she thought were misspelled so she could check them later when she met with Ms. Lynn to edit her report. Unlike many low-achieving students who have not learned strategies for self-regulating learning, Carol was not afraid to attempt challenging tasks, and she was confident about her

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ability to develop as a writer. Reflecting on her progress across the school year, Carol said, “I learned a lot from when I was in grade 1 because I had a lot of trouble then.” MATH PROBLEM SOLVING.  Lynn Fuchs and her colleagues (2003) assessed the value of incorporating self-regulated learning strategies into math problem-solving lessons in real classrooms. The researchers worked with 24 teachers. All of the teachers taught the same content in their third-grade classes. The teachers were randomly assigned to one of three groups. The first taught in their usual way. The second incorporated strategies to encourage problem-solving transfer—using skills and knowledge learned in the lessons to solve problems in other situations and classes. The third group added transfer and self-regulated learning strategies to their units on math problem solving. Here are a few of the transfer and self-regulated learning strategies that were taught: • Using a key, students scored their homework and gave it to a homework collector (a peer). • Students graphed their completion of homework on a class report. • Students used individual thermometer graphs that were kept in folders to chart their daily scores on individual problems. • At the beginning of each session, students inspected their previous charts and set goals to beat their previous scores. • Students discussed with partners how they might apply problem-solving strategies outside class. • Before some lessons, students reported to the group about how they had applied problem-solving skills outside class. Both transfer and self-regulated learning strategies helped students learn mathematical problem solving and apply this knowledge to new problems. The addition of self-regulated learning strategies was especially effective when students were asked to solve problems that were very different from those they encountered in the lessons. Students at every achievement level as well as students with learning disabilities benefited from learning the strategies.

Technology and Self-Regulation In the previous chapter, we saw some examples of using technology-rich environments to explore complex concepts. Over the past decade, many schools have turned to technologymediated instruction through one-to-one laptop initiatives, online course offerings, and hybrid teaching approaches (Zheng, Warschauer, Lin, & Chang, 2016). But to learn in these rich environments, students need metacognitive and self-regulatory skills so they won’t get lost in a sea of information—and potential distraction. They need to actively evaluate the credibility and trustworthiness of information they find online. They also need motivation to stay focused in cognitively demanding, and often socially isolated, online worlds (Mayer, 2014). If the concepts they are learning are challenging and complicated, then they need some scaffolding to support their developing understandings (Azevedo, 2005; Azevedo, Johnson, Chauncey, & Graesser, 2011; Kingsley & Tancock, 2014). For example, Melissa Duffy and Roger Azevedo (2015) studied undergraduate students who were learning about the circulatory system using a hypermedia encyclopedia. The materials available included texts, diagrams, photographs, video clips, and animated examples of how the circulatory system works. There were two different conditions. One group of students was a control group. They were asked to set two sub-goals for their learning. A second group got the same instructions, but, in addition, they were prompted to use specific self-regulated learning strategies (e.g., write a summary, take notes) and then were given feedback on the quality of their strategy. The control group got no such prompts or feedback. Those who received some scaffolding spent more time viewing relevant material and used more self-regulatory strategies. Many similar studies have shown that, much like in the face-to-face learning context, the presentation of scaffolds and prompts in the online learning context can enhance students’ self-regulation. But the research evidence on how technology affects students’ self-regulation is still in its infancy. Some findings suggest that technologies may hinder self-monitoring and attention (Sana, Weston, & Cepeda, 2013). For example, students who used laptops to

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take notes wrote more, but performed worse on a subsequent exam than students who took notes by hand (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). These unexpected findings are one of the reasons why some professors (even tech experts) have decided to place limits on their students’ use of digital devices in the classroom (Shirky, 2014). How could you provide self-regulation teaching or coaching for your students as described in the study summarized above? How might you model successful selfregulated learning strategies for your students while using multimedia in your classroom or in a computer lab? How can you model responsible use (and restraint from use) of technological devices when such devices might inhibit other important forms of learning? These questions are becoming increasingly critical for today’s teachers.

Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior Modification When some psychologists were studying a behavior modification approach called self-management—using reinforcement and punishment to manage your own behavior— Donald Meichenbaum (1977) was having success teaching impulsive students to “talk themselves through” tasks. Meichenbaum called his method cognitive behavior modification (B. H. Manning & Payne, 1996). Cognitive behavior modification focuses on self-talk to regulate behavior. You may remember from Chapter 2 that there is a stage in cognitive development when young children seem to guide themselves through a task using private speech (Vygotsky, 1987a). They talk to themselves, often repeating the words of a parent or teacher. In cognitive behavior modification, students are taught directly how to use this self-instruction. Meichenbaum (1977) outlined the steps: 1. An adult model performs a task while talking to him- or herself out loud (cognitive modeling). 2. The child performs the same task under the direction of the model’s instructions (overt, external guidance). 3. The child performs the task while instructing him- or herself aloud (overt, self-guidance). 4. The child whispers the instructions to him- or herself as he/she goes through the task (faded, overt self-guidance). 5. The child performs the task while guiding his/her performance via private speech (covert self-instruction). (p. 32)

Cognitive behavior modification Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using selftalk and self-instruction. Self-instruction Talking oneself through the steps of a task.

Brenda Manning and Beverly Payne (1996) list four skills that can increase student learning: listening, planning, working, and checking. How might cognitive self-instruction help students develop these skills? One possibility is to use personal booklets or class posters that prompt students to “talk to themselves” about these skills. For example, one fifth-grade class designed a set of prompts for each of the four skills and posted the prompts around the classroom. The prompts for listening included “Does this make sense?” “Am I getting this?” “I need to ask a question now before I forget.” “Pay attention!” “Can I do what he’s saying to do?” Planning prompts were “Do I have everything together?” “Do I have my friends tuned out for right now?” “Let me get organized first.” “What order will I do this in?” “I know this stuff!” Posters for these and the other two skills, working and checking, are shown in Figure 11.3. Part of the power of this process lies in getting students involved in thinking about and creating their own guides and prompts. Many active reading programs encourage students to ask, “What do good readers do?” then use their answers as prompts. Having the discussion and posting the ideas makes students more self-aware and in control of their own learning. Cognitive behavior modification as practiced by Meichenbaum and others has many more components than just teaching students to use self-instruction. Meichenbaum’s methods also include dialogue and interaction between teacher and student, modeling, guided discovery, motivational strategies, feedback, careful matching of the task with the student’s developmental level, and other principles of good teaching. The student is even involved in designing the program (Harris, 1990; Harris & Pressley, 1991). Given all this, it is no surprise that students seem to be able to generalize the skills developed with cognitive behavior modification to new learning situations (Harris, Graham, & Pressley, 1992).

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F IG U RE 11.3 POSTERS TO REMIND STUDENTS TO “TALK THEMSELVES THROUGH” LISTENING, PLANNING, WORKING, AND CHECKING IN SCHOOL These four posters were designed by a fifth-grade class to help them remember to use self-instruction. Some of the reminders reflect the special world of these preadolescents.

Poster 1 While Listening: 1. Does this make sense? 2. Am I getting this? 3. I need to ask a question now before I forget. 4. Pay attention. 5. Can I do what he's saying to do?

Poster 3 While Working: 1. Am I working fast enough? 2. Stop staring at my girlfriend and get back to work. 3. How much time is left? 4. Do I need to stop and start over? 5. This is hard for me, but I can manage.

Poster 2

Poster 4

While Planning: 1. Do I have everything together? 2. Do I have my friends tuned out for right now? 3. Let me get organized first. 4. What order will I do this in? 5. I know this stuff!

While Checking: 1. Did I finish everything? 2. What do I need to recheck? 3. Am I proud of this work? 4. Did I write all the words? Count them. 5. I think I finished. I organized myself. Did I daydream too much?

Source: Manning, B.H. & Payne, B.D. Self-Talk for Teachers and Students: Metacognitive Strategies for Personal and Classroom Use, © 1996. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.

Today, entire school intervention programs are based on cognitive behavior modification. For example, the Coping Power Program includes training for both parents and their children, beginning in the last half of one academic year and continuing through the entire next school year. The training for students often focuses on anger and aggression. Different training sessions emphasize personal goal setting, awareness of feelings (especially anger), learning to relax and change the focus away from the angry feelings, making coping self-statements, developing organizational and study skills, seeing the perspectives of others, developing social problem-solving skills, and dealing with peer pressure by practicing how to say no (Lochman & Wells, 2003). Another similar approach is Tools for Getting Along (Daunic, Smith, Brank, & Penfield, 2006). Both programs have been effective in helping aggressive middle school students to “get along” with their classmates and teachers. In addition, in psychotherapy, tools based on cognitive behavior modification have proved to be some of the most effective ways of dealing with psychological problems such as depression. Both the Coping Power Program and Tools for Getting Along programs include emotional self-regulation skills. We turn to this area of self-regulation next.

Emotional Self-Regulation Social and emotional competencies and self-regulation are critical for both academic and personal development (Weissberg, Durlak, Domitrovich, & Gullotta, 2015). Individuals who effectively interpret emotions in themselves and others (e.g., anxiety, anger,

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Self-Regulation (II, A1) Take a look at The Merton Ethel Harris Research and Training Centre (mehritcentre.com) for tips to help students develop the goals, metacognitive skills, and self-regulatory practices that can support a lifelong devotion to learning.

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frustration, excitement), identify effective goals that incorporate those emotional signals, and eventually regulate emotion and behavior in ways that maximize successful engagement in social situations are characterized as having high emotional intelligence (Cassady & Boseck, 2008). School days can be filled with all kinds of emotions—some are helpful for learning, but some are not. Teachers and students need effective coping strategies to address the emotional aspects of a social or learning situation so that emotions become assets, and not barriers, to successfully achieving educational goals. These coping strategies include a broad range of skills including emotional self-regulation (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2002). To illustrate these important strategies, the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) lists five core social and emotional skills and competencies: • Self-awareness—accurately assessing your feelings, interests, values, and strengths; maintaining a well-grounded sense of self-confidence • Self-management—regulating your emotions to handle stress, control impulses, and persevere in overcoming obstacles; setting and monitoring progress toward personal and academic goals; expressing emotions appropriately • Social awareness—taking the perspective of and empathizing with others; recognizing and appreciating individual and group similarities and differences; recognizing and using family, school, and community resources • Relationship skills—establishing and maintaining healthy and rewarding relationships based on cooperation; resisting inappropriate social pressure; preventing, managing, and resolving interpersonal conflict; seeking help when needed • Responsible decision making—making decisions based on consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, appropriate social norms, respect for others, and likely consequences of various actions; applying decision-making skills to academic and social situations; contributing to the well-being of one’s school and community (www.casel.org/) A number of studies that followed students over several years in both the United States and Italy have found that prosocial behaviors and social competence in the early grades are related to academic achievement and popularity with peers as many as 5 years later (Elias & Schwab, 2006). Developing emotional self-regulation is especially important in the early years when students are learning how to learn in schools. For example, Carlos Valiente and his colleagues (2010) followed almost 300 students through kindergarten to assess the relations between effortful self-control, emotionality, and academic achievement. They found that students’ anger, sadness, and shyness were negatively related to achievement and that self-control was positively related to achievement, particularly for students who showed lower levels of negative emotions. Clearly, helping students develop emotional self-regulation can set them on a good path for learning in school, increase their resilience, and probably can help them in social relations with their peers as well. How can teachers help? The first way, says Daniel Goleman (2015), is by setting an example. “The teacher (and entire school staff, for that matter) ideally would model emotional and social competence for students” (p. 594). Teachers therefore need to receive emotional and social regulation instruction as part of their training. A 2017 review of U.S. teacher education programs points to the need for greater incorporation of social-emotional learning components (Schonert-Reichl, Kitil, & Hanson-Peterson, 2017). Although some colleges of education offer little in the way of social-emotional training, several outstanding programs are designed to equip preservice teachers with skills to help themselves and their students become better at regulating emotions (see, for example, The Center for Reaching and Teaching the Whole Child, http://crtwc.org; The Academy for Social-Emotional Learning in Schools, http://sel.cse.edu). The Guidelines: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation give some ideas of practices that promote emotion regulation. MyLab Education Self-Check 11.4

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GUIDELINES Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation Create a climate of trust in your classroom. Examples 1. Avoid listening to “tattle tale” stories about students. 2. Follow through with fair consequences. 3. Avoid unnecessary comparisons, and give students opportunities to improve their work. Help students recognize and express their feelings. Examples 1. Provide a vocabulary of emotions, and note descriptions of emotions in characters or stories. 2. Be clear and descriptive about your own emotions. 3. Encourage students to write in journals about their own feelings. Protect the privacy of these writings (see trust above). Help students recognize emotions in others, and develop empathy and compassion. Examples 1. For young children, “Look at Chandra’s face. How do you think she feels when you say those things?”

2. For older students, use readings, analysis of characters in literature, films, or role reversals to help them identify the emotions of others. Provide strategies for coping with emotions. Examples 1. Discuss or practice alternatives such as stopping to think how the other person feels, seeking help, or leaving the scene. 2. Use centering practices such as self-talk, deep breathing, or mindful movement to diffuse or prevent emotional outbursts. 3. Model strategies for students. Talk about how you handle anger, disappointment, or anxiety. Help students recognize cultural differences in emotional expression. Examples 1. Have students write about or discuss how they show emotions in their family. 2. Teach students to “check it out.”Ask the other people how they are feeling. For ideas about promoting emotional competence, see casel.org

TEACHING TOWARD SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-REGULATED LEARNING Teacher stress is an area of considerable concern for teachers, school leaders, and researchers. In the first years of teaching, high levels of stress lead to “burnout” for teachers who are not able to develop effective coping strategies to handle the many pressures that they face (Chang, 2009).

Teacher Stress, Efficacy, and Self-Regulated Learning Those teachers who are most effective at handling stressors in the classroom demonstrate both the high levels of teaching self-efficacy discussed earlier and a positive level of emotional self-regulation (Montgomery & Rupp, 2005; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2017). The most commonly reported sources of teacher stress are student misbehaviors, interpersonal challenges, and work-related pressure—such as meeting standards (Cano-Garcia, Padilla-Munoz, & Carrasco-Ortiz, 2005; Griffith, Steptoe, & Cropley, 1999). Teachers are more likely to maintain a healthy professional life if they can manage professional stressors such as student disruptions and pressures from parents without becoming emotionally charged, keep things in perspective, and seek support from their peers (Collie, Shapka, & Perry, 2012; Jennings & Frank, 2015; Wilkinson, 1988; Woolfolk Hoy, 2013). One promising practice that has received recent support in research is providing teachers “mindfulness training,” which helps teachers focus attention and emotional resources on the present situation without judgment, recognizing and releasing unnecessary expectations and biases, and developing greater compassion for self and others (Roeser et al., 2013). Teachers who were randomly assigned to receive emotional skills, mindfulness stress reduction, and compassion training showed significant gains in well-being, self-efficacy,

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and mindfulness, along with reduced burnout compared with teachers assigned to a control group (Jennings, Frank, Snowberg, Coccia, & Greenberg, 2013).

Designing Classrooms for Self-Regulation STOP & THINK How are you studying right now? What goals have you set for your reading today? What is your plan for learning, and what strategies are you using right now to learn? How did you learn those strategies? • Fortunately, a growing body of research offers guidance about how to design tasks and structure classroom interactions to support students’ development of and engagement in self-regulated learning (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014; Diamond & Ling, 2016; Perry, 1998; Stoeger & Ziegler, 2011; see Schunk & Greene, 2017). This research indicates that students develop academically effective forms of self-regulated learning and a sense of efficacy for learning when teachers involve them in complex, meaningful tasks that extend over long periods of time, much like the constructivist activities described in Chapter 10. Also, to develop self-regulated learning and self-efficacy for learning, students need to have some control over their learning processes and products; they need to make choices about what to work on, where, and with whom. They also need to have control over the difficulty of the task—how much to read or write, at what pace, and with what level of support. And because self-monitoring and self-evaluation are key to effective self-regulated learning and a sense of efficacy, teachers can help students develop self-regulated learning by involving them in setting criteria for evaluating their learning processes and products, and then giving them opportunities to reflect on and make judgments about their progress using those standards. It helps to work in collaboration with peers and seek feedback from them. As you saw earlier, this has been called shared regulation. Throughout the entire process, teachers must co-regulate the task by “providing just enough and just in time information and support to facilitate students’ acquisition and application of” self-regulated learning (Perry & Rahim, 2011, p. 130). Let’s examine each of these research-based ways to support self-regulation development more closely.

Complex Tasks Teachers don’t want to assign students tasks that are too difficult and that lead to frustration. This is especially true when students have learning struggles or disabilities. In fact, research indicates that the most motivating and academically beneficial tasks for students are those that challenge but don’t overwhelm them (Mayer, 2014). Remember what you learned in Chapter 8 about extraneous cognitive load. The term complex refers to the design of tasks, not their level of difficulty. From a design point of view, tasks are complex when they address multiple goals and involve large chunks of meaning—for example, projects and thematic units. Furthermore, complex tasks extend over long periods of time, engage students in a variety of cognitive and metacognitive processes, and allow for the production of a wide range of products (Perry, VandeKamp, Mercer, & Nordby, 2002). For example, a study of Egyptian pyramids might result in the production of written reports, maps, diagrams, skits, models, and even an Egyptian “museum.” Even more important, complex tasks provide students with information about their learning progress. These tasks require them to engage in deep, elaborative thinking and problem solving. In the process, students develop and refine their cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Furthermore, succeeding at such tasks increases students’ self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation (McCaslin & Good, 1996; Turner, 1997). Learning to cope with stressful situations, regulate emotions, and make adaptations is an important educational goal (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2002). Remember from Chapter 4 that, according to Sternberg (2004), one aspect of intelligence is choosing or adapting environments so that you can succeed. Bandura (2016) would agree—one way to be an agent is to select environments that work best for you.

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Control Teachers can share control with students by giving them choices. When students have choices (e.g., about what to produce, how to produce it, where to work, whom to work with), they are more likely to anticipate a successful outcome (increased self-efficacy) and consequently increase effort and persist when difficulty arises (Turner & Paris, 1995). Also, by involving students in making decisions, teachers invite them to take responsibility for learning by planning, setting goals, monitoring progress, and evaluating outcomes (Turner, 1997). Finally, when students perceive they have control over their learning activities, they maintain higher levels of motivation to complete the task, as predicted by theories of motivation presented in Chapter 12 (Ryan & Deci, 2000). These are qualities of highly effective, self-regulating learners. Giving students choices creates opportunities for students to adjust the level of challenge that particular tasks present (e.g., they can choose easy or more challenging reading materials, determine the nature and amount of writing in a report, supplement writing with other expressions of learning). But what if students make poor academic choices? Highly effective teachers who are high in self-regulated learning carefully consider the choices they give to students. They make sure students have the knowledge and skills they need to operate independently and make good decisions (Perry & Rahim, 2011). For example, when students are learning new skills or routines, teachers can offer choices with constraints (e.g., students must write a minimum of four sentences/paragraphs/pages, but they can choose to write more; they must demonstrate their understanding of an animal’s habitat, food, and babies, but they can write, draw, or speak their knowledge). Highly effective teachers also teach and model good decision making. For example, when students are choosing partners, teachers can ask them to consider what they need from their partner (e.g., shared interest and commitment, perhaps knowledge or skills that they need to develop). When students are making choices about how best to use their time, these teachers ask, “What can you do when you’re finished? What can you do if you are waiting for my help?” Often, lists are generated and posted, so students can refer to them while they work. Finally, highly effective teachers give students feedback about the choices they make and tailor the choices they give to suit the unique characteristics of particular learners. For example, they might encourage some students to select research topics for which resources are readily available and written at a level that is accessible to the learner. Alternatively, they might encourage some students to work collaboratively versus independently to ensure they have the support and shared regulation they need to be successful.

Self-Evaluation Evaluation practices that support self-regulated learning are nonthreatening. They are embedded in ongoing activities, emphasize process as well as products, focus on personal progress, and help students to interpret errors as opportunities for learning to occur. In these contexts, students enjoy and actually seek challenging tasks because the risk of participation—or perceived risk—is low (Paris & Ayres, 1994). Involving students in generating evaluation criteria and evaluating their own work also reduces the anxiety that often accompanies assessment by giving students a sense of control over the outcome. Students can judge their work in relation to a set of qualities both they and their teachers identify as “good” work. They can consider the effectiveness of their approaches to learning and alter their behaviors in ways that enhance it (Winne, 2011; Winne & Perry, 2000). Classrooms that are high in self-regulated learning have both formal and informal opportunities for students to evaluate their learning. For example, one student teacher asked fourth- and fifth-grade students to submit reflection journals describing the games they designed with a partner or a small group of collaborators for a probability and statistics unit (Perry, Phillips, & Dowler, 2004). Their journals explained their contribution to the group’s process and product and also described what they learned from participating. The student teacher took these reflections into account when she evaluated the games. More informally, teachers ask students, “What have you learned about yourself as a writer today?” “What do good researchers and writers do?” “What can we do that we couldn’t do before?” Questions

MyLab Education

Video Example 11.5 In this class, students choose work to include in their portfolios by identifying their best work and explicitly stating how each sample reflects improvement. They are involved in self-evaluation and see evidence of their growth.

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like these, posed to individuals or embedded in class discussions, prompt students’ metacognition, motivation, and strategic action—the components of self-regulated learning.

Collaboration The Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn (2004) concluded that when students can put their heads together, they are more receptive to challenging assignments—the very kind of complex task that develops selfregulation. The most effective uses of cooperative/collaborative relationships to support self-regulated learning are those that reflect a climate of community and shared problem solving (Perry & Drummond, 2002; Perry, VandeKamp, Mercer, & Nordby, 2002). In these contexts, teachers and students actually co-regulate one another’s learning (McCaslin & Good, 1996), offering support, whether working alone, in pairs, or in small groups. This support is instrumental to individuals’ development and use of metacognition, intrinsic motivation, and strategic action (e.g., sharing ideas, comparing strategies for solving problems, identifying everyone’s area of expertise). Teachers who are high in self-regulated learning spend time at the start of each school year teaching routines and establishing norms of participation (e.g., how to give constructive feedback and how to interpret and respond to peers’ suggestions). As you will see in Chapter 13, developing useful management and learning procedures and routines takes time at the beginning of the year, but it is time well spent. Once routines and patterns of interaction are established, students can focus on learning and teachers can attend to teaching academic skills and the curriculum. MyLab Education Self-Check 11.5

BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: THEORIES OF LEARNING How can we make sense of the diversity in perspectives on learning we have explored for the last four chapters? We have considered behavioral, cognitive, constructivist (individual and social), and social cognitive explanations of what people learn and how they learn it. Table 11.3 presents a summary of these perspectives on learning. Rather than debating the merits of each approach in Table 11.3, consider their contributions to understanding learning and improving teaching. Don’t feel that you must choose the “best” approach—there is no such thing. Chemists, biologists, and nutritionists rely on different theories to explain and improve health. Different views of learning can be used together to create productive learning environments for the diverse students you will teach. Behavioral theory helps us understand the role of cues in setting the stage for behaviors and the role of consequences and practice in encouraging or discouraging particular behaviors. But much of humans’ lives and learning is more than behaviors. Language and higher-order thinking require complex information processing and memory—something the cognitive models help us understand. And what about the person as a creator and constructor of knowledge, not just a processor of information? Here, constructivist perspectives have much to offer. Social cognitive theory illustrates the powerful learning opportunities afforded through modeling and observational learning and highlights the important roles of agency and self-direction. Finally, life requires self-regulated learning, and promoting effective self-regulation skills promotes greater success in learning regardless of the operational process of learning. I like to think of the four main learning theories in Table 11.3 as four pillars for teaching. Students must first understand and make sense of the material (constructivist); then, they must remember what they have understood (cognitive—information processing); then, they must practice and apply (behavioral) their new skills and understanding to make them more fluid and automatic—a permanent part of their repertoire. Finally, they must take charge of their own learning (social cognitive). Failure to attend to any part of the process results in lower quality learning. MyLab Education Self-Check 11.6

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TABLE 11.3  •  Four Views of Learning There are variations within each of these views of learning and overlaps as well, especially in constructivist views. BEHAVIORAL

COGNITIVE

CONSTRUCTIVIST

SOCIAL COGNITIVE

APPLIED BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS B. F. SKINNER

INFORMATION PROCESSING J. ANDERSON

INDIVIDUAL JEAN PIAGET

SOCIAL/SITUATED LEV VYGOTSKY

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY ALBERT BANDURA

Knowledge

Fixed body of knowledge to acquire Stimulated from outside

Fixed body of knowledge to acquire Stimulated from outside Prior knowledge influences how information is processed

Changing body of knowledge, individually constructed in social world Built on what learner brings

Socially constructed knowledge Built on what participants contribute, construct together

Changing body of knowledge, constructed in interaction with others and the environment

Learning

Acquisition of facts, skills, concepts Occurs through drill, guided practice

Acquisition of facts, skills, concepts, and strategies Occurs through the effective application of strategies

Active construction, restructuring prior knowledge Occurs through multiple opportunities and diverse processes to connect to what is already known

Collaborative construction of socially defined knowledge and values Occurs through socially constructed opportunities

Active construction of knowledge based on observation, interacting in the physical and social world, and developing agency— becoming more self-regulating

Teaching

Transmission presentation (Telling)

Transmission Guide students toward more “accurate” and complete knowledge

Challenge, guide thinking toward more complete understanding

Co-construct knowledge with students

Presenting models, demonstrating, supporting selfefficacy and self-regulation

Role of Teacher

Manager, supervisor Correct wrong answers

Teach and model effective strategies Correct misconceptions

Facilitator, guide Listen for student’s current conceptions, ideas, thinking

Facilitator, guide Co-participant Co-construct different interpretation of knowledge; listen to socially constructed conceptions

Model, facilitator, motivator Model of self-regulated learning

Role of Peers

Not usually considered

Not necessary but can influence information processing

Not necessary but can stimulate thinking, raise questions

Ordinary and necessary part of process of knowledge construction

Serve as models Ordinary and necessary part of process of knowledge construction

Role of Student

Passive recipient of information Active listener, directionfollower

Active processor of information, strategy user Organizer and reorganizer of information Rememberer

Active construction (within mind) Active thinker, explainer, interpreter, questioner

Active co-construction with others and self Active thinker, explainer, interpreter, questioner Active social participator

Active co-construction with others and self Active thinker, explainer, interpreter, questioner Active social participator

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. SUMMARY Social Cognitive Theory (pp. 454–457) Distinguish between social learning and social cognitive theories.  Social learning theory expanded behavioral views of reinforcement and punishment. In behavioral views, reinforcement and punishment directly affect behavior. In social learning theory, observing another person, a model, and being reinforced or punished can have similar effects on the observer’s behavior. Social cognitive theory expands social learning theory to include cognitive factors such as beliefs, expectations, and perceptions of self. Current social cognitive theory is a dynamic system that explains human adaptation, learning, and motivation. The theory addresses how people develop social, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral capabilities; how people regulate their own lives; and what motivates them. What is triadic reciprocal causality? Triadic reciprocal causality is the dynamic interplay among three kinds of influences: personal, environmental, and behavioral. Personal factors (beliefs, expectations, cognitive abilities, motivation, attitudes, and knowledge), the physical and social environment (resources, consequences of actions, other people, models and teachers, and physical settings), and behavior (individual actions, choices, and verbal statements) all influence and are influenced by each other.

Modeling: Learning by Observing Others (pp. 457–461) What is modeling? Learning by observing others is a key element of social cognitive theory. Modeling is influenced by the developmental characteristics of the observer, the status and prestige of the model, the consequences of the model’s actions as seen by the observer, the observer’s expectations about performing the observed behaviors (will I be rewarded?), the links that the observers perceive between their goals and the models’ behaviors (will doing what the model does get me what I want?), and the observer’s self-efficacy (can I do it?). What kinds of outcomes can observational learning encourage?  Observational learning can lead to five possible outcomes: directing attention, encouraging existing behaviors, changing inhibitions, teaching new behaviors and attitudes, and arousing emotions. By directing attention, we gain insight into how others do things and what objects are involved in their actions. Encouraging or fine tuning existing behaviors can lead to the development of good habits or can make work more efficient. Observing others also has the capacity to cue us in to others’ attention, which can cause us to become more or less “self-conscious” about our behavior; when others are doing something, it’s easier for us to do the same. Young children in particular learn by watching and emulating others, but everyone can gain insight into how something is done well (or poorly) by observing someone else do it. Finally, observing can lead to the association of emotions with certain activities. If others are observed enjoying an activity, the observer may learn to enjoy the activity as well.

many perceptions about the self, including self-efficacy. Compared to self-esteem, self-efficacy is concerned with judgments of personal capabilities; self-esteem is concerned with judgments of self-worth. What are the sources of self-efficacy?  Four sources of self-efficacy are direct experiences (of mastery or failure), vicarious experiences (performances that are modeled by someone else), social persuasion (evaluative judgments by others or specific performance feedback), and level of emotional or physiological arousal you experience as you face the task. How does self-efficacy affect motivation? Greater self-efficacy leads to greater effort, persistence in the face of setbacks, higher goals, and finding new strategies when old ones fail. If sense of efficacy is low, however, people may avoid a task altogether or give up easily when problems arise. What is teachers’ sense of efficacy? One of the few personal characteristics of teachers related to student achievement is a teacher’s sense of self-efficacy—the belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn. Teachers with a high sense of efficacy work harder, persist longer, and are less likely to experience burnout. Teachers’ sense of efficacy is higher in schools where the other teachers and administrators have high expectations for students and where teachers receive help from their principals in solving instructional and management problems. Self-efficacy grows from real success with students, so any experience or training that helps you succeed in the day-to-day tasks of teaching will give you a foundation for developing a sense of efficacy in your career. There may be some benefits to a lower sense of efficacy, if this encourages teachers to pursue professional development and improvement.

Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will (pp. 467–478) What factors are involved in self-regulated learning?  One important goal of teaching is to prepare students for lifelong learning. To reach this goal, students must be self-regulated learners; they must have a combination of the knowledge, motivation to learn, and volition that provides the skill and will to learn independently and effectively. Knowledge includes an understanding of self, subject, task, learning strategy, and contexts for application. Motivation to learn provides the commitment and includes self-beliefs and interest. Volition is the follow-through that stays the course despite distraction. Personality characteristics such as grit, conscientiousness, and self-control are important here.

Self-Efficacy and Agency (pp. 462–467)

What is the self-regulated learning cycle? Zimmerman’s model of self-regulated learning notes three phases: forethought (which includes setting goals, making plans, self-efficacy, and motivation); performance (which involves self-control and self-monitoring); and reflection (which includes self-evaluation and adaptations, leading to the forethought/planning phase again).

What is self-efficacy, and how is it different from other self-schemas? Self-efficacy is distinct from other self-schemas in that it involves judgments of capabilities specific to a particular task. Self-concept is a more global construct that contains

What are some examples of teaching students to be more self-regulating?  Self-regulating learners engage in four types of activities: analyzing the task, setting goals and designing plans, engaging in learning, and adjusting their approach to

S O CI AL CO GNI TI V E V I E W S O F LE AR NI NG AND MOT I VATION learning. Teaching students to be more self-regulating might take the form of providing opportunities to identify and analyze the task at hand. Students should ask themselves: What is the task? What is an ideal outcome of the task? Students may also benefit from goal-setting practice; they may ask: What are my short-term goals? What are my long-term goals? Learning strategies such as identifying important details and developing a big picture of material is the next step in the process. Finally, students need to reflect on whether they were successful and devise strategies for overcoming shortcomings in their self-regulation process. They may ask themselves: Where was I successful? Where do I need to improve in order to meet my goals in the future? What is cognitive behavior modification? Cognitive behavior modification is a process in which self-talk is used to regulate behavior. Cognitive behavior modification may take many forms, including helping to keep students engaged in their learning or helping them deal effectively with anger and aggression. Some research has identified four skills that are particularly helpful self-talk strategies: listening, planning, working, and checking. Cognitive behavior modification can be used with students of all ages, but helping students engage in self-talk may require more adult assistance and guidance for younger children, or those who have not had opportunities to practice good self-regulation strategies. What are the skills involved in emotional self-regulation?  Emotionally self-regulating individuals are aware of their own emotions and the feelings of others—realizing that inner emotions can differ from outward expressions. They can talk about and express emotions in ways that are appropriate for their cultural group. They can feel empathy for others in distress and also cope with their own distressing emotions—they can handle stress. Emotional self-regulators can also employ a

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variety of problem-solving and coping strategies to help them manage the personal and social emotional stimuli to promote optimal performance. These individuals know that relationships are defined in part by how emotions are communicated within the relationship. All these skills come together to produce a capacity for emotional self-regulation.

Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning (pp. 479–482) How can teachers support the development of self-efficacy and self-regulated learning? Teachers should involve students in complex meaningful tasks that extend over long periods of time. Teachers should provide students control over their learning processes and products, allowing them to make choices. They should involve students in setting criteria for evaluating their learning processes and products, and then give them opportunities to make judgments about their progress using those standards. Finally, teachers should encourage students to work collaboratively with and seek feedback from peers.

Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning (pp. 482–483) What is the value of the four different perspectives on learning?  The behavioral, cognitive, constructivist, and social cognitive learning theories are four pillars for teaching. Students must first understand and make sense of the material (constructivist); then, they must remember what they have understood (cognitive—information processing); then, they must practice and apply (behavioral) their new skills and understanding to make them more fluid and automatic—a permanent part of their repertoire. Finally, they must take charge of their own learning (social cognitive). Failure to attend to any part of the process results in lower-quality learning.

. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. Observational Learning

Fostering Self-Efficacy

Fostering Self-Regulated Learning

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

Application Exercise 11.1

Application Exercise 11.2

Application Exercise 11.3

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. KEY TERMS Cognitive behavior modification (p. 476) Co-regulation (p. 472) Direct reinforcement (p. 459) Grit (p. 471) Human agency (p. 462) Mastery experiences (p. 463) Modeling (p. 455) Physiological or emotional arousal (p. 464)

.

Ripple effect (p. 460) Self-efficacy (p. 462) Self-instruction (p. 476) Self-regulated learning (p. 467) Self-regulation (p. 467) Self-reinforcement (p. 459) Shared regulation (p. 472) Social cognitive theory (p. 455)

Social learning theory (p. 455) Social persuasion (p. 463) Teachers’ sense of efficacy (p. 466) Triadic reciprocal causality (p. 455) Vicarious experiences (p. 463) Vicarious reinforcement (p. 459) Volition (p. 469)

CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcements that can motivate observational learning. Which of the following is NOT one of them? A. B. C. D.

Vicarious reinforcement Self-reinforcement Parental reinforcement Direct reinforcement

2. “I have always been among the top students in this class. I have also invested a significant amount of time on this subject. I believe I can excel in the final exam.” What is this an illustration of? A. B. C. D.

Self-efficacy Self-esteem Self-concept Self-regulation

3. There are many ways a sense of self-efficacy can be induced. Which of the following is NOT a recognized source of self-efficacy? A. Seeing how other people similar to you have succeeded in the same task you are pursuing. B. Encouragement, feedback, and guidance from a trusted, prestigious source. C. Tangible rewards, such as gifts or money, that serve to shape your perceived efficiency in a task. D. Past successes, in the sense that you have previously completed a similar task based on your hard work and/ or ability. 4. At a party, Jessica was not enjoying herself because people around were playing loud music and dancing, activities that she did not particularly like. She avoided exhibiting her lack of enjoyment, as she did not want to dampen the spirits of

people who were having a good time. She understood that different people had different preferences. However, when some of her friends insisted she participate in the dancing, she yelled at them, and refused to talk to them afterwards. While Jessica demonstrated some social and emotional competencies, which of the following did she fail at? A. Self-management B. Relationship skill C. Social awareness D. Self-awareness

CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Mr. Cheng was giving back exam sheets to his students. Jordan, who barely managed to receive a passing grade, could not control his disappointment and cried out loud, “I will never do well, NEVER! I had spent hours and hours on this subject and this is my second time obtaining such a disappointing grade. Maybe I am just not cut out for schooling.” He refused to go to school in the following days. When Mr. Cheng visited him at home, Jordan refused to talk about school. He stopped talking to his friends who expressed concerns, and started believing that no matter how hard he worked at school, he would never succeed. 5. Jordan’s behavior is reflective of lack of self-efficacy. Describe some of the ways in which Mr. Cheng can promote Jordan’s self-efficacy. 6. Jordan’s emotional reaction also shows a lack of emotional competencies. Discuss some strategies that Mr. Cheng could use to improve Jordan’s emotional intelligence.

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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK:  Failure to Self-Regulate Here is how several expert teachers responded to the situation at the beginning of the chapter of the teacher with a class of disorganized students. JANE W. CAMPBELL • Second-Grade Teacher John P. Faber Elementary School, Dunellen, NJ

To begin the year, I teach several routines that help students to become more independent and successful. First they are introduced to a homework folder labeled with the classroom number and school name. Ownership is important, so they write their own names on the label, too. There are also designated sections for parent signatures, homework to be returned to school, and homework to be kept at home. Each day students put their things into the proper section. I check the students’ success by walking through the room and looking at their folders. As different students become proficient, they become student helpers to help spot check other students as well. Organizing the students takes time, but once the routine is established, most students can successfully complete the task. As the routine is practiced and established, the students become successful and more self-reliant. Everyone is happy: the students, the parents, and the teacher. CARLA S. HIGGINS  •  K–5 Literacy Coordinator Legend Elementary School, Newark, OH

I don’t make assumptions about my students’ organizational skills. Instead, I explicitly teach them skills that work for our class and support future organization such as using a structured folder for class paperwork, frequent checkpoints, and an assignment calendar or agenda. I include students in planning due dates by considering what it would take to complete each assignment. For longer assignments, I ask students to help create a reasonable timeline for completing steps of the project and offer frequent checks for completion of the steps. Finally, since we live in a culture where technology drives much of our communication, I set up a Web site or e-mail reminder system to provide additional support for students and to communicate with parents to keep them involved. MARIE HOFFMAN HURT • Eighth-Grade Foreign-Language Teacher (German and French) Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington, OH

Part of being a good teacher is learning how to teach the “process” of learning alongside the required content material. In the grand scheme of teaching, content-specific learning is only a small percentage of what I teach—something I didn’t expect when I started my career in education. A large part of succeeding in life (and on achievement tests!), rather than just knowing how to conjugate a French verb, is knowing the habits, routines, and learning skills that students master while learning those French verbs. With this in mind, it is much easier

to keep the task at hand in perspective. If a teacher focuses on fundamental strategies such as organization and planning, and inextricably links these strategies to the operation of the classroom, these concepts become second nature to the students. Students are better able to absorb and learn the content-specific material because they have the tools necessary to do so. KELLY L. HOY  •  Fifth Grade Humanities Teacher Katherine Delmar Burke School, San Francisco, CA

In an elementary school classroom, organizational skills are central to alleviating stress for students, teachers, and even parents. From the desk to the binder to the backpack, somehow students’ paperwork mysteriously disappears. There are ways to battle the infamous “black hole” book bag or desk. Teachers should take time at the end of each period to clearly state where the assignment should be placed, and each child can give a signal that his or her paper is in the correct place. For time-sensitive projects, having different dates in which notes, drafts, and final projects are due will help students learn time management. Students can check off that they have the correct materials in assignment logs and get a teacher’s initials. Periodic “book bag checks” can help students organize their book bags for homework. PATRICIA A. SMITH  •  High School Math Teacher Earl Warren High School, San Antonio, TX

In my high school mathematics classes, I spend the first 2 months of the school year training my students in organizational skills. All of my students are given a schedule that outlines topics of discussion, assignment due dates, and quiz and test dates. I also give each of them a “scorecard” where they keep track of their own grades. This serves as a double check for me as the teacher and also provides a sense of ownership of earned grades to the students. All my students have a three-ring binder with a plastic cover–; their schedule fits inside the plastic cover. Early in the year, I start every class with a look at the schedule and question students on assignment due dates. In addition, I collect all assignments and tests in colored folders unique to each class section. When the students walk into my classroom and see their designated color of folder on my desk, they know that something is due. Most of my quizzes are the take-home variety. I place them on a table in the back of the room, and students are responsible for locating, completing, and returning them. In fact, I put them out several days in advance and do not accept late quizzes, thereby increasing student responsibility and organization. Graded papers are also processed in the same manner, thereby perpetuating the new and orderly system and disabling the old unorganized ways.

chapter twelve MOTIVATION IN LEARNING AND TEACHING WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK:  Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin It is July, and you finally have a teaching position. The district wasn’t your first choice, but job openings are really tight, so you’re pleased to have a job in your field. You are discovering that the teaching resources in your school are slim to none; the only materials available are some aging texts and the workbooks that go with them. Every idea you have suggested for software, learning apps, simulation games, DVDs, science project supplies, field trips, or other more active teaching materials has been met with the same response, “There’s no money in the budget for that.” As you look over the texts and workbooks, you wonder how the students could be anything but bored by them. To make matters worse, the texts look pretty high level for your students. But the objectives in the workbooks are important. Besides, the district curriculum requires these units. Students will be tested on them in district-wide assessments next spring. CRITICAL THINKING • How would you arouse student curiosity and interest about the topics and tasks in the workbooks? • How would you establish the value of learning this material? • How would you handle the difficulty level of the texts? • What do you need to know about motivation to solve these problems? • What do you need to know about your students to motivate them?

Anastasiia Stepanova/Shutterstock

OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES Most educators agree that motivating students is one of the critical tasks of teaching. To learn, students must be cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally engaged in productive class activities. We begin with the question “What is motivation?” and examine many of the answers that have been proposed, including a discussion of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. You already know quite a bit that applies to motivation based on your understanding of behavioral, cognitive, social cognitive, and sociocultural theories of learning. Next, we consider more closely five broad factors or themes that frequently appear in discussions of motivation: needs and self-determination, goal orientations, expectancies and values, attributions and beliefs, and feelings such as interests, curiosity, flow, or anxiety. How do we put all this information together in teaching? How do we create environments, situations, and relationships that encourage motivation and engagement in learning? First, we consider how the influences on motivation come together to support motivation to learn. Then, we use the TARGET model examine how motivation is influenced by task, autonomy, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time. Finally, we discuss a number of strategies for developing motivation as a constant state in your classroom and as a permanent trait in your students. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 12.1 Define motivation and contrast intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, including four kinds of extrinsic motivation. Objective 12.2 Explain how learners’ needs—including the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness—influence their motivation to learn. Objective 12.3 Describe the different kinds of goal orientations and examine their influences on motivation. Objective 12.4 Discuss how students’ beliefs about expectations for success, value of the task, and costs can influence motivation. Objective 12.5 Discuss how students’ beliefs and attributions about control, the nature of knowledge, mindsets, and self-worth can influence motivation. Objective 12.6 Describe the roles of interests, curiosity, flow, emotions, and anxiety in motivation. Objective 12.7 Explain how teachers can influence and encourage students’ motivation to learn. We began our examination of motivation in the previous chapter when we explored students’ beliefs about their capabilities—their self-efficacy. I have included another chapter on motivation because students’ motivation has a direct and powerful impact on their social interactions and academic achievement in your classroom. Students with the same abilities and prior knowledge may perform quite differently, based on their motivation (Wigfield & Wentzel, 2007). So how does that work? Let’s start with a basic question. What is motivation?

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives What Is Motivation? Meeting Some Students Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation What You Already Know About Motivation Needs and Self-Determination Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness Needs: Lessons for Teachers Goals and Goal Orientations Types of Goals and Goal Orientations Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance Goals: Lessons for Teachers Expectancy-Value-Cost Explanations Costs Task Value Lessons for Teachers Attributions and Beliefs About Knowledge, Ability, and Self-Worth Attributions in the Classroom

WHAT IS MOTIVATION? Motivation is usually defined as the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior. Motivated students put out more effort, persist longer, learn more, and score higher on tests (Lazowski & Hulleman, 2016). Psychologists studying motivation have focused on five basic questions:

1. W  hat choices do people make about their behavior? Why do some students, for example, focus on their homework, while others play video games? 2. How long does it take to get started? Why do some students start their homework right away, while others procrastinate? 3. What is the intensity or level of involvement in the chosen activity? Once the backpack is opened, is the student engrossed and focused or is he just going through the motions? 4. What causes someone to persist or to give up? Will a student read the entire Shakespeare assignment or just a few pages? 5. What is the person thinking and feeling while engaged in the activity? Is the student enjoying Shakespeare, feeling competent, or experiencing anxiety about an upcoming test (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; S. Graham & Weiner, 1996; Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993)?

Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs Mindsets and Beliefs About Ability Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers Beliefs About Self-Worth Self-Worth: Lessons for Teachers How Do You Feel about Learning? Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety Tapping Interests Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity Flow Emotions and Anxiety Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers Motivation to Learn in School: On TARGET Tasks for Learning Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment Grouping, Evaluation, and Time Diversity in Motivation Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would They Do?

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Meeting Some Students Many factors influence motivation and engaged learning. To get a sense of the complexity of motivation, let’s step into a high school science classroom just after the teacher has given directions for a lab activity. The student profiles are adapted from Stipek (2002). Hopeless Geraldo won’t even start the assignment—as usual. He just keeps saying, “I don’t understand,” or “This is too hard.” When he answers your questions correctly, he “guessed” and he “doesn’t really know.” Geraldo spends most of his time staring into space; he is falling farther and farther behind. Safe Sumet checks with you about every step—he wants to be perfect. You once gave him bonus points for doing an excellent color drawing of the apparatus, and now he produces a work of art for lab every time. But Sumet won’t risk getting a B. If it isn’t required or on the test, Sumet isn’t interested in doing the work. Satisfied Sophia, on the other hand, is interested in this project. In fact, she knows more than you do about it. Evidently she spends hours reading about chemistry and performing experiments. But her overall grade in your class is between B- and C because she never turns in homework. Sophia is satisfied with the C she can get on tests without even trying. Defensive Damond doesn’t have his lab manual—again, so he has to share with another student. Then he pretends to be working, but spends most of his time making fun of the assignment or trying to get answers from other students

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when your back is turned. He is afraid to try because if he makes an effort and fails, he fears that everyone will know he is “dumb.” Anxious Aimee is a good student in most subjects, but she freezes on science tests and “forgets” everything she knows when she has to answer questions in class. Her parents are scientists and expect her to become one too, but her prospects for this future look dim. STOP & THINK Each of these students has problems with at least one of the five areas of motivation: (1) choices, (2) getting started, (3) intensity, (4) persistence, or (5) thoughts and feelings. Can you diagnose the problems? The answers are on page 492. • Each student presents a different motivational challenge, yet you have to figure out how to motivate and teach the entire class. In the next few pages, we will look more closely at the meaning of motivation so we can better understand these students.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation We all know how it feels to be motivated, to move energetically toward a goal or to work hard, even if we are not thrilled by the task. What initiates, directs, and sustains our behavior? Some psychologists have explained motivation in terms of personal traits or individual characteristics. Certain people, so the theory goes, are interested in cars or art, so they spend hours in garages or galleries. Other psychologists see motivation more as a state, a temporary situation. If, for example, you are reading this paragraph because you have a test tomorrow, you are motivated (at least for now) by the situation. Of course, the motivation we experience at any given time usually is a combination of trait and state. You may be studying because you value learning and because you are preparing for a test. A classic distinction is made about amotivation, intrinsic motivation, and extrinsic motivation. Amotivation is a complete lack of any intent to act—no engagement at all. Intrinsic motivation is the natural human tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise our capabilities. When we are intrinsically motivated, we do not need incentives or punishments, because the activity itself is satisfying and rewarding (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Deci & Ryan, 2002; Reiss, 2004). Satisfied Sophia studies chemistry outside school simply because she loves learning about chemistry; no one makes her do it. In contrast, when we do something to earn a grade, avoid punishment, please the teacher, or for some other reason that has very little to do with the task itself, we experience extrinsic motivation. We are not really interested in the activity for its own sake; we care only about what it will gain us. Safe Sumet works for the grade; he has little interest in the subject itself. Extrinsic motivation has been associated with negative emotions, poor academic achievement, and maladaptive learning strategies (Corpus et al., 2009). However, extrinsic motivation also has benefits if it provides incentives as students try new things, gives them an extra push to get started, or helps them persist to complete a mundane task. Beware of either/or! According to psychologists who adopt the intrinsic/extrinsic concept of motivation, it is impossible to tell just by looking if a behavior is intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. The essential difference between the two types of motivation is the student’s reason for acting—whether the locus of causality for the action (the location of the cause) is internal or external—inside or outside the person. Students who read or practice their backstroke or paint may be reading, swimming, or painting because they freely chose the activity based on personal interests (internal locus of causality/intrinsic motivation), or because someone or something else outside is influencing them (external locus of causality/extrinsic motivation) (Reeve, 2002; Reeve & Jang, 2006a, 2006b). As you think about your own motivation, you probably realize that the dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is too either/or—too all-or-nothing. Two

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Video Example 12.1 Students in this classroom are taking turns reading their creative writing to the class and receiving feedback to become better writers. Observe the use of extrinsic motivators as one child reads and receives feedback.

Motivation  An internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior. Amotivation  A complete lack of any intent to act— no engagement at all. Intrinsic motivation  Motivation associated with activities that are their own reward. Extrinsic motivation  Motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments. Locus of causality The location—internal or external—of the cause of behavior.

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explanations of motivation avoid either/or thinking. The first explanation is that our activities fall along a continuum from fully self-determined (intrinsic motivation) to fully determined by others (extrinsic motivation). Four types of extrinsic motivation are based on the level of internal drive to engage in the activity (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016). Starting with the most extrinsic, these four types are: • external regulation (completely controlled by outside consequences) • introjected regulation (engaging in the task to avoid guilt or negative self-perceptions) • identification (participating despite lack of interest because it serves a larger goal that is personally motivating) • integrated regulation (participating in a task because it is both interesting and has extrinsic reward value)

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Promoting Intrinsic Motivation to Learn (I, C2, 3) For a set of practical tips, guidelines, and suggestions for boosting and maintaining motivation to learn, go to Promoting Academic Engagement Through 21st Century Community Learning Centers: The Oregon Experience (educationnorthwest.org/ events/promoting-academicengagement-through-21stcentury-community-learningcenters-oregon).

As an example of integrated regulation, students may freely choose to work hard on activities that they don’t find particularly enjoyable because they know the activities are important in reaching a valued goal—such as spending hours studying educational psychology to become a good teacher. Those students are freely choosing to accept outside causes such as licensure requirements and then trying to get the most benefit from the requirements (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006). A second explanation that avoids either/or thinking is that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are not two ends of a continuum. Instead, intrinsic and extrinsic tendencies are two independent possibilities, and at any given time, we can be motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Covington & Mueller, 2001; Vansteenkiste & Mouratidis, 2016). STOP & THINK Hopeless Geraldo has trouble with getting started (2) and with a sense of despair (5); during the activity he feels defeated and helpless. Safe Sumet makes good choices (1), gets started right away (2), and persists (4). But he is not really engaged and takes little pleasure in the work (3 and 5). As long as she is following her own choices (1), Satisfied Sophia is prompt in getting started (2), engaged (3), persistent (4), and enjoys the task (5). Defensive Damond makes poor choices (1), procrastinates (2), avoids engagement (3), and gives up easily (4) because he is so concerned about how others will judge him (5). Anxious Aimee’s problems have to do with what she thinks and how she feels as she works (5). Her worry and anxiety may lead her to make poor choices (1) and procrastinate (2), which only makes her more anxious at test time. •

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION: LESSONS FOR TEACHERS.  Did you find fractions inherently interesting? Was your curiosity piqued by irregular verbs? If teachers count on intrinsic motivation to energize all their students all of the time, they will be disappointed. There are situations where incentives and external supports are necessary. Teachers must encourage and nurture intrinsic motivation, while making sure that extrinsic motivation supports learning (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Brophy, 2003). This may become more challenging in the upper grades because both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation decline as students move up in grade levels (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016). To combat these trends, teachers need to know about the factors that influence motivation—and there are many. Read on.

What You Already Know About Motivation Motivation is a vast and complicated subject encompassing many theories and explanations. Some theories were developed through work with animals in laboratories. Others are based on research with humans in situations that used games or puzzles. The work done in clinical or industrial psychology inspired additional theories as well. But you already know a bit about motivation based on the theories of learning and cognition we discussed earlier in this book. Behaviorists tend to emphasize extrinsic motivation caused by incentives, rewards, and punishment. Cognitive views stress a person’s active search for meaning, understanding, and competence, and the power of the individual’s

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attributions and interpretations. In social cognitive theory, self-efficacy and agency are central factors in motivation. Self-efficacy is your belief that you can execute particular behaviors at a particular level in a given situation. Sociocultural views emphasize engaged participation and maintaining your identity within a community. Even though you already have some good ideas about motivation, today there are many more specific explanations for motivation that have implications for teaching. Our examination of these explanations will be selective; otherwise we would never finish. Let’s start with some more of your personal experiences with motivation. STOP & THINK Why are you reading this chapter? Are you curious about motivation and interested in the topic? Or is there a test in your near future? Do you need this course to earn a teaching license or to graduate? Maybe you believe that you will do well in this class, and that belief keeps you working. Maybe you just got caught up in the ideas and can’t put the book down. Perhaps it is some combination of these reasons. What motivates you to study motivation? • To organize the many ideas about motivation in a way that is useful for teaching, we will examine these five broad themes or approaches. Most contemporary explanations of motivation include a discussion of needs and self-determination, goals, expectancies and values, attributions and beliefs, and finally, the emotional “hot” side of motivation—interests, curiosity, and anxiety (Murphy & Alexander, 2000). Could your answers to the Stop & Think questions be sorted into any of these explanations of motivation? If you don’t know now, you will by the end of this chapter. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.1

NEEDS AND SELF-DETERMINATION Early research in psychology viewed motivation in terms of trait-like needs. Three of the main needs studied extensively in this earlier work were the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation (Pintrich, 2003). Abraham Maslow’s influential theory emphasized a hierarchy that included all these needs and more.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow (1970) suggested that humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from lower-level needs for survival and safety to higher-level needs for knowledge and understanding and finally self-actualization (see Figure 12.1 on the next page). Self-actualization is Maslow’s term for self-fulfillment, the realization of personal potential—“being all that you can be.” Each of the lower-level needs must be met before the next higher need can be addressed. Maslow (1968) called the four lower-level needs—for survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem—deficiency needs. When these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. He labeled the three higher-level needs—cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and finally self-actualization—being needs. When they are met, a person’s motivation does not cease but instead increases because these being needs can never be completely filled. For example, the more successful you are in your efforts to develop as a teacher, the harder you are likely to strive for even greater improvement. Maslow’s theory has been criticized for the very obvious reason that people do not always behave as the theory would predict. Most of us move back and forth among different types of needs and may even be motivated by many needs at the same time. Some people deny themselves safety or friendship to achieve knowledge or greater self-esteem. Criticisms aside, Maslow’s theory does give us a way of looking at the whole student, whose physical, emotional, and intellectual needs are all interrelated. When children are hungry, they will have trouble focusing on academic learning. A child whose feelings of safety and sense of belonging are threatened by divorce may have little interest in learning how to divide fractions. If school is a fearful, unpredictable place where neither teachers nor students are emotionally safe, they are likely to be more concerned

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Video Example 12.2 Compare the notions of significance, competence, and power described in this video to the ideas of relatedness, competence, and autonomy in selfdetermination theory or to the concept of self-efficacy. Where are the overlaps and similarities in all these explanations of motivation? Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Maslow (I, C1) Consider how problems with satisfying Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can affect student learning. Link these ideas to direct or vicarious experiences you might have had in school.

Hierarchy of needs  Maslow’s model of seven levels of human needs, from basic physiological requirements to the need for self-actualization. Self-actualization Fulfilling one’s potential. Deficiency needs  Maslow’s four lowerlevel needs, which must be satisfied first before higher-level needs can be addressed. Being needs Maslow’s three higher-level needs, sometimes called growth needs.

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FIGU RE 12.1 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Maslow’s four lower-level needs—for survival, then safety, followed by belonging, and then self-esteem—are called deficiency needs, because when these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. He labeled the three higher-level needs—cognitive needs, then aesthetic needs, and finally self-actualization—being needs, because when they are met, a person’s motivation does not cease.

Selfactualization Realizing your full potential, “becoming everything one is capable of becoming.” Aesthetic needs Beauty—in art and nature— symmetry, balance, order, form. Cognitive needs Knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability. Esteem needs The esteem and respect of others and self-esteem and self-respect. A sense of competence. Love and belongingness Receiving and giving love, affection, trust, and acceptance. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work). Safety needs Protection from potentially dangerous objects or situations (e.g., the elements, physical illness). The threat is both physical and psychological (e.g., “fear of the unknown”). Importance of routine and familiarity. Physiological needs Food, drink, oxygen, temperature regulation, elimination, rest, activity, sex. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Self-Determination (I, C3) Understand how selfdetermination can boost or diminish motivation and describe practical steps that teachers can take to establish a sense of self-determination in students.

with security and less with learning or teaching. Belonging to a social group and maintaining self-esteem within that group are important to students. If doing what the teacher says conflicts with group rules, students may choose to ignore the teacher’s wishes or even defy the teacher. Self-determination theory is a more recent approach to motivation that focuses on human needs (Deci & Ryan, 2002; Reeve, 2009).

Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness Need for competence  The individual’s need to demonstrate ability or mastery over the tasks at hand.

Self-determination theory suggests that we all need to feel competent and capable, to have a sense of autonomy and control over our lives, and to be connected to others in relationships. Notice that these are similar to early conceptions of basic needs for achievement (competence), power (autonomy and control), and affiliation (relatedness). In terms of formal definitions, need for competence is the individual’s need to demonstrate ability or mastery over the tasks at hand. Satisfying this need results in a sense

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of accomplishment, promotes self-efficacy, and helps learners establish better learning goals for future tasks ( J. Kim, Schallert, & Kim, 2010). Need for autonomy is central to self-determination because autonomy is the desire to have our own wishes and choices, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions (Deci & Ryan, 2002; Reeve, 2009). People constantly struggle against pressure from external controls such as the rules, schedules, deadlines, orders, and limits imposed by others. Sometimes, even help is rejected so that the individual can remain in control (deCharms, 1983). The need for relatedness is the desire to belong and to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others who care about us. Because different cultures have divergent conceptions of self, some psychologists have asked whether the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness are universal. In a series of studies, Hyungshim Jang and her colleagues (2009) found that experiences of competence, autonomy, and relatedness were associated with satisfying learning experiences for Korean high school students, so even in a collectivistic culture, these needs may be important. SELF-DETERMINATION IN THE CLASSROOM.  Student self-determination is influenced by several factors. For instance, research in both U.S. and Korean schools demonstrated that students’ motivational profiles for learning were influenced by both classroom goal structure (teachers’ messages about autonomy and demonstrating competence) and the level of autonomy support offered by parents (Friedel, Cortina, Turner, & Midgley, 2007; J. Kim et al., 2010). However, the findings also suggest that for older students, the direct impact of parental attitudes and support tends to decline, whereas the influence of teachers’ messages remained. Classroom environments that support student self-determination and autonomy are associated with greater student interest and curiosity (even interest in homework assignments), sense of competence, creativity, conceptual learning, grades, school attendance and satisfaction, engagement, use of self-regulated learning strategies, psychological well-being, and preference for challenge. These relationships appear to hold from first grade through graduate school (Hafen et al., 2012; Jang, Kim, & Reeve, 2012; Moller, Deci, & Ryan, 2006; Pulfrey, Darnon, & Butera, 2013; Reeve, 2009; Shih, 2008). Autonomy may also interact with interest. In one study with college students, choice enhanced interest, sense of competence, and valuing of a reading task only when the reading passage was boring (Patall, 2013), so choice may be less important when the reading is engaging and interesting already. But in general, when students have the authority to make choices, they are more likely to believe that the work is important, even if it is not “fun.” Thus, they tend to internalize educational goals and take them as their own. In contrast to autonomy-supporting classrooms, controlling environments tend to improve performance only on rote recall tasks. When students are pressured to perform, they often seek the quickest, easiest solution. But even though controlling styles of teaching are less effective, teachers are under pressure from administrators, accountability requirements, and cultural expectations to be “in charge,” and parents expect good class “discipline.” In addition, students often are passive and unengaged or even defiant. Finally, some teachers equate control with efficient classroom structure or feel more comfortable with a controlling style (Reeve, 2009). Assuming you are willing to resist those pressures, how can you support student autonomy? One answer is to focus on information, not control, in your interactions with students. INFORMATION AND CONTROL.  Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002) explains how students’ experiences such as being praised or criticized, reminded of deadlines, assigned grades, given choices, or lectured about rules can influence their intrinsic motivation by affecting their sense of self-determination and competence. According to this theory, all events have two aspects: controlling and informational. If an event is highly controlling—if it pressures students to act or feel a certain

Need for autonomy The desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions. Need for relatedness The desire to belong and to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others who care about us. Cognitive evaluation theory  Suggests that events affect motivation through the individual’s perception of the events as controlling behavior or providing information.

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way—then students will experience less control, and their intrinsic motivation will be diminished. If, on the other hand, the event provides information that increases the students’ sense of competence, then intrinsic motivation will increase. Of course, if the information provided makes students feel less competent, it is likely that motivation will decrease (Pintrich, 2003). Here is an example of a more controlling communication: Your paper is due on Monday. Today, we are going to the school library. In the library, you will find information from books and Internet sites to use for your paper. Don’t waste your time; don’t goof off; make sure to get your work done. In the library, you may work by yourself or with a partner. (Reeve, 2009, p. 169)

This teacher may believe that he is supporting autonomy because he offered a choice. Contrast his message with the following statement that gives information about why the library visit is valuable: Your paper is due on Monday. As a way of helping you write a well-researched paper, we are going to where the information is—the school library. The reason we are going to the library is to find the information you need from books and Internet sites. While there, you may be tempted to goof off, but students in the past have found that a trip to the library was a crucial part of writing an excellent paper. To help you write your best possible paper, you may work in the way you wish—by yourself or with a partner. (Reeve, 2009, p. 169)

As a teacher, what can you do to support student needs for autonomy and competence? An obvious first step is to limit your controlling messages to students because controlling language (must, ought, have to, should . . .) can undermine student motivation (Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, & Deci, 2004). Make sure the information you provide highlights students’ growing competence by emphasizing gains made through persistence and practice and by encouraging student reflection, for example, on portfolio entries or work samples. The Guidelines: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy give some more ideas. THE NEED FOR RELATEDNESS.  Think about your best teachers over the years. What were the qualities that made them great? I bet you remember teachers who cared and forged emotional connections with you. Students who feel a sense of connection and relatedness to teachers, parents, and peers are more emotionally engaged in school and more intrinsically motivated (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Lawson & Lawson, 2013). All students need caring teachers, but students placed at risk have an even greater need for this kind of teacher. Positive relationships with teachers increase the likelihood that students will succeed in high school and go on to college (G. Thompson, 2008; Woolfolk Hoy & Weinstein, 2006). In addition, emotional and physical problems—ranging from eating disorders to suicide—are more common among individuals who lack social relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Relatedness is similar to a sense of belonging, discussed in Chapter 3 (Osterman, 2000) as well as to Maslow’s basic need for belonging described earlier in this chapter.

Needs: Lessons for Teachers From infancy to old age, people want to be competent, connected, and in control. Students are more likely to participate in activities that help them grow more competent and less likely to engage in activities that hold the possibility of failure. This means that your students need choices and appropriately challenging tasks—not too easy, but not impossible either. They also benefit from watching their competence grow, perhaps through self-monitoring systems or portfolios. To be connected, students need to feel that people in school care about them and can be trusted to help them learn. What else matters in motivation? Many theories include goals as key elements. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.2

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GUIDELINES Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy Allow and encourage students to make choices. Examples 1. Design several different ways to meet a learning objective (e.g., a paper, a compilation of interviews, a test, a news broadcast), and let students choose one. Encourage them to explain the reasons for their choice. 2. Appoint student committees to make suggestions about streamlining procedures such as caring for class pets or distributing equipment. 3. Provide time for independent and extended projects. 4. Allow students to choose work partners as long as they focus on the task. Help students plan actions to accomplish self-selected goals. Examples 1. Experiment with goal cards. Students list their short- and long-term goals and then record three or four specific actions that will move them toward the goals. Goal cards are personal—like credit cards. 2. Encourage middle and high school students to set goals in each subject area, record them in a goal book or on a thumb drive, and check progress toward the goals on a regular basis. Hold students accountable for the consequences of their choices. Examples 1. If students choose to work with friends and do not finish a project because too much time was spent socializing, grade the project as it deserves, and help the students see the connection between lost time and poor performance. 2. When students choose a topic that captures their imagination, discuss the connections between their

investment in the work and the quality of the products that follow. Provide rationales for limits, rules, and constraints. Examples 1. Explain reasons for rules. 2. Respect rules and constraints in your own behavior. Acknowledge that negative emotions are valid reactions to teacher control. Examples 1. Communicate that it is okay (and normal) to feel bored waiting for a turn, for example. 2. Communicate that sometimes important learning involves frustration, confusion, weariness. 3. Acknowledge students’ perspective: “Yes, this problem is difficult.” Or “I can understand why you might feel that way.” Use noncontrolling, positive feedback. Examples 1. See poor performance or behavior as a problem to be solved, not a target of criticism. 2. Avoid controlling language, “should,” “must,” “have to.” 3. Provide unexpected, spontaneous, and genuine praise. For more information on self-determination theory, see selfdeterminationtheory.org Source: From 150 Ways to Increase Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom, by James P. Raffini. Copyright © 1996, by Pearson Education, and from Motivating Others: Nurturing Inner Motivational Resources, by Johnmarshall Reeve. Copyright © 1996 by Pearson Education. Adapted by permission of the publisher.

GOALS AND GOAL ORIENTATIONS When students strive to read a chapter or make a 4.0 GPA, they are involved in goaldirected behavior. In pursuing goals, students are generally aware of some current condition (I haven’t even opened my book), some ideal condition (I have understood every page), and the discrepancy between the two. Goals motivate people to act in order to reduce the discrepancy between “where they are” and “where they want to be.” Goal setting is usually effective for me. In addition to the routine tasks, such as eating lunch, which will happen without much attention, I often set goals for each day. For example, today I intend to finish this section, walk to the grocery store, order presents for my nieces from Amazon, and wash another load of clothes (I know—not too exciting). Having decided to do these things, I will feel uncomfortable if I don’t complete the list.

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According to Locke and Latham (2002), there are four main reasons why goal setting improves performance. Goals:

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Video Example 12.3 In this video, high school students work in groups to solve problems and win points in algebra class. Consider the various goal orientations that play a part in motivating students to participate and learn.

1. Direct attention to the task at hand and away from distractions. Every time my mind wanders from this chapter, my goal of finishing the section helps snap me back. 2. Energize effort. The more challenging the goal, to a point, the greater the effort. 3. Increase persistence. When we have a clear goal, we are less likely to give up until we reach the goal: Hard goals demand effort, and tight deadlines lead to faster work. 4. Promote the development of new knowledge and strategies when old strategies fall short. For example, if your goal is making an A and you don’t reach that goal on your first quiz, you might try a new study approach for the next quiz, such as explaining the key points to a friend.

Types of Goals and Goal Orientations Goals that are specific, elaborated, moderately difficult, and proximal (likely to be reached in the near future) tend to enhance motivation and persistence (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). Specific, elaborated goals provide clear standards for judging performance. If performance falls short, we keep going. For example, Ralph Ferretti and his colleagues (2009) gave fourth- and sixth-grade students either a general goal for writing a persuasive essay (“write a letter to a teacher about whether or not students should be given more out-of-class assignments . . .”) or the general goal elaborated with specific subgoals such as: • You need to say very clearly what your opinion or viewpoint is. • You need to think of two or more reasons to back up your opinion. • You need to explain why those reasons are good reasons for your opinion. (p. 580) Students both with and without learning disabilities wrote more persuasive essays when they were given specific subgoals. Moderate difficulty provides a challenge, but not an unreasonable one. Finally, goals that can be reached fairly soon are not likely to be pushed aside by more immediate concerns. Groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous show they are aware of the motivating value of short-term goals when they encourage their members to stop drinking “one day at a time.” Also, breaking a long-term assignment into short-term steps is a way to take advantage of the motivating power of proximal goals. STOP & THINK On a scale from 1 (Strongly Agree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree), answer these questions: I feel really pleased in school when —— I solve problems by working hard —— All the work is easy —— I know more than the others —— I learn something new —— I don’t have to work hard —— I am the only one who gets an A —— I keep busy —— I am with my friends • —— I finish first

Goal orientations Patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school.

FOUR ACHIEVEMENT GOAL ORIENTATIONS IN SCHOOL.  Goals are specific targets. Goal orientations are the reasons we pursue goals and the standards we use to evaluate progress toward those goals. For example, your target might be to make an A in this course. Are you doing so in order to master educational psychology—to learn all about it—or to perform—to look good in the eyes of your friends and family? There are four main goal orientations—mastery (learning), performance (looking good), work-avoidance, and social (Dweck, 1986; Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016; Schunk et al., 2014). In the Stop & Think exercise you just completed, can you tell which goal

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orientations are reflected in the different answers? Most of the questions were adapted from a study on students’ theories about learning mathematics (Nicholls, Cobb, Wood, Yackel, & Patashnick, 1990). The most common distinction in research on students’ goals is between mastery goals (also called task goals or learning goals) and performance goals (also called ability goals or ego goals). The point of a mastery goal is to improve, to learn, no matter how awkward you appear. When students set mastery goals, they are more invested, especially if they feel they have choices and a sense of autonomy (Benita, Roth, & Deci, 2014; Michou et al., 2016). Students with mastery goals tend to seek challenges, persist when they encounter difficulties, and feel better about their work (Rolland, 2012). They focus on the task at hand and are not worried about how their performance “measures up” in comparison to that of others in the class. We often say that these people “get lost in their work.” In addition, they are more likely to seek appropriate help, use deeper cognitive processing strategies, apply better study strategies, and generally approach academic tasks with confidence (Anderman & Patrick, 2012; Senko et al., 2011). Students with performance goals care about demonstrating their ability to others. They may be focused on getting good test scores and grades, or they may be more concerned with winning and beating other students. Students whose goal is outperforming others may do things to look smart, such as reading easy books in order to “read the most books.” Students with performance goals may act in ways that actually interfere with learning. For example, they may cheat or use short-cuts to get finished, work hard only on graded assignments, be upset and hide papers with low grades, choose tasks that are easy, avoid collaborating with other students, and be very uncomfortable with assignments that have unclear evaluation criteria (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Senko et al., 2011). WAIT—ARE PERFORMANCE GOALS ALWAYS BAD?  Performance goals sound pretty dysfunctional, don’t they? Earlier research indicated that performance goals generally were detrimental to learning, but like extrinsic motivation, a performance goal orientation may not be all bad, all of the time. In fact, some research indicates that both mastery and performance goals are associated with using active learning strategies and high self-efficacy (Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001). For college students, pursuing performance goals has been related to higher achievement. And, as is the case with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, students can, and often do pursue mastery and performance goals at the same time. For example, you may want to really understand educational psychology but also get a top grade in your class (Anderman & Patrick, 2012). To account for these recent findings, educational psychologists have added an approach versus avoidance focus to the mastery/performance distinction. In other words, students may be motivated to either approach mastery or avoid misunderstanding. They may approach performance or avoid looking dumb. Table 12.1 on the next page shows examples and the effects of each kind of goal orientation. Where do you see the most problems? Do you agree that the real problems are with avoidance? Students who fear misunderstanding (mastery-avoidance) may be perfectionists—focused on getting it exactly right or afraid they will never live up to their potential. Students who try to avoid looking dumb (performance-avoidance) may adopt defensive, failure-avoiding strategies like Defensive Damond, described earlier—they cheat, pretend not to care, or make a show of “not really trying,” so they have an excuse for failure (Harackiewicz & Linnenbrink, 2005; Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016). Research in both Eastern and Western cultures has demonstrated that failure-avoiding strategies are associated with student helplessness, truancy, disengagement from school, and lower academic achievement (De Castella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013; Huang, 2012). Two final cautions—performance-approach goals can turn into performanceavoidance goals if students are not successful in looking smart or winning. The path might lead from performance approach (trying to win), to performance avoidance (saving face and trying not to look dumb), to learned helplessness (I give up!). So teachers are wise to avoid trying to motivate using competition and social comparisons

Mastery goal  A personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers. Performance goal A personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others.

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TABLE 12.1  •  Goal Orientations Students may have either an approach or an avoidance focus for mastery and performance goal orientations, and also may hold several orientations at once. GOAL ORIENTATION

APPROACH FOCUS

AVOIDANCE FOCUS

Mastery

Focus: Mastering the task, learning, understanding Standards Used: Selfimprovement, progress, deep understanding

Focus: Avoiding misunderstanding; fear of not living up to potential Standards Used: Just don’t be wrong; Perfectionists don’t make mistakes; Will I ever be what I should be?

Performance

Focus: Being superior, winning, being the best Standards Used: Normative— getting the highest grade, beating the competition, being number 1

Focus: Avoiding looking stupid, avoiding losing, avoiding being last Standards Used: Normative—don’t be the worst, get the lowest grade, be the slowest, or look incompetent

Source: Based on Schunk, D. H., Meece, J., & Pintrich, P. R. (2014). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications (4th ed). Pearson Education, Inc. Adapted by permission of the publisher.

(Brophy, 2005). In addition, performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals tend to be moderately correlated, so students may pursue both types of performance goals at once (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2012).

Work-avoidant learners  Students who don’t want to learn or to look smart, but just want to avoid work. Social goals  A wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group.

SOCIAL AND WORK-AVOIDANCE GOALS.  Some students don’t want to learn, look smart, or avoid looking dumb. They just want to finish fast or escape work altogether, perhaps because they expect to fail or maybe because they just are not interested (Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). John Nicholls called these students work-avoidant learners—they feel successful when they don’t have to try hard, when the work is easy, or when they can “goof off” (Nicholls & Miller, 1984). To escape work, these students may say the assignment is too hard or too long, disrupt class, make excuses for not working, or cheat. Of course, if you avoid work using these strategies, you don’t learn much and probably don’t enjoy school either (King & McInerney, 2014). A final category of goals becomes more important as students move into middle and high school—social goals. Adolescents try to “fit in” with their peers, but also “stand out” in some way from the crowd—a balancing act that absorbs much of their time and energy (Gray, 2014). Nonacademic activities such as athletics, dating, and “hanging out” compete with schoolwork. Some social goals support learning, but others hinder. For example, adolescents’ goal of maintaining friendly relations can get in the way of learning when cooperative learning group members don’t challenge wrong answers or misconceptions because they are afraid of hurting each other’s feelings (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2000). Certainly, pursuing social goals such as having fun with friends or avoiding being labeled a “nerd” can get in the way of learning. But the goal of bringing honor to your family or team by working hard or being part of a peer group that values academics certainly can support learning (Pintrich, 2003; A. Ryan, 2001; Urdan & Maehr, 1995; Zusho & Clayton, 2011). Social goals also are associated with students’ emotional well-being and self-esteem. In one study, students who sought out social relationships were more likely to report positive emotional conditions such as joy, whereas students who avoided relationships reported higher levels of fear, shame, and sadness (Shim, Wang, & Cassady, 2013). We talk about goals in separate categories, but students can and do pursue several, often competing goals at once (Darnon, Dompnier, Gillieron, & Butera, 2010; Vansteenkiste & Mouratidis, 2016). Students have to coordinate their goals so they can make decisions about what to do and how to act. What if interest in doing homework is overtaken by interest in a videogame? What if students do not see a connection between

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achievement in school and success in life, particularly because discrimination prevents them from succeeding? They are not likely to set academic mastery as a goal. The need for peer relationships is basic and strong for most people, but what if social and academic goals are incompatible because peer groups do not value school? Sometimes, “fitting in” with the peer group means not achieving in school—and succeeding in the peer group is more important (Gray, 2014). Such anti-academic peer groups probably exist in every high school (Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, 2004; Lawson & Lawson, 2013). GOALS IN SOCIAL CONTEXT.  As you know, current thinking in educational psychology puts people in context. Goal orientation theory is no exception. So, in a highly competitive classroom climate, students might be more likely to adopt performance goals. In contrast, in a supportive, learner-centered classroom, even a student with a lower sense of self-efficacy might be encouraged to aim for higher mastery goals. Goals are constructed as part of the reciprocal interactions of person, environment, and behavior described by social cognitive theory (A. Kaplan & Maehr, 2007; Zusho & Clayton, 2011). The way students perceive their class defines the classroom goal structure—the goals students think are emphasized in that class (Murayama & Elliot, 2009). In one study, teachers who adopted a mastery goal orientation toward their teaching practice (e.g., become an excellent teacher) were more likely to report beliefs that all students could be successful in their classroom and to foster positive mastery goal structure. In contrast, teachers with performance-oriented goals (e.g., demonstrate they were good for the purpose of meeting state standards or job review criteria) promoted performanceoriented classroom goal structures and tended to see student ability as a fixed trait that was often outside their direct control (Shim, Cho, & Cassady, 2012). Mastery-oriented classroom goal structures matter for students. Lisa Fast and her colleagues (2010) found that fourth-through sixth-grade students had significantly higher levels of self-efficacy and mathematics achievement when they perceived their math classes as caring, challenging, and mastery oriented. So challenge, support, and a focus on learning, not looking good, seem to create a positive classroom environment.

Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance In addition to having specific goals and creating supportive social relationships, three factors make goal setting in the classroom effective. The first is feedback. To be motivated by a discrepancy between “where you are” and “where you want to be,” you must have an accurate sense of both your current status and how far you have to go. Evidence indicates that feedback emphasizing progress is the most effective. In one study, feedback to adults emphasized either that they had accomplished 75% of the standards set or that they had fallen short of the standards by 25%. When the feedback highlighted accomplishment, the subjects’ self-confidence, analytic thinking, and performance were all enhanced (Bandura, 1997). The second factor affecting motivation to pursue a goal is goal framing. When activities are linked to students’ intrinsic goals of becoming more competent, selfdirected, and connected with others, then the students process information more deeply and persist longer to gain a conceptual (not superficial) understanding. Linking activities to the extrinsic goals of meeting someone else’s standards promotes rote learning—not deep understanding or persistence (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006). The third factor is goal acceptance. Commitment matters: The relationship between higher goals and better performance is strongest when people are committed to the goals (Locke & Latham, 2002). If students reject goals set by others or refuse to set their own goals, then their motivation will suffer. Generally, students are more willing to commit to the goals of others if the goals seem realistic, reasonably difficult, and meaningful— and if the goals are validated by connecting activities to students’ intrinsic interests (Grolnick, Gurland, Jacob, & Decourcey, 2002). So, rather than establishing the goals for the students directly, teachers can promote higher goal acceptance if the students are involved in setting goals and make an active commitment to the goal—for instance, by writing goals down and checking them off as they reach them.

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Goals: Lessons for Teachers Students are more likely to work toward goals that are clear, specific, reasonable, moderately challenging, and attainable within a relatively short period of time. If teachers focus on student performance, high grades, and competition, they may encourage students to set performance avoidance goals. This could undermine the students’ ability to get deeply engaged in the task and set them on a path toward alienation from learning in school and learned helplessness (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Brophy, 2005). Students may not yet be expert at setting their own goals or keeping these goals in mind, so encouragement and coaching are necessary. Feedback should compare students to themselves, not to others in the class—other-comparisons encourage students to avoid looking bad instead of striving to learn. If you use any reward or incentive systems, be sure the goal you set is to learn and improve in some area, not just to perform well or look smart. And be sure the goal is not too difficult. Students, like adults, are unlikely to stick with tasks or respond well to teachers who make them feel insecure or incompetent, which leads us to our next topic—the power of expectations in motivation.

MyLab Education Self-Check 12.3

EXPECTANCY-VALUE-COST EXPLANATIONS Many influential explanations of motivation can be characterized as expectancy 3 value theories. This means that motivation is seen as the product of two main forces: the individual’s expectation of reaching a goal and the individual’s value of that goal. In other words, the important questions are, “If I try hard, can I succeed?” and “If I succeed, will the outcome be valuable or rewarding to me?” Notice that both expectancy and value are personal interpretations—maybe I really won’t succeed, or perhaps the success won’t be rewarding—but my perception is more powerful than reality in influencing motivation (Barom & Hulleman, 2015). Motivation is a product of expectancy and value, because if either factor is zero, then there is no motivation to work toward the goal. For example, if I believe I have a good chance of making the basketball team (high expectation), and if making the team is very important to me (high value), then my motivation should be strong. But if either factor is zero (I believe I haven’t a prayer of making the team, or I couldn’t care less about playing basketball), then my motivation will be zero, too (Tollefson, 2000).

Costs

Expectancy 3 value theories  Explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals’ expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal.

Jacqueline Eccles and Allan Wigfield added the element of cost to the expectancy 3 value equation. Values have to be considered in relation to the cost of pursuing them. How much energy/effort will be required? What could I be doing instead? What are the risks if I fail? Will I look stupid? Is the cost worth the possible benefit (Eccles, 2009; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)? Acknowledging the cost reminds us that motivation involves not only what “pulls” us toward an activity but also what “pushes” us away because “the price is not worth it.” For example, a student might be “pushed” away from completing an assignment as an act of rebellion against the teacher—the price of cooperation is too high in terms of the student’s identity as a rebel (Vansteenkiste & Mouratidis, 2016). So the strength of our motivation in a particular situation is determined by our expectation that we can succeed, the value of that success to us, and the cost of pursuing the goal (Baron, & Hulleman, 2015). We talked quite a bit about expectations in Chapter 11 when we discussed social cognitive theory and self-efficacy. We will explore a related concept, mindsets, later in this chapter. Efficacy expectations and mindsets predict achievement in actually doing a task, but what about the value side of the equation?

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Tasks Value Value is an individual’s belief about the extent to which a task or assignment is generally

useful, enjoyable, or otherwise important (Conradi, Jang, & McKenna, 2014). Perceptions of value predict the choices students make about participating in a task or activity in the first place, such as whether to work hard on an assignment, enroll in advanced science classes, or join the track team (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). We can think of task value as having five possibilities: importance, interest, utility, pleasing others, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Barron, 2016). Importance or attainment value is the significance of doing well on the task; this is closely tied to the needs of the individual (the need to be well liked, athletic, masculine, etc.). For instance, if someone has a strong need to appear smart and believes that a high grade on a test proves you are smart, then the test has high attainment value for that person. A second component is interest or intrinsic value. This is simply the enjoyment we get from the activity itself. Some people like the experience of learning. Others enjoy the feeling of hard physical effort or the challenge of solving puzzles. Tasks also can have utility value; that is, they help us achieve a short-term or long-term goal such as earning a degree. Also, a task might be valuable because the activity is a way of pleasing others—friends, family, teachers, coaches, and so on. Finally, tasks have costs—negative consequences that might follow from doing the task such as not having time to do other things or looking awkward as you perform the task. You can see from our discussion of task value that personal and environmental influences on motivation interact constantly. The task we ask students to accomplish is an aspect of the environment; it is external to the student. But the value of accomplishing the task is bound up with the internal needs, beliefs, and goals of the individual.

Lessons for Teachers From first grade through graduate school, expectancies, values, and costs predict a number of important outcomes such as choice of activities and courses, persistence, achievement, dropping out of a major, going to graduate school, and career choices (especially for women). It appears that students must first believe that they can succeed before they will value a task, but it takes both expecting to succeed and valuing a task to improve achievement and persistence. Also, perceptions of effort costs impact decisions about leaving a major in science, engineering, mathematics, or technology or careers (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016). So to support motivation, teachers can do all the things described in Chapter 11 to encourage self-efficacy, but also make a powerful case for the value of their subject and help students persist in the face of difficulty, and even value the effort—the grit—needed to succeed. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.4

ATTRIBUTIONS AND BELIEFS ABOUT KNOWLEDGE, ABILITY, AND SELF-WORTH One well-known explanation of motivation begins with the assumption that we try to understand successes and failures, particularly unexpected ones—we all ask, “Why?” Students ask themselves, “Why did I flunk my midterm?” or “Why did I do so well this grading period?” They may attribute their successes and failures to ability, effort, mood, knowledge, luck, help, interest, clarity of instructions, the interference of others, unfair policies, and so on. To understand the successes and failures of others, we also make attributions—that the others are smart or lucky or work hard, for example. Attribution theories of motivation describe how the individual’s explanations, justifications, and excuses influence motivation (Anderman & Anderman, 2014). Bernard Weiner is one of the main educational psychologists responsible for relating attribution theory to school learning (Weiner, 2000, 2010, 2011). According to Weiner,

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Attribution Theory (I, C1) Go to the Encyclopedia of Psychology Do a web search for “attribution theory” to learn more about using principles derived from this theory to boost intrinsic motivation to learn.

Value  An individual’s belief about the extent to which a task or assignment is generally useful, enjoyable, or otherwise important. Importance or attainment value  The importance of doing well on a task; how success on the task meets personal needs. Interest or intrinsic value  The enjoyment a person gets from a task. Utility value The contribution of a task to meeting one’s goals. Attribution theories  Descriptions of how individuals’ explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behavior.

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most of the attributed causes for successes or failures can be characterized in terms of three dimensions: 1. Locus (location of the cause—internal or external to the person). For example, attributing a great piano performance to your musical talent or hard work are internal attributions. Explaining that the performance is based on coaching from a great teacher is an external attribution. 2. Stability (whether the cause of the event is the same across time and in different situations). For example, talent is stable, but effort can change. 3. Controllability (whether the person can control the cause). For example, effort and finding a great teacher are controllable, but innate musical talent is not. Every cause for success or failure can be categorized on these three dimensions. For instance, luck is external (locus), unstable (stability), and uncontrollable (controllability). In attribution theory, ability is usually considered stable and uncontrollable, but as we will soon see, intelligence can be viewed as unstable and controllable. Weiner’s locus and controllability dimensions are closely related to Deci’s concept of locus of causality. Weiner believes that these three dimensions have important implications for motivation because they affect expectancy and value. The stability dimension, for example, seems to be closely related to expectations about the future. If students attribute their failure to stable factors such as the difficulty of the subject or an unfair teacher, they will expect to keep failing in that subject or with that teacher. But if they attribute the outcome to unstable factors such as mood or luck, they can hope for better outcomes next time. The internal/external locus seems to be closely related to feelings of self-esteem. If success or failure is attributed to internal factors, success will lead to pride and increased motivation, whereas failure will diminish self-esteem. The controllability dimension is related to emotions such as anger, pity, gratitude, or shame. If we feel responsible for our failures, we may feel guilt; if we feel responsible for successes, we may feel proud. Failing at a task we cannot control can lead to shame or anger (Weiner, 2010, 2011). Feeling in control of your own learning seems to be related to choosing more difficult academic tasks, putting out more effort, using better strategies, and persisting longer in school work (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Weiner, 1994a, 1994b). Factors such as continuing discrimination against women, people of color, and individuals with special needs can affect these individuals’ perceptions of their ability to control their lives (van Laar, 2000).

Attributions in the Classroom

Self-efficacy  A person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation.

People with a strong sense of self-efficacy (see Chapter 11) for a given task (“I’m good at math”) tend to attribute their failures to lack of effort (“I should have double-checked my work”), misunderstanding directions, or just not studying enough. These are internal, controllable attributions. As a consequence, students with high self-efficacy usually focus on strategies for succeeding next time. This response often leads to achievement, pride, and a greater feeling of control. But people with a low sense of self-efficacy (“I’m terrible at math”) tend to attribute their failures to lack of ability (“I’m just dumb”). These tendencies are apparent across age levels, cultural groups, and academic topics (Hsieh & Kang, 2010). The greatest motivational problems arise when students attribute failures to stable, uncontrollable causes. Such students may seem resigned to failure, depressed, helpless— what we generally call “unmotivated” (Weiner, 2000, 2010). These students respond to failure by focusing even more on their own inadequacy; their attitudes toward schoolwork may deteriorate even further. Apathy is a logical reaction to failure if students believe the causes are stable, unlikely to change, and beyond their control anyway. In addition, students who view their failures in this light are less likely to seek help; they believe nothing and no one can help, so they conceal their needs for assistance. This creates a downward spiral of failure and concealment—“the motivationally ‘poor’ children, by concealing their difficulties, become ‘poorer’” (Marchland & Skinner, 2007).

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Students with high levels of test anxiety and multiple poor performances on tests report a higher degree of helplessness as well. After taking a test, these students blame their poor performance on test anxiety that “got in the way” of doing their best (Cassady, 2004). This leads to a spiral of reduced effort in future studying because they believe improved performance is outside their control—and naturally, their performance continues to suffer (Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014).

Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions When a teacher attributes student failure to forces beyond the student’s control, the teacher tends to respond with sympathy and avoid giving punishments. If, however, the failures are attributed to a controllable factor such as lack of effort, the teacher’s response is more likely to be irritation or anger, and reprimands may follow. These tendencies seem to be consistent across time and cultures (Weiner, 1986, 2000, 2011). What do students make of these reactions from their teachers? Sandra Graham (1991, 1996) gives some surprising answers. Evidence indicates that when teachers respond to students’ mistakes with pity, praise for a “good try,” or unsolicited help, the students are more likely to attribute their own failure to an uncontrollable cause—usually lack of ability. Does this mean that teachers should be critical and withhold help? Of course not! But it is a reminder that over-solicitous help can give unintended messages. Graham (1991) suggests that many minority group students could be the victims of well-meaning pity from teachers. Seeing the very real problems that the students face, teachers may “ease up” on requirements so the students will “experience success.” But an indirect communication may accompany the pity, praise, and extra help: “You don’t have the ability to do this, so I will overlook your failure.” This kind of feedback, even if well intended, can be a subtle form of racism. Teachers can also positively impact student’s attributions, with benefits to both achievement and motivation. In work with gifted girls in a physics class, when teachers encouraged the girls to attribute improved performance to personal effort and abilities, the girls were more engaged, and their achievement improved (Ziegler & Heller, 2000). Finally, helping lower performing students attribute achievement to effort instead of ability has improved their course grades and test performance (Hulleman & Barron, 2016). Thus far, we have talked about needs, goals, expectancies, values, costs, and attributions, but there is another factor that must be considered in explaining motivation. What do students believe about learning, abilities, and themselves? Let’s start with a basic question: What do students believe about knowing?

Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs What students believe about knowledge and learning (their epistemological beliefs) will influence their motivation and the kinds of strategies that they use. PUT YOURSELF IN THEIR PLACE Predict how fourth and sixth graders would answer these questions taken from C. K. Chan and Sachs (2001). 1. Which of the following is the most important thing in learning math? (a) remember what the teacher has taught you, (b) practice lots of problems, (c) understand the problems you work on. 2. Which of the following is the most important thing to do in learning science? (a) faithfully do the work the teacher tells you, (b) try to see how the explanation makes sense, (c) try to remember everything you are supposed to know. 3. If you wanted to know everything there is to know about something, say, animals, how long would you have to study it? (a) less than a year if you study hard, (b) about 1 or 2 years, (c) forever. 4. What happens when you learn more and more about something? (a) the questions get more and more complex, (b) the questions get easier and easier, (c) the questions all get answered.  How about you? How would you answer these questions? •

Epistemological beliefs  Beliefs about the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned.

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Using questions like those in Put Yourself in Their Place, researchers have identified several dimensions of epistemological beliefs (C. K. Chan & Sachs, 2001; Schommer, 1997; Schommer-Aikins, 2002; Schraw & Olafson, 2002). For example: • Structure of Knowledge: Is knowledge in a field a simple set of facts or a complex structure of concepts and relationships? • Stability/Certainty of Knowledge: Is knowledge fixed, or does it evolve over time? • Ability to Learn: Is the ability to learn fixed (based on innate ability) or changeable? • Speed of Learning: Can we gain knowledge quickly, or does it take time to develop knowledge? • Nature of Learning: Does learning mean memorizing facts passed down from authorities and keeping the facts isolated, or does it mean developing your own integrated understandings? Students’ beliefs about knowing and learning affect the goals they set and the learning strategies they apply (Kardash & Howell, 2000; Muis & Duffy, 2013; Muis & Franco, 2009). For example, if you believe that knowledge should be gained quickly, you are likely to try one or two quick strategies (read the text once, spend 2 minutes trying to solve the word problem) and then stop. In a classroom study, elementary school students (grades 4 and 6) who believed that learning is understanding processed science texts more deeply than others who believed that learning is reproducing facts (C. K. Chan & Sachs, 2001). The Put Yourself in Their Place questions you just answered were used in that study to assess the students’ beliefs. The answers associated with a belief in complex, evolving knowledge that takes time to understand and grows from active learning are 1c, 2b, 3c, and 4a. What are your beliefs? There is some evidence that teachers can help students move toward beliefs that support deep extended learning if the teachers model critical thinking, tie new information to students’ prior knowledge, and demonstrate multiple solutions to problems (Muis & Duffy, 2013). Beliefs about one dimension—ability to learn—are particularly powerful. Read on.

Mindsets and Beliefs About Ability STOP & THINK Rate these statements taken from Dweck (2000) on a scale from 1 (Strongly Agree) to 6 (Strongly Disagree). You have a certain amount of intelligence, and you really can’t do much to change it. You can learn new things, but you can’t really change your basic intelligence. No matter who you are, you can change your intelligence a lot. No matter how much intelligence you have, you can always change it quite a bit. •

Fixed mindset  A personally held belief that abilities are stable, uncontrollable, set traits. Growth mindset A personally held belief that abilities are unstable, controllable, and improvable.

Some of the most powerful beliefs affecting motivation in school are beliefs about intelligence and other abilities (Dweck, 2006; Gunderson et al., 2013; Headden & McKay, 2015; Romero et al., 2014). These beliefs range on a continuum from a fixed mindset that assumes that abilities are stable, uncontrollable, set traits, to a growth mindset that suggests abilities are unstable, controllable, and improvable. In an interview, Carol Dweck noted that students with a growth mindset believe their talents and abilities can be increased with good teaching or coaching, practice, effort, and persistence. The bottom line is that everyone can get smarter by working hard (Morehead, 2012). Dweck (2006) has found that about 40% of students hold a fixed mindset and 40% a growth mindset— the rest are in between. Look back at your answers to the Stop & Think questions—what is your mindset? Throughout the early elementary grades, most students have a growth mindset— they believe that effort is the same as intelligence. Smart people try hard, and trying hard makes you smart (Dweck, 2000; Stipek, 2002). At around age 11 or 12, children can differentiate among effort, ability, and performance. At about this time, they come to

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believe that someone who succeeds without working at all must be really smart. This is when mindsets begin to influence motivation (Anderman & Anderman, 2014). Students who hold a fixed mindset tend to set performance-avoidance goals to avoid looking bad in the eyes of others. They are more likely to cheat to and seek situations where they can look smart to protect their self-esteem. Like Safe Sumet, they keep doing those things they can do well without expending too much effort or risking failure, because either one—working hard or failing—indicates (to them) low fixed ability. To work hard but still fail would be devastating. Students with learning disabilities are more likely to hold a fixed mindset. In contrast, holding a growth mindset is associated with greater motivation and learning. Students with growth mindsets tend to set moderately difficult goals, the kind we have seen are the most motivating. Believing that you can improve your ability helps you focus on the processes of problem solving and applying good strategies, instead of on the products of test scores and grades (Chen & Pajares, 2010). Lately, the notion of fixed and growth mindsets has been extended to creativity. It appears that people who believe that creativity can be developed and improved also have higher self-efficacy for creativity (Hass, Katz-Buonincontro, & Reiter-Palmon, 2016). Mindsets may function in many areas besides abilities and creativity to either support or squelch motivation. Teachers hold mindsets too. In fact, Dweck (2006) describes a very powerful experience she had in sixth grade. Her teacher seated students around the room in order of IQ and would not let the “lower IQ” students carry the flag, clean the erasers, or take notes to the principal—wow, what a message that effort doesn’t matter! I had elementary school music teacher who not only graded us on our singing, but also seated us based on our singing ability—best in front and worst in the back. I was in the back row for three years and hated that class. I was also convinced I could never improve my singing until I had a teacher in high school who encouraged growth. Teachers who hold fixed mindsets about their students are quicker to form judgments and slower to modify their opinions when confronted with contradictory evidence (Stipek, 2002). Teachers who hold growth mindsets, in contrast, tend to set mastery goals and seek situations in which students can improve their skills, because improvement means getting smarter. Failure is not devastating; it simply indicates more work is needed. Ability is not threatened. One intriguing study found that when parents praised their 2- to 3-year-old children for effort, those children had more growth mindsets at ages 7 to 8 (Gunderson et al., 2013).

Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers If students believe they lack the ability to understand higher mathematics, they will probably act on this belief even if their actual abilities are well above average. These students are likely to have little motivation to tackle trigonometry or calculus, because they expect to do poorly in these areas. How can teachers support a growth mindset (besides, of course, NOT seating your students in order of IQ test scores)? Dweck (2013) suggests the following: • Teach students about the brain and how new connections are formed whenever you deal with difficulties and challenges, learn, retrieve, and apply knowledge. Learning changes the brain and struggling is good! One growth mindset curriculum puts it this way: “Everyone knows that when you lift weights, your muscles get bigger and you get stronger. But most people don’t know that when they practice and learn new things, parts of their brain change and get larger, a lot like the muscles do” (Headden & McKay, 2015). • Present yourself as a learning coach and resource, not a judge of students’ abilities. • Give feedback focused on the learning process and strategies. Praise good strategies and effort rather than right answers. • Don’t avoid criticisms but make them constructive and focused on improvement.

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• Don’t comfort students by saying, “It’s OK—maybe you are not just a math person.” Instead say, “You just haven’t mastered this strategy yet, but you will.” As you consider applying the concept of mindsets, beware of what Dweck recently describes as “false growth mindset.” Teachers who hold false growth mindsets may claim they believe in growth just because they know they should, without truly embracing or even understanding the concept. Dweck notes that, “Everyone is a mixture of fixed and growth mindsets. You could have a predominant growth mindset in an area but there can still be things that trigger you into a fixed mindset trait” (Gross-Loh, 2016, p. 5). The real challenge is to identify these triggers, work on them over time, and finally be able to stay in a growth mindset in a given area for longer and periods. So just praising students for working hard, even when the outcome is a failure, can lead to what Jere Brophy first called “praise as a consolation prize.” The students think they are getting praised because they really don’t have the ability to do any better, so the (unintended) consequence is to reinforce a fixed mindset. Rather than praising simple effort, tie the praise to the process that leads to learning—focus on effort applying good strategies.

Beliefs About Self-Worth Whatever the label, most theorists agree that a sense of efficacy, control, or selfdetermination is critical if people are to feel intrinsically motivated. What happens if students don’t feel in control?

MyLab Education

Podcast 12.1 Author Anita Woolfolk addresses procrastination and discusses its selfhandicapping effects and its relationship to self-efficacy. She makes suggestions for dealing with procrastination by building self-efficacy for the task, setting specific goals, and taking small steps. Note her emphasis on taking “. . . one bird at a time.”

Learned helplessness The expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all of one’s efforts will lead to failure. Mastery-oriented students  Students who focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as improvable. Failure-avoiding students  Students who avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance.

LEARNED HELPLESSNESS.  When people come to believe that the events and outcomes in their lives are mostly uncontrollable, they have developed learned helplessness (Seligman, 1975). To understand the power of learned helplessness, consider this classic experiment (Hiroto & Seligman, 1975): Subjects received either solvable or unsolvable puzzles. In the next phase of the experiment, all subjects were given a series of solvable puzzles. The subjects who struggled with unsolvable puzzles in the first phase of the experiment usually solved significantly fewer puzzles in the second phase. They had learned that they could not control the outcome, so why even try? Learned helplessness appears to cause three types of deficits: motivational, cognitive, and affective. Students who feel hopeless, like Hopeless Geraldo described earlier, expect to fail—why should they even try? So motivation suffers. Because they are pessimistic about learning, these students miss opportunities to practice and improve skills and abilities, so they develop cognitive deficits. Finally, they often suffer from affective problems such as depression, anxiety, and listlessness (Alloy & Seligman, 1979). Once established, it is very difficult to reverse the effects of learned helplessness. SELF-WORTH.  What are the connections between attributions and mindsets about ability, self-efficacy, learned helplessness, and self-worth? Covington and his colleagues suggest that these factors come together in three kinds of motivational sets: mastery oriented, failure avoiding, and failure accepting, as shown in Table 12.2 (Covington, 1992; Covington & Mueller, 2001). Mastery-oriented students are not fearful of failure, because failing does not threaten their sense of competence and self-worth. This allows them to set moderately difficult goals, take risks, and cope with failure constructively. They learn fast, have more self-confidence and energy, welcome concrete feedback (it does not threaten them), and are eager to learn “the rules of the game” so that they can succeed. All of these factors make for persistent, successful learning (Covington & Mueller, 2001; McClelland, 1985). Failure-avoiding students feel only as smart as their last test grade, so they never develop a solid sense of self-efficacy. If they have been generally successful, they may seek to avoid failure like Safe Sumet, simply by taking few risks and “sticking with what they know.” If, on the other hand, they have experienced a good bit of failure, then they, like Defensive Damond, may adopt self-defeating strategies such as feeble efforts, setting very low or ridiculously high goals, or claiming not to care. Just before a test, a

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TABLE 12.2  •  Mastery-Oriented, Failure-Avoiding, and Failure-Accepting Students ATTITUDE TOWARD FAILURE

GOALS SET

ATTRIBUTIONS

VIEW OF ABILITY

STRATEGIES

Mastery Oriented

Low fear of failure

Mastery goals: moderately difficult and challenging

Effort, use of right strategy, sufficient knowledge are causes of success

Growth mindset; ability is improvable

Adaptive strategies (e.g., try another way, seek help, practice/study more)

Failure Avoiding

High fear of failure

Performance goals; very hard or very easy goals

Lack of ability is cause of failure

Fixed mindset; ability is uncontrollable

Self-defeating strategies (e.g., make a feeble effort, pretend not to care)

Failure Accepting

Expectation of failure; depression

Performance goals or no goals at all

Lack of ability is cause of failure

Fixed mindset; ability is uncontrollable

Learned helplessness; likely to give up

student might say, “I didn’t study at all!” Then, any grade above failing is a success. Procrastination is another example. Low grades do not imply low ability if the student can claim, “I did okay considering I didn’t start the term paper until last night.” All these are self-handicapping strategies because the students are setting up roadblocks to their own achievement to protect their self-esteem or sense of competence. Very little learning is going on. Self-handicapping appears to be more damaging for achievement with elementary and middle school age students (Schwinger et al., 2014; Urdan, 2004). Unfortunately, failure-avoiding strategies generally lead to the very failure the students were trying to avoid. They give up and thus become failure-accepting students. They are convinced that their problems are due to low ability and like Hopeless Geraldo, have little hope for change. Teachers may be able to prevent some failure-avoiding students from becoming failure accepting by using multiple assessments and setting a number of goals. In this way all students have a realistic chance of succeeding on some assessments and reaching at least a few goals (L. H. Chen, Wu, Kee, Lin, & Shui, 2009). This is particularly important in contexts where sexual or ethnic stereotypes assert that certain groups of people “should not” be able to do well—“Girls are no good at math.” These stereotypes are common in math, science, and technology disciplines. Instead of perpetuating outdated views of individual differences and pitying or excusing these students, teachers can teach them how to learn and then hold them accountable for their learning. The Guidelines: Encouraging Self-Worth on the next page discuss more ways to encourage self-worth.

Self-Worth: Lessons for Teachers If students believe that failing means they are stupid, they are likely to adopt many self-handicapping, self-defeating strategies. And teachers who stress performance, grades, and competition encourage self-handicapping without realizing they are doing so (Anderman & Anderman, 2014). Just telling students to “try harder” is not particularly effective. Students need real evidence that effort will pay off, that setting a higher goal will not lead to failure, that they can improve, and that abilities can be changed. They need authentic mastery experiences. What else do we know about motivation? Feelings matter. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.5

Self-handicapping  Students may engage in behavior that blocks their own success in order to avoid testing their true ability. Failure-accepting students  Students who believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it.

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GUIDELINES Encouraging Self-Worth Emphasize that abilities are not set, but are always improvable. Examples 1. Share examples of how you have improved your knowledge and skills, for example in writing, at a sport, or doing a craft. 2. Tell about your own failures that became successes when you tried new strategies or got the right help. 3. Save first drafts and finished products from students in previous classes to show how much the students improved with effort and support. Teach directly about the difference between learning goals and performance goals. Examples 1. Encourage students to set a small-step goal for one subject. 2. Recognize improvements often, with private authentic praise that focuses on the processes and strategies that led to success. 3. Use personal best goals, not between-student competition.

Make the classroom a place where failure is just diagnostic— failure tells what needs to be improved, what you haven’t mastered yet. Examples 1. If a student gives a wrong answer in class, say, “I bet others would give that answer too. Let’s examine why that is not the best answer. This gives us a chance to dig deeper—excellent!” 2. Encourage revising, improving, polishing, and redoing with an emphasis on improvement. 3. Show students connections between their revised work and a higher grade, but emphasize their growing competence. Encourage help seeking and help giving. Examples 1. Teach students how to ask explicit questions about what they do not understand. 2. Recognize students who are helpful. 3. Train class experts for some ongoing needs such as technology guides or progress checkers.

HOW DO YOU FEEL ABOUT LEARNING? INTERESTS, CURIOSITY, EMOTIONS, AND ANXIETY Do you remember starting school? Were you curious about what might be in store, excited about your new world, interested and challenged? Many children are. But a common concern of parents and teachers is that curiosity and excitement are replaced over time by a sense of drudgery and disinterest. School becomes a job you have to do—a workplace where the work is not that interesting. In fact, interest in school decreases from elementary to high school, with boys showing greater declines than girls. Even students in the internationally top-rated high schools in Finland found school less enjoyable and valuable in their lives as they moved from ninth to eleventh grade (Wang et al., 2015). The transition to middle school is particularly linked to a decline in interest. These declines are troubling because interest is related to students’ attention, grades, reading achievement, desire to set challenging goals and solve difficult problems, and depth of learning (Hulleman & Barron, 2016; Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016; Renninger & Bachrach, 2015).

Tapping Interests STOP & THINK As part of your interview for a job in a large high school, the principal asks, “How would you get students interested in learning? Could you tap their interests in your teaching?” •

TWO KINDS OF INTERESTS.  Interests can be individual (personal) or situational— the trait and state distinction again. Individual interests are the more long-lasting aspects

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of the person, such as an enduring tendency to enjoy subjects such as history or mathematics, or activities such as music, videogames, or fashion. Students with individual interests in learning in general seek new information and have more positive attitudes toward schooling. Situational interests are more short-lived aspects of the activity, text, or materials that catch and keep the student’s attention. Both individual and situational interests are related to learning. And interests increase when students feel competent, so even if students are not initially attracted to a subject or activity, they may develop interests as they experience success. Ann Renninger and Suzanne Hidi (2011) describe a four-phase model of interest development. situational interest triggered S situational interest maintained S S emerging individual interest S well-developed individual interest For example, consider Julia, a graduating senior in college described by Hidi and Renninger (2006). As she waits nervously in the dentist’s office, flipping through a magazine, her attention is drawn (situational interest trigger) to an article about a man who left his engineering job to become a facilitator in legal conflict resolution. When she is called to the dentist’s chair, she is still reading the article, so she marks her place and returns to finish reading after her appointment (situational interest maintained). She takes notes, and, over the next weeks, searches the Internet, visits the library, and meets with her advisor to get more information about this career option (emerging individual interest). Four years later, Julia is enjoying her job as a facilitator as she handles more and more arbitration cases for a law firm (well-developed, enduring individual interest). In the early stages of this four-phase model, emotions play a big role—feelings of excitement, pleasure, fun, and curiosity. Situational interest may be triggered by positive feelings, as when Julia started reading. Curiosity followed and helped Julia stay engaged as she learned more about becoming a facilitator. As Julia added knowledge to her curiosity and positive feelings, her personal interest emerged, and the cycle of positive feelings, curiosity, and knowledge continued to build enduring interest. CATCHING AND HOLDING INTERESTS.  Whenever possible, it helps to connect academic content to students’ enduring individual interests. But given that the content you will teach is determined by state standards in most classrooms today, it will be difficult to tailor every lesson to each student’s interests. You will have to rely more on triggering and maintaining situational interest. Here, the challenge is to not only catch but also hold students’ interest (Pintrich, 2003). For example, Mathew Mitchell (1993) found that using computers, groups, and puzzles caught students’ interest in secondary mathematics classes, but the interests did not hold. Lessons that held the students’ interest over time included math activities that were related to real-life problems and active participation in laboratory experiments and projects. Challenge, choices, novelty, fantasy, working with others, hands-on activities and experiments, encouraging students’ explanations, instructional conversations, assuming the role of an expert, personal relevance, utility value, and participating in a group project also can trigger and support interest (Renninger & Bachrach, 2015; Renninger & Hidi, 2011; Tröbst et al., 2016). For example, a third-grade teacher identified as highly motivating had her class set up a post office for the whole school. Each classroom in the school had an address and zip code. Students had jobs in the post office, and everyone in the school used the post office to deliver letters to students and teachers. Students designed their own stamps and set postal rates. The teacher said that the system “improves their creative writing without them knowing it” (Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003, p. 254). But what works for one student or group of students might not work for others. For example, in a study of math learning with older adolescents, Durik and Harackiewicz (2007) concluded that catching interest by using colorful learning materials with pictures was helpful for students with low initial interest in mathematics, but not for students who were already interested in the subject. For the interested students, showing how math

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Video Example 12.4 The teacher in this preschool classroom used her students’ curiosity about the teacher’s injuries and their dissatisfaction with a play area in the classroom to develop a curriculum about hospitals that was both challenging and exciting for the children.

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning Fun Make for

Good Learning?

Teachers should make learning fun.  When I

searched “making learning fun” on Google.com, I found 15 pages of resources and references, including a Web site by that very name-- http://makinglearningfun .com. Clearly, there is interest in making learning fun. Research shows that passages in texts that are more interesting are remembered better (Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). For example, in an international study of 15-year-olds, enjoyment of reading proved to be a strong predictor of reading achievement, both for individuals and countries, in the United States and also in 10 of the highest performing countries—Korea, Singapore, Japan, Hong Kong, Finland, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and the Netherlands (Lee, 2014). Games and simulations can make learning more fun, too. When my daughter was in the eighth grade, all the students in her grade spent 3 days playing a game her teachers had designed called ULTRA. Students were divided into groups and formed their own “countries.” Each country had to choose a name, symbol, national flower, and bird. They wrote and sang a national anthem and elected government officials. The teachers allocated different resources to the countries. To get all the materials needed for the completion of assigned projects, the countries had to establish trade with one another. There was a monetary system and a stock market. Students had to work with their fellow citizens to complete cooperative learning assignments. Some countries “cheated” in their trades with other nations, and this allowed debate about international relations, trust, and war. Liz says she had fun—but she also learned how to work in a group without the teacher’s supervision and gained a deeper understanding of world economics and international conflicts.

Fun can get in the way of learning.  As far back as the early 1900s, educators warned about the dangers of focusing on fun in learning. None other than John Dewey, who wrote extensively about the role of interest in learning, cautioned that you can’t make boring lessons interesting by mixing in fun like you can make bad chili good by adding some tasty spicy hot sauce. Dewey wrote, “When things have to be made interesting, it is because interest itself is wanting. Moreover, the phrase itself is a misnomer. The thing, the object, is no more interesting than it was before” (Dewey, 1913, pp. 11–12). There is a good deal of research now indicating that adding interest by incorporating fascinating but irrelevant details actually gets in the way of learning the important information. These “seductive details,” as they have been called, divert the readers’ attention from the less-interesting main ideas, especially if the material to be learned is complex and makes great demands on working memory (Park, Flowerday, & Brünken, 2015; Reber, 2016). For example, Shannon Harp and Richard Mayer (1998) used high school science texts with emotional interest and seductive details about swimmers and golfers who were injured by lightning, but these “fun” details failed to improve learning. Adding interesting but unrelated pictures to a social studies reading assignment also led to decreased learning for middle school students in China (Wang & Adesope, 2014). In all these examples, the seductive details may have disrupted students’ attempts to follow the logic of the explanations and thus interfered with their comprehending the text. Harp and Mayer conclude, “the best way to help students enjoy a passage is to help them understand it” (p. 100). Beware of Either/Or. Of course we want our classes to be engaging, interesting, even fun—but the focus through it all should be on learning. Even if the work is tough and at times repetitious, students need to learn to persevere. Working hard is a part of life. Working hard together can be fun.

COUNTERPOINT .

POINT .

When many beginning teachers are asked about how to motivate students, they often mention making learning fun. But is it necessary for learning to be fun?

could be personally useful was more effective. In addition complex materials can be more interesting, as long as students have a growth mindset and believe they can effectively cope with the complexity (Sylvia, Henson, & Templin, 2009). When tasks are difficult and students have lower expectations for succeeding, you can support interest when you set goals that stress learning. With these mastery-approach goals, difficulties and mistakes are just part of learning and building your brain (Tanka & Murayama, 2014). There are other cautions in responding to students’ interests, as you can see in the Point/Counterpoint.

Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity Curiosity and interest are related. According to Renninger and Hidi’s (2011) four-phase model of interest described earlier, our individual interests are triggered as we raise and answer “curiosity questions” that help us organize our knowledge about a topic.

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GUIDELINES Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity Relate content objectives to student experiences. Examples 1. With a teacher in another school, establish pen pals across the classes. Through writing letters, students exchange personal experiences, photos, drawings, written work, and ask and answer questions (“Have you learned cursive writing yet?” “What are you doing in math now?” “What are you reading?”). Letters can be mailed in one large mailer to save stamps or sent via email. 2. Identify classroom experts for different assignments or tasks. Who knows how to use the computer to create graphics? How to search the Web? How to cook? How to use an index? 3. Have a “Switch Day” when students exchange roles with a school staff member or support person. Students must research the role by interviewing their staff member, prepare for the job, dress the part for the day they take over, and then evaluate their success after the switch. Identify student interests, hobbies, and extracurricular activities that can be incorporated into class lessons and discussions. Examples 1. Have students design and conduct interviews and surveys to learn about each other’s interests. 2. Keep the class library stocked with books that connect to students’ interests and hobbies. 3. Allow choices (stories in language arts or projects in science) based on students’ interests.

Support instruction with humor, personal experiences, and anecdotes that show the human side of the content. Examples 1. Share your own hobbies, interests, and favorites. 2. Tell students there will be a surprise visitor; then dress up as the author of a story and tell about “yourself” and your writing. Use original source material with interesting content or details. Examples 1. Letters and diaries in history. 2. Darwin’s notes in biology. Create surprise and curiosity. Examples 1. Have students predict what will happen in an experiment, then show them whether they were right or wrong. 2. Provide quotes from history, and ask students to guess who said it. 3. Use high-novelty reading materials with elements such as active/emotional verbs (clinging vs. walking), unfamiliar characters (orangutan vs. fox), unusual adjectives (hairy vs. brown), and surprising endings (Beike & Zentall, 2012). For more information on students’ interests and motivation, see http://www.readwritethink.org and search for “interests.” Source: From 150 Ways to Increase Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom, by James P. Raffini. Copyright © 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc. Adapted by permission of the publisher. Also Motivation in Education (2nd ed.), by P. Pintrich and D. Schunk, © 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Some psychologists list curiosity as one of the 16 basic human motivations and encourage schools to target developing an exploratory orientation in students as a major goal (Flum & Kaplan, 2006; Reiss, 2004). Jamie Jirout and David Klahr (2012) suggest curiosity arises when attention is focused on a gap in knowledge. These information gaps cause a sense of deprivation—a need to know that we call “curiosity.” This idea is similar to Piaget’s concept of disequilibrium, discussed in Chapter 2, and has a number of implications for teaching. First, students need some base of knowledge before they can experience gaps in that knowledge leading to curiosity. Second, students must be aware of the gaps in order for curiosity to result. In other words, they need a metacognitive awareness of what they know and don’t know (Hidi, Renninger, & Krapp, 2004). Asking students to make guesses and then providing feedback can be helpful. Also, proper handling of mistakes can stimulate curiosity by pointing to missing knowledge. Finally, the more we learn about a topic, the more curious we may become about that subject. As Maslow (1970) predicted, fulfilling the need to know increases, not decreases, the need to know more. See the Guidelines: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity for more about building interest and curiosity in the classroom.

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Flow Have you ever been “in the zone” or “lost in thought”? You may have been experiencing flow—a mental state in which you are fully immersed in a task with deep concentration and focused attention. When individuals are in flow, they face a highly challenging task with matching high levels of the needed skills—they are stretched but not broken. Individuals in flow experience greater enjoyment in the task, continue working without prompting, and tend to generate higher quality, more creative products (Abuhamdeh & Csikszentmihalyi, 2012). Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi first identified flow in studies of artists, chess players, mountain climbers, musicians, and children at play, but then he examined flow during the activities that take most of our time—work and in school. He found that flow was less common in school and more common at work, where people have clear goals, immediate feedback, and can apply their skills. The lowest levels of flow for adults occurred on the weekends when there were no particular goals or structured activities except watching television (Beard, 2015; Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). What would this look like in schools? In an interview, Csikszentmihalyi described a K–12 school in Indianapolis that built part of the curriculum around what each student targeted as intriguing personal learning goals for the year. The curriculum also included lessons focused on big ideas or themes for all students such as “Working in Harmony.” Using that theme, Csikszentmihalyi said: “in mathematics you learn the harmony of numbers, and the beauty of being able to manipulate numbers so they always end up in the right way in the equations, and in music you learn the harmony of sounds. In social studies you learn about the history of wars and peace, especially peace and how we learn to work together in Sociology” (Beard, 2015, pp. 356–357). This school had a good balance of differentiation (developing individual interests) and integration (focus on shared interests). This design seems consistent with what DeLeon Gray (2014) described as adolescents’ needs for “standing out” (differentiation) and “fitting in” (integration).

Emotions and Anxiety How do you feel about learning? Excited, bored, curious, fearful? Today, researchers emphasize that learning is not just about the cold cognition of reasoning and problem solving. Learning also is influenced by emotion and mood, so hot cognition plays a role in learning as well (Bohn-Gettler & Rapp, 2011; Pintrich, 2003). Research on emotions is expanding, in part because we know more about the brain and emotion.

Flow  A mental state in which you are fully immersed in a challenging task that is accompanied by high levels of concentration and involvement. Emotions Three interrelated factors-physiological responses, behaviors, and feelings— that produce an affective response to a situation.

NEUROSCIENCE AND EMOTION.  In mammals, including humans, stimulation to a small area of the brain called the amygdala seems to trigger emotional reactions such as fear and the “fight or flight” response, but many other areas of the brain are also involved in emotions. Emotions are complex and not the same thing as feelings. For example, two people might feel stimulated and aroused thinking about riding a huge roller coaster, but one person gets a thrilling feeling of anticipation, while another feels panic and dread. Thus emotion, in this case about roller coasters, is a complex phenomenon arising from the back and forth interplay of bodily responses (arousal, rapid heart beat, heightened blood pressure, etc.), cognitive assessments (“I’m going to die” vs. “it will be a blast”) and conscious feelings (fear and dread vs. anticipation and excitement) (Gluck, Mercado, & Myers, 2016). So human emotions are the outcome of physiological responses triggered by the brain, combined with interpretations of the situation and other information such as context. For example, hearing startling sounds during an action movie might cause a brief emotional reaction, but hearing the same sounds in the middle of the night as you are walking through a dark alley could lead to stronger and more lasting emotional reactions. It should be clear from this description that some of the factors creating emotions are not really under our conscious control—something to remember when working

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with “emotional” students. A student’s split second and uncontrollable emotional judgment—“I sucked at this before and I am doomed to fail again” can sabotage learning before it starts. Building self-efficacy and a growth mindset can help students re-label that feeling of dread as a feeling of challenge and excitement. The same is true for teachers. Split second emotional decisions about a student who “is just trying to make me look bad” can destroy chances for a good relationship. How could you reappraise that feeling (Scalise & Felde, 2017)? These difficult to control aspects of our brains affect learning, attention, memory, and decision making (Scalise & Felde, 2017). Humans are more likely to pay attention to, learn about, and remember events, images, and readings that provoke emotional responses (Murphy & Alexander, 2000). Emotions can affect learning by changing brain dopamine levels and the speed of neural firings that influence long-term memory, and by directing attention toward one aspect of the situation (Pekrun, Elliot, & Maier, 2006). Sometimes, emotions interfere with learning by taking up attention or working memory space that could be used for learning (Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002). In teaching, we are concerned about a particular kind of emotions—those related to achievement in school. Experiences of success or failure can provoke achievement emotions such as pride, hope, boredom, anger, or shame (Pekrun, Elliot, & Maier, 2006). How can we use these findings to support learning in school? ACHIEVEMENT EMOTIONS.  In the past, with the exception of anxiety, emotions generally were overlooked in research on learning and motivation (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2015). But as you just read, research in the neurosciences has shown that emotions such as curiosity and boredom are both causes and consequences of learning processes. For example, boredom leads to inferior learning and poor learning leads to being more bored as the student falls farther (and hopelessly) behind. Boredom is the opposite of interest and curiosity and is a clear enemy of learning at every age. It is a big problem in classrooms because boredom is associated with difficulties in paying attention, lack of intrinsic motivation, weak effort, shallow processing of information, and poor self-regulated learning (Pekrun et al., 2010). Reinhard Pekrun and his colleagues (2006, 2010, 2014, 2015) have tested a model that relates different goal orientations to boredom and other emotions in older adolescents from the United States and Germany. The goal orientations are those we discussed earlier: mastery, performance approach, and performance avoidance. With a mastery goal, students focus on and value an activity as a way to get smarter; they feel in control. These findings are summarized in Table 12.3. TABLE 12.3  •  How Different Achievement Goals Influence Achievement Emotions Different goals are associated with different emotions that can impact motivation. GOAL ORIENTATION

STUDENT EMOTIONS

Mastery Focus on activity, controllability, positive value of activity

Increases: enjoyment of activity, pride, hope Decreases: boredom, anger

Performance approach Focus on outcome, controllability, positive outcome value

Increases: pride, hope

Performance avoidance Focus on outcome, lack of controllability, negative outcome value

Increases: anxiety, hopelessness, shame

Source: Based on Pekrun, R., Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2006). Achievement Goals and Discrete Achievement Emotions: A Theoretical Model and Prospective Test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 583–597.

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How can you increase positive achievement emotions and decrease boredom in the subject you teach? Students are more likely to feel bored if they believe they (a) have little control over the learning activities and (b) don’t value the activities. Matching challenge to the students’ skill levels and giving choices can increase the students’ sense of control and flow. In addition, efforts to build student interest and show the value of the activities also help to fight boredom. And remember, achievement emotions are domain specific. The fact that students enjoy and feel proud of their work in math does not mean they will enjoy English or history (Goetz, Frenzel, Hall, & Pekrun, 2008; Pekrun et al., 2010, 2014). In addition, teachers who enjoy their subjects tend to be more enthusiastic and encourage student enjoyment, so make sure, as much as possible, that you are teaching from your own interests and passions (Brophy, 2008; Frenzel, Goetz, Lüdtke, Pekrun, & Sutton, 2009; Long & Woolfolk Hoy, 2006). AROUSAL AND ANXIETY.  Just as we all know how it feels to be motivated, we all know what it is like to be aroused. Arousal involves both psychological and physical reactions—changes in brain wave patterns, blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing rate. We feel alert, wide awake, even excited. To understand the effects of arousal on motivation, think of two extremes. The first is late at night. You are trying for the third time to understand a required reading, but you are so sleepy. Your attention drifts as your eyelids droop. You decide to go to bed now and get up early to study (a plan that you know seldom works). At the other extreme, imagine that you have a critical test tomorrow—one that determines whether you will get into the school you want. You feel tremendous pressure from everyone to do well. You know that you need a good night’s sleep, but you are wide awake. In the first case, arousal is too low and in the second, too high. Psychologists have known for years that there is an optimum level of arousal for most activities (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). Generally speaking, higher levels of arousal are helpful on simple tasks such as sorting laundry, but lower levels of arousal are better for complex tasks such as taking the SAT or GRE. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Test Anxiety (I, C3) Test Taking and Anxiety Go to PSuU.edu or OSU.edu (or most college websites) and search for “test taking skills” to find tips and insights into addressing the problems associated with test anxiety. (And the tips might be useful for doing well on the PRAXIS II® exam!)

Anxiety  General uneasiness, a feeling of tension.

ANXIETY IN THE CLASSROOM.  At one time or another, everyone has experienced anxiety, or a general uneasiness, a feeling of self-doubt, and sense of tension. Recent work on “academic anxieties,” which is a broad term that encompasses anxiety experiences in educational settings, has demonstrated that many forms of anxiety—test anxiety, math anxiety, science anxiety, public speaking anxiety—can lead to patterns of beliefs and behaviors that hamper performance and promote disengagement in learning (Cassady, 2010; Hart et al., 2016). Anxiety can be both a cause and an effect of school failure—students do poorly because they are anxious, and their poor performance increases their anxiety, creating a vicious cycle for the learner. Academic anxiety has both trait and state components. So your students may have a personal level of anxiety they bring to different learning situations, and the situation itself may trigger perceptions of threat or self-doubt that add to their basic trait level of anxiety (Covington, 1992; Zeidner, 1998). Anxiety seems to have both cognitive and affective components. The cognitive side includes worry and negative thoughts—thinking about how bad it would be to fail and worrying that you will, for example. The affective side involves physiological and emotional reactions such as sweaty palms, upset stomach, racing heartbeat, or fear ( Jain & Dowson, 2009; Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). Whenever there are pressures to perform, severe consequences for failure, and competitive comparisons among students, anxiety may be encouraged. Research with school-age children shows a relationship between the quality of sleep (how quickly and how well they sleep) and anxiety. Better-quality sleep is associated with positive arousal or an “eagerness” to learn. Poor-quality sleep, on the other hand, is related to debilitating anxiety and decreased school performance. You may have discovered these relationships for yourself in your own school career (Meijer & van den Wittenboer, 2004).

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HOW DOES ANXIETY INTERFERE WITH ACHIEVEMENT?  Contemporary orientations to academic anxiety suggest that anxiety affects the beliefs and behaviors of learners in three phases of the learning–testing cycle: preparation, performance, and reflection. During the preparation phase (classroom instruction, studying, test preparation), learners with anxiety tend to have difficulty effectively focusing attention on the relevant material, employing quality study tactics, and maintaining a positive self-worth orientation toward the learning event. Instead of concentrating, they keep noticing the tight feelings in their chest, thinking, “I’m so tense, I’ll never understand this stuff!” From the beginning, anxious students may miss much of the information they are supposed to learn because their thoughts are focused on their own worries. Regardless of whether the learner is unskilled at studying, avoiding the content due to uneasiness caused by the anxiety, or merely distracted by thoughts of the consequences of failing, the material to be learned is clearly compromised (Cassady & Johnson, 2002; Jain & Dowson, 2009; Zeidner & Matthews, 2005). But the problems do not end here. In the performance phase, anxiety blocks retrieval of what was (often poorly) learned (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1992). Finally, in the reflection phase, learners with anxiety build attributions for failure that further impede their future performance by developing beliefs that they are simply incapable of succeeding at the task, determining that they have no control over the situation, and setting ineffective goals for future situations.

Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety Some students, particularly those with learning disabilities or emotional disorders, may be especially anxious in school. When students face stressful situations such as tests, they can use three kinds of coping strategies: problem-focused self-regulating learning strategies; emotional management; and avoidance. Problem-focused, self-regulating strategies might include planning a study schedule, borrowing good notes, or finding a protected place to study. Emotion-focused strategies are attempts to reduce the anxious feelings, for example, by using relaxation exercises or describing the feelings to a friend. Of course, the latter might become an avoidance strategy, along with going out for pizza or suddenly launching an all-out desk-cleaning attack (can’t study until you get organized!). Different strategies are helpful at different points—for example, self-regulated learning before and emotion management during an exam (avoidance is seldom a good strategy). Different strategies fit different people and situations (Zeidner, 1995, 1998). What can teachers do? First, they can help anxious learners become more effective at recognizing the source of their anxious feelings and accurately interpreting them. Connected to this, teachers can help students adopt attributional styles that recognize that they have control over their learning and performance. So, rather than developing a failure-accepting view, students can learn to identify situations where they have been successful and recognize that with support and effort, they can achieve better outcomes. Second, teachers should help highly anxious students to set realistic goals, because these individuals often have difficulty making wise choices. They tend to select either extremely difficult or extremely easy tasks. In the first case, they are likely to fail, which will increase their sense of hopelessness and anxiety about school. In the second case, they will probably succeed on the easy tasks, but they will miss the sense of satisfaction that could encourage greater effort and ease their fears about schoolwork. Goal cards, progress charts, or goal-planning journals may help here ( Jain & Dowson, 2009). Third, teachers can support improved performance by teaching students more effective methods for learning and studying. Research on anxious learners indicates that they tend to spend more time studying, but the methods they adopt tend to be repetitive and low quality (Cassady, 2004; Wittmaier, 1972). As teachers help students to build both the cognitive and emotional skills necessary to overcome anxiety, the students should begin to observe the steady gains in performance and ideally internalize the strategies that have helped them be more successful. Finally, teachers can limit the environmental triggers for anxiety in their classrooms by examining their underlying biases (to reduce the presence of stereotype threat messages

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GUIDELINES Coping with Anxiety Use competition carefully. Examples 1. Monitor activities to make sure no students are being put under undue pressure. 2. During competitive games, make sure all students involved have a reasonable chance of succeeding. 3. Experiment with cooperative learning activities. Avoid situations in which highly anxious students will have to perform in front of large groups. Examples 1. Ask anxious students questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no, or some other brief reply. 2. Give anxious students practice in speaking before smaller groups. Make sure all instructions are clear. Uncertainty can lead to anxiety. Examples 1. Write test instructions on the board or on the test itself instead of giving them orally. 2. Check with students to make sure they understand. Ask several students how they would do the first question, exercise, or sample question on a test. Correct any misconceptions. 3. If you are using a new format or starting a new type of task, give students examples or models to show how it is done. Avoid unnecessary time pressures. Examples 1. Give occasional take-home tests. 2. Make sure all students can complete classroom tests within the period given.

Remove some of the pressures from major tests and exams. Examples 1. Teach test-taking skills; give practice tests; provide study guides. 2. Avoid basing most of a report-card grade on one test. 3. Make extra-credit work available to add points to course grades. 4. Use different types of items in testing because some students have difficulty with particular formats. Develop alternatives to written tests. Examples 1. Try oral, open-book, or group tests. 2. Have students do projects, organize portfolios of their work, make oral presentations, or create a finished product. Teach students self-regulation strategies (Schutz & Davis, 2000). Examples 1. Before the test: Encourage students to see the test as an important and challenging task that they have the capabilities to prepare for. Help students stay focused on the task of getting as much information as possible about the test. 2. During the test: Remind students that the test is important (but not overly important). Encourage task focus—pick out the main idea in the question, slow down, stay relaxed. 3. After the test: Think back on what went well and what could be improved. Focus on controllable attributions—study strategies, effort, careful reading of questions, relaxation strategies. For more information about acaemic anxiety, search the websites at most colleges and universities. For example, go to osu.edu, the site for The Ohio State University, and search for “test anxiety.”

in their classrooms), promoting mastery-oriented classroom goal structures, and providing a positive role model for appropriate interest and excitement for the content (rather than starting off with statements such as, “This is REALLY hard stuff”). Also, when teachers are “stressed out” about accountability and statewide testing, they can transmit this anxiety to their students. The more teachers are visibly distressed or continually emphasize “how important this test is,” the more students have the opportunity to recognize the tests as a state of “threat,” prompting negative emotions and activating test anxiety.

Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers Make efforts to keep the level of arousal right for the task at hand. If students are going to sleep, energize them by introducing variety, piquing their curiosity, surprising them, or giving them a brief chance to be physically active. Learn about their interests, and incorporate these interests into lessons and assignments. If arousal is too great, follow the Guidelines: Coping with Anxiety.

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How can we put together all this information about motivation? How can teachers create environments, situations, and relationships that encourage motivation? We address these questions next. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.6

MOTIVATION TO LEARN IN SCHOOL: ON TARGET Teachers are concerned about developing a particular kind of motivation in their students—the motivation to learn, defined as valuing academic activities and trying persistently to get benefit from them (Brophy, 1998, 2008). Motivation to learn involves more than wanting or intending to learn. It includes the quality of the student’s mental efforts. For example, reading the text 11 times may indicate persistence, but motivation to learn implies more thoughtful, active study strategies, such as summarizing, elaborating the basic ideas, outlining in your own words, drawing graphs of the key relationships, and so on. It would be wonderful if all our students came to us filled with the motivation to learn, but they don’t. As teachers, we have three major goals: 1. The immediate goal is to get students productively engaged with the work of the class; in other words, catch their interest and create a state of motivation to learn. Engagement actually increases motivation, which leads to more learning, and learning leads to greater motivation, and on and on (Reeve & Lee, 2014). 2. A longer-term goal is to develop in our students enduring individual interests and the trait of being motivated to learn so they will be able to educate themselves for the rest of their lives. 3. Finally, we want our students to be cognitively engaged—to think deeply about what they study, not just finish it (Blumenfeld, Puro, & Mergendoller, 1992). How can teachers accomplish these three goals? You already have the knowledge needed, based on what we have discussed about the value of clear, specific, mastery goals; self-beliefs about efficacy and controllable causes of achievement; expectations for success and growth mindsets; valuing learning tasks; autonomy and choice; and emotions that support learning. Table 12.4 on the next page shows how each of these factors contributes to motivation to learn. The central question for the remainder of the chapter is: How can teachers use their knowledge about expectations, attributions, goals, beliefs, self-perceptions, interests, and emotions to increase motivation to learn (Lazowski & Hulleman, 2016)? To organize our discussion, we will use the TARGET model (Ames, 1992; Epstein, 1989), identifying six areas where teachers make decisions that can influence student motivation to learn. T task that students are asked to do A autonomy or authority students are allowed in working R recognition for accomplishments G grouping practices E evaluation procedures T time in the classroom

Tasks for Learning To understand how an academic task can affect students’ motivation, we need to analyze the task. As we saw earlier, tasks have different values for students. What else matters? BEYOND TASK VALUE TO GENUINE APPRECIATION.  Jere Brophy (2008, p. 140) reminds teachers that there is more to value than interest or utility; there is the power of knowing: “Powerful ideas expand and enrich the quality of students’ subjective lives.”

MyLab Education

Video Example 12.5 The high school students in this video are engaged in authentic tasks. Notice the strategies the teacher uses to give the task value to the students and allow the students autonomy in creating their experimental design. She uses cooperative groups and incorporates accountability with the peer assessment structure. Consider the power of these elements to increase students’ motivation to learn.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Target (I, C1, 2, 3) Describe the major features of the TARGET model, and identify related strategies that are likely to boost motivation.

Motivation to learn The tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to benefit from them. Academic tasks The work the student must accomplish, including the product expected, resources available, and the mental operations required.

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TABLE 12.4  •  Building a Concept of Motivation to Learn Motivation to learn is encouraged when the following five elements come together. FACTORS INFLUENCING MOTIVATION

OPTIMUM CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION TO LEARN

CHARACTERISTICS THAT DIMINISH MOTIVATION TO LEARN

Source

INTRINSIC: Personal factors such as needs, interests, curiosity, enjoyment

EXTRINSIC: Environmental factors such as rewards, social pressure, punishment

Needs and Self-Determination

SUPPORT SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION: Make sure lowerlevel needs (safety, security, belonging, etc.) are met; support autonomy and appropriate choice, foster expectations for success and sense of belonging

UNDERMINE SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION: Classroom is unsafe, students are hungry, fearful; few choices, competitive classrooms with winners and loser, in groups and out groups

Goals

CLEAR, SPECIFIC MASTERY AND PERFORMACEAPPROACH GOALS: Tendency to choose moderately difficult and challenging goals; personal satisfaction in meeting challenges and improving; concerned with mastering the task; little fear of failure

PERFORMANCE AVOIDANCE GOALS: Tendency to choose very easy or very difficult vague goals; fear of failing and looking dumb; self-handicapping strategies

Expectancies, Values, and Costs

POSITIVE: I can succeed, the task is worth doing well, and the costs are reasonable

NEGATIVE: I can’t succeed, the task isn’t worth doing well, and the costs are too much

Attributions

STABLE, CONTROLLABLE: Successes and failures attributed to effort, persistence, applying correct strategies, studying right (or wrong) material, growth mindset

UNSTABLE, UNCONTROLLABLE: Successes and failures attributed to luck, fixed ability, difficulty of task, unfair teacher

Mindsets

GROWTH MINDSET: I can change my brain through learning and struggling with challenging tasks

FIXED MINDSET: I am limited by my brain that cannot change

Self-Worth

MASTERY-ORIENTED: Clear challenging goals for learning, growth mindset, adaptive strategies

FAILURE-ORIENTED/FAILURE ACCEPTING: Self-handicapping strategies, learned helplessness, goals too easy or too hard, fixed mindset, depression, hopelessness

Interests and Emotions

POSITIVE: Curiosity piqued, tasks linked to personal and situational interests, low anxiety and pressure for performance

NEGATIVE: Tasks linked to high-pressure competition, interests and curiosity ignored

Authentic task  Tasks that have some connection to real-life problems the students will face outside the classroom. Problem-based learning  Students are confronted with a problem that launches their inquiry as they collaborate to find solutions and learn valuable information and skills in the process.

These ideas give us lenses for viewing the world, tools for making decisions, and frames for appreciating the beauty in words and images. An entire issue of Theory Into Practice, the journal I once edited, is devoted to Jere’s ideas about engaging students in the value and appreciation of learning (Turner, Patrick, & Meyer, 2011). One way to build appreciation is with authentic tasks. AUTHENTIC TASKS.  If you ask students to memorize definitions they will never use, to learn the material only because it is on the test, or to repeat work they already understand, then there can be little motivation to learn. But if the tasks are connected to current and future real-life problems, students are more likely to see the genuine utility value of the work and are also more likely to find the tasks meaningful and interesting (Pugh & Phillips, 2011). An authentic task relates to students’ lives and requires them to use the tools of the discipline they are studying (say biology or history) to solve a problem. Solving the authentic problem immerses the students in the culture of the discipline (Belland, Kim, & Hannafin, 2013). Problem-based learning (Chapter 10) is one way to use authentic tasks in teaching. For example, a physics teacher might use skateboarding as

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a basis for problems and examples, knowing that skateboarding is an authentic task for many of her students (Anderman & Anderman, 2014). For younger students, compare these two teachers described by Anderman and Anderman (2014, p. 11): Mrs. Rodriguez gives her class an initial lesson on halves and quarters, divides students into groups of three, and gives each group two Twinkies and a plastic knife. She asks the students to cut one Twinkie into two equally sized pieces, and the other Twinkie into four equally sized pieces. Next comes the challenge—use the Twinkie pieces to determine which fraction is bigger, one half (1/2) or three fourths (3/4). Mrs. Rodriguez then visits each group; the members must explain their work to her. When they are correct, they get to eat the Twinkies. Mr. Jackson gives the same initial lesson on halves and quarters. He then provides each student with a worksheet with a few simple questions that are designed to help the students to learn about fractions. For these questions, the students are supposed to imagine that they have several pieces of paper, and that they cut the paper with scissors into various quantities (e.g., they cut one paper into four equal-size pieces, they cut another paper into two equal-size pieces). The students are then asked to demonstrate whether one half (1/2) or three fourths (3/4) is the bigger fraction. They then have to write down their answer, along with a brief explanation.

The students in Mrs. Rodriguez’s class were involved in a more authentic (and tasty) task involving cutting and dividing food, cooperating with others, and enjoying the fruits (or Twinkies) of their labor. They also had to figure out how to share two halves and four quarters equally among three people—advanced cooperation.

Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment Children and adolescents spend literally thousands of hours in schools where other people decide what will happen. Yet we know that self-determination and a sense of internal locus of causality are critical to maintaining intrinsic motivation and student engagement ( Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010; Reeve, Nix, & Hamm, 2003). What can teachers do to support autonomy and choice without creating chaos? SUPPORTING CHOICES.  Choices should provide a range of selections that allow students to follow their interests and pick an option that is important and relevant to them (I. Katz & Assor, 2007). But beware of giving too many choices. Like totally unguided discovery or aimless discussions, unstructured or unguided choices can be counterproductive for learning (R. Garner, 1998). I know that graduate students in my classes find it disconcerting if I ask them to design a final project that will determine their grade, just as I panic when I am asked to give a talk on “whatever you want.” The alternative is bounded choice—giving students a range of options that set valuable tasks for them but also allow them to follow personal interests. The balance must be just right: “too much autonomy is bewildering and too little is boring” (Guthrie et al., 1998, p. 185). Students can have input about work partners, seating arrangements, how to display work, or suggestions for class rules. But the most important kind of autonomy support teachers can provide probably is cognitive autonomy support—giving students opportunities to discuss different cognitive strategies for learning, approaches to solving problems, or positions on an issue (Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, & Turner, 2004). Students also can exercise autonomy about how they receive feedback from the teacher or from classmates. Figure 12.2 on the next page describes a strategy called “Check It Out,” in which students specify the skills that they want to have evaluated in a particular assignment. Over the course of a unit, all the skills have to be “checked out,” but students choose when each one is evaluated. RECOGNIZING ACCOMPLISHMENT.  In the third TARGET area students should be recognized for improving on their own personal best, for tackling difficult tasks, for persistence, and for creativity—not just for performing better than others or finishing quickly. What sort of recognition leads to engagement? When high school students expected personal feedback based on their own previous work, they were more likely to set mastery

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FIGU RE 12.2 STUDENT AUTONOMY: CHECK IT OUT Using this technique to support student autonomy, the teacher decides on a set of skills that will be developed over a unit, but the student decides which skill(s) will be evaluated on any given assignment. Over the course of the unit, all the skills have to be “checked out.” This student has indicated that she wants the teacher to “check out” her creativity and verb tense.

Capitals Punctuation

Complete S Creativity

entences

Spelling Commas Tense ns Semicolo

Source: From Raffini, J. P. (1996). 150 Ways to Increase Intrinsic Motivation to the Classroom. Pearson Education, Inc. Adapted by permission of the publisher.

and performance approach goals and feel proud about their accomplishments. When the students expected feedback that compared their performance to the performance of others, they were more likely to set performance-avoidance, self-handicapping goals and to feel angry, hopeless, or ashamed (Pekrun et al., 2014)

Grouping, Evaluation, and Time You may remember a teacher who made you want to work hard—someone who made a subject come alive. Or you may remember how many hours you spent practicing as a member of a team, orchestra, choir, or theater troupe. If you do, then you know the motivational power of relationships with other people.

Goal structure  The way students relate to others who are also working toward a particular goal.

GROUPING AND GOAL STRUCTURES.  Motivation can be greatly influenced by the ways we relate to the other people who are also involved in accomplishing a particular goal. D. W. Johnson and Johnson (2009a) have labeled this interpersonal factor the goal structure of the task. There are three goal structures: cooperative, competitive, and individualistic, as shown in Table 12.5. When the task involves complex learning and problem-solving skills, cooperation helps students set attainable goals and negotiate. They become more altruistic. The interaction with peers that students enjoy so much becomes a part of the learning process. The result? The need for belonging described by Maslow is more likely to be met, and motivation is increased (Stipek, 2002; Webb & Palincsar, 1996). In a math learning video game format, both cooperation and competition in the game led to greater interest and enjoyment compared to individual play, but cooperation also was associated with more positive attitudes about the game and the desire to play it again in the future (Plass et al., 2013). There are many approaches to cooperative learning, as you saw in Chapter 10. For example, to encourage motivation with a cooperative goal structure, form reading

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TABLE 12.5  •  Different Goal Structures Each goal structure is associated with a different relationship between the individual and the group. This relationship influences motivation to reach the goal. COOPERATIVE

COMPETITIVE

INDIVIDUALISTIC

Definition

Students believe their goal is attainable only if other students will also reach the goal.

Students believe they will reach their goal if and only if other students do not reach the goal.

Students believe that their own attempt to reach a goal is not related to other students’ attempts to reach the goal.

Examples

Team victories—each player wins only if all the team members win: a relay race, a quilting bee, a barn raising, a symphony, a play.

Golf tournament, singles tennis match, a 100-yard dash, valedictorian, Miss America pageant.

Lowering your handicap in golf, jogging, learning a new language, enjoying a museum, losing or gaining weight, stopping smoking.

Source: Based on Learning Together and Alone: Cooperation, Competition, and Individualization (5th ed.), by D. W. Johnson & R. Johnson. Copyright © 1999a by Pearson Education, Inc.

groups based on student interests instead of abilities and change the groups every month (Anderman & Anderman, 2014). EVALUATION.  The greater the emphasis on competitive evaluation and grading, the more students will focus on performance goals rather than mastery. And low-achieving students who have little hope of either performing well or mastering the task may simply want to get it over with (Brophy, 2005). How can teachers prevent students from simply focusing on the grade or doing the work “just to get finished”? The most obvious answer is to de-emphasize grades and to emphasize learning in the class. Students need to understand the value of the work. Instead of saying, “You will need to know this for the test,” tell students how the information will be useful in solving problems they want to solve. Suggest that the lesson will answer some interesting questions. Communicate that understanding is more important than finishing. TIME.  Experienced teachers know that there is too much work and not enough time in the school day. Even if they become engrossed in a project, students must stop and turn their attention to another class when the bell rings or when the teacher’s schedule indicates it’s time to move on to a new subject. Furthermore, students must progress as a group, which slows down those who could move faster and leaves behind those who need more time—not very motivating for any of them. It is difficult to develop persistence and a sense of self-efficacy when students are not allowed to stick with a challenging activity. As a teacher, will you be able to make time for engaged and persistent learning? Some middle and high schools have block scheduling in which teachers work in teams to plan larger blocks of class time. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER.  We can see how these motivational elements come together in real classrooms. Sara Dolezal and her colleagues observed and interviewed third-grade teachers in eight Catholic schools and determined if their students were low, moderate, or high in their level of motivation (Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003). Table 12.6 on the next page summarizes the dramatic differences in these classrooms between the use of strategies that support motivation and those that undermine it. Students in the low-engagement classes were restless and chatty as they faced their easy, undemanding seatwork. The classrooms were bare, unattractive, and filled with management problems. Instruction was disorganized. The class atmosphere was generally

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TABLE 12.6  •  Strategies That Support and Undermine Motivation in the Classroom A FEW STRATEGIES THAT SUPPORT MOTIVATION STRATEGY

EXAMPLE

Messages of accountability

The teacher asks students to have parents review and sign some assignments.

Communications about the importance of work

The teacher says, “We need to check it for at least 1 minute, which means looking over it carefully.”

Clear goals/directions

The teacher explains exactly how the students are to separate into groups and complete their nominations for their favorite book.

Connections across the curriculum

The teacher relates the concept of ratios in math to compare/contrast skills in reading.

Opportunities to learn about and practice dramatic arts

After studying about historical figures, students write and produce their own plays.

Attributions to effort

During a word game, the teacher says to a student, “Did you study last night?” The student nods. “See how it helps?”

Encouraging risk taking

“I need a new shining face. Someone I haven’t called on yet. I need a risk taker.”

Use of games and play to reinforce concept or review material

During a math lesson using balance, students spend 5 minutes weighing the favorite toy they were asked to bring in that day.

Home–school connections

As part of a math science unit, families keep a chart of everything they recycle in a week.

Multiple representations of a task

The teacher uses four ways to teach multiplication: “magic multipliers,” sing-along multiplication facts, whole-class flash card review, “Around-the-World” game.

Positive classroom management, praise

“Thumbs up when you are ready to work. I like the way Table 7 is waiting patiently.”

Stimulating creative thought

“We are going to use our imaginations today. We are going to take a trip to an imaginary theater in our heads.”

Opportunities for choice

Students can choose to use prompts for their journal writing or pick their own topic.

Teacher communicates to students that they can handle challenging tasks

“This is hard stuff, and you are doing great. I know adults who have trouble with this.”

Value students—communicate caring

The teacher allows a new student to sit with a buddy for the day.

A FEW STRATEGIES THAT DO NOT SUPPORT MOTIVATION TO LEARN Attributions to intellect rather than effort

When students remark during a lesson, “I’m stupid” or “I’m a dork,” the teacher says nothing, then replies, “Let’s have someone who is smart.”

Teacher emphasizes competition rather than working together

The teacher conducts a poetry contest where students read poems to the class and the class members hold up cards with scores rating how well each student performed.

No scaffolding for learning a new skill

The teacher is loud and critical when students have trouble: “Just look back in the glossary, and don’t miss it because you are too lazy to look it up.”

Ineffective/negative feedback

“Does everyone understand?” A few students say yes, and the teacher moves on.

Lack of connections

On Martin Luther King Day, the teacher leads a brief discussion of King, then the remainder of the activities are about Columbus.

Easy tasks

The teacher provides easy work and “fun” activities that teach little.

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A FEW STRATEGIES THAT DO NOT SUPPORT MOTIVATION TO LEARN (continued ) Negative class atmosphere

“Excuse me, I said page number. If you follow and listen, you would know.”

Punitive classroom management

The teacher threatens bad grades if students do not look up words in the glossary.

Work that is much too difficult

The teacher assigns independent math work that only one or two students can do.

Slow pacing

The pace is set for the slowest students—others finish and have nothing to do.

Emphasis on finishing, not learning

The teacher communicates the purpose is to finish, not learn or use the vocabulary.

Sparse, unattractive classroom

There are no decorated bulletin boards, maps, charts, or displays of student work.

Poor planning

Missing handouts force the teacher to have large instead of smaller work groups.

Public punishment

All students stand, and the teacher reads a list of those who finished the assignment and they sit down. The teacher gives public lecture on responsibility to those left standing.

Source: Based on “How Do Nine Third-Grade Teachers Motivate Their Students?” by S. E. Dolezal, L. M. Welsh, M. Pressley, & M. Vincent. Elementary School Journal, 2003, 103, pp. 247–248. Adapted with permission.

negative. The moderately engaged classrooms were organized to be “student friendly,” with reading areas, group work areas, posters, and student artwork. The teachers were warm and caring, and they connected lessons to students’ background knowledge. Management routines were smooth and organized, and the class atmosphere was positive. The teachers were good at catching student attention, but they had trouble holding attention, probably because the tasks were too easy. Highly engaging teachers had all the positive qualities of student-friendly classrooms—but they added more challenging tasks along with the support the students needed to succeed. These excellent motivators did not rely on one or two approaches to motivate their students; they applied a large repertoire of strategies from Table 12.6.

Diversity in Motivation Because students differ in terms of language, culture, economic privilege, personality, knowledge, and experience, they will also differ in their needs, goals, interests, emotions, and beliefs. Teachers encourage motivation to learn by taking this diversity into account using TARGET—designing tasks, supporting autonomy, recognizing accomplishments, grouping, making evaluations, and managing time. For example, embedding student writing tasks in cultural contexts is one way to catch and hold situational interest (Alderman, 2004; Bergin, 1999). When Latina/o immigrant students in middle school classes moved from writing using worksheets and standard assignments to writing about such topics as immigration, bilingualism, and gang life—issues that were important to them and to their families—their papers were longer and the writing quality improved (Rueda & Moll, 1994). Language is a central factor in students’ connections with the school. When bilingual students are encouraged to draw on both English and their heritage language, motivation and participation can increase. Robert Jimenez (2000) found in his study of bilingual Latino/a students that successful readers viewed reading as a process of making sense; they used both of their languages to understand the material. For instance, they might look for Spanish word parts in English words to help them translate. Less-successful students had a different goal. They believed that reading just meant saying the words correctly in English. It is likely their interest and sense of efficacy for reading in English would be less, too.

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Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation Until four basic conditions are met for every student and in every classroom, no motivational strategies will succeed. First, the classroom must be relatively organized and free from constant interruptions and disruptions. You can see that the good motivators in Table 12.6 were good managers as well. Chapter 13 will give you the information you need to make sure this requirement is met. Second, the teacher must be a patient, supportive person who never embarrasses the students because they made mistakes. Everyone in the class should view mistakes as opportunities for learning (Clifford, 1990, 1991). Third, the work must be challenging, but reasonable. If work is too easy or too difficult, students will have little motivation to learn. They will focus on finishing, not on learning. Finally, the learning tasks must be authentic. And as we have seen, what makes a task authentic is influenced by the students’ culture (Bergin, 1999; Brophy & Kher, 1986; Stipek, 2002). Once these four basic conditions are met, the influences on students’ motivation to learn in a particular situation can be summarized in four questions: Can I succeed at this task? Do I want to succeed? What do I need to do to succeed? Do I belong in this classroom? (Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, 2004; Eccles & Wigfield, 1985; Turner et al., 2014). CAN I DO IT? BUILDING CONFIDENCE AND POSITIVE EXPECTATIONS.  We want students to have confidence in their ability so they will approach learning with energy and enthusiasm. But no amount of encouragement or “cheerleading” will substitute for real accomplishment. To ensure genuine progress: 1. Begin work at the students’ level, and move in small steps. One possibility is to have very easy and very difficult questions on every test and assignment, so all students are both successful and challenged. When grades are required, make sure all the students in class have a chance to make at least a C if they work hard. 2. Make sure learning goals are clear, specific, and possible to reach in the near future. Break long-term projects into subgoals. If possible, give students a range of goals at different levels of difficulty, and let them choose. 3. Stress self-comparison, not comparison with others. Give specific feedback and corrections. Tell students what they are doing right as well as what is wrong and why it is wrong. Periodically, give students a question or problem that was once hard for them but now seems easy. Point out how much they have improved. 4. Communicate to students that academic ability is improvable and specific to the task at hand. In other words, the fact that a student has trouble in algebra doesn’t necessarily mean that geometry will be difficult. Don’t undermine your efforts to stress improvement by displaying only the 100% papers on the bulletin board. 5. Model good problem solving, especially when you have to try several approaches. Students need to see that learning is not smooth and error free, even for the teacher. DO I WANT TO DO IT? SEEING THE VALUE OF LEARNING.  We want students to see the value of the tasks involved and work to learn, not just try to get the grade or get finished. Attainment and Intrinsic Value.  To establish attainment value, we must connect the learning task with the needs of the students. It must be possible for students to meet their needs for safety, belonging, and achievement in our classes. Many students are quietly wounded by their teachers’ words or by school practices that embarrass, label, or demean them (K. Olson, 2008). We must make it clear that both women and men can be high achievers in all subjects: No subjects are the territory of only one sex. It is not “unfeminine” to be strong in mathematics, car mechanics, or sports. It is not “unmasculine” to be good in literature, art, or French.

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There are many strategies for encouraging intrinsic (interest) motivation. Several of the following are taken from Brophy (1988). 1. Tie class activities to student interests in sports, music, current events, pets, common problems or conflicts with family and friends, fads, television, and movie personalities, or other significant features of their lives (Schiefele, 1991). 2. Arouse curiosity. Point out puzzling discrepancies between students’ beliefs and the facts. For example, Stipek (1993) describes a teacher who asked her fifth-grade class if there were “people” on some of the other planets. When the students said yes, the teacher asked if people needed oxygen to breathe. Because the students had just learned this fact, they responded yes. Then the teacher told them that there is no oxygen in the atmosphere of the other planets. This surprising discrepancy between what the children knew about oxygen and what they believed about life on other planets led to a rousing discussion of the atmospheres of other planets. 3. Make the learning task fun. Many lessons can be taught through appropriately used but still fun simulations or games (see the Point/Counterpoint on page 512). 4. Make use of novelty and familiarity. Don’t overuse a few teaching approaches or motivational strategies. We all need some variety. Varying the goal structures of tasks (cooperative, competitive, individualistic) can help. When the material being covered in class is abstract or unfamiliar to students, try to connect it to something they know and understand. For example, talk about the size of a large area, such as the Acropolis in Athens, in terms of football fields. Utility Value.  Sometimes it is difficult to encourage intrinsic motivation, and so teachers must rely on the utility or “instrumental” value of tasks. It is important to learn many skills because they will be needed in more advanced classes or for life outside school. 1. When these connections are not obvious, you should explain the connections to your students or ask them to explain how the material will be important in their lives (Hulleman, Godes, Hendricks, & Harackiewicz, 2010). 2. In some situations, teachers can provide incentives and rewards for learning (see Chapter 7). Remember, though, that giving rewards when students are already interested in the activity may undermine intrinsic motivation. 3. Use ill-structured problems and authentic tasks in teaching. Connect problems in school to real problems outside, such as buying your first car, making decisions about mobile phone plans, or writing a persuasive letter to a potential employer. WHAT DO I NEED TO DO TO SUCCEED? STAYING FOCUSED ON THE TASK.  We want students to believe that success will come when they apply good learning strategies instead of believing that their only option is to use self-defeating, failure-avoiding, face-saving strategies. When things get difficult, we want students to stay focused on the task and not get so worried about failure that they “freeze.” If the focus shifts to worries about performance, fear of failure, or concern with looking smart, then motivation to learn is lost. 1. Give students frequent opportunities to respond through questions and answers, short assignments, or demonstrations of skills and correct problems quickly. You don’t want students to practice errors too long. 2. When possible, have students create a finished product. They will be more persistent and focused on the task when the end is in sight. For example, I often begin a house-painting project thinking I will work for just an hour and then find myself still painting hours later because I want to see the finished product. 3. Avoid heavy emphasis on grades and competition. An emphasis on grades forces students to focus on performance, not learning. Anxious students are especially hard hit by highly competitive evaluation. 4. Reduce the task risk without oversimplifying it. When tasks are risky (failure is likely and the consequences of failing are grave), student motivation suffers. For

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GUIDELINES

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS

Motivation to Learn Understand family goals for children. Examples 1. In an informal setting, around coffee or snacks, meet with families individually or in small groups to listen to their goals for their children. 2. Mail out questionnaires or send response cards home with students, asking what skills the families believe their children most need to work on. Pick one goal for each child, and develop a plan for working toward the goal both inside and outside school. Share the plan with the families, and ask for feedback. Identify student and family interests that can be related to goals. Examples 1. Ask a member of the family to share a skill or hobby. 2. Identify “family favorites”—favorite foods, music, vacations, sports, activities, hymns, movies, games, snacks, recipes, memories. Tie class lessons to interests.

2. Ask family members to highlight strong points of homework assignments. They might attach a note to assignments describing the three best aspects of the work and one element that could be improved. Make families partners in showing the value of learning. Examples 1. Invite family members to the class to demonstrate how they use mathematics or writing in their work. 2. Involve parents or caregivers in identifying skills and knowledge that could be applied at home and prove helpful information to the family right now, for example, keeping records on service agencies, writing letters of complaint to department stores or landlords, or researching vacation destinations. Provide resources that build skill and will for families. Examples 1. Give family members simple strategies for helping their children improve study skills. 2. Involve older students in a “homework hotline” telephone network for helping younger students.

Give families a way to track progress toward goals. Examples 1. Provide simple “progress charts” or goal cards that can be posted on the refrigerator. 2. Ask for parents’ or caregivers’ feedback (and mean it) about your effectiveness in helping their children. Work with families to build confidence and positive expectations. Examples 1. Avoid comparing one child in a family to another during conferences and discussions with family members.

Have frequent celebrations of learning. Examples 1. Invite families to a “museum” at the end of a unit on dinosaurs. Students create the museum in the auditorium, library, or cafeteria. After visiting the museum, families go to the classroom to examine their child’s portfolio for the unit. 2. Place mini-exhibits of student work at local grocery stores, libraries, or community centers.

difficult, complex, or ambiguous tasks, provide students with plenty of time, support, resources, help, and the chance to revise or improve work. 5. Model motivation to learn for your students. Talk about your interest in the subject and how you deal with difficult learning tasks (Xu, Coats, & Davidson, 2012). 6. Teach the particular learning strategies that students will need to master the material being studied. Show students how to learn and remember so they won’t be forced to fall back on self-defeating strategies or rote memory. DO I BELONG IN THIS CLASSROOM?  We want students to feel as though they belong in school—that their teachers and classmates care about them and can be trusted. This is an important topic, so I have devoted a large part of Chapter 13 to it. For now, let’s consider how the support of families can be helpful as you encourage student belonging in your classroom in the Guidelines: Motivation to Learn—Family and Community Partnerships. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.7

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. SUMMARY What Is Motivation? (pp. 490–493) Define motivation.  Motivation is the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior. The study of motivation focuses on how and why people initiate actions directed toward specific goals, how long it takes them to get started in the activity, how intensively they are involved in the activity, how persistent they are in their attempts to reach these goals, and what they are thinking and feeling along the way. What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?  Intrinsic motivation is the natural tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise capabilities—it is motivation to do something when we don’t have to. Extrinsic motivation is based on factors not related to the activity itself. We are not really interested in the activity for its own sake; we care only about what it will gain us. How does locus of causality apply to motivation? The essential difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is the person’s reason for acting, that is, whether the locus of causality for the action is inside or outside the person. If the locus is internal, the motivation is intrinsic; if the locus is external, the motivation is extrinsic. Most motivation has elements of both. In fact, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation may be two separate tendencies—both can operate at the same time in a given situation. What do you already know about motivation?  Behaviorists tend to emphasize extrinsic motivation caused by incentives, rewards, and punishment. Cognitive views stress a person’s active search for meaning, understanding, and competence, and the power of the individual’s attributions and interpretations. In social cognitive theory, self-efficacy and agency are central factors in motivation. Self-efficacy is your belief that you can execute particular behaviors at a particular level in a given situation. Sociocultural views emphasize engaged participation and identity within a community. What are six current explanations of motivation? To organize the many ideas about motivation in a way that is useful for teaching, we examined six broad areas or approaches. Most contemporary explanations of motivation include a discussion of needs and self-determination, goals, expectancies and values, attributions, self-beliefs, and finally, the emotional “hot” side of motivation–interests, curiosity, and anxiety.

Needs and Self-Determination (pp. 493–496) Distinguish between deficiency needs and being needs in Maslow’s theory.  Maslow called four lower-level needs deficiency needs: survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem. When these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. He labeled the three higher-level needs being needs: cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and self-actualization. When they are met, a person’s motivation increases to seek further fulfillment. What are the basic needs that affect motivation, and how does self-determination affect motivation?  Self-determination theory suggests that motivation is affected by the need for

competence, autonomy and control, and relatedness. When students experience self-determination, they are intrinsically motivated; they are more interested in their work, have a greater sense of self-esteem, and learn more. Students’ experiencing self-determination depends in part on the teacher’s communications with students providing information rather than seeking to control them. In addition, teachers must acknowledge the students’ perspective, offer choices, provide rationales for limits, and treat poor performance as a problem to be solved rather than a target for criticism.

Goals and Goal Orientations (pp. 497–502) What kinds of goals are the most motivating? Goals increase motivation if they are specific, moderately difficult, and attainable in the near future. Describe mastery, performance, work-avoidant, and social goals. A mastery goal is the intention to gain knowledge and master skills, leading students to seek challenges and persist when they encounter difficulties. A performance goal is the intention to get good grades or to appear smarter or more capable than others, leading students to be preoccupied with themselves and how they appear (ego-involved learners). Students can approach or avoid these two kinds of goals—the problems are greatest with avoidance. Another kind of avoidance is evident with work-avoidant learners, who simply want to find the easiest way to handle the situation. Students with social goals can be supported or hindered in their learning, depending on the specific goal (i.e., have fun with friends or bring honor to the family). What makes goal setting effective in the classroom?  For goal setting to be effective in the classroom, students need accurate feedback about their progress toward goals and they must accept the goals set. Generally, students are more willing to adopt goals that seem realistic, reasonably difficult, meaningful, and validated by activities connecting them to their intrinsic interests.

Expectancy-Value-Cost Explanations (pp. 502–503) What are expectancy x value theories?  Expectancy × value theories suggest that motivation to reach a goal is the product of our expectations for success and the value of the goal to us. If either is zero, our motivation is zero also. Values have to be considered in relation to the cost of pursuing them. So the strength of our motivation in a particular situation is determined by our expectation that we can succeed, the value of that success to us, and the cost of pursuing the goal. What are different task values?  Tasks can have attainment, intrinsic, or utility value for students. Attainment value is the importance to the student of succeeding. Intrinsic value is the enjoyment the student gets from the task. Utility value is determined by how much the task contributes to reaching short-term or long-term goals.

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Attributions and Beliefs About Knowledge, Ability, and Self-Worth (pp. 503–510) What are the three dimensions of attributions in Weiner’s theory?  According to Weiner, most of the attributed causes for successes or failures can be characterized in terms of three dimensions: locus (location of the cause internal or external to the person), stability (whether the cause stays the same or can change), and controllability (whether the person can control the cause). The greatest motivational problems arise when students attribute failures to stable, uncontrollable causes. These students may seem resigned to failure, depressed, helpless— what we generally call “unmotivated.” What are epistemological beliefs, and how do they affect motivation?  Epistemological beliefs are ways of understanding how you think and learn. Individuals’ epistemological beliefs can impact their approach to learning, their expectations of themselves and the work they do, and the extent to which they engage in academic tasks. Specifically, epistemological beliefs include your understanding of the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge. How do mindsets and beliefs about ability affect motivation? When people hold a fixed mindset about ability—that is, they believe that ability is fixed—they tend to set performance goals and strive to protect themselves from failure. When they have a growth mindset and believe ability is improvable, however, they tend to set mastery goals and handle failure constructively. What is learned helplessness, and what deficits does it cause?  When people come to believe that the events and outcomes in their lives are mostly uncontrollable, they have developed learned helplessness, which is associated with three types of deficits: motivational, cognitive, and affective. Students who feel hopeless will be unmotivated and reluctant to attempt work. They miss opportunities to practice and improve skills and abilities, so they develop cognitive deficits and they often suffer from affective problems such as depression, anxiety, and listlessness. How does self-worth influence motivation? Mastery-oriented students tend to value achievement and see ability as improvable, so they focus on mastery goals, take risks, and cope with failure constructively. A low sense of self-worth seems to be linked with the failure-avoiding and failure-accepting strategies intended to protect the individual from the consequences of failure. These strategies may seem to help in the short term but are damaging to motivation and self-esteem in the long run.

How Do You Feel about Learning? Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety (pp. 510–519) How do interests and emotions affect learning?  Learning and information processing are influenced by emotion. Students are more likely to pay attention to, learn from, and remember events, images, and readings that provoke emotional responses or that are related to their personal interests. However, there are cautions in responding to students’ interests. “Seductive details,” interesting bits of information that are not central to the learning, can hinder learning.

How does curiosity affect learning, and what can teachers do to stimulate curiosity in their subject area? Curiosity can be a powerful motivational tool that captures and maintains students’ attention in school. Teachers can foster curiosity by tapping into students’ interests, illustrating connections between course material and applications that may be interesting to students, and allowing students to find these connections for themselves. An example might include asking students to identify the simple machines at work in a skateboard or rollercoaster. What is flow?  Flow is a mental state in which you are fully immersed in a challenging task that is accompanied by high levels of concentration and focused attention. When individuals are in flow, they face this highly challenging task with matching high levels of the needed skills—they are stretched but not broken. Individuals in flow experience greater enjoyment in the task, continue working without prompting, and tend to generate higher quality, more creative products. What is the role of arousal in learning? There appears to be an optimum level of arousal for most activities. Generally speaking, a higher level of arousal is helpful on simple tasks, but lower levels of arousal are better for complex tasks. When arousal is too low, teachers can stimulate curiosity by pointing out gaps in knowledge or using variety in activities. Severe anxiety is an example of arousal that is too high for optimal learning. How does anxiety interfere with learning?  Anxiety can be the cause or the result of poor performance; it can interfere with attention to, learning of, and retrieval of information. Many anxious students need help in developing effective test-taking and study skills.

Motivation to Learn in School: On TARGET (pp. 519–528) Define motivation to learn. Teachers are interested in a particular kind of motivation—student motivation to learn. Student motivation to learn is both a trait and a state. It involves taking academic work seriously, trying to get the most from it, and applying appropriate learning strategies in the process. What does TARGET stand for? TARGET is an acronym for the six areas in which teachers make decisions that can influence student motivation to learn: the nature of the task that students are asked to do, the autonomy students are allowed in working, how students are recognized for their accomplishments, grouping practices, evaluation procedures, and the scheduling of time in the classroom. How do tasks affect motivation?  The tasks that teachers set affect motivation. When students encounter tasks that are related to their interests, stimulate their curiosity, or are connected to real-life situations, they are more likely to be motivated to learn. Tasks can have attainment, intrinsic, or utility value for students. Attainment value is the importance to the student of succeeding. Intrinsic value is the enjoyment the student gets from the task. Utility value is determined by how much the task contributes to reaching short-term or long-term goals. Describe the value of bounded choices. Like totally unguided discovery or aimless discussions, unstructured or unbounded choices can be counterproductive for learning. The alternative

M O TI VATI O N I N LE AR NI NG AND T EA CHIN G is bounded choice—giving students a range of options that set out valuable tasks for them but also allow them to follow personal interests. The balance must be just right so that students are not bewildered by too much choice or bored by too little room to explore. How can recognition undermine motivation and a sense of self-efficacy?  Recognition and reward in the classroom will support motivation to learn if the recognition is for personal progress rather than competitive victories. Praise and rewards should focus on students’ growing competence. At times, praise can have paradoxical effects when students use the teacher’s praise or criticism as cues about capabilities. List three goal structures, and distinguish among them. How students relate to their peers in the classroom is influenced by the goal structure of the activities. Goal structures can be

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competitive, individualistic, or cooperative. Cooperative goal structures can encourage motivation and increase learning, especially for low-achieving students. How does the evaluative climate affect goal setting?  The more competitive the grading, the more students set performance goals and focus on “looking competent,” that is, they are more ego-involved. When the focus is on performing rather than learning, students often see the goal of classroom tasks as simply finishing, especially if the work is difficult. What are some effects of time on motivation?  To foster motivation to learn, teachers should be flexible in their use of time in the classroom. Students who are forced to move faster or slower than they should or who are interrupted as they become involved in a project are not likely to develop persistence for learning.

. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the links under the images below.

Motivation and Needs

Mastery vs. Performance Goal Orientations

Student Motivation

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

Application Exercise 12.1

Application Exercise 12.2

Application Exercise 12.3

. KEY TERMS Academic tasks (p. 519) Amotivation (p. 491) Anxiety (p. 516) Attribution theories (p. 503) Authentic task (p. 520) Being needs (p. 493) Cognitive evaluation theory (p. 495) Deficiency needs (p. 493) Emotions (p. 514) Epistemological beliefs (p. 505) Expectancy × value theories (p. 502) Extrinsic motivation (p. 491) Failure-accepting students (p. 509) Failure-avoiding students (p. 508)

Fixed mindset (p. 506) Flow (p. 514) Goal orientations (p. 498) Goal structure (p. 522) Growth mindset (p. 506) Hierarchy of needs (p. 493) Importance or attainment value (p. 503) Interest or intrinsic value (p. 503) Intrinsic motivation (p. 491) Learned helplessness (p. 508) Locus of causality (p. 491) Mastery goal (p. 499) Mastery-oriented students (p. 508) Motivation (p. 490)

Motivation to learn (p. 519) Need for autonomy (p. 495) Need for competence (p. 494) Need for relatedness (p. 495) Performance goal (p. 499) Problem-based learning (p. 520) Self-actualization (p. 493) Self-efficacy (p. 504) Self-handicapping (p. 509) Social goals (p. 500) Sociocultural views of motivation (p. 502) Utility value (p. 503) Value (p. 503) Work-avoidant learners (p. 500)

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CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Students in Ms. Raudah’s class rarely miss their homework submission because she is known for being strict and demanding. Which one of the following types of motivation best explains her students’ behavior? A. Extrinsic B. Intrinsic C. Being needs D. Relatedness 2. Deficiencies in students’ lives impact their academic outcomes. Thus, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs becomes pertinent for educators. Which of the following correctly represents the hierarchy of needs from the lowest to the highest? A. Physiological needs S Cognitive needs S Love and belongingness S Self-actualization B. Physiological needs S Love and belongingness S Esteem needs S Self-actualization C. Physiological needs S Esteem needs S Love and belongingness S Self-actualization D. Physiological needs S Cognitive needs S Esteem needs S Self-actualization 3. Teachers who select all content for their students and insist on students accomplishing their assignments on their own neglect which of the following aspects of self-determination? A. Autonomy and competence B. Autonomy and relatedness C. Relatedness and competence D. Autonomy, relatedness, and competence

4. According to attribution theory, which of the following is NOT one of the dimensions students may use in attributing causes for their successes/failures? A. Locus B. Stability C. Controllability D. Value

CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Many high school students in Mr. Jamar’s class enjoyed learning music theory and singing. They thought it was a great opportunity for them to improve their singing skills. However, a small group of students disliked the class because they believed singing required talent, which they thought they lacked. Meanwhile, Mr. Jamar started assigning additional work and training, outside of the curriculum, hoping to encourage his students’ interest in the subject. In an effort to ensure his students liked his classes, he rewarded all students who completed these extra-curricular tasks by treating them to ice-cream after class. 5. Students in Mr. Jamar’s music class exhibit two types of mindset. Identify and explain these. Which type of mindset does Mr. Jamar exhibit according to you, and why? List at least one additional measure that Mr. Jamar could implement to help his students. 6. Do you agree or disagree with Mr. Jamar’s decision to reward his students for completing additional work? Give reasons your answer.

MyLab Education Licensure Exam

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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK  Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin

First of all, don’t get discouraged. You don’t need a textbook to be a successful teacher. Look over the district’s curriculum guides, and see what the objectives are for each unit you will be teaching. Once you know the objectives, get creative. Keeping the students motivated and interested in learning is essential. By giving them choice and using a variety of teaching methods, you will allow them to stay actively engaged in their learning. You will be amazed at what the students will come up with when they are given choices.

made it fun and interesting.” I have heard this so many times both as a student and as a teacher, and it proves my point. Just the fact that the teacher is excited about the material shows the students that this is important information that they need, plus they are curious about the material when they respect and like their teacher. If I felt like the difficulty level of the textbooks was too great, I would have to break the lessons down into smaller increments and use different techniques—discussion, re-teaching, group projects, and so on—to enrich the students and adapt to their level of learning. When your students are motivated, they can accomplish anything—it doesn’t matter what materials are available to them, what the difficulty level of the textbook is. Kids will be motivated when their teacher truly cares about them, is passionate about the material, and makes school interesting.

MICHAEL YASIS • Fifth-Grade Teacher

PAM GASKILL • Second-Grade Teacher

Here is how some practicing teachers responded to motivate students when resources are slim. DANIELLE HARTMAN • Second-Grade Teacher Claymont Elementary School, Ballwin, MO

L. H. Tanglen Elementary School, Minnetonka, MN

Riverside Elementary School, Dublin, OH

Most learning is acquired through active learning and participation. Therefore, the workbooks that focus on drill and practice, if given as the primary source of learning, most likely would bore the students. I would approach this situation by first engaging the students in a discussion to assess their prior knowledge. I would then challenge and extend their understanding of the concepts through guided discovery, building on similar examples from the “boring” workbooks. While they work on the concepts independently in their workbooks, their confidence and self-esteem will increase.

Teaching is inherently creative. Use your time and creativity this summer to acquaint yourself with the required objectives, and think about ways in which you can make them meaningful and relevant to your students. Explore other available resources in the community, such as libraries, speakers’ bureaus, and resource centers. Plan to incorporate a variety of activities such as videos, group work, field trips, projects, and speakers so that your students will remain interested and involved. Use materials that your students have access to from home—books, videos, artifacts, Internet printouts. It is amazing how cooperative parents can be when asked to help in specified ways. You might even make use of the old workbook pages, not in the traditional way, but for cooperative work. You can facilitate student success by pairing weaker readers with more competent readers to discuss and complete the worksheets. Stress that everyone needs to work together to learn the material. Active participation and engagement with the materials will help your students to construct their own meanings more effectively.

KELLY MCELROY BONIN  •  High School Counselor Klein Oak High School, Spring, TX

Simply being excited to be working with the third graders and showing interest and enthusiasm for the subject matter should arouse the students’ interest and encourage them to learn. How many times have you heard it said, “Mrs. -Energy was the best teacher I ever had. She took the most boring, difficult subject and

chapter thirteen

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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Bullies and Victims

WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

MANAGING LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS Two boys are terrorizing one of your students. These boys are larger, stronger, and older than the boy in your class, who is small for his age and shy. Unfortunately, the bullies are fairly popular, in part because they are successful athletes. There are incidents on the bus before and after school, in the gym, in the hallways, and at lunch—including intimidation, extortion of lunch money, tripping, shoving, and verbal taunts—“fag” is a favorite chant. You do not have the two bullies in any of your classes. Your student has started to miss school routinely, and when he is in class, the quality of his work is declining. CRITICAL THINKING • How would you handle this situation? • Who should be involved? • What would you do about the verbal homophobic insults? • What would you do if the bullies were in your classes? • What would you do if the bullies and victim were girls?

Tanor/Shutterstock

OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES “Maintaining a positive and organized classroom setting free from disruption is critical to providing an instructional environment conducive to teaching and learning. Yet it is by no means an easy task” (Skiba et al., 2016, p. 120). This chapter looks at the ways that teachers create social and physical environments for learning by examining classroom management—one of the main concerns of teachers, particularly beginning teachers, and a significant cause of burnout if teachers feel ineffective as mangers (Aloe, Amo, & Shanahan, 2014). The very nature of classes, teaching, and students makes good management a critical ingredient of success, and we will investigate why this is true. Successful managers create more time for learning, involve more students, form supportive relationships with students, and help students to become self-managing. A positive learning environment must be established and maintained throughout the year. One of the best ways to accomplish this is by working to prevent problems from occurring at all. But when problems arise—as they always do—an appropriate response is important. What will you do when students challenge you openly in class, when one student asks your advice on a difficult personal problem, or when another withdraws from all participation? We will examine the ways that teachers can communicate effectively with their students in these and many other situations. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 13.1 Relate academic learning time and student cooperation to creating and maintaining a classroom climate conducive to academic achievement and socio-emotional well-being. Objective 13.2 Summarize the research on the roles of rules, procedures, consequences, and the design of the physical space in classroom management, with special attention to establishing your management system during the first weeks of class. Objective 13.3 Discuss how to maintain a positive learning environment by encouraging student engagement, preventing problems, and developing caring, respectful relationships with your students. Objective 13.4 Identify strategies for preventing and addressing student misbehaviors, including bullying. Objective 13.5 Characterize successful teacher–student and student–student communication through such approaches as empathetic listening, conflict resolution, peer mediation, and restorative justice. Objective 13.6 Explain the need for and approaches to culturally relevant classroom management.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives

THE WHAT AND WHY OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

The What and Why of Classroom Management The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation

STOP & THINK  What do you believe about classroom man-

The Goals of Classroom Management

agement? On a 5-point scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), how would you respond to these items? 1. Pupils can be trusted to work together without supervision. 2. Being friendly with pupils often leads them to become too familiar. 3. Teachers should consider revision of their teaching methods if these methods are criticized by their pupils. 4. Pupils often misbehave in order to make the teacher look bad. 5. It is often necessary to remind pupils that their status in school differs from that of teachers. •

Creating a Positive Learning Environment Some Research Results Routines and Rules Required Planning Spaces for Learning Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning Encouraging Engagement Prevention Is the Best Medicine Caring Relationships: Connections with School

Items 2, 4, and 5 in the Stop & Think challenge are custodial items. If you tended to agree with these items, you probably are more teacher-centered in your philosophy of Stopping Problems Quickly management and interested in maintaining order, rules, and If You Impose Penalties structure in your classes. If you tended to agree more with Teacher-Imposed Penalties versus Student items 1 and 3, you may tend to be more humanistic in your Responsibility philosophy and are more optimistic about students’ abilities What About Zero Tolerance? to become responsible and self-regulated learners. You just Bullying and Cyberbullying took 5 items from the PCI (Pupil Control Ideology). It was developed by my husband, Wayne Hoy, and his colleagues Special Problems with High School Students (Willower, Eidell, & Hoy, 1967) over 50 years ago and is still The Need for Communication used widely today. If you want to take the full survey, go to Message Sent—Message Received waynekhoy.com/pupil_control.html. Another survey that assesses your philosophy of disEmpathetic Listening cipline is the Beliefs About Discipline Inventory (Wolfgang, When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, 2009), shown in Figure 13.1. When you answer these quesAssertive Discipline, and Problem Solving tions, you will see if your values about classroom management Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and tend to focus on Relationship-Listening, Confronting-Contracting, Restorative Justice Rules and Consequences, or some combination. There are Research on Management Approaches successful teachers using all these strategies appropriately as the situation merits. What is your position? Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management In study after study, classroom management stands out Summary and Key Terms as the variable with the largest impact on student achievement Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What (Marzano & Marzano, 2003). Knowledge of and skill in classWould They Do? room management are marks of expertise in teaching; and stress and exhaustion from managerial difficulties are precursors to teacher burnout (Emmer & Stough, 2001; Hong, 2012). What is it about classrooms that makes management so critical? Classrooms are particular kinds of environments. They have distinctive features that influence their inhabitants no matter what the teacher believes about education (Doyle, 2006). Classrooms are multidimensional. They are crowded with people, tasks, and time pressures. Many individuals—all with differing goals, preferences, and abilities—must share resources, use and reuse materials without losing them, move in and out of the room, and so on. And events occur simultaneously—everything happens at once, and the pace is fast. Teachers have literally hundreds of exchanges with students during a single day. In this rapid-fire existence, events are unpredictable. Even when plans are carefully made, a lesson can still be interrupted by a technology glitch or a loud, angry discussion right outside the classroom. Because classrooms are public, the way the Dealing with Discipline Problems

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FIGU RE 13.1 BELIEFS ABOUT DISCIPLINE INVENTORY This 12-question inventory will give you insights about yourself and where your personality and the discipline techniques you use would fall under the three philosophies of discipline. In each question, you are asked to choose between two competing value statements. For some questions, you will definitely agree with one statement and disagree with the second, making it easy for you to choose; for others, however, you will agree or disagree with both, and you must select the one you more closely identify with. There is no “right” or “wrong” answer—but merely indicators of your own personal views. Forced Choices. Instructions: Circle a or b to indicate the statement with which you identify the most. You must choose between the two statements for each item. 1. a.  Because students’ thinking is limited, rules need to be established for them by mature adults. b.  Each student’s emotional needs must be taken into consideration, rather than having some preestablished rule imposed on all. 2. a. During the first class session of the new school year, the teacher needs to assign each student his or her own desk or table space, and the student should be taught routinely to take that space after transitions. b.  Groups of students can decide through a class meeting what rules they need to govern themselves. 3. a. Students should be given a choice as to which topics for projects they wish to select. Once they choose, they must keep to that decision for most of that grading period. b. The material students must learn and the tasks to be performed must be determined by the teacher, and a specific sequence of instruction to accomplish these goals must be followed. 4. The books and similar classroom equipment are being misused, soiled, and at times destroyed. I will most likely: a.  Hold a class meeting, show the damaged books to the class, and ask them how we may solve this problem, including what action should be taken toward a student found to be misusing books. b. Physically remove or limit the number of books available and observe closely to see who is misusing the books. I would then tell that student how such action was affecting other students and how I felt about the loss of such books. 5. Two students of equal power and abilities are in a rather loud verbal conflict over a classroom material. I would: a.  Attempt to see that this does not get out of control by approaching the students, telling them of the classroom rule, and demanding that they desist in their actions, promising a sanction if they fail to comply. b. Avoid interfering in something that the students need to resolve themselves. 6. a. A student strongly requests not to work with the group today. I would permit this, feeling that this student has some emotional concerns related to the group experience. b. One student is being refused entry into group activities. I would raise this as an issue in a class meeting and ask for a discussion of the reasons and possible solutions from the student and the group. 7. The noise level in the classroom is at such a high level that it is bothering me. I would: a. Flick the classroom lights to get everyone’s attention, ask the students to become quiet, and later praise those who are talking quietly. b. Select the two or three students really making most of the noise, take them aside to ask them to reflect (think) about their behavior and how it might affect others, and get an agreement from them to work quietly. 8. During the first few days of class, I would: a. Permit the students to test their ability to get along as a new group and make no predetermined rules until the students feel that rules are needed. b. Immediately establish the class rules and the fair sanction I will apply if these rules are broken. 9. My response to swearing by a student is: a. The student is frustrated by a classmate and has responded by swearing, so I do not reprimand the student but encourage him to talk out what is bothering him. b. I bring the two students together in a “knee-to-knee” confronting relationship and attempt to get them to work out this ­conflict while I ask questions and keep the focus on the negotiation. 10. If a student disrupts class while I am trying to lecture, I would: a. Ignore the disruption if possible and/or move the student to the back of the room as a consequence of his misbehavior. b. Express my feeling of discomfort to the student about being disrupted from my task. 11. a. Each student must realize that there are some school rules that need to be obeyed, and any student who breaks them will be punished in the same fair manner. b. Rules are never written in stone and can be renegotiated by the class, and sanctions will vary with each student. 12. A student refuses to put away her work or materials after using them. I would most likely: a. Express to the student how not putting her things away will affect future activities in this space, and how frustrating this will be for everyone. I would then leave the materials where they are for the remainder of the day. b. Confront the student to reflect on her behavior, think about how her noncompliance affects others, and tell her that if she ­cannot follow the rules, she will lose the use of the materials in the future.

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F IG U RE 13.1 (Con t in u e d) Scoring Key and Interpretation Take your responses and circle them on the tables provided: Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

4b 1b

2b 4a

2a 1a

6a 5b

3a 6b

3b 5a

9a 8a

7b 9b

7a 8b

12a 10b

11b 12b

11a 10a

Total number of responses in Table 1 Total number of responses in Table 2 Total number of responses in Table 3 The table for which the total number of responses was the highest indicates the school of thought where your values tend to be c­ lustered. Table 1 is Relationship-Listening, Table 2 is Confronting-Contracting, and Table 3 is Rules and Consequences. The table with the next highest score would be your second choice, and the table with the least number may be the philosophy that you associate with the least. If your responses are equally distributed across all three tables, you may be an eclectic teacher who picks and chooses from all philosophies or your philosophy may not have consolidated at this time in your training.

Source: From Wolfgang, C. H. (2009). Solving Discipline and Classroom Management Problems (7th ed. pp. 6–7). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. Reprinted with permission.

teacher handles these unexpected intrusions is seen and judged by everyone. Students are always noticing if the teacher is being “fair.” Is there favoritism? What happens when a rule is broken? Finally, classrooms have histories. The meaning of a particular teacher’s or student’s actions depends in part on what has happened before. The fifteenth time a student arrives late requires a different teacher response compared to the first late arrival. In addition, the history of the first few weeks of school affects life in the class for the rest of the year.

The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation The basic management task for teachers is to achieve order and harmony by gaining and maintaining student cooperation in class activities (Doyle, 2006). Given the multi­ dimensional, simultaneous, fast-paced, unpredictable, public, and historical nature of classrooms, this is quite a challenge. Gaining student cooperation means planning activities, having materials ready, making appropriate behavioral and academic demands on students, giving clear signals, accomplishing transitions smoothly, foreseeing problems and stopping them before they start, selecting and sequencing activities so that flow and interest are sustained, maintaining positive relationships with students based on mutual respect—and much more. Also, different activities require different managerial skills. For example, a new or complicated activity may be a greater threat to classroom management than a familiar or simple activity. Obviously, gaining the cooperation of kindergartners is not the same task as gaining the cooperation of high school seniors. During kindergarten and the first few years of elementary school, direct teaching of classroom rules and procedures is important. For children in the middle elementary years, many classroom routines have become relatively automatic, but new procedures for a particular activity may have to be taught directly, and the entire system still needs monitoring and maintenance. Toward the end of elementary school, some students begin to test and defy authority. The management

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challenges at this stage are to deal productively with these disruptions and to motivate students who are becoming less concerned about teachers’ opinions and more interested in their social lives. By the end of high school, the challenges are to manage the curriculum, fit academic material to students’ interests and abilities, and help students become more self-managing (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017).

The Goals of Classroom Management STOP & THINK You are interviewing for a job in a great district—it is known for innovation. The assistant principal looks at you for a moment and then asks, “What is classroom management?” How would you answer? •

The aim of classroom management is to maintain a positive, productive learning environment. But order for its own sake is an empty goal. It is unethical to use classroom management techniques just to keep students docile and quiet. What, then, is the point of working so hard to manage classrooms? There are at least four reasons, and here they are. ACCESS TO LEARNING.  Each classroom activity has its own rules for participation. Sometimes these rules are clearly stated by the teacher, but often they are implicit and unstated. For example, in a reading group, students may have to raise their hands to make a comment, but in a show-and-tell circle in the same class, they may simply have to catch the teacher’s eye. Teacher and students may not even be aware that they are following different rules for different activities. These rules defining who can talk, what they can talk about, when and to whom they can talk, and how long they can talk are often called participation structures. Some students, however, seem to come to school less able to participate than others because the participation structures they learn at home do not match those of school activities (Cazden, 2001). What can we conclude? To reach the first goal of good classroom management— giving all students access to learning—you must make sure everyone knows how to participate in class activities. The key is awareness. What are your rules and expectations? Are they understandable, given your students’ cultural backgrounds and home experiences? What unspoken rules or values may be operating? Are you clearly signaling appropriate ways to participate? Some students, particularly those with behavioral and emotional challenges, may require direct teaching and practicing of important behaviors (Emmer & Stough, 2001). MORE TIME FOR LEARNING.  I once used a stopwatch to time the commercials during a TV quiz show. I was amazed to find that half of the program was devoted to commercials. Seems like football games are even worse! If you used a similar approach in classrooms, timing all the different activities throughout the day, you might be surprised by how little actual teaching takes place. Almost every study examining time and learning has found a significant relationship between time spent on content and student learning. Yet many minutes each day are lost through interruptions, disruptions, late starts, and rough transitions (C. S. Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015). A school year seems like a long time, right? Let’s say a typical high school class is mandated by the state to meet 126 hours per school year (180 days times 42 minutes a day). When we consider student absences and school interruptions such as assembly programs, those 126 hours are more like 119 hours available for learning for the typical student. But in every class, elementary or secondary, there are interruptions, clerical tasks, collecting and distributing materials, taking roll, and dealing with behavior problems, so the time available for teaching is typically decreased by about 20%. Now we are left with 96 hours of actual instructional time. Good classroom management can take back some of those hours for teaching, so that more instructional time is available. But simply making more time for instruction will not automatically lead to achievement. To be valuable, time must be used effectively. Basically, students will learn what they

MyLab Education

Video Example 13.1 In this video, sixth-grade teacher Robert Wimberly talks about his strategies for beginning every school day. The classroom is ready for students before they arrive, and they have a planned activity to work on the moment they enter the classroom.

MyLab Education

Podcast 13.1 With her colleague and friend, Carol Weinstein, textbook author Anita Woolfolk wrote a chapter for researchers and teachers about how beliefs affect classroom management. Here she talks about how teachers and students may have beliefs that get in the way of good classroom relationships.

Classroom management  Techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behavior problems. Participation structures  The formal and informal rules for how to take part in a given activity.

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FIGU RE 13.2 WHO KNOWS WHERE THE TIME GOES? The >126 hours per year of instruction in a class mandated by most states can represent only 60 to 70 hours of quality academic learning time. 150

125

126

119 96

Hours

100

77

75

62

50

25

0

Total Time (Hours mandated by the state)

Attended Time (Total time minus days absent)

Actual Engaged Academic Time (Actual Time academic (Attended time minus time minus recess, lunch, time students transitions, are “off task”) etc.)

Academic Learning Time (Engaged time on meaningful, appropriate tasks)

Source: From Middle and Secondary Classroom Management (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein and I. Novodvorsky, New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, p. 182. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Engaged time  Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as time on task. Time on task  Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as engaged time. Academic learning time  Time when students are actually succeeding at the learning task.

think about deeply, practice, and retrieve. Time spent actively involved in specific learning tasks often is called engaged time, or sometimes time on task—we can estimate this to be about 80% of the instructional time. Again, however, engaged time doesn’t guarantee learning. Students may be struggling with material that is too difficult, or they may be using the wrong learning strategies. When students are working with a high rate of success—really learning and understanding—we call the time spent academic learning time; again, we can estimate this to be about 80% of the time they are engaged. Now we are down to 62 hours. Figure 13.2 shows how the 126+ hours of time mandated for a high school year in most states can become only about 62 hours of quality academic learning time for a typical student. So the third goal of class management is to increase academic learning time by keeping all students actively engaged in worthwhile, appropriate learning activities. Getting students academically engaged in learning early in their school careers can make a big difference. Several studies have shown that teachers’ rating of students’ on-task, persistent engagement in first grade predicts achievement test score gains and grades through fourth grade, as well as the decision to drop out of high school (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004). MANAGEMENT MEANS RELATIONSHIPS.  All students should feel emotionally and physically safe in the classroom. Beyond that, they also should experience respect and caring. When students feel caring and support from their teachers and their peers, they are more likely to cooperate with classroom activities. Cooperation leads to learning, learning to a sense of self-efficacy, and self-efficacy to more cooperation. The opposite is true as well. When students sense that their teachers and peers don’t care about them, they feel no particular desire to cooperate—why trust people who don’t like or respect

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you? The research on teacher–student relationships is clear. When teachers focus on developing high-quality, trusting relationships, students are less defiant, more willing to seek appropriate help, less likely to be absent or to be held back in school, and more likely to achieve (Emmer & Everton, 2017; Jones & Jones, 2016; Sikba et al., 2016). MANAGEMENT FOR SELF-MANAGEMENT.  The final goal of any management system is to help students become better able to manage themselves. If teachers focus on student compliance, they will spend much of the teaching/learning time monitoring and correcting. Students come to perceive the purpose of school as just following rules, not constructing deep understanding of academic knowledge. And complex learning structures such as cooperative or problem-based learning require student self-management. Compliance with rules is not enough to make these learning structures work (McCaslin & Good, 1998). The movement from demanding obedience to teaching self-regulation and self-control is a fundamental shift in discussions of classroom management today (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). Tom Savage said simply, “the most fundamental purpose of discipline is the development of self-control. Academic knowledge and technological skill will be of little consequence if those who possess them lack self-control” (1999, p. 11). Students learn self-control by making choices and dealing with the consequences, setting goals and priorities, managing time, collaborating to learn, mediating disputes and making peace, and developing trusting relations with trustworthy teachers and classmates (Bear, 2005). Encouraging self-management requires extra time, but teaching students how to take responsibility is an investment well worth the effort. Nancy Perry and Rebecca Collie (2011) compared a preservice preparation program that instructed student teachers about how to coach their students to be self-regulated learners with other programs that did not emphasize self-regulation. The student teachers who developed self-regulation knowledge and skills were more confident, less stressed, and more engaged during their student teaching compared to other prospective teachers who did not learn how to help their students to become self-regulated. This makes sense—if you teach your students to manage their own behavior and learning, you should have fewer management problems, less stress, and more time to teach, which would support your growing sense of teacher efficacy. When elementary and secondary teachers have very effective class management systems but neglect to set student self-management as a goal, their students often find that they have trouble working independently after they graduate from these “well-managed” classes. MyLab Education Self-Check 13.1

CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Much of what you have already learned in this book should prove helpful as you think about creating a positive learning environment. You know, for example, that problems are prevented when individual variations such as those discussed in Chapters 2 through 6 are taken into account in instructional planning. Sometimes students become disruptive because the work assigned is too difficult. And students who are bored by lessons well below their ability levels may find more exciting activities to fill their time. In one sense, teachers prevent discipline problems whenever they make an effort to motivate students. A student engaged in learning is usually not involved in a clash with the teacher or other students at the same time. All plans for motivating students are steps toward preventing problems. And what do we know about learning? We know students need clear goals and examples, practice and review, active participation, and the chance to form connections. Learning to live productively in classrooms is no exception.

Some Research Results What else can teachers do? For several years, educational psychologists at the University of Texas at Austin studied classroom management quite thoroughly (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Emmer & Gerwels, 2006; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). Their general approach was to

Self-management  Management of your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for your own actions. Also the use of behavioral learning principles to change your own behavior.

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study a large number of classrooms, making frequent observations during the first weeks of school and less frequent visits later in the year. After several months, the researchers noted dramatic differences. Some classes had very few management problems, whereas others had many. The most and least effective teachers were identified on the basis of the quality of classroom management and student achievement later in the year. Next, the researchers looked at their observation records of the first weeks of class to see how the effective teachers got started, and they made other comparisons between the teachers who ultimately had harmonious, high-achieving classes and those whose classes were fraught with problems. On the basis of these comparisons, the researchers developed management principles. They then taught these principles to a new group of teachers, and the results were quite positive. Teachers who applied the principles had fewer problems; their students spent more time learning and less time disrupting; and achievement was higher. The findings of these studies formed the basis for two books on classroom management (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). Many of the ideas in the following pages are from these books.

Routines and Rules Required Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Procedures and Routines (I, C4) Efficient procedures and routines reduce confusion and opportunities for misbehavior, and they save time that can be devoted to learning tasks. Identify frequent activities or classroom events that would benefit from well-structured procedures or routines. Explain principles for establishing procedures and routines so that students are likely to observe them.

MyLab Education

Video Example 13.2 At the start of the school year, Ms. Zeiler establishes the rules for her kindergarten classroom. Her routines and her classroom environment reinforce students’ awareness of the rules throughout the year.

STOP & THINK  What are the three or four most important rules you will have for your classroom? • At the elementary school level, teachers must lead 20 to 30 students of varying abilities through many different activities each day. Without efficient rules and procedures, a great deal of time is wasted dealing with the same questions and issues over and over. “My pencil broke. How can I do my math?” “I’m finished with my experiment. What should I do now?” “Carlos tripped me!” “I left my homework in my locker.” At the secondary school level, teachers must meet daily with more than 100 students who use dozens of materials and often change rooms. Secondary school students are also more likely to challenge teachers’ authority. The effective managers studied by Emmer, Evertson, and their colleagues had planned procedures and rules for coping with these situations. These procedures and rules were clear and concrete, stated in positive terms whenever possible (what to do instead of what not to do), observable and not vague, taught and practiced, and reviewed when needed (Sikba et al., 2016). ROUTINES AND PROCEDURES.  How will materials and assignments be distributed and collected? Under what conditions can students leave the room? How will grades be determined? What are the special routines for handling equipment and supplies in science, art, or vocational classes? Procedures and routines describe how activities are accomplished in classrooms, but they are seldom written down; they are simply the ways of getting things done in class. Carol Weinstein and her colleagues (Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015; Weinstein & Romano, 2015) suggest that teachers establish routines to cover the following areas: 1. Administrative routines, such as taking attendance 2. Student movement, such as entering and leaving or going to the bathroom 3. Housekeeping, such as watering plants or storing personal items 4. Lesson-running routines, such as how to collect assignments or return homework 5. Interactions between teacher and student, such as how to get the teacher’s attention when help is needed 6. Talk among students, such as giving help or socializing

Procedures/routines  Prescribed steps for an activity.

You might use these six areas as a framework for planning your class routines. The Guidelines: Establishing Class Routines should help you as you plan.

Rules  Statements specifying expected and forbidden behaviors; dos and don’ts.

RULES.  Unlike routines, rules, which specify expected and forbidden actions in the class, are often written down and posted. They are the dos and don’ts of classroom life. In establishing rules, you should consider what kind of atmosphere you want to create.

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GUIDELINES Establishing Class Routines Determine procedures for student upkeep of desks, classroom equipment, and other facilities. Examples 1. Set aside a cleanup time each day or once a week in selfcontained classes. 2. Demonstrate and have students practice how to push chairs under the desk, take and return materials stored on shelves, sharpen pencils, use the sink or water fountain, assemble lab equipment, and so on. 3. Put a rotating monitor in charge of equipment or materials. Decide how students will be expected to enter and leave the room. Examples 1. Have a procedure for students to follow as soon as they enter the room. Some teachers have a standard assignment (“Have your homework out and be checking it over”). 2. Inform students under what conditions they can leave the room, and make sure they understand when they need to ask for permission to do so. 3. Tell students how they should gain admission to the room if they are late. 4. Set up a policy about class dismissal. Many teachers require students to be in their seats and quiet before they can leave at the end of class. The teacher, not the bell, dismisses class. Establish signals for getting students’ attention, and teach them to your students. Examples 1. In the classroom, flick the lights on and off, sound a chord on a piano or recorder, sound a bell like the “ring bell for service” at a sales counter, move to the podium and stare silently at the class, use a phrase like “Eyes, please,” take out your grade book, or move to the front of the class. 2. In the halls, raise a hand, clap once, or use some other signal to indicate “Stop.”

3. On the playground, raise a hand or whistle to indicate “Line up.” Set routines for student participation in class. Examples 1. Decide whether you will have students raise their hands for permission to speak or simply require that they wait until the speaker has finished. 2. Determine a signal to indicate that you want everyone to respond at once. Some teachers raise a cupped hand to their ear. Others preface the question with “Everyone.” 3. Make sure you are clear about differences in procedures for different activities: reading group, learning center, discussion, teacher presentation, seatwork, video watching, peer learning group, library, and so forth. 4. Establish how many students at a time can be at the pencil sharpener, teacher’s desk, learning center, sink, bookshelves, reading corner, or bathroom. Determine how you will communicate, collect, and return assignments. Examples 1. Establish a place for listing assignments. Some teachers reserve a particular corner of the board for assignments. Others write assignments in colored chalk. For younger students, it may be better to prepare assignment sheets or folders, color-coding them for the math workbook, reading packet, and science kit. 2. Be clear about how and where assignments should be collected. Some teachers collect assignments in a box or bin; others have a student collect work while they introduce the next activity. For ideas about involving students in developing rules and procedures, see educationworld.com/ and search for “rules and procedures.”

What student behaviors will help you teach effectively? What limits do the students need to guide their behavior? The rules you set should be consistent with school rules and also in keeping with principles of learning. For example, we know from the research on small-group learning that students benefit when they explain work to peers. They learn as they teach. A rule that forbids students to help each other may be inconsistent with good learning principles. Or a rule that says, “No erasures when writing” may make students focus more on preventing mistakes than on communicating clearly in their writing (Emmer & Stough, 2001; Weinstein & Romano, 2015). Rules should be positive and observable (raise your hand to be recognized). Having a few general rules that cover many specifics is better than listing all the dos and don’ts. But, if specific actions are forbidden, such as leaving the campus, then a rule should make this clear (Emmer & Gerwels, 2006).

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Rules (I, C4) Fair, consistently enforced rules can have a positive effect on motivation to learn by promoting a safe and warm classroom environment. Describe how to establish and maintain effective rules. Keep in mind age-related concerns.

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RULES FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL.  Evertson and Emmer (2017) give four examples of general rules for elementary school classes: 1. Respect and be polite to all people. Give clear explanations of what you mean by “polite,” including not hitting, fighting, or teasing. Examples of polite behavior include waiting your turn, saying “please” and “thank you,” and not calling names. This applies to behavior toward adults (including substitute teachers) and peers. 2. Be prompt and prepared. This rule highlights the importance of the academic work in the class. Being prompt includes the beginning of the day as well as transitions between activities. Being prepared means the having the right materials and the right mental attitude for success. 3. Listen quietly while others are speaking. This applies to the teacher and other students, in both large-class lessons and small-group discussions. 4. Obey all school rules. This reminds students that all school rules apply in your classroom. Then students cannot claim, for example, that they thought it was okay to chew gum or listen to music on their smart phone in your class, even though these are against school rules, “because you never made a rule against it for us.” Whatever the rule, students need to be taught the behaviors that the rule includes and excludes. Examples, practice, and discussion will be needed before learning is complete. As you’ve seen, different activities often require different rules. This can be confusing for elementary students until they have thoroughly learned all the rules. To prevent confusion, you might consider making signs that list the key rules for each activity. Then, before the activity, you can post the appropriate sign as a reminder. This provides clear and consistent cues about participation structures, so all students, not just the “well behaved,” know what is expected. Of course, you’ll need to explain and discuss these rules before the signs can have their full effect. RULES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL  Emmer and Evertson (2017) suggest five examples of rules for secondary students: 1. Be prompt and prepared. Prompt means being in class on time, but also moving quickly into and out of group work or other tasks. Being prepared means have the right materials (the type of pen, pencil, paper, notebook, texts, and so on) and the right attitude for learning. 2. Respect and be polite to all people. This covers fighting, verbal abuse, and general troublemaking, but emphasize as well positive examples of respect and kindness. All people includes the teacher and substitute teachers. 3. Listen and stay seated while someone else is speaking. This applies when the teacher or other students are talking. 4. Respect other people’s property. This means property belonging to the school, the teacher, or other students. Take care of others’ property, ask permission to borrow, and return borrowed items in good shape. 5. Obey all school rules. As with the elementary class rules, this covers many behaviors and situations, so you do not have to repeat every school rule for your class. This reminds students that the school rules apply in your room too and gives you the chance to talk about which school rules are particularly important in your class (no cell phones, no texting . . .). It also reminds the students that you will be monitoring them inside and outside your class. Make sure you know all the school rules. Some secondary students are very adept at convincing teachers that their misbehavior “really isn’t against the rules.” These rules are more than ways to maintain order. In their study of 34 middle school classrooms, Lindsay Matsumura and her colleagues (2008) found that having explicit rules about respecting others in the classroom predicted the number of students who participated in class discussion, so it seems clear that respect is a gateway to student engagement with the academic material and class dialogue that supports learning.

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CONSEQUENCES.  As soon as you decide on your rules and procedures, you must consider what you will do when a student breaks a rule or does not follow a procedure. It is too late to make this decision after the rule has been broken. For many infractions, the logical consequence is going back to “do it right.” Students who run in the hall may have to return to where they started and walk properly. Incomplete papers can be redone. Materials left out should be put back. You can use natural or logical consequences to support social/emotional development by doing the following (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006): • Separate the deed from the doer in your response. The problem is the behavior, not the student. • Emphasize to students that they have the power to choose their actions and so avoid losing control. • Encourage student reflection, self-evaluation, and problem solving. Avoid teacher lecturing. • Help students identify and give a rationale for what they could do differently next time in a similar situation. The main point here is that decisions about penalties (and rewards) must be made early on, so students know before they break a rule or use the wrong procedure what this will mean for them. I encourage my student teachers to get a copy of the school rules and their cooperating teacher’s rules, and then plan their own. Sometimes, consequences are more complicated. In their case studies of four expert elementary school teachers, C. S. Weinstein and Romano (2015) found that the teachers’ negative consequences fell into seven categories, as shown in Table 13.1. WHO SETS THE RULES AND CONSEQUENCES?  In the first chapter, I described Ken, an expert teacher who worked with his students to establish a students’ “Bill of Rights”

TABLE 13.1  •  Seven Categories of Consequences for Students 1. Expressions of disappointment. If students like and respect their teacher, then a serious, sorrowful expression of disappointment may cause students to stop and think about their behavior. 2. Loss of privileges. Students can lose free time. If they have not completed homework, for example, they can be required to do it during a free period or recess. 3. Time-Out: Exclusion from the group. Students who distract their peers or fail to cooperate can be separated from the group until they are ready to cooperate. Some teachers give a student a pass for 10 to 15 minutes. The student must go to another class or study hall, where the other students and teachers ignore the offending student for that time. 4. Written reflections on the problem. Students can write in journals, write essays about what they did and how it affected others, or write letters of apology—if this is appropriate. Another possibility is to ask students to describe objectively what they did; then the teacher and the student can sign and date this statement. These records are available if parents or administrators need evidence of the students’ behavior. 5. Visits to the principal’s office. Expert teachers tend to use this penalty rarely, but they do use it when the situation warrants. Some schools require students to be sent to the office for certain offenses, such as fighting. If you tell a student to go to the office and the student refuses, you might call the office saying the student has been sent. Then the student has the choice of either going to the office or facing the principal’s penalty for “disappearing” on the way. 6. Detentions. Detentions can be very brief meetings after school, during a free period, or at lunch. The main purpose is to talk about what has happened. (In high school, detentions are often used as punishments; suspensions and expulsions are available as more extreme measures.) 7. Contacting parents. If problems become a repeated pattern, most teachers contact the student’s family. This is done to seek support for helping the student, not to blame the parents or punish the student. Source: From Elementary Classroom Management (6th ed.), pp. 298–301, by C. S. Weinstein and M. E. Romano, New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Natural/logical consequences  Instead of punishing, have students redo, repair, or in some way face the consequences that naturally flow from their actions.

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TABLE 13.2  •  Laws to Protect Our Rights 1. Follow directions the first time. 2. Speak nicely, be courteous, and respect other people, their feelings, and their things. Follow the Bill of Rights. 3. Laugh at the right time for the right time. 4. Respect others’ right to learn. Do not distract others. Don’t be nosy. Don’t yell. Remember to get quiet at countdown. 5. Talk at the right times with the right tone of voice and volume. 6. Make sure transitions and movements are calm, quiet, careful, and elegant. 7. Follow all classroom and school procedures, like: bathroom; pencil; lunch and recess; morning; dismissal; and . . . Source: From Elementary Classroom Management (6th ed.), p. 103, by C. S. Weinstein and M. E. Romano, New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

instead of defining rules. These “rights” cover most situations that might require a “rule” and help the students move toward the goal of becoming self-managing. In a recent class, the Bill of Rights included the rights to whisper when the teacher is not talking, be treated politely, have a 2-minute break between working periods, make choices about the day’s schedule, have privacy and not have people take your things, and chew gum without blowing bubbles, among several others. If you are going to involve students in setting rules or creating a constitution, you may need to wait until you have established a sense of community in your classroom. Before students can contribute meaningfully to the class rules, they need to trust the teacher and the situation (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). Developing rights and responsibilities rather than rules makes an important point to students. “Teaching children that something is wrong because there is a rule against it is not the same as teaching them that there is a rule against it because it is wrong, and helping them to understand why this is so” (C. S. Weinstein, 1999, p. 154). Students should understand that the rules are developed so that everyone can work and learn together. I might add that when Ken has had some very difficult classes, he and his students have had to establish some “laws” that protect students’ rights, as you can see in Table 13.2. Another kind of planning that affects the learning environment is designing the physical arrangement of the class furniture, materials, and learning tools.

Planning Spaces for Learning STOP & THINK Think back over all the rooms in all the schools you have attended. Which ones stand out as inviting or exciting? Which ones were cold and empty? Did one teacher have a design that let students do different things in various parts of the room? • Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Classroom Space (I, C4) The physical organization of a class has an effect on student behavior and learning. Describe how the physical layout of classrooms can affect the learning environment. Apply principles of classroom organization to enhance learning and minimize disruption.

Spaces for learning should invite and support the activities you plan for your classes, and they should respect the inhabitants of the space. This respect begins at the door for young children by helping them identify their classroom. One school that has won awards for its architecture paints each classroom door a different bright color, so young children can find their “home” (Herbert, 1998). Once inside, spaces can be created that invite quiet reading, group collaboration, focused lectures, discussion and debate, or independent research. If students are to use materials, they should be able to reach them. In terms of classroom arrangement, there are two basic ways of organizing space: personal territories and interest areas. PERSONAL TERRITORIES AND SEATING ARRANGEMENTS.  A personal territory is your own (usually assigned) seat. Can the physical setting influence teaching and learning in classrooms organized by territories? A front seat location does seem to increase participation for students who are predisposed to speak in class, but a seat in the back

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will make it more difficult to participate and easier to sit back and daydream. To “spread the action around,” C. S. Weinstein and Romano (2015) suggest that teachers move around the room when possible, establish eye contact with and direct questions to students seated far away, and vary the seating so the same students are not always consigned to the back. Horizontal rows share many of the advantages of the traditional row and column arrangements. Both are useful for independent seatwork and teacher, student, or media presentations; they encourage students to focus on the presenter and simplify housekeeping. Horizontal rows also permit students to work more easily in pairs. However, this is a poor arrangement for large-group discussion. Clusters of four or circle arrangements are best for student interaction. Circles are especially useful for discussions but still allow for independent seatwork. Clusters permit students to talk, help one another, share materials, and work on group tasks. Both arrangements, however, are poor for whole-group presentations and may make class management more difficult. The fishbowl or stack special formation, where students sit close together near the focus of attention (the back row may even be standing), should be used only for short periods of time, because it is not comfortable and can lead to discipline problems. On the other hand, the fishbowl can create a feeling of group cohesion and is helpful when the teacher wants students to watch a demonstration, brainstorm on a class problem, or see a small visual aid. INTEREST AREAS.  The design of interest areas can influence the way the areas are used by students. For example, working with a classroom teacher, Carol Weinstein (1977) made changes in interest areas that helped the teacher meet her objectives of having more girls involved in the science center and having all students experiment more with a variety of manipulative materials. In a second study, changes in a library corner led to more involvement in literature activities throughout the class (Morrow & Weinstein, 1986). If you design interest areas for your class, keep the Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces on the next page in mind. Personal territories and interest areas are not mutually exclusive; many teachers use a design that combines these types of organization. Individual students’ desks—their territories—are placed in the center, with interest areas in the back or around the periphery of the room. This allows the flexibility needed for both large- and small-group activities. Figure 13.3 on page 549 shows a secondary classroom that has individual desks (personal territories), but still works well for teacher presentations and demonstrations as well as small-group work.

Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class Determining a room design, rules, and procedures are the first steps toward having a well-managed class, but how do effective teachers gain students’ cooperation in those early critical days and weeks? One study carefully analyzed the first weeks’ activities of effective and ineffective elementary teachers, and found striking differences (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS.  In the effective teachers’ classrooms, the very first day was well organized. Nametags were ready. There was something interesting for each child to do right away. Materials were set up. The teachers had planned carefully to avoid any last-minute tasks that might take them away from their students. These teachers dealt with the children’s pressing concerns first. “Where do I put my things?” “How do I pronounce my teacher’s name?” “Can I whisper to my neighbor?” “Where is the bathroom?” The effective teachers were explicit about their expectations. They had a workable, easily understood set of rules and taught the students the most important rules right away. They taught the rules like any other subject—with lots of explanation, examples, and practice.

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GUIDELINES Designing Learning Spaces Note the fixed features, and plan accordingly. Examples 1. Remember that the media center and computers need electrical outlets. 2. Keep art supplies near the sink, small-group work by a blackboard. Create easy access to materials and a well-organized place to store them. Examples 1. Make sure materials are easy to reach and visible to students. 2. Have enough shelves so that materials need not be stacked. Provide students with clean, convenient surfaces for studying. Examples 1. Put bookshelves next to the reading area, games by the game table. 2. Prevent fights by avoiding crowded work spaces. Avoid dead spaces and “racetracks.” Examples 1. Don’t have all the interest areas around the outside of the room, leaving a large dead space in the middle. 2. Avoid placing a few items of furniture right in the middle of this large space, creating a “racetrack” around the furniture. Arrange things so you can see your students and they can see all instructional presentations. Examples 1. Make sure you can see over partitions. 2. Design seating so that students can see instruction without moving their chairs or desks.

Make sure work areas are private and quiet. Examples 1. Make sure there are no tables or work areas in the middle of traffic lanes; a person should not have to pass through one area to get to another. 2. Keep noisy activities as far as possible from quiet ones. Increase the feeling of privacy by placing partitions, such as bookcases or pegboards, between areas or within large areas. Provide choices and flexibility. Examples 1. Establish private cubicles for individual work, open tables for group work, and cushions on the floor for whole-class meetings. 2. Give students a place to keep their personal belongings. This is especially important if students don’t have personal desks. Try new arrangements; then evaluate and improve. Examples 1. Have a “2-week arrangement”; then evaluate. 2. Enlist the aid of your students. They have to live in the room, too, and designing a classroom can be a very challenging educational experience. For more ideas on classroom design, go to www.edutopia.org and search for “classroom designs.”

Throughout the first weeks, the effective managers continued to spend quite a bit of time teaching rules and procedures. Some used guided practice to teach procedures; others used rewards to shape behavior. Most taught students to respond to a bell or some other signal to gain their attention. These teachers worked with the class as a whole on enjoyable academic activities. They did not rush to get students into small groups or to start them in readers. This whole-class work gave the teachers a better opportunity to continue monitoring all students’ learning of the rules and procedures. Misbehavior was stopped quickly and firmly, but not harshly. In the poorly managed classrooms, the first weeks were quite different. Rules were not workable; they were either too vague or very complicated. For example, one teacher made a rule that students should “be in the right place at the right time.” Students were not told what this meant, so their behavior could not be guided by the rule. Neither positive nor negative behaviors had clear, consistent consequences. After students broke a rule, ineffective managers gave a vague criticism, such as “Some of my children are too noisy,” or issued a warning, but did not follow through with the threatened consequence.

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F IG U RE 13.3 A SECONDARY CLASSROOM ARRANGEMENT This high school teacher has designed a space that allows teacher presentations and demonstrations as well as small-group work, and computer interactions without requiring constant rearrangements. Chalkboard

Bulletin Board

Pencil Sharpener

OP Screen tern

Chalkboard

OP

Wastebasket

Bulletin Board

Lec

TV Monitor with Computer Attachment

Bulletin Board

Chalkboard

Internet Access

Portable Tech Cart

File Storage

Books

Teacher’s Desk

Windows

Source: Emmer, Edmund T.; Evertson, Carolyn M., Classroom Management For Middle And High School Teachers, Loose-Leaf Version, 10th Ed., p. 32. ©2017. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

In the poorly managed classes, procedures for accomplishing routine tasks varied from day to day and were never taught or practiced. Instead of dealing with these obvious needs, ineffective managers spent time on procedures that could have waited. For example, one teacher had the class practice for a fire drill the first day, but left unexplained other procedures that would be needed every day. Students wandered around the classroom aimlessly and had to ask each other what they should be doing. Often the students talked to one another because they had nothing productive to do. Ineffective teachers frequently left the room. Many became absorbed in paperwork or in helping just one student. They had not made plans for how to deal with late-arriving students or interruptions. One ineffective manager tried to teach students to respond to a bell as a signal for attention, but later let the students ignore it. All in all, the first weeks in these classrooms were disorganized and filled with surprises for teachers and students alike. EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR SECONDARY STUDENTS.  What about getting started in a secondary school class? It appears that many of the differences between effective and ineffective elementary school teachers are the same at the secondary level. Again, effective managers focus on establishing rules, procedures, and expectations on the first day of class. These standards for academic work and class behavior are clearly communicated to students and consistently enforced during the first weeks of class. Student behavior is closely monitored, and infractions of the rules are dealt with quickly. In classes with lower-ability students, work cycles are shorter; students are not required to spend long, unbroken periods on one type of activity. Instead, during each period, they are moved smoothly through several different tasks. In general, effective teachers

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carefully follow each student’s progress, so students cannot avoid work without facing consequences (Emmer & Evertson, 2017). With all this close monitoring and consistent enforcement of the rules, you may wonder if effective secondary teachers have to be grim and humorless. Not necessarily. The effective managers in one classic study also smiled and joked more with their students (Moskowitz & Hayman, 1976). As any experienced teacher can tell you, there is much more to smile about when the class is cooperative. For more ideas about getting started on the first day of class, see the helpful book by Harry and Rosemary Wong, The First Days of School: How To Be an Effective Teacher (H. Wong & Wong, 2009). MyLab Education Self-Check 13.2

MAINTAINING A GOOD ENVIRONMENT FOR LEARNING A good start is just that—a beginning. Effective teachers build on this beginning. They maintain their management system by preventing problems and keeping students engaged in productive learning activities. We have discussed several ways to keep students engaged. In Chapter 12, on motivation, for example, we considered stimulating curiosity, relating lessons to student interests, establishing learning goals instead of performance goals, and having positive expectations. What else can teachers do? Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Promoting Student Engagement (I, C4) A principle of educational psychology is that the more students are cognitively engaged in an activity, the more they are likely to learn. What tactics can teachers employ to maximize their students’ cognitive engagement during learning tasks?

MyLab Education

Video Example 13.3 A mathematics lesson about graphing comes alive for the students in this video. They find it easy to stay on task as they taste jellybeans and record their preferences. They determine the class’s most popular flavor by creating a class graph of favorite flavors.

Encouraging Engagement STOP & THINK What activities keep you completely engaged—the time just seems to disappear? What is it about those activities that keeps you focused? • In general, as teacher supervision increases, students’ engaged time also increases. One study found that elementary students working directly with a teacher were on task 97% of the time, but students working on their own were on task only 57% of the time (Frick, 1990). This does not mean that teachers should eliminate independent work for students. It simply means that this type of activity usually requires careful planning and monitoring. When the task provides continuous cues for the student about what to do next, involvement will be greater. Activities with clear steps are likely to be more absorbing, because one step leads naturally to the next. When students have all the materials they need to complete a task, they tend to stay involved. If their curiosity is piqued, students will be motivated to continue seeking an answer. And, as you now know, students will be more engaged if they are involved in authentic tasks—activities that have connections to real life. Also, activities are more engaging when the level of challenge is higher (Emmer & Gerwels, 2006). Of course, teachers can’t supervise every student all the time or rely on curiosity to keep students motivated. Something else must keep students working on their own. In their study of elementary and secondary teachers, Evertson, Emmer, and their colleagues found that effective class managers at all levels had well-planned systems for encouraging students to manage their own work (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). The Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged are based on their findings.

Prevention Is the Best Medicine The ideal way to manage problems, of course, is to prevent them in the first place— this certainly will make more time for learning. In a classic study, Jacob Kounin (1970) examined classroom management by comparing effective teachers, whose classes were

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GUIDELINES Keeping Students Engaged Make basic work requirements clear. Examples 1. Specify and post the routine work requirements for headings, paper size, pen or pencil use, and neatness. 2. Establish and explain rules about late or incomplete work and absences. If a pattern of incomplete work begins to develop, deal with it early; speak with parents if necessary. 3. Make due dates reasonable, and stick to them unless the student has a very good excuse for lateness.

Monitor work in progress. Examples 1. When you give an assignment in class, make sure each student gets started correctly. If you check only students who raise their hands for help, you will miss those who think they know what to do but don’t really understand, those who are too shy to ask for help, and those who don’t plan to do the work at all. 2. Check progress periodically. In discussions, make sure everyone has a chance to respond.

Communicate the specifics of assignments. Examples 1. With younger students, have a routine procedure for giving assignments, such as writing them on the board in the same place each day. With older students, assignments may be dictated, posted, or given in a syllabus. 2. Remind students of upcoming assignments. 3. With complicated assignments, give students a sheet describing what to do, what resources are available, due dates, and so on. Older students should also be told your grading criteria. 4. Demonstrate how to do the assignment, do the first few questions together, or provide a sample worksheet.

Give frequent academic feedback. Examples 1. Elementary students should get papers back the day after they are handed in. 2. Good work can be displayed in the classroom, and graded papers sent home to parents each week. 3. Students of all ages can keep records of grades, projects completed, and extra credits earned. 4. For older students, break up long-term assignments into several phases, giving feedback at each point. For more ideas, go to www.edutopia.org and search for “keeping students engaged.”

relatively free of problems, with ineffective teachers, whose classes were continually plagued by chaos and disruption. Observing both groups in action, Kounin was surprised to find the teachers were not very different in the way they handled discipline once problems arose. The difference was that the successful managers were much better at preventing problems. First, these teachers captured students’ attention and maintained engagement in work that was at appropriate levels for all students. Second, these effective classroom managers were especially skilled in four specific kinds of prevention: “withitness,” overlapping activities, group focusing, and movement management. More recent research confirms the importance of these factors (Emmer & Stough, 2001; Jones & Jones, 2016). WITHITNESS.  Withitness means communicating to students that you are aware of everything that is happening in the classroom. “With-it” teachers seem to have eyes in the back of their heads. They avoid becoming absorbed by distractions or interacting with only a few students, because this encourages the rest of the class to wander. These teachers are always scanning the room, making eye contact with individual students, so the students know they are being monitored (Charles, 2011; Weinstein & Romano, 2015). These teachers prevent minor disruptions from becoming major. They also know who instigated the problem, and they make sure they deal with the right people. In other words, they do not make what Kounin called timing errors (waiting too long before intervening) or target errors (blaming the wrong student and letting the real perpetrators escape responsibility for their behavior).

Withitness According to Kounin, awareness of everything happening in a classroom.

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If two problems occur at the same time, effective managers deal with the more serious one first. For example, a teacher who tells two students to stop whispering but ignores even a brief shoving match at the pencil sharpener communicates a lack of awareness. Students begin to believe they can get away with almost anything if they are clever. OVERLAPPING AND GROUP FOCUS.  Overlapping means keeping track of and supervising several activities at the same time. For example, a teacher may have to check the work of an individual and at the same time keep a small group working by saying, “Right, go on,” and stop an incident in another group with a quick “look” or reminder (Charles, 2011). Maintaining a group focus means keeping as many students as possible involved in appropriate class activities and avoiding narrowing in on just one or two students. Problems arise when teachers have students work one at a time while the rest of the class waits and watches. All students should have something to do during a lesson. For example, the teacher might ask everyone to write the answer to a question, and then call on individuals to respond while the other students compare their answers. Choral responses might be required while the teacher moves around the room to make sure everyone is participating. During a grammar lesson, the teacher might say, “Everyone who thinks the answer is have run, hold up the red side of your card. If you think the answer is has run, hold up the green side” (Hunter, 1982). This is one way teachers can ensure that all students are involved and that everyone understands the material. MOVEMENT MANAGEMENT.  Movement management means keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety. The effective teacher avoids abrupt transitions, such as announcing a new activity before gaining the students’ attention or starting a new activity in the middle of something else. When transitions are abrupt, one-third of the class will be doing the new activity, many will be working on the old lesson, several will be asking other students what to do, some will be taking the opportunity to have a little fun, and most will be confused. Another transition problem Kounin noted is the slowdown, or taking too much time to start a new activity. Sometimes teachers give too many directions at once. STUDENT SOCIAL SKILLS AS PREVENTION.  But what about the students? What can they do? When students lack social and emotional skills such as being able to share materials, read the intentions of others, or handle frustration, classroom management problems often follow. So all efforts to teach social and emotional self-regulation are steps toward preventing management problems. Over the short term, educators can teach and model these skills, and then give students feedback and practice using them in a variety of settings. Over the long term, teachers can help to change attitudes that value aggression over cooperation and compromise (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). Figure 13.4 is a lesson outline that can be used to target and improve specific social skills for an individual or small group. You can see that this is an example of good teaching. There is a clear goal defined by specific and observable targets, modeling, practice with the teacher and then (very important) practice in the natural setting like the gym or lunchroom where the problem usually occurs, and finally some kind of recognition or reinforcement ( Jones & Jones, 2016). Overlapping Supervising several activities at once. Group focus  The ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities. Movement management  Keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety.

Caring Relationships: Connections with School All efforts directed toward building positive relationships with students and creating a classroom community are steps toward preventing management problems. TEACHER CONNECTIONS.  Students respect teachers who maintain their authority without being rigid or harsh, are fair and honest with them, demonstrate emotional support and caring, make sure students understand the material, ask if something is wrong when they seem upset, and use creative instructional practices to “make learning fun.” Students also value teachers who show academic and personal caring by acting like real people (not just as teachers), sharing responsibility, minimizing the use of external controls, including everyone, searching for students’ strengths, communicating effectively, and showing an interest in their students’ lives and pursuits

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F IG U RE 13.4 A SOCIAL SKILLS LESSON DESIGN This design can be used with individuals or groups to identify and practice targeted social skills.

Describe the inappropriate behavior ______________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Rationale for a new behavior ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Describe the appropriate behavior ________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Skill components of the new behavior ______________________________________ 1. __________________________________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________________________________ 3. __________________________________________________________________ 4. __________________________________________________________________ 5. __________________________________________________________________ 6. __________________________________________________________________ Model demonstration example __________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Student practice example ______________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Natural setting practice (if different than initial practice) ____________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Independent practice assignment ________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Individual or group reinforcement strategy ________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________

Source: Jones, Vern; Jones, Louise, Comprehensive Classroom Management: Creating Communities Of Support And Solving Problems, Update, Loose-Leaf Version, 11th Ed., p. 372. ©2017. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

(M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006; Turner et al., 2014; Wentzel, 2002; Woolfolk Hoy & Weinstein, 2006). Here are several examples of the power of relationship taken from large-scale classroom investigations and also the experiences of individual teachers. In a study of engagement in math (Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2015), students reported working harder, enjoying

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math more, and sharing ideas and materials with each other more when teachers were warm, caring, and responsive to student needs. The students also reported greater cognitive, social, and emotional engagement in math learning when the teachers made learning goals clear, used proactive/preventative management strategies, and orchestrated smooth transitions (more evidence for Kounin’s management strategies). Based on evidence from 119 studies published in either English or German conducted from 1948 to 2004, Jeffrey Cornelius-White (2007) concluded that positive, warm, encouraging relationships with teachers are related to many valuable student outcomes, including higher participation in class, greater critical thinking skills, lower dropout rates, higher selfesteem, increased motivation, less disruptive behavior, and better attendance. What about individual teachers? When Barbara Bartholomew (2008) asked a veteran special education teacher what keeps students engaged and motivated, the teacher replied without hesitation, “Students need to know that no matter what, you will never give up on them” (p. 58). Some teachers have morning rituals that include greeting each student at the door to maintain connections. An example comes from first-year teacher Esme Codell. “Madame Esme” (the name she preferred): In the morning, three things happen religiously. I say good morning, real chipper, to every single child and make sure they say good morning back. Then I collect “troubles” in a “Trouble Basket,” a big green basket into which the children pantomime unburdening their home worries so they can concentrate on school. Sometimes a kid has no troubles. Sometimes a kid piles it in, and I in turn pantomime bearing the burden. This way, too, I can see what disposition the child is in when he or she enters. (Codell, 2001, p. 30)

MyLab Education

Video Example 13.4 Mr. Wimberly develops positive teacher-student relationships with his sixth graders. Notice his routine of greeting students when the morning bell rings. Observe his command of the classroom and the students’ respect for him. How does he encourage students to use their time effectively and develop their own abilities?

SCHOOL CONNECTIONS.  Students who feel connected with school are happier, more engaged in school work, more self-disciplined, and less likely to be involved in dangerous behaviors such as substance abuse, violence, and early sexual activity (J. Freiberg, 2006; Ponitz, Rimm-Kaufman, Grimm, & Curby, 2009; Waters & Cross, 2010). If students perceive their schools are competitive places where they are treated differently based on race, gender, or ethnicity, then they are more likely to act out or withdraw altogether. But when they feel that they have choices, that the emphasis is on personal improvement and not comparisons, and that they are respected and supported by teachers, students are more likely to bond with schools (Osterman, 2000). One way of supporting belonging in school is by connecting with students’ families and home lives (Gage et al., 2016). For example, students in China describe their teachers as high on caring. This may be because Chinese teachers spend quite a bit of time in students’ homes, learning about their home life, and offering help outside school. These teachers show respect for the families and cultures of their students by their willingness to visit and to help (Jia et al., 2009; Suldo et al., 2009). CREATING COMMUNITIES OF CARE FOR ADOLESCENTS.  The transition to high school is a particularly important time to maintain caring teacher–student relationships. Students have more teachers and fewer close relationships, just at a time when emotional, social, and academic stresses are increasing. Feeling a sense of belonging is important for all students, but particularly for students who may, because of language or poverty, feel disconnected from the basically middle class culture of most schools (R. I. Chapman et al., 2013). In one study that followed 572 students from ninth grade through high school, Cari Gillen-O’Neel and Andrew Fuligni (2013) found that girls’ sense of belonging in school was higher than boys’ in ninth grade, but over the high school years, this connection declined for girls but not for boys. One possible reason is that boys participate more often than girls in extracurricular activities such as sports; these activities connect them to the school. So encouraging girls to participate in school activities, including sports, may build a sense of belonging for them. In addition, having positive relationships with students appears to support teachers’ sense of well-being. When we remember the basic human need for relatedness—the feeling that others care about you described in Chapter 12—we can understand why caring relationships in school would support both students’ sense of belonging and teachers’ well-being (Spilt, Koomen, & Thijs, 2011).

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Check & Connect, developed at the University of Minnesota, is one program that has been successful in developing caring relationships with disengaged adolescents, although it can be used with students of all ages. The developers describe Check & Connect as “a comprehensive intervention designed to enhance student engagement at school and with learning for marginalized, disengaged students in grades K–12, through relationship building, problem solving and capacity building, and persistence. A goal of Check & Connect is to foster school completion with academic and social competence” (http://checkandconnect.umn.edu). The program works by developing a relationship between a trained mentor and students. The mentor checks on the students, monitoring their attendance, behavior, and grades and connects with students by offering individualized interventions in partnership with other school staff, families, and community resources. Results of research on Check & Connect show that the program improves student engagement and achievement (Anderson et al., 2004; Skiba et al., 2016). When Randall Sampson, one of my former graduate students, became the assistant principal of a large, diverse high school in Columbus, Ohio, he initiated something similar to Check & Connect. He personally monitored those students who had completed basic math classes with grades good enough to move advanced placement classes, but who had not signed up for the classes. He contacted the students’ parents, talked to the students, and signed them up for the advanced classes. Then he checked in on them every week to be sure they were engaged in class. His interventions were very successful, leading to a 600% increase in African American students enrolled in AP classes and a 35% increase in AP exam scores. His initiatives kept some potentially disengaged students on track for college admission when the students and their families had not considered college a possibility. Randall founded Liberty Leadership Development (www.LibertyLD. com) to bring these kinds of positive interventions to more schools such as Wilson Preparatory Academy in North Carolina (http://www.wilsonpreparatoryacademy.org). See the Guidelines: Creating Caring Relationships on the next page for more ideas, many taken from Jones and Jones (2016) and M. Marshall (2013). MyLab Education Self-Check 13.3

DEALING WITH DISCIPLINE PROBLEMS Before we even discuss dealing with discipline problems, remember that every school has policies and procedures for handling behavior problems, especially more serious issues. Make sure you know all these procedures and requirements before you develop your management plan. Also keep in mind that being an effective manager does not mean publicly correcting every minor infraction of the rules. This kind of public attention may actually reinforce the misbehavior, as we saw in Chapter 7. The key is being aware of what is happening and knowing what is important so you can prevent problems.

Stopping Problems Quickly It is critical that you have many effective ways to deescalate rather than escalate student behavior problems. As problems escalate, students may need to save face in front of their peers by challenging or defying the teacher. This can lead to excluding students from class, sending them to detention, or suspension—all outcomes that place students, especially students of color, at greater risk of negative or dangerous outcomes such as disengaging from school or getting caught up in the juvenile justice system (Skiba et al., 2016). It may help you to be more effective at deescalating problems if you approach students’ social/behavioral problems more like you would academic problems—as an opportunity to learn a better way. For example, generally when students make an academic mistake we assume that they were trying to get it right and did not make the mistake on purpose. They just need smaller steps, clearer explanations, better examples, models, or practice. But when the problem is behavioral, we often assume the student

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GUIDELINES Creating Caring Relationships Get to know students as individuals. Examples 1. Eat lunch with a different group of students every day. 2. Work with a club, extracurricular activity, or sports group and attend student activities. 3. Show your interest in your students as individuals. 4. Schedule individual conferences with students. Communicate your respect for students’ abilities. Examples 1. “Model respect for diversity—by expressing admiration for a student’s bilingual ability, by commenting enthusiastically about the number of different languages that are represented in the class, and by including examples and content from a variety of cultures” (C. S. Weinstein, Curran, & Tomlinson-Clarke, 2003, p. 272). 2. Comment to students privately and positively about your observations of their performances in extracurricular activities. 3. Encourage students to use personal interests as a subject for their writing. 4. Greet students at the door to the class every day. Keep communications authentic but professional. Examples 1. Send brief personal notes to students acknowledging a good job performed on assignments, their hard work and persistence, a birthday, or concern about absences. Include a get-well card along with homework sent to a student who is ill.

2. Share some stories from your own life as examples of excitement about a subject, making mistakes (and learning from them), and persistence and overcoming difficulties. 3. Do not friend students on social media, and be very careful about your language and picture postings on all electronic communications—many things can be misinterpreted. Create school-related email accounts that are different from your personal accounts. 4. Check with your school policy about sharing personal information such as religion, sexual orientation, or political views. 5. If you are meeting alone with a student, do so in an area visible to others—sadly, teachers today must protect against having their positive relationships with students misinterpreted by others or by the student. Seek student input and respect it, but don’t take it too personally. Examples 1. Consider a suggestion box or community meetings for younger students. 2. Listen to student concerns and complaints without getting defensive. Ask for suggestions, but also share your rationales for assignments and grades. 3. Ask students directly for anonymous feedback about whether they feel respected and cared for in your class. Use simple questionnaires that don’t reveal the identity of the student through handwriting.

is not trying or that the error was intentional. We follow with criticisms, punishments, or exclusion from the class. Successful teachers tend to see their role in improving behavior as interpersonal and instructional—helping their students learn and practice better decisions and actions. Your attributions about the problem matter ( Jones & Jones, 2016). Most students comply quickly when the teacher gives a desist (a “stop doing that”) instruction or redirects behavior. But some students are the targets of more than their share of desists. Emmer and Evertson (2017) and Levin and Nolan (2000) suggest eight simple ways to stop misbehavior quickly, moving from least to most intrusive: • Make eye contact with, or move closer to, the offender. Other nonverbal signals, such as pointing to the work students are supposed to be doing, might be helpful. Make sure the student actually stops the inappropriate behavior and gets back to work. If you do not, students will learn to ignore your signals. • Try verbal hints such as “name-dropping” (simply insert the student’s name into the lecture), asking the student a question, or making a humorous (not sarcastic) comment such as, “I must be hallucinating. I swear I heard someone shout out an answer, but that can’t be because I haven’t called on anyone yet!” • Ask students if they are aware of the negative effects of their actions, or send an “I” message, described later in the chapter.

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• Involve the whole class in a brief interactive activity such as “Think-Pair-Share.” Especially if more than one student is “drifting,” this activity can reengage the drifters. • If they are not performing a class procedure correctly, remind the students of the procedure, and have them follow it correctly. You may need to quietly collect a toy, comb, cell phone, or note that is competing with the learning activities, while privately informing the students that their possessions will be returned after class. You also could put a sticky note on the student’s desk inviting the student to talk with you after the lesson is over. • In a calm, unhostile way, ask the student to state the correct rule or procedure and then to follow it. Glasser (1969) proposes three questions: “What are you doing? Is it against the rules? What should you be doing?” • Tell the student in a clear, assertive, and unhostile way to stop the misbehavior. (Later in the chapter, we will discuss assertive messages to students in more detail.) If students “talk back,” simply repeat your statement. • Offer a choice. For example, when a student continued to call out answers no matter what the teacher tried, the teacher said, “John, you have a choice. Stop calling out answers immediately and begin raising your hand to answer or move your seat to the back of the room and you and I will have a private discussion later. You decide” (Levin & Nolan, 2000, p. 177).

If You Impose Penalties Many teachers prefer the use of logical consequences, described earlier, as opposed to penalties. For example, if one student has harmed another, you can require the offending student to make an “apology of action,” which includes a verbal apology plus somehow repairing the damage done. This helps offenders develop empathy and social perspective taking as they think about what would be an appropriate “repair” (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). There is a caution about penalties. As Carolyn Orange (2000) notes, “Effective, caring teachers would not use low achievement status, grades, or the like as a means of discipline. This strategy is unfair and ineffective. It only serves to alienate the student” (p. 76). If you must impose penalties, the Guidelines: Imposing Penalties on the next page give ideas about how to do it. Some of these examples are based on ideas from expert teachers described by C. S. Weinstein and Novodvorsky (2015) and Weinstein and Romano (2015).

Teacher-Imposed Penalties versus Student Responsibility Marvin Marshall (2013) believes that even though classroom management is the responsibility of the teacher, discipline is really the responsibility of the student. Classroom management is about how things are done in the classroom and involves procedures, routines, and structures—the teachers’ responsibility. Discipline is about how people behave and involves self-control and emotional self-regulation—the student’s responsibility. Students must discipline themselves to be self-regulated learners and ultimately productive, successful, happy adults. A focus on obedience and teacher-imposed penalties often results in resistance, resentment, cheating, and even defiance, but a focus on responsibility creates a classroom community and a culture of learning. Of course, anyone who has worked with children or adolescents knows that self-discipline is not automatic—it must be taught and practiced like any other skill. Marshall describes strategies for achieving these goals that focus on (1) communicating in positive terms and using “when–then” contingencies (“When you finish your work, then you can listen to music on your smart phone”); (2) offering choices and eliciting consequences from students (“What shall we do about. . . . ?”); and (3) encouraging reflection and self-evaluation. One approach that incorporates these three principles is to teach students a hierarchy of behaviors using explanations and examples. The hierarchy is: • Level A: Anarchy—Aimless, chaotic. • Level B: Bossing/Bullying—Breaking laws and making your own standards; obeying only when the enforcer has more power or authority. • Level C: Cooperation/Conformity—Complies with expectations, conforms to peer influence. • Level D: Democracy—Self-disciplined, initiative, responsibility of your own actions.

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GUIDELINES Imposing Penalties Delay the discussion of the situation until you and the students involved are calmer and more objective. Examples 1. Say calmly to a student, “Sit there and think about what happened. I’ll talk to you in a few minutes,” or, “I don’t like what I just saw. Talk to me during your free period today.” 2. Say, “I’m really angry about what just happened. Everybody take out journals; we are going to write about this.” After a few minutes of writing, the class can discuss the incident. Impose penalties privately. Examples 1. Make arrangements with students privately. Stand firm in enforcing arrangements. 2. Resist the temptation to “remind” students in public that they are not keeping their side of the bargain. 3. Move close to a student who must be disciplined and speak so that only the student can hear. After imposing a penalty, re-establish a positive relationship with the student immediately. Examples 1. Send the student on an errand, or ask him or her for help. 2. Compliment the student’s work, or give a symbolic “pat on the back” when the student’s behavior warrants. Look hard for such an opportunity.

3. For 2 minutes each day for 10 days in a row, have a personal conversation with the student about something of interest to him or her—sports, games, films—make an effort to know what those interests are. This investment in time can pay off by regaining learning time for the student and the entire class. Set up a graded list of penalties that will fit many occasions. Example 1. For not turning in homework: (1) receive reminder; (2) receive warning; (3) hand homework in before close of school day; (4) stay after school to finish work; (5) participate in a teacher–student–parent conference to develop an action plan. Always teach problem-solving strategies along with penalties to help students learn what to do next time (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). Examples 1. Use Problem Diaries, where students record what they were feeling, identify the problem and their goal, then think of other possible ways to solve the problem and achieve the goal. 2. Try Keep Calm 5–2–5: At the first physical signs of anger, students say to themselves: “Stop. Keep Calm,” then take several slow breaths, counting to 5 breathing in, 2 holding breath, and 5 breathing out.

The behaviors at levels C and D may look the same on the outside, but the difference is the motivation. For example, if a student picks up a piece of trash on the floor because the teacher asks (external motivation), the level is C (cooperation), but if the student picks up the trash without being asked (internal motivation), the level is D (democracy and self-discipline). When a student does not act at least at level C or D, the teacher asks, “What level was that behavior?” For example: Teacher: On what level is that behavior? Student: I don’t know! Teacher: What was the class doing? Student: Working the problem on the board. Teacher: So you were making up your own standards. What level is that? Student: B Teacher: Thank you. If the student does not move to at least level C and cooperate, the teacher might ask him or her to self-reflect and write an essay that addresses three questions: What did I do? What can I do to prevent it from happening again? What will I do now? Figure 13.5 summarizes Marshall’s model. His book Discipline Without Stress® Punishments or Rewards: How Teachers and Parents Promote Responsibility & Learning (M. Marshall, 2013) has many other strategies to encourage student self-discipline.

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FIGU RE 13.5 THE DISCIPLINE WITHOUT STRESS® TEACHING MODEL Here are the key concepts in Marshall’s (2013) model.

I

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT vs. DISCIPLINE The key to effective classroom management is teaching and practicing procedures. This is the teacher’s responsibility. Discipline, on the other hand, has to do with behavior and is the student’s responsibility.

II

THREE PRINCIPLES TO PRACTICE POSITIVITY

CHOICE

REFLECTION

Teachers practice changing negatives into positives. “No running” becomes “We walk in the hallways.” “Stop talking” becomes “This is quiet time.”

Choice response thinking is taught—as well as impluse control—so students are not victims of their own impulses.

Since a person can only control another person temporarily and because no one can actually change another person, asking REFLECTIVE questions is the most effective approach to actuate change in others.

III

THE RAISE RESPONSIBILITY SYSTEM (RRSystem) TEACHING THE HIERARCHY (Teaching)

CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING (Asking)

GUIDED CHOICES (Eliciting)

The hierarchy engenders a desire to behave responsibly and a desire to put forth effort to learn. Students differentiate between internal and external motivation—and learn to rise above inappropriate peer influence.

Students reflect on the LEVEL of chosen behavior. This approach SEPARATES THE PERSON FROM THE BEHAVIOR, thereby negating the usual tendency to defend one’s actions. It is this natural tendency towards self-defense that leads to confrontations.

If disruptions continue, a consequence or procedure is ELICITED to redirect the inappropriate behavior. This approach is in contrast to the usual coercive approach of having a consequence IMPOSED.

IV

USING THE SYSTEM TO INCREASE MOTIVATION & LEARNING Using the hierarchy BEFORE a lesson or activity and AFTER a lesson or activity increases motivation, improves learning, and raises academic achievement.

Source: Reprinted with permission from Marshall, M. (2013). Discipline Without Stress® Punishments or Rewards: How Teachers and Parents Promote Responsibility & Learning (2nd ed.). Los Alamos, CA: Piper Press.

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?

POINT .

Zero tolerance makes zero common sense.  An Internet search using the keywords [“zero-tolerance” and “schools”] will locate a wealth of information about the policy—much of it against. For example, what sense does this story make? The newspaper St. Petersburg Times described a 10-year-old girl whose mother packed a plastic knife in the girl’s lunchbox so she could cut her apple. The girl dutifully handed the plastic knife over to her teacher and was expelled from school for possession of a weapon. In another case, a teenage boy was also expelled. He broke the “no cell phone use” rule for talking to his mother, a soldier stationed in Iraq. He had not spoken to her for a month (Hyder & Hussain, 2015). Even though supporters of zero tolerance say that punishments must be consistent, often athletes and good students are forgiven (Curwin, 2015). In addition, research shows that punishment and zero-tolerance policies have not been very successful in preventing bullying, even though about 70% of teachers and counselors use punishment even in cases of mild bullying (Rigby, 2012). Zero-tolerance policies have “pushed” students out of school with no resulting improvements in school safety (Fronius et al., 2016; Losen, 2014). What else does the research say? The American Psychological Association set up a Zero Tolerance Task force to answer that question (American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008). Analyzing a decade of research, they reached the following conclusions:

COUNTERPOINT .

With the very visible violence in schools today, some districts have instituted “zero-tolerance” policies for rule breaking. Do zero-tolerance policies make sense?

• Schools are not any safer or more effective in disciplining students now than before they instituted zero tolerance. • The higher rates of suspension caused by zero tolerance have not led to less racial bias in disciplining students. • Zero-tolerance policies can actually lead to increases in bad behavior that then lead to higher dropout rates. In addition, zero-tolerance policies can discourage students from informing teachers when the students learn that a classmate is “planning to do something dangerous.” The zero-tolerance rules get in the way of trusting relationships between teachers and students (Syvertsen, Flanagan, & Stout, 2009). Adolescents need both structure and support, but zero-tolerance policies can create a highly structured, rigid environment that ignores the need for support.

Zero tolerance is necessary for now. The argu-

ments for zero tolerance focus on school safety and the responsibilities of schools and teachers to protect the students and themselves. Of course, many of the incidents reported in the news seem like overreactions to childhood pranks or, worse, to innocent mistakes or lapses of memory. But how do school officials separate the innocent from the dangerous? For example, it has been widely reported that Andy Williams (the boy who killed two classmates in Santee, California) assured his friends before the shootings that he was only joking about “pulling a Columbine.” On January 13, 2003, I read a story in USA Today by Gregg Toppo entitled “School Violence Hits Lower Grades: Experts Who See Violent Behavior in Younger Kids Blame Parents, Prenatal Medical Problems and an Angry Society; Educators Search for Ways to Cope.” The story opened with these examples: a second grader in Indiana takes off his shoe and attacks his teacher with it, a Philadelphia kindergartner hits a pregnant teacher in the stomach, and an 8-year-old in Maryland threatens to use gasoline (he knew exactly where he would pour it) to down his suburban elementary school. Toppo noted, “Elementary school principals and safety experts say they’re seeing more violence and aggression than ever among their youngest students, pointing to what they see as an alarming rise in assaults and threats to classmates and teachers” (p. A2). Toppo cited statistics indicating that although the incidence of school violence has decreased overall, attacks on elementary school teachers have actually increased. Beware of Either/Or Surely we can ask adults to use good judgment in applying rules in dangerous situations but to not feel trapped by the rules when student actions are not intended to harm and are not dangerous. Whole school policies that are less punitive and more preventative and proactive and that improve the climate of the school are good alternatives to zero tolerance.

What About Zero Tolerance? There is quite a bit of discussion today about zero tolerance penalties for rule breaking in the schools. Is this a good idea? The Point/Counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? looks at both sides.

Bullying and Cyberbullying Bullying is a type of interpersonal aggression intended to harm the victim that is characterized by systematic and repeated abuse of physical or social power. Cyberbullying

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adds the possibility to attack anonymously, so being more physically or socially powerful may be less of a factor. Also, with cyberbullying, a vast public audience can be involved, whereas other forms of bullying often have fewer witnesses. The line between good-natured exchanges and hostile teasing may seem thin, but a rule of thumb is that teasing someone who is less powerful or less popular, or using any racial, ethnic, disability, or religious slur should not be tolerated. Bullying can begin as early as preschool and generally peaks during middle school, then declines a bit by the end of high school—which means bullying could be a problem in any grade you teach. Both bullies and victims are at risk for long-term academic, psychological, and behavioral problems, including drug use (Guerra, Williams, & Sadek, 2011; Hymel & Swearer, 2015; Patton et al., 2013; Thomas, Connor, & Scott, 2015; Ttofi et al., 2016). There are many ways to be a bully, as you can see in Table 13.3. For students in grades 4 through 12, about 31% report being physically bullied, 51% verbally bullied, 37% socially bullied, and 12% cyberbullied, but some studies have found as many as 80% of students report being bullied in some way. Rates of physical bullying appear to be going down, but rates of cyberbullying are going up (Graham, 2016; Hymel & Swearer, 2015).

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MyLab Education

Video Example 13.5 In this video, a girl describes her experience with bullying in an elementary classroom. Children who are bullies, as well as those who are victims of bullying, are often rejected by their peers.

VICTIMS.  Studies from both Europe and the United States indicate that about 12% of boys and 6% of girls are chronic victims of bullying—the constant targets of physical or verbal attacks from ages 8 to 16, the longest time period measured so far (Hymel & Swearer, 2015). One kind of victim tends to have low self-esteem and to feel anxious, lonely, insecure, and unhappy. These students often are prone to crying and

TABLE 13.3  •  What Does Bullying Look and Sound Like? TYPE OF BULLYING

DESCRIPTION

BEHAVIORS THAT COUNT AS BULLYING

Physical Bullying

Any unwanted physical contact in which one participant exerts power or force over another

Hitting, pinching, punching, kicking, shoving Withholding/stealing/destroying property

Verbal Bullying

Any comment considered offensive or threatening to the victim

Hurtful teasing, name-calling, criticizing, humiliating, taunting, threatening, making derogatory comments about any aspect of the individual (see also racial, religious, sexual, and disability bullying below)

Social/Relational Bullying

Intentional manipulation of people’s social lives, friendships, or reputation

Leaving people out on purpose, spreading rumors, convincing others not to be friends with someone, damaging friendships or reputations, setting someone up to look foolish

Cyber Bullying

Using an electronic platform to bully (e.g., FaceBook, SnapChat, Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr, WhatsApp, Kik, YouNow, Broadcast, Chat, Live.ly, Burn Note, Whisper, Yik Yak, MeetMe, GroupMe, email)

Spreading rumors; inflicting all verbal bullying possibilities listed above and sending to many individuals 24/7; texting embarrassing/compromising pictures or videos. See www.commonsensemedia. org/ and search for “cyberbullying” for more information.

Identity Bullying

Leaving people out or treating them badly because of their racial or ethnic background, religion, or disability

Calling racist names; telling jokes that mock race, religion or disability; making negative comments about race, religion, religious beliefs, or disability; taunting; intentionally making someone feel uncomfortable

Sexual Bullying

Leaving individuals out, treating them badly, or making them feel uncomfortable because of their sex

Making sexist comments or jokes, touching, pinching, grabbing in a sexual way; making crude comments about someone’s sexual behavior or orientation; spreading sexual rumors

Source: Based on http://www.prevnet.ca/bullying/types

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withdrawal; in general, when attacked, they won’t defend themselves. These victims may believe that they are rejected because they have flaws that they cannot change or control—no wonder they are depressed and helpless! There is a second kind of victim—highly emotional and hot-tempered students who seem to provoke aggressive reactions from their peers. Members of this group have few friends (Pellegrini, Bartini, & Brooks, 1999). Students who are different from the larger peer group are more likely to be bullied, including students who are obese or small, unpopular, or members of ethnic or language minorities, as well as students are gifted, have disabilities, or are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) (Graham, 2106; J. S. Hong & Garbarino, 2012). About 160,000 children avoid school every day, and thousands more drop out of school altogether because they are always afraid. Children who have been chronic victims through elementary and middle school are more depressed and more likely to attempt suicide as young adults (Bradshaw et al., 2013; Garbarino & deLara, 2002). And students who kill or injure others in schools are more often victims than bullies (Reinke & Herman, 2002a, 2002b). In the past years, we have seen tragic consequences when bullied students turned guns on their tormentors in schools in the United States and in Europe. Having friends can help students cope with bullying. Also, being in an ethnically diverse school can lessen feelings of vulnerability, perhaps because power is divided and shared among the groups (Graham, 2016). Why do student intentionally harm others? What are their reasons for bullying? WHY DO STUDENTS BULLY?  Ken Rigby (2012) examined the research and concluded that students bully for four main reasons. Rigby suggests that to effectively combat bullying, schools and teachers need to address the underlying motivation, not just the bullying behavior. See Table 13.4 for the reasons and possible actions. WHAT CAN TEACHERS DO? BULLYING AND TEASING.  A longitudinal study that followed a representative sample of first- through sixth-grade students for 2 years found that aggressive children whose teachers taught them conflict management strategies were moved away from a life path of aggression and violence (Aber, Brown, & Jones, 2003). TABLE 13.4  •  Reasons for Bullying and Possible School Responses REASONS FOR BULLYING

POSSIBLE SCHOOL AND TEACHER ACTIONS

Bullies feel annoyed, insulted, or have some grievance against the victim, so they feel justified in lashing out. There may or may not be a reasonable basis for the grievance felt.

Help students read the intentions of others more accurately. Use role-plays, readings, and drama to develop the capacity to “walk in someone else’s shoes.” Try conflict resolution or peer mediation.

They simply enjoy putting the victim under pressure, especially if bystanders seem to find the whole situation “fun.” The bullies claim it is innocent—“no big deal.”

Stress with students that it is not fun unless the target of the aggression is genuinely laughing too. Develop empathy through literature activities and class community building such as circle time and shared concerns, focus on what bystanders can and should do to stop bullying.

The bully believes the aggression against the victim will gain or maintain acceptance for himself or herself in a valued group.

In lessons and in relations with students, emphasize making moral judgments, thinking for yourself, and resisting conformity to group pressures. Also, sensitive discussion of prejudice and homophobia can help students resist pressures from groups to harm others based on their race, ethnicity, sexual identity, or language.

The bully wants something from the victim and is willing to inflict harm to get it, and/or the bully is basically sadistic— hurting other people feels good.

Restorative justice practices and community conferences may help the bullies feel genuine remorse. For older students, if the acts are criminal, there are legal sanctions.

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But when teachers are silent about aggression and teasing, students may “hear” the teacher’s agreement with the insult (C. S. Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015). So what should you do? Respond immediately when you see an incident—don’t ignore it. Students often think teachers won’t help, so don’t bother to report bullying. But if teachers take an active role and if students believe their teachers will separate those involved in bullying or contact parents and the principal, they are more likely to report bullying. Check your biases and be active. Bullying of all kinds is not “harmless” or “just part of growing up.” Use the incident as a teachable moment to talk about difficult topics and discuss why bystanders often do nothing. Finally, model an appreciation of differences and diversity (Cortes & Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2014; Graham, 2016). Also, consequences for the bullies should be clear, stated in advance, escalate if the bullying continues, include a reflection on the situation (talking to the teacher or writing in a journal), and not be meant to humiliate the bully, but rather teach better ways of dealing with the reasons for bullying listed in Table 13.4 (Ansary et al., 2015). Table 13.5 has other suggestions for educating students about teasing in schools. Unfortunately, the results are mixed on the effectiveness of many school-wide bullying prevention programs. And another discouraging finding is that administrators prefer to adopt anti-bullying programs that they heard about from colleagues rather than determine if there was any scientific evidence that the programs work—and many don’t (Ansary et al., 2015; Graham, 2016; Swearer et al., 2010). CYBERBULLYING.  With all the possibilities of technology come problems, too. For example, when 16-year-old Denise broke up with her boyfriend, he sought revenge by posting her email address and cell phone number on Web sites and blogs devoted to sex. For months, she got embarrassing and frightening phone calls and messages (Strom & Strom, 2005). Now bullies have new ways to torment victims using email, cell phones, text messaging, SnapChat, Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr, WhatsApp, Kik, YouNow, Broadcast, Chat, Live.ly, Burn Note, Whisper, Yik Yak, MeetMe, GroupMe YouTube, Web blogs, and online voting booths (more possibilities have probably appeared since I wrote this paragraph). This kind of bullying is difficult to combat because the perpetrators can hide, but the damage can be long term. Table 13.6 on the next page has some ideas for dealing with cyberbullying.

TABLE 13.5  •  Dos and Don’ts about Teasing Teasing has led to some tragic situations. Talk about what to do in your class. DO 1. Be careful of others’ feelings. 2. Use humor gently and carefully. 3. Ask whether teasing about a certain topic hurts someone’s feelings. 4. Accept teasing from others if you tease. 5. Tell others if teasing about a certain topic hurts your feelings. 6. Know the difference between friendly gentle teasing and hurtful ridicule or harassment. 7. Try to read others’ “body language” to see if their feelings are hurt—even when they don’t tell you. 8. Help a weaker student when he or she is being ridiculed.

DON’T 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Tease someone you don’t know well. [If you are a boy] tease girls about sex. Tease about a person’s body. Tease about a person’s family members. Tease about a topic when a student has asked you not to. 6. Tease someone who seems agitated or whom you know is having a bad day. 7. Be thin-skinned about teasing that is meant in a friendly way. 8. Swallow your feelings about teasing—tell someone in a direct and clear way what is bothering you.

Source: Based on information in: Middle and Secondary Classroom Management: Lessons from Research and Practice (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein & I. Novodvorsky. Published by McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015.

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TABLE 13.6  •  Ideas for Dealing with Cyberbullying • Develop an explicit policy for acceptable in-school use of the Internet, and include it in the school handbook (or your class rules). The policy should spell out what constitutes cyberbullying and list consequences. • Make sure that children and young people are aware that bullying will be dealt with seriously. • Ensure that parents/guardians who express cyberbullying concerns are taken seriously. • Explain to students that they – Should never share or give out personal information, PIN numbers, passwords, phone numbers, and so on. – Should not delete messages; they do not have to read them, but they should show them to an adult they trust. Messages can be used to take action against cyberbullies. – Should not open a message from someone they don’t know. – Should never reply to the message. – Probably can block the sender’s message if they are being bullied through cell phones, email, Facebook, Twiter, Snapchat, WhatsApp, instant messaging, and so on. – Can forward the messages to their Internet service provider. – Should tell an adult. – Should show the message to the police if it contains physical threats. – Should speak out against cyberbullying. – Should never send messages when they are angry. – Should never send messages they wouldn’t want others to see. • Focus some class projects on cyberbullying. For example, students in one school posted on a “Wall of Shame” cruel comments that others in the school had posted on Facebook (without identifying information). The same could be done for Twitter or other social network sites. • Make parents aware of the fact that all of the major Internet service providers offer some form of parental controls. For example, AOL has developed “AOL Guardian,” which reports who youngsters exchange messages with and what Web sites they visit, and also monitors chat rooms for children 13 and under. • Encourage parents to keep computers in a public room in the house. • Invite members of the local police department to come to school to speak with parents and students about proper Internet use. • Make sure ethics are included in any computer instruction given at your school. Source: From Middle and Secondary Classroom Management (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein and I. Novodvorsky, New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, p. 182. Adapted with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Student Misbehavior (I, C4) Even the most well-managed classroom will have instances of student misbehavior. Explain the principles for dealing with common student misbehaviors. What strategies can teachers employ to deal fairly and effectively with those problems?

Special Problems with High School Students Many secondary students never complete their schoolwork. Because students at this age have many assignments and teachers have many students, both teachers and students may lose track of what has and has not been turned in. It often helps to teach students how to use a daily planner—paper or electronic. In addition, teachers must keep accurate records. The most important thing is to enforce the established consequences for incomplete work. Do not pass a student because you know he or she is “bright enough” to pass. Make it clear to these students that the choice is theirs: They can do the work and pass, or they can refuse to do the work and face the consequences. You might also ask, in a private moment, if there is anything interfering with the student’s ability to get the work done. There is also the problem of students who continually break the same rules, always forgetting materials, for example, or getting into fights. What should you do? Seat these students away from others who might be influenced by them. Try to catch them before they break the rules, but if rules are broken, be consistent in applying established consequences. Do not accept promises that they will do better next time (Levin & Nolan, 2000). Teach the students how to monitor their own behavior; some of the self-regulation techniques described in Chapter 11 should be helpful. Finally, remain friendly with the students. Try to catch them in a good moment so you can talk to them about something other than their rule breaking. A defiant, hostile student can pose serious problems. If there is an outburst, try to get out of the situation as soon as possible; everyone loses in a public power struggle. One possibility is to give the student a chance to save face and cool down by saying, “It’s your choice to cooperate or not. You can take a minute to think about it.” If the student complies, the two of you can talk later about controlling the outbursts. If the student refuses to

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cooperate, you can tell him or her to wait in the hall until you get the class started on work, then step outside for a private talk. If the student refuses to leave, send another class member for the assistant principal. Again, follow through. If the student complies before help arrives, do not let him or her off the hook. If outbursts occur frequently, you might have a conference with the counselor, family members, or other teachers. If the problem is an irreconcilable clash of personalities, the student should be transferred to another teacher. It sometimes is useful to keep records of these incidents by logging the student’s name, words and actions, date, time, place, and teacher’s response. These records may help identify patterns and can prove useful in meetings with administrators, families, or special services personnel (Burden, 1995). Some teachers have students sign each entry to verify the incidents. Fighting or destruction of property is a difficult and potentially dangerous problem. The first step is to send for help and get the names of participants and witnesses. Then, remove any students who may have gathered to watch; an audience will only make things worse. Do not try to break up a fight without help. Make sure the school office is aware of the incident; usually the school has a policy for dealing with these situations. What else can you do? The Guidelines: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations are based on C. S. Weinstein and I. Novodvorsky (2015). MyLab Education Self-Check 13.4

GUIDELINES Handling Potentially Explosive Situations Move slowly and deliberately toward the problem situation. Examples 1. Walk slowly; then be as still as possible. 2. Establish eye-level position. Be respectful. Examples 1. Keep a reasonable distance. 2. Do not crowd the student. Do not get “in the student’s face.” 3. Speak respectfully. Use the student’s name. 4. Avoid pointing or gesturing. Be brief. Examples 1. Avoid long-winded statements or nagging. 2. Stay with the agenda. Stay focused on the problem at hand. Do not get sidetracked. 3. Deal with less-severe problems later. Avoid power struggles. Examples 1. Speak privately if possible; don’t threaten. 2. Do not get drawn into “I won’t, you will” arguments. 3. Don’t make threats or raise your voice.

Inform the student of the expected behavior and the negative consequence as a choice or decision for the student to make. Then withdraw from the student and allow some time for the student to decide. Examples 1. “Michael, you need to return to your desk, or I will have to send for the principal. You have a few seconds to decide.” The teacher then moves away, perhaps attending to other students. 2. If Michael does not choose the appropriate behavior, deliver the negative consequences. (“You are choosing to have me call the principal.”) Follow through with the consequence. Source: Based on material in: Middle and Secondary Classroom Management: Lessons from Research and Practice (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein & I. Novodvorsky. Published by McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by McGraw-Hill. Adapted with permission from the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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THE NEED FOR COMMUNICATION PUT YOURSELF IN THEIR PLACE A student says to you, “That book you assigned is really dumb—I’m not reading it!” What do you say? • Communication between teacher and students is essential when problems arise. Communication is more than “teacher talks—student listens.” It is more than the words exchanged between individuals. We communicate in many ways. Our actions, movements, voice tone, facial expressions, and many other nonverbal behaviors send messages to our students. Many times, the messages we intend to send are not the messages our students receive ( Jones & Jones, 2016).

Message Sent—Message Received Teacher: Carl, where is your homework? Carl: I left it in my Dad’s car this morning. Teacher: Again? You will have to bring me a note tomorrow from your father saying that you actually did the homework. No grade without the note. Message Carl receives: I can’t trust you. I need proof you did the work. *** Teacher: Sit at every other desk. Put all your things under your desk. Jane and Laurel, you are sitting too close together. One of you move! Message Jane and Laurel receive: I expect you two to cheat on this test. *** A new student comes to Ms. Lincoln’s kindergarten. The child is messy and unwashed. Ms. Lincoln puts her hand lightly on the girl’s shoulder and speaks: Ms. Lincoln: I’m glad you are here. (Her muscles tense, and she leans away from the child.) Message student receives: I don’t like you. I think you are bad. A student may respond with hostility if she or he feels insulted by the teacher but may not be able to say exactly where the feeling of being insulted came from. Perhaps it was in the teacher’s tone of voice or lack of eye contact. But the teacher feels attacked for no reason. The first principle of communication is that people respond to what they think was said or meant, not necessarily to the speaker’s intended message or actual words. Students in my classes have told me about one instructor who encourages accurate communication by using the paraphrase rule. Before any participant, including the teacher, is allowed to respond to any other participant in a class discussion, he or she must summarize what the previous speaker said. If the summary is wrong, indicating the speaker was misunderstood, the speaker must explain again. The respondent then tries again to paraphrase. The process continues until the speaker agrees that the listener has heard the intended message. Paraphrasing is more than a classroom exercise. It can be the first step in communicating with students. Before teachers can deal appropriately with any student problem, they must know what the real problem is. A student who says, “This book is really dumb! Why did we have to read it?” may really be saying, “The book was too difficult for me. I couldn’t read it, and I feel dumb.” Paraphrase rule Policy whereby listeners must accurately summarize what a speaker has said before being allowed to respond.

Empathetic Listening Let’s keep going with the situation in which the student found the reading assignment “dumb.” How might a teacher handle this positively?

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Student: This book is really dumb! Why did we have to read it? Teacher: You’re pretty upset. This seemed like a worthless assignment to you. [Teacher paraphrases the student’s statement, trying to hear the emotions as well as the words.] Student: Yeah! Well, I guess it was worthless. I mean, I don’t know if it was. I couldn’t exactly read it. Teacher: It was a struggle to read, and that bothers you. Student: Sure, I felt really dumb. I know I can write a good report, but not with a book this tough. Teacher: I think I can give you some hints that will make the book easier to understand. Can you see me after school today?

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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Teacher–Student Communication (III, A) A well-managed classroom requires a bidirectional line of communication between the teacher and students. Describe the various communication styles that teachers employ when interacting with students, and explain how those styles affect student behavior.

Student: Okay. Here the teacher used empathetic listening to allow the student to find a solution. (As you can see, this approach relies heavily on paraphrasing.) By trying to hear the student and by avoiding the tendency to jump in too quickly with advice, solutions, criticisms, reprimands, or interrogations, the teacher keeps the communication lines open. Here are a few unhelpful responses the teacher might have made: • I chose the book because it is the best example of the author’s style in our library. (The teacher justifies the choice; this prevents the student from admitting that this “important” assignment is too difficult.) • Did you really read it? I bet you didn’t do the work. (The teacher accuses; the student hears, “The teacher doesn’t trust me!” and must either defend herself or himself or accept the teacher’s view.) • Your job is to read the book, not ask me why. I know what’s best. (The teacher pulls rank, and the student hears, “You can’t possibly decide what is good for you!” The student can rebel or passively accept the teacher’s judgment.) Empathetic, active listening is more than a parroting of the student’s words; it should capture the emotions, intent, and meaning behind them. Sokolove, Garrett, Sadker, and Sadker (1986, p. 241) have summarized the components of active listening: (1) blocking out external stimuli; (2) attending carefully to both the verbal and nonverbal messages; (3) differentiating between the intellectual and the emotional content of the message; and (4) making inferences regarding the speaker’s feelings. When students realize they really have been heard and not evaluated negatively for what they have said or felt, they begin to trust the teacher and to talk more openly. Sometimes the true problem surfaces later in the conversation.

When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, Assertive Discipline, and Problem Solving Let’s assume a student is doing something that actively interferes with teaching. The teacher decides the student must stop. Confrontation, not listening, is required. “I” MESSAGES.  Jones and Jones (2016) describe an approach first developed by Thomas Gordon—sending an “I” message to intervene and change a student’s behavior. Basically, this means telling a student in a straightforward, assertive, and nonjudgmental way what she or he is doing, how it affects you as a teacher, and how you feel about it. The student is then free to change voluntarily, and often does so. Here are two “I” messages: If you leave your book bags in the aisles, I might trip and hurt myself. When you all call out, I can’t concentrate on each answer, and I’m frustrated.

Empathetic listening  Hearing the intent and emotions behind what another says and reflecting them back by paraphrasing. “I” message Clear, nonaccusatory statement of how something is affecting you.

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ASSERTIVE DISCIPLINE.  Lee and Marlene Canter (1992; Canter, 1996) suggest other approaches called assertive discipline when student behaviors have to be changed. Many teachers are ineffective with students because they are either wishy-washy and passive or hostile and aggressive (Charles, 2011). Instead of telling the student directly what to do, teachers use a passive response style—they ask the student to try or to think about the appropriate action. The passive teacher might comment on the problem behavior without actually telling the child what to do differently: “Why are you doing that? Don’t you know the rules?” or “Sam, are you disturbing the class?” Or teachers may give the students “one more chance” every time. Finally, teachers may ignore behavior that should receive a response, or they may wait too long before responding. A hostile response style involves different mistakes. Teachers may make “you” statements that condemn the student without stating clearly what the student should be doing: “You should be ashamed of the way you’re behaving!” or “You never listen!” or “You are acting like a baby!” Teachers may also threaten students angrily, but follow through too seldom, perhaps because the threats are too vague—“You’ll be very sorry you did that when I get through with you!”—or too severe. For example, a teacher tells a student in a physical education class that he will have to “sit on the bench for 3 weeks.” A few days later, the team is short one member, and the teacher lets the student play, never returning him to the bench to complete the 3-week sentence. Often a teacher who has been passive becomes hostile and explodes when students persist in misbehaving. In contrast with both the passive and hostile styles, an assertive response communicates to the students that you care too much about them and the process of learning to allow inappropriate behavior to persist. Assertive teachers clearly state what they expect. To be most effective, the teachers often look into a student’s eyes when speaking and address the student by name. Assertive teachers’ voices are calm, firm, and confident. They are not sidetracked by accusations such as “You just don’t understand!” or “You don’t like me!” Assertive teachers do not get into a debate about the fairness of the rules. They expect changes, not promises or apologies. More recent versions of assertive discipline focus on teaching students how to behave responsibly and working to establish mutual respect and trust (Charles, 2011).

Assertive discipline Clear, firm, nonhostile response style.

CONFRONTATIONS AND NEGOTIATIONS.  If “I” messages or assertive responses fail and a student persists in misbehaving, teacher and student are in a conflict. Several pitfalls now loom. The two individuals become less able to perceive each other’s behavior accurately. Research has shown that the angrier you are with another person, the more you see the other as the villain and yourself as an innocent victim. Because you feel the other person is in the wrong, and he or she feels just as strongly that the conflict is all your fault, very little mutual trust is possible. A cooperative solution to the problem is almost impossible. In fact, by the time the discussion has gone on a few minutes, the original problem is lost in a sea of charges, countercharges, and self-defense (Baron & Byrne, 2003). There are three methods of resolving a conflict between a teacher and a student. One is for the teacher to impose a solution. This may be necessary during an emergency, as when a defiant student refuses to go to the hall to discuss a public outburst, but it is not a good solution for most conflicts. The second method is for the teacher to give in to the student’s demands. You might be convinced by a particularly compelling student argument, but again, this should be used sparingly. Problems arise when either the teacher or the student gives in completely. There is a third possibility called problem solving that allows both teacher and student have input into a solution. Many versions of problem solving strategies can work. Jones and Jones (2016) suggest one that is grounded in positive relationships between the teacher and the students and also encourages student responsibility and accountability. Figure 13.6 shows the basic steps. Many of the conflicts in classrooms can be important learning experiences for all concerned.

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F IG U RE 13.6 A PROBLEM SOLVING MODEL Here is a general set of steps to guide problem solving about student behaviors.

Step 1:

Establish a warm, personal relationship with the student. (Develop a “positive relationship bank account” with the student.)

Step 2:

Deal with the present behavior. “What happened?” (Develop a time line/functional assessment.) “What did you do?” (Help students take responsibility for their role in the problem. Help them develop an internal locus of control.)

Step 3:

Make a value judgment. “Is it helping you?” (Help students consider their own behavior and underlying assumptions.) “Is it helping others?” (Enhance student’s social cognition.) “Is it against a rule/does it violate a compelling state interest?” (Help students understand their own and others’ rights and responsibilities within the community.)

Step 4:

Work out a plan. “What can you do differently?” (Social skills training) “What do you need me to do?” (Empowerment/functional assessment) “What do you need other students to do?” (Empowerment/functional assessment)

Step 5:

Make a commitment. “Are you going to do this?” (Enhance student’s accountability/responsibility.)

Step 6:

Follow up. “I’ll check later and see how the plan has worked.” (Supportive/caring environment)

Step 7:

No put-downs, but do not accept excuses. “If the plan didn’t work, let’s analyze why and develop a new plan.” (High expectations and persistence in working with students)

Source: Jones, Vern; Jones, Louise, Comprehensive Classroom Management: Creating Communities of Support and Solving Problems, Update, Loose-Leaf Version, 11th Ed., p. 324. ©2017. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

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Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Justice Handling conflict is difficult for most of us—and for young people it can be even harder. Avoidance, force, and threats seem to be the major strategies for dealing with conflict (D. W. Johnson et al., 1995). But there are better ways—like peer mediation and restorative justice that teach lifelong lessons. PEER MEDIATION.  David Johnson and his colleagues (1995) provided conflict resolution training to 227 students in second through fifth grade. Students learned a 5-step negotiating strategy:

MyLab Education

Video Example 13.6 Two students trained as conflict managers help two other students settle a dispute. The procedures and skills demonstrated by the conflict managers help the other students recognize ways to prevent conflicts in the future or resolve them without intervention.

1. Jointly define the conflict. Separate the person from the problem and the actions involved, avoid win–lose thinking, and get both parties’ goals clear. 2. Exchange positions and interests. Present a tentative proposal, and make a case for it; listen to the other person’s proposal and feelings; and stay flexible and cooperative. 3. Reverse perspectives. See the situation from the other person’s point of view, and reverse roles and argue for that perspective. 4. Invent at least three agreements that allow mutual gain. Brainstorm, focus on goals, think creatively, and make sure everyone has power to invent solutions. 5. Reach an integrative agreement. Make sure both sets of goals are met. If all else fails, flip a coin, take turns, or call in a third party—a mediator. In addition to learning conflict resolution, all students in were trained in mediation strategies. The role of the mediator was rotated—every day the teacher chose two students to be the class mediators and to wear the mediators’ T-shirts. Johnson and his colleagues found that students learned the conflict resolution and mediation strategies and used them successfully to handle conflicts in a more productive way, both in school and at home. Even if you do not have formal peer mediation training in your school, you can help your students handle conflict more productively. For example, Esme Codell, the excellent first-year teacher you met earlier in this chapter, taught her fifth graders a simple 4-step process and posted the steps on a bulletin board: “1. Tell person what you didn’t like. 2. Tell person how it made you feel. 3. Tell person what you want in the future. 4. Person responds with what they can do. Congratulations! You are a Confident Conflict Conqueror!” (Codell, 2001, p. 23). RESTORATIVE JUSTICE.  Restorative justice focuses on building, nurturing, and repairing relationships while giving a voice to victims, offenders, and the community. The goal is to reduce reliance on traditional punishments and police involvement, but still hold misbehaving students accountable. In restorative justice, a problem behavior is harmful not because it “breaks a rule,” but rather because the negative action adversely affects members of the classroom and school community (Fronius et al., 2016). The participants in a conflict meet with a facilitator (often the teacher) and sometimes members of their family. The victim and the offender express their views and describe their experiences, with monitoring by the facilitator to keep discussions productive. When the process works well, the participants express remorse for hurting each other, forgive the perceived transgressions, and reconcile their conflict. David and Roger Johnson (2013) note that: Reconciliation usually includes an apology, communicates that justice has prevailed, recognizes the negativity of the acts perpetuated, restores respect for the social identity of those formerly demeaned, validates and recognizes the suffering undergone by the victim and relevant community members, establishes trust between victim and offender, and removes the reasons for either party to “right” the wrongs of the past. (p. 408).

The outcome of restorative justice usually is an agreement that includes how to re-establish cooperation and participation in the classroom community—perhaps an apology of action, restitution, and a plan for dealing positively with possible future conflicts. We have looked at quite a few perspectives on classroom management. Clearly, there is no one-size-fits-all strategy for creating social and physical spaces for learning. What does the research tell us? Are some strategies better than others?

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Research on Management Approaches Research provides some guidance. In a study conducted in Australia, Ramon Lewis (2001) found that recognizing and rewarding appropriate student behaviors, talking with students about how their behavior affects others, involving students in class discipline decisions, and providing nondirective hints and descriptions about unacceptable behaviors were associated with students’ taking greater responsibility for their own learning. In a study of over 3,000 ninth-grade students in Singapore, Youyan Nie and Shun Lau (2009) found that both caring and control were positively related to student engagement; so, blending control, influence, caring, and group management strategies may be necessary to create positive learning environments. This is not always easy. Lewis also concluded that teachers sometimes find using caring, influence, and group management difficult when students are aggressive—and most in need of these positive approaches. When teachers feel threatened, it can be difficult for them to do what students need, but that may be the most important time to act positively and combine caring with control. The American Psychological Association has a wealth of research-based resources for teachers on classroom management. See www.apa.org/ and search for “classroom management” to find videos, modules, and other possibilities. MyLab Education Self-Check 13.5

DIVERSITY: CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE MANAGEMENT Research on discipline shows that African Americans and Latino/a Americans, especially males, are punished more often and more harshly than other students. For example, compared to White students, African American students are 26% more likely to receive out-of-school suspension for their first offense (Fronius et al., 2016). These students lose time from learning as they spend more hours in detention or suspension (Gay, 2006; Monroe & Obidah, 2002; Skiba, Michael, Nardo, & Peterson, 2000). Why? The notion that African Americans and Latino/a students are punished more because they commit more serious offenses is NOT supported by the data. Instead, these students are punished more severely for minor offenses such as rudeness or defiance—words and actions that are interpreted by teachers as meriting severe punishment. One explanation is a lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and students and possible implicit (unconscious) biases of teachers and administrators (Rudd, 2014). For example, in one study, 136 middle school teachers viewed videos of an African American and a European American eighth-grade student demonstrating a standard walk or a “stroll” usually associated with an African American style of movement. The teachers perceived the students who strolled as significantly lower in achievement, higher in aggression, and more likely to need special education services (Neal, McCray, Webb-Johnson, & Bridgest, 2003). African American students may be disciplined for behaviors that were never intended to be disruptive or disrespectful. Teachers do their students and themselves a service if they work at becoming bicultural—helping their students to learn how to function in both mainstream and home cultures, but also learning the meaning of their students’ words and actions—so they do not misinterpret and then punish their students’ unintended insults (Gay, 2006). Culturally responsive classroom management has 5 dimensions: (1) understanding and addressing your own beliefs, biases, values, and stereotypes that are grounded in your own ethnic culture; (2) developing a knowledge of your students’ cultural backgrounds; (3) understanding the broader social, economic, and political context of classroom teaching—schools often reflect and reinforce the discriminatory practices of the larger society; (4) an ability and willingness to use culturally appropriate management

Culturally responsive management Taking cultural meanings and styles into account when developing management plans and responding to students.

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strategies; and (5) a commitment to building caring classrooms (Sikba et al, 2016). Culturally responsive management is simply a part of the larger concept of culturally relevant teaching. Geneva Gay (2006) sums it up: If the classroom is a comfortable, caring, embracing, affirming, engaging, and facilitative place for students then discipline is not likely to be much of an issue. It follows then that both classroom management and school achievement can be improved for students from different ethnic, racial, social, and linguistic backgrounds by ensuring that curriculum and instruction are culturally relevant and personally meaningful for them.

I once asked a gifted educator in an urban New Jersey high school which teachers were most effective with the really tough students. He said there are two kinds: teachers who can’t be intimidated or fooled and expect their students to learn, and teachers who really care about the students. When I asked, “Which kind are you?” he answered “Both!” He is an example of a “warm demander,” a teacher who seems to be most effective with students placed at risk (Irvine & Armento, 2001; Irvine & Fraser, 1998). Warm demanders are “strong yet compassionate, authoritative yet loving, firm yet respectful” (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004, p. 34). Sometimes these warm demanders appear harsh to outside observers (Burke-Spero & Woolfolk Hoy, 2002). Carla Monroe and Jennifer Obidah (2002) studied Ms. Simpson, an African American teacher working with her eighth-grade science class. She describes herself as having high expectations for academics and behavior in her classes—so much so that she believed her students perceived her as “mean.” Yet she often used humor and dialect to communicate her expectations, as in the following exchange: Ms. Simpson [addressing the class]: If you know you’re going to act the fool just come to me and say, “I’m going to act the fool at the pep rally,” so I can go ahead and send you to wherever you need to go. [Class laughs.] Ms. Simpson: I’m real serious. If you know you’re having a bad day, you don’t want anybody touching you, you don’t want nobody saying nothing to you, somebody bump into you you’re going to snap—you need to come up to me and say, “I’m going to snap and I can’t go to the pep rally.” [The students start to call out various comments.] Ms. Simpson: Now, I just want to say I expect you to have the best behavior because you’re the most mature students in the building . . . don’t make me stop the pep rally and ask the eighth graders to leave. Edward: We’ll have silent lunch won’t we? [Class laughs.] Ms. Simpson: You don’t want to dream about what you’re going to have. [Class laughs.] Ok, 15 minutes for warm ups. [The students begin their warm-up assignment.]

Warm demanders Teachers who are especially effective with African American students; they show both high expectations and great caring for their students.

Many African American students may be more accustomed to a directive kind of management and discipline outside of school. Their families might say, “Put down that candy” or “Go to bed,” whereas White parents might ask, “Can we eat candy before dinner?” or “Isn’t it time for bed?” As H. Richard Milner (2006, p. 498) says, “The question should not be which approach is right or wrong but which approach works with and connects with the students’ prior knowledge and ways of knowing.” As we have seen throughout this book, families are important partners in education. This statement applies to classroom management as well. When parents and teachers share the same expectations and support each other, they can create a more positive classroom environment and more time for learning. The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Classroom Management provide ideas for working with families and the community. You can find more ideas through the Harvard Family Research Project (http://hfrp.org). MyLab Education Self-Check 13.6

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GUIDELINES

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Classroom Management Make sure families know the expectations and rules of your class and school. Examples 1. At a Family Fun Night, have your students do skits showing the rules—how to follow them and what breaking them “looks like” and “sounds like.” 2. Make a poster for the refrigerator at home that describes, in a light way, the most important rules and expectations. 3. For older students, give families a list of due dates for the major assignments, along with tips about how to encourage quality work by pacing the effort—avoiding last-minute panic. Some schools require family members to sign a paper indicating they are aware of the due dates. 4. Communicate in appropriate ways—use the family’s first language when possible. Tailor messages to the reading level of the home. Make families partners in recognizing good citizenship. Examples 1. Send positive notes home when students, especially students who have had trouble with classroom management, work well in the classroom. 2. Give ideas for ways any family, even those with few economic resources, can celebrate accomplishment— a

favorite food; the chance to choose a game to play; a comment to a special person such as an aunt, grandparent, or minister; the chance to read to a younger sibling. Identify talents in the community to help build a learning environment in your class. Examples 1. Have students write letters to carpet and furniture stores asking for donations of remnants to carpet a reading corner. 2. Find family members who can build shelves or room dividers, paint, sew, laminate manipulatives, write stories, repot plants, or network computers. 3. Contact businesses for donations of computers, printers, or other equipment. Seek cooperation from families when behavior problems arise. Examples 1. Talk to families over the phone or in their home. Keep good records about the problem behavior. 2. Listen to family members, and solve problems with them.

. SUMMARY The What and Why of Classroom Management (pp. 536–541) What are the challenges of classroom management? As you learn to teach, you should be aware of your philosophy of classroom management. Are you more teacher centered and structured or more student centered and humanistic? Do you tend to focus on Relationship-Listening, Confronting-Contracting, Rules and Consequences, or some combination? Classrooms are challenging because they are multidimensional, full of simultaneous activities, fast-paced and immediate, unpredictable, public, and affected by the history of students’ and teachers’ actions. A teacher must juggle all these elements every day. Productive classroom activity requires students’ cooperation. Maintaining cooperation is different for each age group. Young students are learning how to “go to school” and need to learn the general procedures of school. Older students need to learn the specifics required for working in different subjects. Working with adolescents requires teachers to understand the power of the adolescent peer group. What are the goals of effective classroom management? The goals of effective classroom management are to make ample

time for learning; improve the quality of time used by keeping students actively engaged; make sure participation structures are clear, straightforward, and consistently signaled; develop positive relationships with students, and encourage student self-management, self-control, and responsibility.

Creating a Positive Learning Environment (pp. 541–550) Distinguish between rules and procedures. Rules are the specific dos and don’ts of classroom life. They usually are written and posted. Procedures cover administrative tasks, student movement, housekeeping, and routines for accomplishing lessons, interactions between students and teachers, and interactions among students. Rules can be written in terms of rights, and students may benefit from participating in establishing these rules. Consequences should be established for following and breaking the rules and procedures so that the teacher and the students know what will happen.

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Distinguish between personal territories and interest area spatial arrangements.  There are two basic kinds of spatial organization, territorial (the traditional classroom arrangement) and functional (dividing space into interest or work areas). Flexibility is often the key. Access to materials, convenience, privacy when needed, ease of supervision, and a willingness to reevaluate plans are important considerations in the teacher’s choice of physical arrangements. Contrast the first school week of effective and ineffective classroom managers.  Effective classroom managers spent the first days of class teaching a workable, easily understood set of rules and procedures by using lots of explanation, examples, and practice. Students were occupied with organized, enjoyable activities, and they learned to function cooperatively in the group. Quick, firm, clear, and consistent responses to infractions of the rules characterized effective teachers. The teachers had planned carefully to avoid any last-minute tasks that might have taken them away from their students. These teachers dealt with the children’s pressing concerns first. In contrast, for ineffective managers, procedures for accomplishing routine tasks varied from day to day and were never taught or practiced. Students talked to one another because they had nothing productive to do. Ineffective teachers frequently left the room. Many became absorbed in paperwork or in helping just one student. They had not made plans for how to deal with typical problems such as late-arriving students or interruptions.

Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning (pp. 550–555) How can teachers encourage engagement?  In general, as teacher supervision increases, students’ engaged time also increases. When the task provides continuous cues for the student about what to do next, involvement will be greater. Activities with clear steps are likely to be more absorbing, because one step leads naturally to the next. Making work requirements clear and specific, providing needed materials, and monitoring activities all add to engagement. Explain the factors identified by Kounin that prevent management problems in the classroom.  To create a positive environment and prevent problems, teachers must take individual differences into account, maintain student motivation, and reinforce positive behavior. Successful problem preventers are skilled in four areas described by Kounin: “withitness,” overlapping, group focusing, and movement management. When penalties have to be imposed, teachers should impose them calmly and privately. In addition to applying Kounin’s ideas, teachers can prevent problems by establishing a caring classroom community and teaching students to use social skills and emotional self-regulation skills. How do teachers help students form connections with schools?  To get started on building connections, teachers should make expectations for both academic work and student behaviors clear. Respect for students’ needs and rights should be at the center of class procedures. Students know that their teachers care about them when teachers try to make classes interesting, are fair and honest with them, make sure they understand the materials, and have ways to cope with

students’ concerns and troubles. Check & Connect is one example of a successful program.

Dealing with Discipline Problems (pp. 555–565) Describe eight levels of intervention in misbehavior. Teachers can first make eye contact with the student or use other nonverbal signals, then try verbal hints such as simply inserting the student’s name into the lecture. Next, the teacher asks if the offender is aware of the negative effects of the actions, then reminds the student of the procedure and has her or him follow it correctly. Especially if a few students are “drifting away,” you can involve the whole class in a brief interactive activity such as “Think-Pair-Share.” If this does not work, the teacher can ask the student to state the correct rule or procedure and then to follow it, and then tell the student in a clear, assertive, and nonhostile way to stop the misbehavior. If this fails too, the teacher can offer a choice—stop the behavior or meet privately to work out the consequences. What can teachers do about bullying, teasing, and cyberbullying?  Teachers often underestimate the amount of peer conflict and bullying that happens in schools. Bullying involves both an imbalance of power between students and repeated attempts at harm and may take place in a variety of settings—including those in which students are not faceto-face with one another at school. Teachers can think of bullying as a form of violence and approach strategies for overcoming bullying as they would strategies to overcoming other violent acts. For example, prevention of bullying can take the form of developing a respectful classroom community and discussing conflict. What are some challenges in secondary classrooms? Teachers working in secondary schools should be prepared to handle students who don’t complete schoolwork, repeatedly break the same rule, or openly defy teachers. These students may also be experiencing new and powerful stressors. As a result, secondary students may benefit if teachers provide opportunities or point out resources for these students to seek out help and support. Teachers might also find consultation with guidance counselors and parents or caregivers helpful.

The Need for Communication (pp. 566–571) What is meant by “empathetic listening”?  Communication between teacher and student is essential when problems arise. All interactions between people, even silence or neglect, communicate some meaning. Empathetic, active listening can be a helpful response when students bring problems to teachers. Teachers must reflect back to the students what they hear them saying. This reflection is more than a parroting of words; it should capture the emotions, intent, and meaning behind them. Distinguish among passive, hostile, and assertive response styles. The passive response style can take several forms. Instead of telling the student directly what to do, the teacher simply comments on the behavior, asks the student to think about the appropriate action, or threatens but never follows through. In a hostile response style, teachers may make “you” statements that condemn the student without stating clearly what the student should be doing. An assertive response communicates to the

M ANAGI NG LE AR NI NG E NV I RON MEN TS students that the teacher cares too much about them and the process of learning to allow inappropriate behavior to persist. Assertive teachers clearly state what they expect. What are peer mediation and restorative justice? Peer mediation is one good possibility for preventing violence in schools. The steps for peer mediation are: (1) Jointly define the conflict. (2) Exchange positions and interests. (3) Reverse perspectives. (4) Invent at least three agreements that allow mutual gain. (5) Reach an integrative agreement. Restorative justice focuses on building, nurturing, and repairing relationships while giving a voice to victims, offenders, and the community. The goal is to reduce reliance on traditional punishments and police involvement, but still hold misbehaving students accountable.

Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management (pp. 571–573) What is culturally responsive management, and why is it needed?  African Americans and Latino/a Americans, especially males, are punished more often and more harshly than other students, but they do not commit more serious offenses. Instead, these students are punished more severely for minor offenses such as rudeness or defiance—words and actions that are interpreted by teachers as meriting severe punishment. One explanation is a lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and students. Culturally responsive management combines high expectations for students’ appropriate behavior with warmth and caring for the students as individuals.

. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. The Classroom Impact on Routines and Procedures

Classroom Management

Keeping Classroom Situations from Escalating

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

Application Exercise 13.1

Application Exercise 13.2

Application Exercise 13.3

. KEY TERMS Academic learning time (p. 540) Assertive discipline (p. 568) Classroom management (p. 539) Culturally responsive management (p. 571) Empathetic listening (p. 567) Engaged time (p. 540) Group focus (p. 552)

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“I” message (p. 567) Movement management (p. 552) Natural/logical consequences (p. 545) Overlapping (p. 552) Paraphrase rule (p. 566) Participation structures (p. 539) Procedures/routines (p. 542)

Rules (p. 542) Self-management (p. 541) Time on task (p. 540) Warm demanders (p. 572) Withitness (p. 551)

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. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Which of the following is NOT one of the aims of classroom management? A. To provide all students access to learning, and to ­formulate clear participation structures B. To increase academic learning time (engaged time) C. To maintain a positive teacher-student relationship D. To segregate the classroom based on students’ performance for more effective teaching 2. Rei wanted to make students in her class work in pairs for a classroom project. Which of the following seating arrangements would be most effective for Rei’s purposes? A. Fishbowl or stack special formation B. Clusters or circle arrangement C. Horizontal rows D. Racetracks design 3. One of the important steps for effective classroom management is to have students build positive relationships with the classroom community. Which of the following is FALSE about students’ connections with schools? A. Students typically report higher liking for teachers who show academic caring and avoid showing personal caring. B. Students who perceive school as a competitive space are more likely to act out and withdraw altogether. C. It can be beneficial if teachers spend some time in their students’ homes, learning about their cultures and offering help outside of school. D. Girls tend to report a higher sense of belonging in school during high school years in comparison to boys.

4. Which of the following techniques is NOT recommended for penalizing a student who may be prone to misbehavior in class? A. Delay the discussion until both you and the student have calmed down. B. Impose penalty publicly so that others can learn vicariously. C. Restore positive relationship with the student immediately after penalizing them. D. Always give directions to help the student avoid such mistakes in the future.

CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case “Simon, where is your homework?” “I am sorry, Ms. Siti. I forgot to do it.” “AGAIN?!,” Ms. Siti yelled at Simon. “GET OUT OF MY CLASSROOM. I do not want lazy students in my class. You are one of the most unmotivated students I have ever seen.” “Ms. Siti, please, listen to me. I have a reason for not…” “No excuses. Everyone is able to submit their homework on time, except for you. Do not try to come up with creative excuses. I will not believe them.” For the next 2 days, Simon was made to stand outside of the classroom during Ms. Siti’s class. 5. Point out some of the mistakes committed by Ms. Siti in responding to Simon’s inability to submit his homework. List a few recommendations for Ms. Siti to improve her ability in handling cases like Simon. 6. Discuss some of the guidelines you would suggest to Ms.  Siti if she still decided to penalize her students for ­similar behaviors.

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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK:  Bullies and Victims Here is how some practicing teachers responded to the problems with bullies at school. JOLITA HARPER • Third-Grade Teacher Preparing Academic Leaders Academy, Maple Heights, OH

I believe that the entire learning community has a clear role in preventing acts of intimidation between students, and that this is best accomplished with clear communication between all parties. Care should be taken to spread awareness between colleagues as to the nature of the situation. Classroom teachers who are alert to these instances of bullying are then able to provide an additional presence in situations, such as in hallways and the lunchroom, where this is likely to take place. Further, communication between individual classroom teachers and the victim of this bullying is essential. I would make certain to provide a sensitive ear to this student’s plight as we work together to formulate alternatives toward improving the situation. Finally, in the event that the two bullying students were in my classes, I would communicate with them in such a way as to make clear the effect of their actions on others in an effort to promote empathy for their victim and, hopefully, initiate a change in their behaviors. KEITH J. BOYLE • English Teacher, Grades 9–12 Dunellen High School, Dunellen, NJ

Errant behavior throughout the middle school may be indicative of future behavioral problems and, as many things in life, the more this misbehavior is allowed to exist, the longer it will have a chance to thrive. In this case of a child being continually bullied by two other children (gender having no bearing in this situation), the knowledge of this wrongdoing must not be ignored or isolated. I would interview both the victim and the bullies, separately, to glean as much information as possible. If this were a singular incident, I would attempt to handle it myself via contact with the pertinent parents. However,

if this were a recurring problem, the administration must be made aware. Any administrator will acknowledge that to be left in the dark about a serious situation within the environs of his or her responsibility is precarious. The appropriate guidance counselor should also be involved. The gravity of abusive behavior toward fellow students must be emphasized to the offenders. Significant punitive action is integral to send a message to the entire community that their school is indeed a haven in which one can feel the uninhibited freedom to learn. KELLEY CROCKETT • Professor and Former Elementary School Teacher San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, and Fort Worth, TX

Bullying cannot be tolerated. No school, no teacher, no administrator can afford a climate in which abusive behavior is allowed to germinate. Any incident of victimization must be immediately documented and submitted to the principal. As well, I would schedule a conference that same day with the school counselor for my student to both allow another avenue of documentation and reinforce support that the problem is being aggressively addressed. How I handle the next step depends on the administration in place, but the important issue to remember is that there is a next step. The teacher must follow up with the student. Within 48 hours I would privately ask my student if there have been any further incidents. If he hesitates or acknowledges continued harassment I would direct him to write it down, and I would document any questions I had asked him and his responses. I would then include his statement and my own in another report for both the principal and the counselor. As teachers, we hold the front line. To the children in our care, we represent one of the first relationships with authority and civilized society. We can do no less than lend our voice and action to the betterment of our world.

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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Reaching and Teaching Every Student

WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

TEACHING EVERY STUDENT You have started a new job in a high school in your hometown. When you were in school, the students were fairly homogeneous—White, working to middle class, and English speaking. But things have changed radically—many different ethnicities, languages, and income levels are represented now. In the classes you are teaching, you find a wide range of reading levels, family incomes, and learning problems. Two of your students are virtually ready for college, but several others can barely read the texts, and their writing is impossible to decipher. Reading English texts is a challenge for some of your students who are English language learners, although they seem to speak English with little trouble. CRITICAL THINKING • How would you differentiate instruction for these very dissimilar students? • Do different philosophies of teaching provide different answers to this question? • How will you grade work if you have successfully differentiated instruction?

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OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES Much of this text has been about learning and learners. In this chapter, we focus on teaching and teachers. Are there particular characteristics that distinguish effective teachers from ineffective ones? Research on whole-class teaching points to the importance of several factors that we will explore. What else do we know about teaching? Teachers are designers—they create learning environments (Wiggins & McTighe, 2006). In the process they set goals for their students, develop teaching strategies and activities, and assess to see if goals have been met. We look at how teachers plan, including how to use state standards, taxonomies of learning targets, or themes as a basis for planning. With this foundation of knowing how to set goals and make plans, as well as an understanding of the characteristics of effective teachers, we move to a consideration of some general teacher-centered strategies: lecturing, seatwork, homework, questioning, recitation, and group discussion. We then pull goals and strategies together by exploring the Understanding by Design model. In the final section of this chapter, we will focus on how to match teaching to the needs and abilities of students through differentiated instruction, flexible grouping, and adaptive teaching. Finally we explore how teachers’ beliefs about their students’ abilities—teacher expectations—might influence student learning and teacher–student relationships. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 14.1 Identify the methods used to study teaching as well as the characteristics of effective teachers and effective classroom climates. Objective 14.2 Explain the arguments for and against the Common Core Standards and develop learning objectives that are consistent with the standards in your state using either Bloom’s taxonomy or Chappuis and Stiggins’s learning targets. Objective 14.3 Discuss the appropriate uses of direct instruction, homework, questioning (particularly deep questions), feedback, and group discussion, and explain how to use Understanding by Design to integrate objectives, evidence for reaching objectives, and teaching strategies. Objective 14.4 Define differentiated instruction and adaptive teaching, and apply these approaches to teaching a diverse group of students. Objective 14.5 Explain the possible effects of teacher expectations, and know how to avoid the negative implications.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Research on Teaching Characteristics of Effective Teachers Knowledge for Teaching Research on Teaching Strategies The First Step: Planning Research on Planning Learning Targets Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies Planning from a Constructivist Perspective Teaching Approaches Direct Instruction Seatwork and Homework Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback Fitting Teaching to Your Goals Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching Within-Class and Flexible Grouping Adaptive Teaching Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms Technology and Differentiation Teacher Expectations Two Kinds of Expectation Effects Sources of Expectations Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement? Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do?

RESEARCH ON TEACHING How would you identify the keys to successful teaching? You might ask students, principals, college professors of education, or experienced teachers to list the characteristics of good teachers. Or you could do intensive case studies of a few classrooms over a long period. You might observe classes, rate different teachers on certain characteristics, and then see which characteristics were associated with teachers whose students either achieved the most or were the most motivated to learn. (To do this, of course, you would have to decide how to assess achievement and motivation.) You could identify teachers whose students, year after year, learned more than students working with other teachers; then you could observe the more successful teachers and note what they do. You might also train teachers to apply several different strategies to teach the same lesson and then determine which strategy led to the greatest student learning. You could videotape teachers, and then ask them to view the tapes and report what they were thinking about as they taught and what influenced their decisions while teaching; this process is called stimulated recall. You might study transcripts of classroom dialogue to learn what helped students understand the material. You might use the relationships identified between teaching and learning as the basis for developing teaching approaches and then test these approaches in design experiments. Since the 1970s, all of these approaches and more have been used to investigate teaching (see Floden, 2001; Good, 2014; Gröschner, Seidel, & Shavelson, 2013 for summaries of almost 50 years of research). Let’s examine some of the specific knowledge gained from these projects, keeping in mind that much of the research was conducted in K–8 classrooms, often during mathematics lessons, and that student performance on standardized tests was generally used as the indicator of good teaching.

Characteristics of Effective Teachers STOP & THINK Think about the most effective teacher you ever had—the one that you learned the most from. What were the characteristics of that person? What made that teacher so effective? •

Some of the earliest research on effective teaching focused on the personal qualities of the teachers themselves. Results revealed some lessons about three teacher characteristics: clarity, warmth, and knowledge. Recent research has focused on knowledge, so we will spend some extra time on that characteristic. CLARITY AND ORGANIZATION.  When Barak Rosenshine and Norma Furst (1973) reviewed about 50 studies of teaching, they concluded that clarity was the most promising teacher behavior for future research on effective teaching. Teachers who provide clear presentations and explanations tend to have students who learn more and who rate their teachers more positively (Comadena, Hunt, & Simonds, 2007; C. V. Hines, Cruickshank, & Kennedy, 1985). The clearer and less vague the teacher’s explanations and instructions were the more the students learned. Vague explanations were filled with

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“somes” (some how, some way, some people, sometime, someone, something. . .) and “you knows” (Evertson & Emmer, 2013). ENTHUSIASM AND WARMTH.  Research has found that ratings of teachers’ enthusiasm are correlated with student achievement gains (M. Keller, Neumann, & Fischer, 2013) and are also related to student interest in the subject (M. Keller et al., 2014). Two possible connections with enthusiasm are that when teachers are enthusiastic, they capture and hold student attention, and that enthusiastic teachers model engagement and interest in learning. Student attention, interest, and engagement lead to learning. Of course, it is easier to be an enthusiastic teacher when your students are learning (M. Keller et al., 2013). Warmth, friendliness, and understanding seem to be the teacher traits most strongly associated with students’ liking the teacher and the class in general (Hamann, Baker, McAllister, & Bauer, 2000; K. Madsen, 2003). Also, in studies of the emotional climate of the classroom, researchers consistently find that students learn more in classes where teacher–student relationships are warm, caring, nurturing, and congenial; the teacher takes student needs and perspectives into account; and teachers are not harsh or sarcastic. It is likely that the link between the positive emotional climate and student learning is student engagement (Reyes, Brackett, Rivers, White, & Salovey, 2012; Tennant et al., 2014). What about another important teacher characteristic—knowledge?

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Video Example 14.1 According to research on effective teaching, personal qualities of the teachers themselves include clarity, warmth, and knowledge. The first-grade teacher in this video demonstrates these qualities in her teaching.

Knowledge for Teaching As you saw in Chapters 8 and 9, knowledge is the defining characteristic of expertise. Expert teachers have elaborate systems of knowledge for understanding problems in teaching. For example, when a beginning teacher is faced with students’ wrong answers on math or history tests, all of these answers may seem about the same—wrong. But for an expert teacher, wrong answers are part of a rich system of knowledge that could include: 1. how to recognize several types of wrong answers 2. the misunderstanding or lack of information behind each kind of mistake 3. the best way to reteach and correct the misunderstanding 4. materials and activities that have worked in the past, and 5. several ways to test whether the reteaching was successful. This unique kind of teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences is called pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). This knowledge is very complex and specific to the situation, (e.g., first-period physics), topic (e g., the concept of “force”), students (advanced? struggling? learning English as a second language?), and even the individual teacher. Within a particular situation and topic, expert teachers have clear goals and take individual differences into account when planning for their students (Gess-Newsome, 2013; van Driel & Berry, 2012). These teachers are reflective practitioners, constantly trying to understand and improve their work with students (Hogan, Rabinowitz, & Craven, 2003). Do teachers who know more about their subject have a more positive impact on their students? It depends on the subject. When H. C. Hill, Rowan, and Ball (2005) tested U.S. first- and third-grade teachers’ specific knowledge of the math concepts that they actually teach and their understanding of how to teach those concepts, they found that teachers with greater content and pedagogical content knowledge had students who learned more mathematics. High school students appear to learn more mathematics from teachers with degrees or significant coursework in mathematics (Wayne & Youngs, 2003). Studies in German high schools have found that math teachers with more pedagogical content knowledge have students who are more cognitively engaged and more supported in learning, and this higher-quality instruction predicts higher student math achievement (Baumert et al., 2010).

Expert teachers  Experienced, effective teachers who have developed solutions for classroom problems. Their knowledge of teaching process and content is extensive and well organized. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) Teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences. Reflective Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.

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When we look at teachers’ knowledge of facts and concepts in other subjects besides math, as measured by test scores and college grades, the relationship to student learning is unclear and may be indirect. The indirect effects are that teachers who know more may make clearer presentations and recognize student difficulties more easily. They are ready for any student questions and do not have to be evasive or vague in their answers. Thus, knowledge helps teachers be clearer, more organized, and more responsive to student questions (Aloe & Becker, 2009).

Research on Teaching Strategies Early research on teaching identified a number of general strategies that were associated with student learning (Emmer, Evertson, & Anderson, 1980; Good, Biddle, & Brophy, 1975; Good & Grouws, 1975; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). These included: • communication of clear learning goals, • effective use of time so students have ample opportunities to learn material at the right difficulty level, • proactive and caring classroom management, • clear explanations with examples/nonexamples, • teaching that focuses on meaning and also provides guided and independent practice, • frequent checks for student understanding with immediate effective feedback, and • a curriculum aligned with the learning goals and the assessments used to measure those goals. These results of research on teaching still stand strong today. What else have we learned? In Chapter 1 you read about Charlotte Danielson’s Framework for Teaching (2013), TeachingWorks, and the Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) project sponsored by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The developers of these models looked to recent research to ground their conceptions of good teaching—particularly to a largescale program of longitudinal research by Robert Pianta and his colleagues (Allen, Gregory, Mikami, Lun, Hamre, & Pianta, 2013; Crosnoe et al., 2010; Hafen, Allen, Mikami, Gregory, Hamre, & Pianta, 2012; Jerome, Hamre, & Pianta, 2009; Luckner & Pianta, 2011; Pianta, Belsky, et al., 2008; Pianta, LaParo, et al., 2008). Pianta’s work has identified three aspects of classroom climate that are related to the development and learning of preschool through high school students, regardless of where the students live or their families’ income. These three dimensions are consistent with the characteristics of teachers identified in earlier research on teaching, and they cover affective, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions, as you can see in Table 14.1. The affective dimension in Pianta’s model is teacher emotional support, similar to teacher warmth and enthusiasm identified in early research. The cognitive dimension is instructional support, which includes concept development (activities and discussions that promote student higher-order thinking) and quality feedback that is specific and focused on the learning process. Concept development and quality feedback may be easier for teachers with greater knowledge for teaching. Pianta’s third dimension is classroom organization, which includes behavioral concerns such as classroom and lesson management, with clear activities and routines that make more time for student learning and are really engaging—similar to the teacher characteristics of clarity and organization and to the management strategies we discussed in Chapter 13. Now let’s get to the specifics of teaching—the first step is planning.

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TABLE 14.1  •  Dimensions of Classroom Climate AREA OF TEACHING

CLASSROOM CLIMATE DIMENSION

COMPONENTS

DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

Affective

Emotional Support

Positive Climate

Warmth, mutual respect, positive emotional connections between teacher and students

Negative Climate (negative predictor of learning)

Disrespect, anger, hostility

Teacher Sensitivity

Consistency and effectiveness in responding to students’ academic and emotional needs

Regard for Students’ Perspectives

Activities encourage student autonomy and emphasize students’ interests, motivations, and points of view

Concept Development

Activities and discussion promote higher-order thinking skills and cognition

Quality of Feedback

Consistency in providing specific, process-oriented feedback and back-and-forth exchanges to extend students’ learning

Behavior Management

Teachers’ effectiveness in monitoring, preventing, and redirecting misbehavior

Productivity

How consistently learning is maximized with clear activities and routines, teacher preparation, efficient transitions, and minimal disruptions

Instructional Learning Formats

How well materials, modalities, and activities are used to engage students in learning

Cognitive

Behavioral

Instructional Support

Classroom Organization

Source: Based on Brown, J. L., Jones, S. M., LaRusso, M. D., & Aber, J. L. (2010). Improving Classroom Quality: Teacher Influences and Experimental Impacts of the 4Rs Program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 153–167.

THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING STOP & THINK Greta Morine-Dershimer (2006) asks which of the following are true about teacher planning:  Time is of the essence.

A little planning goes a long way.

 Plans are made to be broken.

You can do it yourself.

 Don’t look back.

One size fits all. •

Research on Planning When you thought about the “What Would You Do?” challenge at the beginning of this chapter, you were planning. In the past few years, educational researchers have interviewed teachers about how they plan, asked teachers to “think out loud” while planning or to keep journals describing their plans, and even studied teachers intensively for months at a time. What do you think they have found? First, planning influences what students will learn, because planning transforms the available time and curriculum materials into activities, assignments, and tasks for students—time is of the essence in planning. When a teacher decides to devote 7 hours to language arts and 15 minutes to science in a given week, the students in that class

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Video Example 14.2 When a school has more than one class at each grade, planning conferences that include all the teachers for that grade, like this one, can be particularly effective.

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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Instructional Objectives (II, B1) Describe the key elements of behavioral and instructional objectives. Be able to write each type of objective for a content area that you expect to teach.

Lesson study  As a group, teachers develop, test, improve, and retest lessons until they are satisfied with the final version.

will learn more language than science. Planning done at the beginning of the year is particularly important, because many routines and patterns, such as time allocations, are established early. So, a little planning does go a long way in terms of what will be taught and what will be learned. Second, teachers engage in several levels of planning—by the year, term, unit, week, and day. All the levels must be coordinated. For experienced teachers, unit planning seems to be the most important level, followed by weekly and then daily planning. As you gain experience in teaching, it will be easier to coordinate these levels of planning and incorporate the state and district curriculum standards as well (Morine-Dershimer, 2006). Third, plans reduce—but do not eliminate—uncertainty in teaching. Planning must allow flexibility. So plans are not made to be broken—but sometimes they need to be bent a bit. To plan creatively and flexibly, teachers need to have wide-ranging knowledge about students, their interests, their abilities, and the subjects being taught. The plans of beginning teachers sometimes don’t work because they lack knowledge about the students or the subject—they can’t estimate how long it will take students to complete an activity, for example, or they stumble when asked for an explanation or a different example (Calderhead, 1996). In planning, you can do it yourself—but collaboration is better. Working with other teachers and sharing ideas is one of the best experiences in teaching. Some educators think that a collaborative approach to planning used in Japan called kenshu or “mastery through study” is one reason why Japanese students do so well on international tests. A basic part of the kenshu process involves a small group of teachers developing a lesson and then videotaping one of the group members teaching the lesson. Next, all members review the tape, analyze student responses, and improve the lesson further. Other teachers try the revised lesson and more improvements follow. At the end of the school year, all the study groups may publish the results of their work. In the United States, this process is called lesson study (Morine-Dershimer, 2006). Information about “lesson study” and many examples of lesson plans are available on the Internet. But even great science lesson plans taken from a terrific Web site must be adapted to your situation. Some of the adaptation comes before you teach and some comes after. In fact, much of what experienced teachers know about planning comes from looking back—reflecting—on what worked and what didn’t, so DO look back on your plans and grow professionally in the process. Collaborative reflection and revising lessons are major components of the kenshu or lesson study approach to planning. Finally, there is no one model for effective planning. One size does NOT fit all in planning. Planning is a creative problem-solving process for experienced teachers; they know how to complete many lessons and can teach segments of lessons effectively, so for familiar lessons, they don’t necessarily continue to follow the detailed lesson-planning models they learned during their teacher preparation programs, even if those detailed plans helped in the beginning. No matter how you plan, you must have a learning goal in mind. We turn to this next.

Learning Targets It is difficult to get somewhere if you don’t know where you are going. Similarly, it is difficult to plan a unit or lesson if you don’t know the point—if you don’t have a clear target. “Learning targets define academic success—they state what we want students to know and be able to do” (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017, p. 42). Over the years, targets for student learning have been called goals and objectives, instructional objectives, learning outcomes, content standards, behavioral objectives, educational objectives, grade-level indicators, performance expectations, lesson objectives, competencies, curricular aims, benchmarks, and many other labels. Be sure to learn what language and labels are used in your school and district and what the labels actually mean (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017; Popham, 2017).

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AN EXAMPLE OF STATE-LEVEL GOALS: THE COMMON CORE.  We hear quite a bit today about grand visions and goals for education such as “promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access” (U.S. Department of Education, Mission). But very general goals are meaningless as potential guidelines for your instruction. States may turn these grand goals into standards or indicators. No Child Left Behind mandated that states adopt their own content standards in mathematics and reading, so all 50 states did. But there were problems. Many standards were poorly structured from one grade to the next. For example, there were redundancies across grades or missing steps between grades. Also, there was great variation among the various states’ standards in terms of rigor and difficulty. To address these problems, beginning in 2009, the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) led an effort to define consistent national standards for each grade, K–12, in two broad areas: (1) English language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects, and (2) mathematics. Table 14.2 gives a few examples of Common Core Standards in these areas. State adoption of the Common Core Standards is a moving target. Initially, 45 states, the District of Columbia, and four territories adopted the standards, and one more state, Minnesota, adopted just the English/Language Arts standards. The day I wrote this paragraph, 35 states and the District of Columbia were still keeping the standards, but 10 states were rewriting or replacing them. To see what your state is doing, go to your state’s education Web page and search for “standards.” There is continuing debate about the Common Core Standards. Under President Trump the future of the standards is unknown. See the Point/Counterpoint on the next page for a sense of the arguments.

TABLE 14.2  •  A Few Examples of the Common Core Standards for Grades 6 and 11–12 in Literature, Writing, and Mathematics SUBJECT AND SKILL

GRADE 6

GRADES 11 AND 12

Reading Literature: Key Ideas and Details

Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text.

Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, including determining where the text leaves matters uncertain.

Writing: Research to Build and Present Knowledge

Conduct short research projects to answer a question, drawing on several sources and refocusing the inquiry when appropriate.

Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.

Mathematics: Expressions and Equations

Write expressions that record operations with numbers and with letters standing for numbers. For example, express the calculation “Subtract y from 5” as 5 − y.

Explain each step in solving a simple equation as following from the equality of numbers asserted at the previous step, starting from the assumption that the original equation has a solution. Construct a viable argument to justify a solution method.

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Are the Common Core Standards a

Valuable Guide for Teaching?

The Common Core Standards are useful and necessary. The United States has a long history of local

control of education, leading to many good things, but also to vast differences in what students learn in each grade and school district across the nation. The Common Core Standards provided a response to concerns about these extreme differences in grade-level standards and also sounded an alarm about the nation’s poor performance on international assessments (for example, the United States was 40th out of 70 countries in mathematics on the 2015 PISA). More specifically, the standards were designed to be: • Research- and evidence-based • Clear, understandable, and consistent • Aligned with college and career expectations • Based on rigorous content and application of knowledge through higher-order thinking skills • Built on the strengths and lessons of current state standards • Informed by other top-performing countries in order to prepare all students for success in our global economy and society (/www.corestandards.org/) In order to reach the final goal of joining the top countries in the world in literacy, mathematics, and science, students in the United States must make steady progress each year. The Common Core worked backwards from the final goal to what students would need to know and be able to do at each grade along the way in each subject area. These standards should bring consistency and rigor to curriculum development and teaching across the United States. The standards don’t tell schools what content to teach to reach the goals; they just provide the final target to aim for, but if taken seriously, the standards will change teaching, hopefully for the better. For example, Robert Calfee and his colleagues summarized the English Language Arts and Literacy standards, noting: • The standards are a work in progress; • The standards offer compelling images of high school graduates from 2020 and beyond;

• The standards recommend project-based learning coupled to the primary disciplines through an integrated literacy program; • The standards call for an intertwining of curriculum, instruction, and assessment; • The standards lay out fundamentals and broad goals and are not intended to limit the literacy curriculum; and • The standards propose that all students can achieve the standards through teacher support and scaffolding. (Calfee et al., 2014, p. 3)

COUNTERPOINT .

POINT .

We know from goal theory (and common sense) that goals guide plans and actions. Are the Common Core Standards useful goals for educators?

There are problems with the Common Core Standards. A 2015 survey in New York state found that

by a 2-to-1 margin, voters thought the Common Core had made education worse (Siena Research Institute, 2015). Criticisms of the Common Core include that the standards limit teachers’ creativity, don’t allow states and local districts to add their own content to the curriculum, and lead to too much testing. In addition, the standardized tests students are required to take often are not aligned with the Common Core Standards, so students are taught one thing and tested on another (Polikoff, 2015). As a political issue, there certainly is objection to the Common Core. In a survey of attitudes about the Common Core, Morgan Polikoff and his colleagues (2016) found that Republicans were 90% more likely than Democrats to oppose the standards. As you read Table 14.2, you may have noticed that the expectations are high and the standards are rigorous. One example of raised expectations is that the texts third and fourth graders are expected to read and comprehend are more complex than current texts for those grades. This could lead to less fluency and automaticity in recognizing words, decreased engagement in reading, and higher failure rates (Hiebert & Mesmer, 2013). Beware of Either/Or  As a teacher you should follow this discussion closely because the Common Core Standards probably will impact what is taught (curriculum materials, textbooks, course planning) and what is assessed in every grade. But remember, the standards are goals—they do not tell you how teach, just what outcomes to aim for.

CLASSROOMS TARGETS FOR LEARNING.  Whatever the label, having a clear learning goal helps teachers avoid what Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (2006) call the “twin sins” of instructional design—activity-focused teaching (lots of hands-on, interesting activities—but no goal) and coverage-focused teaching (a forced march through the textbook—but no goal). In either case, learning can be lost if the teacher is not clear about why students are doing the activities or readings—no idea about the target of the teaching.

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Learning targets can vary in “grain size,” from very specific lesson-level “pebbles” such as being able to represent addition on a number line, to more complex unit-level “rocks,” such as using numerical data from random samples to draw informal inferences comparing two populations, to grade-level yearlong “boulders” such as reasoning abstractly and quantitatively (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017). How do you decide which grain size should guide your day-to-day teaching? Jim Popham (2017) suggests that you frame your learning targets broadly enough so they help organize your instruction but specifically enough to serve as a guide to your assessment.

Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies STOP & THINK Think about your assignments for one of your classes. What kind of thinking is involved in doing the assignments?  Remembering facts and terms?  Understanding key ideas?  Applying information to solve problems?  Analyzing a situation, task, or problem?  Making evaluations or giving opinions?  Creating or designing something new? •

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Taxonomies of Educational Objectives (II, B1) Taxonomies influence every aspect of instruction from textbook design to lesson planning. List the major objectives of each of the taxonomies, and describe the focus of each objective. Be able to incorporate these objectives into instructional objectives that you design.

In the 1950s, a group of experts in educational evaluation led by Benjamin Bloom set out to improve college and university examinations. The impact of their work has affected education at all levels around the world (L. W. Anderson & Sosniak, 1994). Bloom and his colleagues developed a taxonomy, or classification system, of educational outcomes divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. A handbook describing the objectives in each area was eventually published. In real life, of course, behaviors from these three domains occur simultaneously. While students are answering essay questions, they are writing or using a keyboard (psychomotor), remembering or reasoning (cognitive), and also might have some emotional response to the task (affective), even if the major domain involved is cognitive (Popham, 2017). THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN.  Bloom’s taxonomy of the thinking domain, or cognitive domain, was considered one of the most significant educational writings of the twentieth century (L. W. Anderson & Sosniak, 1994). The six basic outcomes are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (B. S. Bloom, Engelhart, Frost, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956). It is common to consider these outcomes as a hierarchy, with each skill building on those below, but this is not entirely accurate, especially in subjects such as mathematics. Still, you will hear many references to lowerlevel and higher-level outcomes or objectives, with knowledge, comprehension, and application considered lower level and the other categories considered higher level. As a rough way of thinking about learning targets, this can be helpful (Gronlund & Brookhart, 2009). The taxonomy can also be useful in planning assessments because different procedures are appropriate for outcomes at the various levels, as you will see in Chapter 15. In 2001, a group of educational researchers published the first major revision of the cognitive taxonomy, and this is the one we use today (L. W. Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). 1. Remembering: Remembering or recognizing something without necessarily understanding, using, or changing it. 2. Understanding: Understanding the material being communicated without necessarily relating it to anything else. 3. Applying: Using a general concept to solve a particular problem. 4. Analyzing: Breaking something down into its parts.

Taxonomy Classification system. Cognitive domain In Bloom’s taxonomy, memory and reasoning objectives.

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TABLE 14.3  •  A Revised Taxonomy in the Cognitive Domain The revised taxonomy includes cognitive processes operating on different kinds of knowledge. The verbs in the chart are examples of what might be used to create objectives. THE COGNITIVE PROCESS DIMENSION THE KNOWLEDGE DIMENSION

1. REMEMBER

2. UNDERSTAND

3. APPLY

4. ANALYZE

5. EVALUATE

6. CREATE

A. Factual Knowledge

List

summarize

classify

order

rank

Combine

B. Conceptual Knowledge

describe

interpret

experiment

explain

assess

Plan

C. Procedural Knowledge

tabulate

predict

calculate

differentiate

conclude

Compose

D. Metacognitive Knowledge

appropriate use

execute

select strategy

change strategy

reflect

Invent strategy

Source: Anderson\ Krathwohl\ Airasian\ Cruikshank\ Mayer\ Pintrich\ Raths\ Wittrock. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Abridged Edition, 1st Edition, © 2001. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River. NJ.

5. Evaluating: Judging the value of materials or methods as they might be applied in a particular situation. 6. Creating: Creating something new by combining different ideas. The 2001 revision of Bloom’s taxonomy added a new dimension—to recognize that cognitive processes must process something—you have to remember or understand or apply some form of knowledge. If you look at Table 14.3 you will see the result. We now have the six processes of remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating acting on four kinds of knowledge—factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Consider how this revised taxonomy might suggest learning targets for a social studies/ language arts class. Here’s an example that targets analyzing conceptual knowledge: After reading an historical account of the battle of the Alamo, students will be able to explain the author’s point of view or bias.

And here’s an outcome for evaluating metacognitive knowledge: Students will reflect on and describe their strategies for identifying the biases of the author.

Go to https://tips.uark.edu and search for “Bloom’s taxonomy” for more explanations and examples. THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN.  The learning outcomes in the taxonomy of the affective domain, or domain of emotional response, have not yet been revised from the original version. These outcomes run from least to most committed (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964). The affective domain has five basic learning outcomes: 1. Receiving: Being aware of or attending to something in the environment. 2. Responding: Showing some new behavior as a result of experience. 3. Valuing: Showing some definite involvement or commitment. 4. Organization: Integrating a new value into your general set of values, giving it some ranking among your general priorities. 5. Characterization by value: Acting consistently with the new value. Affective domain  Objectives focusing on attitudes and feelings.

For example, an outcome for a nutrition class at the valuing level (showing involvement or commitment) might be stated: “After completing the unit on food contents and labeling, at least 50% of the class will commit to the junk-food boycott project by giving up fast food for a month.”

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THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN.  James Cangelosi (1990) provided a useful way to think about outcomes in the psychomotor domain, or realm of physical ability, as either (1) voluntary muscle capabilities that require endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, or speed, or (2) the ability to perform a specific skill. Here are two psychomotor outcomes: Four minutes after completing a 1-mile run in 8 minutes or under, your heart rate will be below 120. Use a computer mouse effectively to “drag and drop” files.

ANOTHER TAKE ON LEARNING TARGETS.  Jan Chappuis and Rick Stiggins (2017) offer a way of categorizing learning outcomes that includes the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains, but is a bit more concise than Bloom’s approach. Their five categories of learning targets (see Table 14.4) are based on a study of the learning expectations actually reflected in classroom instruction and assessments across the United States. Notice that four of the five targets map fairly well onto Bloom’s taxonomies. The product target adds outcomes that involve learning to create a quality product. The Guidelines: Using Learning Targets on the next page should help you if you use goals for every lesson or even for just a few assignments.

Planning from a Constructivist Perspective STOP & THINK Think about the same course assignments you analyzed in the previous Stop & Think. What are the big ideas that run through all those assignments? What other ways could you learn about those ideas besides the assignments? •

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Planning Thematic Units (II, A2) Thematic learning units that integrate two or more content areas have become common in modern classrooms. Describe the principles involved in designing these activities, and explain how student learning can be assessed.

TABLE 14.4  •  Learning Targets to Guide the Design of Teaching and Assessment TARGET AREA

DESCRIPTION

EXAMPLE

Knowledge (cognitive)

Factual information, procedural knowledge, and conceptual understandings in each discipline or subject

Science: Define a variety of cell structures. Social Studies: Explain what governments are and describe some of their functions.

Reasoning (cognitive)

Thought processes needed to do well in a range of subjects

Health: Analyze a food journal for missing nutrients. Mathematics: Prove theorems about triangles.

Performance Skills (psychomotor)

Demonstration or physical skill-based performances central to learning in a domain

The Arts: Perform songs using appropriate expression to reflect music. English: Demonstrate fluid reading of poems at an understandable pace.

Products

Creation of a product or artifact

Science: Develop a simplified model of a complex system. Health: Develop a home fire escape plan.

Dispositions (affective)

Attitudes, motivations, and interests that affect students’ approaches to learning

English: Enjoy writing. Mathematics: See mathematics as important to learn.

Source: Chappuis, J., & Stiggins, R. J. (2017). An Introduction to Student-Involved Assessment for Learning. Boston: Pearson. pp. 47–59. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

Psychomotor domain  Physical ability and coordination objectives.

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GUIDELINES Using Learning Targets Avoid “word magic”—phrases that sound noble and important, but say very little, such as, “Students will become deep thinkers.” Examples 1. Keep the focus on specific changes that will take place in the students’ knowledge and skills. 2. Ask students to explain the meaning of the learning targets. If they can’t give specific examples of what you mean, the targets are not communicating your intentions to your students. Suit the activities to the target. Examples 1. If the goal is the memorization of vocabulary, give the students memory aids and practice exercises.

2. If the goal is the ability to develop well-thought-out positions, consider position papers, debates, projects, or mock trials. 3. If you want students to become better writers, give many opportunities for writing and rewriting. Make sure your tests are related to your targets. Examples 1. Write learning targets and rough drafts for tests at the same time. Revise these drafts of tests as the units unfold and targets change. 2. Weight the tests according to the importance of the various targets and the time spent on each. For additional ideas, see assessment.uconn.edu

Traditionally, it has been the teacher’s responsibility to do most of the planning for instruction, but new ways of planning are emerging. In constructivist approaches, planning is shared and negotiated. The teacher and students together make decisions about content, activities, and approaches. Rather than having specific student behaviors and skills as outcomes, the teacher has overarching goals—“big ideas” or themes—that guide planning (Borich, 2011). These goals are understandings or abilities that the teacher returns to again and again. Since the 1990s, teaching with themes and integrated content has been a major element in planning and designing lessons and units from kindergarten (Roskos & Neuman, 1998) through high school (Clarke & Agne, 1997). In Chapter 12, you saw an example of a whole school that used the theme of “working in harmony” as a big idea for planning across grades K through 12 (Beard, 2015). Some other topics for integrating themes with younger children are people, friendship, communications, habitats, communities, and patterns. Possibilities for older students are given in Table 14.5. TABLE 14.5  •  Some Themes for Integrated Planning for Middle and High School Students

Constructivist approach See constructivism.

Courage

Time and Space

Mystery

Groups and Institutions

Survival

Work

Human Interaction

Motion

Communities of the Future

Cause and Effect

Communication/Language

Probability and Prediction

Human Rights and Responsibilities

Change and Conservation

Identity/Coming of Age

Diversity and Variation

Interdependence

Autobiography

Source: Based on Clarke, J. H. & Agne, R. M. (1997). Curriculum Development: Interdisciplinary High School Teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson, and Thompson, G. (1991). Teaching through Themes. New York, NY: Scholastic.

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Let’s assume you have some clear valuable learning targets. You still need to decide what’s happening on Monday. You need to design teaching that is appropriate for your goals.

MyLab Education Self-Check 14.2

TEACHING APPROACHES In this section you will learn some basic formats for putting plans into action. Of course, different methods may be more or less appropriate, depending on the subject, the students’ prior knowledge, and the particular learning targets. We begin with strategies for teaching explicit facts and concepts.

Direct Instruction For many people, “teaching” means an instructor explaining material to students; lecture is a classic form. An explosion of research in the 1970s and 1980s focused on these more traditional forms of teaching. The results of all this work identified a model of teaching that was related to improved student learning. Barak Rosenshine and Robert Stevens (1986) call this approach direct instruction or explicit teaching. Tom Good (1983a) uses the term active teaching to describe a similar approach. Researchers identified the elements of direct instruction by comparing teachers whose students learned more than expected (based on entering knowledge) with teachers whose students performed at an expected or average level. The researchers focused on existing practices in American classrooms. Because the focus was on traditional forms of teaching, the research could not identify successful innovations. Effectiveness was usually defined as average improvement in standardized test scores for a whole class or school. So the results hold for large groups, but not necessarily for every student in the group. Even when the average achievement of a group improves, the achievement of some individuals may decline (T. L. Good, 1996; Shuell, 1996). Given these conditions, you can see that direct instruction applies best to the teaching of basic skills—clearly structured knowledge and essential skills, such as science facts, mathematics computations, reading vocabulary, and grammar rules (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). These skills involve tasks that are relatively unambiguous, so they can be taught step-by-step and evaluated by standardized tests. How would a teacher turn these themes into actions? ROSENSHINE’S SIX TEACHING FUNCTIONS.  Rosenshine and his colleagues (Rosenshine, 1988; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986) have identified six teaching functions based on the research on effective instruction. These could serve as a checklist or framework for teaching basic skills. 1. Review and check the previous day’s work. Reteach if students misunderstood or made errors. 2. Present new material. Make the purpose clear, teach in small steps, and provide many examples and nonexamples of the ideas and concepts you are teaching. 3. Provide guided practice. Question students, give practice problems, and listen for misconceptions and misunderstandings. Reteach if necessary. Continue guided practice until students answer about 80% of the questions correctly. 4. Give feedback and correctives based on student answers. Reteach if necessary. (Remember, Pianta, LaParo, & Hamre’s 2008 class climate component of instructional support included quality feedback.) 5. Provide independent practice. Let students apply the new learning on their own, in seatwork, cooperative groups, or homework. The success rate during independent practice should be about 95%. The point is for the students to practice until the

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Teacher-Centered Instruction (II, A3) Teacher-centered instruction is often thought of as the “traditional” approach to instruction. In what situations is this instructional format most effective? What are the basic steps involved in carrying out this form of instruction?

Direct instruction/explicit teaching Systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts, and information. Active teaching Teaching characterized by high levels of teacher explanation, demonstration, and interaction with students. Basic skills Clearly structured knowledge that is needed for later learning and that can be taught step by step.

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skills become overlearned and automatic—until the students are confident. Hold students accountable for the work they do—check it. 6. Review weekly and monthly to consolidate learning. Include some review items as homework. Test often, and reteach material missed on the tests. These six functions are not steps to be followed in a particular order, but all of them are elements of effective instruction. For example, feedback, review, or reteaching should occur whenever necessary and should match the abilities of the students. Also, keep in mind the age and prior knowledge of your students. For younger or the lessprepared students use more and shorter cycles of presentation, guided practice, feedback, and correctives. WHY DOES DIRECT INSTRUCTION WORK?  Well-organized presentations with clear explanations and reviews can all help students construct understandings. For example, reviews activate prior knowledge, so the student is ready to understand. Brief, clear presentations and guided practice manage students’ cognitive load and avoid taxing their working memories. Numerous examples and nonexamples that highlight similarities and differences give many pathways and associations for building networks of connected concepts. Guided practice can also give the teacher a snapshot of the students’ thinking as well as their misconceptions, so these can be addressed directly as misconceptions rather than simply as “wrong answers.” Teacher explanation is useful for communicating a large amount of material to many students in a short period of time, introducing a new topic, giving background information, or motivating students to learn more on their own. Teacher presentations are therefore most appropriate at the lower levels of the taxonomies described earlier: for remembering, understanding, applying, receiving, responding, and valuing. Every subject, even college English or chemistry, requires some direct instruction. Students may need some direct instruction in how to use various manipulative materials so they can actually learn from (not just play with) the materials. Students working in cooperative groups may need guidance, modeling, and practice in how to ask questions and give explanations. And to solve difficult problems, students may need some direct instruction in possible problem-solving strategies (Arends, 2001; Kindsvatter, Wilen, & Ishler, 1992).

Scripted cooperation Learning strategy in which two students take turns summarizing material and criticizing the summaries.

EVALUATING DIRECT INSTRUCTION.  Direct instruction, particularly when it involves extended teacher presentations or lectures, has some disadvantages. You may find that some students have trouble listening for more than a few minutes at a time and that they simply tune you out. Teacher presentations can put the students in a passive position by doing much of the cognitive work for them; this may prevent students from asking or even thinking of questions (H. J. Freiberg & Driscoll, 2005). Critics also claim that direct instruction is based on the wrong theory of learning. Teachers break material into small segments, present each segment clearly, and reinforce or correct, thus transmitting accurate understandings from teacher to student. The student is viewed as an “empty vessel” waiting to be filled with knowledge, rather than an active constructor of knowledge (Berg & Clough, 1991; Driscoll, 2005). But for younger and less-prepared learners, student-controlled learning without teacher direction and instruction can lead to systematic deficits in the students’ knowledge. Without guidance, the understandings that students construct can be incomplete and misleading (Sweller, Kirschner, & Clark, 2007). But done well, direct instruction and explanation can help all students learn actively, not passively (Leinhardt, 2001). Scripted cooperation is one way of incorporating active learning into lectures. Several times during the presentation, the teacher asks students to work in pairs. One person is the summarizer and the other critiques the summary, then they switch roles for the next summary/critique. This gives students a chance to check their understanding, organize their thinking, and translate ideas into their own words. Other possibilities are described in Table 14.6.

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TABLE 14.6  •  Active Learning and Teacher Presentations Here are some ideas for keeping students cognitively engaged in lessons. They can be adapted for many ages. Write an Answer: Pose a question, ask everyone to write a brief answer, then call on students to share what they wrote.

Voting: Pose two alternative explanations; ask how many agree with each (may be a good idea to ask the students to close their eyes and vote so they won’t be swayed by the votes of others).

I used to think , but now I know : After a lesson, ask students to fill in the blanks, then share their results with the person beside them.

Choral Response: Have the whole class restate in unison important facts and ideas, such as “In a right triangle, a2 + b2 = c2.”

Think-Pair-Share: Pose a question, have students think of an answer on their own and then consult with a neighbor to improve the answer, then ask volunteers to share their ideas.

One-Minute-Write: After a section of the lesson, students write for 1 minute to summarize the key points or raise a question about what is not clear to them.

Deanna Kuhn (2007) said it well: As for direct instruction, of course it has a place. Each young student does not need to reinvent knowledge from the ground up. The challenge is to formulate what we want direct instruction to be. In doing so, it is well to keep in mind that it is students who construct meaning from such instruction and decide what it is that they will learn. (p. 112)

See the Guidelines: Effective Direct Instruction on the next page for more ideas about teaching effectively.

Seatwork and Homework SEATWORK.  The conclusions of the limited research on seatwork (independent classroom-desk work) are clear; this technique is often overused. For example, a summary of research from 1975 to 2000 found that students with learning disabilities, who often have trouble improving without teacher guidance, were spending about 40% of their time on individual seatwork (Vaughn, Levy, Coleman, & Bos, 2002). Seatwork should follow up a lesson and give students supervised practice with quick feedback. It should not be the main mode of instruction. Unfortunately, many workbook pages and worksheets do little to support the learning of important goals. Before you make an assignment, ask yourself, “Does doing this seatwork help students learn anything that matters?” Students should be able to see the connection between the seatwork and the lesson. Tell them why they are doing the work. The goals should be clear, all the materials that might be needed should be provided, and the work should be moderately difficult—doable but neither too easy nor too hard. When seatwork is too easy, students are not cognitively engaged. When the work is too difficult, students often resort to guessing or copying someone else’s answers just to finish. There are several alternatives to workbooks and worksheets, such as reading silently and reading aloud to a partner; writing for a “real” audience; writing letters or journals; transcribing conversations and punctuating them properly; making up problems; working on long-term projects and reports; solving brainteasers and puzzles; and computer activities (Weinstein & Romano, 2015). One of my favorites is creating a group story. Two students begin a story on the computer. Then two more add a paragraph. The story grows with each new pair’s addition. The students are reading and writing, editing and improving. With so many different authors, each writer may spark the creative thinking of other contributors. Any independent work requires careful monitoring. Being available to students doing seatwork is more effective than offering students help before they ask for it. Short,

MyLab Education

Video Example 14.3 The teacher in this video supervises seatwork by circulating, posing questions to struggling students, and providing prompts that remind them of key elements of the lesson they have not yet transferred successfully.

Seatwork Independent classroom work.

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GUIDELINES Effective Direct Instruction Use a number of examples. Examples 1. In mathematics class, ask students to point out all the examples of right angles that they can find in the room. 2. In teaching about islands and peninsulas, use maps, slides, models, postcards. Organize your lessons carefully. Examples 1. Provide objectives that help students focus on the purpose of the lesson. 2. Begin lessons by writing a brief outline on the board, or work on an outline with the class as part of the lesson. 3. If possible, break the presentation into clear steps or stages. 4. Review periodically. Anticipate and plan for difficult parts in the lesson. Examples 1. Plan a clear introduction to the lesson that tells students what they are going to learn and how they will learn it. 2. Do the exercises and anticipate student problems— consult the teachers’ manual for ideas. 3. Have definitions ready for new terms, and prepare several relevant examples for concepts. 4. Think of analogies that will make ideas easier to understand. 5. Organize the lesson in a logical sequence; include checkpoints that incorporate oral or written questions or problems to make sure the students are following the explanations. Strive for clear explanations. Examples 1. Avoid vague words and ambiguous phrases: Steer clear of “the somes”—something, someone, sometime, somehow; “the not verys”—not very much, not very well, not very hard, not very often; and other unspecific fillers,

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

such as most, not all, sort of, and so on, of course, as you know, I guess, in fact, or whatever, and more or less. Use specific (and, if possible, colorful) names instead of it, them, and thing. Refrain from using pet phrases such as you know, like, and Okay? Record one of your lessons to check yourself for clarity. Give explanations at several levels so all students, not just the brightest, will understand. Focus on one idea at a time, and avoid digressions.

Make clear connections by using explanatory links such as because, if–then, or therefore. Examples 1. “The North had an advantage in the Civil War because its economy was based on manufacturing.” 2. Explanatory links are also helpful in labeling visual material such as graphs, concept maps, or illustrations. Signal transitions from one major topic to another with phrases. Examples 1. “The next area,” “Now we will turn to,” or “The second step is.” 2. Outline topics, listing key points, drawing concept maps on the board, or using an overhead projector. Communicate an enthusiasm for your subject and the day’s lesson. Examples 1. Tell students why the lesson is important. Have a better reason than “This will be on the test” or “You will need to know it next year.” Emphasize the value of the learning itself. 2. Be sure to make eye contact with the students. 3. Vary your pace and volume in speaking. Use silence for emphasis.

frequent contacts are best (Brophy & Good, 1986). Sometimes you may be working with a small group while other students do seatwork. In these situations, it is especially important for students to know what to do if they need help. One expert teacher described by Weinstein and Romano (2015) taught students a rule, “Ask three, then me.” Students have to consult three classmates before seeking help from the teacher. This teacher also spends time early in the year showing students how to help each other— how to ask questions and how to explain. STOP & THINK Think back to your elementary and high school days. Do you remember any homework assignments? What sticks in your mind about those assignments? •

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HOMEWORK.  Like so many methods in education, homework has moved in and out of favor. In the early 1900s, homework was viewed as an important path to mental discipline, but by the 1940s, it was criticized as too much drill and low-level learning. Then, in the 1950s, homework was rediscovered as a way to catch up with the Soviet Union in science and mathematics, only to be seen as putting too much pressure on students during the more laid-back 1960s. By the 1980s, homework was in again as a way to improve the standing of American children compared to students around the world (H. M. Cooper & Valentine, 2001). Today, homework is increasing in early elementary schools (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2000). As our first-grade granddaughter worked on her spelling, reading, and math homework (she has assignments every day), I wondered again about the value of homework. No need to guess—educators have been studying the effects of homework for over 75 years (H. M. Cooper, 2004; Cooper, Robinson, & Patall. 2006; Corno, 2000; Flunger et al., 2015; Kalenkoski & Pabilonia, 2014; Trautwein, 2007). Most of the studies involved math and reading or English homework, but not social studies, science, or other subjects. What have they learned? THE CASE AGAINST HOMEWORK.  David Berliner and Gene Glass (2014) said it bluntly: “Let the dog eat it. Homework does not boost achievement” (p. 113). No matter how interesting an activity is, students will eventually get bored with it—so why give them work both in and out of school? They will simply grow weary of learning. And important opportunities are lost for community involvement or leisure activities that would create well-rounded citizens. When parents help with homework, they can do more harm than good—sometimes confusing their children or teaching them incorrectly. And students from poorer families often must work at jobs after school, so they miss doing the homework; then the learning discrepancy between the rich and poor grows even greater. Besides, the research is inconsistent about the effects of homework. For example, one study found that in-class work was better than homework in helping elementary students learn (H. M. Cooper & Valentine, 2001). Harris Cooper and his colleagues (2006) reviewed many studies of homework and concluded that there is little relationship between homework and learning for young students, but the relationship between homework and achievement grows progressively stronger for older students. Young students may be too distracted by elements of their home environment (toys, TV, games, siblings, etc.) and lack the metacognitive skills to focus attention in the midst of distractions or manage their time. HOMEWORK FOR OLDER STUDENTS.  Most research examines the relationship between amount of time spent on homework (as reported by students or parents) and achievement in terms of grades or tests. Evidence indicates that students in high school who do more homework (and watch less television after school) have higher grades, even when other factors such as gender, grade level, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), and amount of adult supervision are taken into consideration (H. M. Cooper, Robinson, & Patall, 2006; H. M. Cooper & Valentine, 2001; H. M. Cooper, Valentine, Nye, & Kindsay, 1999). High schools girls spend about one hour more per week on homework than boys, even taking into account ability, parents’ help, outside activities such as jobs, and type of course work. One suggestion is that this additional time spent studying is a factor causing the gender gap that favors girls in college admission and completion—the girls know how to study (Gershenson & Holt, 2015). Consistent with all these findings, the National Education Association suggests a “10 minute rule,” which means 10 minutes of homework per night starting in the first grade and increasing by 10 minutes each grade, so a twelfth grader would be assigned about 120 minutes of homework per night (Walker, 2017). But here is the possible problem with just thinking of homework in terms of time. Not every student takes the same time to do the same homework. Another approach is to focus on effort instead of time. Students’ self-reported effort on homework is consistently and positively related to student achievement (Trautwein, Schnyder, Niggli, Neuman, & Lüdtke, 2009). “High homework effort means that a student does his or her best to solve the tasks assigned. There need not be a close relationship between effort and

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time on homework: A student putting as much effort as possible into a homework assignment might finish in 5 min or still be working after an hour” (Trautwein & Lüdtke, 2007, p. 432). Barbara Flunger and her colleagues (2015) identified 5 types of learners in eighth grade, based on their homework effort (persistence and compliance) and time spent. Fast learners invested good effort to complete homework quickly. High-effort learners invested great effort and more time in homework while average learners invested some effort and little time. Struggling learners had trouble investing effort but spent high levels of time on homework. Then there were minimalists who invested little effort or time. As you might predict, the fast learners and high effort learners did significantly better over the year in terms of grades and test scores. BEWARE OF EITHER/OR.  The real question is not about assigning homework versus not assigning homework, but rather assigning the right kind of homework to the right learners. Students are more likely to put in effort if they see the homework as interesting, valuable, reasonably challenging, and not anxiety provoking—this could require some differentiated homework assignments (Dettmers, Trautwein, Lüdtke, Kunter, & Baumert, 2010). So the challenge is to get students to put their best efforts into appropriate homework and to not assign homework that is low quality. Time spent struggling is not time well spent. To benefit from homework, students must understand the assignment. It may help to do the first few questions as a class, to clear up any misconceptions. This is especially important for students who may have no one at home to consult if they have problems with the assignment. A second way to keep students involved is to hold them accountable for completing the work correctly, not just for filling in the page. This means the work should be checked, the students given a chance to correct the errors or revise work, and the results counted toward the class grade. Expert teachers often have ways of correcting homework quickly during the first minutes of class by having students check each other’s or their own work. If students get stuck on homework, they need help at home, someone who can scaffold their work without just “giving the answer” (Pressley, 1995). But many families don’t know how to help (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001). The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Homework provide ideas for helping families deal with homework. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Questioning (III, C) Effective questioning skills are among the most valuable skills that a teacher can possess—and among the more difficult to develop. For guidance on asking effective questions in the classroom, read Question Types (unl. edu/teaching/teachquestions. html).

Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback Teachers pose questions, students answer. This form of teaching, sometimes called recitation, has been with us for many years (C. S. Weinstein & Romano, 2015). The teacher’s questions develop a framework for the subject matter involved. The pattern from the teacher’s point of view consists of IRE: Initiation (teacher asks questions), Response (student answers), and Evaluation/reaction (praising, correcting, probing, or expanding) (Burbules & Bruce, 2001). These steps are repeated over and over. Let’s consider the heart of recitation—the soliciting, or questioning, phase. Effective questioning techniques may be among the most powerful tools that teachers employ during lessons. An essential element of contemporary learning techniques is keeping students cognitively engaged—and that is where skillful questioning strategies are especially effective. Questions play several roles in cognition. They can help students rehearse information for effective recall. They can work to identify gaps in students’ knowledge base, and provoke curiosity and long-term interest. They can initiate cognitive conflict and promote the disequilibrium that results in a changed knowledge structure. They can serve as cues, tips, or reminders as an expert guides a novice in a learning experience. Students as well as teachers should learn to question effectively. I tell my students that the first step in doing a good research project is asking a good question.

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Homework Make sure families know what students are expected to learn. Examples 1. At the beginning of a unit, send home a list of the main objectives, examples of major assignments, key due dates, a homework “calendar,” and a list of free resources available at libraries or on the Internet. 2. Provide a clear, concise description of your homework policy, including how homework is counted toward class grades, as well as consequences for late, forgotten, or missing homework. Help families find a comfortable and helpful role in their child’s homework. Examples 1. Have some homework assignments that are fun and involve the whole family—puzzles, family albums, watching a television program together and doing a “review.” 2. In conferences, ask families how you could help them to support their child in completing and learning from homework. Checklists? Background reading? Web sites? Explanations of study skills? Encourage parents to help structure the home for homework without becoming controlling and punitive or intrusive (Dumont, Trautwein, Nagy, & Nagengast, 2014) Examples 1. Remind families that “helping with homework” means encouraging, listening, monitoring, praising, discussing, brainstorming—not punishing, harassing, threatening, helping when help isn’t needed, or doing the work for their child. 2. Encourage families to set aside a quiet time and place for everyone in the family to study. Make this time a regular part of the daily routine.

3. Encourage parents to focus on modeling and supporting time management and persistence skills in doing homework: homework before play, friends, TV, games, or screen time. 4. Make sure the needed materials are all available so the child won’t interrupt homework to find a pen or ruler. Solicit and use suggestions from families about homework. Examples 1. Find out what responsibilities the child has at home—how much time is available for homework. 2. Periodically, have a “homework hotline” for call-in questions and suggestions. If no one is at home to help with homework, set up other support systems. Examples 1. Assign study buddies who can be available over the phone. 2. If students have computers, provide lists of Internet help lines. 3. Locate free help in public libraries, and make these resources known. Take advantage of family and community “funds of knowledge” to connect homework with life in the community, and life in the community with lessons in school (Moll et al., 1992). Examples 1. Create a class lesson about how family members use math and reading in sewing and in house construction (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2001). 2. Design interactive homework projects that families do together to evaluate needed products for their home, for example, deciding on the best buy on shampoo or paper towels.

For now, we will focus on teachers’ questions. Many of the beginning teachers I work with are surprised to discover how valuable good questions can be and how difficult they are to create. STOP & THINK  Think back to your most recent class. What kinds of questions did your professor ask? What sort of thinking was required to answer the questions? Remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, or creating? How long did the professor wait for an answer? •

KINDS OF QUESTIONS.  Some educators have estimated the typical teacher asks between 30 and 120 questions an hour, or about 1,500,000 questions over a teaching career (Sadker & Sadker, 2006). What are these questions like? Many can be categorized in terms of Bloom’s taxonomy in the cognitive domain. Table 14.7 on the next page offers examples of questions at the different taxonomic levels.

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TABLE 14.7  •  Classroom Questions for Learning Targets in the Cognitive Domain Questions can be posed that encourage thinking at every level of Bloom’s taxonomy in the cognitive domain. Of course, the thinking required depends on what has gone before in the discussion. CATEGORY

TYPE OF THINKING EXPECTED

EXAMPLES

Remembering

Recalling or recognizing information as learned without really using or changing it

List the capitals of. . . . What are the six parts. . . ? Which strategy does the text say you should use here. . . ?

Understanding

Demonstrating understanding of the materials without necessarily relating it to anything else

Summarize in your own words. . . What does mean in this sentence? Predict the next step. . .

Applying

Using information to solve a problem with a single correct answer

Classify these plants. . . . Calculate the area of. . . . Select the best strategy for. . . .

Analyzing

Breaking something down into parts; identifying reasons and motives; making inferences based on specific data; analyzing conclusions to see if supported by evidence

What was the first breakthrough in. . .? The second? Explain why Washington, D.C., was chosen. . . . Which of the following are facts, and which are opinions. . .? Based on your experiment, what is the chemical. . .?

Evaluating

Judging the merits of materials or methods as they might be applied in a particular situation, offering opinions, applying standards

Rank the top 10 U.S. senators in terms of effectiveness in. . . . Which painting do you believe to be better? Why? Which study strategy is the best for you in. . .?

Creating

Creating something new; original thinking; original plan, proposal, design, or story

What’s a good name for. . .? How could we combine those two ideas? How could we raise money for. . .? What would the United States be like if Germany had won. . .?

Another way to categorize questioning is in terms of convergent questions (only one right answer) or divergent questions (many possible answers). Questions about concrete facts are convergent: “Who ruled England in 1540?” “Who wrote the original Peter Pan?” Questions dealing with opinions or hypotheses are divergent: “In this story, which character is most like you and why?” “In 100 years, which of the past five presidents will be most admired and why?”

Convergent questions  Questions with only one right answer—usually factual questions or rote knowledge questions. Divergent questions  Questions that have no single correct answer.

ASKING DEEP QUESTIONS.  As we have seen before, there is strong evidence that questions requiring deep explanations help students improve academic performance and enhance authentic understanding. What is a deep explanation? Examples of deep explanations include those that inquire about causes and consequences of historical events, motivations of people involved in historical events, scientific evidence for particular theories, and logical justifications for the steps of a mathematical proof. Examples of the types of questions that prompt deep explanations are why, why-not, how, what-if, how does X compare to Y, and what is the evidence for X? These questions and explanations occur during classroom instruction, class discussion, and during independent study. (Pashler et al., 2007, p. 29)

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FITTING THE QUESTIONS TO THE STUDENTS.  All kinds of questions can be effective (Barden, 1995). Different patterns seem to be better for certain types of students, however. The best pattern for younger students and for lower-ability students of all ages is simple questions that allow a high percentage of correct answers, ample encouragement, help when the student does not have the correct answer, and praise. For high-ability students, the successful pattern includes harder questions at both higher and lower levels and more critical feedback (Berliner, 1987; T. L. Good, 1988). Whatever their age or ability, all students should have some experience with thought-provoking, deep questions and, if necessary, help in learning how to answer them. To master critical thinking and problem-solving skills, students must have a chance to practice those skills. They also need time to think about their answers. But classic research shows that teachers wait an average of only 1 second for students to answer (M. B. Rowe, 1974). When teachers learn to pose a question, then wait at least 3 to 5 seconds before calling on a student to answer, students tend to give longer answers; more students are likely to participate, ask questions, and volunteer appropriate answers; student comments involving analysis, synthesis, inference, and speculation tend to increase; and the students generally appear more confident in their answers (Sadker & Sadker, 2006). This seems like a simple improvement in teaching, but 5 seconds of silence is not that easy to handle. It takes practice. You might try asking students to jot down ideas or even discuss the question with another student and formulate an answer together. This makes the wait more comfortable and gives students a chance to think. Of course, if it is clear that students are lost or don’t understand the question, waiting longer will not help. When your question is met with blank stares, rephrase the question or ask if anyone can clarify it. However, some evidence shows that extending wait times does not affect learning in university classes, so with advanced high school students, you might conduct your own evaluation of wait time (Duell, 1994; Ingram & Elliott, 2016). A word about selecting students to answer questions. If you call only on volunteers, then you may get the wrong idea about how well students understand the material. Also, the same people volunteer over and over again. Many expert teachers have some systematic way of making sure that they call on everyone: They pull names from a jar or check names off a list as each student speaks (C. S. Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015; C. S. Weinstein, & Romano, 2015). Another possibility is to put each student’s name on an index card, then shuffle the cards and go through the deck as you call on people. You can use the card to make notes about the quality of students’ answers or any extra help they seem to need. RESPONDING TO STUDENT ANSWERS.  What do you do after the student answers? The most common response, occurring about 50% of the time in most classrooms, is simple acceptance—“OK” or “Uh-huh” (Sadker & Sadker, 2006). But there are better reactions, depending on whether the student’s answer is correct, partially correct, or wrong. If the answer is quick, firm, and correct, simply accept the answer or ask another question. If the answer is correct but hesitant, give the student feedback about why the answer is correct: “That’s right, Chris, the Senate is part of the legislative branch of government because the Senate. . . .” This allows you to explain the material again. If this student is unsure, others may be confused as well. If the answer is partially or completely wrong but the student has made an honest attempt, you should probe for more information, give clues, simplify the question, review the previous steps, or reteach the material. If the student’s wrong answer is silly or careless, however, it is better simply to correct the answer and go on (T. L. Good, 1988; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). Feedback is essential for learning, especially active learning when the students construct understanding. Simply put, feedback is information about how the student’s current performance relates to the learning goal (Van den Berg, Ros, & Beijaard, 2014). John Hattie and Helen Timperley (2007) reviewed several decades of research on feedback and constructed a model to guide teachers. The model proposes three feedback questions: “Where am I going?” “How am I going?” and “Where to next?” The first question

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is about goals and goal clarity. The second is about progress—movement toward goals. The third question is about moving forward to improve understandings when goals are not met yet or to build on attained goals. The Hattie and Timperley model also considers the focus of the feedback on four levels: task, process, self-regulation, and self-feedback. Here are some examples (p. 90): Task Feedback: “You need to include more about the Treaty of Versailles.” Process Feedback: “This page may make more sense if you use the strategies we talked about earlier.” Self-Regulation Feedback: “You already know the key features of the opening of an argument. Check to see whether you have incorporated them in your first paragraph.” Self-Feedback: “You are a great student.” “That’s an intelligent response, well done.” Hattie and Timperley argue that feedback about process and self-regulation is the most powerful because it helps students move toward deep understanding, mastery, and self-direction in learning. Feedback about self (usually praise) is common in classes but is not effective unless the praise provides information about how effort, persistence, or self-regulation moved the student forward, as in, “You are terrific—you stuck with this, revised again, and now this essay makes a powerful argument.” Linda Van den Berg and her colleagues work with teachers to give more feedback that: • • • • •

is focused on students’ metacognition—thinking about thinking is focused on students’ social learning relates students’ performance or understanding explicitly to the learning goal(s) includes confirmation, criticism, and constructive remarks better balances directive and facilitative ways of giving feedback (p. 779) Sounds like good advice in general.

Group discussion  Conversation in which the teacher does not have the dominant role; students pose and answer their own questions.

GROUP DISCUSSION.  Classrooms “are the training grounds for citizenship, and discussions afford students opportunities not only to hear diverse viewpoints, but also to substantiate their claims with evidence” (Reisman, 2015, p. 1). During a group discussion a teacher may pose questions, listen to student answers, react, and probe for more information, but in a true group dialogue, the teacher does not have a dominant role. Students ask questions, answer each other’s questions, and respond to each other’s answers. These kinds of student-centered dialogues are relatively rare, however. One study of 64 middle schools found that only 1.6 minutes per 60-minute class were devoted to these discussions (Applebee et al., 2003). Group discussions have many advantages. Through dialogue and discussion, students can collectively construct meaning and complex understandings (Burbules & Bruce, 2001; Parker & Hess, 2001; Reznitskaya & Gregory, 2013). The students are directly involved and have the chance to participate. Motivation and engagement can be higher. They learn to express themselves clearly, to justify opinions, and to tolerate different views. Group discussion also gives students a chance to ask for clarification, examine their own thinking, follow personal interests, and assume responsibility by taking leadership roles in the group. So group discussions help students evaluate ideas and synthesize personal viewpoints. Discussions are also useful when students are trying to understand difficult concepts that go against common sense. By thinking together, challenging each other, and suggesting and evaluating possible explanations, students are more likely to reach a genuine understanding (Wu, Anderson, Nguyen-Jahiel, & Miller, 2013). Of course, there are disadvantages. Class discussions are quite unpredictable and may easily digress into exchanges of ignorance. You may have to do a good deal of preparation to ensure that participants have enough background knowledge for the discussion. Some members of the group may have great difficulty participating and may become anxious if forced to speak. And large groups are often unwieldy. In many cases, a few students will dominate the discussion while the others daydream. At times teachers have to intervene to keep students focused on the goal, connected to the actual

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learning materials being discussed, and listening to each other (Arends, 2004; H. J. Freiberg & Driscoll, 2005; Reisman, 2015). Are discussions effective learning tools? In a major review of research conducted from 1964 to 2003 on the value of discussing texts for improving student comprehension, Karen Murphy and her colleagues (2009) reached some surprising conclusions. They examined a wide range of discussion formats including Instructional Conversations, Junior Great Books Shared Inquiry, Questioning the Author, Literature Circles, Book Club, and Grand Conversation—to name just a few. They found many of these approaches were very successful in increasing student talk, limiting teacher talk, and promoting students’ literal interpretations of the texts they discussed. But getting students to talk more did not necessarily promote their critical thinking, reasoning, or argumentation skills. Also, discussion was more effective for students whose comprehension abilities were below average, perhaps because average and higher-ability students already had the skills to comprehend texts. A few discussion structures, such as Junior Great Books Shared Inquiry, used over a longer period of time seemed to support both comprehension of text and critical thinking. The researchers concluded, “Simply putting students into groups and encouraging them to talk is not enough to enhance comprehension and learning; it is but a step in the process” (p. 760). The Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions on the next page give some ideas for facilitating a productive group discussion.

Fitting Teaching to Your Goals In the midst of all our discussions about methods, we have to keep in mind that the first questions should be: What should students learn? and What is worth knowing today? Then, we can match methods to goals. There is no one best way to teach. Different goals and student needs require different teaching methods. Direct instruction often leads to better performance on achievement tests, whereas the open, informal methods such as discovery learning or inquiry approaches are associated with better performance on tests of creativity, abstract thinking, and problem solving. In addition, the open methods are better for improving attitudes toward school and for stimulating curiosity, cooperation among students, and lower absence rates (Borich, 2011; Walberg, 1990). According to these conclusions, when the goals of teaching involve problem solving, creativity, understanding, and mastering processes, many approaches besides direct instruction should be effective. Every student may require direct, explicit teaching for some learning goals some of the time, but all students also need to experience more open, constructivist, student-centered teaching as well.

Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design We have covered quite a bit of territory here, from objectives to teaching strategies. Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe’s (2006) Understanding by Design (UbD) pulls it all together—expectations for high-level critical thinking, goals, evidence for learning, and teaching approaches. The focus is on deep understanding, which is characterized by the ability to (1) explain, (2) interpret, (3) apply, (4) have perspective, (5) empathize, and (6) have self-knowledge about a topic. The big idea behind UbD is backward design. Teachers first identify the important end results for students—the key understandings and big ideas that are the goals of instruction. To focus on understanding (not just fun activities or covering the text), teachers write essential questions—questions that go to the heart of the ideas and push thinking deeper: “What is the greatest problem of the democratic system?” “Who is entitled to own the airways?” “What makes a mathematical argument convincing?” Next the teacher identifies what evidence would demonstrate deep understanding (performance tasks, quizzes, informal assessments?). Then and only then do the teachers design the learning plan—the instruction—they design backward from the end results to the teaching plan. This idea of going from clear goals to teaching plans is at the heart of every approach to using standards and specific targets in teaching.

Understanding by Design (UbD)  A system of lesson and unit planning that starts with key objectives for understandings and then moves backwards to design assessments and learning activities.

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GUIDELINES Productive Group Discussions 2. “Did you consider any other alternatives?” 3. “Tell us how you reached that conclusion. What steps did you go through?”

Invite shy children to participate. Examples 1. “What’s your opinion, Joel?” or “Does anyone have another opinion?” 2. Don’t wait until there is a deadly silence to ask shy students to reply. Most people, even those who are confident, hate to break a silence. Direct student comments and questions back to another student. Examples 1. “That’s an unusual idea, Steve. Kim, what do you think of Steve’s idea?” 2. “That’s an important question, John. Maura, do you have any thoughts about how you’d answer that?” 3. Encourage students to look at and talk to one another rather than wait for your opinion. Make sure that you understand what a student has said. If you are unsure, other students may be unsure as well. Examples 1. Ask a second student to summarize what the first student said; then, the first student can try again to explain if the summary is incorrect. 2. “Karen, I think you’re saying. . . . Is that right, or have I misunderstood?”

Bring the discussion back to the subject. Examples 1. “Let’s see, we were discussing, . . . and Sarah made one suggestion. Does anyone have a different idea?” 2. “Before we continue, let me try to summarize what has happened thus far.” Give time for thought before asking for responses. Example 1. “How would your life be different if television had never been invented? Jot down your ideas on paper, and we will share reactions in a minute.” After a minute: “Hiromi, will you tell us what you wrote?” When a student finishes speaking, look around the room to judge reactions. Examples 1. If other students look puzzled, ask them to describe why they are confused. 2. If students are nodding assent, ask them to give an example of what was just said.

Probe for more information, and ask students to elaborate and defend their positions. Examples 1. “That’s a strong statement. Do you have any evidence to back it up?”

Wiggins and McTighe provide a template to guide backward design planning. You can see many examples of these templates online. Do a Web search for “Understanding by Design template.” The process for completing a plan using backward design for a unit is shown in Figure 14.1. The teacher/designer moved backwards from a core mathematics standard by identifying key understandings and essential questions based on the standard, then planning assessments including traditional tests as well as textbook assignments and performance tasks that include real-life applications, and finally to creating learning experiences that will support understanding. Can you see how many levels of Bloom’s taxonomy are represented here? So far, we have talked about approaches to teaching—targets, strategies, and learning plans. But in today’s diverse classrooms, one size does not fit all. Within the general approach, teachers have to fit their instruction to the needs and abilities of their students— they have to differentiate instruction. MyLab Education Self-Check 14.3

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FIGU RE 14.1 PLANNING BY DESIGN The planning process for a lesson on the Pythagorean Theorem. The teacher/designer planned backwards from the core standards. Step 1—Designing the Goal Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to determine unknown side lengths in right triangles in real-world and mathematical problems in two and three dimensions. Common Core www.corestandards.org/Math/Content/8/G/B/

Key Understandings 1. The area formed by the square on top of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the total area of the two squares formed on the tops of the other two sides. 2. There are multiple ways to prove the Pythagorean Theorem.

Essential Questions 1. What makes a mathematical argument of the Pythagorean Theorem convincing?

3.….

3.….

2. Are there any real world uses of the Pythagorean Theorem?

What Will the Student Know? 1. What is a hypotenuse of a right triangle? 2. What is the length of any side of a right triangle, given the two other sides? 3. ….. What Will the Student Be Able to Do? 1. Draw a graphic illustration that demonstrates the validity of the Pythagorean Theorem. 2. ……

Step 2—Designing the Assessment

Authentic/Real-World Assessments 1. Can you calculate the height of a flagpole based on its shadow—how? 2. You have an old media cabinet with an opening that is 34” by 34”. You want a new flat screen TV that is at least a 42” diagonal. Assume the ratio of a new TV height to width is 3/5. Will it fit? Why? 3. Given that the distance between successive bases in baseball is 90 feet, what is the distance a throw has to travel from third base and first base? 4…..

Traditional Assessments 1. Questions on homework 2. Self-questions developed based on chapter, along with answers and justifications. 3. Unit test 4…..

Step 3—Designing the Learning 1. In groups, investigate the area of squares, triangles, and rectangles around the classroom—compare your group’s areas with the areas calculated by other groups for the same objects. 2. Using cardboard pieces, scissors, a ruler, and pencil, prove the Pythagorean Theorem. 3. Modules 6 & 7 in text (For more ideas, see http://questgarden.com/ and search for “Pythagorean Theorem.”)

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DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION AND ADAPTIVE TEACHING The idea of differentiated instruction—adapting teaching to the abilities and needs of each learner—is an ancient one. To prove it, Lyn Corno (2008, p. 161) quotes these words of Quintilian from the fifth century bc: Some students are slack and need to be encouraged; others work better when given a freer rein. Some respond best when there is some threat or fear; others are paralyzed by it. Some apply themselves to the task over time, and learn best; others learn best by concentration and focus in a single burst of energy.

Obviously Quintilian appreciated the need for fitting instruction to the student. One way to do this when teachers have many students is to use appropriate groupings. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® The Teacher’s Role in Student-Centered Instruction (II, A3) The teacher’s role in studentcentered instruction is significantly different from that in teacher-centered instruction.

Differentiated instruction  A flexible approach to teaching that matches content, process, and product based on student differences in readiness, interests, and learning needs. Takes into account students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs. Within-class ability grouping  System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two or three groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student differences. Flexible grouping  Grouping and regrouping students based on learning needs.

Within-Class and Flexible Grouping It is not unusual to have 3- to 5-year ability differences in any given classroom (Castle, Deniz, & Tortora, 2005). But even if you decided to simply forge ahead (against Quintilian’s advice) and teach the same material in the same way to your entire class, you would not be alone. Differences in students’ prior knowledge are a major challenge for teachers, especially in subjects that build on previous knowledge and skills such as math and science (Loveless, 1998). One answer has been ability grouping, but that also poses a number of problems. THE PROBLEMS WITH ABILITY GROUPING.  Students in many classes and schools are grouped by ability, even though there is no definitive evidence that this within-class ability grouping is superior to other approaches (Becker et al., 2014). In a random sample of primary grade teachers in the United States, 63% reported using within-class ability groups for reading. Students in lower-ability groups were less likely to be asked critical comprehension questions and were given fewer opportunities to make choices about what to read (Chorzempa & Graham, 2006). For schools with students from lower SES families, grouping often means that these students are segregated into lower-ability tracks. According to Paul George (2005): In my 3 decades of experience with this issue, when homogenous grouping is the primary strategy for organizing students in schools with significant racial and ethnic diversity in the population, the result is almost always deep, and often starkly obvious, division of students on the basis of race, ethnicity, and social class. (p. 187)

Thoughtfully constructed and well-taught ability groups in math and reading can be effective, but the point of any grouping strategy should be to provide appropriate challenge and support—that is, to reach children within their zone of proximal development, that area where students can learn and develop, given the appropriate support (Vygotsky, 1997). Flexible grouping is one possible answer. FLEXIBLE GROUPING.  In flexible grouping, students are grouped and regrouped based on their learning needs. Assessment is continuous so that students are always working within their zone of proximal development. Arrangements might include small groups, partners, individuals, and even the whole class—depending on which grouping best supports each student’s learning of the particular academic content. Flexible grouping approaches include high-level instruction and high expectations for all students, regardless of their group placement (Corno, 2008). One 5-year longitudinal study of flexible grouping in a high-needs urban elementary school found 10% to 57% increases in students who reached mastery level, depending on the subject area and grade level. Teachers received training and support in the assessment, grouping, and teaching strategies needed, and by the end of the study, 95% of the teachers were using flexible grouping. The teachers in the study believed that some of the gains came because students were more focused on learning and more confident (Castle et al., 2005).

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GUIDELINES Using Flexible Grouping Form and re-form groups based on accurate diagnosis of students’ current performance in the subject being taught. Examples 1. Use scores on the most recent reading assessments to establish reading groups and rely on current math performance to form math groups. 2. Assess continuously. Change group placement frequently when students’ achievement changes. Make sure different groups get appropriately different instruction, not just the same material. Make sure teachers, methods, and pace are adjusted to fit the needs of the group. Examples 1. Vary more than pace; fit teaching to students’ interests and knowledge. 2. Assign all groups research reports, but make some written, and others oral or PowerPoint® presentations. 3. Organize and teach groups so that low-achieving students get appropriate extra instruction—not just the same material again. Make lower-achieving groups smaller so students get extra attention. 4. Make sure all work is meaningful and respectful—no worksheets for lower-ability groups while the higher-ability groups do experiments and projects.

5. Try alternatives. For example, DeWayne Mason and Tom Good (1993) found that supplementing whole-class instruction in math with remediation and enrichment for students when they needed it worked better than dividing the class into two ability groups and teaching these groups separately. Discourage comparisons between groups, and encourage students to develop a whole-class spirit. Examples 1. Don’t seat groups together outside the context of their reading or math group. 2. Avoid naming ability groups—save the names for mixedability or whole-class teams. Group by ability for one, or, at the most, two subjects. Examples 1. Make sure that many lessons and projects mix members from the groups. 2. Experiment with learning strategies that stress cooperation (described in Chapter 10). 3. Keep the number of groups small (two or three at most) so that you can provide as much direct teaching as possible. Leaving students alone for too long leads to less learning.

As we have seen repeatedly throughout this text, working at a challenging level, but one you can master with effort and support, is more likely to encourage learning and motivation. If you ever decide to use flexible grouping in your class, the Guidelines: Using Flexible Grouping should make the approach more effective (Arends, 2007; T. L. Good & Brophy, 2008).

Adaptive Teaching Lyn Corno (2008) has developed a model of adaptive teaching that also addresses learner differences. In this approach, teachers see “learner variation as an opportunity for learning from teaching rather than as obstacles to be overcome” (p. 171). Adaptive teaching provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes those supports as students become able to handle more on their own. Figure 14.2 on the next page shows the continuum of support and type of instruction that matches students’ needs. As shown on the far left of the figure, when students are novices in an area or have little prior knowledge and skills, the teaching is more direct and includes well-designed motivational strategies to keep them engaged. At the same time, students are taught how to apply appropriate cognitive strategies, to give them the “skills” to learn. There are short cycles of teaching, checking for understanding, and reteaching. As students develop aptitudes in the subject, teaching moves to modeling, guided practice, and coaching. By this time, students should have improved their cognitive “skills” strategies, so teaching can also focus on motivational and volitional strategies—the “will” to learn. Finally, as students gain more knowledge and skills, teaching can move to guided

Adaptive teaching  Provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes these supports as students become able to handle more on their own.

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FIGU RE 14.2 ADAPTIVE TEACHING By matching support to current student abilities and needs, teachers build on strengths to move all students toward self-regulated learning. Aptitude Circumvention More Intrusive

Support Continuum

Less Intrusive

INSTRUCTION

INSTRUCTION

INSTRUCTION

Direct Instruction Interventions Motivational Enhancements

Modeling Participant Modeling Guided Practice

Discovery Learning Independent Study Peer Tutoring Activates

Models

Short Circuits

LEARNERS

LEARNERS LEARNERS Cognitive Strategy Training

Self-regulation

Modeling of Motivational and Volitional Control Strategies

Aptitude Development Weaker/Novice

Individual Learners

Stronger/Experienced

Source: Based on Corno, L. (2008). On Teaching Adaptively. Educational Psychologist, 43(3), 161–173; and Randi, J., & Corno, L. (2005). Teaching and Learner Variation, in Pedagogy—Learning from Teaching, British Journal of Educational Psychology, Monograph Series II(3), 47–69.

discovery, independent study, and peer tutoring, with an emphasis on self-regulated learning—the kind of learning the students will need for the rest of their lives. Adaptive teaching makes sure that everyone is challenged. For example, one teacher at a magnet school described how he “iced” his curriculum with some content “just beyond the reach” of even his most advanced students. He wanted to be sure all his students found some assignments difficult. He believed “everyone needs to stretch in my class” (Corno, 2008, p. 165).

MyLab Education

Video Example 14.4 In this video, Mrs. Casey differentiates instruction by grouping students for reading. She focuses on vocabulary in both reading groups in the video, but the content is different. Listen to her description of the diversity in her classroom, and consider the importance of differentiation in order to reach every student.

Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms STOP & THINK When you think about teaching in an inclusive classroom, what are your concerns? Do you have enough training? Will you get the support you need from school administrators or specialists? Will working with the students with disabilities take time away from your other responsibilities? •

These questions are common ones, and sometimes such concerns are justified. But effective teaching for students with disabilities does not require a unique set of skills. It is a combination of good teaching practices and sensitivity to all your students. Students with disabilities need to learn the academic material, and they need to be full participants in the day-to-day life of the classroom.

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To accomplish the first goal of academic learning, students with learning disabilities appear to benefit from using extended practice distributed over days and weeks and from advanced organizers such as focusing students on what they already know or stating clear learning targets (H. L. Swanson, 2001). To accomplish the second goal of integrating students with disabilities into the dayto-day life of the classroom, Marilyn Friend and William Bursuck (2019) recommend the INCLUDE strategy: Identify the environmental, curricular, and instructional demands of your classroom. Note students’ learning strengths and needs. Check for potential areas of student success. Look for potential problem areas. Use information gathered to brainstorm instructional adaptations. Decide which adaptations to try. Evaluate student progress. Table 14.8 on the next page shows how the INCLUDE strategy might be applied to students with learning and behavioral disabilities.

Technology and Differentiation The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that all students eligible for special education services be considered for assistive technology. Assistive technology is any product, piece of equipment, or system that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities (Goldman, Lawless, Pellegrino, & Plants, 2006). For students who require small steps and many repetitions to learn a new concept, computers are the perfect patient tutors, repeating steps and lessons as many times as necessary. A well-designed computer instructional program is engaging and interactive—two important qualities for students who have problems paying attention or a history of failure that has eroded motivation. For example, a math or spelling program might use images, sounds, and gamelike features to maintain the attention of a student with an attention-deficit disorder. Interactive digital media programs teach hearing people how to use sign language. Many programs do not involve sound, so students with hearing impairments can get the full benefit from the lessons. Students who have trouble reading can use programs that will “speak” a word for them if they touch the unknown word. With this immediate access to help, these students are much more likely to get the reading practice they need to prevent falling farther and farther behind. Other devices actually convert printed pages and typed texts to spoken words for students who are blind or others who benefit from hearing information. For the student with a learning disability whose writing is not legible, word processors produce perfect penmanship so the ideas can finally get on paper. Once the ideas are recorded, the student can reorganize and improve his or her writing without the agony of rewriting by hand (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2015). With these tremendous advances in technology have come new barriers, however. Many computers have graphic interfaces. Manipulating the programs requires precise mouse or track pad movements, as you may remember when you first learned to point and click. These maneuvers are often difficult for students with motor problems or visual impairments. And the information available on the Internet often is unusable for students with visual problems. Researchers are working on the problem—trying to devise ways for people to access the information nonvisually (Hallahan et al., 2015). One current trend is universal design—considering the needs of all users in the design of new tools, learning programs, or Web sites (Pisha & Coyne, 2001). For gifted students, computers can be a connection with databases and computers in universities, museums, and research labs. Computer networks allow students to work on projects and share information with others across the country. And students who are gifted could write programs for students and teachers. Quite a few principals around the country rely on their students to keep the technology networks in their schools working

Assistive technology  Devices, systems, and services that support and improve the capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Universal design  Considering the needs of all users in the design of new tools, learning programs, or Web sites.

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TABLE 14.8  •  Making Adaptations for Students with Learning and Behavior Disabilities Using Steps in the INCLUDE Strategy IDENTIFY CLASSROOM DEMANDS

NOTE STUDENT STRENGTHS AND NEEDS

CHECK FOR POTENTIAL SUCCESSES/LOOK FOR POTENTIAL PROBLEMS

DECIDE ON ADAPTATIONS

Student desks in clusters of four

Strengths Good vocabulary skills Needs Difficulty attending to task

Success Student understands instruction if on task Problem Student off task—does not face instructor as she teaches

Change seating so student faces instructor

Small-group work with peers

Strengths Good handwriting Needs Oral expressive language— problem with word finding

Success Student acts as secretary for cooperative group Problem Student has difficulty expressing self in peer learning groups

Assign as secretary of group Place into compatible small group Develop social skills instruction for all students

Expect students to attend class and be on time

Strengths Good drawing skills Needs Poor time management

Success Student uses artistic talent in class Problem Student is late for class and frequently does not attend at all

Use individualized student contract for attendance and punctuality—if goals met, give student artistic responsibility in class

Textbook difficult to read

Strengths Good oral communication skills Needs Poor reading accuracy Lacks systematic strategy for reading text

Success Student participates well in class Good candidate for class dramatizations Problem Student is unable to read text for information

Provide taped textbooks Highlight student text

Lecture on women’s suffrage movement to whole class

Strengths Very motivated and interested in class Needs Lack of background knowledge

Success Student earns points for class attendance and effort Problem Student lacks background knowledge to understand important information in lecture

Give student video to view before lecture Build points for attendance and working hard into grading system

Whole-class instruction on telling time to the quarter hour

Strengths Good coloring skills Needs Cannot identify numbers 7–12 Cannot count by fives

Success Student is able to color clock faces used in instruction Problem Student is unable to acquire telling time skills

Provide extra instruction on number identification and counting by fives

Source: From Friend, M. & Bursuck, W. D. (2015). Including Students with Special Needs: A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers (7th ed., pp. 229–230). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.

smoothly. These are just a few examples of what technology can do. Check with the resource teachers in your district to find out what is available in your school. No matter how you differentiate instruction, there is one part of your teaching that should be the same for all your students—appropriate high expectations.

MyLab Education Self-Check 14.4

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TEACHER EXPECTATIONS Marvin Marshall (2013) tells the story of a teacher who was delighted when she saw the listing for her new class. “Wow, have I got a bright class this year! Look at these amazing IQs—116, 118, 122, 124. . . .” The teacher designed a host of challenging activities, set high expectations for her students, and communicated her confidence in them to excel. They did. Only much later did the teacher discover that the numbers beside the students’ names were their locker numbers! Can expectations make a difference? Fifty years ago, a study by Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson (1968) captured the attention of the national media in a way that few studies by psychologists have since then. Debate about the meaning of the results continues (De Boer, Bosker, & van der Werf, 2010; Jussim, 2013; Jussim, Robustelli, & Cain, 2009; Rosenthal, 1995; R. E. Snow, 1995). What did Rosenthal and Jacobson say that has caused such a stir? They randomly chose several students in a number of elementary school classrooms, and then told the teachers that these students probably would make significant intellectual gains during the year. The students did indeed make larger gains than normal that year. The researchers presented data suggesting the existence of a Pygmalion effect or self-fulfilling prophecy in the classroom. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a groundless expectation that leads to behaviors that then make the original expectation come true (Merton, 1948). An example is a false belief that a bank is failing; this leads to a rush of patrons withdrawing money, which then causes the bank to fail as expected. STOP & THINK When you thought about the most effective teacher you ever had, was one of the characteristics that the teacher believed in you or demanded the best from you? How did the teacher communicate that belief? •

Two Kinds of Expectation Effects Two kinds of expectation effects can occur in classrooms. In the self-fulfilling prophecy just described, the teacher’s beliefs about the students’ abilities have no basis in fact, but student behavior comes to match the initially inaccurate expectation. The second kind of expectation effect occurs when teachers are fairly accurate in their initial reading of students’ abilities and respond to students appropriately. The problems arise when students show some improvement, but teachers do not alter their expectations to take account of the improvement. This is called a sustaining expectation effect, because the teacher’s unchanging expectation sustains the student’s achievement at the expected level. The chance to raise expectations, provide more appropriate teaching, and thus encourage greater student achievement is lost. In practice, self-fulfilling prophecy effects seem to be stronger in the early grades, and sustaining effects are more likely in the later grades (Kuklinski & Weinstein, 2001).

Sources of Expectations There are many possible sources of teachers’ expectations, including intelligence test scores (especially if they are not interpreted appropriately); gender; notes from previous teachers; the medical or psychological reports in students’ permanent files; prior knowledge about older brothers and sisters; appearance (higher expectations for attractive students); previous achievement; SES; race and ethnicity; and the actual behaviors of the student (Van Matre, Valentine, & Cooper, 2000). Even the student’s after-school activities can be a source of expectations. Teachers tend to hold higher expectations for students who participate in extracurricular activities than for students who do nothing after school. And one study has shown that some teachers may even hold class-level expectations; that is, they have higher or lower expectations for all the students in a particular class (Rubie-Davies, 2010). Some students are more likely than others to be the recipients of sustaining expectations. For example, withdrawn children provide little information about themselves,

Pygmalion effect  Exceptional progress by a student as a result of high teacher expectations for that student; named for mythological king, Pygmalion, who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life. Self-fulfilling prophecy A groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected. Sustaining expectation effect Student performance is maintained at a certain level because teachers don’t recognize improvements.

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MyLab Education

Podcast 14.1 Listen as textbook author Anita Woolfolk describes academic optimism, a new concept that Anita developed along with her husband, Wayne Hoy, a professor of educational administration who works with principals and superintendents. How might academic optimism affect your teaching practice?

so teachers may sustain their expectations about these children simply for lack of new input (M. G. Jones & Gerig, 1994). Young students with lower cognitive abilities who exhibit more behavior problems are at greater risk of low expectations (Gut, Reiman, & Grob, 2013). Also, self-fulfilling prophecy effects tend to be stronger for students from lower-SES families and for African American students (De Boer, Bosker, & van der Werf, 2010). In a synthesis of over 50 studies, Harriet Tenenbaum and Martin Ruck (2007) found that teachers held higher expectations for and directed more positive questions and encouragement toward European American students compared to African American and Latino/a students. The highest expectations were reserved for Asian American students. It appears that early childhood teachers may hold higher expectations for students who are more socially competent (Hinnant, O’Brien, & Ghazarian, 2009). For example, Jennifer Alvidrez and Rhona Weinstein (1999) found teachers tended to overestimate the abilities of preschool children they rated as independent and interesting and to underestimate the abilities of children perceived as immature and anxious. Expectations and beliefs focus attention and organize memory, so teachers may pay attention to and remember the information that fits their initial expectations (Fiske, 1993). Even when student performance does not fit expectations, the teacher may rationalize and attribute the performance to external causes beyond the student’s control. For example, a teacher may assume that the low-ability student who did well on a test must have cheated and that the high-ability student who failed must have been upset that day. In both cases, behavior that seems out of character is dismissed. It may take many instances of supposedly uncharacteristic behavior to change the teacher’s beliefs about a particular student’s abilities. Thus, expectations often remain in the face of contradictory evidence (Brophy, 1998).

Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement? The answer to the question, “Do teachers expectations really affect students’ achievement?” is more complicated than it might seem. There are two ways to investigate the issue. One is to give teachers unfounded expectations about their students and note if these baseless expectations have any effects. The other approach is to identify the naturally occurring expectations of teachers and study the effects of these expectations. The answer to the question of whether teacher expectations affect student learning depends in part on which approach is taken to study the question. The original Rosenthal and Jacobson experiment used the first approach—giving teachers groundless expectations and noting the effects. A careful analysis of the results revealed that even though first through sixth-grade students participated in the study, the self-fulfilling prophecy effects could be traced to dramatic changes in just 5 students in first and second grade. After reviewing the research on teacher expectations, Raudenbush (1984) concluded that these expectations have only a small effect on student IQ scores (the outcome measure used by Rosenthal and Jacobson) and only in the early years of a new school setting—in the first years of elementary school and then again in the first years of middle school. But what about the second approach—naturally occurring expectations? Research shows that teachers do indeed form beliefs about students’ capabilities. Many of these beliefs are accurate assessments based on the best available data and are corrected as new information is collected ( Jussim & Harber, 2005). But inaccuracies can make a difference. In a longitudinal study by Nicole Sorhagen (2013), teachers’ over- and underestimations of students’ math and language abilities in first grade predicted the students’ math, reading comprehension, vocabulary knowledge, and verbal reasoning standardized test scores at age 15, and the impact was greater for students for lower-income families. Perhaps the underestimation of the abilities of children in poverty is one factor contributing to the achievement gap for those students. If teachers decide that some students are less able, and if the teachers lack effective strategies for working with lower-achieving students, then students may experience a double threat—low expectations and inadequate teaching (T. L. Good & Brophy, 2008).

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TABLE 14.9  •  Teacher Expectations and Instruction Here are some ways that teachers differentiate their instruction and communications toward students based on the teacher’s expectations about student abilities EXPECTATIONS

INSTRUCTION

INTERACTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

High

More challenging lessons More opportunities for choice More likely to be assigned to high or gifted group

More opportunities and time to respond to teacher questions More opportunity for follow-up questions—tell me more More stay-with behavior—teacher provides clues or rephrases the questions More teacher praise Greater teacher warmth, smiles, affective support

Low

Less challenging lessons, more drill and practice Fewer opportunities for choice More likely to be assigned to low groups

Fewer opportunities and less time to respond to teacher questions Less opportunity for follow-up questions More give-up behavior—teacher provides the answer or calls on another student to do so More teacher criticism for wrong answers, less praise for correct answers Less corrective feedback for wrong answers Fewer teacher smiles, less personal warmth

Even though it is clear that teacher expectations can affect student achievement, the effects are modest on average and tend to dissipate somewhat over the years ( Jussim, 2013). The power of the expectation effect depends on the age of the students (generally speaking, younger students are more susceptible) and on how differently a teacher treats high- versus low-expectation students, an issue we turn to next (Kuklinski & Weinstein, 2001). Teachers may use different instructional strategies and also have different interactions and relationships with students based on expectations, as shown in Table 14.9 (Good, 2014). In terms of instruction, when students who are ready for more challenging work are not given the opportunity to try it because teachers believe they cannot handle it, a sustaining expectation effect is likely. In terms of interactions and relationships, the effects can be huge, as the expectation differences build year after year with many teachers (Trouilloud, Sarrazin, Bressoux, & Bois, 2006).

Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations Of course, not all teachers form inappropriate expectations or act on their expectations in unconstructive ways (Babad, Inbar, & Rosenthal, 1982). The Guidelines: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations on the next page may help you avoid some of these problems. But avoiding the problem may be more difficult than it seems. In general, low-expectation students also tend to be the most disruptive students. (Of course, low expectations can reinforce their desire to disrupt or misbehave.) Teachers may call on these students less, wait a shorter time for their answers, and give them less praise for right answers, partly to avoid the wrong, careless, or silly answers that can cause disruptions, delays, and digressions. The challenge is to deal with these very real threats to classroom management without communicating low expectations to some students or fostering their own low expectations of themselves. And sometimes, low expectations become part of the culture of the school—beliefs shared by teachers and administrators alike (R. S. Weinstein, Madison, & Kuklinski, 1995). MyLab Education Self-Check 14.5

MyLab Education

Video Example 14.5 Mrs. Casey communicates clear expectations as she prepares students to work in groups at various centers. She uses ability grouping for guided reading, but her instructions to the class do not show distinctions in levels of expectation. Notice how she expresses trust in her students and encourages them to support one another. In the reading group, notice her unbiased expectations and praise.

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GUIDELINES Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations Use information about students from tests, cumulative folders, and other teachers very carefully. Examples 1. Avoid reading cumulative folders early in the year. 2. Be critical and objective about the reports you hear from other teachers. 3. Be flexible in your expectations—a student’s label or your judgment might be wrong. Be flexible in your use of grouping strategies. Examples 1. Review work of students often, and experiment with new groupings. 2. Use different groups for different subjects. 3. Use mixed-ability groups in cooperative exercises. Provide both challenge and support. Examples 1. Don’t say, “This is easy, I know you can do it.” 2. Offer a wide range of problems, and encourage all students to try a few of the harder ones for extra credit. Find something positive about these attempts. 3. Make sure your high expectations come with academic and emotional support for students’ struggles. “Holding high standards without providing a warm environment is merely harsh. A warm environment without high standards lacks backbone” (Jussim, 2013). Be especially careful about how you respond to lowachieving students during class discussions. Examples 1. Give them prompts, cues, and time to answer. 2. Give ample praise for good answers. 3. Call on low achievers as often as you do high achievers. Use materials that show a wide range of ethnic groups. Examples 1. Check readers and library books. Is there ethnic diversity? 2. Ask students to research and create their own materials, based on community or family sources.

Make sure that your teaching does not reflect racial, ethnic, or sexual stereotypes or prejudice. Examples 1. Use a checking system to be sure you call on and include all students. 2. Monitor the content of the tasks you assign. Do boys get the “hard” math problems to work at the board? Do you avoid having students with limited English give oral presentations? Be fair in evaluation and disciplinary procedures. Examples 1. Make sure equal offenses receive equal punishment. Find out from students in an anonymous questionnaire whether you seem to be favoring certain individuals. 2. Try to grade student work without knowing the identity of the student. Ask another teacher to give you a “second opinion” from time to time. Communicate to all students that you believe they can learn—and mean it. Examples 1. Return papers that do not meet standards with specific suggestions for improvements. 2. If students do not have the answers immediately, wait, probe, and then help them think through an answer. Involve all students in learning tasks and in privileges. Examples 1. Use some system to make sure you give each student practice in reading, speaking, and answering questions. 2. Keep track of who gets to do what job. Are some students always on the list, whereas others seldom make it? Monitor your nonverbal behavior. Examples 1. Do you lean away or stand farther away from some students? Do some students get smiles when they approach your desk, whereas others get only frowns? 2. Does your tone of voice vary with different students? For more information see chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/ teacherexpect.html

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. SUMMARY Research on Teaching (pp. 580–583) What methods have been used to study teaching?  For years, researchers have tried to unravel the mystery of effective teaching using classroom observation, case studies, interviews, experimentation with different methods, stimulated recall (teachers view videotapes and explain their teaching), analysis of lesson transcripts, and other approaches to study teaching in real classrooms. What are the general characteristics of good teaching? A variety of teacher qualities are related to good teaching. Research suggests teachers who receive proper training and certification have more successful students. Although it is important, teacher knowledge of a subject is not sufficient for effective teaching. Thorough knowledge does lead to greater clarity and better organization, which are both tied to good teaching. Teachers who provide clear presentations and explanations tend to have students who learn more and who rate their teachers more positively. Teacher warmth, friendliness, and understanding seem to be the traits most strongly related to positive student attitudes about the teacher and the course in general. What do expert teachers know?  It takes time and experience to become an expert teacher. These teachers have a rich store of well-organized knowledge about the many specific situations of teaching. This knowledge is very complex and specific to the situation, topic, students, and even the individual teacher. Within the particular situation and topic, expert teachers have clear goals and take individual differences into account when planning for their students. Expert teachers also know how to be reflective practitioners—how to use their experience as a way to grow and improve in their teaching. What does the latest research on teaching reveal to us? A program of large-scale, longitudinal research has identified three aspects of classroom climate that are related to the development and learning of preschool and elementary school students. These three dimensions are consistent with the characteristics of teachers identified in earlier research on teaching and cover affective, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions. The affective dimension is teacher emotional support, similar to teacher warmth and enthusiasm identified in early research. The cognitive dimension is instructional support, which includes concept development (activities and discussions that promote student higher-order thinking) and quality feedback that is specific and focused on the learning process. The third dimension is classroom organization, which includes behavioral concerns such as classroom and lesson management with clear activities and routines that make more time for learning and really engage students—similar to the teacher characteristics of clarity and organization.

The First Step: Planning (pp. 583–591) What are the levels of planning, and how do they affect teaching?  Teachers engage in several levels of planning—by the year, term, unit, week, and day. All the levels must be coordinated. The plan determines how time and materials will be turned into activities for students. There is no single model

of planning, but all plans should allow for flexibility. Planning is a creative problem-solving process for experienced teachers. It is more informal—“in their heads.” What is the Common Core? To address problems with inconsistency, lack of rigor, and redundancies in many statelevel standards, beginning in 2009, the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) led an effort to define consistent national standards for each grade, K–12, in two broad areas: (1) English language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects, and (2) mathematics. Today adoption of the Common Core is a moving target. In early 2017, 35 states and the District of Columbia were using the standards, but 10 states were rewriting or replacing them. What is a learning target, and what are the three taxonomies of educational outcomes? Learning targets tell what students should know and be able to do—what would successful learning look like. Bloom and others have developed taxonomies categorizing basic objectives in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. A taxonomy encourages systematic thinking about relevant targets and ways to evaluate them. Six outcomes objectives are listed in the cognitive domain: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating, acting on four kinds of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Outcomes in the affective domain run from least committed to most committed. Outcomes in the psychomotor domain generally move from basic perceptions and reflex actions to skilled, creative movements. A more concise way to think about learning outcomes is to target knowledge, reasoning, performance skills, products, or dispositions. Describe constructivist planning. Planning is shared and negotiated in student-centered, or constructivist, approaches. Rather than having specific student behaviors as objectives, the teacher has overarching goals or “big ideas” that guide planning. Integrated content and teaching with themes are often part of the planning. Assessment of learning is ongoing and mutually shared by teacher and students.

Teaching Approaches (pp. 591–603) How should teachers use direct instruction and homework?  Direct instruction is appropriate for teaching basic skills and explicit knowledge. It includes the teaching functions of review/overview, presentation, guided practice, feedback and correctives (with reteaching if necessary), independent practice, and periodic reviews. The younger or less able the students, the shorter the presentation should be, with more cycles of practice and feedback. The “10-minute rule” for homework means 10 minutes of homework per night starting in the first grade and increasing by 10 minutes each grade, so a twelfth grader would be assigned about 120 minutes. Distinguish between convergent and divergent questions and describe deep questions. Convergent questions have only one right answer. Divergent questions have many possible

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answers. Deep questions (such as why, why-not, how, what-if, how does X compare to Y, and what is the evidence for?) require thoughtful and well-reasoned explanations—students have to think for themselves. The best pattern for younger students and for lower-ability students of all ages is simple questions that allow a high percentage of correct answers, ample encouragement, help when the student does not have the correct answer, and praise. For high-ability students, the successful pattern includes harder questions at both higher and lower levels and more critical feedback. Whatever their age or ability, all students should have some experience with deep, thought-provoking questions and, if necessary, help in learning how to answer them. How can wait time affect student learning?  When teachers pose a question and then learn to wait at least 3 to 5 seconds before calling on a student to answer, students tend to give longer answers; more students are likely to participate, ask questions, and volunteer appropriate answers; student comments involving analysis, synthesis, inference, and speculation tend to increase; and the students generally appear more confident in their answers. What are the uses and disadvantages of group discussion? Group discussion helps students participate directly, express themselves clearly, justify opinions, and tolerate different views. Group discussion also gives students a chance to ask for clarification, examine their own thinking, follow personal interests, and assume responsibility by taking leadership roles in the group. So group discussions help students evaluate ideas and synthesize personal viewpoints. However, discussions are quite unpredictable and may easily digress into exchanges of ignorance. How can you match teaching to your goals?  Different goals and student needs require different teaching methods. Direct instruction often leads to better performance on achievement tests, but the open, informal methods such as discovery learning or inquiry approaches are associated with better performance on tests of creativity, abstract thinking, and problem solving. In addition, the open methods are better for improving attitudes toward school and for stimulating curiosity, cooperation among students, and lower absence rates. How can you use Understanding by Design to plan quality instruction? The focus of UbD is on deep understanding, which is characterized by the ability to (1) explain, (2) interpret, (3) apply, (4) have perspective, (5) empathize, and (6) have self-knowledge about a topic. The big idea behind UbD is backward design. Teachers first identify the important end results for students—the key understandings and big ideas that are the goals of instruction. To focus on understanding (not just fun activities or covering the text), teachers write essential questions—questions that go to the heart of the ideas and push thinking deeper. The UbD template guides planning based on these considerations.

Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching (pp. 604–608) What are the problems with ability grouping? Academic ability groupings can have disadvantages and advantages for students and teachers. Students in higher-ability groups may benefit, but students in lower-ability groups are less likely to

be asked critical comprehension questions and are given fewer opportunities to make choices about readings and assignments. For schools with students from lower SES families, grouping often means that these students are segregated even in their own classes, so ability grouping can create segregation within diverse schools. What are the alternatives available for grouping in classes, including flexible grouping? In flexible grouping, students are grouped and regrouped based on their learning needs. Assessment is continuous so that students are always working within their zone of proximal development. Arrangements might include small groups, partners, individuals, and even the whole class—depending on which grouping best supports each student’s learning of the particular academic content. Within-class ability grouping, if handled sensitively and flexibly, can have positive effects, but alternatives such as cooperative learning may be better. What is adaptive teaching? Adaptive teaching provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes those supports as students are able to handle more on their own. What characterizes effective teaching for students with disabilities? Effective teaching for students with disabilities does not require a unique set of skills. It is a combination of good teaching practices and sensitivity to all students. Students with disabilities need to learn the academic material, and they need to be full participants in the day-to-day life of the classroom. What approaches are helpful for teaching students with disabilities?  Students with disabilities need to learn the academic material, and they need to be full participants in the day-to-day life of the classroom. To accomplish the first goal, students with learning disabilities benefit from using extended practice distributed over days and weeks and from advanced organizers such as focusing students on what they already know or stating clear learning targets. The INCLUDE strategy is one possibility for accomplishing the second goal of integrating students into the day-to-day life of the classroom: identify classroom demands, note student’s strengths and needs, check for possible areas of success, look for potential problem areas, use information gathered to plan adaptations, decide on adaptations, evaluate student progress.

Teacher Expectations (pp. 609–612) What are some sources of teacher expectations? Sources include intelligence test scores, gender, notes from previous teachers, medical or psychological reports found in cumulative folders, ethnic background, prior knowledge about older brothers and sisters, physical characteristics, previous achievement, SES, and the actual behaviors of the student. What are the two kinds of expectation effects, and how do they happen?  The first is the self-fulfilling prophecy, in which the teacher’s beliefs about the students’ abilities have no basis in fact, but student behavior comes to match the initially inaccurate expectation. The second is a sustaining expectation effect, in which teachers are fairly accurate in their initial reading of students’ abilities and respond to students appropriately, but they do not alter their expectations to take account of any improvement. When this happens, the teacher’s

TE ACH I NG E V ERY ST U DEN T unchanging expectation can sustain the student’s achievement at the expected level. In practice, sustaining effects are more common than self-fulfilling prophecy effects. What are the different avenues for communicating teacher expectations?  Some teachers tend to treat students differently, depending on their own views of how well the students

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are likely to do. Differences in treatment toward low-expectation students may include setting less-challenging lessons, focusing on lower-level learning, giving fewer choices, providing inconsistent feedback, and communicating less respect and trust. Students may behave accordingly, fulfilling teachers’ predictions or staying at an expected level of achievement.

. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below.

Rosenshine’s Teaching Functions

Using a Backward Design to Plan Instruction

Teacher Attributions and Expectations

Step 1—Designing the Goal Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to determine unknown side lengths in right triangles in real-world and mathematical problems in two and three dimensions. Common Core www.corestandards.org/Math/Content/8/G/B/

Key Understandings 1. The area formed by the square on top of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the total area of the two squares formed on the tops of the other two sides. 2. There are multiple ways to prove the Pythagorean Theorem.

Essential Questions 1. What makes a mathematical argument of the Pythagorean Theorem convincing?

3.….

3.….

2. Are there any real world uses of the Pythagorean Theorem?

What Will the Student Know? 1. What is a hypotenuse of a right triangle? 2. What is the length of any side of a right triangle, given the two other sides? 3. ….. What Will the Student Be Able to Do? 1. Draw a graphic illustration that demonstrates the validity of the Pythagorean Theorem. 2. ……

Step 2—Designing the Assessment

Authentic/Real-World Assessments 1. Can you calculate the height of a flagpole based on its shadow—how? 2. You have an old media cabinet with an opening that is 34” by 34”. You want a new flat screen TV that is at least a 42” diagonal. Assume the ratio of a new TV height to width is 3/5. Will it fit? Why? 3. Given that the distance between successive bases in baseball is 90 feet, what is the distance a throw has to travel from third base and first base? 4…..

Traditional Assessments 1. Questions on homework 2. Self-questions developed based on chapter, along with answers and justifications. 3. Unit test 4…..

Step 3—Designing the Learning 1. In groups, investigate the area of squares, triangles, and rectangles around the classroom—compare your group’s areas with the areas calculated by other groups for the same objects. 2. Using cardboard pieces, scissors, a ruler, and pencil, prove the Pythagorean Theorem. 3. Modules 6 & 7 in text (For more ideas, see http://questgarden.com/ and search for “Pythagorean Theorem.”)

MyLab Education   Application Exercise 14.1

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

Application Exercise 14.2

Application Exercise 14.3

. KEY TERMS Active teaching (p. 591) Adaptive teaching (p. 605) Affective domain (p. 588) Assistive technology (p. 607) Basic skills (p. 591) Cognitive domain (p. 587) Constructivist approach (p. 590) Convergent questions (p. 598) Differentiated instruction (p. 604)

Direct instruction/explicit teaching (p. 591) Divergent questions (p. 598) Expert teachers (p. 581) Flexible grouping (p. 604) Group discussion (p. 600) Lesson study (p. 584) Pedagogical content knowledge (p. 581) Psychomotor domain (p. 589) Pygmalion effect (p. 609)

Reflective (p. 581) Scripted cooperation (p. 592) Seatwork (p. 593) Self-fulfilling prophecy (p. 609) Sustaining expectation effect (p. 609) Taxonomy (p. 587) Understanding by Design (p. 601) Universal design (p. 607) Within-class ability grouping (p. 604)

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MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Your textbook mentioned a few teaching strategies that were found to be associated with more positive student learning outcomes. Which of the following is NOT one of them? A. Proactive classroom management aims at providing care B. Communication of clear learning goals to students C. Perform frequent checks on students’ understanding and provide immediate feedback D. Let students select their own learning goals to foster independence 2. Direct instruction has received several criticisms. Which of the following is not a valid criticism of direct instruction? A. Students typically don’t pay sustained attention to direct instruction. B. Direct instruction may prevent students from asking questions. C. Students become passive consumers as opposed to active constructors of knowledge. D. Teacher using direct instructions are typically viewed as less warm and enthusiastic. 3. Ellen Baker knew that her new job in a middle school would require that she understand differentiated instruction. Using this strategy, her students would be more apt to progress and master the concepts they needed to succeed throughout their school years. One of the techniques she decided to use involved grouping students by their learning needs. She would group students who had scored poorly on their fractions tests with similar students to remediate and develop that skill. She likened this type of differentiated instruction to having students continually work in their zone of proximal development. The type of strategy Ellen Baker wants to use is referred to as which one of the following? A. Flexible grouping B. Jigsaw C. Collaborative group work D. Peer tutoring

4. Mr. Mori believed that some students in his class were bright, while others were merely average. While there was no substantial evidence to support his opinions about his students, the semester-end results revealed that students labeled as bright by Mr. Mori had indeed performed ­better than those labeled as average. Which of these does this illustrate? A. Self-fulfilling prophecy B. Adaptive teaching C. Differentiated instruction D. Sustaining explanation effect

CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Nadia taught math at a high school. Most of her students would soon be taking the national standardized exam, the results of which would determine their admission to higher education. Nadia wanted to do her best to help her students prepare for this exam. She decided to assign additional homework to her students so that they had more opportunities for practice. On average, she would assign 2 hours’ worth of homework every day. Some of Nadia’s colleagues disagreed with her strategy. They believed this workload was too heavy for most students. Similarly, some students informed Nadia they had a hard time completing the additional work at home without her guidance. 5. What do you think of Nadia’s approach to assigning homework? Is there anything that she should be doing differently? Explain your answer. 6. What are some of the methods that Nadia could use to involve her students’ families in helping with their homework?

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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK  Reaching and Teaching Every Student Here is how some practicing teachers would differentiate instruction for the class described at the beginning of the chapter. LOU DE LAURO  •  Fifth-Grade Language Arts John P. Faber School, Dunellen, NJ

In your hometown you probably know a lot of people. To be successful you are going to have to use the town to help you. If you plan properly, you should be able to secure one guest a week for the entire school year. The kids will love meeting new people each week and reading with them. But you need more than a guest a week to visit your classroom. So ask the businesses in town. Maybe a business can run a fundraiser so you can purchase alternative texts for your students. Maybe the local library can introduce you to their biggest donor who might donate texts to you. Maybe you can apply for a grant with the local educational foundation to get new materials. But you need more help. You are a teacher; you were probably a strong student who connected with your former teachers. Visit any teachers that are still teaching, and get their advice on what to do. What has worked in the past may work well now, too. Devote many hours after school to your students. Smallgroup instruction will help these kids. Get the two students who are practically ready for college small stipends donated by a local business so they stay after school and help you with your challenging students. I think that if you fully take advantage of your home court, this is one situation in which you can easily prevail. MARIE HOFFMAN HURT  •  Eighth-Grade Foreign Language Teacher (German and French) Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington, OH

To start, I would encourage a teacher to look beyond the general classifications of “white, working, middle class, and English speaking.” Even in a class full of students who fit this demographic, there is an array of individuals. Each student learns differently and has different interests. A good teacher will recognize this and challenge students as people, not as groups. Do your best to layer as much as you can throughout your lessons. Give students choices. Use what resources you have—in this case particularly resources for students who are learning English as a second language. Even praising students’ individual characteristics and accomplishments outside the classroom sets the tone. Finally, keep in mind that you are only one person and can only give your best. Don’t overwork yourself and burn out—you are no good to your students or your family if you are wiped out. M. DENISE LUTZ • Technology Coordinator Grandview Heights High School, Columbus, OH

Studies have shown that student success is directly related to teacher effectiveness. In today’s diverse classrooms a teacher must develop effective classroom pedagogy that incorporates effective instructional strategies, uses effective classroom management strategies, and designs effective classroom curriculum

to meet the needs of all learners. It is necessary to communicate learning goals for all students, track individual progress, and celebrate successes. Under the guidance of the teacher, students should learn to work collaboratively in small groups and as a cohesive class encouraging and helping one another to be successful. A teacher who establishes and maintains classroom rules and procedures while acknowledging students who do and do not follow these rules and procedures fosters this kind of environment. Consistency, trust, and authenticity will help to advance the development of effective relationships between the teacher, the home, and among class members. Effective classroom curriculum always begins with the end in mind. The teacher should have a clear picture of what mastery of content would look like for each of his or her students. Understanding the big idea and defining essential questions will guide the collection of activities and lessons that will move each student in the direction of success. The direction of success will remain the same for all students, but lessons and activities may present different paths for individuals to traverse. Today’s teacher must work from day one to get to know each individual and to establish a culture of collaboration among the group. PATRICIA A. SMITH  •  High School Math Earl Warren High School, San Antonio, TX

Because this new teacher is a product of the same school system, it will be imperative to begin classroom instruction with absolutely no preconceived opinions toward any particular student. Likewise, a diverse population requires the teacher to resolve student situations discreetly and judiciously, and not publicly. The initial goals of the teacher would be to facilitate student work in a cooperative manner and engender teacher trust. Planning and organizing icebreaker exercises the first few days of the school year could prove extremely profitable. With a wide range of reading levels, small groups would work to the teacher’s advantage. I would not suggest grouping students according to reading level at all times, but would opt to appoint a recognized student leader to orchestrate daily oral recitations. Moreover, I would select reading materials suited to all students and keep the assignments brief to avoid overwhelming struggling readers. The student leader could also design questions to gauge comprehension and give the group a follow-up spelling test. Initially, the spelling test would be composed of 5 to 10 simple words that students could either print or write. Subsequently, as the students gain confidence and experience success, the readings could be assigned as homework and the students would be required to write a short paragraph answering a reading comprehension question. If the teacher remains well organized, the instructional time allotted for small-group interaction should not extend over 15 minutes in a single class period. Thus, the teacher would not forfeit traditional grammar lessons for the entire class but would still provide limited individualized instruction. I would also supplement SAT reading and English practice for all college-bound students.

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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Giving Meaningful Grades

WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT, GRADING, AND STANDARDIZED TESTING Your school requires that you give letter grades to your class. You can use any method you want, as long as an A, B, C, D, or F appears for each of the subject areas on every student’s report card, every grading period. Some teachers are using worksheets, quizzes, homework, and tests. Others are assigning group work and portfolios. A few teachers are individualizing standards by grading on progress and effort more than on final achievement. Some are trying contract approaches and experimenting with longer-term projects, while others are relying almost completely on daily class work. Two teachers who use group work are considering giving credit toward grades for being a “good group member” or competitive bonus points for the top-scoring group. Others are planning to use improvement points for class rewards, but not for grades. Your only experience with grading was using written comments and a mastery approach that rated the students as making satisfactory or unsatisfactory progress toward particular learning targets. You want a system that is reliable, fair, and manageable, but also encourages learning, not just performance. And you want a system that gives the students feedback they can use to prepare for the state proficiency tests. CRITICAL THINKING • What would you choose as your major graded assignments and projects? • Would you include credit for behaviors such as group participation or effort? • How would you put all the elements together to determine a grade for every student for every marking period? • How would you justify your system to the principal and to the students’ families, especially when the teachers in your school are using so many different criteria? • What do you think of the wide range of criteria being used by different teachers—is this fair to students? • How will these issues affect the grade levels you will teach?

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OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES As you read this chapter, you will examine assessment, testing, and grading, focusing not only on the effects they are likely to have on students, but also on practical ways to develop better methods for testing and grading. We begin with a consideration of the basic concepts in assessment including reliability and validity. Next, we examine the many types of tests teachers prepare each year and approaches to assessment that don’t rely on traditional testing. Then, we explore the effects grades are likely to have on students and the very important topic of communication with students and families. How will you justify the grades you give? Finally, because standardized tests are so important today, we spend some time looking at testing, the meaning of test scores, and alternatives to traditional testing. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 15.1 Describe the basics of assessment including types of assessments (standardized tests, classroom assessments, and measurements, as well as formative, interim, and summative assessments) and explain how reliability, validity, and absence of bias are used to understand and judge assessments. Objective 15.2 Describe two kinds of test interpretations (norm-referenced and criterion-referenced), how to use selected-response and constructed-response/essay testing appropriately in teaching, and the advantages as well as criticisms of traditional testing. Objective 15.3 Explain how to use formative assessment to improve instruction and describe ways to design and evaluate authentic assessments, including portfolios, exhibitions, performances, and the development of rubrics. Objective 15.4 Describe the effects of grading on students and the types of strategies teachers can use to communicate to parents about grades. Objective 15.5 Explain how to interpret common standardized test scores (percentile rank, stanine, gradeequivalent, scale score) as well as current issues and criticisms concerning accountability and teacher evaluation, high-stakes assessment, growth versus proficiency tests, and value-added approaches.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Basics of Assessment Measurement and Assessment Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity Classroom Assessment: Testing Interpreting Any Test Score Using the Tests from Textbooks Selected-Response Testing Constructed Responses: Essay Testing Assessing Traditional Testing Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments Informal Assessments Authentic Assessments: Portfolios and Exhibitions Evaluating Portfolios and Performances Assessing Complex Thinking Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers Grading Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading Effects of Grading on Students Grades and Motivation Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families Standardized Testing Types of Scores Interpreting Standardized Test Reports Accountability and High-Stakes Testing New Directions: PARCC and SBAC

BASICS OF ASSESSMENT Would it surprise you to learn that published tests, such as college entrance exams and IQ tests, are creations of the twentieth century? In the early to mid-1900s, college entrance was generally based on grades, essays, and interviews. From your own experience, you know that testing has come a long way since then—too far, say some critics. Published tests today are called standardized tests because they are administered, scored, reported, and interpreted in a standard manner—same directions, time limits, and scoring for all (Popham, 2017). The schools where you teach probably will use standardized tests, especially to meet the growing demands for accountability. In most schools, however, teachers do not have much say in selecting these tests. Classroom assessments, on the other hand, are created and selected by teachers. Classroom assessments can take many different forms—unit tests, essays, portfolios, group projects, performances, oral presentations, videos, designs and plans, journals, or products such as artwork or clothing—the list is long. Assessments are critical because teaching involves making many kinds of judgments— decisions based on values: “Is this software or book appropriate for my students?” “Should Olivia get a B− or a C+ on the project?” This chapter is about the judgments involved in all forms of assessment and grading, with an emphasis on classroom assessments—the kind you will create and interpret. Before we look at either classroom or standardized assessments, let’s examine some key distinctions that apply to both, beginning with the difference between measurement and assessment.

Measurement and Assessment Measurement is quantitative—the description of an event or

characteristic using numbers. Measurement tells how much, how often, or how well by providing scores, ranks, or ratings. Instead of saying, “Sarah doesn’t seem to understand addition,” a teacher might say, “Sarah answered only 2 of the Teacher Accountability and Evaluation 15 problems correctly in her addition homework.” MeasureQuality Standardized Assessment: Lessons for ment also allows a teacher to compare one student’s perforTeachers mance on a particular task with either a specific standard Summary and Key Terms or the performances of other students on the same task. Not all the decisions made by teachers involve measTeachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do? urement. Some decisions are based on information that is difficult to express numerically: student preferences, discussions with families, previous experiences, even intuition. But measurement does play a large role in many classroom Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® decisions, and, when properly done, it can provide unbiased data for decisions. In fact, Types of Assessment (II, C1, 4) data-based decision making is very important in today’s schools. Understand the purposes Increasingly, measurement specialists are using the term assessment to describe of formative and summative the process of gathering information from a range of sources about students’ learning. assessment. Explain how Assessment consists of many ways—quantitative and qualitative—to sample and observe teachers and students can students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities, so assessment is the broader term that includes make effective use of the measurement along with many other techniques (R. L. Linn & Miller, 2005). Assessments information generated by each type of test. can be formal, such as planned unit tests, or informal, such as observing who emerges Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests

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as a leader during group work. Assessments can be designed by classroom teachers or by local, state, or national agencies such as school districts or the Educational Testing Service. And today, assessments can go well beyond paper-and-pencil exercises to include judgments based on students’ performances, portfolios, projects, or products (Popham, 2017). FORMATIVE, INTERIM, AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT.  There are three general uses or purposes for assessment, depending on where you are in the instructional cycle: formative, interim, and summative assessment (NWEA, 2015). Formative assessment is a process that occurs before or during instruction. The purposes of formative assessment are to guide the teacher in planning and adjusting instruction and to provide feedback to help students improve learning. In other words, formative assessment helps form instruction by providing feedback that supports the efforts of both teachers and students (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). Students often take a formative assessment before instruction, a pretest that helps the teacher determine what students already know. Teachers sometimes assess during instruction to see what areas of weakness remain, so they can direct teaching toward the problem areas. These formative assessments are not graded, so students who tend to be very anxious about “real” tests may find this low-pressure practice in test taking especially helpful. Also, the feedback from formative tests can help students become better judges of quality and more self-regulated in their learning (I. Clark, 2012). Interim (growth) assessments occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way. These assessments might be used to differentiate instruction, determine if special services are appropriate, assess progress in Response to Intervention (RtI) programs (see Chapter 4), or evaluate whether a particular curriculum is working as hoped (NWEA, 2015). Some standardized test packages now have interim assessments to help teachers determine whether their students are making good progress and if they will be ready for the standardized test when it comes (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). For an example of interim assessments used by about 15 states, see the Smarter Balanced Assessment System at https://www.smarterbalanced.org Summative assessment occurs at the end of instruction. Its purpose is measure the students’ level of proficiency—have they learned the prescribed content and skill? Summative assessment, therefore, provides a summary of students’ accomplishments. The final exam is a classic example. Standardized tests such as the SAT or GRE are also summative—they assess what you have learned. The distinctions among formative, interim, and summative assessments are based on how the results are used. If the purpose of the assessment is to improve your teaching and help students guide their own learning, then the evaluation is formative. If the purpose is to track growth and progress over time, the assessment is interim. And if the purpose is to evaluate final achievement (and help report a course grade), the assessment is summative (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). Some educators say formative assessment supports learning and summative assessment reports learning (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017). In fact, the same assessment could be used as a formative evaluation at the beginning of the unit, as an interim assessment during the unit, and as a summative evaluation at the end. Because the formative uses of assessment are really the most important in teaching, we will spend more time on them later. For now let’s consider how to judge any assessment.

Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity One of the most common problems with the use of assessments, especially tests, is misinterpretation of results. No assessment provides a perfect picture of a person’s abilities; the results from a test provide only one small sample of behavior. Three factors are important in developing good assessments and interpreting results: reliability, validity, and absence of bias. These terms are applied most often to test scores, even though the underlying considerations apply to all assessments.

Standardized tests Tests given, usually nationwide, under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures. Classroom assessments  Classroom assessments are selected and created by teachers and can take many different forms—unit tests, essays, portfolios, projects, performances, oral presentations, and so on. Measurement An evaluation expressed in quantitative (number) terms. Assessment Procedures used to obtain information about student performance. Formative assessment  Ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis. Pretest  Formative test for assessing students’ knowledge, readiness, and abilities. Interim (growth) assessments Assessments that occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way. Summative assessment  Testing that follows instruction and assesses achievement.

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RELIABILITY OF TEST SCORES.  Scores are reliable if a test gives a consistent and stable “reading” of a person’s ability from one occasion to the next, assuming the person’s ability remains the same. A reliable thermometer works in a similar manner, giving you a reading of 100°C each time you measure the temperature of boiling water. There are several ways to compute reliability, but all the possibilities give numbers between 0.0 and 1.0, like a correlation coefficient. Above .90 is considered very reliable; .80 to .90 is good, and below .80 is not very good reliability for commercially produced standardized tests such as the SAT or ACT (Haladyna, 2002). Generally speaking, longer tests are more reliable than shorter ones. Errors in Test Scores.  All tests are imperfect estimators of the qualities or skills they are trying to measure. There are sources of error related to the student such as mood, motivation, test-taking skills, or even cheating. Sometimes the errors are in your favor, and you score higher than your knowledge might warrant; sometimes the errors go against you. There are also sources of error related to the test itself: the directions are unclear, the reading level is too high, the items are ambiguous, or the time limits are wrong. The score each student receives always includes some amount of error. How can error be reduced? As you might guess, this returns us to the question of reliability. The more reliable the test scores are, the less error there will be in the score actually obtained. On standardized tests, test developers take this into consideration and make estimations of how much the students’ scores would probably vary if they were tested repeatedly. This estimation is called the standard error of measurement. Thus, a reliable test can also be defined as one with a small standard error of measurement.

Reliability  Consistency of test results. Standard error of measurement Hypothetical estimate of variation in scores if testing were repeated. Confidence interval Range of scores within which an individual’s true score is likely to fall. True score  The score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error free. Validity  Degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

Confidence Interval.  Never base an opinion of a student’s ability or achievement on the exact score the student obtains. For standardized tests, many test companies now report scores using a confidence interval, or “standard error band,” that encloses the student’s actual score. This makes use of the standard error of measurement and allows a teacher to consider the range of scores that might include a student’s true score— the score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error-free. Assume, for example, that two students in your class take a standardized achievement test in Spanish. The standard error of measurement for this test is 5. One student receives a score of 79 and the other, a score of 85. At first glance, these scores seem quite different. But when you consider the standard error bands around the scores, not just the scores alone, you see that the bands overlap. The first student’s true score might be anywhere between 74 and 84 (that is, the actual score of 79 plus or minus the standard error of 5). The second student’s true score might be anywhere between 80 and 90. Both students could have the same true score of 80, 81, 82, 83, or 84, because the score bands overlap at those numbers. It is crucial to keep in mind the idea of standard error bands when selecting students for special programs. No child should be rejected simply because the score obtained missed the cutoff by 1 or 2 points. The student’s true score might well be above the cutoff point. See Figure 15.5 later in this chapter for a report that includes these score bands. VALIDITY.  If test scores are sufficiently reliable, the next question is whether the scores are valid, or more accurately, whether the judgments and decisions based on the test scores are valid. To have validity, the decisions and inferences based on the test must be supported by evidence. This means that validity is judged in relation to a particular use or purpose—that is, in relation to the actual decision being made and the evidence for that decision. A particular test might be valid for one purpose, but not for another (Oosterhof, 2009; Popham, 2017). Different kinds of evidence support a particular judgment. If the purpose of a test is to measure the skills covered in a course or unit, then we would hope to see test questions on all the important topics and not on extraneous information. If this condition is

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met, we would have content-related evidence of validity. Have you ever taken a test that dealt only with a few ideas from one lecture or just a few pages of the textbook? Then decisions based on that test (like your grade) certainly lacked content-related evidence of validity. Some tests are designed to predict outcomes. The SATs, for example, are intended to predict performance in college. If SAT scores correlate with academic performance in college as measured by the criterion of, say, grade-point average in the first year, then we have criterion-related evidence of validity for the use of the SAT in admissions decisions. Most standardized tests are designed to measure some psychological characteristic or “construct” such as reasoning ability, reading comprehension, achievement motivation, intelligence, creativity, and so on. It is a bit more difficult to gather constructrelated evidence of validity, yet this is a very important requirement—probably the most important. Construct-related evidence of validity is gathered over many years. It is indicated by a pattern of scores. For example, older children can answer more questions on intelligence tests than younger children can. This fits with our construct of intelligence. If the average 5-year-old answered as many questions correctly on a test as the average 13-year-old, we would doubt that the test really measured intelligence. Construct-related evidence for validity can also be demonstrated when the results of a test correlate with the results of other well-established, valid measures of the same construct. Today, many psychologists suggest that construct validity is the broadest category and that gathering content- and criterion-related evidence is another way of determining if the test actually measures the construct it was designed to measure. A test must be reliable in order to be valid. For example, if an intelligence test yields different results each time it is given to the same child over the course of a few months, then, by definition, it is not reliable. Certainly, it couldn’t be a valid measure of intelligence because intelligence is assumed to be fairly stable, at least over a short period of time. However, reliability will not guarantee validity. If that intelligence test gave the same score every time for a particular child, but didn’t predict school achievement, speed of learning, or other characteristics associated with intelligence, then performance on the test would not be a true indicator of intelligence. The test would be reliable—but invalid. Reliability and validity are issues with all assessments, not just standardized tests. Classroom tests should yield scores that are reliable, that are as free from error as possible, and that are valid—in other words, they accurately measure what they are supposed to measure. ABSENCE OF BIAS.  The third important criterion for judging assessments is absence of bias. Assessment bias “refers to qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students’ gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religion, or other such group-defining characteristic” (Popham, 2017, p. 125). Biases are aspects of the assessment such as content, language, or examples that might distort the performance of a group—either for better or for worse. For example, if a reading test used passages that described mixed martial arts scenarios, we might expect males on average to do better than females. Two forms of assessment bias are unfair penalization and offensiveness. The reading assessment with heavy sports content is an example of unfair penalization—girls may be penalized for their lack of mixed martial arts knowledge. Offensiveness occurs when a particular group might be insulted by the content of the assessment. Offended, angry students may not perform at their best. What about biases based on ethnicity or social class? Many people believe that tests can unfairly penalize some groups who may not have an equal opportunity to show what they know on the test because the language of the test and the tester may be different from the languages of the students. Also, tests may reflect unfair penalization because different groups have had different opportunities to learn the material tested. The questions asked tend to center on experiences and facts more familiar to

Assessment bias Qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students’ gender, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, and so on.

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students from the dominant culture than to students from minority groups. Consider this test item for fourth graders described by Popham (2014, p. 391): My uncle’s field is computer programming. Look at the sentences below. In which sentence does the word field mean the same as it does in the boxed sentence above? A. The softball pitcher knew how to field her position. B. They prepared the field by spraying and plowing it. C. I know the field I plan to enter when I finish college. D. The doctor used a wall chart to examine my field of vision.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Traditional Assessment (II C1, 2, 4) Selected-response and essay tests continue to have important roles in effective assessment and evaluation programs. Describe the appropriate uses of these types of tests. Identify the advantages and limitations of each.

Items like this are included on most standardized and textbook tests. But not all family members describe their work as a field of employment. If your parents work in professional fields such as information technology, medicine, law, or education, the item would make sense, but what if your parents worked at a grocery store or a car repair shop? Are these fields? Life outside class has prepared some students, but not others, for this item. The meaning of “field” is part of your cultural knowledge. When you think about it, how can you separate background, context, and culture from cognition? Every student’s learning is embedded in his or her culture, and every test question emerges from some kind of cultural knowledge, so be sensitive to the kinds of questions you ask. With this background in the basic concepts of formative, interim, and summative assessments and attention to reliability, validity, and absence of bias, we are ready to enter the classroom, where learning is supported by frequent assessments using cumulative questions that ask students to apply and integrate knowledge (Rawson & Dunlosky, 2012). MyLab Education Self-Check 15.1

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT: TESTING STOP & THINK Think back to your most recent test. What was the format? Did you feel that the test results were an accurate reflection of your knowledge or skills? Have you ever had to design a test? What makes a good, fair test?  •

When most people think of assessments in a classroom, they usually think of testing. As you will see shortly, although teachers today have many other options, testing is still a significant activity in most classrooms. In this section, we will examine how to interpret test scores, evaluate the tests that accompany standard curriculum materials, and write your own test questions. MyLab Education

Podcast 15.1 Some people are just better at taking tests than others. What do they know, and how do they do it? Hear textbook author Anita Woolfolk discuss some ideas for improving your own test taking and also how to help your students improve.

Interpreting Any Test Score Before we even look at different kinds of tests, there is an important consideration. The answers on any test have no meaning by themselves; we must make some kind of comparison in order to interpret test results. There are two basic types of comparisons: In the first, a test score is compared to the scores obtained by other people who have taken the same test. This is called a norm-referenced comparison. The second type is criterion-referenced. Here, the score is compared to a fixed standard or minimum passing score. The same test can be interpreted either in a norm-referenced or criterionreferenced way, depending on the type of comparison made.

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NORM-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS.  In norm-referenced testing and grading, the people who have taken the test provide the norms for determining the meaning

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II®

of a given individual’s score. You can think of a norm as being the typical level of performance for a particular group. By comparing the individual’s raw score (the actual number correct) to the norm, we can determine if the raw score is above, below, or around the average for that group. There are at least four types of norm groups (comparison groups) in education—the class or school itself, the school district, national samples, and international samples. Students in national norm groups used for large-scale assessment programs are tested one year, and then the scores for that group serve as comparisons or norms every year for several years until the test is revised, or re-normed. The norm groups are selected so that all socioeconomic status (SES) levels are included in the sample. Because students from high-SES backgrounds tend to do better on many standardized tests, a high-SES school district will almost always have higher scores compared to the national norm group. Norm-referenced tests cover a wide range of general outcomes. They are especially appropriate when only the top few candidates can be admitted to a program. However, norm-referenced measurement has its limitations. The results of a norm-referenced test do not tell you whether students are ready to move on to more advanced material. For instance, knowing that two students are in the top 3% of the class on a test of algebraic concepts will not tell you if they are ready to move on to advanced math; everyone in the class may have a limited understanding of the algebraic concepts, and no one may be ready to move on. Norm-referenced tests also are not particularly appropriate for measuring affective and psychomotor outcomes. To measure individuals’ psychomotor learning, you need to compare their performance to a clear description of standards. In the affective area, attitudes and values are personal; comparisons among individuals are not really appropriate. For example, how could we measure an “average” level of artistic preferences or opinions? Finally, norm-referenced tests tend to encourage competition and comparison of scores. Some students compete to be the best. Others, realizing that being the best is impossible, may compete to be the worst. Both goals have their casualties.

Criterion-/Norm-Referenced Tests (II, C5) The ERIC Digest Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Testing (ericdigests.org/1998–1/ norm.htm) describes the purposes, content, and issues related to criterion- and norm-referenced tests. Giving accurate feedback to parents is part of a teacher’s job. When talking with a parent about a child’s abilities, do you think the use of norm-referenced or criterion-referenced test results is more desirable?

CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS.  When test scores are compared, not to the scores of others, but to a given criterion or standard of performance, this is called criterion-referenced testing or grading. To decide who should be allowed to drive a car, it is important to determine just what standard of performance works for selecting safe drivers. It does not matter how your test results compare to the results of others. If your performance on the test was in the top 10%, but you consistently ran through red lights, you would not be a good candidate for receiving a license, even though your score was high. Criterion-referenced tests measure the mastery of a very specific learning target. For example, a criterion-referenced test would be useful in measuring the students’ ability to add three-digit numbers. A test could be designed with 20 different problems, and the standard for mastery could be set at 17 correct out of 20. (The standard is often somewhat arbitrary and may be based on such things as the teacher’s experience.) If two students receive scores of 7 and 11, it does not matter that one student did better than the other because neither met the standard of 17. Both need more help with addition. The results of a criterion-referenced test should tell the teacher exactly what the students can and cannot do, at least under certain conditions; thus these are the right kinds of tests for formative and interim assessments. When teaching basic skills, comparison to a preset standard is often more important than comparison to the performance of others. It is not very comforting to know, as a parent, that your child is better in reading than most of the students in her class if none of the students is reading at grade level. Sometimes standards for meeting the criterion must be set at 100% correct. You would not like to have your appendix removed by a surgeon who left surgical instruments inside the body only 10% of the time.

Norm-referenced testing  Testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others. Norm group  Large sample of students serving as a comparison group for scoring tests. Criterion-referenced testing/grading  Testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard.

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Criterion-referenced tests are not appropriate for every situation. Many subjects cannot be broken down into a set of specific targets. And, although standards are important in criterion-referenced testing, they can often be arbitrary, as you have already seen. When deciding whether a student has mastered the addition of three-digit numbers comes down to the difference between 16 or 17 correct answers, it seems difficult to justify one particular standard over another. Finally, at times, it is valuable to know how the students in your class compare to other students at their grade level both locally and nationally. You can see that each type of test is well suited for certain situations, but each also has its limitations.

Using the Tests from Textbooks Most elementary and secondary school texts today come complete with supplemental materials such as teaching manuals and ready-made tests. Using these tests can save time, but is this good teaching practice? The answer depends on your learning targets, the way you teach the material, and the quality of the tests provided. If the textbook test is of high quality, matches your testing plan, and fits the instruction you actually provided for your students, then it may be the right test to use. Check the reading level of the items provided and be prepared to revise and improve them to meet the needs of your class (McMillan, 2018; Russell & Airasian, 2012). Table 15.1 gives key points to consider in evaluating textbook tests. What if no tests are available for the material you want to cover, or the tests provided in your teachers’ manuals are not appropriate for your students? Then it’s time for you to create your own tests. We will consider the two major kinds of traditional tests— selected-response and constructed response/essay.

Selected-Response Testing Multiple-choice questions, matching exercises, true/false statements, and short-answer or fill-in items are all types of selected-response testing. The scoring of these types of items is relatively straightforward because the answers are more clear-cut than essay answers. These types of items are what many of us envision when we think of “traditional” testing (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017). How should you decide which item format is best for a particular test? Use the one that provides the most direct measure of the learning outcome you intended for your students. In other words, if you want to see how well students can write a letter, have them write a letter, don’t ask multiple-choice questions about letters. But if many different item formats will work equally well, then use multiple-choice questions because they are easier to score fairly and can cover many topics. Switch to other formats if writing TABLE 15.1  •  Key Points to Consider in Judging Textbook Tests

Selected-response testing  A form of testing in which students choose the correct response from a set of possible responses provided by the teacher or the test developer instead of creating their own response. Multiple choice and true-false tests are common examples of selected response testing.

1. The decision to use a textbook test or pre-made standard achievement test must come after a teacher identifies the learning goals that he or she has taught and now wants to assess. 2. Textbook and standard tests are designed for the typical classroom, but because few classrooms are typical, most teachers deviate somewhat from the text to accommodate their pupils’ needs. 3. The more classroom instruction deviates from the textbook, the less valid the textbook tests are likely to be. 4. The main consideration in judging the adequacy of a textbook or standard achievement test is the match between its test questions and what pupils were taught in their classes: a.  Are questions similar to the teacher’s goals and instructional emphases? b.  Do questions require pupils to perform the behaviors they were taught? c.  Do questions cover all or most of the important learning goals taught? d.  Is the language level and terminology appropriate for pupils? e.  Does the number of items for each target provide a sufficient sample of pupil performance? Source: From Classroom Assessment: Concepts and Applications (7th ed.), by M. K. Russell & P. W. Airasian (2012), p. 134. New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 161. With permission from The McGraw-Hill Companies.

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TABLE 15.2  •  Guidance for Using True/False, Matching, and Fill-in-the-Blank Items Here is a checklist for your test preparation. GUIDELINE FOR TRUE/FALSE ITEMS Make items entirely true or entirely false as stated. GUIDELINES FOR MATCHING ITEMS Provide clear directions for the match to be made. Keep the list of items to be matched short—no more than 10. Include only homogeneous items—don’t mix names, dates, events, etc.  eep the wording of the response options short and grammatically the same. Don’t let K grammar be a clue.  rovide more responses than items to be matched so students can’t guess the last match P because only one answer is left. GUIDELINES FOR FILL-IN ITEMS Ask a question. Don’t just make a statement with a blank in it—more than one answer might work in a statement.  rovide one blank per item—having the same number of blanks as the correct fill-in gives P a clue. Don’t make the length of the blank a clue either. Put the blank toward the end. Source: From Chappuis, J., & Stiggins, R. J. (2017). An Introduction to Student-Involved Assessment for Learning, p. 131. Boston: Pearson. Adapted with permission. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

good multiple-choice items for the material is not possible or appropriate. For example, if related concepts such as terms and definitions need to be linked, then a matching item is a better format than multiple-choice. If it is difficult to come up with several wrong answers for a multiple-choice item, try a true/false question instead. Alternatively, ask the student to supply a short answer that completes a statement (fill in the blank). Variety in testing can lower students’ anxiety because the entire grade does not depend on one type of question that a particular student may find difficult. Table 15.2 gives guidance for using true/false, matching, and fill-in-the-blank items. We will look closely at the multiple-choice format because it is the most versatile— and the most difficult to use well. USING MULTIPLE-CHOICE TESTS.  Even though your education professors may reject the use of multiple-choice tests, about 50% of public school teachers endorse these tests (S. R. Banks, 2012), so you should know how to use them well. In fact, many schools require teachers to give students experience answering multiple-choice tests to prepare them for state achievement testing (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017). Multiple-choice items can test facts, but also can assess higher-order outcomes if you ask students to apply or analyze a concept (McWaugh & Gronlund, 2013). For example, the following multiple-choice item is designed to assess students’ ability to recognize unstated assumptions, one of the skills involved in analyzing an idea: An educational psychology professor states, “A z score of +1 on a test is equivalent to a percentile rank of approximately 84.” Which of the following assumptions is the professor making? 1.  The scores on the test range from 0 to 100. 2.  The standard deviation of the test scores is equal to 3.4.

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3.  The distribution of scores on the test is normal. (Correct answer) 4.  The test is valid and reliable.

If you did not know the correct answer above, don’t worry. We will get to z scores later in this chapter, and it will all make sense. WRITING MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS.  All test items require skillful construction, but good multiple-choice items are a real challenge. Some students jokingly refer to multiple-choice tests as “multiple-guess” tests—a sign that these tests are often poorly designed. Your goal in writing test items is to design them so that they measure student achievement, not test-taking and guessing skills. The stem of a multiple-choice item is the part that asks the question or poses the problem. The choices that follow are called alternatives. The wrong answers are called distractors because their purpose is to distract students who have only a partial understanding of the material. If there were no good distractors, students with only a vague understanding would have no difficulty in finding the right answer. The Guidelines: Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items should help you write good stems and alternatives.

Constructed Responses: Essay Testing The best way to measure some learning targets is to ask students to create answers on their own; essay questions are one way to accomplish this. The most difficult part of essay testing is judging the quality of the answers, but writing good, clear questions is not particularly easy, either. We will look at writing, administering, and grading essay tests. We will also consider factors that can bias the scoring of essay questions and ways you can overcome these problems. CONSTRUCTING ESSAY TESTS.  Because answering essay questions takes time, true essay tests cover less material than selected-response tests. Thus, for efficiency, essay tests should be limited to the assessment of important, complex learning outcomes. A good essay question includes: (1) a clear and specific context for the question, (2) a statement of what students should describe or explain, and (3) guidelines for what should be covered in the answer. Here is an example: We have been studying the importance of the carbon cycle and how it works [context]. Based on your understanding of the carbon cycle, explain (1) why we need to know about it, and (2) how carbon moves from one place to another [what to describe or explain]. Be sure to include the following [guidelines]: • Why it is important to understand the carbon cycle (5 points) • The four major reservoirs where carbon is stored (4 points) • At least six ways that carbon gets transferred from one place to another (6 points) (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017, pp. 155–156)

Students need ample time to answer a question like this. If more than one essay is assigned in the same class period, you may want to suggest time limits for each question. Remember, however, that time pressure increases anxiety and may prevent accurate assessment of some students. Whatever your approach, do not try to make up for the limited amount of material an essay test can cover by including a large number of questions. It would be better to plan on more frequent testing than to include more than two or three essay questions in a single class period. Combining an essay question with a number of selected-response items is one way to avoid the problem of limited sampling of course material (Waugh & Gronlund, 2013). Stem  The question part of a multiple-choice item. Distractors  Wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple-choice item.

EVALUATING ESSAYS.  When possible, a good first step in grading essays is to construct a set of scoring criteria or a rubric (more on this later) and share it with students. After all, students can succeed only if they know what success means—what does success look like (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017)? Here is an example of a question and criteria from TenBrink (2003, p. 326).

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GUIDELINES Writing Multiple-Choice Items Make the stem clear and simple, and present only a single problem. Unessential details should be left out. Example  Better Poor An advantage of an IQ score is There are several different kinds of standard or derived scores. An IQ score is especially useful because State the problem in the stem in positive terms. Negative language is confusing. If you must use words such as not, no, all but, or except, underline them or type them in all capitals. Example Poor Which of the following is not a standard score?

Better Which of the following is NOT a standard score?

Do not expect students to make extremely fine discriminations among answer choices. Example The percentage of area in a normal curve falling between +1 and −1 standard deviations is about: Better Poor   e. 14%   g.  68%  a. 66%  c. 68%  f. 34%  h. 95%.  b. 67%  d. 69%.

Avoid including two distractors that have the same meaning. If only one answer can be right and if two answers are the same, then these two must both be wrong. This narrows down the choices considerably. Avoid using categorical words such as always, all, only, or never unless they can appear consistently in all the alternatives. Most smart test takers know that categorical answers are usually wrong. Avoid using the exact wording found in the textbook. Poor students may recognize the answers without knowing what they mean. Avoid overuse of all of the above and none of the above. Such choices may be helpful to students who are simply guessing. In addition, using all of the above may trick a quick student who sees that the first alternative is correct and does not read on to discover that the others are correct, too. Avoid obvious patterns on a test. They aid students who are guessing. The position of the correct answer should be varied, as should its length.

Make sure each alternative answer fits the grammatical form of the stem, so that no answers are obviously wrong. Example  Poor The Stanford-Binet test yields an a. IQ score. b. reading level. c. vocational preference. d. mechanical aptitude.

Better The Stanford-Binet is a test of a. intelligence. b. reading level. c. vocational preference. d. mechanical aptitude.

Question: Defend or refute the following statement: Civil wars are necessary to the growth of a developing country. Cite reasons for your argument, and use examples from history to help substantiate your claim. Scoring Rubric: All answers, regardless of the position taken, should include (1) a clear statement of the position, (2) at least five logical reasons, (3) at least four examples from history that clearly substantiate the reasons given.

Once you have set your expectations for answers, you can assign points to the various parts of the essay. You might also give points for the organization of the answer and the internal consistency of the essay. You can then assign grades such as 1 to 5 or A, B, C, D, and F, and sort the papers into piles by grade. As a final step, skim the papers

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in each pile to see if they are comparable in quality. These techniques will help ensure fairness and accuracy in grading. When grading essay tests that contain several questions, it makes sense to grade all responses to one question before moving on to the next. This helps prevent the quality of a student’s answer to one question from influencing your reaction to the student’s other answers. After you finish reading and scoring the first question, shuffle the papers so that no students end up having all their questions graded first (e.g., when you may be taking more time to give feedback or are applying stricter standards) or last (when you may be tired of writing feedback or more lax in your standards). You may achieve greater objectivity if you ask students to put their names on the back of the paper, so that grading is anonymous.

Assessing Traditional Testing First the positives of testing—right answers are important. Even though schooling is about learning to think and solve problems, it is also about knowledge. Students must have something to think about—facts, ideas, concepts, principles, theories, explanations, arguments, images, opinions. One reason that American students, compared to students in many other developed countries, lack essential knowledge may be because American schools emphasize process—critical thinking, self-esteem, problem solving—more than content. To teach more about content, teachers will need to determine how well their students are learning the content. Well-designed traditional tests can evaluate students’ knowledge effectively and efficiently (Russell & Airasian, 2012). In fact, taking more frequent tests improves learning, even if there is no feedback from the test—bad teaching, but a powerful result (Carpenter, 2012; Pashler et al., 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). But there are strong criticisms. Traditional testing has been under fire since at least the 1990s. As Grant Wiggins (1991) noted then: We do not judge Xerox, the Boston Symphony, the Cincinnati Reds, or Dom Perignon vineyards on the basis of indirect, easy to test, and common indicators. Nor would the workers in those places likely produce quality if some generic, secure test served as the only measure of their success in meeting a standard. Demanding and getting quality, whether from students or adult workers, means framing standards in terms of the work that we undertake and value. (p. 22)

Wiggins continues to argue for assessment that makes sense, that tests knowledge as it is applied in real-world situations. Understanding cannot be measured by tests that ask students to use skills and knowledge out of context. Your stand on traditional testing is part of your philosophy of teaching. Let’s look at a few alternative approaches to classroom assessment. MyLab Education Self-Check 15.2

FORMATIVE AND AUTHENTIC CLASSROOM ASSESSMENTS Formative assessments, as you saw earlier, help form and support instruction. Formative assessments may be as informal and “on the fly” as the teacher noticing many students in Spanish class are having trouble with one particular verb construction in conversations and homework, to as formal as quizzes embedded in the curriculum that are just like tests but don’t count toward a grade. As emphasis on formative assessment has increased around the world, achievement is increasing as well (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017; Decristan et al., 2015). Early on in a unit, assessments should be formative (provide feedback, but not count toward a grade), saving the actual graded assessments for later in the unit when all students

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have had the chance to learn the material (Tomlinson, 2005a). To use formative assessment well, teachers need to plan different strategies for collecting information about what students know and what they still need to study. One approach is informal assessments.

Informal Assessments Informal assessments are ungraded assessments that gather information from multiple

sources to help teachers make decisions (S. R. Banks, 2012). Two examples of informal assessment are exit tickets and journals. EXIT TICKETS.  The exit ticket is a simple assessment and can even be done “on the fly” as you notice students struggling. After a lesson, the teacher poses a question or problem. Then each student answers on a separate sheet of paper that becomes her or his ticket to leave the class. Before the next class, the teacher reviews the tickets and creates small discussion groups made up of at least one student with a solid understanding of the material mixed in with students who are struggling. After reviewing and reteaching the concepts that seem to have been the most misunderstood, the teacher tells the students to discuss the exit ticket question in their groups and identifies the students who have a solid understanding as the “topic leaders” (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). Other exit ticket assessments include a 2-minute fast write about the key ideas in the lesson or a description of the “muddiest point,” the idea that was most confusing or unclear. Students don’t even have to put their names on these exit tickets, but a quick read will tell the teacher where reteaching and explanation are needed the next day. JOURNALS.  Journals are very flexible and widely used informal assessments. Students usually have personal or group journals and write in them on a regular basis. In their study, Michael Pressley and his colleagues (2007) found that excellent first grade literacy teachers used journaling for three purposes: • As communication tools that allowed students to express their own thoughts and ideas • As an opportunity to apply what they have learned • As an outlet to encourage fluency and creative expression in language usage Teachers may use journals to learn about their students in order to better connect their teaching to the students’ concerns and interests. But often journals focus on academic learning, usually through responses to prompts. S. R. Banks (2012, p. 113) describes one high school physics teacher who asked his students to respond to these three questions in their journals: 1. How can you determine the coefficient of friction if you know only the angle of the inclined plane? 2. Compare and contrast magnetic, electronic, and gravitational fields. 3. If you were to describe the physical concept of sound to your best friend, what music would you use to demonstrate this concept? When he read the students’ journals, the teacher realized that many of the students’ basic assumptions about friction, acceleration, and velocity came from personal experiences and not from scientific reasoning. His approach to teaching had to change to reach the students. The teacher never would have known to make the changes in his instruction without reading the journals, which served in this case as a formative assessment. There are many other kinds of informal assessments—making notes and observations about student performance, using rating scales, and keeping checklists. Every time teachers ask questions or watch students perform skills, the teachers are conducting informal assessments. INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENTS.  One way to provide feedback and develop students’ sense of efficacy for learning is to involve the students in the formative assessment process. Students can keep track of their own progress and assess

MyLab Education

Video Example 15.1 A portfolio conference is a good way to involve students in the assessment process and help them learn to regulate their own learning.

Informal assessments  Ungraded (formative) assessments that gather information from multiple sources to help teachers make decisions.

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their improvement. Here are other ideas, some taken from Chappuis and Stiggins (2017). Students might: • Learn about the criteria for judging work by examining and discussing with a peer examples of good, average, and poor products or performances. Then pick a poor example, and revise to improve it. • Describe to the teacher or a peer (orally or in writing) the way they approached an assignment, the problems they encountered, the options they considered, and the final result. • Analyze their strengths and weaknesses before starting a project, then discuss with the teacher or peers how they will use their strengths and overcome their weaknesses as they work on the project. • In pairs, make up questions that might be on the test, explain why those are good questions, and then answer them together. • Look back at earlier work and analyze how they have grown by describing “I used to think . . . but now I know. . . .” After doing a few of these analyses, summarize using a frame such as: What did I know before I started? What did I learn? What do I want to learn next? • Before a major test, do a free write on these prompts “What exactly will be on the test?” “What kinds of questions will be asked (multiple-choice, essay, etc.)?” “How well will I do?” “What do I need to study to make sure I am ready?” Students also can provide themselves with formative feedback by completing the quiz analysis sheet in Figure 15.1. After an ungraded quiz, students analyze their mistakes and make plans for improving. This approach makes good use of the quiz—especially because many students just toss the papers without learning anything from the outcome.

Authentic Assessments: Portfolios and Exhibitions Authentic assessments ask students to apply skills and abilities as they would in real life.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Authentic Tests (II, C1, 2, 4) The emphasis on studentcentered learning has been accompanied by an emphasis on authentic tests. Understand the purpose, value, and advantages of these forms of assessment. Describe their characteristics and the potential problems with their use.

Authentic assessments  Assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations. Performance assessments  Any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product in order to demonstrate learning.

For example, they might use fractions to enlarge or reduce recipes. If our instructional goals for students include the abilities to write, speak, listen, create, think critically, do research, solve problems, or apply knowledge, then our tests should ask students to write, speak, listen, create, think, research, solve, and apply. How can this happen? Many educators suggest we look to the arts and sports for analogies to solve this problem. If we think of the “test” as being the recital, exhibition, game, mock court trial, or other performance, then teaching to the test is just fine. All coaches, artists, and musicians gladly “teach” to these “tests” because performing well on these tests is the whole point of instruction. Authentic assessment asks students to perform. The performances may be thinking performances, physical performances, creative performances, or other forms. So performance assessment is any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product to demonstrate learning (Russell & Airasian, 2012). It may seem odd to talk about thinking as a performance, but there are many parallels. Serious thinking is risky, because real-life problems are not well defined. Often, the outcomes of our thinking are public; others evaluate our ideas. Like a dancer auditioning for a Broadway show, we must cope with the consequences of being evaluated. Like a potter looking at a lump of clay, a student facing a difficult problem must experiment, observe, redo, imagine, and test solutions; apply both basic skills and inventive techniques; make interpretations; decide how to communicate results to the intended audience; and often accept criticism and improve the initial solution (Clark, 2012; Eisner, 1999). The concern with authentic assessment has led to the development of several approaches based on the goal of performance in context. Instead of circling answers to “factual” questions about nonexistent situations, students are required to solve real problems. Facts are used in a context where they apply. For example, instead of asking students, “If you bought a toy for 69 cents and gave the clerk a dollar, how much change would you get back?” have students work in pairs with real money to role-play making different purchases, or set up a mock class store and have students make purchases and give change (Kim & Sensale Yazdian, 2014; Popham, 2017; Waugh & Gronlund, 2013).

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F IG U RE 15.1 REVIEWING AND ANALYZIING A QUIZ OR ASSIGNMENT A form like this can help students analyze a quiz or assignment to serve as formative assessment. After identifying mistakes as “fixable” or “I don’t get it,” the student makes plans to relearn. Reviewing My Results Name:

Assignment:

Date:

Please look at your corrected test and mark whether each problem is right or wrong. Then look at the problems you got wrong and decide if you made a mistake you can fix without help. If you did, mark the “Fixable Mistake” column. For all the remaining problems you got wrong, mark the “Don’t Get it” column.

Problem

Learning Target

Right

Wrong

Fixable Mistake

Don’t Get it

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Analyzing My Results I AM GOOD AT THESE! Learning targets I got right: I AM PRETTY GOOD AT THESE, BUT NEED TO DO A LITTLE REVIEW Learning targets I got wrong because of a fixable mistake: What I can do to keep this from happening again: I NEED TO KEEP LEARNING THESE Learning targets I got wrong and I’m not sure what to do to correct them: What I can do to get better at them:

Source: Chappuis, J., & Stiggins, R. J. (2017). An Introduction to Student-Involved Assessment for Learning. Boston: Pearson, p. 137. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Portfolio Assessment (II, C1, 2) For a discussion of the advantages, limitations, design, and implementation of portfolio programs, go to nea.org/assets/docs/ June2011AdvOnline.pdf.

MyLab Education

Video Example 15.2 In this video, elementary students collect items for portfolios in social studies, and high school art students collect twelve pieces of their original art concentrated on a central idea. Notice how these two types of portfolios demonstrate students’ achievement and growth.

MyLab Education

Video Example 15.3 A science fair is a public exhibition of student achievement.

Portfolio  A collection of the student’s work in an area, showing growth, selfreflection, and achievement. Exhibition  A performance test or demonstration of learning that is public and usually takes an extended time to prepare. Scoring rubrics  Rules that are used to determine the quality of a student’s performance.

The Center for Technology in Learning of SRI International, a nonprofit science research institute, also provides an online resource bank of performance-based assessments linked to the National Science Education Standards. The resource is called PALS (Performance Assessment Links in Science). Go to the Web site pals.sri.com; search for the performance tasks for kindergarten through twelfth grade. You can select tasks by standard and grade level. PORTFOLIOS.  For years, photographers, artists, models, and architects have had portfolios to display their skills and show to prospective employers. A portfolio is a systematic collection of work, often including work in progress, revisions, student self-analyses, and reflections on what the student has learned. Written work or artistic pieces are common contents of portfolios, but student portfolios might also include letters to the portfolio readers describing each entry and its importance, graphs, diagrams, pictures or digital slideshows, PowerPoint presentations, recordings of the students reading their work, unedited and final drafts of persuasive essays or poems, lists of books read, annotated Web site addresses, peer comments, video recordings, laboratory reports, and computer programs—anything that demonstrates learning in the area being taught and assessed (Popham, 2017). There is a distinction between process portfolios and final, or “best-work,” portfolios. The distinction is similar to the difference between formative and summative evaluation. Process portfolios document learning and show progress. Best-work portfolios showcase final accomplishments (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 2002). Table 15.3 shows some examples of portfolios for both individuals and groups. The Guidelines: Creating Portfolios on page 636 give some ideas for using portfolios in your teaching. EXHIBITIONS.  An exhibition is a performance assessment that has two additional features. First, it is public, so students preparing exhibitions must take the audience into account; communication and understanding are essential. Second, an exhibition often requires many hours of preparation, because it is the culminating experience of a whole program of study. Thomas Guskey and Jane Bailey (2001) suggest that exhibits help students understand the qualities of good work and recognize those qualities in their own productions and performances. Students also benefit when they select examples of their work to exhibit and articulate their reasons for making the selections. Being able to judge quality can encourage students’ motivation as they progress toward clear goals.

Evaluating Portfolios and Performances Checklists, rating scales, and scoring rubrics are helpful when you assess performances, because assessments of performances, portfolios, and exhibitions are criterion referenced, not norm referenced. In other words, the students’ products and performances are compared to established public standards, not ranked in relation to other students’ work. SCORING RUBRICS.  A checklist or rating scale gives specific feedback about elements of a performance. Scoring rubrics are rules that are used to determine the quality of a student performance, often on a 4-point scale from “excellent” (4) to “inadequate” (1) or on a scale that assigns points to each category—10 points for excellent, 6 for good, and so on (Mabry, 1999). For example, a rubric describing excellent delegation of responsibility in a group research project might be: Each student in the group can clearly explain what information the group needs, what information s/he is responsible for locating, and when the information is needed.

This rubric was generated using Rubistar, an online service for educators that allows you to select a subject area and category, and then create a rubric. To get the preceding rubric, I chose the subject of writing—“group planning and research project”—and the category of “delegation of responsibility.”

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TABLE 15.3  •  Process and Best-Works Portfolios for Individuals and Groups Here are a few examples of how to use portfolios in different subjects. THE PROCESS PORTFOLIO SUBJECT AREA

INDIVIDUAL STUDENT

COOPERATIVE GROUP

Science

Documentation (running records or logs) of using the scientific method to solve a series of laboratory problems

Documentation (observation checklists) of using the scientific method to solve a series of laboratory problems

Mathematics

Documentation of mathematical reasoning through doublecolumn mathematical problem solving (computations on the left side and running commentary explaining thought processes on the right side)

Documentation of complex problem solving and use of higher-level strategies

Language Arts

Evolution of compositions from early notes through outlines, research notes, response to others’ editing, and final draft

Rubrics and procedures developed to ensure high-quality peer editing

THE BEST-WORKS PORTFOLIO SUBJECT AREA

INDIVIDUAL STUDENT

COOPERATIVE GROUP

Language Arts

The best compositions in a variety of styles—expository, humor/ satire, creative (poetry, drama, short story), journalistic (reporting, editorial columnist, reviewer), and advertising copy

The best dramatic production, video project, TV broadcast, newspaper, advertising display

Social Studies

The best historical research paper, opinion essay on a historical issue, commentary on current event, original historical theory, review of a historical biography, account of participation in academic controversy

The best community survey, paper resulting from academic controversy, oral history compilation, multidimensional analysis of a historical event, press corps interview with a historical figure

Fine Arts

The best creative products such as drawings, paintings, sculptures, pottery, poems, thespian performance

The best creative products such as murals, plays written and performed, inventions thought of and built

Source: Based on D. W. Johnson and R. T. Johnson (2002), Meaningful Assessment: A Manageable and Cooperative Process. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

James Popham (2017) emphasizes that rubrics should be neither too specific nor too general. For example: • Write a two-paragraph poem about trees using four adjectives and two adverbs. (Too specific—describes only one task and does not address the more general skill of writing poems.) • Poems will be judged poor, fair, good, or excellent. (Too general—provides no more information than grading poems as D, C, B, or A.)

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Scoring Rubrics (II, C3) Kathy Schrock’s Guide for Educators (schrockguide. net/assessment-and-rubrics. html) provides information about every aspect of the use of scoring rubrics in the classroom as well as an extensive collection of rubrics that can be used or adapted by teachers.

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GUIDELINES Creating Portfolios Involve students in selecting the pieces that will make up their portfolios. Examples 1. During the unit or semester, ask each student to select work that fits certain criteria, such as “my most difficult problem,” “my best work,” “my most improved work,” or “three approaches to.” 2. For their final submissions, ask students to select pieces that best show how much they have learned. Make sure the portfolios include information that shows student self-reflection and self-criticism. Examples 1. Ask students to include a rationale for their selections. 2. Have each student write a “guide” to his or her portfolio, explaining how strengths and weaknesses are reflected in the work included. 3. Include self- and peer critiques, indicating specifically what is good and what might be improved. 4. Model self-criticism of your own productions. Make sure the portfolios reflect the students’ activities in learning. Examples 1. Include a representative selection of projects, writings, drawings, and so forth. 2. Ask students to relate the goals of learning to the contents of their portfolios.

Be aware that portfolios can serve different functions at different times of the year. Examples 1. Early in the year, it might hold unfinished work or “problem pieces.” 2. At the end of the year, it should contain only what the student is willing to make public. 3. Throughout the year, the portfolios may be the basis for family night conferences. Students can lead the discussion and explain to their family what they have learned by talking them through their portfolios. Be certain that portfolios demonstrate students’ growth. Examples 1. Ask students to make a “history” of their progress along certain dimensions and to illustrate points in their growth with specific works. 2. Ask students to include descriptions of activities outside class that reflect the growth illustrated in the portfolio. Teach students how to create and use portfolios. Examples 1. Keep models of very well done portfolios as examples, but stress that each portfolio is an individual statement. 2. Examine your students’ portfolios frequently, especially early in the year when they are just getting used to the idea. Give constructive feedback.

Rubrics should be focused on worthwhile skills that can be taught and assessed. Here is a skill-focused rubric for judging the organization of students’ narrative essays: Two aspects of organization will be employed in the appraisal of students’ narrative essays—namely, overall structure and sequence. To earn maximum credit, an essay must embody an overall structure containing an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The content of the body of the essay must be sequenced in a reasonable manner—for instance, in a chronological, logical, or order-of-importance sequence. (Popham, 2017, p. 209)

This type of skill-focused rubric gives teachers guidance in teaching and students guidance in writing. In addition, the rubric focuses on skills that can be applied in many forms of narrative writing. The Guidelines: Developing a Rubric give more ideas; some are taken from Goodrich (1997), D. W. Johnson and Johnson (2002), and Popham (2017). It is often helpful to have students join in the development of rating scales and scoring rubrics. When students participate, they are challenged to decide what quality work looks or sounds like in a particular area. They know in advance what is expected. As students gain practice in designing and applying scoring rubrics, their work and their learning often improve.

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GUIDELINES Developing a Rubric 1. Make sure the skill to be assessed is important and can be taught. It takes time to develop good rubrics, so make sure the skill being assessed is worth everyone’s time and that the skill can be improved with instruction and practice. 2. Look at models. Show students examples of good and not-so-good work based on composites of work not linked to individual students. Identify the characteristics that make the good ones good and the bad ones bad. 3. List criteria. Use the discussion of models to begin a list of what counts in quality work. 4. Articulate gradations of quality. Describe the best and worst levels of quality; then fill in the middle levels based on your knowledge of common problems and the discussion of not-so-good work. 5. Practice on models. Have students use the rubrics to evaluate the models you gave them in Step 2. 6. Use self- and peer assessment. Give students their task. As they work, stop them occasionally for self- and peer assessment.

7. Revise. Always give students time to revise their work based on the feedback they get in Step 6. 8. Use teacher assessment. In your grading, be sure to use the same rubric students used to assess their work.

Note: Step 3 may be necessary only when you are asking students to engage in a task with which they are unfamiliar. Steps 5 and 6 are useful but time-consuming; you can do these on your own, especially when you’ve been using rubrics for a while. A class experienced in rubric-based assessment can streamline the process so that it begins with listing criteria, after which the teacher writes out the gradations of quality, checks them with the students, makes revisions, then uses the rubric for self-, peer, and teacher assessment. For a great explanation of using rubrics, see Mertler (2001). This online article includes several links that allow you to create and customize rubrics for your class rubistar.4teachers.org/

RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, GENERALIZABILITY.  Because the teacher’s personal judgment plays such a central role in evaluating performances, issues of reliability, validity, and generalizability are critical considerations. One teacher’s “excellent” could be another teacher’s “adequate.” Research shows that when raters are experienced and scoring rubrics are well developed and refined, reliability may improve (Herman & Winters, 1994; LeMahieu, Gitomer, & Eresh, 1993). Some of this improvement in reliability occurs because a rubric focuses the raters’ attention on a few dimensions of the work and gives limited scoring levels to choose from. If scorers can give only a rating of 1, 2, 3, or 4, they are more likely to agree than if they could score based on a 100-point scale. In terms of validity, some evidence shows that students who are classified as “master” writers on the basis of portfolio assessment are judged less capable using standard writing assessments. Which form of assessment is the best reflection of enduring qualities? It is hard to say. In addition, when rubrics are developed to assess specific tasks, the results of applying them may not predict performance on anything except very similar tasks, so we do not know whether a student’s performance on a specific task will generalize to the larger area of study (Haertel, 1999; Herman & Winters, 1994; McMillan, 2004). DIVERSITY AND BIAS IN PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT.  Equity is an issue in all assessment and no less so with performances and portfolios. With a public performance, there could be bias effects based on a student’s appearance and speech or the student’s access to expensive audio, video, or graphic tools. Performance assessments have the same potential as other tests to discriminate unfairly against students who are not wealthy or who are culturally different. And the extensive group work, peer editing, and out-of-class time devoted to portfolios means that some students may have access to greater networks of support, technology, and outright help. Many students in your classes will come from families that have sophisticated tech devices and publishing capabilities. Others may have little support from home. These differences can be sources of bias and inequity, especially in portfolios and exhibitions.

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Assessing Complex Thinking In order to develop complex thinking ability, we have to be able to assess it. The good news is that assessing complex thinking and higher-order outcomes actually can help students master and retain core facts as well. In other words, testing for complex understanding improves learning at all the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, from remembering factual knowledge to analyzing and creating high-level knowledge ( Jensen, McDaniel, Woodard, & Kummer, 2014). So you don’t have to choose between testing facts and testing complex thinking. Assessments of complex thinking don’t have to be tests. Carol Lee and Susan Golman (2015) have developed assessments of complex thinking in literacy that involve authentic reading and writing. For example, to assess middle and high school students’ abilities to cite evidence in making claims about symbolism in the text, the students had to (1) put events in order from the reading to show they comprehended the plot, (2) use a graphic guide to organize claims and evidence they used to answer the question, and (3) write an essay in which they compared and contrasted two stories in relation to the generalizations of the author and the structure of the text. The two stories had the theme of coming of age and incorporated symbolism as a rhetorical tool. Students’ essays were judged with a rubric that evaluated the quality of the claims, whether the evidence cited was supported by the texts, the ability to organize the essay around similarities and differences, and the general clarity of the writing. You can see that assessing complex thinking is demanding for both the students and the teacher!

Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers One major message in this chapter is the importance of correctly matching the type of assessment tools used with the target—the knowledge being assessed. The provisions of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) described in Chapter 1 allow greater flexibility in assessment at the district and state levels, so it makes sense to be smart about what you are measuring and how you are measuring it. Look at Table 15.4, which summarizes the possibilities and limitations of aligning different assessment tools with their targets. No matter how you assess students, ultimately you will assign grades. We turn to that job next. MyLab Education Self-Check 15.3

GRADING STOP & THINK  Think back on your report cards and grades over the years. Did you ever receive a grade that was lower than you expected? How did you feel about yourself, the teacher, the subject, and school in general as a result of the lower grade? What could the teacher have done to help you understand and profit from the experience?  • “Grading is the process of condensing a great deal of information into a single symbol for ease of communication” (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017, p. 294). Although some people claim that the purpose of grading is to sort students or motivate them to work, the best reason (maybe the only legitimate reason) is to communicate the students’ current achievement level to the students and their families. In determining a final grade, the teacher must make a major decision. Should a student’s grade reflect his or her status in comparison with the rest of the class, or should the grade reflect the amount of material learned and how well it has been learned? In other words, should grading be norm referenced or criterion referenced?

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TABLE 15.4  •  Aligning Different Assessment Tools with Their Targets Different learning outcomes require different assessment methods. ASSESSMENT METHOD TARGET TO BE ASSESSED

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Essay exercises can tap understanding of relationships among elements of knowledge

Not a good choice for this target—three other options preferred

Can ask questions, evaluate answers, and infer mastery— but a timeconsuming option

Can assess understanding of basic patterns of reasoning

Written descriptions of complex problem solutions can provide a window into reasoning proficiency

Can watch students solve some problems and infer about reasoning proficiency

Can ask student to “think aloud” or can ask follow-up questions to probe reasoning

Skills

Can assess mastery of the prerequisites of skillful performance—but cannot tap the skill itself

Can assess mastery of the prerequisites of skillful performance—but cannot tap the skill itself

Can observe and evaluate skills as they are being performed

Strong match when skill is oral communication proficiency; also can assess mastery of knowledge prerequisite to skillful performance

Ability to Create Products

Can assess mastery of knowledge prerequisite to the ability to create quality products—but cannot assess the quality of products themselves

Can assess mastery of knowledge prerequisite to the ability to create quality products—but cannot assess the quality of products themselves

A strong match can assess: (a) proficiency in carrying out steps in product development and (b) attributes of the product itself

Can probe procedural knowledge and knowledge of attributes of quality products—but not product quality

SELECTED-RESPONSE

ESSAY

Knowledge Mastery

Multiple-choice, true/ false, matching, and fill-in can sample mastery of elements of knowledge

Reasoning Proficiency

Source: From “Where Is Our Assessment Future and How Can We Get There?” by R. J. Stiggins. In R. W. Lissitz, W. D. Schafer (Eds.), Meaningful Assessment: A Manageable and Cooperative Process. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education. Adapted by permission of the publisher.

Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading In norm-referenced grading, the major influence on a grade is the student’s standing in comparison with others who also took the course. If a student studies very hard and almost everyone else does too, the student may receive a disappointing grade, perhaps a C or D. One common type of norm-referenced grading is called grading on the curve. How you feel about this approach probably depends on where your grades generally fall along that “curve.” There is good evidence that this type of grading damages the relationships among students and between teachers and students and also diminishes motivation for most students (Krumboltz & Yeh, 1996). When you think about it, if the curve arbitrarily limits the number of good grades that can be given, then, in the game of grading, most students will be losers (Guskey & Bailey, 2001; Haladyna, 2002; Kohn, 1996b). Tom Guskey (2011) pointed out the fallacy of grading on the curve: “The normal bell-shaped curve describes the distribution of randomly occurring events when nothing intervenes” (p. 17). But teaching is intervening—we want to teach in such a way that all students learn. Finally, grading on the curve really does not communicate what the

Norm-referenced grading  Assessment of students’ achievement in relation to one another. Grading on the curve  Norm-referenced grading that compares students’ performance to an average level.

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student knows or can do, which is the main reason for grading in the first place. For this purpose, we need criterion-referenced grading. In criterion-referenced grading, the grade represents a list of accomplishments. If clear learning targets have been set for the course, the grade may represent a certain number of targets reached satisfactorily. When a criterion-referenced system is used, criteria for each grade generally are spelled out in advance. It is then up to the student to earn the grade she or he wants to receive. Theoretically, in this system, all students can achieve an A if they reach the criteria. Criterion-referenced grading has the advantage of relating judgments about a student to the achievement of clearly defined instructional goals or standards. Some school districts have developed reporting systems in which report cards list learning targets along with judgments about the student’s attainment of each target. Reporting is done at the end of each unit of instruction. The secondary school report card shown in Figure 15.2 demonstrates the relationship between assessment and the goals of the unit. FIGU RE 15.2 A CRITERION-REFERENCED REPORT CARD This is one example of a criterion-referenced report card. Other forms are possible, but all criterion-referenced reports indicate student progress toward specific goals.

Criterion-referenced grading  Assessment of each student’s mastery of course objectives.

Source: Guskey, T. R., Swan, G. M., & Jung, L. A. (2011). Grades That Mean Something. Phi Delta Kappan, 93(2), p. 53. Used with permission.

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Most schools have a specified grading system, so we won’t spend time here on the many possible systems. Let’s consider a different question—one with research behind it. What are the effects of grades on students?

Effects of Grading on Students When we think of grades, we often think of competition. Highly competitive classes may be particularly hard on anxious students, students who lack self-confidence, and students who are less prepared. So, although high standards do tend to be generally related to increased academic learning, it is clear teachers must strike a balance between high standards and a reasonable chance to succeed. So, should low grades and failure be avoided in school? The situation is not that simple. THE VALUE OF FAILING?  Some level of failure may be helpful for most students, especially if teachers help the students see connections between hard work and improvement. Efforts to protect students from failure and to guarantee success may be counterproductive. Carol Tomlinson, an expert on differentiated instruction, puts it this way: “Students whose learning histories have caused them to believe that excellence can be achieved with minimal effort do not learn to expend effort, and yet perceive that high grades are an entitlement for them” (2005b, p. 266). So maybe not failure, but accurate and critical feedback can be especially important for students who are used to easy As (Shute, 2008). RETENTION IN GRADE.  What about the effect of failing an entire grade—that is, of being “held back”? Retained children are more likely to be male, members of minority groups, living in poverty, younger, and less likely to have participated in early childhood programs (Beebe-Frankenberger, Bocian, Macmillan, & Gresham, 2004; G. Hong & Raudenbush, 2005). Is retention a good policy? See the Point/Counterpoint on the next page to examine the issue.

Grades and Motivation If you are relying on grades to motivate students, you had better think again ( J. K. Smith, Smith, & De Lisi, 2001). The assessments you give should support students’ motivation to learn—not their motivation to work for a good grade. But is there really a difference between working for a grade and working to learn? The answer depends in part on how a grade is determined. If you test only at a simple but detailed level of knowledge, you may force students to choose between complex learning and a good grade. But when a grade reflects meaningful learning, and learning is supported by formative assessments with useful feedback, working for a grade and working to learn become the same thing. Finally, low grades generally do not encourage greater efforts. Students receiving low grades are more likely to withdraw, blame others, decide that the work is “dumb,” or feel responsible for the low grade but helpless to make improvements. They give up on themselves or on school. In fact, low grades at the beginning of the year may set up a downward spiral: lower grades less engagement in schoolwork lower grades less engagement, and on and on (Poorthuis et al., 2015; Tomlinson, 2005b). Rather than assigning a failing grade, you might consider the work incomplete and give students support in revising or improving it. Maintain high standards, and give students a chance to reach them. Formative assessment and quality feedback are key (Guskey, 2011; Guskey & Bailey, 2001; Polio & Hochbein, 2015). Another effect on motivation that occurs in high schools is the race for valedictorian. Sometimes, students and families find clever ways to move ahead of the competition—but the strategies have little to do with learning. As Tom Guskey and Jane Bailey (2001) note, when a valedictorian wins by a 1/1,000 of a decimal point, how meaningful is the learning behind the difference? Some high schools now name multiple valedictorians—as many as meet the highest standards of the school—because they believe that the educators’ job is “not to select talent, but, rather, to develop talent” (Guskey & Bailey, 2001, p. 39). The Guidelines: Using Any Grading System on page 644 give ideas for fair and reasonable use of any grading system.

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children Be Held Back?

Yes, it just makes sense. Retention in kindergarten for children considered “not ready” for first grade is a common practice. Compared to students who are relatively younger (January to August birthdays), students who are relatively older (born September to November) have higher achievement in school on average (Cobley, McKenna, Baker, & Wattie, 2009). In fact, some parents hold their son or daughter back to give the child an edge over peers in each grade thereafter or because the child was born late in the year—a practice sometimes called “academic red-shirting” (Wallace, 2014). About 4% to 5.5% of children delay entry to kindergarten. The most likely to be redshirted are White, male, and high-SES children. Schools that serve those populations have higher rates of school delay (Bassok & Reardon, 2013). The results on academic red-shirting are mixed. Some studies have found benefits for students who have been held back by their parents, but other studies have found no benefits. With the increased emphasis on high standards and accountability, the idea of social promotion has come under fire, and retention is seen as the better way. Guanglei Hong and Stephen Raudenbush (2005) summarize this and other arguments that have been made in favor of retention: A widely endorsed argument is that, when low-achieving students are retained in a grade, the academic status of children in a classroom will become more homogeneous, easing the teacher’s task of managing instructional activities (Byrnes, 1989; also see Shepard & Smith, 1988, for a review). In particular, retaining some children in kindergarten may allow the first-grade teacher to teach at a higher level, benefiting those who would be promoted under the policy. Meanwhile, children who view grade retention as a punishment may study harder to avoid being retained in the future. Some have argued that, in comparison with the social promotion policy, repeating a grade is perhaps developmentally more appropriate and may make learning more meaningful for children who are struggling (Plummer & Graziano, 1987; Shepard & Smith, 1988). If these arguments are correct, adopting a policy of grade retention will benefit those promoted and those retained, thus boosting achievement overall. (p. 206)

COUNTERPOINT .

POINT .

In 2014, about 1,313,000 students (kindergarten through grade 12) were retained in grade (Digest of Educational Statistics, 2015). For the last 100 years, parents and educators have debated about the value of retention versus social promotion (passing students on to the next grade with their peers). What does the evidence say? What are the arguments?

No, retention is not effective.  Even though a few

studies support the value of retention (e. g., Marsh, 2015), almost a century of research indicates that it is not helpful and may even be harmful. Most research finds that grade retention is associated with poor long-term outcomes such as dropping out of school, higher arrest rates, fewer job opportunities, lower self-esteem (Andrews, 2014; Jimerson, Anderson, & Whipple, 2002; Jimerson & Ferguson, 2007; Shepard & Smith, 1989). Lucy Barnard-Brak (2008) studied a national sample of 986 children who had been identified as having learning disabilities and concluded, “delayed kindergarten entrance was not associated with better academic achievement for children with learning disabilities across time” (p. 50). Even though G. Hong and Raudenbush (2005) acknowledged the arguments for retention (see the Point section), their extensive study that followed almost 12,000 kindergarten students through the end of first grade found just the opposite. The researchers compared retained and promoted students from schools that practice retention as well as promoted students from schools that practice social promotion. They found no evidence that retention improved either reading or mathematics achievement. In addition, retention did not seem to improve instruction in the first grade by making the class more similar in academic ability. After 1 year, the retained students were an average of 1 year behind, and evidence indicated that these children would have done better if promoted. Another study that followed retained and promoted students for 4 years found some short-term advantages for retained students in social and behavioral skills, followed by long-term problems and vulnerabilities. The authors suggest that the “struggle-succeed-struggle” pattern may undermine academic motivation for retained students and interfere with peer relations (Dermanet & Van Houtte, 2016; Wu, West, & Hughes, 2010). And the negative impact may not be limited to the retained student. In one study of over 79,000 students, seventh graders who simply attended school with many peers who were old for their grade (because they had been retained or “redshirted”) were more likely to get in trouble at school or be suspended (Muschin, Glennie, & Beck, 2014). Beware of Either/Or: Using Research for Children. No matter what, children who are having trouble should get help, whether they are promoted or retained. However, just covering the same material again in the same way won’t solve the children’s academic or social problems. The best approach may be to promote the children along with their peers, but to give them special remediation during the summer or over the next year (Demanet & Van Houtte, 2016). In addition, because the inability to focus attention and self-regulate is an important aspect of readiness to learn (Blair, 2002), help should also focus on improving these skills as well. An even better approach would be to prevent the problems before they occur by providing extra resources in the early years.

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Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families No number or letter grade conveys the totality of a student’s experience in a class or course. Students, families, and teachers sometimes become too focused on the end point—the grade. But communicating with families should involve more than just sending home grades. There are a number of ways to be in touch with and report to families. Many teachers I know have a beginning-of-the-year newsletter or student handbook that communicates homework, behavior, and grading policies to families. Other options described by Guskey and Bailey (2001) are: • • • •

Notes attached to report cards Phone calls, especially “Good News” calls School open houses Student-led conferences

• • • •

Portfolios or exhibits of student work Homework hotlines School or class Web pages Home visits

Conferences with parents or caregivers are often expected of teachers in elementary school and can be equally important in middle and high school. Clearly, the more skilled teachers are at communicating, the more effective they will be at conducting these conferences. Listening and problem-solving skills such as those discussed in Chapter 13 can be particularly important. When you are dealing with families or students who are angry or upset, make sure you really hear their concerns, not just their words. The atmosphere should be friendly and unrushed. Any observations about the student should be as factual as possible, based on observation or information from assignments. Information gained from a student or a parent/caregiver should be kept confidential. One kind of information that will interest parents is their child’s standardized test scores. In the next section we look at these tests.

MyLab Education

Video Example 15.4 The teacher in this video holds a conference to discuss Cody’s progress with his mother. The teacher is concerned about reporting more than just a grade. She and Cody’s mother discuss how to improve his understanding of math concepts.

MyLab Education Self-Check 15.4

STANDARDIZED TESTING For as long as I can remember, educators and policy makers have been concerned about the test performance of American students. Today, politicians point to the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) data collected in 1995, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011 and 2015 showing that the United States is behind many other developed countries in math and science test scores. Part of the response to these test results has been more testing, no matter what grade you teach. Teachers must be knowledgeable about testing. Understanding what standardized test scores really mean and how they can be used (or misused) is a good start.

Types of Scores PUT YOURSELF IN THEIR PLACE At your first parent conference, a mother and father are concerned about their child’s percentile rank of 86. They say that they expect their child to “get close to 100 percent. We know she should be able to do that because her grade-equivalent score is half a year above her grade!” Do they understand the meaning of these scores?  •

To understand the scores from tests, you need to know some basics about different types of scores and what they tell you, but first you need to know some (easy) statistics. MEASUREMENTS OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND STANDARD DEVIATION.  You have probably had a great deal of experience with means. A mean is simply the arithmetical average of a group of scores. To calculate the mean, you add the scores and divide the total by the number of scores in the distribution. The mean offers one way of

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Concepts of Standardized Testing (II, C5) Be able to define norm groups, measures of central tendency, standard deviation, normal distribution, reliability, and validity, and to explain their roles in standardized tests.

Mean Arithmetical average.

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GUIDELINES Using Any Grading System Explain your grading policies to students early in the course, and remind them of the policies regularly. Examples 1. Give older students a handout describing the assignments, tests, grading criteria, and schedule. 2. Explain to younger students in a low-pressure manner how their work will be evaluated. Base grades on clearly specified, reasonable standards. Examples 1. Specify standards by developing a rubric with students. Show anonymous examples of poor, good, and excellent work from previous classes. 2. Discuss workload and grading standards with more experienced teachers. 3. Give a few formative tests to get a sense of your students’ abilities before you give a graded test. 4. Take tests yourself first to gauge the difficulty of the test and to estimate the time your students will need. Base your grades on as much objective evidence as possible. Examples 1. Plan in advance how and when you will test. 2. Keep a portfolio of student work. This may be useful in student or parent conferences.

Correct, return, and discuss tests as soon as possible. Examples 1. Have students who wrote good answers read their responses for the class; make sure they are not the same students each time. 2. Discuss why wrong answers, especially popular wrong choices, are incorrect. 3. As soon as students finish a test, give them the answers to questions and the page numbers where answers are discussed in the text. As a rule, do not change a grade. Examples 1. Make sure you can defend the grade in the first place. 2. DO change any clerical or calculation errors. Guard against bias in grading. Examples 1. Ask students to put their names on the backs of their papers. 2. Use a point system or model papers when grading essays. Keep pupils informed of their standing in the class. Examples 1. Write the distribution of scores on the board after tests. 2. Schedule periodic conferences to go over work from previous weeks.

Be sure students understand test directions. Examples 1. Outline the directions on the board. 2. Ask several students to explain the directions. 3. Go over a sample question first.

Central tendency Typical score for a group of scores. Median  Middle score in a group of scores. Mode  Most frequently occurring score. Standard deviation  Measure of how widely scores vary from the mean.

measuring central tendency, the score that is typical or representative of the whole distribution of scores. But very high or very low scores affect the mean, so when there are a few very high or low scores, the median may be a better representative of the central tendency of a group than the mean. The median is the middle score in a ranked list of scores, the point at which half the scores are larger and half are smaller. The mode is the score that occurs most often. The measure of central tendency gives a score that is representative of the group of scores, but it does not tell you anything about how the scores are distributed. Two groups of scores may both have a mean of 50, but be alike in no other way. One group might contain the scores 50, 45, 55, 55, 45, 50, 50; the other group might contain the scores 100, 0, 50, 90, 10, 50, 50. In both cases, the mean, median, and mode are all 50, but the distributions are quite different. The standard deviation is a measure of how widely the scores vary from the mean. The larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the scores are in the distribution. The smaller the standard deviation, the more the scores are clustered around the mean.

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Give students the benefit of the doubt. All measurement techniques involve error. Examples 1. Unless there is a very good reason not to, give the higher grade in borderline cases. 2. If a large number of students miss the same question in the same way, revise the question for the future and consider throwing it out for that test. Avoid reserving high grades and high praise for answers that conform to your ideas or to those in the textbook. Examples 1. Give extra points for correct and creative answers. 2. Withhold your opinions until all sides of an issue have been explored. 3. Reinforce students for disagreeing in a rational, productive manner. 4. Give partial credit for partially correct answers. Make sure each student has a reasonable chance to succeed, especially at the beginning of a new task. Examples 1. Pretest students to make sure they have prerequisite abilities. 2. When appropriate, provide opportunities for students to take a retest to raise their grades, but make sure the retest is as difficult as the original. 3. Consider failing efforts as “incomplete,” and encourage students to revise and improve. 4. Base grades more on work at the end of the unit; give ungraded work in the beginning of the unit.

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Balance written and oral feedback. Examples 1. Consider giving short, lively written comments with younger students and more extensive written comments with older students. 2. When the grade on a paper is lower than the student might have expected, be sure the reason for the lower grade is clear. 3. Tailor comments to the individual student’s performance; avoid writing the same phrases over and over. 4. Note specific errors, possible reasons for errors, ideas for improvement, and work done well. Make grades as meaningful as possible. Examples 1. Tie grades to the mastery of important learning targets. 2. Give ungraded assignments to encourage exploration. 3. Experiment with performances and portfolios. Base grades on more than just one criterion. Examples 1. Use essay questions as well as multiple-choice items on a test. 2. Grade oral reports and class participation.

Source: General conferencing guidelines adapted from Problems in Middle and High School Teaching: A Handbook for Student Teachers and Beginning Teachers (pp. 182–187), by A. M. Drayer, 1979, Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © 1979 by Allyn & Bacon. Adapted by permission of the author and publisher.

For example, in the distribution 50, 45, 55, 55, 45, 50, 50, the standard deviation is much smaller than in the distribution 100, 0, 50, 90, 10, 50, 50. Another way of saying this is that distributions with very small standard deviations have less variability in the scores. Knowing the mean and the standard deviation of a group of scores gives you a better picture of the meaning of an individual score. For example, suppose you received a score of 78 on a test. You would be very pleased with the score if the mean of the test were 70 and the standard deviation were 4. In this case, your score would be 2 standard deviations above the mean, a score well above average. Consider the difference if the mean of the test had remained at 70, but the standard deviation had been 20. In the second case, your score of 78 would be less than 1 standard deviation from the mean. You would be much closer to the middle of the group, with a score above average, but not high. Knowing the standard deviation tells you much more than simply knowing the range of scores. No matter how the majority scored on the tests, one or two students may do very well or very poorly and thus make the range very large.

Variability  Degree of difference or deviation from mean. Range  Distance between the highest and the lowest scores in a group.

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THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION.  Standard deviations are very useful in understanding test results. They are especially helpful if the results of the tests form a normal distribution. You may have encountered the normal distribution before. It is the bell-shaped curve, the most famous frequency distribution because it describes many naturally occurring physical and social phenomena. Many scores fall in the middle, giving the curve its bell appearance. You find fewer and fewer scores as you look out toward the end points, or tails, of the distribution. The normal distribution has been thoroughly analyzed by statisticians. The mean of a normal distribution is also its midpoint. Half the scores are above the mean, and half are below it. In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are all the same point. Another convenient property of the normal distribution is that the percentage of scores falling within each area of the curve is known, as you can see in Figure 15.3. A person scoring within 1 standard deviation of the mean obviously has company. Many scores pile up here. In fact, 68% of all scores are located in the area from 1 standard deviation below to 1 standard deviation above the mean. About 16% of the scores are higher than 1 standard deviation above the mean. Of this higher group, only 2% are higher than 2 standard deviations above the mean. Similarly, only about 16% of the scores are less than 1 standard deviation below the mean, and of that group only about 2% are lower than 2 standard deviations below the mean. At 2 standard deviations from the mean in either direction, the scorer has left the pack. The SAT college entrance exam is one example of a normal distribution. The mean of the SAT Mathematics and the SAT Evidence-Based Reading and Writing tests is about 500 and the standard deviation is about 100. If you know people who made a score of 700 on one of these tests, you know they did very well. Only about 2% of the people who take the test do that well, because only 2% of the scores are better than 2 standard deviations above the mean in a normal distribution. Your score of 78 would be in the top 2% on a test with a mean of 70 and a standard deviation of 4. Now we are ready to look at different kinds of test scores. PERCENTILE RANK SCORES.  Ranking is the basis for one very useful kind of score reported on standardized tests, a percentile rank score. In percentile ranking, each FIGU RE 15.3 THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION The normal distribution, or bell-shaped curve, has certain predictable characteristics. For example, 68% of the scores are clustered within 1 standard deviation below to 1 standard deviation above the mean.

Normal distribution The most commonly occurring distribution, in which scores are distributed evenly around the mean. Percentile rank Percentage of those in the norming sample who scored at or below an individual’s score.

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student’s raw score (actual number correct) is compared with the raw scores of the students in the norm group (comparison group). The percentile rank shows the percentage of students in the norm group that scored at or below a particular raw score. If a student’s score were the same as or better than three quarters of the students in the norm group, the student would score in the 75th percentile or have a percentile rank of 75. You can see that this does not mean that the student had a raw score of 75 correct answers or even that the student answered 75% of the questions correctly. Rather, the 75 refers to the percentage of people in the norm group whose scores on the test were equal to or below this student’s score. A percentile rank of 50 means that a student has scored as well as or better than 50% of the norm group and has achieved an average score. There is one caution in interpreting percentile scores. Differences in percentile ranks do not mean the same thing in terms of raw score points in the middle of the scale as they do at the fringes. For example, the difference between the 50th and 60th percentile might be just 2 raw points, whereas the difference on the same test between the 90th and 99th percentile could be about 10 points. So a few answers right or wrong can make a bigger difference in percentile scores if you are near the middle. GRADE-EQUIVALENT SCORES.  Grade-equivalent scores are generally obtained from separate norm groups for each grade level. The average of the scores of all the tenth graders in the norm group defines the tenth-grade–equivalent score. Suppose the rawscore average of the tenth-grade norm group is 38. Any student who attains a raw score of 38 on that test will be assigned a grade-equivalent score of tenth grade. Gradeequivalent scores are generally listed in numbers such as 8.3, 4.5, 7.6, 11.5, and so on. The whole number gives the grade. The decimals stand for tenths of a year, but they are usually interpreted as months. Suppose a student with the grade-equivalent score of 10 is a seventh grader. Should this student be promoted immediately? Probably not. Different forms of tests are used at different grade levels, so the seventh grader may not have had to answer items that would be given to tenth graders. The high score may represent superior mastery of material at the seventh-grade level rather than a capacity for doing advanced work. Even though an average tenth grader could do as well as our seventh grader on this particular test, the tenth grader would certainly know much more than this seventh-grade test covered. Also, grade-equivalent score units do not mean the same thing at every grade level. For example, a second grader reading at the first-grade level would have more trouble in school than an eleventh grader who reads at the tenth-grade level. Because grade-equivalent scores are misleading and are often misinterpreted, especially by parents, most educators and psychologists strongly believe they should not be used at all. Several other forms of reporting are more appropriate. STANDARD SCORES.  As you may remember, one problem with percentile ranks is the difficulty in making comparisons among ranks. A discrepancy of a certain number of raw-score points has a different meaning at different places on the scale. With standard scores, on the other hand, a difference of 10 points is the same everywhere on the scale. Standard scores are based on the standard deviation. A very common standard score is called the z score. A z score tells how many standard deviations above or below the average a raw score is. In the example described earlier, in which you were fortunate enough to get a 78 on a test where the mean was 70 and the standard deviation was 4, your z score would be +2, or 2 standard deviations above the mean. If a person were to score 64 on this test, the score would be 1.5 standard deviations below the mean, and the z score would be –1.5. A z score of 0 would be no standard deviations above the mean—in other words, right on the mean. Measurements similar to z scores are used when you take a bone density test. Your score will compare your bone density to that of a healthy 30-year-old. If your score is below –1, you are moving toward osteoporosis. Below –2, you are there. Because it is often inconvenient to use negative numbers, other standard scores have been devised to eliminate this difficulty. The T score has a mean of 50 and uses a standard deviation of 10. Thus, a T score of 50 indicates average performance. If you multiply the z score by 10 (which eliminates the decimal) and add 50

Grade-equivalent score  Measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade. Standard scores Scores based on the standard deviation. z score  Standard score indicating the number of standard deviations above or below the mean that a particular score falls. T score  Standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.

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(which gets rid of the negative number), you get the equivalent T score as the answer. The person whose z score was 21.5 would have a T score of 35. First multiply the z score by 10: 21.5 × 10 5 215 Then add 50: 215 1 50 5 35 Before we leave this discussion of types of scores, we should look at one other widely used method. Stanine scores (the name comes from “standard nine”) are standard scores. There are only nine possible scores on the stanine scale, the whole numbers 1 through 9. The mean is 5, and the standard deviation is 2. Stanine scores provide a method of considering a student’s rank, because each of the nine scores includes a specific range of percentile scores in the normal distribution. For example, a stanine score of 1 is assigned to the bottom 4% of scores in a distribution. A stanine of 2 is assigned to the next 7%. Of course, some raw scores in this 7% range are better than others, but they all get a stanine score of 2. Each stanine score represents a wide range of raw scores. This has the advantage of encouraging teachers and parents to view a student’s score in more general terms instead of making fine distinctions based on a few points. Figure 15.4 compares the four types of standard scores we have considered, showing how each would fall on a normal distribution curve. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Interpreting Achievement Tests (II, C4) Accurate information from the teacher is essential for students’ academic progress. See Chapter 6 for a discussion of how to use praise effectively. These guidelines apply to written feedback as well.

Interpreting Standardized Test Reports STOP & THINK Look at the test printout in Figure 15.5. What are this student’s strengths and weaknesses? How do you know?  • What specific information can teachers expect from achievement test results? Test publishers usually provide individual profiles for each student, showing scores on each subtest.

FIGU RE 15.4 FOUR TYPES OF STANDARD SCORES ON A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE Using this figure, you can translate one type of standard into another.

Stanine scores Wholenumber scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raw scores.

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FIGU RE 15.5 A TYPICAL SCORE REPORT A sample test score report, with no actual test data used.

Source: Sample Stanford Student Report in Score Report Sampler: Guide-Teaching and Learning Toward High Academic Standards for the Stanford Achievement Test Series, 10th Edition (Stanford 10). Copyright © 2009 by NCS Pearson, Inc. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.

Figure 15.5 is an example of a Student Report for a Sally, a fourth grader, on the Stanford Achievement Test, 10th Edition. Note that the Student Report has three sections. The first (About This Student’s Performance) is a brief narrative explanation that may include a Lexile Measure™ (see lexile.com), which is computed from the Reading Comprehension score and helps teachers identify Sally’s reading level in order to select appropriate texts. The second section (Subtests and Totals) attempts to paint a picture of the student’s achievement in Reading, Mathematics, Language, Spelling, Science, Social Science, Listening, and Thinking Skills. That section also includes total scores on the battery of tests and scores on the Otis-Lennon School Ability test—a kind of group IQ or scholastic aptitude test. Some of the subtests are further divided into more specific assessments. For example, Reading is broken down into Word Study Skills, Reading Vocabulary, and Reading Comprehension. Next to each subtest are several different ways of reporting Sally’s score. The school decides which scores are reported, based on a list of possible reporting formats. This school chose the following types of scores:

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Number Correct: Under the second column is the number of items that Sally answered correctly for that subtest (the total number of items on the subtest is in the first column, Number Possible). Scaled Score: This is the basic score used to derive all the other scores, sometimes called a growth score because it describes growth in achievement that typically occurs as students move through the grades. For example, the average score for third graders might be 585, whereas the average score for tenth graders might be 714 on tests with possible scores that range from 0 to 1,000 across the entire K–12 grades. Often, the difficulty of items is included in calculating scale scores (Popham, 2017). National PR-S (National Percentile Rank and Stanine): This score tells us where Sally stands in relation to students at her grade level across the country in terms of percentile rank (percent with the same score or lower) and stanine, so a score of 59-5 is a percentile of 59 and a stanine of 5. National NCE (Normal Curve Equivalent): This is a standard score derived from the percentile rank, with a range of 1 to 99, a mean of 50, and a standard deviation of 21. Grade Equivalent: This indicates that Sally’s scaled score is the same as an average student in the indicated grade and month of school. Beware of the problems with grade-equivalent scores described earlier. AAC (Achievement/Ability Comparison) Range: The ACC score compares Sally’s achievement on each subtest to a norm group of other students who have her same ability as measured by the Otis-Lennon School Ability test. The ACC range categorizes Sally’s ACC score as HIGH, MIDDLE, or LOW. You can see that Sally is in the middle on most of the subtests, so her achievement is in the middle compared to students with abilities similar to hers. National Grade Percentile Bands: The range of national percentile scores in which Sally’s true score is likely to fall. You may remember from our discussion of true scores that this range, or confidence interval, is determined by adding and subtracting the standard error of the test from Sally’s actual score. Chances are high that Sally’s true score is within this range. Bands that do not overlap indicate likely differences in achievement. The bottom of Figure 15.5 (Clusters) breaks Sally’s subtests down into even more specific skills. For each skill we see the number of questions possible to answer (NP), the number Sally attempted (NA), and the number she got correct (NC). The check marks beside the skills indicate if she is average, above average, or below average in each. Notice that some skills are assessed with only a few (3 to 8) questions. Remember that fewer items mean less reliability. DISCUSSING TEST RESULTS WITH FAMILIES.  As a teacher you probably will be expected to explain test results to your students and their families. Make sure you know the meaning of all the types of scores your school reports—raw scores, percentiles and percentile bands, scale scores, Lexiles, grade equivalents, stanines, or any others that appear on test reports. With high school students it is also useful to tell both the students and their parents that only 25% of academic success in college is associated with a student’s scores on the SAT or ACT. The other 75% is due to motivation, hard work, study habits, interests, and other factors under the student’s control (Popham, 2017). This can be critically important information for families who are afraid their children “aren’t meant for college.” The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships give some other tips.

Accountability and High-Stakes Testing STOP & THINK How has standardized testing affected your life so far? What opportunities have been opened or closed to you based on test scores? Was the process fair?  • Every day, many decisions about individuals are based on the results of tests. Should Russell be issued a driver’s license? How many and which students from the eighth

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Conferences and Explaining Test Results GENERAL CONFERENCING GUIDELINES Decide on a few clear goals for the conference. Examples 1. Gather information about the student to help in your instruction. 2. Explain grades or test results. 3. Let parents know what is coming during the next unit or marking period. 4. Solicit help from parents. 5. Make suggestions for use at home. Begin and end with a positive statement. Examples 1. “Jacob is a natural leader.” 2. “Eve really enjoys the science center.” 3. “Yesim is really supportive when other students are upset.” 4. “Ashanti’s sense of humor keeps the class positive.” Listen actively. Examples 1. Accept the emotions of parents or caregivers. Don’t try to talk them out of what they feel. 2. “You seem to feel frustrated when Lee doesn’t do his homework.” Respect family members’ time and their concern about their child—establish a partnership. Examples 1. Speak plainly and briefly, and avoid jargon. 2. Be tactful, but don’t avoid talking about tough issues. 3. Ask families to follow through on class goals at home: “Ask Leona for her homework checklist, and help her keep it up to date. I will do the same at school.” Learn from the family members. Examples 1. Send home a brief questionnaire to be returned before the conference so you can prepare: What are the parents’ concerns and questions? 2. What are the students’ interests and strengths as revealed in hobbies or extracurricular activities? Follow up and follow through. Examples 1. Send a brief note thanking the family members for attending. 2. Share student successes through notes or email messages. 3. Keep families informed before problems develop.

EXPLAINING AND USING TEST RESULTS In nontechnical terms, explain the meaning of each type of score on the test report and explain why tests are not “perfect.” Examples 1. If the test is norm referenced, know what the comparison group was (national? state? local district?). Explain that the child’s score shows how he or she performed in relation to the other students in the comparison group. 2. If the test is criterion referenced, explain that the scores show how well their child performed specific tasks such as word problems or reading comprehension. 3. Encourage parents to think of the score not as a single point, but as a range or band that includes the score. 4. Ignore small differences between scores. For norm-referenced tests, use percentile scores. They are the easiest to understand. Examples 1. Percentile scores tell what percentage of students in the comparison group made the same score or lower. Higher percentiles are better, and 99 is as high as you can get; 50 is average. 2. Percentile scores do not tell the “percent correct,” so scores that would be bad on a classroom test (say 65% to 75% or so) are above average—even good—as percentile scores. Avoid using grade-equivalent scores. Examples 1. If parents want to focus on the “grade level” of their child, tell them that high grade-equivalent scores reflect a thorough understanding of the current grade level and NOT the capacity to do higher grade-level work. 2. Tell parents that the same grade-equivalent score has different meanings in different subjects—reading versus mathematics, for example.

Source: Based on ideas from The Successful Classroom: Management Strategies for Regular and Special Education Teachers, by D. P. Fromberg & M. Driscoll. Published by Teachers College, Columbia University; Scholastic. (2011). Teacher Tips for Successful ParentTeacher Conferences, retrieved from https://www.scholastic.com/ teachers/articles/teaching-content/teacher-tips-successful-parentteacher-conferences/; and T. E. Eissenberg & Lawrence M. Rudner (1988). Explaining Test Results to Parents. Retrieved from http:// pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=1&n=1

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grade would benefit from an accelerated program in science? Who needs extra tutoring? Test scores may affect “admission” to first grade, promotion from one grade to the next, high school graduation, access to special programs, teacher licensure and tenure, and school funding. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Standardized Testing: Major Issues (II, C5) Since their inception, there have been controversies regarding the use of standardized tests in the schools. Familiarize yourself with the major issues that underlie these controversies. Explain the positions of the different camps in these controversies.

MAKING DECISIONS.  When making decisions about individuals based on test results, it is important to distinguish between the quality of the test itself and the way the test is used. Who will be tested? What are the consequences of choosing one test over another for a particular purpose with a given group? What is the effect of the testing on the students? How will the test scores of minority-group students be interpreted? What do we really mean by intelligence, achievement, growth, and proficiency? Do the tests we use to measure these constructs capture what we intended to assess? How will test results be integrated with other information about the individual to make judgments? Answering these questions requires ethical choices based on values, as well as accurate information about what tests can and cannot tell us. Keep these values issues in mind as we examine testing uses and decisions. Because the decisions affected by test scores are so critical, many educators call this process high-stakes testing. One of the high-stakes uses for test results is to hold teachers, schools, and administrators accountable for student performance. For example, teacher bonuses might be tied to their students’ achievement or schools’ funding may be affected by testing results. But, as James Pellegrino (2015) noted, accountability should never be the only purpose of testing: “The problem is that other purposes of assessment, such as providing instructionally relevant feedback to teachers and students, get lost when the sole goal of states is to use them to obtain an estimate of how much students have learned in the course of a year” (p. 1). We need whole systems of assessments that give teachers and students tools for instruction and learning. WHAT DO TEACHERS THINK?  The teachers I work with are frustrated that test results often come too late in the year to help them plan instruction or remediation for their current students. This is one reason formative and interim assessments are becoming more popular—the teachers get the information in time to modify and improve instruction. Teachers also are troubled by the amount of time that testing takes—both to prepare for the tests and to give them. They complain that the tests cover material that their curriculum does not include. Today, the Common Core Standards and new tests are meant to help align what is taught with what is tested. Teachers around the country echo these concerns. The New Teacher Project (tntp. org) surveyed 117 of the nation’s top teachers from 36 states and the 10 largest school districts. Most of the teachers (81%) felt successful when their students did well on standardized tests, but 50% felt that on balance, these tests do more harm than good. One teacher said, “I believe that our students are over-tested and many schools feel pressure to teach to the test, which is actually a very low bar” (The New Teacher Project, 2013, p. 9). What are other problems with high-stakes testing?

High-stakes testing  Standardized tests whose results have powerful influences when used by school administrators, other officials, or employers to make decisions. Accountable Making teachers and schools responsible for student learning, usually by monitoring learning with high-stakes tests.

DOCUMENTED PROBLEMS WITH HIGH-STAKES TESTING.  Studies have found that in some states, 80% of the elementary schools spend about 20% of their instructional time preparing for the end-of-grade tests (Abrams & Madaus, 2003). Studies of the actual high-stakes tests in action show other troubling consequences. Testing narrows the curriculum. In fact, after examining the results of years of testing, Lisa Abrams and George Madaus (2003) concluded, “In every setting where a high-stakes test operates, the exam content eventually defines the curriculum” (p. 32). For example, using the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills has led to curriculum changes that overemphasize what is tested and neglect other areas. In addition, it seems that the test of mathematics is also a test of reading. Students with poor reading ability have trouble with the math test, especially if their first language is not English. Some uses of standardized tests just are not appropriate, as illustrated in Table 15.5.

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TABLE 15.5  •  Inappropriate Uses for High-Stakes Test Results Beware of some uses for standardized test results. Tests were not designed for these purposes. Pass/Fail Decisions

To deny students graduation from any grade, there must be strong evidence that the test used is valid, reliable, and free of bias. Some tests have been challenged in the courts and found to meet these standards, but not all tests are good enough to make pass/fail decisions.

State-to-State Comparisons

You cannot really compare states using standardized test scores. States do not have the same curriculum, tests, resources, or challenges. If comparisons are made, they usually tell us what we already know— some states have more funding for schools and more families with higher incomes or higher education levels.

Evaluation of Teachers or Schools

Many influences on test scores—family and community resources—are outside the control of teachers and schools. Often students move from school to school, so many students taking a test in the spring may have been attending that school only for a few weeks.

Identifying Where to Buy a House

Generally speaking, the schools with the highest test scores are in the neighborhoods where families have the highest levels of education and income. They may not be the “best schools” in terms of teaching, programs, academic growth for their students, or leadership, but they are the schools lucky enough to have the “right” students.

Source: From Haladyna, T. H. (2012). Essentials of Standardized Achievement Testing: Validity & Accountability. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Adapted by permission.

New Directions: PARCC and SBAC In the early 2010s, the federal government gave millions of dollars to two large consortia of states, the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) and the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC), to develop high-quality assessments aligned to the Common Core Standards. The assessments were meant to measure complex thinking using a range of testing approaches including performance assessment. Since then, some states have formed smaller consortia or are working independently to develop their own assessments that match the standards in their states (Popham, 2017). Most of these assessments are online—no more paper-andpencil tests—so feedback can be faster and can help inform instruction. Stay tuned for changes in your state. But no matter how fancy the computer-based testing is, the same questions still apply to these new tests: Are they valid? Are they reliable? Do they measure what you taught? Do they measure important outcomes that match the challenges of life today? Do they give you information to improve your teaching (Pelligrino, 2014)? IN SUM: USING HIGH-STAKES TESTING WELL.  To be valuable, testing programs must have a number of characteristics. Of course, the tests used must be reliable, valid for the purposes used, and free of bias. In addition, the testing program must: 1. Match the content standards of the district—this is a vital part of validity. 2. Be part of the larger assessment plan. No individual test provides all the necessary information about student achievement. It is critical that schools avoid making pass/ fail decisions based on a single test. 3. Test complex thinking, not just skills and factual knowledge.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Alternatives to Standardized Testing (II, C1) For an overview of the major forms of authentic testing, go to Teachervision.com (teachervision.com/lessonplans/lesson-6385.html).

MyLab Education

Video Example 15.5 In this video, a principal and assistant principal discuss their school’s approach to using state test data. Note the overall goals of state tests and the constructive use of test data to improve teaching and learning to help every student achieve.

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GUIDELINES Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Make sure the test actually covers the content of the unit of study. Examples 1. Compare test questions to course learning goals. Make sure that there is good overlap. 2. Check to see if the test is long enough to cover all important topics. 3. Find out if there are any complications your students experience with the test, such as not enough time, too difficult a level of reading, and so on. If there are issues, discuss these problems with appropriate school personnel. Make sure students know how to use all the test materials. Examples 1. Several days before the testing, do a few practice questions with a similar format. 2. Demonstrate the use of the answer sheets, especially computer-scored answer sheets. 3. Check with new students, shy students, slower students, and students who have difficulty reading to make sure they understand the questions. 4. Make sure students know if and when guessing is appropriate. Follow instructions for administering the test exactly. Examples 1. Practice giving the test before you actually use it. 2. Follow the time limits exactly. Make students as comfortable as possible during testing. Examples 1. Do not create anxiety by making the test seem like the most important event of the year. 2. Help the class relax before beginning the test, perhaps by telling a joke or having everyone take a few deep breaths. Don’t be tense yourself! 3. Make sure the room is quiet. 4. Discourage cheating by monitoring the room. Don’t become absorbed in your own paperwork. ADVICE FOR STUDENTS Use the night before the test effectively. Examples 1. Study the night before the exam, ending with a final look at a summary of the key points, concepts, and relationships. 2. Get a good night’s sleep. If you know you generally have trouble sleeping the night before an exam, try getting extra sleep on several previous nights.

Set the situation so you can concentrate on the test. Examples 1. Give yourself plenty of time to eat and get to the exam room. 2. Don’t sit near a friend. It may make concentration difficult. If your friend leaves early, you may be tempted to do so, too. Make sure you know what the test is asking. Examples 1. Read the directions carefully. If you are unsure, ask the instructor or proctor for clarification. 2. Read each question carefully to spot tricky words, such as not, except, all of the following but one. 3. On an essay test, read every question first, so you know the size of the job ahead of you and can make informed decisions about how much time to spend on each question. 4. On a multiple-choice test, read every alternative, even if an early one seems right. Use time effectively. Examples 1. Begin working right away and move as rapidly as possible while your energy is high. 2. Do the easy questions first. 3. Don’t get stuck on one question. If you are stumped, mark the question so you can return to it easily later, and go on to questions you can answer more quickly. 4. On a multiple-choice test, if you know you will not have time to finish, fill in all the remaining questions with the same letter if there is no penalty for guessing. 5. If you are running out of time on an essay test, do not leave any questions blank. Briefly outline a few key points to show the instructor you knew the answer but needed more time. Know when to guess on multiple-choice or true/false tests. Examples 1. Always guess when only right answers are scored. 2. Always guess when you can eliminate some of the alternatives. 3. Don’t guess if there is a penalty for guessing, unless you can confidently eliminate at least one alternative. 4. Are correct answers always longer? shorter? in the middle? more likely to be one letter? more often true than false? 5. Does the grammar give the right answer away or eliminate any alternatives?

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Check your work. Examples 1. Even if you can’t stand to look at the test another minute, reread each question to make sure you answered the way you intended. 2. If you are using a machine-scored answer sheet, check occasionally to be sure the number of the question you are answering corresponds to the number of the answer on the sheet. On essay tests, answer as directly as possible. Examples 1. Avoid flowery introductions. Answer the question in the first sentence and then elaborate.

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2. Don’t save your best ideas till last. Give them early in the answer. 3. Unless the instructor requires complete sentences, consider listing points, arguments, and so on by number in your answer. It will help you organize your thoughts and concentrate on the important aspects of the answer. Learn from the testing experience. Examples 1. Pay attention when the teacher reviews the answers. You can learn from your mistakes, and the same question may reappear in a later test. 2. Notice if you are having trouble with a particular kind of item; adjust your study approach next time to handle this type of item better.

4. Provide alternate assessment strategies for students with identifiable disabilities. 5. Provide opportunities for retesting when the stakes are high. 6. Include all students in the testing, but also provide informative reports of the results that make the students’ situations clear if they have special challenges or circumstances such as disabilities. 7. Provide appropriate remediation when students fail. 8. Make sure all students taking the test have adequate opportunities to learn the material being tested. 9. Take into account the first language of the students. Students who have difficulty reading or writing in English will not perform well on tests that require English proficiency. 10. Use test results for children, not against them (Haladyna, 2002).

Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests Erik Carter and his colleagues (2005) tested a procedure for preparing students with learning disabilities, mild intellectual disabilities, and language impairments for a highstakes state test. The students were ages 15 to 19; over half were African American males, and all had individualized education programs (IEPs—see Chapter 4) to guide their education. None had passed the state-required achievement tests. Over six class periods, an instructor taught the students strategies such as filling in bubbles on answer sheets completely, sorting problems by difficulty and doing the easy ones first, using rounding to estimate answers in math, identifying exactly what the question is asking by underlining key words and phrases, and employing strategies for eliminating alternatives that have redundant information or extreme qualifiers. The good news is that after completing the preparation program, students improved their scores significantly on the tests. But the bad news is that the increases were not large enough to bring most of the students to the passing level. The authors recommend that preparation for testing should occur much earlier for students with disabilities. At an average age of 16, the students in this study already were discouraged (Carter et al., 2005). The Guidelines: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing should help you and all your students prepare for high-stakes testing.

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Teacher Accountability and Evaluation One use of standardized tests that worries educators is that they are sometimes employed to evaluate schools and even individual teachers. Concerns about the problems with the quality of high-stakes tests, the unfairness in evaluating teachers based on test scores of students who began the year far below grade level, and the variability in curriculums in different school districts and states have led to new ideas about test scores and testing. Even here, there are strong cautions—read on. VALUE-ADDED MEASURES.  What would you say about a teacher whose students began the year reading at the third-grade level and ended the year reading at the fifthgrade level? Sounds like a great year of growth in reading, right? But what if the students were sixth graders? If we judge that teacher only by her students’ achievement at the end of the year, we might think the teacher failed—students ending the sixth grade and still reading at the fifth-grade level! No teaching awards for her! But actually the teacher was very effective (assuming she had the students all year). She added value to their learning—2 years’ worth, in fact. The idea of value-added measures is to assess actual growth compared to some baseline of expected average growth. If students can be expected to grow 1 grade level, but they grow 2, that is above expected growth. Value-added measures use statistical procedures to determine what students could be expected to learn based on student data from previous years in the subject and maybe other relevant information. If the actual student achievement is greater than predicted, then the estimate of the teacher’s or school’s effect is positive (value is added). If students score as predicted, the effect is zero, and if they score lower than predicted, then the effect is negative. So a simple definition of a teacher’s value-added effect is “the average test-score gain for his or her students, adjusted for differences across classrooms in student characteristics such as prior scores” (Chetty, Friedman, & Rockoff, 2011, p. 1). You can imagine that to make good judgments with a value-added approach, the tests used must be valid and reliable, the tests must be aligned with the curriculum, and there must be room at the top and the bottom of the test scores to capture a full range of achievement. Most current standardized tests, however, measure only gradelevel standards, so they are not good at assessing growth for students who perform well above or below the grade level. To assess growth, you also need comparable tests—tests over time that capture the same developing knowledge and skills. Teachers should have the students for most of the year. Also, the smaller the focus (on just one class instead of a whole school), the more uncertain is the estimate of effects, so the same teacher might seem to have larger effects in some years and smaller effects in other years. To be useful, the value-added scores must be based on several years of data from a large number of students. These measures are not perfect, so they should be used to identify strengths and weaknesses in the school or the curriculum and guide professional development, but not to evaluate individual teachers. To evaluate teachers and schools, more information and solid evidence is needed (AERA, 2015; Blazar, Litke, & Barmore, 2016). “VAM [value-added] scores must never be used alone or in isolation in educator or program evaluation systems” (AERA, 2015, p. 450). Still, you may be in a school that uses value-added measures, so it makes sense to learn about them.

Value-added measures  Measures that use statistical analyses to indicate the average test score gain for students, adjusted for their student characteristics such as prior level of achievement.

Quality Standardized Assessment: Lessons for Teachers You may hear discussions about what standardized tests should measure—growth or proficiency (Valant & Hansen, 2017). Value-added assessments attempt to assess growth, which is exactly what teachers and schools are trying to accomplish. We want all students to move from where they were when they entered the classroom door to knowing much more by the end of the year. But what the students actually know, their proficiency at the end of the year, is important, too. We want our students to be prepared for the next grade so they keep growing, and we want our graduates ready for college, careers, and life in

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F IG U RE 15.6 THE POWER OF TWO IN ASSESSING STUDENT LEARNING

Source: Meade, J. (2014). Value-Added Data quality: Too Often, It’s in the Ryes of the Beholder. Columbus, OH: Battelle for Kids. Available at http://battelleforkids.org/learning-hub/learning-hub-item/value-added-data-quality-too-often-it’s-in-the-eyes-of-the-beholder

the twenty-first century. Parents want their children in schools where they will grow, but also where they (and their classmates) will achieve so they can succeed. Jamie Meade (2014) calls this the “Power of Two” to capture a complete picture of student learning, as shown in Figure 15.6. So, in your teaching, may the Force of Two be with you! MyLab Education Self-Check 15.5

. SUMMARY Basics of Assessment (pp. 620–624) Distinguish between measurement and assessment.  Measurement is the description of an event or characteristic using numbers. Assessment includes measurement, but is broader because it includes all kinds of ways to sample and observe students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities. Distinguish between formative, interim, and summative assessment.  In the classroom, formative (ungraded, diagnostic assessment) helps form and support learning by providing feedback to both the student and the teacher. Interim (growth) assessments occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress in an objective way—to see if the student is moving toward proficiency. Summative assessment occurs at the end of instruction and summarizes students’ accomplishments in order to report on achievement. What is test reliability? Some tests are more reliable than others; that is, they yield more stable and consistent estimates. Care must be taken in the interpretation of test results. Each test is only a sample of a student’s performance on a given day. The score is only an estimate of a student’s hypothetical true score. The standard error of measurement takes into account the possibility for error and is one index of test reliability. What is test validity? The most important consideration about a test is the validity of the decisions and judgments that are

based on the test results. Evidence of validity can be related to content, criterion, or construct. Constructrelated evidence for validity is the broadest category and encompasses the other two categories of content and criterion. Tests must be reliable to be valid, but reliability does not guarantee validity. What is absence of bias?  Tests must be free of assessment bias. Bias occurs when tests include material that offends or unfairly penalizes a group of students because of the students’ gender, SES, race, religion, or ethnicity. Culture-fair tests have not proved to solve the problem of assessment bias.

Classroom Assessment: Testing (pp. 624–630) Distinguish between norm-referenced and criterionreferenced tests.  In norm-referenced tests, a student’s performance is compared to the average performance of others. In criterion-referenced tests, scores are compared to a preestablished standard. Norm-referenced tests cover a wide range of general learning goals. However, results of normreferenced tests do not tell whether students are ready for advanced material, and they are not appropriate for affective and psychomotor learning goals. Criterion-referenced tests measure the mastery of very specific goals.

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How can testing support learning? Learning is supported by frequent testing using cumulative questions that ask students to apply and integrate knowledge. With the goals of assessment in mind, teachers are in a better position to design their own tests or evaluate the tests provided by textbook publishers. Describe two kinds of traditional testing. Two traditional formats for testing are the selected-response test and the constructed-response/essay test. Selected-response tests, which can include multiple-choice, true/false, fill-in, and matching items, should be written with specific guidelines in mind. Writing and scoring essay questions requires careful planning, in addition to criteria to discourage bias in scoring.

Authentic Classroom Assessments (pp. 630–638) How can teachers use formative assessment?  Formative assessments may be informal and “on the fly,” such as exit tickets or journals, or formal assessments, such as quizzes embedded in the curriculum. Whatever the form, students can participate in the formative assessment by analyzing their work and making plans for improvement. What is authentic assessment?  Critics of traditional testing believe that teachers should use authentic tests and other authentic assessment procedures. Authentic assessment requires students to perform tasks and solve problems that are similar to the real-life performances that will be expected of them outside of school. Describe portfolios and exhibitions.  Portfolios and exhibitions are two examples of authentic assessment. A portfolio is a collection of a student’s work, sometimes chosen to represent growth or improvement or sometimes featuring “best work.” Exhibitions are public performances of a student’s understandings. Portfolios and exhibitions emphasize performing real-life tasks in meaningful contexts. What are the issues of reliability, validity, and equity with portfolios and performance assessment?  Using authentic assessments does not guarantee reliability, validity, and equity (absence of bias). Using rubrics is one way to make assessment more reliable and valid. But the results from assessment based on rubrics may not predict performance on related tasks. Also, rater bias based on the appearance, speech, or behavior of students or a lack of resources may place students from minority groups at a disadvantage in performance assessments or projects. Why assess complex thinking?  Assessing complex thinking and higher-order outcomes actually can help students master and retain core facts as well. In other words, testing for complex understanding improves learning at all the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, from remembering factual knowledge to analyzing and creating high-level knowledge. There are approaches in each subject that assess students’ abilities to analyze, apply, evaluate, and create.

Grading (pp. 638–643) Describe two kinds of grading. Grading can be either norm referenced or criterion referenced. One popular norm-referenced system is grading on the curve, based on a ranking of students in relation to the average performance level. This is not recommended. Criterion-referenced report cards usually indicate how well the individual student has met each of several learning goals.

How can failure support learning? Students need experience in coping with failure, so standards must be high enough to encourage effort. Occasional failure can be positive if appropriate feedback is provided. Students who never learn how to cope with failure may give up quickly when their first efforts are unsuccessful. Which is better, “social promotion” or being “held back”? Simply retaining or promoting a student who is having difficulty will not guarantee that the student will learn. Unless the student is very young or emotionally immature compared to others in the class, the best approach may be to promote, but provide extra support such as tutoring or summer school sessions. Differentiated instruction could prevent problems. Can grades promote learning and motivation?  Learning is increased by written or oral feedback that includes specific comments on errors or faulty strategies, but that balances this criticism with suggestions about how to improve—along with comments on the positive aspects of the work. Grades can encourage students’ motivation to learn if they are tied to meaningful learning. How can communications with families support learning?  Not every communication from the teacher needs to be tied to a grade. Communication with students and families can be important in helping a teacher understand students and present effective instruction by creating a consistent learning environment. Students and families have a legal right to see all the information in the students’ records, so the contents of files must be appropriate, accurate, and supported by evidence.

Standardized Testing (pp. 643–657) What are mean, median, mode, and standard deviation? The mean (arithmetical average), median (middle score), and mode (most common score) are all measures of central tendency. The standard deviation reveals how scores spread out around the mean. A normal distribution is a frequency distribution represented as a bell-shaped curve. Many scores cluster in the middle; the farther from the midpoint, the fewer the scores. Describe different kinds of scores.  There are several basic types of standardized test scores: percentile rankings, which indicate the percentage of others who scored at or below an individual’s score; grade-equivalent scores, which indicate how closely a student’s performance matches average scores for a given grade; and standard scores, which are based on the standard deviation. T and z scores are both common standard scores. A stanine score is a standard score that incorporates elements of percentile rankings. What are some current issues in testing?  Controversy over standardized testing has focused on the role of tests and interpretation of results, the problems with accountability based on test scores, and the ways testing restricts the curriculum. If the test matches important learning targets of the curriculum, is given to students who actually studied the curriculum for a reasonable period of time, is free of bias, fits the students’ language capabilities, and was administered properly, then test results provide some information about the effectiveness of the school. Expert teachers see both the advantages of and problems with standardized testing, but about 50% believe such tests do more harm than good. Teachers should use results to improve instruction, not to stereotype students or justify lowered expectations. PARCC and SBAC, two large consortia of

CL A S S R O O M ASSE SSM E NT, GR AD I NG, AND STAND AR D IZED T ESTIN G states, are developing a new set of K–12 assessments in English and math anchored in what it takes to be ready for college and careers and consistent with the Common Core Standards. Can students become better test takers? How? Performance on standardized tests can be improved if students gain experience with this type of testing and are given training in study skills and problem solving. Many students can profit from direct instruction about how to prepare for and take tests. Involving students in designing these test preparation programs can be helpful. Students with learning challenges may benefit from intensive and ongoing preparation for taking tests, particularly if the test-taking strategies are tied to specific problems and content learned and tested.

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What are some current directions in teacher evaluation?  Concerns about the problems with high-stakes tests, the unfairness in evaluating teachers based on test scores of students who began the year far below grade level, and the variability in curriculums in different school districts and states have led to new ideas about test scores and testing. Value-added measures indicate the average test score gain for students, adjusted for their characteristics such as prior level of achievement (where they started the year). Experts agree that value-added scores alone cannot be used to evaluate schools or teachers. Also, measures of both growth and proficiency together give a more complete picture of students’ learning.

. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. Distinguishing Between Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced Assessments

Using Rubrics

Explaining Standardized Test Results

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

MyLab Education  

Application Exercise 15.1

Application Exercise 15.2

Application Exercise 15.3

. KEY TERMS Accountable (p. 652) Assessment (p. 620) Assessment bias (p. 623) Authentic assessments (p. 632) Central tendency (p. 644) Classroom assessments (p. 620) Confidence interval (p. 622) Criterion-referenced grading (p. 640) Criterion-referenced testing (p. 625) Distractors (p. 628) Exhibition (p. 634) Formative assessment (p. 621) Grade-equivalent score (p. 647) Grading on the curve (p. 639) High-stakes testing (p. 652) Informal assessments (p. 631)

Interim (growth) assessments (p. 621) Mean (p. 643) Measurement (p. 620) Median (p. 644) Mode (p. 644) Norm group (p. 625) Norm-referenced grading (p. 639) Norm-referenced testing (p. 625) Normal distribution (p. 646) Percentile rank (p. 646) Performance assessments (p. 632) Portfolio (p. 634) Pretest (p. 621) Range (p. 645) Reliability (p. 622) Scoring rubrics (p. 634)

Selected-response testing (p. 626) Standard deviation (p. 644) Standard error of measurement (p. 622) Standard scores (p. 647) Standardized tests (p. 620) Stanine scores (p. 648) Stem (p. 628) Summative assessment (p. 621) T score (p. 647) True score (p. 622) Validity (p. 622) Value-added measures (p. 656) Variability (p. 645) z score (p. 647)

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CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Mr. Nopparat used the same set of test questions over the last 10 years for his history class. However, the average of his students’ scores varied significantly from year to year. Assuming a consistent student demography over the years, what can we conclude about his test questions? A. Small in confidence interval B. Low in reliability C. Low in validity D. Low in true score 2. Which of the following is NOT one of the key considerations when writing multiple-choice questions? A. Leave out unnecessary details. B. Avoid using categorical words, such as always. C. Ensure that all options follow the same grammatical form. D. Use distractors that are similar in meaning. 3. Rhea was a geography teacher. Many of her students complained that the latest exam she set for them was unfair. They claimed more than half of the questions in the exam focused on mathematical calculations, such as calculation of sun mass, as opposed to geographical concepts. Which of the following is true of this exam? A. Small in confidence interval B. Low in reliability C. Low in validity D. Low in true score 4. Which of the following assessment methods would not be a good choice for assessing knowledge mastery? A. Selected response questions B. Essay exercises

C. Performance assessment D. Personal communication

CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Toni was preparing to set up the end-of-semester assessments for the first time for her students. The end-of-­semester had two major components: final exam and individual portfolio. She planned to assign a take-home essay, where her students could choose a topic for integrative review from a list of topics covered in the semester. Given that this kind of essay assignment did not typically come with specific question prompts, she planned to give her students 14  days to ­complete the assignment. However, she was having a hard time formulating a grading rubric for this assignment. At the same time, she needed to create portfolios for all her students that showed their performance in the past semester and stated their goals for the next s­ emester. Overwhelmed by the number of elements in play, Toni approached her mentor for help. 5. What are some specific guidelines that can help Toni formulate a grading rubric and subsequently, grade her students’ final essays fairly? 6. A well-formulated portfolio helps track students’ progress and academic development. What are some of the key strategies for creating portfolios? List some key considerations that an instructor must keep in mind while using portfolios as an assessment method.

MyLab Education Licensure Exam

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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK  Giving Meaningful Grades Here is how some practicing teachers responded to the grading challenge at the beginning of the chapter. KATIE CHURCHILL • Third-Grade Teacher Oriole Parke Elementary School, Chicago, IL

I use a combination of assessment tools to evaluate my students. Using a rubric that students and parents alike are familiar with provides an easy-to-follow-and-understand grading system. The rubric needs to remain in a focal area in the classroom as a constant reminder to the students of what their expectations are. By differentiating instruction consistently to cover all learning styles and modalities, the students hopefully become more involved and invested in their own learning and, as a result, produce better quality work and exceed expectations. Several factors play a part in obtaining a particular letter grade. The letter grade is earned through a combination of group work, completing objectives, and following the rubric guidelines for quality work. MADYA AYALA  •  High School Teacher of Preperatoria Eugenio Garza Lagüera, Campus Garza Sada, Monterrey, N. L. Mexico

I think it is important to assess a cross-section of student work. First, portfolios can be a useful way to gather various types of work throughout the year. Using a portfolio, a teacher can then attach a letter grade to student progress and achievement. It is important to grade children not only on progress, but also on their understanding of material. I use meaningful, written assessments to test for retention and understanding of my students’ knowledge. Finally, I grade various projects and experiments so that the students who are better project-based learners will be graded fairly. I also like the idea of using a rubric system to grade students on writing or projects. Under a rubric system, a teacher allocates a certain number of points to each content area. It is then easy to attach a letter grade based on the number of points received.

KATIE PIEL • K-6 Teacher West Park School, Moscow, ID

Students should be given the latitude to express achievement in different ways like group projects, daily class work, tests, and individual projects. All students are held accountable for demonstrating their own learning. With each teacher grading on a different standard, the teachers must also take on the responsibility of collaborating with their peers. Communicating to other teachers the skills a student can be expected to bring with him or her to the next level is crucial. ALLAN OSBORNE • Assistant Principal Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA

Any grading system should consider a student’s progress and effort. Grading systems also should be individualized to account for a student’s unique strengths and weaknesses. Thus, a student with a learning disability should not be held to the same expectations as a gifted student. The most critical aspect of any successful grading system is that it is fair. Fairness dictates that students and their parents be given information in advance about class requirements and expectations, along with a description of grading criteria. A system that is fair can be easily justified. It is also important to keep accurate and detailed records of student progress. In addition to recording grades on tests, quizzes, and projects, anecdotal records describing a student’s typical performance should be kept. These records can be valuable if a report card grade is questioned. Although group assignments can be an important learning experience, I would be reluctant to place too much emphasis on a group project grade. As we all know, each member of the group does not participate equally, and thus, a group grade does not reflect the contribution of each individual member.

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LICENSURE APPENDIX

LICENSURE APPENDIX

Part 1

Licensure Examination Study Guide You probably will have to take a licensure examination in order to become a teacher in your state. In over 40 states and jurisdictions, the Praxis II® test is the required licensure examination. This section highlights the concepts from each chapter that may be on your licensure test.

Chapter 1 Developing relationships with professionals: Until you become a teacher, it will be difficult to establish a working relationship with other practitioners. However, you might find this site beneficial: K–12 Practitioners’ Circle (nces.ed.gov/practitioners/teachers.asp). Keeping current with educational issues: Education Week (edweek.org) will keep you up-to-date about innovations in teaching, policy initiatives, and changes in public laws related to education. These issues are often highly complex. The use of critical thinking skills is essential when making judgments about the information you will encounter in this type of publication.

Chapter 2 Understand how the brain works: • Brain imaging techniques • Neurogenesis and brain development • Plasticity • Brain-based educational strategies For theories of cognitive development, you should understand: • Basic assumptions of Piagetian and Vygotskian theories • How students build their unique knowledge bases • How students acquire skills • Important terms and concepts related to each theory

• The key steps, mechanisms, or milestones related to each theory • The limitations of each theory

Chapter 3 Understand the major concepts and progressions related to: • Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development • Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development • Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s perspectives on moral development • Gilligan’s theory of caring • The distinction between moral judgments and social conventions • Haidt’s social intuitionist model Design or choose strategies that: • Support optimal social and emotional development of students • Help students cope with major life transitions and challenges to safety, as well as physical and mental health • Help students build a sense of self-concept, selfesteem, and self-identity (including racial identity) Recognize signs or behaviors that indicate sexual abuse or child abuse.

Chapter 4 Explain the effects of legislation on public education: • Americans with Disabilities Act • Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act • Section 504 • Individualized education programs • Inclusion and least restrictive environment A-1

LICENSURE APPENDIX

A- 2   L ICENSU RE A P P E NDI X Understand views of intelligence and describe its measurement: • Types of intelligence tests and their uses • Multiple intelligences • Interpreting intelligence scores • Modifications to testing Explain how creativity is defined and assessed. Describe and differentiate among learning styles and preferences. Accommodate the needs of students with exceptionalities: • Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder • Visual, speech, and physical difficulties • Learning disabilities • Intellectual disabilities • Autism spectrum disorders

Chapter 5 For the development of language, you should understand: • Diversity in language development • The major accomplishments of language development of school-age children • The relationship between language and literacy • Basic steps that teachers can take to enhance literacy among their students • Strategies that support English acquisition in non-English–speaking students

Chapter 6 Recognize the influences that ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and community values may have on: • Student–teacher relationships and parent–teacher relationships • Student learning preferences • Academic achievement • Attitudes, self-esteem, and expectations for success • Opportunities for quality educational experiences Understand the influences that gender may have on: • Teachers’ attention to students • Differences in mental abilities Devise strategies that: • Eliminate sexist teaching practices • Promote positive school–home relationships • Reduce or eliminate racial and ethnic stereotypes and biases

Chapter 7 Understand the basic assumptions and contributions of these behaviorists: • Pavlov • Skinner

Determine appropriate behavioral techniques to: • Foster appropriate classroom conduct • Help students monitor and regulate learning Understand basic processes of operant conditioning and their roles in learning, including: • Antecedents and consequences • Types of reinforcement and reinforcement schedules • Punishment • Shaping

Chapter 8 Understand how memory and recall are affected by: • The limitations, capacities, and capabilities of the various structures of human memory (e.g., memory stores) • The manner in which humans process information • Prior knowledge of a topic • Executive control processes Explain how students and teachers can enhance learning through the use of: • Elaboration and mnemonic devices • Organized presentations • Meaningful learning and instructional activities

Chapter 9 Focus on each of these major topics: • Metacognitive knowledge and learning • Learning strategies ++ Basic principles of teaching these strategies ++ Cognitive processes involved in various strategies ++ Appropriate uses of different strategies • Problem solving ++ General problem-solving strategies/heuristics and algorithms ++ The value of problem representation ++ Factors that impede problem solving • Critical thinking • Transfer of learning ++ Types of transfer and promoting transfer

Chapter 10 Explain the advantages and appropriate uses of major student-centered approaches to learning and instruction: • Inquiry learning • Problem-based learning • Cognitive apprenticeships • Cooperative learning

Understand important concepts related to student-centered models of instruction: • Situated learning • Complex learning environments • Authentic tasks • Multiple representations of content • Piaget and Vygotsky: theories of constructivism Recognize how technology influences learning both positively and negatively.

Chapter 11 Focus on these major topics: • Bandura’s theory of social learning • Modeling and observational learning • Self-regulated learning • Self-efficacy • Teachers’ sense of efficacy

Chapter 12 Describe the theoretical foundations of the major approaches to motivation. • Identify and define important terms related to motivation including goals, attributions, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and self-determination. • Use your knowledge of motivation to: ++ Identify situations and conditions that can enhance or diminish student motivation to learn ++ Design strategies to support individual and group work in the classroom ++ Implement practices that help students become self-motivated

Chapter 13 Understand principles of classroom management that promote positive relationships by: • Establishing daily procedures and routines • Responding effectively to minor student misbehavior • Implementing reasonable rules, penalties, and rewards • Keeping students actively engaged in purposeful learning Diagnose problems and prevent or reduce inappropriate behaviors by: • Communicating effectively with students and parents • Addressing misbehaviors in the least intrusive way possible • Confronting disruptive behaviors in an effective, efficient manner

Chapter 14 Develop plans for instruction and consider: • The role of objectives in instruction • Writing learning targets • The use of educational taxonomies to identify effective objectives • The role of independent practice (i.e., seatwork and homework) • Direct instruction ++ Basic assumptions ++ Appropriate uses/principles of implementation Understand the basic principles of teacher-centered and student-centered forms of instruction, including: • Appropriate uses and limitations • The role of the teacher • Effective questioning techniques • Whole-group discussions • Recitation • Thematic/interdisciplinary instruction • Differentiated instruction and adaptive teaching

Chapter 15 Describe the characteristics and purposes of major types of tests: • Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests • Achievement, aptitude, and diagnostic tests Explain the major issues related to concerns about standardized testing, including: • High-stakes testing • Bias in testing • Test-taking programs Understand major concepts related to classroom assessment and grading: • Formative and summative assessment • Reliability and validity • Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced grading Describe the characteristics, uses, and limitations of major assessment techniques, including: • Multiple-choice items • Essays • Portfolios • Exhibitions Design a scoring rubric for an authentic learning task that possesses: • Validity • Reliability • Generalizability • Equity

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Part 2

Correlating Text Content to the PRAXIS II® Principles of Learning and Teaching Tests and InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards Each state in the country has its own set of licensure requirements that new teachers must meet in order to work in the classroom. An increasing number of states are basing their requirements on standards developed by InTASC (Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium). These standards are based on 10 principles and foundations of effective teaching practice that InTASC has identified as essential for optimal student learning. Many states assess new teachers’ knowledge of those principles through the use of tests from the Praxis II® series published by the Educational Testing Service. Within the Praxis II series are three Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT) tests, one each

for grades K–6, 5–9, and 7–12. Each PLT test assesses students’ knowledge of educational psychology and its application in the classroom. The following table is designed to help you study for your PLT test and meet the Essesntial Knowledge indicators for each of InTASC’s 10 principles of effective teaching. The left-hand column of the table lists the topics assessed in a PLT test. The right-hand column contains InTASC’s Knowledge standards. In the center column, you will find the chapters, sections, and page numbers in this textbook that correspond to the PLT tests and InTASC standards.

PRAXIS II® Topics

Woolfolk Text Connections

InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators

Chapters 2, 7–12 (entire chapters)

1(d) The teacher understands how learning occurs— how learners construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop disciplined thinking processes—and knows how to use instructional strategies that promote student learning.

I. Students as Learners A. Student Development and the -Learning Process 1. Theoretical foundations about how learning occurs: how students construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop habits of mind jj

jj

Examples of important theorists: • Jean Piaget

Chapter 2/Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

• Lev Vygotsky

Chapter 2/Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective

• Howard Gardner

Chapter 4/Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

• Robert Sternberg

Chapter 4/Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence

• Albert Bandura

Chapter 7/Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning Chapter 11/Social Cognitive Theory

• Urie Bronfenbrenner

Chapter 3/Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development

Important terms that relate to learning theory: • Adaptation

Chapter 2/Basic Tendencies in Thinking

• Conservation

Chapter 2/Four Stages of Cognitive Development

• Constructivism

Chapter 2/The Role of Learning and Development; Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Chapter 10/Constructivism and Designing Learning Environments

• Equilibration

Chapter 2/Basic Tendencies in Thinking

• Co-constructed process

Chapter 2/The Social Sources of Individual Thinking

• Private speech

Chapter 2/The Role of Language and Private Speech

• Scaffolding

Chapter 2/Private Speech and the Zone; Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?; Guidelines: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching Chapter 10/Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching

• Zone of proximal development

Chapter 2/The Zone of Proximal Development; Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle”

• Learning

Chapter 2/Cognitive Development Chapter 7/Understanding Learning Chapter 10/Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching Chapter 12/Motivation in Learning and Teaching

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• Knowledge

Chapter 2/The Social Sources of Individual Thinking; Activity and Constructing Knowledge Chapter 8/The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition; Teaching for Deep, Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications Chapter 10/How Is Knowledge Constructed?; Knowledge: Situated or General?

• Memory

Chapter 8/Cognitive Views of Memory; LongTerm Memory

• Schemas

Chapter 8/Schemas

• Transfer

Chapter 9/Teaching for Transfer

2. Human development in the physical, social, emotional, moral, and cognitive domains

jj

InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators

1(e) The teacher understands that each learner’s cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical development influence learning and knows how to make instructional decisions that build on learners’ strengths and needs

Contributions of important theorists: • Jean Piaget

Chapter 2/Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

• Lev Vygotsky

Chapter 2/Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective

• Erik Erikson

Chapter 3/Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development

• Lawrence Kohlberg

Chapter 3/Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development

• Carol Gilligan

Chapter 3/Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

• Jonathan Haidt

Chapter 3/Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology

jj

Major progressions in each developmental domain and the ranges of individual variation within each domain

Chapter 2/Four Stages of Cognitive Development; Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development; Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory; The Social Sources of Individual Thinking Chapter 3/Physical and Motor Development; Understanding Others and Moral Development Chapter 5/The Development of Language

jj

Impact of students’ physical, social, emotional, moral, and cognitive development on their learning and ways to address these factors when making decisions

Chapter 2/Four Stages of Cognitive Development; Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory; Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships; Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child; Guidelines: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations; The Social Sources of Individual Thinking; Assisted Learning; The Zone of Proximal Development Chapter 3/Physical Development; Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development; Identity and Self-Concept; Understanding Others and Moral Development; Persona/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers Chapter 5/The Development of Language Chapter 13/Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning

PRAXIS II® Topics jj

How development in one domain, such as physical, may affect performance in another domain, such as social

Woolfolk Text Connections

InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators

Chapter 2/General Principles of Development; The Brain and Cognitive Development; Influences on Development Chapter 3/Physical Development

B. Students as Diverse Learners 1. Differences in the ways students learn and perform

Chapter 4/Learner Differences and Learning Needs Chapter 6/Culture and Diversity

• Learning styles and preferences

Chapter 4/Learning Styles/Preferences Chapter 6/Diversity in Learning

• Multiple intelligences

Chapter 4/Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

• Performance modes ++ Concrete operational thinking ++ Visual and aural learners

Chapter 2/Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-Operational Stage; Guidelines: Teaching the ConcreteOperational Child Chapter 4/Learning Styles; Students with Learning Challenges

• Gender differences

Chapter 3/Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence Chapter 4/Gender Differences in Intelligence Chapter 6/Gender in Teaching and Learning; Guidelines: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching

• Cultural expectations and styles

Chapter 5/Teaching Immigrant Students Chapter 6/Today’s Diverse Classrooms; Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning; Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations

• English Language Learners

Chapter 5/Diversity in Language Development; Teaching Immigrant Students Who Are English Language Learners; Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts

2. Areas of exceptionality in students’ learning

Chapter 4/Learner Differences and Learning Needs

• Special physical or sensory challenges

Chapter 4/Students with Communication Disorders; Students with Health and Sensory Impairments

• Learning disabilities

Chapter 4/Students with Learning Disabilities; Individualized Education Program; Section 504 Protections Chapter 5/Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts

• Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Chapter 4/Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders

• Intellectual disabilities

Chapter 4/Students with Intellectual Disabilities; Guidelines: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities

• Autism spectrum disorder

Chapter 4/Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome

• Gifts and talents

Chapter 4/Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

2(g) The teacher understands and identifies differences in approaches to learning and performance and knows how to design instruction that uses each learner’s strengths to promote growth.

2(h) The teacher understands students with exceptional needs, including those associated with disabilities and giftedness, and knows how to use strategies and resources to address these needs.

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Woolfolk Text Connections

InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators

3. Legislation and institutional responsibilities relating to exceptional students

Chapter 4/Individual Differences and the Law

9(j) The teacher understands laws related to learners’ rights and teacher responsibilities (e.g., for educational equity, appropriate education for learners with disabilities, confidentiality, privacy, appropriate treatment of learners, reporting in situations related to possible child abuse).

• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA); Section 504 Protections for Students

Chapter 4/IDEA; Section 504 Protections

• Inclusion, mainstreaming, and least restrictive environment

Chapter 4/Individual Differences and the Law; Least Restrictive Environment Chapter 14/Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms

4. Approaches for accommodating various learning styles and intelligences

Chapter 4/Learner Differences and Learning Needs—Focus on: Creativity in the Classroom; Learning Styles/Preferences; Individual Differences and the Law; Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents

• Differentiated instruction

Chapter 14/Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching; Technology and Differentiation

• Alternative assessment

Chapter 15/Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments

• Testing modifications

Chapter 15/Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for HighStakes Tests

5. Process of second language acquisition and strategies to support the learning of students

2(g) The teacher understands and identifies differences in approaches to learning and performance and knows how to design instruction that uses each learner’s strengths to promote growth.

Chapter 5/Contextualized and Academic Language; Dialect Differences in the Classroom; Teaching Students Who Are English Language Learners; Teaching Immigrant Students Who Are English Language Learners

2(i) The teacher knows about secondlanguage acquisition processes and knows how to incorporate instructional strategies and resources to support language acquisition.

Chapter 5/Teaching Immigrant Students Chapter 6/American Cultural Diversity; Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement

2(j) The teacher understands that learners bring assets for learning based on their individual experiences, abilities, talents, prior learning, and peer and social group interactions, as well as language, culture, family and community values.

6. Understanding of influences of individual experiences, talents, and prior learning, as well as language, culture, family, and community values on students’ learning • Multicultural backgrounds

2(k) The teacher knows how to access information about the values of diverse cultures and communities and how to incorporate learners’ experiences, cultures, and community resources into instruction. • Age-appropriate knowledge and behaviors

Chapter 2/Four Stages of Cognitive Development; Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective; Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Chapter 3/The Self, Social, and Moral Development—Focus on: The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative; The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority; Adolescence: The Search for Identity; Understanding Others and Moral Development

PRAXIS II® Topics

Woolfolk Text Connections

• The student culture at the school

Chapter 3/Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development; Peers Chapter 12/Learned Helplessness

• Family backgrounds

Chapter 3/Families Chapter 6/Poverty and School Achievement Family and Community Partnership Guidelines

• Linguistic patterns and differences

Chapter 4/Students with Communication Disorders Chapter 5/The Development of Language; Dialects; What Is Involved in Being Bilingual?

• Cognitive patterns and differences

Chapter 4/Learning Styles/Preferences Chapter 8/Individual Differences in Working Memory; Long-Term Memory

• Social and emotional issues

Chapter 3/Understanding Others and Moral Development Chapter 4/Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties

InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators

1(g) The teacher understands the role of language and culture in learning and knows how to modify instruction to make language comprehensible and instruction relevant, accessible, and challenging.

C. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment 1. Theoretical foundations about human motivation and behavior

Chapter 12/Motivation in Learning and Teaching

3(i) The teacher understands the relationship between motivation and engagement and knows how to design learning experiences using strategies that build learner self-direction and ownership of learning.

• Important terms that relate to motivation and behavior

Chapter 7/Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses; Reinforcement Schedules Chapter 11/Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation Chapter 12/Motivation in Learning and Teaching Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations

2. How knowledge of human emotion and behavior should influence strategies for organizing and supporting individual and group work in the classroom

Chapter 12/Emotions and Anxiety; Guidelines: Coping with Anxiety; Guidelines: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations

3(j) The teacher knows how to help learners work productively and cooperatively with each other to achieve learning goals.

3. Factors and situations that are likely to promote or diminish students’ motivation to learning, and how to help students to become self-motivated

Chapter 12/Needs: Lessons for Teachers; Goals: Lessons for Teachers; Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers; Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment

3(i) The teacher understands the relationship between motivation and engagement and knows how to design learning experiences using strategies that build learner self-direction and ownership of learning.

4. Principles of effective management and strategies to promote positive relationships, cooperation, and purposeful learning

Chapter 7/Methods for Encouraging Behaviors; Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors; Handling Undesirable Behavior; Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems; Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management

3(k) The teacher knows how to collaborate with learners to establish and monitor elements of a safe and productive learning environment including norms, expectations, routines, and organizational structures.

• Establishing daily procedures and routines

Chapter 13/Routines and Rules Required; Guidelines: Establishing Class Routines

• Establishing classroom rules, punishments, and rewards

Chapter 13/Prevention Is the Best Medicine; Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Justice Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations

• Giving timely feedback

Chapter 7/Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately Chapter 13/The Need for Communication Chapter 14/Responding to Student Answers Chapter 15/Effects of Grading on Students

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• Maintaining accurate records

Chapter 15/Authentic Assessments: Portfolios and Exhibitions; Guidelines: Creating Portfolios; Evaluating Portfolios and Performances

• Communicating with parents and caregivers

Chapters 2–15/Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships (one in each chapter)

• Using objective behavior descriptions

Chapter 7/Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis

• Responding to student misbehavior

Chapter 7/Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences; Handling Undesirable Behavior; Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment Chapter 13/Dealing with Discipline Problems; Special Problems with High School Students; Guidelines: Imposing Penalties; Assertive Discipline; Confrontations and Negotiations; Guidelines: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations

• Arranging classroom space

Chapter 13/Planning Spaces for Learning; Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces

• Pacing and the structure of the lesson

Chapter 13/Encouraging Engagement; Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged; Withitness; Overlapping and Group Focus; Movement Management Chapter 14/Clarity and Organization; Guidelines: Effective Direct Instruction

InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators

II. Instruction and Assessment A. Instructional Strategies 1. Major cognitive processes associated with student learning • Critical thinking • Creative thinking

Chapter 9/Critical Thinking and Argumentation Chapter 4/Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters

• Inductive and deductive thinking

Chapter 2/High School and College: Formal Operations

• Problem structuring and problem solving

Chapter 9/Problem Solving; Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving

• Invention

Chapter 4/Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters

• Memorization and recall

Chapter 8/Cognitive Views of Memory

2. Major categories, advantages, and appropriate uses of instructional strategies

8(j) The teacher understands the cognitive processes associated with various kinds of learning (e.g., critical and creative thinking, problem framing and problem solving, invention, memorization and recall) and how these processes can be stimulated.

8(k) The teacher knows how to apply a range of developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate instructional strategies to achieve learning goals.

• Cooperative learning

Chapter 10/Collaboration and Cooperation; Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning

• Direct instruction (often referred to as teacher-centered instruction)

Chapter 14/Direct Instruction

• Discovery learning

Chapter 10/Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning

• Whole-group discussion

Chapter 14/Group Discussion; Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions

PRAXIS II® Topics

Woolfolk Text Connections

• Independent study

Chapter 9/Learning Strategies; Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student Chapter 11/Agency and Self-Efficacy; SelfRegulated Learning: Skill and Will

• Interdisciplinary instruction (sometimes referred to as thematic instruction)

Chapter 10/Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Chapter 14/Planning from a Constructivist Perspective

• Questioning

Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback

3. Principles, techniques, and methods associated with major instructional strategies

5(j) The teacher understands how current interdisciplinary themes (e.g., civic literacy, health literacy, global awareness) connect to the core subjects and knows how to weave those themes into meaningful learning experiences.

8(k) The teacher knows how to apply a range of developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate instructional strategies to achieve learning goals.

• Direct instruction (often referred to as teacher-centered instruction)

Chapter 14/Direct Instruction; Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback; Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions

• Student-centered models

Chapter 10/Cognitive and Social Constructivism

4. Methods for enhancing student learning through the use of a variety of resources and materials

InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators

Chapter 10/Learning Environments in a Digital World Chapter 14/Technology and Differentiation

8(n) The teacher knows how to use a wide variety of resources, including human and technological, to engage students in learning.

B. Planning Instruction 1. Techniques for planning instruction to meet curriculum goals, including the incorporation of learning theory, subject matter, curriculum development, and student development

7(i) The teacher understands learning theory, human development, cultural diversity, and individual differences and how these impact ongoing planning.

• National and state learning standards • State and local curriculum frameworks • State and local curriculum guides

Chapter 14/An Example of State-Level Goals: The Common Core Chapter 15/Accountability and High-Stakes Testing

• Scope and sequence in specific disciplines • Units and lessons

Chapter 14/The First Step: Planning; Planning from a Constructivist Perspective

• Behavioral objectives: affective, cognitive, and psychomotor • Learner objectives and outcomes

Chapter 14/Learning Targets; Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies; Guidelines: Using Learning Targets

2. Techniques for creating effective bridges between curriculum goals and students’ experiences • Modeling

Chapter 7/Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational learning

• Guided practice

Chapter 2/Assisted Learning Chapter 10/Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching Chapter 14/Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions

• Independent practice, including homework

Chapter 11/Agency and Self-Efficacy; SelfRegulated Learning: Skill and Will Chapter 14/Seatwork and Homework

• Transitions

Chapter 13/Overlapping and Group Focus; Movement Management; Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged

7(g) The teacher understands content and content standards and how these are organized in the curriculum.

7(j) The teacher understands the strengths and needs of individual learners and how to plan instruction that is responsive to these strengths and needs.

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• Activating students’ prior knowledge

Chapter 8/The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition; Long-Term Memory Chapter 9/Defining Goals and Representing the Problem

• Anticipating preconceptions

Chapter 9/Factors That Hinder Problem Solving

• Encouraging exploration and problem solving

Chapter 2/Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Chapter 9/Problem Solving Chapter 11/Agency and Self-Efficacy

• Building new skills on those previously acquired

Chapter 2/Basic Tendencies in Thinking Chapter 4/Students with Intellectual Disabilities; Guidelines: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities Chapter 8/Long-Term Memory; Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections; Development of Procedural Knowledge Chapter 11/Observational Learning in Teaching

InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators

C. Assessment Strategies 1. Types of assessments

Chapter 15/Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading; Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments; Classroom Assessment: Testing

6(j) The teacher understands the differences between formative and summative applications of assessment and knows how and when to use each.

2. Characteristics of assessments

Chapter 15/Basics of Assessment; Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity; Writing Multiple-Choice Questions; Constructing Essay Tests; Reliability, Validity, Generalizability; Guidelines: Developing a Rubric

6(k) The teacher understands the range of types and multiple purposes of assessment and how to design, adapt, or select appropriate assessments to address specific learning goals and individual differences, and to minimize sources of bias.

3. Scoring assessments

Chapter 15/Using Multiple-Choice Tests; Evaluating Essays; Evaluating Portfolios and Performances; Guidelines: Developing a Rubric

4. Uses of assessments

Chapter 15/Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading; Accountability and High-Stakes Testing; Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessment; Classroom Assessment: Testing

5. Understanding of measurement theory and assessment-related issues

Chapter 15/Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading

6(1) The teacher knows how to analyze assessment data to understand patterns and gaps in learning, to guide planning and instruction, and to provide meaningful feedback to all learners.

III. Communication Techniques A. Basic, effective verbal and nonverbal -communication techniques

Chapter 13/The Need for Communication; Prevention Is the Best Medicine

8(m) The teacher understands how multiple forms of communication (oral, written, nonverbal, digital, visual) convey ideas, foster self expression, and build relationships.

B. Effect of cultural and gender differences on communications in the classroom

Chapter 5/Dialect Differences in the Classroom Chapter 6/Sociolinguistics; Gender in Teaching and Learning; Creating Culturally Compatible Classrooms

3(1) The teacher understands how learner diversity can affect communication and knows how to communicate effectively in differing environments.

PRAXIS II® Topics

Woolfolk Text Connections

C. Types of questions that can stimulate discussion in different ways for different purposes

Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback

1. Probing for learner understanding

Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback

2. Helping students articulate their ideas and thinking processes

Chapter 9/Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving Chapter 14/Group Discussion; Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions

5(n) The teacher understands communication modes and skills as vehicles for learning (e.g., information gathering and processing) across disciplines as well as vehicles for expressing learning.

3. Promoting risk taking and problem solving

Chapter 9/Problem Solving

8(j) The teacher understands the cognitive processes associated with various kinds of learning (e.g., critical and creative thinking, problem framing and problem solving, invention, memorization and recall) and how these processes can be stimulated.

4. Facilitating factual recall

Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback

5. Encouraging convergent and divergent thinking

Chapter 4/Assessing Creativity Chapter 14/Kinds of Questions

6. Stimulating curiosity

Chapter 12/Tapping Interests; Guidelines: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity; Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity

7. Helping students to question

Chapter 14/Fitting the Questions to the Students

InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators

IV. Profession and Community A. The Reflective Practitioner 1. Types of resources available for professional development and learning • Professional literature • Colleagues

Chapters 2–15/Teachers’ Casebook (opening and closing sections of each chapter)

2. Ability to read and understand articles about current views, ideas, and debates regarding best teaching practices

Chapter 1/Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning Chapters 2–15/Point/Counterpoint (one in each chapter)

3. Why personal reflection on teaching practices is critical, and approaches that can be used to achieve this

Chapters 2–15/Point/Counterpoint (one in each chapter)

9(g) The teacher understands and knows how to use a variety of self-assessment and problem-solving strategies to analyze and reflect on his/her practice and to plan for adaptations/adjustments.

1. Role of the school as a resource to the larger community

Chapter 6/Culture and Diversity Chapter 13/Caring Relationships: Connections with School

10(1) The teacher understands schools as organizations within a historical, cultural, political, and social context and knows how to work with others across the system to support learners.

2. Factors in the students’ environment outside of school (family circumstances, community environments, health, and economic conditions) that may influence students’ life and learning

Chapter 3/Families; Peers Chapter 4/Students with Learning Challenges

10(m) The teacher understands that alignment of family, school, and community spheres of influence enhances student learning and that discontinuity in these spheres of influence interferes with learning.

3. Basic strategies for involving parents/guardians and leaders in the community in the educational process

Chapter 6/Culture and Diversity Chapters 2–14/Family and Community Partnerships (one in each chapter)

10(n) The teacher knows how to work with other adults and has developed skills in collaborative interaction appropriate for both face-to-face and virtual contexts.

B. The Larger Community

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InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators

4. Major laws related to students’ rights and teacher responsibilities • Equal education • Appropriate education for handicapped children • Confidentiality and privacy • Appropriate treatment of students Reporting situations related to possible child abuse

Chapter 4/Individual Differences and the Law; The Rights of Students and Families Chapter 13/The Need for Communication Chapter 3/Teachers and Child Abuse

9(j) The teacher understands laws related to learners’ rights and teacher responsibilities (e.g., for educational equity, appropriate education for learners with disabilities, confidentiality, privacy, appropriate treatment of learners, reporting in situations related to possible child abuse).

Note: The InTASC (Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium) standards were developed by the Council of Chief State School Officers and member states. Copies may be downloaded from the council’s Web site at http://www.ccsso.org. Source: Council of Chief State School Officers. (2013, April). Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards and Learning Progressions for Teachers 1.0: A Resource for Ongoing Teacher Development. Washington, DC: Author.

GLOSSARY Absence seizure  A seizure involving only a small part of the brain that causes a child to lose contact briefly with ongoing events—short lapses of consciousness. Academic language  The entire range of language used in elementary, secondary, and university-level schools including words, concepts, strategies, and processes from academic subjects. Academic learning time  Time when students are actually succeeding at the learning task. Academic tasks  The work the student must accomplish, including the product expected, resources available, and the mental operations required. Accommodation  Altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information. Accountable  Making teachers and schools responsible for student learning, usually by monitoring learning with highstakes tests. Achievement tests  Standardized tests measuring how much students have learned in a given content area. Acronym  Technique for remembering by using the first letter of each word in a phrase to form a new, memorable word. Action research  Systematic observations or tests of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students. Action zone  Area of a classroom where the greatest amount of interaction takes place. Active teaching  Teaching characterized by high levels of teacher explanation, demonstration, and interaction with students. Adaptation  Adjustment to the environment. Adaptive teaching  Provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes these supports as students become able to handle more on their own. Adolescent egocentrism  Assumption that everyone else shares one’s thoughts, feelings, and concerns. Advance organizer  Statement of inclusive concepts to introduce and sum up material that follows. Affective domain  Objectives focusing on attitudes and feelings. Affinity groups  Online communities for video game users where they can share knowledge, strategies, role-play scenarios, game modifications, or fan fiction stories and novels based on the games they are playing. Algorithm  Step-by-step procedure for solving a problem; prescription for solutions. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) Federal legislation prohibiting discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, transportation, public access, local government, and telecommunications.

Amotivation  A complete lack of any intent to act—no engagement at all. Analogical thinking  Heuristic in which one limits the search for solutions to situations that are similar to the one at hand. Anorexia nervosa  Eating disorder characterized by very limited food intake. Antecedents  Events that precede an action. Anxiety  General uneasiness, a feeling of tension. Applied behavior analysis  The application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior. Appropriating  Being able to internalize or take for yourself knowledge and skills developed in interaction with others or with cultural tools. Argumentation  The process of debating a claim with someone else. Articulation disorders  Any of a variety of pronunciation difficulties, such as the substitution, distortion, or omission of sounds. Assertive discipline  Clear, firm, nonhostile response style. Assessment  Procedures used to obtain information about student performance. Assessment bias  Qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students’ gender, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, and so on. Assimilation  Fitting new information into existing schemes. Assisted learning  Providing strategic help in the initial stages of learning, gradually diminishing as students gain independence. Assistive technology  Devices, systems, and services that support and improve the capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Attachment  Forming an emotional bond with another person, initially a parent or family member. Attention  Focus on a stimulus. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Current term for disruptive behavior disorders marked by overactivity, excessive difficulty sustaining attention, or impulsiveness. Attribution theories  Descriptions of how individuals’ explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behavior. Authentic assessments  Assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations. Authentic task  Tasks that have some connection to real-life problems the students will face outside the classroom. Autism/Autism spectrum disorders  Developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication

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and social interaction, generally evident before age 3 and ranging from mild to major. Automated basic skills  Skills that are applied without conscious thought. Automaticity  The ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort. The result of learning to perform a behavior or thinking process so thoroughly that the performance is automatic and does not require effort. Autonomy Independence. Availability heuristic  Judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available in your memory, assuming those easily remembered events are common. Aversive  Irritating or unpleasant. Balanced bilingualism  Adding a second language capability without losing your heritage language. Basic skills  Clearly structured knowledge that is needed for later learning and that can be taught step by step. Behavior modification  Systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior. Behavioral learning theories  Explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors. Behavioral objectives  Instructional objectives stated in terms of observable behaviors. Being needs  Maslow’s three higher-level needs, sometimes called growth needs. Belief perseverance  The tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence. Bias  A prejudicial preference or action. Bilingual  Speaking two languages and dealing appropriately with the two different cultures. Binge eating  Uncontrolled eating of large quantities of food, such as a whole cake or entire jar of peanut butter. Bioecological model  Bronfenbrenner’s theory describing the nested social and cultural contexts that shape development. Every person develops within a microsystem, inside a mesosystem, embedded in an exosystem, all of which are a part of the macrosystem of the culture. All development occurs in and is influenced by the time period—the chronosystem. Blended families  Parents, children, and stepchildren merged into families through remarriages. Bottom-up processing  Perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern. Brainstorming  Generating ideas without stopping to evaluate them. Bulimia  Eating disorder characterized by overeating, then getting rid of the food by self-induced vomiting or laxatives. CAPS  A strategy that can be used in reading literature: Characters, Aim of story, Problem, Solution. Case study  Intensive study of one person or one situation. Central executive  The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources. Central tendency  Typical score for a group of scores.

Cerebral palsy  Condition involving a range of motor or coordination difficulties due to brain damage. Chain mnemonics  Memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element. Chunking  Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units. Classical conditioning  Association of automatic responses with new stimuli. Classification  Grouping objects into categories. Classroom assessments  Classroom assessments are selected and created by teachers and can take many different forms—unit tests, essays, portfolios, projects, performances, oral presentations, and so on. Classroom management  Techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behavior problems. Cloud computing  Allows computer users to access applications, such as Google documents or Microsoft Web Mail, as well as computing assets such as network-accessible data storage and processing to use online applications. Cmaps  Tools for concept mapping developed by the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition that are connected to many knowledge maps and other resources on the Internet. Coactions  Joint actions of individual biology and the environment—each shapes and influences the other. Co-constructed process  A social process in which people interact and negotiate (usually verbally) to create an understanding or to solve a problem. The final product is shaped by all participants. Code switching  Moving between two speech forms. Cognitive apprenticeship  A relationship in which a less-experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert. Cognitive behavior modification  Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction. Cognitive development  Gradual orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated. Cognitive domain  In Bloom’s taxonomy, memory and reasoning objectives. Cognitive evaluation theory  Suggests that events affect motivation through the individual’s perception of the events as controlling behavior or providing information. Cognitive load  The volume of resources necessary to complete a task. Cognitive objectives  Instructional objectives stated in terms of higher-level thinking operations. Cognitive science  The interdisciplinary study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge creation, and the brain. Cognitive view of learning  A general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge. Collaboration  A philosophy about how to relate to others— how to learn and work. Collective monologue  Form of speech in which children in a group talk but do not really interact or communicate.

G LOSSA RY Commitment  In Marcia’s theory of identity statuses, individuals’ choices concerning political and religious beliefs, for example, usually as a consequence of exploring the options. Community of practice  Social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true. Compensation  The principle that changes in one dimension can be offset by changes in another. Complex learning environments  Problems and learning situations that mimic the ill-structured nature of real life. Computational thinking  The thought processes involved in formulating problems so you can represent their solution steps and algorithms for computing. Computerized axial tomography (CAT)  A technique that uses X-ray technology to provide enhanced, 3-dimensional images of the part of the body scanned. Concept  A category used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people. Concept map  A drawing that charts the relationships among ideas. Concrete operations  Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations. Conditioned response (CR)  Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. Conditioned stimulus (CS)  Stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning. Confidence interval  Range of scores within which an individual’s true score is likely to fall. Confirmation bias  Seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming evidence. Consequences  Events that follow an action. Conservation  Principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance. Constructionism  How public knowledge in disciplines such as science, math, economics, or history is constructed. Constructive/Structured controversy  Students work in pairs within their four-person cooperative groups to research a particular controversy. Constructivism/constructivist approach  View that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information. Constructivist approach See constructivism. Context  Internal and external circumstances and situations that interact with the individual’s thoughts, feelings, and actions to shape development and learning. The physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event. Contiguity  Association of two events because of repeated pairing. Contingency contract  A contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do to earn a particular reward or privilege. Continuous reinforcement schedule  Presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response. Convergent questions  Questions with only one right answer—usually factual questions or rote knowledge questions. Convergent thinking  Narrowing possibilities to a single answer.

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Cooperation  Way of working with others to attain a shared goal. Cooperative learning  Situations in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation, and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning is supported by other individuals. Co-regulation  A transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate self-regulated learning and skills through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from teachers, parents, or peers. Correlations  Statistical descriptions of how closely two variables are related. Creativity  Imaginative, original thinking or problem solving. Criterion-referenced grading  Assessment of each student’s mastery of course objectives. Criterion-referenced testing  Testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard. Critical periods  If learning doesn’t happen during these periods, it never will. Critical thinking  Evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution. Crystallized intelligence  Ability to apply culturally approved problem-solving methods. Cueing  Providing a stimulus that “sets up” a desired behavior. Cultural deficit model  A model that explains the school achievement problems of ethnic minority students by assuming that their culture is inadequate and does not prepare them to succeed in school. Cultural tools  The real tools (computers, scales, etc.) and symbol systems (numbers, language, graphs) that allow people in a society to communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge. Culturally relevant pedagogy  Excellent teaching for students of color that includes academic success, developing/ maintaining cultural competence, and developing a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo. Culturally responsive management  Taking cultural meanings and styles into account when developing management plans and responding to students. Culture  The knowledge, values, attitudes, and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment. Culture-fair/culture-free test  A test without cultural bias. Cyber aggression  Using email, Twitter, Facebook, or other social media to spread rumors, make threats, or otherwise terrorize peers. Decay  The weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time. Decentering  Focusing on more than one aspect at a time. Declarative knowledge  Verbal information; facts; “knowing that” something is the case. Deficiency needs  Maslow’s four lower-level needs, which must be satisfied first before higher-level needs can be addressed. Defining attribute  Qualities that connect members of a group to a specific concept.

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Deliberate practice  Comparing your performance to a high standard, monitoring how well you are doing, seeking and using feedback, and focusing on areas that need improvement. Descriptive studies  Studies that collect detailed information about specific situations, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or a combination of these methods. Design-based research  Practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice, then researchers gather and analyze the data to address those problems. Desirable difficulty  The more effort that is required to remember something, the better you will learn and the stronger the memory will be—as long as the efforts are successful. Development  Orderly, adaptive changes we go through between conception and death; these developmental changes remain for a reasonably long period of time. Developmental crisis  A specific conflict whose resolution prepares the way for the next stage. Deviation IQ  Score based on a statistical comparison of an individual’s performance with the average performance of others in that age group. Dialect  Any variety of a language spoken by a particular group. Differentiated instruction  A flexible approach to teaching that matches content, process, and product based on student differences in readiness, interests, and learning needs. Takes into account students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs. Direct instruction/explicit teaching  Systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts, and information. Direct reinforcement  Reinforcement given after successful completion of a task. Disability  The inability to do something specific such as walk or hear. Discrimination  Treating or acting unfairly toward particular categories of people. Disequilibrium  In Piaget’s theory, the “out-of-balance” state that occurs when a person realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understand a situation. Distractors  Wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple-choice item. Distributed practice  Practice in brief periods with rest intervals. Distributive justice  Beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges fairly among members of a group; follows a sequence of development from equality to merit to benevolence. Divergent questions  Questions that have no single correct answer. Divergent thinking  Coming up with many possible solutions. Domain-specific knowledge  Information that is useful in a particular situation or that applies mainly to one specific topic.

Domain-specific strategies  Consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem. Dual coding theory  Suggests that information is stored in long-term memory as either visual images or verbal units, or both. Educational psychology  The discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes; applies the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as well. Effective instruction delivery (EID)  Instructions that are concise, clear, and specific, and that communicate an expected result. Statements work better than questions. Egocentric  Assuming that others experience the world the way you do. Elaboration  Adding and extending meaning by connecting new information to existing knowledge. Elaborative rehearsal  Keeping information in working memory by associating it with something else you already know. Electroencephalograph (EEG)  A technique that measures electrical patterns in the brain created by neuron movements using electrodes attached to the scalp. Embodied cognition  Theory stating that cognitive processes develop from real-time, goal-directed interactions between humans and their environment. Emergent literacy  The skills and knowledge, usually developed in the preschool years, that are the foundation for the development of reading and writing. Emotional and behavioral disorders  Behaviors or emotions that deviate so much from the norm that they interfere with the child’s own growth and development and/ or the lives of others—inappropriate behaviors, unhappiness or depression, fears and anxieties, and trouble with relationships. Emotions  Three interrelated factors–physiological responses, behaviors, and feelings—that produce an affective response to a situation. Empathetic listening  Hearing the intent and emotions behind what another says and reflecting them back by paraphrasing. Empirical  Based on systematically collected data. Enactive learning  Learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions. Engaged time  Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as time on task. English as a second language (ESL)  The classes devoted to teaching English to students who are English language learners. English language learners (ELLs)  Students who are learning English and whose primary or heritage language is not English. Entity view of ability  Belief that ability is a fixed characteristic that cannot be changed. Epilepsy  Disorder marked by seizures and caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain. Episodic buffer  The process that brings together and integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory under the supervision of the central executive.

G LOSSA RY Episodic memory  Long-term memory for information tied to a particular time and place, especially memory of the events in a person’s life. Epistemological beliefs  Beliefs about the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned. Equilibration  Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment. Ethnicity  A cultural heritage shared by a group of people. Ethnography  A descriptive approach to research that focuses on life within a group and tries to understand the meaning of events to the people involved. Event-related potential (ERP)  Measurements that assess electrical activity of the brain through the skull or scalp. Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)  The 2015 replacement for the No Child Left Behind Act. ESSA drops the requirement for proficiency for all students by a certain date has been dropped and returns most control to the states to set standards and develop interventions. Evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP) Practices that integrate the best available research with the insights of expert practitioners and knowledge of the characteristics, culture, and preferences of the client. Executive control processes  Processes such as selective attention, rehearsal, elaboration, and organization that influence encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in memory. Executive functioning  All those processes that we use to organize, coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional actions, including focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive responses, making and changing plans, and using memory to hold and manipulate information. Exemplar  An actual memory of a specific object. Exhibition  A performance test or demonstration of learning that is public and usually takes an extended time to prepare. Expectancy 3 value theories  Explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals’ expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal. Experimentation  Research method in which variables are manipulated and the effects recorded. Expert teachers  Experienced, effective teachers who have developed solutions for classroom problems. Their knowledge of teaching process and content is extensive and well organized. Explicit memory  Long-term memories that involve deliberate or conscious recall. Exploration  In Marcia’s theory of identity statuses, the process by which adolescents consider and try out alternative beliefs, values, and behaviors in an effort to determine which will give them the most satisfaction. Expressive vocabulary  All the different words a person uses in speaking or writing. Extended families  Different family members— grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and so on—living in the same household or at least in daily contact with the children in the family. Extinction  The disappearance of a learned response.

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Extraneous cognitive load  The resources required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task. Extrinsic motivation  Motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments. Failure-accepting students  Students who believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it. Failure-avoiding students  Students who avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance. First-wave constructivism  A focus on the individual and psychological sources of knowing, as in Piaget’s theory. Fixed mindset  A personally held belief that abilities are stable, uncontrollable, set traits. Flashbulb memories  Clear, vivid memories of emotionally important events in your life. Flexible grouping  Grouping and regrouping students based on learning needs. Flow  A mental state in which you are fully immersed in a challenging task that is accompanied by high levels of concentration and involvement. Fluid intelligence  Mental efficiency, nonverbal abilities grounded in brain development. Flynn effect  Because of better health, smaller families, increased complexity in the environment, and more and better schooling, IQ test scores are steadily rising. Focal seizure  A seizure originating in just one area of the brain lasting only a minute or two. The person may experience a sudden feeling of joy, sadness, anger, or nausea, or sensations such as taste, smell, or movement in one part of the body. Formal operations  Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables. Formative assessment  Ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis. Free, appropriate public education (FAPE)  Public funding to support appropriate educational programs for all students, no matter what their needs. Functional behavioral assessment (FBA) Procedures used to obtain information about antecedents, behaviors, and consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior. Functional fixedness  Inability to use objects or tools in a new way. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)  An MRI is an imaging technique that uses a magnetic field along with radio waves and a computer to create detailed pictures of the inside of the body. A functional MRI uses the MRI to measure the tiny changes that take place in the brain during brain activity. Funds of knowledge  Knowledge that families and community members have acquired in many areas of work, home, and religious life that can become the basis for teaching. Gender biases  Different views of males and females, often favoring one gender over the other. Gender identity  The sense of self as male or female as well as the beliefs one has about gender roles and attributes.

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Gender roles  The behaviors and characteristics that the culture stereotypically associates with bring male or female. Gender schemas  Organized cognitive structures that include gender-related information that influences how children think and behave. Genderlects  Different ways of talking for males and females. General intelligence ( g)  A general factor in cognitive ability that is related in varying degrees to performance on all mental tests. General knowledge  Information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to many situations. Generalized seizure  A seizure involving a large portion of the brain. Generation 1.5  Students whose characteristics, educational experiences, and language fluencies are somewhere in between those of students born in the United States and students who are recent immigrants. Generativity  Sense of concern for future generations. Germane cognitive load  Deep processing of information related to the task, including the application of prior knowledge to a new task or problem. Gestalt  German for pattern or whole. Gestalt theorists hold that people organize their perceptions into coherent wholes. Gifted and talented  Students who demonstrate outstanding aptitudes and competences in one or more of many domains. Glial cells The white matter of the brain. These cells greatly outnumber neurons and appear to have many functions such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating around axon fibers. Goal  What an individual strives to accomplish. Goal orientations  Patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school. Goal structure  The way students relate to others who are also working toward a particular goal. Goal-directed actions  Deliberate actions toward a goal. Good behavior game  Arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit points for breaking agreed-upon rules of good behavior. Grade-equivalent score  Measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade. Grading on the curve  Norm-referenced grading that compares students’ performance to an average level. Grit  —A a personality trait characterized by determination and persistence. Group consequences  Rewards or punishments given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct. Group discussion  Conversation in which the teacher does not have the dominant role; students pose and answer their own questions. Group focus  The ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities. Growth mindset  A personally held belief that abilities are unstable, controllable, and improvable.

Handicap  A disadvantage in a particular situation, sometimes caused by a disability. Heritage language  The language spoken in the student’s home or by members of the family. Heuristic  General strategy used in attempting to solve problems. Hierarchy of needs  Maslow’s model of seven levels of human needs, from basic physiological requirements to the need for self-actualization. High-stakes testing  Standardized tests whose results have powerful influences when used by school administrators, other officials, or employers to make decisions. Hostile aggression  Bold, direct action that is intended to hurt someone else; unprovoked attack. Human agency  The capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation, and emotions to reach your goals. Humanistic interpretation  Approach to motivation that emphasizes personal freedom, choice, self-determination, and striving for personal growth. Hypothesis/hypotheses  A prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning  A formal-operations problem-solving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions. “I” message  Clear, nonaccusatory statement of how something is affecting you. Identity  Principle that a person or object remains the same over time. (Piaget) The complex answer to the question: “Who am I?” (Erikson). Identity achievement  Strong sense of commitment to life choices after free consideration of alternatives. Identity diffusion  Uncenteredness; confusion about who one is and what one wants. Identify-first reference  Using terms such as “autistic” or “deaf” to describe a person—some people prefer this reference because they “claim” the disability as their own and value it as a part of who they are. It is a source of pride to be part of that culture. Identity foreclosure  Acceptance of parental life choices without consideration of options. Images  Representations based on the physical attributes— the appearance—of information. Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE) A simulation of a real-world environment that immerses students in tasks like those required in a professional practicum. Immigrants  People who voluntarily leave their country to become permanent residents in a new place. Implicit memory  Knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling but that influences our behavior or thought without our awareness. Importance/attainment value  The importance of doing well on a task; how success on the task meets personal needs. Incentive  An object or event that encourages or discourages behavior.

G LOSSA RY Inclusion  The integration of all students, including those with severe disabilities, into regular classes. Incremental view of ability  Belief that ability is a set of skills that can be changed. Industry  Eagerness to engage in productive work. Informal assessments  Ungraded (formative) assessments that gather information from multiple sources to help teachers make decisions. Information processing  The human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information. Initiative  Willingness to begin new activities and explore new directions. Inquiry learning  Approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions. Inside-out skills  The emergent literacy skills of knowledge of graphemes, phonological awareness, syntactic awareness, phoneme–grapheme correspondence, and emergent writing. Insight  In problem solving, the sudden realization of a solution. In the triarchic theory of intelligence, the ability to deal effectively with novel situations. Instructional objectives  Clear statement of what students are intended to learn through instruction. Instrumental aggression  Strong actions aimed at claiming an object, place, or privilege—not intended to harm, but may lead to harm. Integration  Fitting the child with special needs into existing class structures. Integrity  Sense of self-acceptance and fulfillment. Intellectual disabilities/mental retardation Significantly below-average intellectual and adaptive social behavior, evident before age 18. Intelligence  Ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world. Intelligence quotient (IQ)  Score comparing mental and chronological ages. Interest or intrinsic value  The enjoyment a person gets from a task. Interference  The process that occurs when remembering certain information is hampered by the presence of other information. Interim (growth) assessments  Assessments that occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way. Interleaved practice  Mixing up practice by, for example, tossing from 2 and 4 feet before being tested at 3 feet, solving different types of problems, or practicing different vocabulary words. Intermittent reinforcement schedule  Presenting a reinforcer after some but not all responses. Internalize  Process whereby children adopt external standards as their own. Intersectionality  Our overlapping, intersecting social identities (gender, sexual orientation, class, ethnicity, religion, age, etc.) that shape each and every one of us in unique ways.

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Intersubjective attitude  A commitment to build shared meaning with others by finding common ground and exchanging interpretations. Interval schedule  Length of time between reinforcers. Intimacy  Forming close, enduring relationships with others. Intrinsic cognitive load  The resources required by the task itself, regardless of other stimuli. Intrinsic motivation  Motivation associated with activities that are their own reward. Jigsaw classroom  A learning process in which each student is part of a group and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become “expert” on their piece and then teach it to the others in their group. Keyword method  System of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding cue words and images. KWL  A strategy to guide reading and inquiry: Before—What do I already know? What do I want to know? After—What have I learned? Lateralization  The specialization of the two hemispheres (sides) of the brain cortex. Learned helplessness  The expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all of one’s efforts will lead to failure. Learning  Process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior. Learning disability  Problem with acquisition and use of language; may show up as difficulty with reading, writing, reasoning, or math. Learning management system (LMS)  Systems that deliver e-learning, provide tools and learning materials, keep records, administer assessments, and manage learning. Learning preferences  Preferred ways of studying and learning, such as using pictures instead of text, working with other people versus alone, learning in structured or in unstructured situations, and so on. Learning sciences  An interdisciplinary science of learning, based on research in psychology, education, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning. Learning strategies  A special kind of procedural knowledge—knowing how to approach learning tasks. Learning styles  Characteristic approaches to learning and studying. Least restrictive environment (LRE)  Educating each child with peers in the general education classroom to the greatest extent possible. Legally blind  Seeing at 20 feet what a person with normal vision would see at 200 feet and/or having severely restricted peripheral vision. Legitimate peripheral participation  Genuine involvement in the work of the group, even if your abilities are undeveloped and contributions are small. Lesson study  As a group, teachers develop, test, improve, and retest lessons until they are satisfied with the final version. Levels of processing theory  Theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed.

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LGBTQ  Individuals whose sexual orientation is lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered, or who are currently questioning their sexual orientation. Limited English proficient (LEP)  A term also used for students who are learning English when their primary or heritage language is not English—not the preferred term (English language learner; ELL) because of the negative connotations. Loci method  Technique of associating items with specific places. Locus of causality  The location—internal or external—of the cause of behavior. Long-term memory  Permanent store of knowledge. Low vision  Vision limited to close objects. Mainstreaming  Teaching children with disabilities in regular classes for part or all of their school day. Maintenance rehearsal  Keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself. Massed practice  Practice for a single extended period. Massive multi-player online games (MMOG) Interactive gaming environments constructed in virtual worlds where the learner assumes a character role, or avatar. Mastery experiences  Our own direct experiences—the most powerful source of efficacy information. Mastery goal  A personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers. Mastery-oriented students  Students who focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as improvable. Maturation  Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over time. Mean  Arithmetical average. Means-ends analysis  Heuristic in which a goal is divided into subgoals. Measurement  An evaluation expressed in quantitative (number) terms. Median  Middle score in a group of scores. Melting pot  A metaphor for the absorption and assimilation of immigrants into the mainstream of society so that ethnic differences vanish. Menarche  The first menstrual period in girls. Mental age  In intelligence testing, a performance that represents average abilities for that age group. Metacognition  Knowledge about our own thinking processes. Metalinguistic awareness  Understanding about one’s own use of language. Microgenetic studies  Detailed observation and analysis of changes in a cognitive process as the process unfolds over a several-day or several-week period of time. Minority group  A group of people who have been socially disadvantaged—not always a minority in actual numbers. Mirror systems  Areas of the brain that fire both during perception of an action by someone else and when performing the action. Mnemonics  Techniques for remembering; the art of memory.

Mode  Most frequently occurring score. Modeling  Changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person—a model. Monolingual  Speaking only one language. Moral dilemma  Situations in which no choice is clearly and indisputably right. Moral realism  Stage of development wherein children see rules as absolute. Moral reasoning  The thinking process involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong. Morality of cooperation  Stage of development wherein children realize that people make rules and people can change them. Moratorium  Identity crisis; suspension of choices because of struggle. Motivation  An internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior. Motivation to learn  The tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to benefit from them. Movement management  Keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety. Multicultural education  Education that promotes equity in the schooling of all students. Multiple representations of content  Considering problems using various analogies, examples, and metaphors. Myelination  The process by which neural fibers are coated with a fatty sheath called myelin that makes message transfer more efficient. Natural/logical consequences  Instead of punishing, have students redo, repair, or in some way face the consequences that naturally flow from their actions. Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT)  A technique that uses an optical fiber to transmit near-infrared light through the scalp and into the brain. Some of the light is reflected back, indicating blood flow and oxygenation in the blood that reveal brain activity. Need for autonomy  The desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions. Need for competence  The individual’s need to demonstrate ability or mastery over the tasks at hand. Need for relatedness  The desire to belong and to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others who care about us. Negative correlation  A relationship between two variables in which a high value on one is associated with a low value on the other. Example: height and distance from top of head to the ceiling. Negative reinforcement  Strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs. Neo-Piagetian theories  More recent theories that integrate findings about attention, memory, and strategy use with Piaget’s insights about children’s thinking and the construction of knowledge. Neurogenesis  The production of new neurons.

G LOSSA RY Neurons  Nerve cells that store and transfer information. Neutral stimulus  Stimulus not connected to a response. Nigrescence  The process of developing a Black identity. Norm group  Large sample of students serving as a comparison group for scoring tests. Norm-referenced grading  Assessment of students’ achievement in relation to one another. Norm-referenced testing  Testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others. Normal distribution  The most commonly occurring distribution, in which scores are distributed evenly around the mean. Object permanence  The understanding that objects have a separate, permanent existence. Objective testing  Multiple-choice, matching, true/false, short-answer, and fill-in tests; scoring answers does not require interpretation. Observational learning  Learning by observation and imitation of others—vicarious learning. Operant conditioning  Learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents. Operants  Voluntary (and generally goal-directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal. Operations  Actions a person carries out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions. Organization  Ongoing process of arranging information and experiences into mental systems or categories. Ordered and logical network of relations. Outside–in skills  The emergent literacy skills of language, narrative, conventions of print, and emergent reading. Overlapping  Supervising several activities at once. Overlearning  Practicing a skill past the point of mastery. Overregularize  To apply a rule of syntax or grammar in situations where the rule does not apply, for example, “the bike was broked.” Overt aggression  A form of hostile aggression that involves physical attack. Paraphrase rule  Policy whereby listeners must accurately summarize what a speaker has said before being allowed to respond. Parenting styles  The ways of interacting with and disciplining children. Part learning  Breaking a list of items into shorter lists. Participant observation  A method for conducting descriptive research in which the researcher becomes a participant in the situation in order to better understand life in that group. Participants/subjects  People or animals studied. Participation structures  The formal and informal rules for how to take part in a given activity. Pedagogical content knowledge  Teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences. Peer cultures  Groups of children or adolescents with their own rules and norms, particularly about such things as dress, appearance, music, language, social values, and behavior.

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Percentile rank  Percentage of those in the norming sample who scored at or below an individual’s score. Perception  Interpretation of sensory information. Performance assessments  Any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product in order to demonstrate learning. Performance goal  A personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others. Personal development  Changes in personality that take place as one grows. Personal learning environment (PLE)  Provides tools that support individualized learning in a variety of contexts and situations. Personal learning network (PLN)  Framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions. Perspective-taking ability  Understanding that others have different feelings and experiences. Pervasive developmental disorder (PDD)  A term favored by the medical community to describe autism spectrum disorders. Phonological loop  Part of working memory. A speech- and sound-related system for holding and rehearsing (refreshing) words and sounds in short-term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds. Physical development  Changes in body structure and function over time. Physiological or emotional arousal  Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, attentive, wide awake, excited, or tense. Plasticity  The brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible. Portfolio  A collection of the student’s work in an area, showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement. Positive behavior supports (PBS)  Interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student. Positive correlation  A relationship between two variables in which the two increase or decrease together. Example: calorie intake and weight gain. Positive practice  Practicing correct responses immediately after errors. Positive reinforcement  Strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior. Positron emission tomography (PET)  A method of localizing and measuring brain activity using computer-assisted motion pictures of the brain. Pragmatics  The rules for when and how to use language to be an effective communicator in a particular culture. Precorrection  A tool for positive behavior support that involves identifying the context for a student’s misbehavior, clearly specifying the alternative expected behavior, modifying the situation to make the problem behavior less likely, then rehearsing the expected positive behaviors in the new context and providing powerful reinforcers. Prejudice  Prejudgment or irrational generalization about an entire category of people. Premack principle  Principle stating that a more-preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity.

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Preoperational  The stage before a child masters logical mental operations. Presentation punishment  Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior; also called Type I punishment. Pretest  Formative test for assessing students’ knowledge, readiness, and abilities. Priming  Activating a concept in memory or the spread of activation from one concept to another. Principle  Established relationship between factors. Private speech  Children’s self-talk, which guides their thinking and action. Eventually, these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech. Problem  Any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal and must find a means to do so. Problem solving  Creating new solutions for problems. Problem-based learning  Students are confronted with a problem that launches their inquiry as they collaborate to find solutions and learn valuable information and skills in the process. Procedural knowledge  Knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task; “knowing how.” Procedural memory  Long-term memory for how to do things. Procedures/routines  Prescribed steps for an activity. Production deficiency  Students learn problem-solving strategies, but do not apply them when they could or should. Productions  The contents of procedural memory; rules about what actions to take, given certain conditions. Units of knowledge that combine conditions with actions in “if this happens, do that” relationships that often are automatic. Prompt  A reminder that follows a cue to make sure the person reacts to the cue. Propositional network  Set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long-term knowledge is held. Prototype  A best example or best representative of a category. Psychomotor domain  Physical ability and coordination objectives. Psychosocial  Describing the relation of the individual’s emotional needs to the social environment. Puberty  The physiological changes during adolescence that lead to the ability to reproduce. Punishment  Process that weakens or suppresses behavior. Pygmalion effect  Exceptional progress by a student as a result of high teacher expectations for that student; named for mythological king, Pygmalion, who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life. Qualitative research  Exploratory research that attempts to understand the meaning of events to the participants involved using such methods as case studies, interviews, ethnography, participant observation, and other approaches that focus on a few people in depth. Quantitative research  Research that studies many participants in a more formal and controlled way using objective measures such as experimentation, statistical analyses, tests, and structured observations.

Quasi-experimental studies  Studies that fit most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. Race  A socially constructed category based on appearances and ancestry. Racial and ethnic pride  A positive self-concept about one’s racial or ethnic heritage. Radical constructivism  Knowledge is assumed to be the individual’s construction; it cannot be judged right or wrong. Random  Without any definite pattern; following no rule. Range  Distance between the highest and the lowest scores in a group. Ratio schedule  Reinforcement based on the number of responses between reinforcers. READS  A five-step reading strategy: Review headings; Examine boldface words; Ask, “What do I expect to learn?”; Do it—Read; Summarize in your own words. Receptive vocabulary  The words a person can understand in spoken or written words. Reciprocal questioning  Students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about lesson material. Reciprocal teaching  Learning to apply the strategies of questioning, summarizing, predicting, and clarifying; designed to help students understand and think deeply about what they read. Reconstruction  Recreating information by using memories, expectations, logic, and existing knowledge. Reflective  Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students. Refugees  A special group of immigrants who also relocate voluntarily, but who are fleeing their home country because it is not safe. Reinforcement  Use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Reinforcer  Any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again. Relational aggression  A form of hostile aggression that involves verbal attacks and other actions meant to harm social relationships. Reliability  Consistency of test results. Removal punishment  Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior; also called Type II punishment. Representativeness heuristic  Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well the events match your prototypes— what you think is representative of the category. Reprimands  Criticisms for misbehavior; rebukes. Resilience  The ability to adapt successfully in spite of difficult circumstances and threats to development. Resistance culture  Group values and beliefs about refusing to adopt the behaviors and attitudes of the majority culture. Respondents  Responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli. Response  Observable reaction to a stimulus.

G LOSSA RY Response cost  Punishment by loss of reinforcers. Response set  Rigidity; the tendency to respond in the most familiar way. Response to intervention (RTI)  A process to make sure students get appropriate research-based instruction and support as soon as possible and that teachers are systematic in documenting the interventions they have tried with these students so they can use this information in planning instruction. Restructuring  Conceiving of a problem in a new or different way. Retrieval  Process of searching for and finding information in long-term memory. Retrieval practice/testing effect  Practicing by retrieving information from memory instead of rereading or restudying—more effective because retrieval seems to help memories consolidate in the brain and strengthens the neural pathways so the knowledge is easier to find later. Reversibility  A characteristic of Piagetian logical operations—the ability to think through a series of steps, then mentally reverse the steps and return to the starting point; also called reversible thinking. Reversible thinking  Thinking backward, from the end to the beginning. Reward  An attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of a behavior. Ripple effect  “Contagious” spreading of behaviors through imitation. Rote memorization  Remembering information by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of the information. Rules  Statements specifying expected and forbidden behaviors; dos and don’ts. Scaffolding  Support for learning and problem solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner. Teachers and students make meaningful connections between what the teacher knows and what the students know and need in order to help the students learn more. Schema-driven problem solving  Recognizing a problem as a “disguised” version of an old problem for which one already has a solution. Schemas (singular, schema)  In cognitive theory, basic structures for organizing information; concepts. Schemes  In Piagetian theory, mental systems or categories of perception and experience. Scoring rubrics  Rules that are used to determine the quality of a student’s performance. Script  Schema, or expected plan, for the sequence of steps in a common event such as buying groceries or ordering pizza. Scripted cooperation  Learning strategy in which two students take turns summarizing material and criticizing the summaries. Seatwork  Independent classroom work. Second-wave constructivism  A focus on the social and cultural sources of knowing, as in Vygotsky’s theory.

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Section 504  A part of civil rights law that prevents discrimination against people with disabilities in programs that receive federal funds, such as public schools. Selected-response testing  A form of testing in which students choose the correct response from a set of possible responses provided by the teacher or the test developer instead of creating their own response. Multiple choice and true-false tests are common examples of selected response testing. Self-actualization  Fulfilling one’s potential. Self-concept  Individuals’ knowledge and beliefs about themselves—their ideas, feelings, attitudes, and expectations. Self-efficacy  A person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation. Self-esteem  The value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. Self-fulfilling prophecy  A groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected. Self-handicapping  Students may engage in behavior that blocks their own success in order to avoid testing their true ability. Self-instruction  Talking oneself through the steps of a task. Self-management  Management of your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for your own actions. Also the use of behavioral learning principles to change your own behavior. Self-regulated learning  A view of learning as skills and will applied to analyzing learning tasks, setting goals and planning how to do the task, applying skills, and especially making adjustments about how learning is carried out. Self-regulation  Process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach goals. Self-regulatory knowledge  Knowing how to manage your learning, or knowing how and when to use your declarative and procedural knowledge. Self-reinforcement  Controlling (selecting and administering) your own reinforcers. Semantic memory  Memory for meaning. Semilingual  A lack of proficiency in any language; speaking one or more languages inadequately. Semiotic function  The ability to use symbols—language, pictures, signs, or gestures—to represent actions or objects mentally. Sensitive periods  Times when a person is especially ready to learn certain things or responsive to certain experiences. Sensorimotor  Involving the senses and motor activity. Sensory memory  System that holds sensory information very briefly. Serial-position effect  The tendency to remember the beginning and the end, but not the middle of a list. Seriation  Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume. Service learning  A teaching strategy that invites students to identify, research, and address real community challenges, using knowledge and skills learned in the classroom. Sexual identity  A complex combination of beliefs about gender roles and sexual orientation.

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Sexual orientation  The gender to whom a person is sexually or emotionally attracted. Shaping  Reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior. Shared regulation  Students working together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance. Sheltered instruction  Approach to teaching that improves English language skills while teaching content to students who are English language learners by putting the words and concepts of the content into context to make the content more understandable. Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP®) An observational system to check that each element of sheltered instruction is present for a teacher. Short-term memory  Component of memory system that holds information for about 20 seconds. Single-subject experimental studies  Systematic interventions to study effects with one person, often by applying and then withdrawing a treatment. Situated learning  The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings. Social cognitive theory  Theory that adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory. Social conventions  Agreed-upon rules and ways of doing things in a particular situation. Social development  Changes over time in the ways we relate to others. Social goals  A wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group. Social isolation  Removal of a disruptive student for 5 to 10 minutes. Social learning theory  Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others. Social negotiation  Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives. Social persuasion  A “pep talk” or specific performance feedback—one source of self-efficacy. Sociocultural theory  Emphasizes role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society. Children learn the culture of their community (ways of thinking and behaving) through these interactions. Sociocultural views of motivation  Perspectives that emphasize participation, identities, and interpersonal relations within communities of practice. Socioeconomic status (SES)  Relative standing in the society based on income, power, background, and prestige. Sociolinguistics  The study of the formal and informal rules for how, when, about what, to whom, and how long to speak in conversations within cultural groups. Spasticity  Overly tight or tense muscles, characteristic of some forms of cerebral palsy. Speech disorder  Inability to produce sounds effectively for speaking.

Spermarche  The first sperm ejaculation for boys. Spiral curriculum  Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time. Spreading activation  Retrieval of pieces of information based on their relatedness to one another. Remembering one bit of information activates (stimulates) recall of associated information. Standard deviation  Measure of how widely scores vary from the mean. Standard error of measurement  Hypothetical estimate of variation in scores if testing were repeated. Standard scores  Scores based on the standard deviation. Standardized tests  Tests given, usually nationwide, under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures. Stanine scores  Whole-number scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raw scores. Statistically significant  Not likely to be a chance occurrence. Stem  The question part of a multiple-choice item. Stereotype  Schema that organizes knowledge or perceptions about a category. Stereotype threat  The extra emotional and cognitive burden that your performance in an academic situation might confirm a stereotype that others hold about you. Stimulus  Event that activates behavior. Stimulus control  Capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors. Story grammar  Typical structure or organization for a category of stories. Structured English immersion (SEI)  An environment that teaches English rapidly by maximizing instruction in English and using English at a level appropriate to the abilities of the students in the class who are English language learners. Successive approximations  Reinforcing small steps to reach a goal; the small component steps that make up a complex behavior. Summative assessment  Testing that follows instruction and assesses achievement. Sustaining expectation effect  Student performance is maintained at a certain level because teachers don’t recognize improvements. Synapses  The tiny space between neurons—chemical messages are sent across these gaps. Synaptic plasticity See plasticity. Syntax  The order of words in phrases or sentences. T score  Standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. Task analysis  System for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills. Taxonomy  Classification system. Teachers’ sense of efficacy  A teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn.

G LOSSA RY Theory  Integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions. Theory of mind  An understanding that other people are people too, with their own minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, and perceptions. Theory of multiple intelligences (MI)  In Gardner’s theory of intelligence, a person’s eight separate abilities: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodilykinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Theory-based  An explanation for concept formation that suggests our classifications are based on ideas about the world that we create to make sense of things. Time on task  Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as engaged time. Time out  Technically, the removal of all reinforcement. In practice, isolation of a student from the rest of the class for a brief time. Token reinforcement system  System in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward. Top-down  Making sense of information by using context and what we already know about the situation; sometimes called conceptually driven perception. Transfer  Influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive (not reproductive) uses of cognitive tools and motivations. Transition programming  Gradual preparation of students with special needs to move from high school into further education or training, employment, or community involvement. Triadic reciprocal causality  An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual and the environment on each other. Triarchic theory of successful intelligence  A three-part description of the mental abilities (thinking processes, coping with new experiences, and adapting to context) that lead to more or less intelligent behavior. True score  The score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error free. Unconditioned response (UR)  Naturally occurring emotional or physiological response. Unconditioned stimulus (US)  Stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response. Understanding by Design (UbD)  A system of lesson and unit planning that starts with key objectives for understandings and then moves backwards to design assessments and learning activities. Universal design  Considering the needs of all users in the design of new tools, learning programs, or Web sites. Utility value  The contribution of a task to meeting one’s goals. Validity  Degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

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Value  An individual’s belief about the extent to which a task or assignment is generally useful, enjoyable, or otherwise important. Value-added measures  Measures that use statistical analyses to indicate the average test score gain for students, adjusted for their student characteristics such as prior level of achievement. Variability  Degree of difference or deviation from mean. Verbalization  Putting your problem-solving plan and its logic into words. Vicarious experiences  Accomplishments that are modeled by someone else. Vicarious reinforcement  Increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior. Virtual learning environments (VLE)  A broad term that describes many ways of learning in virtual or online systems. Visuospatial sketchpad  Part of working memory. A holding system for visual and spatial information. Voicing problems  Inappropriate pitch, quality, loudness, or intonation. Volition  Will power; self-discipline; work styles that protect opportunities to reach goals by applying self-regulated learning. Warm demanders  Teachers who are especially effective with African American students; they show both high expectations and great caring for their students. Within-class ability grouping  System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two or three groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student differences. Withitness  According to Kounin, awareness of everything happening in a classroom. Work-avoidant learners  Students who don’t want to learn or to look smart, but just want to avoid work. Working memory  The brain system that provides temporary holding and processing of information to accomplish complex cognitive tasks such as language comprehension, learning, and reasoning; the information that you are focusing on at a given moment. Working-backward strategy  Heuristic in which you start with the goal and move backward to solve the problem. z score  Standard score indicating the number of standard deviations above or below the mean that a particular score falls. Zero reject  A basic principle of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act specifying that no student with a disability, no matter what kind or how severe, can be denied a free public education. Zone of proximal development (ZPD)  In Vygotsky’s theory, the phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support.

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NAME INDEX Aamodt, S., 71 Aaronson, J., 294 Abdelfattah, F., 161 Abduljabbar, A. S., 161 Aber, J. L., 146, 590, 611 Aboud, F. E., 289 Abrami, P. C., 420, 421, 423, 466 Abrams, L. M., 652 Abrous, D. N., 91 Abry, T., 581 Abuhamdeh, S., 542 Abu-Hilal, M. A., 161 Accavitti, M., 291 Acker, R. V., 145 Adesope, O. O., 403, 540 Agarwal, P. K., 386 Agne, R. M., 590 Ahn, H. S., 492 Airasian, P. W., 654, 658 Alarcon, G. M., 188 Albanese, M. A., 452 Alber, S. R., 329 Albert, K., 447 Alberto, P. A., 318, 323, 324, 326, 328, 334, 337, 338, 341 Albro, E. R., 237, 240 Alderman, M. K., 553 Aldrich, C., 468 Aldrich, N. J., 452, 453 Aleven, V., 405 Alexander, J. F., 629 Alexander, P. A., 70, 380, 400, 420, 496, 521, 543 Alferink, L. A., 95, 99 Alfieri, L., 452, 453 Alfredsson, J., 206, 207 Alibali, M. W., 111, 112 Alidoost, M., 403 Allen, J., 148, 610 Allen, J. P., 523, 610 Allen-Meares, P., 589 Allensworth, E., 499 Allington, R. L., 283 Allison, 273 Alloway, T. P., 371 Alloy, L. B., 536 Almasi, J. F., 400 Aloe, A. M., 563, 610 Alter, A. L., 294 Altszuler, A. R., 206 Alvarez, A. N., 246 Alves de Lima, D., 225 Alvidrez, J., 610

Alzate, G., 124 Amabile, T. M., 161, 163 Amanti, C., 94, 227, 228, 597 Amato, P. R., 112, 114 Ambady, N., 265 Ambridge, B., 343 Ambrose, D., 163 American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 186, 187 American Educational Research Association, 656 American Psychiatric Association, 107, 178, 191 American Psychological Association, 114, 329 American Psychological Association, Presidential Task Force on Educational Disparities, 261 American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 560 Ames, C., 519 Amo, L. C., 535 Anastasiow, N. J., 378, 435 Ana, V., 130 Anderman, E. M., 42, 120, 141, 142, 329, 462, 490, 491, 492, 498, 499, 502, 503, 504, 507, 509, 521, 523 Anderman, L. H., 462, 468, 490, 491, 492, 498, 499, 502, 503, 504, 507, 509, 521, 523 Anderson, A. R., 555 Anderson, C. A., 119 Anderson, C. W., 429 Anderson, E., 521 Anderson, G. E., 642 Anderson, I., 254 Anderson, J. R., 63, 66, 67, 206, 332, 334, 340, 345, 350, 351, 359, 380, 387, 390, 398, 413 Anderson, L. M., 582 Anderson, L. W., 367, 587, 588 Anderson, M. D., 271, 328 Anderson, R. C., 86, 600 Andrews, E. E., 152 Andrews, J. A., 104 Andrews-Weckerly, S., 498

Ann E. Casey Foundation, 32 Ansary, N. S., 563 Anyon, J., 222, 257, 258 Anzures, G., 261, 262 Appel, M., 264 Applebee, A. N., 600 Araya, P., 107 Arbuthnott, K. D., 167 Arcelus, J., 107 Archer, C., 272 Archer, S. L., 127 Archodidou, A., 86 Arena, D., 440, 441 Arends, R. I., 423, 592, 601, 605 Arens, A. K., 131–132 Arkes, J., 114 Armbruster, B. B., 375 Armento, B. J., 282, 572 Arndt, D., 194, 198 Arneson, J. J., 252 Arnett, J. J., 127, 142, 184 Arnold, M. L., 141 Aronson, E., 426, 430, 434 Aronson, J., 264, 266 Arseniev, A., 107 Artfelt, C., 368 Ashcraft, M. H., 328, 330, 331, 332, 337, 339, 341, 345, 346, 347, 350, 355, 385 Ashton, M. C., 154 Assor, A., 521 Assouline, S. G., 43 Asterhan, C. S. C., 394, 396, 429 Atkinson, R. C., 330 Atkinson, R. K., 384 Attanucci, J., 137 Aud, S., 224 August, D., 34, 230, 231 Austin, S., 33 Austin, S. B., 249 Austin, T. Y., 228 Au, T. K., 216 Avramidis, E., 170, 182 Aydin, Y. C, 33 Ayres, L. R., 481 Azano, A. P., 194, 198 Azevedo, R., 475 Baay, P., 469 Babad, E. Y., 611 Babichenko, M., 394 Bachman, J. G., 185 Bachrach, J. E., 510, 511 Baddeley, A. D., 174, 337, 338, 339, 354, 355

Bagley, E., 440 Bailey, J. M., 634, 639, 641, 643 Bailey, U. L., 179 Bain, P. M., 47, 347, 358, 377, 383, 418, 419, 420, 598, 630 Baker, C. M., 120 Baker, D. S., 581 Baker, J., 642 Baker, K., 231 Baker, S. K., 230 Balass, M., 70 Baldwin, B. T., 195 Baldwin, J. M., 61 Ball, D. L., 581 Balota, D. A., 369 Bandura, A., 118, 134, 316, 317, 412, 453, 454, 455, 457, 458, 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 473, 481, 501 Banerjee, R., 121 Banks, C. A. M., 246 Banks, J. A., 224, 246, 276, 282 Banks, S. R., 631 Banner, G. E., 343 Barbaranelli, C., 466 Barbatsis, G., 438 Barden, L. M., 599 Bargh, J. A., 262 Barkley, R. A., 174, 180 Barling, J., 463 Barlow, D. H., 48 Barmer, A., 258 Barmore, J., 656 Barnard-Brak, L., 642 Barnes, M., 343 Barnett, M. S., 397 Barnhill, G. P., 312 Barom, K. E., 502 Baron, R. A., 568 Baroody, A. E., 553 Baroody, A. J., 425, 438 Barron, K. E., 503, 505, 510 Barros, E., 105 Barry, C. M., 116 Barry, M. J., 88 Barth, A. E., 192 Bartholomew, B., 554 Bartkiewicz, M. J., 274 Bartlett, F. C., 351 Bartlett, S. M., 303, 311 Barton-Arwood, S. M., 655 Barzilai, S., 368, 369

N-1

N-2

N AME I NDE X

Basow, S. A., 197 Bassett, P., 436 Batalove, J., 218 Bates, J. E., 118 Battiato, A. C., 596 Battistich, V. A., 427 Bauer, A. M., 309, 310 Bauer, P. J., 343 Bauer, W. I., 581 Baumeister, R. F., 124, 135, 262, 496 Baumert, J., 131, 133, 134, 135, 161, 581, 596 Baumrind, D., 110 Baye, A., 160 Bayliss, D. M., 174 Bayliss, P., 170, 182 Bay-Williams, J. M., 382 Bazán, A. R., 213 Beal, S. A., 471 Beane, J. A., 135 Bean, F. D., 257 Beard, K. S., 514, 590 Bear, G. G., 541 Beatty-Hazelbaker, R., 280, 281 Beauchamp, C., 71 Beauchamp, M. H., 71 Bechara, A., 67 Beck, A. N., 642 Becker, B. J., 582 Becker, E. S., 581 Becker, M., 161, 604 Becker, W. C., 45 Beebe-Frankenberger, M., 641 Beech, S. E., 311 Beechum, N. O., 471 Beghetto, R. A., 161, 163, 372 Begley, S., 71 Behne, T., 105 Beilock, S. L., 271 Beishuizen, J., 418 Belfiore, P. J., 315 Belland, B. R., 380, 390, 392, 415, 418, 422, 423, 520 Bellipanni, K. D., 300 Bell, M. A., 84 Belsito, L., 357, 372 Belsky, J., 582 Benbow, C. P., 43, 160, 198 Benita, M., 499 Benner, A. D., 263 Bennett, C. I., 255, 280 Benton, S. L., 72 Beohm, A. E., 84 Bereiter, C., 397, 414 Berenbaum, S. A., 267 Berg, C. A., 592 Berger, K. S., 93, 105, 111, 112, 136, 216 Bergin, D., 525, 526 Berk, L. E., 65, 66, 83, 84, 88, 89, 102, 104, 206, 207, 212 Berko, J., 208 Berkowitz, L., 119

Berliner, D., 253 Berliner, D. C., 42, 48, 50, 252, 595, 599 Bernard, R. M., 438 Bernecker, K., 469 Bernstein, D. A., 298 Berry, A., 581 Berryman, M., 36, 120 Berry, R. Q., III., 258 Berthelot, J., 371 Berthold, K., 340, 355 Best, J. R., 84 Betts, S. M., 466 Bewick, C. J., 441, 442, 443 Bialystok, E., 216, 219 Bianco, K., 224 Biddle, B., 582 Bierman, K. L., 343 Biezuner, S., 434 Biglan, A., 314 Bigler, R. S., 269, 272, 273 Binning, K. R., 266 Biocca, F. A., 438 Bishaw, A., 252 Bishop, D. V. M., 206 Bishop, R., 36, 120 Bjork, E. L., 374 Bjorklund, D. E., 83 Bjorklund, D. F., 329 Bjork, R. A., 167, 355 Blachman, B. A., 212 Blair, C., 153, 343, 473, 642 Blanc, M. H. A., 216 Blast, J., 318, 319 Blatchford, P., 418, 436 Blazar, D., 656 Blewitt, P., 65, 66 Bloom, B. S., 46, 195, 367, 587 Bloom, P., 207, 217 Blow, A. J., 107 Blumenfeld, P. C., 425, 519, 540 Blum, W., 581 Blunt, J. R., 377 Boada, R., 175 Bobek, D. L., 109 Bobis, J., 385 Bocian, K. A., 466, 501 Bocian, K. L., 641 Bode, P., 276 Bodrova, E., 90, 93 Boesen, M. J., 274 Bohanon-Edmonson, H. M., 311 Bohn, C. M., 105 Bohn-Gettler, C. M., 514 Boiarskaia, E., 105 Bois, 611 Boivin, M., 117, 118 Bokosmaty, S., 380, 384 Bonell, C., 186 Bong, M., 464 Boodoo, G., 160 Borich, G. D., 590, 601

Borjas, S., 418, 419 Borko, H., 41 Borman, G. D., 254 Bornstein, M. H., 159 Borokhovski, E., 438 Borrero, N. E., 218 Borst, G., 84 Borzekowski, D., 107 Bosacki, S. L., 138 Bosanquent, P., 418 Bos, C. S., 282, 593 Boseck, J. J., 478 Bosker, R. J., 609, 610 Bottge, B., 47, 347, 358, 377, 383, 418, 419, 420, 598, 630 Bottia, M. C., 260, 261 Bouchard, A., 160 Bowers, J., 412 Bowker, J. C., 117 Boykin, W., 160 Boyle, J. R., 375 Boyle, M., 427, 429, 430, 431 Boyle, O. F., 217, 220, 230, 232, 233, 234 Boyle, R. A., 490 Brackett, M. A., 581 Bradshaw, C. P., 307, 314, 562 Brainerd, C. J., 83, 90 Brame, B., 118 Brand-Gruwel, S., 43 Brank, E. M., 477 Brannon, L., 267, 268, 269, 270 Bransford, J. D., 69, 95, 329, 397 Brantlinger, E., 251 Branum-Martin, L., 230 Bray, M. A., 307, 311 Bray, M. L., 197 Bredekamp, S., 91 Brehm, K., 279 Brendgen, M., 117 Bressoux, P., 464, 466, 611 Brice, A. E., 221 Brice, R. G., 221 Bridgest, S. T., 571 Briesch, A. M., 315 Briggs, D. C., 420, 423 Britner, S. L., 463 Broadbent, J., 462, 466 Brobst, K., 375 Broderick, P. C., 65, 66 Brody, N., 160 Broidy, L. M., 118 Bronfenbrenner, U., 109, 253 Bronson, E., 195 Brookhart, S. M., 587 Brookmeyer, K. A., 115 Brooks-Gunn, J., 103, 104, 255 Brooks, P. J., 424, 425 Brophy-Herb, H. E., 468 Brophy, J. E., 42, 301, 492, 500, 502, 516, 519, 523, 526, 527, 582, 594, 605, 610

Brown, A. L., 69, 329, 369, 374, 426, 430 Brown, B. B., 115 Brown, C., 375 Brown, C. S., 263, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 273 Brown, E. R., 265 Brown, J., 264 Brown, J. L., 118, 562, 583 Brown, J. S., 359 Brown, N., 421 Brown, P. C., 72, 168, 328, 341, 353, 355, 372, 480 Brown, R., 374 Bruce, B. C., 596, 600 Bruer, J. T., 70 Bruner, J. S., 92, 346, 367, 368, 415, 418 Bruning, R. H., 330, 336, 341, 352, 354, 369, 380, 390, 411, 412 Brünken, R., 512 Brunner, M., 132, 153, 581 Brusca-Vega, R., 152 Bryant, M. J., 466, 501 Bryant, P., 45 Buckley, L., 120, 554 Buckner, J. C., 252 Buehler, R., 389 Buhs, E. S., 117 Bui, D. C., 375 Bullard, J., 441, 442, 443 Bullock Mann, F., 258 Bunford, N., 182 Bunuan, R. L., 307 Burbules, N. C., 596, 600 Burchinal, M., 120, 121, 582 Burch, M., 475 Burden, P. R., 565 Burden, R., 170, 182 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 160 Burgen, S., 217 Burgess-Brigham, R., 224 Burgos, G., 438 Buriel, R., 133 Burk-Braxton, C., 131 Burke-Spero, R., 33, 572 Burman, J. T., 467 Bursuck, W. D., 170, 171, 173, 176, 188, 189, 192, 195, 314, 378, 607, 608 Bush, J. R., 133 Bush, J. W., 311 Bushman, B. J., 119 Buskirk, A. A., 114, 115 Bustamante, M. R., 124 Butcher, K. R., 346, 353 Butera, F., 495, 500 Butisingh, S., 283 Butler, D. L., 315 Butz, A. R., 464, 471 Byle, K. A., 159 Byrd, P., 226

N A ME I N DEX Byrne, B. M., 133 Byrne, D., 499, 568 Byrnes, D. A., 642 Byrnes, J. P., 66, 67, 103, 124, 127, 153, 374 Cain, K., 209, 210, 213 Cain, T., 609 Cairns, B. D., 61 Cairns, R. B., 61 Çakiroglu, J., 33 Calderhead, J., 584 Caldwell, K. A., 116 Calfee, R., 586 Calhoun, B. M., 168 Callaghan, T., 105 Callahan, C. M., 194, 198 Camarota, S. A., 223 Cameron, J., 318, 319 Campbell, J. D., 135 Cangelosi, J. S., 589 Cano-Garcia, F. J., 479 Canter, L., 568 Canter, M., 568 Cantrell, S. C., 372 Canudas-Romo, V., 112 Capa, Y., 33 Caprara, G., 462 Caprara, G. V., 466 Carbonell, O. A., 124 Carbonneau, K. J., 91, 92, 415 Cardullo, R. A., 466, 501 Carey, B., 329 Cariglia-Bull, T., 343 Carlo, M. S., 231 Carlson, S. M., 136 Carlstrom, A., 373 Carlton, M. P., 88 Carney, R. N., 357 Carpenter, S. K., 358, 397, 399, 630 Carrasco-Ortiz, M. A., 479 Carroll, A., 179 Carroll, J. B., 153 Carroll, M. D., 106 Carter, E. W., 655 Carter, J. S., 372 Carter, M., 170 Caruso, K., 184 Case, R., 84, 91 Casey, B. J., 67 Casilli, A. A., 107 Caskie, G., 380, 383 Cassady, J. C., 466, 478, 500, 501, 505, 516, 517 Cassotti, M., 84 Castejon, J. L., 154 Castel, A. D., 369 Castellano, J. A., 238, 239 Castle, S., 604 Castro-Villarreal, F., 192, 193 Catalyst, 224 Cattell, R. B., 153

Cauffman, E., 142 Caughy, M. O., 131 Cazden, C., 539 Ceci, S. J., 160, 253, 397 Center for Promise, 256 Center for Public Education, 170 Centers for Disease Control, 32, 106, 190, 334 Cepeda, N. J., 358, 476 Chabrol, H., 107 Chafouleas, S. M., 315, 554 Chamberlain, R. W., 358 Chance, P., 318, 319 Chan, C-K, 252, 253 Chan, C. K., 505, 506 Chandler, P., 382, 385 Changas, P., 380 Chang, C., 427, 475 Chang, M.-L., 479 Chao, R., 111 Chapman, R. I., 120, 554 Chappell, B., 257 Chappuis, J., 584, 587, 589, 621, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 632, 633, 638 Charles, C. M., 50, 551, 552, 568 Charles, E. P., 120 Charmaraman, L., 129 Charness, N., 390 Charnigo, R., 179 Chase, J., 265 Chase, W. G., 390 Chauncey, A., 475 Chen, J. A., 467, 507 Chen, J-K., 215 Chen, K., 69 Chen, L. H., 509 Chen, X., 114, 115, 117, 554 Chen, Z., 387, 399, 423 Cheryan, S., 270 Chesnut, S. R., 411, 416 Chetty, R., 656 Cheung, A. C. K., 231 Cheyne, J. A., 88 Chhabidas, N. A., 175 Children’s Defense Fund, 32, 121, 252 Child Trends, 32 Child Trends Databank, 109 Chi, M. T. H., 317, 382, 390, 397, 399, 411 Chinn, C. A., 422, 425 Chiu, C.-Y., 164 Chiu, M. M., 33, 109, 116 Choi, H-H., 340 Chomsky, N., 207 Chongde, L., 84 Chorzempa, B. F., 604 Chow, A., 510 Chow, B. W-Y., 109, 116 Chowne, A., 436 Cho, Y., 501

Christakis, D. A., 334 Christensen, A., 526, 553 Christopher, J. C., 280, 281 Christou, C., 342 Chronis-Tuscano, A., 178, 179 Chu, H., 266 Ciani, K. D., 500 Cirino, P. T., 380 Clark, A. G., 127 Clark, C. M., 41 Clark, D. A., 377 Clark, D. B., 185, 441 Clarke, J. H., 590 Clarke-Stewart, K. A., 120, 121, 582 Clark, I., 621, 632 Clark, J. M., 346, 354 Clark, K., 231 Clark, M. H., 264 Clark, R. E., 424, 592 Clary, M., 581 Clay-Chambers, J., 425 Clayton, K., 500, 501 Clifford, M. M., 526 Clough, M., 592 Coats, L. T., 528 Cobas, J. A., 133 Cobb, P., 412, 499 Cobley, S., 642 Coccia, M. A., 480 Cocking, R. R., 69, 329 Codell, E. R., 41, 554, 570 Coffield, F. J., 167, 168, 169 Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 422 Cohen, A. B., 246 Cohen, E. G., 429, 430 Cohen-Eliyan, N., 429 Cohen, G. L., 266 Cohen, K. M., 267, 272 Cohn, D., 224 Coker, T. R., 249 Cokley, K. O., 266 Colangelo, N., 43 Colby, S. L., 32 Cole, G. A., 303 Cole, M., 412 Coleman, D., 374 Coleman, J. S., 35 Coleman, M., 593 Coleman, M. R., 378, 435 Coles, E. K., 178, 179 Coll, C. G., 131 Colledge, E., 206 Collie, R. J., 479, 541 Collier, V. P., 231 Collins, A. M., 359, 413, 424 Collins, K. M., 421 Collins, P., 230 Collins, W. A., 115, 116 Colliver, J. A., 424 Comadena, M. E., 580 Comer, J. P., 279

N-3

Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, 482, 501, 526 Common Sense Media, 33, 118, 119, 122, 123, 438 Confrey, J., 91 Conner, T., 280, 281 Connor, C. M., 209, 212, 468 Connor, J. P., 561 Connor-Zachocki, J., 438 Conradi, K., 503 Conway, P. F., 41 Cooke, B. L., 41 Cook, G., 66, 115, 131 Cook, J. L., 66, 115, 131 Cook, M., 152 Cooper, C. E., 255 Cooper, C. R., 194 Cooper, H. M., 463, 609, 595 Cooper, S. R., 252 Coplan, R., 114, 115 Coplan, R. J., 117 Copple, C., 91 Copur-Gencturk, Y., 271 Cordes, S. A., 83 Cornelius, J. R., 185 Cornelius-White, J., 554 Corno, L., 469, 470, 595, 604, 605, 606 Corpus, J. H., 491 Cortes, K., 427, 428 Cortes, K. I., 428, 563 Cortina, K., 258 Costello, M. B., 262, 267 Cothran, D. J., 121 Covington, M. V., 492, 499, 508, 516 Cowan, N., 337, 344 Cox, K. E., 521 Coyne, P., 607 Crago, R. V., 561 Craik, F. I. M., 216, 341, 352 Cramond, B., 162 Crapo, R. H., 206 Craven, J. A., III., 581 Craven, R. G., 131–132, 133 Crawford, A., 370, 371 Crawford, J., 231 Credé, M., 471 Creese, A., 215, 217 Cremin, Larry, 436 Creswell, J. W., 47 Crocker, J., 135 Croker, S., 84 Cronjaeger, H., 133 Cropley, M., 479 Crosnoe, R., 120, 121, 255, 582 Cross, D., 554 Crosson, A., 544 Cross, T. B., 130 Cross, W. E., Jr., 130, 257 Croudace, T., 269

N-4

N AME I NDE X

Crowley, E., 371 Cruickshank, D. R., 580 Crul, M., 224 Csapó, B., 380 Csikszentmihalyi, M., 514 Cucina, J. M., 159 Culatta, A., 189, 198 Cullen, M., 479 Cummings, J., 541, 555 Cunningham, E., 312 Cupp, P. K., 120, 142 Curby, T. W., 553, 554 Curno, C., 45 Curran, M., 572 Curwin, R., 560 Cusack, A., 522 Cusick, P. A., 35 Cutter, J., 421 Cutuli, J. J., 252, 253 Dale, P. S., 471 Daley, T. C., 158 Dalton, A., 114 D’Amico, A., 174 Damon, W., 138 Daniels, L. M., 515, 516 Danielson, C., 38, 39, 40, 582 Daniels, P., 272 Darley, J. M., 266 Darnon, C., 495, 500 Dasco, H., 265 DaSilva Iddings, A. C., 228 Das, J. P., 92 Daunic, A. P., 477 Davidoff, J., 206 Davidson, E., 34 Davidson, J., 380 Davidson, J. W., 195 Davidson, M. L., 528 Davies, I. R. L., 206 Davies, K., 270 Davis, D., 373 Davis, G., 112 Davis, G. A., 198 Davis, H., 33, 466 Davis, H. A., 121 Davis, H. L., 373 Dawson-Tunik, T., 83 Day, S. B., 384, 397 Day, S. L., 468 Deakin, J., 254 Dean, D., 395 Dearing, E., 212, 226 De Boer, H., 609, 610 de Brey C., 258 De Bruin, C. L., 191 Debus, R. L., 133 DeCaro, M. S., 425 De Castella, K., 499 deCharms, R., 495 Deci, E. L., 318, 481, 491, 492, 494, 495, 496, 499, 501, 521 DeCourcey, W., 502

Decristan, J., 630 Dedrick, R. F., 356 De George, G., 237 de Glopper, K., 231 de Groot, A. D., 390 De Groot, E. V., 468 DeJong, J. M., 596 de Jong, T., 375, 376 Dekhinet, R., 215 de Kock, A., 416 de Koning, B. B., 385 Delafield-Butt, J. T., 190, 191 deLara, E., 118, 562 Del Bove, G., 466 Deleveaux, G., 438 De Lisi, R., 641 Della-Chiesa, B., 65, 69, 71, 72 Delpit, L., 82, 214, 222, 277, 278, 279, 281, 282, 283 Demana, F., 87 Demanet, J., 642 Demaray, M. K., 581 DeMarie, D., 329 Demerath, P., 255 Demetriou, A., 153, 157, 174, 337, 342 Demuth, K., 209 Denessen, E., 261, 600 Denissen, J. J. A., 641 Deniz, C. B., 604 Dent, A. L., 194, 468 Denton, C. A., 192 Deppeler, J. M., 191 DeRose, L. M., 103 Derous, E., 422, 423 Derry, S. J., 411 Desautel, D., 370 Desjardins, C. D., 252, 253 Dettmers, S., 596 DeWalt, P. S., 130 Dewey, J., 512 Diamond, A., 471 Diamond, N. T., 191 Diaz, E. I., 238, 239 Diaz-Rico, L. T., 215 DiBella, J., 278 DiCintio, M., 521 Di Cintio, M. J., 343 Dierendinck, C., 132 Diermyer, C., 334 Diffley, R. III, 159, 197 Diliberti M., 258 Dillihunt, M. L., 280, 281 Dindia, K., 270 Dingfelder, S. F., 280 Ding, Y., 384 Dinnel, D., 419 Dionne, G., 117, 118 Dirk, J., 343 DiVesta, F. J., 343 Dixon, L. Q., 224 Dixson, D. D., 621, 631 D’Mello, S., 434 Dodge, K. A., 109, 118, 136

Dodson, J. D., 516 Doggett, A. M., 179 Doggett, R. A., 312 Dohn, N. B., 411, 412, 413 Doidge, N., 63 Dole, J. A., 394 Dolezal, S. E., 511, 523, 525 Dolgin, K. G., 184 Doll, B., 279 Domitrovich, C. E., 477 Dompnier, B., 500 Donnerstein, E., 119 Dore, R. A., 105 Douglas, K. M., 209, 212 Dow, G. T., 161, 163 Dowler, J., 481 Downs, K. J., 107 Dowson, M., 516, 517 Doyle, W., 536, 538 Drake, L., 224 Drake, M., 318 Drayer, A. M., 645 Drew, C. J., 151, 177, 181, 188, 195 Driscoll, A., 592, 601 Driscoll, M., 651 Driscoll, M. P., 72, 85, 88, 398, 414, 592 Drummond, L., 474, 482 Dubarry, M., 225 Dubinsky, J. M., 63, 69, 71, 72 DuBois, D. L., 131, 463 Du Bois, W. E. B., 128 Duckworth, A. L., 159, 470, 471 Dudley, B., 570 Duell, O. K., 599 Duffy, M. C., 475, 506 Dufrene, B. A., 312 Dumont, H., 597 Duncan, A., 106 Duncan, G. J., 255 Duncan, R. M., 88 Duncker, K., 388 Dunlap, G., 191 Dunlop Velez, E., 258 Dunlosky, J., 377, 624 Dunn, D. S., 152 Dunn, K., 167 Dunn, R., 167, 168 Dunston, K., 250 DuPaul, G. J., 177, 180, 301 Dupuis, D., 104 Du, Q., 179 Durik, A. M., 511 Durksen, T. L., 467 Durlak, J. A., 108, 477 Dusenbury, L., 186 Dux, P. E., 335 Dweck, C. S., 301, 469, 498, 506, 507 Dwyer, C., 329 Dymnicki, A. B., 108

Easter, M. A., 500 Easton, B. P., 120 Ebbinghaus, H., 351, 358 Ebersbach, M., 83 Ecalle, J., 438 Eccles, J. S., 67, 103, 124, 127, 133, 134, 469, 502, 503, 526 Ecclestone, K., 167, 168, 169 Echevarría, J., 219, 220, 224, 226, 227, 236, 237 Echevarria, M., 420 Edele, A., 213 Edmin, C., 277 Edwards, J. M., 160 Edwards, S. A., 444, 446 Ee, J., 260 Efklides, A., 468, 469 Egan, M. W., 151, 177, 181, 188, 195 Ehrenfeld, T., 328 Eidell, T. L., 536 Eikoff, J., 334 Eiland, M. D., 425, 438 Eisenberg, N., 141 Eisenberg, R., 318, 319 Eisner, E. W., 632 Eissenberg, T. E., 651 Eitel, A., 346 Ekono, M., 252 Elder, L., 392, 393 Eley, T., 206 Elias, M. J., 478, 545, 546, 552, 553, 557, 563 Elias, S. M., 466 Eliot, L., 273 Elkind, D., 81, 128 Ellington, A. J., 87 Elliot, A. J., 501, 515, 522 Elliott, V., 599 Else-Quest, N. M., 160 Elzinga, N., 581 Emdin, C., 281, 282 Emerson, M. J., 88 Emmer, E. T., 536, 539, 541, 542, 543, 544, 547, 549, 550, 551, 556, 581, 582 Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., 369 Engelhart, M. D., 367, 587 Engle, R. W., 343 Ennis, C. D., 121 Eppe, S., 211 Epstein, J. L., 519 Erdelyi, M. H., 351 Eresh, J. T., 637 Erickson M. J., 311 Erickson, W., 189 Ericsson, A., 359, 390 Ericsson, K. A., 390 Erikson, E. H., 124, 135 Eron, L. D., 119 ESC, 444 Eskreis-Winkler, L., 471 Espelage, D. L., 271, 274, 563

N A ME I N DEX Espinosa, L. M., 218 Espinosa, M. P., 158 Ettekal, I., 117, 427, 428 Evans, G. W., 254, 256 Evans, L., 270 Evans, S. W., 182 Evensen, D. H., 425 Evertson, C. M., 539, 541, 542, 544, 547, 549, 550, 556, 581, 582 Eylon, B. S., 411, 424 Eysenck, M. W., 334, 337, 346, 347 Fabes, R. A., 141, 268, 273 Fabiano, G. A., 178, 179 Facione, P. A., 395 Falco, M., 186 Falk, K., 311 Fantuzzo, J., 112 Farivar, S. H., 432 Farkas, G., 152, 213 Farmer-Dougan, V., 67, 71 Farmer, J., 554 Farmer, T. W., 117 Farrington, C., 471 Farrington, D. P., 561 Farver, J. M., 211, 231 Fast, L. A., 466, 501 Felde, M., 61, 63, 67, 71, 72, 515 Feldman, J., 347 Feldman, R. S., 102 Feldman, S. S., 142 Felicia, P., 441 Fenesi, B., 337, 343, 344 Fenton, D. F., 382, 390 Ferguson, C. J., 120 Ferguson, P., 642 Ferguson, R. F., 40 Fernandez, S. C., 215 Fernet, C., 33 Ferrer, E., 153 Ferreri, S. J., 45 Ferrero, J., 103, 104 Ferretti, R. P., 498 Ferring, D., 230, 231 Fida, R., 466 Fierros, E., 156 Fingeret, L., 631 Finkel, D., 153 Finn, A. S., 471 Fischbach, A., 132 Fischer, A., 380 Fischer, H. E., 581 Fischer, K. W., 48, 69, 70, 71, 75, 82, 83, 85 Fischer, M. A., 441 Fisher, D., 70 Fishman, B., 425 Fiske, S. T., 610 Fitts, P. M., 359 Fitzgerald, H. E., 438 Fives, H. R., 33

Fivush, R., 350 Flammer, A., 465 Flanagan, C. A., 560 Flannery, B., 586 Flavell, E. R., 369 Flavell, J. H., 75, 77, 208, 209, 369 Flegal, K. M., 106 Fleischer, C., 384 Fleith, D., 165 Fletcher, A., 186 Fletcher, J. M., 192, 212 Floden, R. E., 580 Flores, L. Y., 466 Florit, E., 209, 210, 213 Flower, A., 307 Flowerday, T., 105, 512 Floyd-Tenery, M., 228 Flum, H., 513 Flunger, B., 595, 596 Flynn, J. R., 158–159 Foehr, U. G., 438 Foerde, K., 335 Fogarty, M., 212 Folger, T., 158 Foorman, B. R., 230 Forbes, C., 264 Ford, D., 421 Ford, D. Y., 197 Forster, K. I., 335 Foster, H., 103 Foundation for Child Development, 218 Fox, M., 224 Fox, N. A., 66, 153 Fox, P. W., 429 Francis, D. J., 192, 213, 230, 231 Franco, G. M., 506 Frankenberg, E., 260 Frank, J. L., 479, 480 Franklin, J., 190 Franklin, S., 81, 396 Fraser, J. W., 572 Fredricks, J. A., 469, 540 Freeman, S., 71 Freiberg, H. J., 435, 592, 601 Freiberg, J., 314, 554 Frenzel, A. C., 133, 516 Frey, N., 70 Frick, T. W., 550 Fridlund, A. J., 164 Fried, C. B., 266 Friedman, J. N., 656 Friedman, S. L., 120, 121, 582 Friedman-Weieneth, J. L., 178 Friedrich, A. A., 554 Friend, M., 150, 152, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 181, 184, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 195, 196, 197, 207, 314, 378, 607, 608 Frohlich, L., 224

Fromberg, D. P., 651 Fronius, T., 560, 570, 571 Frost, E. J., 367, 587 Frost, J. L., 441, 443 Fuchs, D., 475 Fuchs, L. S., 380, 382, 475 Fuligni, A., 554 Fuligni, A. J., 130 Fuller, F. G., 41 Fuller-Thomson, E., 114 Fulmer, S. M., 526, 553 Funke, J., 380 Furrer, C., 496 Furst, N., 580 Furtak, E. M., 420, 423 Fyfe, E. R., 418, 419, 425 Gabrieli, C. F. O., 471 Gabrieli, J. D. E., 471 Gadsden, V., 267 Gadson, N., 280, 281 Gage, N. A., 554 Gage, N. L., 44 Gagné, E. D., 351, 359 Galinsky, A. D., 164 Gallagher, J. D., 278 Gallagher, J. J., 378, 435 Gallimore, R., 86, 224 Gallini, J. K., 354 Galton, M., 427 Galvan, A., 67, 369 Gamoran, A., 600 Ganis, G., 328 Ganley, C. M., 271 Garbarino, J., 118, 562 Garcia, E. E., 218, 231, 280 Garcia, J., 266 Garcia, S. B., 224, 236 Gardner, H., 154, 155, 156, 194, 248 Gardner, R., 374 Gargurevich, R., 499 Garlick, D., 157, 161 Garner, J., 375 Garner, P. W., 111 Garner, R., 521 Garnets, L., 273 Garrett, J., 567 Garrison, J., 411 Garvin, R. A., 89 Gaskill, P., 49 Gates, G. J., 110 Gathercole, S. E., 343, 369 Gatz, M., 153 Gay, G., 280, 282, 571, 572 Geary. D. C., 160, 412 Gee, J. P., 438, 440 Geerling, D., 469 Gehlbach, H., 136 Geier, C., 67 Geier, R., 425 Geiser, C., 153 Gelman, R., 83 Gendler, T. S., 470, 471

N-5

Gengaro, F. P., 283 Gentner, D., 384, 385, 387 George, P. S., 604 Gerbino, M., 466 Gerig, T. M., 610 Gernsbacher, M. A., 160 Gershenson, S., 263, 595 Gersten, R., 220, 230, 231, 380 Gerwels, M. C., 541, 543, 550 Gess-Newsome, J., 41, 581 Getz, S., 67 Gezer, M. U., 224 Ghazarian, S. R., 610 Gianola, Healey, G., 194, 198 Gibson, D., 440 Gilar, R., 154 Gil, L., 369 Gillen-O’Neel, C., 554 Gillespie, C. S., 441 Gillet, J. W., 370, 371 Gilliam, W. S., 263 Gillieron, O., 500 Gillies, R., 427, 428, 429, 430, 431 Gilligan, C., 137 Giluk, T. L., 142 Gindis, V. Ageyev, 85, 86, 90 Ginott, H. G., 302 Ginsburg, K. R., 105 Ginsburg, M., 112 Gipe, J. P., 91 Girard, A., 117 Gitomer, D. H., 637 Glass, C. R., 434 Glasser, W., 557 Glass, G. V., 595 Gleitman, H., 164 Glenberg, A., 355 Glenham, M., 128 Glennie, E., 642 Glenn, J., 425 Glogger-Fey, I., 384 Glover, J. A., 419 Gluck, M. A., 66, 293, 328, 514 Gnagy, E. M., 178, 179 Godden, D. R., 355 Godes, O., 527 Godleski, S. A., 117, 118 Goe, L., 41 Goetz, T., 133, 515, 516, 581 Goh, W., 395 Goldenberg, C., 213, 224, 231 Golden, N. H., 107 Golding, J., 269 Goldin-Meadow, S., 385, 506, 507 Goldman, S. R., 607, 638 Goldsmith, M., 351 Goldstein, L. H., 178 Goldstein, L. S., 137 Goldstone, R. L., 384, 397 Goleman, D., 478 Gollwitzer, P. M., 469

N-6

N AME I NDE X

Golombok, S., 269 Gonzales, N., 228 Gonzales, R., 228 Gonzalez, A. L., 225 Gonzalez-Barrera, A., 130 González, J. M., 213 Gonzalez, N., 94, 227, 597 Gonzalez, V., 152, 216 Good, C., 264, 266 Goodman, D. M., 280, 281 Goodrich, H., 636 Goodrich, J. M., 231 Good, T. L., 429, 480, 482, 541, 580, 582, 591, 594, 599, 605, 610, 611 Goodyear, J., 159, 197 Gordon, K. A., 466 Gordon, R., 36 Gorman, J. L., 283 Gorski, P. C., 251, 254, 255, 256, 266, 471 Gosseries, O., 342 Goswami, U., 174 Gottlieb, G., 61 Gottwald, S., 70 Graesser, A., 47, 347, 358, 377, 383, 418, 419, 420, 434, 438, 440, 475, 598, 630 Graham, M., 375 Graham, S., 43, 118, 132, 263, 372, 465–466, 476, 490, 505, 561, 562, 563, 604 Grant, B. O., 130 Graves, A., 224, 226, 227 Gray, D. L., 500, 501, 514 Gray, P., 338, 339, 345 Gray, R. D., 61 Graziano, W. G., 642 Gredler, M. E., 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 92, 369 Greenberg, M. T., 480 Green, C. D., 467 Greene, J. A., 468, 473 Greene, M. B., 563 Greene, M. J., 469 Green, F. L., 369 Green, M., 73, 124 Greeno, J. G., 413 Green, S., 563 Greenwald, A. G., 261 Gregory, A., 120, 495, 582 Gregory, M., 600 Greiff, S., 380 Gresham, F. M., 641 Greytak, E. A., 274 Griffin, D., 389 Griffins, P. E., 61 Griffith, J., 479 Griggs, P., 311 Grigorenko, E. L., 159, 197 Grimaldi, P. J., 358 Grimm, K. J., 554 Gripshover, S. J., 506, 507 Grob, A., 610

Grolnick, W. S., 502 Gronlund, N. E., 587, 627, 628, 632 Gröschner, A., 580 Gross, J. J., 470, 471, 506 Gross-Loh, C., 508 Grossman, J. M., 129 Gross, M. U. M., 43 Grouws, D., 582 Grover, S., 444 Grundon, G. S., 311 Grüny, L., 384 Guarnera, M., 174 Guay, F., 33 Guckenburg, S., 560, 570, 571 Guernsey, L., 444 Guerra, N. G., 561 Guglielmi, R. S., 224, 231 Gullotta, T. P., 477 Gumus, B., 499 Gunderson, E. A., 271, 506, 507 Gunn, D., 174 Gunn, K. C. M., 190, 191 Guo, J.-P., 384 Gupta, V., 267, 275 Gurian, M., 271, 272 Gurland, S. T., 502 Gur, R. C., 160 Guryan, J., 255 Guskey, T. R., 634, 639, 640, 641, 643 Gustin, W. C., 46 Guthrie, J. T., 521 Gut, J., 610 Hacker, D. J., 394, 426 Hadwin, A. F., 473 Haertel, E. H., 637 Hafen, C. A., 495, 582 Hagborg, W. J., 134 Hagemans, M. G., 375, 376 Hahn, C-S, 159 Haidt, J., 136, 140 Hailey, E. P., 194, 198 Hakuta, K., 34, 231 Haladyna, T. H., 622, 639, 653, 655 Hale, N. M., 127 Hale, S., 375 Haley, M. H., 228 Halim, M. L., 268, 269 Hallahan, D. P., 37, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 186–187, 189, 190, 369, 607 Hall, E., 167, 168, 169 Hall, L. J., 311 Hall, N., 133 Hall, N. C., 515, 516 Halpern, D. F., 160, 273 Hamann, D. L., 581 Hamers, J. F., 216 Hamilton, J., 335

Hamlett, C. L., 380, 475 Hamman, D., 33, 371 Hamm, D., 521 Hammer, C. S., 213, 214 Hammond, K. A., 466, 501 Hampson, S. E., 104 Hamre, B., 120, 495, 582 Hamre, B. K., 35, 120, 582, 591 Hanish, L. D., 268, 273 Hannafin, M. J., 415, 422, 423, 520 Hannah-Jones, N., 260 Hansen, M., 656 Hanson-Peterson, J., 478, 479 Hanushek, E. A., 36 Hapgood, S., 421 Happe, F., 206 Harackiewicz, J. M., 269, 499, 511, 527 Harber, K., 610 Harber, K. D., 283 Hardesty, J. L., 131 Hardin, C. J., 310 Hardman, M. L., 151, 177, 181, 188, 195 Hardy, I., 216 Hargreaves, J., 186 Hargreaves, L., 427 Harklau, L., 226 Harms, M. B., 136 Harms, P. D., 471 Harpalani, V., 266 Harp, S. F., 512 Harrington, H. J., 430 Harris, A. H., 422 Harris, J. R., 115 Harris, K., 521 Harris, K. A., 369, 371–372 Harris, K. R., 132, 372, 476 Harrison, J., 311, 479 Harrison, J. R., 182 Harrison, S., 107, 335 Harris, R. J., 226 Harrower, J. K., 191 Harter, S., 104, 123, 131, 132, 463 Hartley, B. L., 264, 265, 271 Hartman, K., 120 Hartocollis, A., 107 Hart, S. A., 516 Hartson, K. A., 266 Harvey, C. E., 337 Harvey, E. A., 178 Hasselhorn, M., 131–132 Hass, R. W., 507 Hatch, T., 155 Hatfield, D., 440 Hattie, J., 179, 599–600 Haugen, C., 233 Haugh, G. P., 388 Hayenga, A. O., 491 Hayes, A. R., 272 Hayes, S. C., 315 Hayman, M. L., 550 Haynes, N. M., 279

Haywood, 87, 88, 93 Headden, S., 506, 507 Hearn, S., 128 Heath, S. B., 209 Hecht, S. A., 330 Heistad, D., 252, 253 Heller, K. A., 505 Helms, J. E., 131 Helwig, C. C., 138 Hendricks, B. L., 527 Henik, A., 175 Henington, C., 312 Hennessey, B. A., 319 Hennessey, M. N., 411, 416, 601 Henrich, C. C., 115 Henrickson, M. L., 311 Henriksen, D., 161, 162, 163 Henry, B., 270 Hensley, L., 581 Henson, R. A., 512 Herald, S. L., 117 Herbers, J. E., 252, 253 Herbert, E. A., 546 Herman, J., 637 Herman, K. C., 562 Herman, M., 129, 130 Herrenkohl, L. R., 432 Herrera, D., 499 Herron, A., 271 Herschkowitz, N., 109 Hess, D., 600 Hetherington, E. M., 113 Heverly-Fitt, S., 117 Heward, W. L., 301 Hickey, D. T., 411, 417 Hidi, S., 469, 511, 512, 513 Hiebert, E. H., 586 Higley, K., 411, 416 Hilgard, E. R., 42 Hill, E. L., 102 Hillemeir, M. M., 152 Hill, H. C., 581 Hill, W. H., 367, 587 Hinckley, D., 118 Hindi, E. R., 91 Hines, C. V., 580 Hines, M., 268, 269 Hinnant, J. B., 610 Hinton, C., 65, 69, 71, 72 Hinz, E., 252, 253 Hiroto, D. S., 508 Hirsch, E. D., Jr., 395 Hirvikoski, T., 178, 179 Hmelo-Silver, C. E., 422, 425 Hochbein, C., 641 Hoeffler, T. N., 168 Hofferth, S. L., 595 Hoffman, H. G., 261 Hoffman, M. L., 141 Hofkens, T., 510 Hogan, T., 581 Hoge, R. D., 163, 165 Holahan, C., 195

N A ME I N DEX Holdaway, J., 224 Holland, J. D., 429 Holland, R. W., 261, 600 Holliday, G., 197 Holmström, A., 178, 179 Holt, S., 263 Holt, S. B., 595 Holzberger, D., 466 Hong, G., 641, 642 Hong, J. S., 561, 562 Hong, J. Y., 536 Honicke, T., 462, 466 Honomichl, R., 387 Hoogerheide, V., 399 Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., 596 Hopkins, E. J., 105 Hopkins, M., 34 Hopps, J., 250 Horn, J. L., 153 Hornstra, L., 261, 600 Horovitz, B., 293 Horst, E. A., 128 Hosp, M., 475 Houdé, O., 84 Houts, R., 582 Howard, M. R., 214 Howe, K. R., 34, 35 Howell, K. L., 506 Howe, M. J. A., 195 Hoy, W. K., 33, 51, 466, 536 Hsieh, P. P., 504 Huang, C., 499 Huber, C. R., 392, 394, 395 Hubscher, R., 92 Hudley, C., 254 Huesmann, L. R., 119 Hu, F-T, Ginns, P., 385 Hughes, C., 655 Hughes, D., 554 Hughes, J. N., 642 Huguet, P., 264, 265 Hulit, L., 214 Hulit, L. M., 214 Hulleman, C. S., 269, 490, 499, 502, 503, 505, 510, 519, 527 Hulme, C., 174 Hulstijn, J., 231 Humphreys, K. L., 369 Hung, D. W. L., 424 Hunt, E., 153 Hunter, M., 552 Hunt, J. McV., 91, 93 Hunt, N., 189, 190 Hunt, S. K., 580 Hurley, N., 560, 570, 571 Hurry, J., 45 Husbye, N. E., 438 Hushman, C., 92 Hussain, M., 560 Hussar, W., 224, 258 Hutchinson, J. M., 315 Hutchinson, N. L., 179 Hwang, G.-J., 440

Hyde, J. S., 137, 160, 269, 273 Hyder, N., 560 Hymel, S., 561, 563 Ialongo, N. S., 307 Idol, L., 170 Igielnik, R., 223 Iglesias, A., 215 Inbar, J., 611 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 182, 313 Ingram, J., 599 Inhelder, B., 81 Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, 377 Inzlicht, M., 266 Iordanou, K., 395 Irvine, J. J., 282, 572 Ishler, M., 592 Iverson, H., 420, 423 Jabbar, A. I. A., 441 Jackson, D., 469 Jackson, H. G., 311 Jackson, J., 265 Jackson, L. A., 438 Jacob, K. F., 502 Jacobs, A., 124 Jacobs, C. E., 275 Jacobs, J. E., 133 Jacobson, L., 609 Jaffee, S., 137 Jain, S., 516, 517 James, W., 42, 134, 271, 460, 470, 471 Jancek, D., 475 Jang, B. G., 503 Jang, H., 491, 495, 521 Jarrett, R., 111 Jarrold, C., 174, 337 Järvelä, S., 473 Jarvin, L., 159, 197 Jaswal, V. K., 207 Jeffries, R., 395 Jelenchick, L., 334 Jennings, P. A., 479, 480 Jensen, E., 254, 256, 257 Jensen, J. L., 637 Jensen, L. A., 142 Jenson, W. R., 307, 311 Jerman, O., 174 Jerome, E. M., 582 Jerusalem, M., 517 Jewell, J. A., 269 Jha, A., 479 Jiang, Y., 252 Jia, Y., 554 Jimenez, R., 525 Jimerson, S. R., 177, 642 Jirout, J., 513 Jitendra, A. K., 380, 383 Ji, Y., 69 Job, V., 469 Joët, G., 464, 466

Johns, M., 264 Johnson, A., 178, 179, 475 Johnson, D. W., 427, 428, 434, 435, 471, 522, 523, 570, 634, 635, 636 Johnson, F. P., 570 Johnson, J. D., 119 Johnson, J. F., 258 Johnson, R. C., 260 Johnson, R. E., 517 Johnson, R. T., 427, 428, 434, 435, 522, 523, 570, 634, 635, 636 Johnson, S., 299 Johnson, S. M., 655 John-Steiner, V., 85, 87 Johnston, L. D., 185 Jolly, J. L., 195 Jonassen, D. H., 371, 382 Jones, B. D., 135 Jones, D. C., 103 Jones, K. P., 596 Jones, L., 541, 551, 552, 553, 555, 556, 566, 567, 568, 569 Jones, M. G., 610 Jones, S. H., 423 Jones, S. M., 118, 270, 562, 583 Jones, V., 541, 551, 552, 553, 555, 556, 566, 567, 568, 569 Jordan, A., 581 Jordan, N. C., 380 Joyner, E. T., 279 Judd, T., 335 Jung, L. A., 640 Jun, S., 216 Jurbergs, N., 306 Jurden, F. H., 343 Jussim, L., 609, 610, 611 Justice, L. M., 209 Juvonen, J., 641 Kackar-Cam, H. Z., 526, 553 Kaendler, C., 429 Kagan, J., 109 Kagan, S., 430, 431, 434 Kahneman, D., 247, 263 Kain, J. F., 36 Kain, J. J., 36 Kaiser, J., 196 Kalenkoski, C. M., 595 Kalinowski, A. G., 46 Kalyuga, S., 340, 380, 382, 384, 424 Kanazawa, S., 153 Kane, T. J., 36 Kang, H., 504 Kang, S. H. K., 358 Kapinus, B. A., 586 Kaplan, A., 468, 499, 501, 513 Kaplan, J. S., 309 Kaplan, S. N., 194

N-7

Kappich, J., 384 Kardash, C. M., 506 Karpicke, J. D., 377, 630 Karpicke, J. J., 358 Karp, K. S., 382 Karpov, Y. V., 87, 88, 93, 95 Karson, A., 554 Katz-Buonincontro, J., 507 Katz, I., 521 Katzir, T., 71 Katz, S. R., 121 Kauffman, J. M., 37, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 186–187, 189, 190, 295, 300, 301, 309, 319, 369, 607 Kazdin, A. E., 295, 300, 301, 302, 306, 309, 310 Keating, D., 120, 121, 582 Keavney, M., 318 Keefe, J. W., 167 Kee, Y. H., 509 Kehle, T. J., 197, 307, 311 Kellam, S. G., 307 Keller, M., 581 Keller, U., 132, 153 Kelly, D. J., 261, 262 Kelly, D. R., 470, 471 Kelly, M. L., 306 Kemp, C., 170 Kempert, S., 216 Kemp, J., 224 Kena, G., 258 Kennedy, J. J., 580 Kenney-Benson, G. A., 466 Keough, K., 264 Kerr, M, 103 Keyes, T. S., 471 Keyser, V., 463 Khanem, F., 102 Kher, N., 526 Kicken, W., 43 Kiewra, K. A., 375, 419, 471 Kilcher, A., 423 Killingsworth, S. S., 441 Kim, A., 495 Kim, C-M., 415, 422, 423, 520 Kim, E. J., 495 Kim, J., 495 Kim, J. A., 337, 343, 344 Kim, J. S., 255, 256 Kim, M., 495 Kim, P., 254 Kim, S-Y., 86 Kim, Y., 632 Kindsay, J. J., 595 Kindsvatter, R., 592 King, A., 430, 432, 433, 434, 436 King, E. M., 441 King, R. B., 500 Kingsley, J. M., 197 Kingsley, T. L., 475 Kirk, S. A., 378, 435

N-8

N AME I NDE X

Kirschner, P. A., 43, 424, 438, 592 Kirsh, S. J., 118 Kit, B. K., 106 Kitil, M. J., 478, 479 Kizzie, K. T., 258 Klahr, D., 423, 424, 513 Klassen, R. M., 33, 462, 466, 467 Kleickmann, T., 511 Klein, D., 215 Kleinfeld, J., 271 Klein, S., 272 Klein, S. B., 290, 291, 295, 297, 298 Klein, S. S., 422 Klinger, J., 191 Klusmann, U., 581 Knapp, M. S., 257 Knightly, L. M., 216 Knowlton, B. J., 335 Kobayashi, K., 375 Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., 427, 428, 563 Koedinger, K., 47, 347, 358, 377, 383, 418, 419, 420, 598, 630 Koehl, M., 63 Koenig, M. A., 136 Koenig, O., 346 Koenka, A. C., 468 Koeppen-Schomerus, G., 206 Koestner, R., 318 Koff, R., 334 Kohlberg, L., 136 Kohn, A., 310, 318, 319, 471, 639 Kokko, K., 118 Kolata, G., 48 Köller, O., 131, 133, 134, 135, 161 Koomen, H. M. Y., 36, 466, 554 Koopman, R., 128 Korf, R., 387 Koriat, A., 351 Körndle, H., 412 Kornell, N., 374 Kornhaber, M., 156 Korn, Z., 315 Korte, G., 34 Kosciw, J. G., 274 Koser, L., 45 Kosslyn, S. M., 328, 346, 347 Kounin, J. S., 460, 550 Koury, A. S., 223, 225 Kovas, Y., 471, 516 Kovelman, I., 216, 217 Kozol, J., 252 Kozulin, A., 85, 86, 90, 95 Kraft, M. A., 471 Krajcik, J., 425 Krapp, A., 513 Kratchovil, C. J., 179 Krathwohl, D. R., 367, 587, 588 Kratzig, G. P., 167

Krauss, S., 581 Kreider, H., 212, 226 Kreider, R. M., 113 Kretschmann, J., 43 Kreuzberger, C., 120 Kroger, J., 127 Krogstad, J. M., 223 Kronberger, N., 264 Kronholz, J., 194, 195, 196, 198 Krueger, J. L., 135 Krueger, T. K., 311 Kruger, A. C., 92 Krumboltz, J. D., 639 Kuhn, D., 81, 395, 396, 425, 427, 429, 436, 593 Kuklinski, M. R., 609, 611 Kulikowich, J. M., 352 Kummer, T. A., 637 Kuncel, N. R., 252, 392, 394, 395 Kunter, M., 466, 581, 596 Kurlakowsky, K. D., 127 Kuyper, H., 133 Lachter, J., 335 Ladd, Ga. W., 117 Ladd, G. W., 117, 427, 428 Ladson-Billings, G., 258, 260, 261, 277, 282 Ladwig, J., 36, 120 Lagattuta, K. H., 138 Lahat, A., 138 Lake, V. E., 137 Lambert, R., 260, 261 Lambert, S. F., 127 Lamb, M. E., 111 Lam, R., 317 Landrum, T. J., 295, 300, 301, 309, 319 Lane, D., 120, 142 Lane, K., 311 Langan-Fox, J., 419 Langer, J. A., 600 Lange-Schubert, K., 511 Langley, R., 373 Lanza, S., 133 LaParo, K. M., 582, 591 LaRocque, J., 342 Larsen, R. A. A., 553 LaRusso, M. D., 583 Larzelere, R. E., 110 Lashley, T. J. II, 420 Latham, G. P., 305, 315, 498, 501 Lather, P., 48 Lau, S., 571 Lauver, K., 373 Lave, J., 398, 413, 424 Lawless, K., 607 Lawrence, F. R., 213, 214 Lawson, H. A., 496, 501 Lawson, M. A., 496, 501 Lazowski, R. A., 490, 519 Leaf, P. J., 314

Leaper, C., 222, 269, 270 Learning Disabilities Association of America, 208 Leary, M. R., 496 Lee, C., 189, 250 Lee, C. D., 328, 349, 638 Lee, J., 31, 51, 250, 257, 272, 512 Lee, J. Y. K., 265 Lee, K., 261, 262, 380 Lee, R. M., 257 Lee, S. J., 218, 250 Lee, S. S., 369 Lee, W., 519 LeFevre, J. A., 87, 212 Lefton, L., 125 Leh J. M., 380, 383 Lehman, B., 434 Lehman, D. R., 82 Leigh, E., 174 Leinhardt, G., 592 LeMahieu, P., 637 Lemelson, R., 248 Lemery-Chalfant, K., 468, 478 Lemmer, G., 509 Lenhart, A., 33, 123, 438, 440 Lens, W., 492, 496, 501 Leong, D. J., 90, 93 Lepper, M. R., 318 Leppink, J., 339, 340 Lerner, M. D., 105 Lerner, R. M., 109 Lesaux, N., 230, 231 Leung, A. K.-Y., 164 Leung, M. C., 117 Leutner, D., 168 Levine, F., 267 Levine, S. C., 271, 506, 507 Levin, J. R., 356, 357, 556, 557, 564 Levitin, D. J., 335 Levy, S., 593 Lewedeg, V., 215 Lewinsohn, P. M., 184 Lewis, C., 111 Lewis, J. L., 466, 501 Lewis, J. M., 113 Lewis, R., 571 Lewis, W. E., 498 Lhamon, C. E., 267 Liben, L. S., 269, 272, 273 Lickliter, R., 61 Li, C. R., 471 Lidz, J. L., 207 Liebtag, E., 233 Liem, A. D., 224 Li, H., 152 Lillard, A. S., 105 Lillemyr, O. F., 105 Linan-Thompson, S., 230 Lin, C.-H., 427, 475 Lindberg, S. M., 160 Lindsay, P. H., 332

Ling, D. S., 471 Ling, G., 554 Lin, M.-S., 509 Linnenbrink, E. A., 499 Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., 194, 492, 498, 499, 500, 503, 510, 515 Linn, M. C., 160, 411, 424 Linn, R. L., 620 Linquanti, R., 34 Lin, T-Z., 418 Linz, D., 119 Lisette, W., 422, 423 Lissitz, R. W., 639 Liszkowski, U., 105 Litke, E., 656 Liu, H., 175 Liu, W. M., 250 Llamon, C. E., 275 Lochman, J. E., 477 Locke, E. A., 305, 315, 455, 498, 501 Lockhart, R. S., 341 Lock, J., 107 Lockl, K., 369 Loewenstein, J., 384, 385, 387 Logan, J. A. R., 516 Long, J., 380 Long, J. D., 252, 253 Long, J. F., 516 Lonigan, C. J., 192, 210, 211, 231 López, G., 130 Lorch, E. P., 179, 374 Lorch, R. F., 374 Loschky, L. C., 226 Losel, F., 561 Losen, D., 560 Losey, K. M., 226 Loveless, T., 160, 604 Loyens, S. M. M., 399, 422, 423 Lubienski, S. T., 271 Lubinski, D., 43 Lucariello, L. M., 329 Luckner, A. E., 582 Lüdtke, O., 43, 131, 133, 134, 135, 161, 516, 595, 596 Luke, N., 121 Luk, G., 216 Luna, B., 67 Lun, J., 120, 582 Lunsford, L. B., 655 Lustina, M. J., 264 Lyon, G. R., 175 Mabry, L., 634 MacDonald, S., 466 Mace, F. C., 315 Machado, A., 76 Macionis, J. J., 250, 251, 257, 260, 262 Mack, T. R., 380, 383 MacMillan, D. L., 641 Maczuga, S., 152, 213

N A ME I N DEX Madaus, G. F., 652 Madden, A., 372 Maddux, W. W., 164 Madison, S. M., 611 Madsen, C. H., 45 Madsen, K., 581 Maeda, Y., 399 Maehr, M. L., 468, 500, 501 Magnan, A., 438 Magnuson, D., 570 Magnusson, S. J., 421 Mahn, H., 85, 87 Maier, M. A., 515 Major, B., 266 Malby, R. W., 444, 446 Malecki, C. K., 581 Malin, J. L., 194 Mañá, A, 369 Manning, B. H., 315, 476, 477 Marano, N., 421 Marchland, G., 504 Marcia, J. E., 127, 128 Marder, K., 105 Marecek, J., 280, 281 Marinova-Todd, S., 215 Markman, E. M., 207 Marks, A. K., 131 Marley, S. C., 91, 92, 415 Marois, R., 335 Marshall, D., 215 Marshall, H. H., 411, 414 Marshall, K., 189, 190 Marshall, M., 555, 557, 558, 559, 609 Marsh, E. J., 377 Marsh, H. W., 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 462, 466, 642 Marso, R. N., 41 Martin, A. J., 131, 132, 133, 134, 178, 224, 462, 466 Martin, C. L., 267, 268, 273 Martin, C. S., 185 Martinez, S., 541, 555 Martin, J., 411, 412 Martin, R., 132, 153, 230, 231 Martin, R. E., 471 Martinussen, M., 127 Marvin, K. L., 303 Marx, R. W., 425, 490 Marzano, J. S., 536 Marzano, R. J., 536 Mascolo, M. F., 75, 82 Maslow, A. H., 493, 513 Mason, D. A., 605 Mason, L., 412, 413 Massa, L. J., 168 Masten, A. S., 252, 253 Master, A., 270, 506 Mastergeorge, A. M., 432 Mastropieri, M, A., 150, 170, 191, 193 Matczynski, T. J., 420 Matos, L., 499 Matson, J. L., 191

Matson, M. L., 191 Matsumura, L. C., 544 Matthews, G., 478, 480, 517 Matthews, J. S., 258, 473 Matthews, M. D., 470, 471 Mattison, R., 152 Maupin, A. N., 263 Mayer, R. E., 168, 290, 328, 340, 354, 380, 385, 393, 411, 418, 423, 475, 480, 512 May, H., 212 Mayo Clinic, 189 Mazzoni, S., 521 McAllister, P. A., 581 McAnarney, E. R., 67 McArdle, J. J., 153 McBride-Chang, C., 175 McCabe, D. P., 369 McCafferty, S. G., 88 McCandliss, B. D., 69 McCarthy, M. R., 314 McCaslin, M., 411, 417, 429, 480, 482, 541 McClelland, D., 508 McClelland, P., 253 McClintic-Gilbert, M. S., 491 McCoach, D. B., 197 McCormick, M. P., 120 McCown, K., 107 McCray, A. D., 571 McDaniel, M. A., 47, 72, 167, 168, 328, 341, 347, 353, 355, 358, 372, 377, 383, 418, 419, 420, 480, 598, 630, 637 McDevitt, 68 McDonald, K. L., 117 McDougall, P., 117 McFarland, J., 258 McGill-Frazen, A., 255 McGoey, K. E., 301 McGovern, L., 374 McHugh, J. R., 48 McInerney, D. M., 500 McIntosh, P., 280, 282 McKay, S., 506, 507 McKenna, J. W., 307, 642 McKenna, M. C., 503 McKenzie, T. L., 316 McKinley, J. C., 69 McKinsey, P., 272 McKown, C., 261 McLeod, S. A., 167 McLeskey, J., 178, 181, 189, 198 McLoughlin, G., 516 McLoyd, V. C., 254 McMillan, J. H., 626, 637 McNamara, D. S., 440 McNeil, N. M., 418, 419 McNurlen, B., 86 McTighe, J., 579, 586, 601, 602 McTigue, E. M., 355

Meade, J., 657 Meadows, S., 369 Meece, J. L., 134, 305, 315, 455, 457, 458, 464, 498– 499, 500, 505, 512, 516 Meens, D. E., 34, 35 Mehta, P. D., 230 Meichenbaum, D., 476 Meijer, A. M., 516 Meister, C., 93, 426, 430 Meister, D. G., 41 Mejia-Arauz, R., 213 Melby-Lervåg, M., 174 Melnick, S. A., 41 Melrose, S., 418 Meltzoff, A. N., 76, 270 Mendle, J., 103, 104 Menke, D. J., 374 Mercado, E., 66, 293, 328, 514 Mercer, L. K., 370, 480, 482 Mercer, N., 86, 88 Meredith, M. D., 105 Mereish, E. H., 274 Mergendoller, J. R., 519 Merrill, B. M., 178 Mertler, C. A., 50, 637 Merton, R. K., 609 Mesmer, H. A. E., 586 Messina, J. P., 136, 137, 141 Mestre, J. P., 380 Metcalfe, J., 47, 347, 358, 377, 383, 418, 419, 420, 469, 598, 630 MET Project, 40, 41 Metzler, C. W., 314 Meyer, D., 520 Meyering, E. E., 342 Meyers, A. B., 65, 66, 83, 84, 102, 104, 206, 207, 212 Miccio, A. W., 213, 214 Michael, R. S., 571 Michalowski, J., 554 Michou, A., 499 Mickelson, R. A., 260, 261 Middleton, M. J., 468, 499, 500 Midgley, C., 142, 468, 499 Midgley, L., 45 Miech, R. A., 185 Migliacci, N., 219 Mikami, A., 120, 582 Mikami, A. Y., 495, 582 Mikkers, J., 423 Milan, M. A., 303 Milich, R., 179 Miller, A., 120, 500 Miller, B., 600 Miller, G. A., 336, 337 Miller, L., 70 Miller, M., 473 Miller, M. D., 620 Miller, N., 430 Miller, P. H., 61, 73, 75, 77, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 92, 109, 124, 127, 128, 208, 209, 411

N-9

Miller, R. B., 303 Miller, S. A., 75, 77, 136, 208, 209 Miller, S. L., 71 Miller, S. M., 85, 86, 90 Miller, S. P., 419 Milner, H. R., IV, 121, 131, 254, 257, 258, 266, 277, 572 Minch, D., 554 Miranda, T. Z., 219, 231 Mischel, W., 470, 473 Mishra, P., 161, 162, 163 Mislevy, R. J., 440 Mitchell, A. J., 107 Mitchell, M., 511 Mitchell, S. A., 424 Miyake, A., 88 Miyamoto, K., 65, 69, 71, 72 Moen, P., 253 Mohammed, S. S., 258 Mohan, L., 631 Moise-Titus, J., 119 Mok, K., 215 Mok, M. M. C., 224 Mo, L., 387, 399 Moller, A. C., 495 Möller, J., 133, 196 Möller, K., 511 Moll, H., 105 Moll, L. C., 85, 94, 227, 228, 525, 597 Molnár, G., 380 Monk, J. S., 167 Monroe, C. R., 571, 572 Monsaas, J. A., 46 Monseur, C., 160 Montgomery, C., 479 Montgomery, R. W., 303 Montrul, S., 216 Moon, T. R., 194, 198 Moore, D. W., 191 Moore, M. K., 76 Morehead, J., 506 Morelli, G., 84 Moreno, M., 107 Moreno, M. A., 334 Moreno, R., 383 Morgan, Pl. L., 152 Morger, V., 581 Morin, A. J., 133 Morin, A. J. S., 133 Morine-Dershimer, G., 584 Morin, V. A., 419 Morris, D. B., 467 Morrison, F., 120, 121, 582 Morrison, F. J., 473, 582 Morris, P. A., 109 Morris, R., 70 Morrow, A. S., 178 Morrow, L. M., 547 Moscovitz, K. K., 311 Moseley, D. V., 167, 168, 169 Moshman, D., 412 Moskowitz, G., 550

N-10

N AM E I NDE X

Mouratidis, A., 492, 501, 502 Mouyi, A., 337 Mraz, M., 370, 372 Mueller, C. M., 301 Mueller, K. J., 492, 508 Mueller, P. A., 476 Muenks, K., 471 Muething, C. S., 307 Muis, K. R., 468, 473, 506 Muldner, K., 317 Muller, C., 150 Munger, K. A., 212 Munt, E. D., 315 Murayama, K., 501, 512, 522 Murdock, S. G., 312 Murdock, T. A., 120, 141, 142 Murdock, T. B., 120, 127 Murphy, P. K., 72, 372, 395, 493, 515, 601 Murray, M. S., 212 Muschkin, C. G., 642 Musu-Gillette, L., 258 Myers, C. E., 66, 293, 328, 514 Myers, D. G., 257, 261, 262, 349, 388 Myerson, J., 375 Nadler, J. T., 264 Nagaoka, J., 471 Nagengast, B., 133, 595, 596, 597 Nagin, D. S., 118 Naglieri, J. A., 88 Nagy, G., 597 Nakamoto, J., 211 Namkung, J., 380 Narciss, S., 412 Nardo, A. C., 571 Nash, P., 440 Nash, P. W., 298 Nasir, N. S., 112, 121, 123–124, 266 Nastasi, B. K., 329 Nathan, M. J., 377 National Alliance of Black School Educators, 152 National Assessment of Educational Progress, 160, 259 National Association for Gifted Children, 194 National Center for Child Poverty, 32 National Center for Education Statistics, 258 National Center for Homeless Education, 252 National Center on Family Homelessness, 252 National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 32 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child

Care Research Network, 210 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 188 National Science Foundation, 263 Navarro, R. L., 466 Neal, L. V. I., 571 Needham, A., 83, 90 Neff, D., 94, 227, 597 Neisser, U., 160 Nelson, C. A., 65 Nelson, J. R., 70 Nelson, K., 350 Nelson, K. E., 343 Nelson, T. O., 369 Nesbit, J. C., 375 Neubrand, M., 581 Neuman, M., 595 Neumann, C., 158 Neumann, K., 581 Neuman, S. B., 590 Neuman, Y., 434 Neumeister, K. L. S., 162 Neville, H., 65 Newman, S. E., 359 Newsom, J. S., 270 The New Teacher Project, 652 Ng, E. L., 380 Ng, S. F., 380 Nguyen, H.-H. D., 265 Nguyen-Jahiel, K., 86, 600 Nicholls, J., 318, 499 Nicholls, J. G., 500 Nickerson, K., 131 Nielsen, S., 107 Nieto, S., 276 Nie, Y., 571 Nigam, M., 424 Niggli, A., 595, 596 Nisbett, R. E., 82, 247 Nix, G., 521 Nix, R. L., 343 No Child Left Behind Act, 272 Noddings, N., 137, 163 Noguera, P., 120 Nokes, J. D., 394 Nokes-Malach, T. J., 380, 392, 400, 401, 402 Nolan, J. F., 556, 557, 564 Noll, E., 266 Norbert, F., 216 Norby, M. M., 330, 336, 341, 352, 354, 369, 380, 390, 411, 412 Nordby, C. J., 480, 482 Nordström, A. L., 178, 179 Norman, D. A., 332 Northwest Education Association, 621 Norton, E., 70 Novack, M., 385 Novak, A., 254

Novodvorsky, I., 539, 540, 542, 557, 563, 564, 565, 599 Nucci, L. P., 111, 138, 139, 140 Nulty, A., 440 Nussbaum, A. D., 266 Nussbaum, E. M., 395 Nye, B., 595 Nylund, D., 180 Nystrand, M., 600 Oakes, M. A., 256, 261 Oberle, E., 479 Obidah, J. E., 571, 572 O’Brennan, L. M., 562 O’Brien, M., 610 O’Campo, P. J., 131 O’Connor, B. C., 178, 179 O’Connor, C., 255 O’Connor, E. E., 120 Oczuks, L., 426 Oden, M. H., 195 O’Donnell, A. M., 427, 428, 430, 432, 434, 436, 439 Oettingen, G., 469 Ogbu, J. U., 255 Ogden, C. L., 106 Ogline, J. S., 175 Ohio Department of Education, 218 Oh, J. S., 216 Oh, S., 194, 198 Okagaki, L., 255, 264, 265, 279 O’Keefe, P. A., 500 O’Kelly, J., 427, 432 Olafson, L., 506 O’Leary, K. D., 301 O’Leary, S. G., 301, 309 Olivarez, A., 33 Oller, D. K., 215 Olmi, D. J., 300 Olson, D. R., 48 Olson, K., 526 Olson, R. K., 175 O’Malley, P. M., 185 O’Mara, A. J., 133 O’Neal, C. R., 471 O’Neill, R. E., 312 Oort, F. J., 36 Oosterhof, A., 622 Oppenheimer, D. M., 476 Orange, C., 263, 557 Orfield, G., 260 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 67, 70, 71, 160, 272 Orlando, L., 76 Ormerod, T. C., 164 Ormiston, H., 541, 555 Ormrod, J. E., 66, 67, 68, 328, 374 Orobio de Castro, B., 641

Orosco, M. J., 191 Orr, A., 271, 275 Ortman, J. M., 32 Osborn, A. F., 165 Osborne, J. W., 135 Osgood, D. W., 133 Osterman, K. F., 496, 554 Ostrov, J. M., 117, 118 Otto, B., 207 Ouellette, J. A., 357, 358 Ouellette, R., 283 Ovando, C. J., 231 Overman, L. T., 254 Overton, W. F., 61 Owen, R., 475 Owens, E. B., 110 Owens, J. S., 182 Owens, R. E., 181, 207, 221, 222 Owens, R. J. Q., 375, 376 Ownston, R. D., 441 Ozogul, G., 383 Paas, F. G. W. C., 339, 340, 356, 384 Pabilonia, S. W., 595 Padilla-Munoz, E. M., 479 Padmanabhan, A., 67 Paduchova, Z., 179 Pahlke, Hyde, J. S., 273 Pai, H-H, Sears, D. A., 399 Paik, E. S., 168 Pailler, F., 107 Paivio, A., 346, 353, 354 Pajares, F., 42, 131, 135, 245, 317, 455, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 507 Palardy, G., 254–255, 283 Palcic, J., 306 Palincsar, A. S., 85, 374, 411, 412, 421, 426, 429, 430, 432, 522 Palmer, N. A., 274 Palmquist, C. M., 105 Pang, K. C., 41 Pang, M. F., 384 Panitz, T., 427 Pansky, A., 351 Papageorge, N., 263 Papert, S., 444 Pape, S., 120, 255 Paré-Blagoev, J., 71 Paris, A. H., 540 Paris, D., 280 Paris, S. G., 481 Park, B., 512 Parke, R. D., 133 Parker, M., 45 Parker, P. D., 133 Parker, W. C., 600 Park, G., 43 Park, L. E., 135 Park, Lubinski, 198 Pascalis, O., 261, 262

N A ME I N DEX Pashler, H., 47, 167, 347, 358, 377, 383, 418, 419, 420, 598, 630 Pastorelli, C., 462, 466 Patall, E. A., 492, 495, 498, 499, 503, 510, 595 Patashnick, M., 499 Patrick, H., 466, 499, 520 Patton, D. U., 561 Patton, F., 131 Pauk, W., 375, 376 Paulos, L., 335 Paul, R., 392, 393 Paulsen, D. J., 67 Paunesku, D., 506 Payne, B. D., 315, 476, 477 Pea, R., 444 Pearl, R., 117 Pearson, B. Z., 215 Peck, S. C., 112, 121, 123–124 Pedersen, N. L., 153 Peebles, R., 107 Pekrun, R., 434, 515, 516, 522 Pelham, W. E., 178, 179 Pellegrini, A. D., 104, 105 Pellegrino, J. R., 652, 653 Pellegrino, J. W., 607 Pellegrino, L., 187 Pellis, S., 104 Pell, T., 427 Penfield, R. D., 477 Peng, P. Namkung, J., 343 Pennington, B. F., 175 Peregoy, S. F., 217, 220, 230, 232, 233, 234 Perencevich, K. C., 521 Perez, A. M., 154 Perez, C., 217 Perez, W., 266 Perfetti, C. A., 70 Perkins, D. N., 397, 399, 419 Perner, J., 369 Perry, N., 91 Perry, N. E., 79, 102, 105, 107, 109, 116, 120, 123, 136, 141, 195, 196, 210, 211, 269, 315, 369, 370, 467, 474, 479, 480, 481, 482, 541 Perry, R. P., 515, 516 Persson, H., 560, 570, 571 Peruche, B. M., 261 Perusse, D., 117 Peterson, C., 470, 471 Peterson, G. W., 133 Peterson, J. L., 160 Peterson, M., 104 Peterson, R., 571 Petitclerc, A., 118 Petitto, L. A., 215, 216, 217, 230 Petrill, S. A., 160 Petrosino, A., 560, 570, 571 Petscher, Y., 209 Pettit, G. S., 136

Peverly, S. T., 84, 375 Pew Research Center, 33, 129, 130, 251 Peyton, S. T., 159 Pfiffner, L., 180 Pfiffner, L. J., 301 Philipp, A., 466 Phillips, B. M., 192, 468 Phillips, D., 411, 412 Phillips, L., 481 Phillips, M. M., 399, 520 Phye, G. D., 399 Piaget, J., 46, 73–74, 81, 82, 89, 91, 139, 411, 428 Pianta, R. C., 35, 120, 121, 495, 582, 591 Piasta, S. B., 209 Pickering, S. J., 343 Pickett, T., Jr., 250 Piel, J. A., 73, 124 Pierce, W. D., 318, 319 Pieschl, S., 468, 473 Pigge, F. L., 41 Pihlgren, C., 178, 179 Pineau, A., 84 Pinker, S., 71, 342 Pintrich, P. R., 134, 305, 315, 455, 457, 458, 464, 466, 468, 490, 493, 496, 498– 499, 500, 505, 511, 512, 513, 514, 516 Pious, C., 311 Piquette, N., 438 Pisha, B., 607 Pituch, K. A., 255 Plager, E., 45 Plank, D. R., 655 Plant, E. A., 261 Plants, R., 607 Planty, M., 224 Plass, J. L., 522 Platsidou, M., 342 Plavnick, J. B., 45 Plomin, R., 206, 471 Plucker, J. A., 161, 163 Plucker, J. J., 194, 198 Plummer, D. L., 642 Podolski, C. P., 119 Pohlmann, B., 133 Poirel, N., 84 Poldrack, R. A., 335 Polikoff, M. S., 586 Polio, M., 641 Polson, P. G., 395 Pomerantz, E. M., 466 Ponitz, C. C., 473, 554 Poorthius, A. M. G., 641 Pope, C., 311 Popham, W. J., 584, 587, 620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 632, 634, 635, 636, 650, 653 Porter, L., 357, 372 Posada, G., 124 Posner, M. I., 359, 382

Postle, B. R., 342 Postlethwaite, B. E., 142 Poteat, V. P., 274 Potocki, A., 438 Prat-Sala, M., 466 Prawat, R. S., 412, 415 Preckel, F., 153 Preckel, T., 133 Premack, D., 301 Prensky, M., 440 Prentice, K., 475 Presseisen, B. Z., 95 Pressley, M., 211–212, 278, 343, 369, 371–372, 379, 476, 511, 523, 525, 596, 631 Pretzlik, U., 45 Price, G. E., 167 Price, L. F., 67 Price, T. S., 206 Price, W. F., 206 Proctor, C. P., 231 Pugh, K. J., 399, 520 Pulfrey, C., 495 Pulkkinen, L., 118, 473 Pullen, P. C., 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 186–187, 189, 190, 369, 607 Puncochar, J., 429 Puntambekar, S., 92 Purdie, N., 179 Purdie-Vaughns, V., 266 Puro, P., 519 Purpura, D. J., 425, 438 Putman, M., 466 Putnam, R., 41 Putney, L., 85, 90, 92, 95 Puustinen, M., 473 Pyke, A. A., 87 Quiceno, J., 124 Quinn, D. M., 255, 256 Quinn, P. C., 261, 262 Quinn, P. D., 159, 471 Quintana, S. M., 257 Rabinowitz, M., 581 Rach, L., 521 Rachlin, H., 291, 459 Radford, J., 418 Radvansky, G. A., 328, 330, 331, 332, 337, 339, 341, 345, 346, 347, 350, 355, 385 Raffini, J. P., 497, 513, 522 Rahim, A., 467, 480, 481 Raikes, H. A., 112 Rai, M. K., 226 Raj, V., 84 Rakoczy, H., 105 Ramani, G., 395 Ramaswamy, V., 375 Ramey, D. R., 231

N-11

Ramirez, G., 271 Ramirez, J. D., 231 Randolph, S. M., 131 Raphael, D., 430 Raphael, L., 278 Raphael, L. M., 631 Rapp, D. N., 514 Rapp, J. T., 303, 311 Rathbun, A., 258 Ratner, H. H., 92 Raudenbush, S. W., 258, 260, 610, 641, 642 Raudsepp, E., 388 Rau, M. A., 377 Raver, C. C., 473 Ravit, G. D., 422, 425 Rawson, K. A., 377, 624 Reardon, S. F., 253, 258, 642 Reback, R., 34 Reber, R., 512 Reddy, S., 67, 178, 335 Reder, L. M., 359, 369, 413 Redford, P., 466 Reed, R. P., 596 Reese, L., 213 Reeve, J., 315, 491, 494, 495, 496, 519, 521 Regalia, C., 462 Régner, I., 264, 265 Reichert, M., 132 Reid, E. E., 425, 438 Reid, J. M., 226 Reifel, S., 443 Reifel, S. C., 441 Reimann, G., 610 Reimann, P., 382 Reinke, W. M., 562 Reisberg, D., 164 Reisman, A., 600, 601 Reisslein, M., 383 Reis, S. M., 194, 197, 198 Reiss, S., 491, 513 Reiter-Palmon, R., 507 Reljic, G., 230, 231 Rendon, P., 228 Renkl, A., 340, 355, 384 Renninger, K. A., 469, 510, 511, 512, 513 Renzulli, J. S., 194, 197, 198 Rescorla, R. A., 293 Resnick, L. B., 413 Rettig, M., 466, 501 Reyes, C. R., 263 Reyes, E. I., 282 Reyes, M. R., 581 Reynolds, C. A., 153 Reynolds, C. R., 191 Reynolds, R. E., 468 Reznitskaya, A., 86, 600 Rice, D., 150 Rice, F. P., 184 Richell, R., 254 Richey, J. E., 392, 400, 401, 402

N-12

N AM E I NDE X

Richmond, M., 124 Rideout, V., 438 Riedesel, C. A., 383 Rigby, K., 560, 562 Riggall, A. C., 342 Riggle, E. D. B., 275 Rikers, R., 340, 384 Rimfeld, K., 471 Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., 553, 554 Rimm, S. B., 198 Rintamaa, M., 372 Ritchey, K., 130, 374 Rittle-Johnson, B., 383, 384, 425 Rivas-Drake, D., 257 Rivera, A., 228 Rivers, J. C., 36 Rivers, S. E., 581 Rivet, T. T., 191 Rivkin, S. G., 36 Robbins, S. B., 373 Robbins, S. J., 297 Roberge, M. M., 226 Roberson, D., 206 Roberts, D. F., 438 Roberts, D. S., 300 Roberts, G., 258 Roberts, R. D., 478, 480 Robinson-Cimpian, J. P., 271 Robinson, D. H., 419 Robinson, J. C., 595 Robinson, J. P., 271, 274 Robustelli, S., 609 Rockoff, J., 34, 656 Roderick, M., 471 Rodgers, K. A., 129 Rodgers, R. F., 107 Rodkin, P. C., 117 Rodriguez, C., 266 Roediger, H. L., 630 Roedinger, H. L. III, 72, 168, 328, 341, 353, 355, 372, 480 Roehrig, G., 63, 69, 71, 72 Roeser, R. W., 112, 121, 123–124, 479 Rogers, B. P., 335 Rogoff, B., 84, 85, 92, 424 Rogow, F., 444, 445 Rogowsky, B. A., 168 Rohde, P., 184 Rohrer, D., 167, 356, 358 Roid, G. H., 158 Rojas, J. P., 471 Rojas, N. R., 303 Rojas, R., 215 Rolland, R. G., 499 Romano, M. E., 37, 542, 543, 545, 546, 547, 551, 557, 593, 594, 596, 599 Romero, A. B., 311 Romero, C., 506, 507 Roorda, D. L., 36 Rosch, E. H., 346 Roschelle, J., 426, 441

Roscoe, R. D., 440 Rosenberg, M., 134 Rosenberg, M. S., 178, 181, 189, 198 Rosenfarb, I., 315 Rosenfeld, M., 169 Rosenfeld, S., 169 Rose, N. S., 342 Rosenshine, B., 93, 426, 430, 580, 582, 591, 599 Rosenthal, L., 249 Rosenthal, R., 609, 611 Roser, R., 468 Roseth, C. J., 434 Roskos, K., 590 Ross, D., 118 Ross, J. A., 430 Ross, M., 389 Ross, S., 92, 418 Ross, S. A., 118 Rostosky, S. S., 275 Rotherham-Borus, M. J., 131 Roth, G., 499 Rothkopf, A., 511 Rowan, B., 581 Rowe, E. W., 197 Rowe, M. B., 599 Rowe, M. L., 395 Rowley, J. B., 420 Rowley, S. J., 258, 266 Rozek, C. S., 269 Rubie-Davies, C. M., 436, 609 Rubin, K. H., 114, 115, 117 Rubin, L. R., 197 Rubinsten, O., 175 Ruble, D., 268, 269 Ruble, D. N., 266, 267 Ruck, M. D., 260, 610 Rudd, T., 571 Rudner, L. M., 651 Rudolph, K. D., 127 Rueda, R., 525 Rummel, N., 356, 377, 429 Rummer, R., 344 Rundle, S., 168 Rupp, A. A., 479 Rusby, J. C., 314 Rushall, B. S., 316 Russell, M. K., 626, 630 Russell, S. T., 267, 273 Rust, J., 269 Ruthruff, K. I., 335 Ryan, A., 116, 500 Ryan, A. M., 265, 466 Ryan, K. E., 265 Ryan, R. M., 318, 481, 491, 494, 495 Saalbach, H., 216 Sachs, J., 505, 506 Sackett, P. R., 252 Sadek, S., 561 Sadker, D., 567, 597, 599 Sadker, M., 567, 597, 599

Safter, H. T., 162 Saia, J., 371 Sailor, W., 311 Sakamoto, A., 119 Sakiz, G., 120 Salchegger, S., 133 Salem, A., 271, 275 Salisbury-Glennon, J. D., 425 Salmela-Aro, K., 510 Salomon, G., 397, 399, 419 Salovey, P., 581 Saltarelli, A. J., 434 Sample Stanford Student Report in Score Report Sampler: Guide-Teaching and Learning Toward High Academic Standards for the Stanford Achievement Test Series, 649 Sana, F., 337, 343, 344, 476 Sandberg, J. F., 595 Sanders, C. E., 399 Sanders, S., 374 Sanders, W. L., 36 Sanghera-Sidhu, S., 438 Sansone, C., 265 Sarrazin, 611 Sattler, J. M., 154, 158, 163, 165 Saulnier, G., 128 Savage, R., 438 Savin-Williams, R. C., 267, 271, 272 Sawyer, K., 161, 163, 165 Sawyer, R. K., 329, 369, 416, 417 Saxe, G. B., 84 Scabini, E., 462 Scalise, K., 61, 63, 67, 71, 72, 515 Scanlan, M., 48 Scarcella, R., 230 Schafer, W. D., 639 Schalke, D., 153 Schallert, D. L., 468, 495 Schatschneider, C., 212 Scheer, J. R., 274 Scheibe, C., 444, 445 Scheiter, K., 346 Schellinger, K. B., 108 Schiefele, U., 134, 527 Schmader, T., 264, 266 Schmid, R. F., 438 Schmidt, H. G., 422, 423, 425 Schmiedek, F., 343 Schneider, W., 329, 368, 369 Schnellert, L., 315 Schnyder, I., 595, 596 Schoenfeld, A. H., 387, 390 Schoen, R., 112 Schommer, M., 506 Schonert-Reichl, K. A., 478, 479

Schoonen, R., 231 Schoor, C., 412 Schrage, J., 469 Schraw, G. J., 168, 329, 330, 336, 341, 345, 350, 352, 354, 369, 380, 386, 390, 411, 412, 506 Schulenberg, J. E., 185 Schulze, S. K., 352 Schumacher, R. F., 380 Schumm, J, S., 229 Schunk, D. H., 62, 63, 66, 90, 92, 131, 134, 135, 290, 305, 315, 317, 330, 332, 333, 334, 348, 352, 369, 370, 378, 379, 380, 391, 411, 412, 414, 455, 457, 458, 459, 464, 465, 466, 469, 471, 473, 498–499, 500, 505, 512, 513, 516 Schuster, M. A., 249 Schwab, J. J., 42, 50 Schwab, Y., 478, 545, 546, 552, 553, 557 Schwan, S., 356 Schwartz, B., 297 Schwartz, D., 397 Schwartz, D. L., 69 Schwartz, H. L., 34 Schwartz, J. E., 383 Schwartz, S. J., 257 Schwarz, B. B., 394, 396, 429, 434 Schwarzer, R., 517 Schweppe, J., 344 Schwinger, M., 509 Schworm, S., 384 Scott, J. G., 561 Scruggs, T. E., 150, 170, 191, 193 Sears, R., 195 Seaton, E., 257 Seaton, M., 133 Sechler, C., 427, 428 Sechler, C. M., 428 Seeley, J. R., 184 Seidel, T., 420, 423, 580 Selig, J. P., 91, 415 Seligman, M. E. P., 177, 465, 471, 508 Senécal, C., 33 Sénéchal, M., 212 Senko, C., 499 Sensale Yazdian, L., 632 Serpell, R., 412 Setrill, S. A., 516 Shaenfield, D., 395 Shaffer, D. W., 397, 440 Shahar, G., 115 Shanahan, E. J., 159, 197 Shanahan, M. E., 535 Shanahan, T., 230 Shanker, S., 467 Shapiro, L. R., 206

N A ME I N DEX Shapka, J. D., 479 Shavelson, R. S., 580 Shaw, H., 108 Shaw, R., 375 Shayer, M., 82 Shaywitz, B. A., 175 Shaywitz, S. E., 175, 191 Shea, T. M., 309, 310 Shechtman, Z., 120, 141 Sheehan, M., 120, 554 Sheets, R. H., 233, 247, 249, 280 Sheldon, K. M., 496 Shen, H., 263 Shen, J., 69 Shepard, L. A., 642 Sherman, D. K., 266 Shibuya, Al, Ihori, N., 119 Shic, F., 263 Shiffrin, R. M., 330 Shih, S. S., 495 Shim, S. S., 500, 501 Shin, J-Y, Wu, S., 224 Shin, L, 32 Shirky, C., 476 Shiyko, M. P., 103 Shochet, I., 120, 554 Shonkoff, J. P., 254 Shore, D. I., 337, 343, 344 Short, D. J., 219, 220, 227, 236, 237 Shrier, L. A., 115 Shrout, P. E., 268, 269 Shuai, L., 179 Shuell, T. J., 591 Shu, H., 175 Shui, S.-H., 509 Shulman, E. P., 471 Shute, V. J., 31, 51, 641 Sibley. M. H., 178 Siddle Walker, V., 277 Siegal, M., 226 Siegel-Hawley, G., 260 Siegle, D., 197, 198 Siegler, R., 380 Siegler, R. S., 83, 84, 90, 343 Siena Research Institute, 586 Sigman, M. D., 158 Silver, J., 105 Silverman, R., 395 Silverman, S. K., 351 Simon, D. A., 358, 373, 378 Simon, D. P., 390 Simonds, C. J., 580 Simon, H. A., 359, 390, 413 Simons, J., 496 Simon, T., 186 Simonton, D. K., 163, 164 Simpkins, S., 212, 226 Singley, K., 398 Sio, U. N., 164 Sirin, S. R., 251, 252 Skiba, R. J., 329, 541, 555, 571 Skibbe, L. E., 468

Skinner, B. F., 294, 295 Skinner, C., 252 Skinner, E. A., 496, 504 Skoog, T., 103 Skowron, S., 107 Slama, R. B., 224 Slater, A. M., 261, 262 Slater, L., 135 Slater, S. C., 544 Slavin, R. E., 48, 231, 430, 434 Sleegers, P., 416 Sleek, S., 328 Sloane, K. D., 46 Sloboda, J. A., 195 Slot, W., 43 Smetana, J. G., 111 Smith, D. C., 171, 179 Smith, D. D., 435, 436 Smith, D. G., 67 Smith, E. D., 105 Smith, E. E., 347 Smith, F., 356 Smith, J. K., 641 Smith, J. L., 265 Smith, L. F., 641 Smith, L. L., 466 Smith, M. L., 642 Smith, P., 343 Smith, P. K., 104 Smith, S., 171, 179 Smith, S. M., 355 Smith, S. W., 477 Smith, T. S., 222 Snowberg, K. E., 480 Snow, C., 215, 224, 231 Snow, R. E., 469, 609 Snyder, K. E., 194 Snyder, T., 224 Soares, D. A., 311 Søbstad, F., 105 Society for Research in Child Development, 214 Soemer, A., 356 Sokolove, S., 567 Soleck, G., 250 Solomon, D., 427 Soloway, E., 425 Son, L. K., 358, 373, 378 Soodak, L. C., 314 Sood, S., 380, 383 Sorhagen, N. S., 610 Sosniak, L. A., 46, 587 Soter, A. O., 601 Sousa, D., 70 Southern Education Foundation, 32 Spada, H., 429 Spanoudis, G., 153, 157, 174, 337, 342 Spearman, C., 153 Spears, F. M., 111 Spencer, K., 70 Spencer, M. B., 266 Spencer, S., 265

Spengler, M., 153 Spera, C., 111 Spilt, J. L., 36, 554 Sprague, J. R., 314 Sprenger, M., 63, 67, 72 Spuhl, S. T., 88 Stage, S. A., 311 Stahl, S. A., 167 Staiger, D. O., 36 Stanat, P., 213 Stang, J., 108 Stanley, S., 112 Stanovich, K. E., 50 Star, J. R., 380, 383, 384 Starko, A. J., 163, 164, 165 Starosta, K., 380, 383 Starrett, M. J., 342 Stattin, H., 103 Stebbins, M. S., 197 Steele, C. M., 264, 266 Steele, J. R., 265 Stefanou, C. R., 521 Steinberg, L., 104, 115, 116, 131, 184 Steinmayr, R., 509 Stein, R. E. K., 105 Stein, Z., 83 Stenske, M. T., 303 Steptoe, A., 479 Sterling-Turner, H. E., 307 Sternberg, K., 330, 332, 334, 345, 347, 349 Sternberg, R. J., 156, 159, 163, 194, 197, 330, 332, 334, 345, 347, 349, 380, 480 Stershic, S., 356 Stevens, K., 271, 272 Stevens, R., 280, 281, 582, 591, 599 Stice, E., 108 Stiggins, R. J., 584, 587, 589, 621, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 632, 633, 638, 639 Stinson, D. W., 224, 255, 271 Stipek, D. J., 490, 507, 522, 526, 527 Stoel, R. D., 231 Stoltzfus, J., 266 Stone, E., 267, 269, 270, 273 Stormont, M., 197 Story, M., 108 Stough, L. M., 536, 539, 543, 551 Stout, M., 560 Stratton, H., 186 Strauss, V., 34, 35 Strayer, D. L., 335 Strayer, J., 128 Strom, B. C., 374 Strom, P. S., 563 Strom, R. D., 563 Stupinisky, R. H., 515, 516 Suba, J., 179 Su, C., 159

N-13

Südkamp, A., 196 Sugai, G., 554 Suizzo, M.-A., 255 Su, J-H, Burgess-Brigham, R., 224 Suldo, S. M., 554 Sullivan, J. R., 192, 193 Sullivan, M. A., 301 Sumowski, J., 375 Sun, C., 343 Sung, H-. Y., 440 Supple, A., 133 Surprenant, C. W., 136, 137, 141 Sutamijariya, N., 107 Sutton, R. E., 516 Sutton, R. M., 264, 265, 271 Svarovsky, G. N., 440 Svinicki, M., 377 Svoboda, J. S., 271 Svoboda, R. C., 269 Swan, G. M., 640 Swanson, G. J., 303 Swanson, H. L., 174, 343, 370, 607 Swanson, J., 468, 478 Swanson, T. C., 182 Swearer, S. M., 561, 563 Sweller, J., 339, 340, 354, 356, 380, 382, 384, 390, 424, 592 Swenson, L. P., 131 Swing, E. L., 119 Sylvester, R., 72 Sylvia, P. J., 512 Synodi, E., 105 Syvertsen, A. K., 560 Tabbers, H. K., 385 Taborsky-Barba, S., 266 Talbot, M., 115 Tallal, P., 71, 168 Tam, H., 337 Tamim, R. M., 438 Tamis-LeMonda, C., 268, 269 Tanaka, A., 512 Tancock, S. M., 475 Tang, Y., 69 Tanner-Smith, E. E., 441 Taylor, A., 466 Taylor, C., 479 Taylor, E., 178 Taylor, R. D., 108 TeachingWorks, 40, 582 Temple, C., 370, 371 Templin, J. L., 512 TenBrink, T. D., 628 Tenenbaum, H. R., 260, 424, 425, 610 Tenent, A., 426 Tennant, J. E., 581 Terman, L. M., 195 Terry, M. N., 581 Tevendale, H. D., 131

N-14

N AM E I NDE X

te Winkel, W. W. R., 425 Tharp, R. G., 86, 279, 280, 281 Theodorakis, N., 561 Theodore, L. A., 307, 311 Theokas, C., 109 Thijs, J. T., 554 Thinus-Blanc, C., 265 Thomaes, S., 641 Thoman, D. B., 265, 469 Thomas, D. R., 45 Thomas, H. J., 561 Thomas, J. R., 102, 103, 106 Thomas, K., 522 Thomas, K. T., 102, 103, 106 Thomas, M. H., 357, 358 Thomas, P. L., 471 Thompson, D. F., 197 Thompson, G., 496 Thompson, L., 384, 385, 387, 516 Thompson, R. A., 112 Thompson, R. K., 34 Thompson, W. L., 328 Thomson, K., 479 Thouvenelle, S., 441, 442, 443 Timperley, H., 599–600 Tingstrom, D. H., 300, 307 Titz, W., 515 Tobias, S., 424 Tobler, N., 186 Tolar, T. D., 192, 213 Tollefson, N., 502 Tomasello, M., 92, 105 Tombu, M. N., 335 Tomlinson, C. A., 91, 194, 641 Tomlinson-Clarke, S., 572 Tompkins, J. R., 189, 198 Tong, F., 335 Tools of the Mind, 94 Toomey, R. B., 267, 273 Topping, K., 215 Toppo, G., 560 Torrance, E. P., 162, 169, 198 Tortora, M., 604 Toth, E., 423 Tough, P., 471 Tourva, A., 153, 157, 174 Trainin, G., 462 Trautwein, U., 131, 133, 134, 135, 161, 595, 596, 597 Trebaticka, J., 179 Tremblay, R. E., 117, 118 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, 643 Tricot, A., 340, 380, 385, 390 Tröbst, S., 511 Trouilloud, 611 Troutman, A. C., 290, 295, 296, 298, 300, 306, 309, 310, 313 Trucano, M., 526, 553 Tsai, K. M., 130 Tsai, Y.-M., 581

Tsang, W., 283 Tsantis, L. A., 441, 442, 443 Tschannen-Moran, M., 432, 436, 466, 500 Tseng, V., 111 Tsukayama, E., 159 Ttofi, M. M., 561 Tubaro, P., 107 Tucker-Drob, E. M., 153 Tulving, E., 352 Tunick, R. A., 175 Tuovinen, J., 382 Turkle, S., 123, 128, 438 Turnbull, A. P., 311 Turner, E. O., 32, 223 Turner, J. C., 480, 481, 520, 521, 526, 553 Tyler, B.-J., 224, 236 Tyler, K. M., 280, 281 Tyler, N. C., 171, 179 Tynan, M. C., 471 Tze, V. M. C., 466 Udell, W., 395 Ugen, S., 132 Uline, C. L., 258 Umaña-Taylor, A. J., 257 Umbreit, J., 314 UNICEF., 32 Uqdah, A. L., 280, 281 Urbina, S., 160 Urdan, T., 132, 468, 509 Urdan, T. C., 500 U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, 223 U. S. Department of Agriculture, 252 U. S. Department of Education, 152, 182, 236, 238, 258, 263, 585 Usher, E. L., 455, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 469, 471, 473 Vacca, J. A. L., 370, 372 Vacca, R. T., 370, 372 Vagi, K. J., 330 Vaillancourt, T., 563 Valant, J., 656 Valentine, J. C., 463, 595, 609 Valenzuela, A., 121 Valiente, C., 468, 478 Vallancourt, T., 117 van Aken, M. A. G., 641 VandeKamp, K. O., 370, 480, 482 Vandell, D. L., 255 van den Bergh, L., 261, 600 van den Wittenboer, G. L. H., 516 van de Pol, J., 418 Vandergrift, N., 582 Vandermass-Peler, M., 105 van der Meij, H., 375, 376

van der Meij, J., 375 van der Molen, H. T., 425 van der Spek, E. D., 441 Van Der Veer, R., 85 van der Vleuten, C. P. M., 339, 340 van der Werf, M. P. C., 609, 610 Van de Walle, J. A., 382 van Driel, J. H., 581 van Gelderen, A., 231 van Gog, T., 339, 340, 399, 422, 423 Van Houtte, M., 268, 642 van Laar, C., 504 VanLehn, K. A., 397, 399 Van Matre, J. C., 609 van Merriënboer, J. J. C., 339, 340 van Merriënboer, J. J. G., 43, 339, 340, 354, 356, 438 Van Meter, P., 375 Vannest, K. J., 311 van Nimwegen, C., 441 van Oostendrop, H., 441 Vansteenkiste, M., 492, 496, 501, 502 Vantieghem, W., 268 Varma, S., 63, 69, 71, 72 Vasquez, J. A., 280 Vaughn, M. G., 212 Vaughn, S. R., 192, 229, 258, 593 Vecchio, G. M., 466 Vecchione, M., 466 Veenema, S., 156 Veenman, S., 41 Vega Jr., R., 307 Vermeersch, H., 268 Vernon, P. A., 154 Verock, R-E., 444, 446 Verplaetse, L. S., 219 Vidal-Abarca, E., 369 Vincent, M., 511, 523, 525 Violette, H. D., 311 Viraro, F., 117 Visconti, K. J., 427, 428 Visser, B. A., 154 Vitaro, F., 118 Viviés, X. D., 261, 262 Vock, M., 43 Voeten, M., 261, 600 Voeten, M. J. M., 416 Vogt, M. E., 219, 220, 227, 236, 237 Vohs, K. D., 135 Volman, M., 418 von Eye, A., 438 von Schrader, S., 189 Voss, T., 581 Votruba-Drzal, E., 223, 225 Vrangalova, Z., 271 Vygotsky, L. S., 85, 88, 89, 90, 476, 604

Waaler, E., 178, 179 Waasdorp, T. E., 314, 562 Wagner, A. R., 293 Wahlsten, D., 61 Waits, B. K., 87 Walberg, H. J., 318, 319, 601 Wales, J., 107 Walker, J. E., 309, 310 Walker, J. M. T., 596 Walker, T., 595 Walker, V. S., 266 Wallace, J. B., 642 Wallace, L., 479 Walls, M. L., 103 Walqui, A., 219, 239 Walsh, M., 123 Walton, G. M., 469 Wang, A. Y., 357, 358 Wang, C., 194, 500 Wang, M-T., 510 Wang, S., 71 Wang, X., 258 Wang, Z., 512 Wanzek, J., 212 Ward, L. M., 262 Ward, M., 570 Wares, A., 156 Warneken, F., 105 Warren, J. S., 311 Warschauer, M., 427, 475 Wartella, E., 119 Wasserberg, M. J., 266 Wasserman, E. A., 297 Waterhouse, L., 153, 154 Waterman, A. S., 127 Waters, S., 554 Waters, S. D., 252 Watkins, K. E., 215 Watson, J. B., 290 Watson, J. M., 335 Watson, M. S., 427 Watson, T. S., 312 Wattie, N., 642 Waugh, C. K., 627, 628, 632 Waxman, S. R., 207 Waycott, J. L., 419 Way, N., 554 Wayne, A. J., 581 Wearing, H., 343 Webb-Johnson, G., 571 Webb, N. M., 430, 432, 522 Weber, M. J., 127 Webster, R., 418 Wechsler, D., 157, 197 Wehby, J., 311, 655 Weil, E., 271 Weiner, B., 490, 503, 504, 505 Weinstein, C. S., 37, 120, 121, 496, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 545, 546, 547, 551, 553, 557, 563, 564, 565, 572, 593, 594, 596, 599 Weinstein, R. S., 609, 610, 611

N A ME I N DEX Weisberg, R. W., 161 Weishaar, M., 375 Weissberg, R. P., 108, 477 Weiss, H. B., 212, 226 Welk, G. J., 105 Wells, K. C., 477 Welsh, J. A., 343 Welsh, L. M., 511, 523, 525 Wendt, D. C., 280, 281 Wenger, E., 398, 413, 424 Wentzel, K. R., 116, 392, 466, 489, 553 Wertsch, J. V., 87 Werts, M. G., 189, 198 Westberg, K. L., 194 Westling, D. L., 178, 181, 189, 198 Westling, E., 104 West, M. R., 471 Weston, T., 476 West, S. G., 642 Wethington, E., 253 Whaley, S. E., 158 Wheatley, K. F., 467 Whipple, A. D., 642 Whitbeck, L. B., 103 Whitehead, A. N., 422 Whitehurst, G. J., 210 White, M., 581 White, P. H., 265 Whitesell, N. R., 463 White, T., 554 Wickham, D., 311 Wiedmann, M., 429 Wigfield, A., 67, 103, 124, 127, 133, 134, 466, 471, 489, 502, 503, 526 Wiggins, G., 579, 586, 601, 602, 630 Wijnen, W. H. F. W., 425 Wilczynski, S. M., 307 Wilensky, R., 479 Wilen, W., 592

Wilkerson, B., 160 Wilkinson-Flicker, S., 258 Wilkinson, G. R., 479 Wilkinson, I. A. G., 601 Willcutt, E. G., 175 Williams, A. B., 561 Williams, K., 456 Williams, K. R., 561 Williams, T., 456 Willingham, D. T., 154, 377 Willoughby, T., 357, 372 Willower, D. J., 536 Wilson, J., 107 Wilson, K. A., 586 Wilson, K. M., 303 Wilson, M., 385, 462 Wilson, S. M., 133 Windschitl, M., 411, 412, 416, 437 Winett, R. A., 291 Wink, J., 85, 90, 92, 95 Winkler, R. C., 291 Winne, P. H., 42, 379, 468, 469, 473, 481 Winner, E., 164, 194, 195 Winsler, A., 88 Winters, L., 637 Wirkala, C., 425 Wirthwein, L., 509 Wittmaier, B. C., 517 Wittrock, M. C., 35, 327, 380, 393 Wittwer, J., 384 Wojslawowicz, J. C., 114, 115 Wolfe, P., 71, 72 Wolfgang, C. H., 536, 538 Wolf, M., 70 Wolke, D., 159 Woloshyn, V., 379 Wong, A., 35 Wong, H. K., 550 Wong, K. F., 216

Wong, L., 35, 43, 391 Wong, N.-W. A., 218 Wong, R. T., 550 Woodard, S. M., 637 Wood, D., 92, 418 Wood, E., 438 Wood, T., 499 Woodward, A., 83, 90 Woodward, M. M., 356 Woolf, B. P., 444, 446 Woolfolk, A. E., 79, 102, 105, 107, 109, 116, 120, 123, 136, 141, 195, 196, 210, 211, 269, 369 Woolfolk Hoy, A., 33, 51, 120, 121, 255, 372, 432, 436, 466, 479, 496, 500, 516, 553, 572 Woolverton, S., 257 Worrell, F. C., 621, 631 Wortham, S. C., 441, 443 Worthington, R. L., 466 Wout, D., 265 Wouters, P., 441 Wu, C.-H., 509 Wulfert, E., 315 Wu, S., 175 Wüstenberg, S., 380 Wu, W., 642 Wu, X., 600 Wylie, R., 411 Xiao, L., 68 Xiao, Y., 216 Xu, J., 224, 528 Xu, M., 131, 132, 133, 134, 462 Yackel, E., 499 Yaman, M. A., 120, 141 Yang, J. S., 471 Yang, L., 179 Yang, L.-Y., 384

N-15

Yap, A. C., 271 Yarhouse, M. A., 272 Yawkey, T., 152 Yearsley, T., 357, 372 Yeh, C. J., 218, 639 Yekovich, C. W., 359 Yekovich, F. R., 359 Yell, M. L., 183 Yerkes, R. M., 516 Yeung, A. S., 131–132 Yoshikawa, H., 554 Yough, M., 226 Youngs, P., 581 Youngswirth, S. D., 178 Yue, C. L., 374 Yuen, S. D., 231 Zeedyk, S., 215 Zee, M., 466 Zeidner, M., 478, 480, 516, 517 Zeigler, K., 223 Zelazo, P. D., 138 Zeldin, A. L., 463 Zervoulis, K., 269 Zettle, R. D., 315 Zhang, J., 427 Zhao, J., 224 Zhao, Y., 438 Zheng, B., 427, 475 Zheng, X. H., 174 Zhou, M., 250 Zhou, Z., 84 Zhu, W., 105 Ziegler, A., 505 Zimmerman, B. J., 315, 378, 469, 471, 473 Zmuda, J. H., 307 Zoccolillo, M., 118 Zohar, A., 368, 369 Zong, J., 218 Zucker, S., 279 Zusho, A., 466, 500, 501

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SUBJECT INDEX ABAB experimental designs, 45, 49 Ability, beliefs about, 506–508 Ability goals, 499 Absence seizures, 188 Abstract examples/ representations of concepts, 38 cognitive development, 73 cognitive views of learning, 347, 360 culture and diversity, 278 development, 198 teaching of, 58, 98–99 Abstractions, 58, 85, 99 mindful, 397 Abuse, child, 121–122 Academic caring, 120–121 Academic language, 218–220, 225 Academic learning time, 540–541 Academic self-concept, 131–134 Academic tasks, 519–520 Acceleration of students, 43, 198 Accommodation, 75, 85, 172, 173 Accomplishment, recognizing, 521–522 Accountability and high-stakes testing, 650–653 Achievement anxiety and, 505, 517–518 diverse classrooms, academic achievement for, 278 ethnic and racial differences in, 258 low achieving students, 42–43 motivation to learn and, 494 personal and socialcontextual factors that support student achievement, 51–52 poverty, influence on, 252–257 self-concept and, 131, 133 teacher expectations and, 610–611 Achievement emotions, 515–516 Achievement tests, 648–649, 653

Acquisition phase, learning strategies, 399 Acronyms, 357 Action research, 47–49 Actions, cognitive development and, 85 Active retrieval, 377 Active teaching, 591–593 Activity, Piaget’s theory, 74, 91–92 Activity-centered learning styles, 168–170 Activity-focused teaching, 586 Adaptation, 74, 75 Adaptive teaching, 604–608 Additive bilingualism, 216 Adequate yearly progress (AYP), 34 Adolescent egocentrism, 81 Adolescents. See also High school-aged children brain development, 67–68 communities of care, creating, 554–555 eating disorders, 107–108 egocentrism, 81 formal operational stage (Piaget), 80–82 peers, influence of, 114–120 physical development, 103 psychosocial development (Erikson), 125–127 relationships with teachers, 120–121 self-concept, development of, 132–133 sleep and, 68 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 88–90 special problems with, 564–565 Advance organizers, 418–419 Aesthetic needs, 493–494 Affective considerations, English language learners, 226 Affective domain, 582–583, 588 Affinity groups, 441 African Americans. See also Diversity academic achievement, best practices for, 278 advanced degrees, rates of, 263 bias against, 158

culturally responsive classroom management, 571–572 discrimination, legacy of, 260–263 diversity in learning, 279–284 graduation rates, 258 literacy development, 258 poverty rates, 252–254 stereotype threat, 264–267 Agency, 462–467. See also Human agency Aggression. See also Bullying peers, influence of, 117–120 types of, 117–120 Algorithms, 386 Allergies, 188 American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), 186 American cultural diversity, 246–250 American Psychological Association, 42 American Sign Language (ASL), 190, 208, 217 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 173 Amotivation, 491 Amygdala, 62, 63 Analogical thinking, 380, 402 Analytical intelligence, 162, 163 Analyzing questions, 587–588, 598 Anorexia nervosa, 107 Antecedents, 295, 299–300, 312, 314 Anxiety, 505, 514–518 Applied behavior analysis, 290, 300–311, 483 Applying questions, 587–588, 598 Apprenticeships, cognitive, 424–426 Appropriating, 412 Appropriation, cognitive development and, 86, 87 Argument stratagem, 86 Argumentation, 394–396 Aristotle, 292 Arousal, 463, 464 Articulation disorders, 180–181

Asian Americans. See also Diversity diversity in learning, 279–284 graduation rates, 258 poverty rates, 252–254 stereotype threat, 264–267 Asperger syndrome, 190–193 Assertive discipline, 568 Assessment. See also Classroom assessments accountability and highstakes testing, 650–653 aligning tools with targets, 639 authentic assessments, 632–637 classroom assessment, overview of, 624–630 communication about, 643, 650, 651 complex thinking, 638 of creativity, 168–169 essay testing, 628–630 frequent testing, 278, 353, 355–356, 399, 628. See also Testing effect grading, 638–643 growth assessment, 621, 624, 625, 652 informal assessment, 631–632 interim (growth) assessment, 621, 624, 625, 652 involving students in, 631–632 learning outcomes and assessment method, 639 of learning styles, 167 measurement and, 620–621 overview, 620 portfolios and exhibitions, 632–636 reliability and validity, 621–624 reports, standardized testing, 648–650 retrieval practice/testing effect, 355–356 score types, 643–648 standardized testing, 643–648, 648–650 stereotype threat, effects on test performance, 264–265 testing effect, 355–356, 377 from textbooks, 626 types of, 620–621

S-1

S-2

SUB J ECT I NDE X

Assessment bias, 623–624 Assimilation, 75, 85, 129–131 Assisted learning, 92–93 Assistive technology, 607–608 Asthma, 188 Attachment, 112, 124 Attainment value, 503, 526–527 Attention, 510–517 cognitive learning, 334 complex cognitive processes, 369, 381, 390 executive control process, 368 executive functioning, development of, 84 learning strategies, 372, 373, 378 memory and, 334 motivation and, 510–517 multitasking and, 334–335 note taking, 375 observational learning and, 457, 458, 459–460 self-regulation of, 468 teaching and, 335–336 triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 162–163 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) overview of, 177–181 physical activity and, 105 social rejection, 117 Attention disorders, 173–174, 177–180 Attic Youth Center, 275 Attribution theories, 503–505 Audience, imaginary, 81 Auditory complex, brain, 67, 174 Authentic assessments, 632–637 Authentic instruction, for developing critical thinking skills, 393 Authentic tasks, 520–521 complex learning environments and, 414–415 Authoritarian parents, 111 Autism/autism spectrum disorders, 190–193 Autism spectrum disorders, 190–193, 311, 312 Automated basic skills, 359 Automaticity, 162, 334 Autonomy, 124–125 motivation and, 494–497 need for, 494–495 support of, 521–522 Availability heuristic, 389 Aversive situations and stimulants, 296, 308, 313 Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, 165 Axons, 63–64

Balanced bilingualism, 216–217, 224 Bandura, Albert, 454–455, 467, 471, 483 Basal ganglia, 63 Basic skills, 591–592 automated, 359 Behavior modification, 290. See also Applied behavior analysis Behavioral approaches, motivation, 492–493 Behavioral disorders, 182–186, 311 Behavioral learning theories applied behavior analysis, overview, 300–311 challenges, cautions, and criticisms, 317–319 vs. cognitive view of learning, 328 contiguity and classical conditioning, 292–296, 299 contingency contracts, 304 defined, 290 functional behavioral assessments (FBA), 312–313 group consequences, 307 lessons for teachers, 319–320 operant conditioning, 294–300, 302, 304, 310, 314, 316 positive behavior, encouraging, 296–302, 304 positive behavior supports (PBS), 311, 313–314 self-management, 315–316 summary chart, 483 Teachers’ Casebook, 288, 323–324 token reinforcement systems, 306 undesirable behaviors, response to, 308–311 Behavioral objectives, 582, 584 Being needs, 493–494 Belief perseverance, 389 Beliefs, 455, 462 motivation and, 505–510 Belonging needs, 493–494 Benevolence, 138 Best-works portfolio, 634–635 Betty’s Brain, 439 Bias assessment bias, 623–624 confirmation bias, 389 cultural differences and, 249–250 defined, 261 gender differences and intelligence, 166–167

gender roles and bias, 268–273 performance assessment and, 637 racial prejudice, 261–263 Biculturalism, 129–131, 218 Bilingualism, 213–217, 525. See also English language learners (ELLs) balanced, 216–217, 224 benefits of, 216 definition, 215 gifted and talented students and, 238, 239 heritage language, 216–217 learners with disabilities, 236–238 limited bilingual students, 224 loss of language, 216–217 myths and misconceptions about, 217–218 research on bilingual education, 230–232 two-way immersion, 233 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 39–40 Bill of Rights, classroom, 545–546 Binet, Alfred, 164 Binge eating, 107 Bioecological model of development (Bronfenbrenner), 108–123 Biology, effect on development, 61 Bisexuals, 266–267, 271 Black racial identity, 130 Blended families, 110 Block scheduling, 523 Bloom, Benjamin, 587–588, 598 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, 159–162 Body image, 106–108 Body movement, cerebral cortex, 67 Body sensation, cerebral cortex, 67 Bottom-up processing, 332 Boys. See Males Brain adolescent development of, 67–68 behavioral learning theory, neuroscience of, 297–298 bilingualism and, 215 cerebral cortex, functional areas, 67 cognitive development and, 62–73 cognitive learning and, 328–329 common myths, 70–71

developing brain, 63–69 emotion and, 514–515 forgetting, memory and, 351 imaging techniques, 62–64 instruction affecting development, 69 learning and teaching implications, 67–72 myelination of, 159 neuroscience of learning challenges, 173–174 observational learning, 385 plasticity, 63–65, 69, 71 reading, learning and, 70–71 regions of, 62–63 retrieval practice/testing effect, 377 stress hormones, effect on, 254 Brain stem, 62 Brainstorming, 171, 370, 547, 570 Bronfenbrenner, Urie, 108–109 bioecological model of development, 108–123 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), 260 Bulimia, 107 Bullying, 556, 560–564 cyberbullying. See Cyber aggression (bullying) Teachers’ Casebook, 534, 576–577 types of, 117–120, 561 zero tolerance, 560 Burnout, 466, 479, 480 Bush, George W., 34 CAPS, 378 Career decisions, practical intelligence and, 162 Caring relationships, 552–556 Case studies, 45–46, 49 CAT (computerized axial tomography) scans, 62, 64 Catastrophe theory, 83 Centering, 77 Central executive, 337–338 Central tendency, 643–644 Cerebellum, 62, 63, 174 Cerebral cortex, 67 Cerebral palsy, 187 Cerebrum, 63 Chain mnemonics, 357 Change, discontinuous, 61, 82 Cheating, 141–143 Check & Connect program, 555 Checklists, software appropriate for young children, 442 Child abuse, 121–122

SU B JECT IN DEX Children. See also Adolescents; Infants brain development, 67–68 peers, influence of, 114–120 preoperational stage of development (Piaget), 77–78 theory of cognitive development (Piaget), 73–85 Chinese learners brain activity research, 69 cognitive ability, emphasis on, 84 Choice, support of, 521 Chunk and chew, 237 Chunking, 341–342 Clarity, 580–581 Class, social, 250–257 Class inclusion, 90 Classical conditioning, 293–294, 350 Classification, 78, 79 Classroom assessments, 620–638 authentic classroom assessments, 632–637 complex thinking, 638 essay testing, 628–630 formative classroom assessments, 630–632 lessons for teachers, 638 from textbooks, 626 selected-response testing, 626–629 Classroom environment authentic tasks and, 414–415 classroom climate, dimensions of, 583 complex learning environments, 414–415 constructivism and designing learning environments, 408–449 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 276–284 digital media and learning, 438–446 encouraging engagement, 550–552 Framework for Teaching, 38–39 goals in social context, 501 learning spaces, planning for, 547–549, 550 motivation, strategies for, 526–527 quick response to problems, 555–558 routines and rules, 542–546 self-determination, support for, 495

student anxiety, reducing, 516–518 triadic reciprocal causality, 455–457 Classroom management, 534–573 bullying. See Bullying caring relationships, 552–556 communication, need for, 566–569 culturally responsive management, 571–572 first weeks of class, 547–550 goals of, 539–541 handling classroom disruptions, 308–310 high school students, special problems with, 564–565 learning spaces, planning for, 547–549, 550 problem prevention, 550–552 research on, 541–542 routines and rules, 542–546 zero tolerance policies, debate about, 560 CLEAR model for teaching gifted students, 198 Clinical interviews, 45–46 Cliques, 115 Cloud computing, 438 Cmaps, 376–377 Co-constructed processes, 86 Co-regulation, 471, 480 Coactions, 61 Code switching, 222 Coding, computers, 442–444 Cognitive apprenticeships, 424–426 Cognitive approaches, motivation, 493, 501 Cognitive behavior modification, 476–477 Cognitive-centered learning styles, 167–169 Cognitive constructivism, 410–415 Cognitive development, 60, 61. See also Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky); Theory of cognitive development (Piaget) brain and, 62–73 cultural tools and, 86–87 culture and, 83–84 developing brain, 62–73 influences on, 74 learning and, 90 Piaget’s theories, 73–85, 90–92 regions of brain, 62–63 stages of, 75–82 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, 85–90, 92–93

Cognitive disabilities. See Intellectual disabilities Cognitive domain, 582–583, 587–588, 598 Cognitive evaluation theory, 495–496 Cognitive function, brain regions, 62–63 Cognitive impairment. See Intellectual disabilities Cognitive learning theory, summary chart, 483 Cognitive load, 339–342, 384 Cognitive monitoring, 374 Cognitive needs, 493–494 Cognitive processes critical thinking and argumentation, 392–396 learning strategies, 371–379 metacognition, 368–371 neuroscience and, 173–174 problem solving, 379–392 transfer of learning, 396–400 Cognitive science, 328 Cognitive view of learning, 328 vs. behavioral view, 328 cognitive load and retaining information, 339–342 constructing declarative knowledge, 352–356 explicit memory, 344–349 implicit memory, 344, 349–350 information processing system, 330–332 knowledge, role of, 329–330 long-term memory, 344–352 procedural knowledge, development of, 359–361 working memory, 337–344 Collaboration, 480, 482 cooperation and, 427–429 Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), 478 Collaborative learning, 92, 427 Collective monologue, 88 College-aged students, formal operational stage (Piaget), 80–82 Commitment, 127 Common Core Standards, 585–586 Common sense, questions of, 42–43 Communication, by teachers of appropriate expectations, 611 classroom management and, 566–569 of grades and progress, 643 Communication skills, students autism spectrum disorders, 190–191 diversity in learning, 281

S-3

Community of practice, 413 Community partnerships, 573 Comparative organizers, 418–419 Compensation, 78 Competence, need for, 494–495 Complementary methods, research, 47 Complex learning environments, 414 Complex tasks, self-regulation and, 474–475, 480–481 Complex thinking, assessing, 638 Comprehension, 374, 381 Computational thinking, 442–444 Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans, 62, 64 Computers, use in learning, 438–446 Concept, explicit memory and, 346–349 Concept maps, 376–377 Concrete examples/ representations of concepts cognitive development, 72, 73, 76, 78, 80, 82 cognitive views of learning, 360 complex cognitive processes, 374 learning differences and needs, 220 Concrete-operational stage (Piaget), 76, 78–80 Concrete operations, defined, 78 Conditioned response (CR), 293 Conditioned stimulus (CS), 293 Conferences student-led, English language learners and, 228–229 tips for, 172, 643, 650, 651 Confidence interval, 622 Confirmation bias, 389 Conflict resolution, 570–571 Confrontations, 568–569 Connected knowledge, 400 Connections with school, 552–554 Consequences, 295. See also Discipline classroom rules violations, 545–546 communication, need for, 566–569 logical consequences, 545, 557 quick response to problems, 555–558

S-4

SUB J ECT I NDE X

Conservation, 77, 79 Construct-related evidence of validity, 623 Constructive controversies, 434–435 Constructivism, 408–449 cognitive apprenticeships, 424–426 cognitive constructivism, 410–415 collaboration and cooperation, 427–429 cooperative learning, 427–428. See also Groups defined, 410 designing learning environments and, 415–449 digital media, learning and, 438–446 dilemmas of, 436–437 facilitating in classroom, 416–420 inquiry and problem-based learning, 420–424 instructional planning and, 589–590 learning, constructivist views of, 410–414 learning theories, summary chart, 483 reciprocal teaching, 425–426 social constructivism, 410–415 student-centered teaching, 414–415 Constructivist approach. See Constructivism Content-related evidence of validity, 622–623 Context, 109, 355 Contextualized language, 218–220 Contiguity, 292–294 Contingency contracts, 304 Continuous change, 61, 82 Continuous reinforcement schedule, 298 Control, attribution theories and, 504–505 Control, teachers sharing with students, 481 Controlling communication, motivation and, 495–496 Controversial children, 116, 117 Controversies, constructive/ structured, 434–435 Convergent questions, 598 Convergent thinking, 169 Conversational skills, 225, 231, 237 Cooperation, 427 among students and teacher, 538, 540

Cooperative learning, 427–435. See also Groups collaboration and, 427–429 designs for, 432–435 motivation and groups, 522–523 preparing students for, 431–435 students’ role in, 431 tasks for, 430 teacher’s role in, 429 within-class and flexible grouping, 604–605 Coping Power Program, 477 Corpus callosum, 62, 63 Correlation studies, 44, 49 CoRT (Cognitive Research Trust), 395 Costs, values and, 502–503 Coverage-focused teaching, 586 Creating questions, 587–588, 598 Creative intelligence, 163 Creativity, 167–172 Creativity-relevant process, 169 Criterion-referenced grading, 625, 638–641 Criterion-referenced testing, 624–626 Criterion-related evidence of validity, 623 Critical periods in development, 61 second-language learning, 215 Critical thinking, 392–396 Cross-sectional studies, 46 Crowds, peer groups, 115 Crystallized intelligence, 159 Cueing, 300 Cultural context crystallized intelligence, 159 motivation and, 525 pragmatics, 209 Cultural deficit model, 223–224 Cultural tools, 86–87 Culturally relevant pedagogy, 277–279 Culturally responsive classroom management, 571–572 Culture. See also Constructivism academic language proficiency, 218–220 American cultural diversity, 246–250 brain plasticity and, 69 caring relationships and school connections, 554 cognitive development and, 83–84

culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 276–284 Deaf community, 190 definition, 246, 247 dialect differences, 221–222 discontinuity, 281 discrimination, legacy of, 260–263 diversity in learning, 279–284 economic and social class differences, 250–257 ethnicity and race, use of terms, 257–258 example student profiles, 248–249 funds of knowledge, 227–228 gender identity and sexual orientation, 266–267 gender roles and bias, 268–273 immigrant students, teaching of, 222–236 interpreting cultural differences, 249–250 language development, 206–239 language diversity and emergent literacy, 213– 214 lessons for teachers, 281–284 moral development theory, 136–138 moral reasoning, differences in, 140–141 multicultural education, overview, 276–284 parenting and, 111 peer cultures, 115 play, differences in, 105 school achievement, ethnic and racial differences, 258 self-concept and, 132, 133 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 85–90 stereotype threat, 264–267 values and learning preferences, 280 Culture-fair (culture-free) tests, 623–624 Curiosity, motivation and, 512–513 Curriculum compacting, 198 Curriculum examples, Tools of the Mind, 93 Cyber aggression (bullying), 118, 560, 563 dealing with, 564 described, 561 Danielson’s Framework for Teaching, 38–39 Data-driven processing, 332

Deaf students, 158, 189–190 Decay, 342 Decentering, 77 Decision making, 478 Declarative knowledge, 330, 352–356, 358–359, 369 Declarative memory, 345–349 Decoding skills, 210, 213 Deductive skills, 81 Deep knowledge, 400 Deep questions cognitive development, 73, 82 development, 73, 82, 108 facilitating through asking and answering, 419–420 teaching every student, 598, 599 Deficiency needs, 493–494 Defining attribute, 346 Delayed gratification, 470 Deliberate practice cognitive development, 69 cognitive views of learning, 359, 360 complex cognitive processes, 390 social cognitive views of learning and motivation, 458, 470 teaching every student, 565 Dendrites, 63–64 Depth of processing theory, 341–342 Descriptions, combining verbal and graphic descriptions, 345 Descriptive studies, 44–46 Design-based research, 48, 49 Design experiments, 580 Designing classrooms, 480 Desirable difficulty, 352, 355 Development, 60. See also Bioecological model of development; Theory of cognitive development appropriate computer activities, 441–445 argumentation skills, 395 constructivist view of learning, 408–449 definition of, 60–62 general principles of, 62 instruction affecting brain development, 69 language developmental milestones, 206–209 metacognition and, 370–371 moral development, 135–143 observational learning and, 457, 458 physical development, 102–108 psychosocial development (Erikson), 123–135

SU B JECT IN DEX self-concept, 132–133 self-regulation and, 470–471 theories, 60–62 working memory, 342–343 Developmental crisis, 124 Developmental disability. See Intellectual disabilities; Physical disabilities Developmentally appropriate practice, 91 Deviation IQ, 164 Dewey, John, 42, 410–411, 420, 427, 512 Diabetes, 189 Diagnostic testing, 266 Dialects, 221–222 Dialogue for developing critical thinking skills, 393 as teaching method, 596–601, 600 Differential reinforcement, 301 Differentiated instruction, 604–608, 616–617 Differentiation, 514 Digital age, cognitive development and, 87 Digital literacy, 438–446 Direct instruction, 177, 591–594, 601 Direct reinforcement, 459 Disabilities defined, 156–157 intellectual. See Intellectual disabilities learning. See Learning disabilities physical. See Physical disabilities Disability etiquette, 157–158 Discipline assertive discipline, 568 beliefs about, 537 bullying and cyberbullying, 562 communication, need for, 566–569 consequences to rule violations, 545, 557 culturally responsive classroom management, 571–572 discipline without stress® teaching model, 559 high school students, special problems with, 564–565 problem prevention, 550–552 quick response to problems, 555–558 zero tolerance policies, 560 Discipline without Stress Punishments or Rewards, 558, 559 Discontinuous change, 82

Discrimination, 260–263 combating, 266–267 gender expression and sexual orientation, 273–275 Discussion, as teaching method, 596–601, 602 Disequilibrium, 75 Disidentification, 265–266 Disordered eating, 107 Disruptive behavior, ignoring of, 299, 301, 320. See also Classroom management Distractors, multiple choice questions, 628 Distributed learning/practice cognitive development, 71, 73 cognitive view of learning, 353, 358 complex cognitive processes, 378 teaching every student, 607 Distributive justice, 138 Divergent questions, 598 Divergent thinking, 169 Diversity American cultural diversity, overview, 246–250 assessment bias, 623–624, 637 caring relationships and school connections, 554 conflicts and compatibilities, cultural, 249–250 creativity and, 170 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 276–284 culturally responsive classroom management, 571–572 discrimination, legacy of, 260–263 economic and social class differences, 250–257 emergent literacy and language diversity, 213–214 ethnicity and race, use of terms, 257–258 example student profiles, 248–249 gender identity and sexual orientation, 266–267 gender roles and bias, 268–273 immigrant students, teaching of, 222–236 intelligence, differences in, 166–167 interpreting cultural differences, 249–250 in learning, 279–284 moral reasoning, 140–141

motivation and, 525 multicultural education, overview, 276–284 parenting styles, 111 school achievement, ethnic and racial differences, 258 stereotype threat, 264–267 trends in education, 32–33 Divorce, 112–114 Domain-relevant skills, 169 Domain-specific knowledge cognitive views of learning, 329–330 vs. coherent knowledge, 401 complex cognitive processes, 380, 383, 384, 386, 390 point/counterpoint, 395 Domain-specific strategies, 361 Dopamine receptors, 159 Drug use and abuse, 185–186 Dual coding theory, 346, 354 Dual-language development, 215–217. See also Bilingualism; English language learners (ELLs) DuBois, W. E. B., 128 Dyslexia, 173 E-journals, 237 Ear learners, 225–226 Eating disorders, 107 Economic factors. See Socioeconomic status (SES) Education, current trends in, 32–36 Education Week, 37 Educational debt, achievement gap and, 258 Educational psychology, defined, 42 EEG (electroencephalograph), 62, 64 Effective instruction delivery, 299 Effective practice, 355 Efficacy, sense of, 33 Ego goals, 499 Egocentric, defined, 77 Egocentric speech, 88–89 Egocentrism, adolescent, 81 Elaborated goals, 498 Elaboration, 352–353 as executive control process, 368, 372, 375, 378, 390 Elaborative rehearsal, 340–341 Electroencephalograph (EEG), 62, 64 Elementary aged children classroom rules for, 544 concrete-operational stage (Piaget), 78–80 first weeks of class, 547–549

S-5

physical development, 102 preoperational stage of development (Piaget), 77–78 psychosocial development (Erikson), 124–125 relationships with teachers, 120–121 self-concept, development of, 132–133 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 88–90 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), 34 Embodied cognition, 385–386 Emergent literacy, 209–214 Emotional arousal, 464 Emotional disorders, 182–186, 311 Emotional disturbance, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 182 Emotional support, 582–583 Emotions, 514–518. See also Motivation achievement emotions, 515–516 adolescent brain development, 66–67 amygdala, 62, 63 anxiety, 514–518 brain regions for, 66–67 brain research and, 71–72 emotional intelligence, 478 emotional self-regulation, 477–479 English language learners, 226, 239 neuroscience and, 514–515 observational learning and, 460–461 peer popularity and rejection, 116–117 physical development, 103 relatedness, need for, 494–496 self-concept and, 132, 133 social goals, 500–501 teacher burnout, 466, 479, 480 Empathetic listening, 566–567 Empirical, defined, 50 Enactive learning, 317, 455 Encounter stage of nigrescence, 130 Encouraging positive behaviors, 296–302, 304 Enculturation, 413, 440 Engaged time, 540, 550 Engagement, encouragement of, 550–552 Engineering, 460. See also STEM fields

S-6

SUB J ECT I NDE X

English as a second language (ESL), 230, 369. See also English language learners (ELLs) English for speakers of other languages, 230. See also English language learners (ELLs) English language learners (ELLs), 224–239 cooperative learning and, 435 giftedness, recognizing, 238, 239 immigrant students, 222–236 learners with disabilities, 236–238 standardized testing and, 34 structured English immersion (SEI), 230, 231 teaching approaches, 230–239 trends in education, 32–33 Enrichment, 198 Enthusiasm, 581 Environment, classroom. See Classroom environment; Classroom management Environment, influence of. See also Bioecological model of development adaptations to, 74 effect on development, 61 intelligence, 166–167 practical intelligence, 162 social intuitionist model, moral development, 140–141 student achievement, 254 Epilepsy, 188 Episodic buffer, 337–339 Episodic memory, 349 Epistemological beliefs, 505–506 Equilibration, 75 Erikson, Erik, 124–131 ERP (event-related potential), 62, 64 ESL (English as second language), 369 ESSA (Every Student Succeeds Act), 34–35, 47 Essay testing, 628–630 Esteem needs, 493–494 Ethic of care, 137 Ethical issues, behavioral learning theory, 291 Ethnicity American cultural diversity, 246–250 assessment bias, 623–624, 637 caring relationships and school connections, 554

culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 276–284 culturally relevant pedagogy, 277–279 culturally responsive classroom management, 571–572 discrimination, legacy of, 260–263 diversity in learning, 279–284 ethnic identity, 128–132 immigrant students, teaching of, 222–236 intelligence, differences in, 166–167 labels and, 158 moral reasoning, 140–141 motivation and, 509 parenting styles, 111 poverty rates, 252–254 pride, racial and ethnic, 131 school achievement and, 258 self-concept, ideas of, 132, 133 stereotype threat, 264–267 trends in education, 32–33 use of term, 257–258 Ethnographic methods, 46, 49 Etiquette, disabilities and, 157–158 Evaluating questions, 587–588, 598 Evaluating skills, metacognition and, 368 Evaluation, motivation and, 523. See also Assessment; Grading Event-related potential (ERP), 62, 64 Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), 34–35, 47 Evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP), 47 Examples. See also Abstract examples/representations of concepts; Concrete examples/representations of concepts; Worked examples problem solving and, 384–385 Executive control processes, 368–371 Executive functioning, 84 Executive processes, triarchic theory of intelligence, 162 Exemplar, 347 Exercise, 105–106, 106–108 Exhibitions, 632–634 Exit tickets, 631 Expectancy x value theories, 502–503

Expectations, 609–612 academic self-concept and, 254 for students, 156, 455–456 triadic reciprocal causality, 455–456 Experience-dependent neural changes, 65 Experience-expectant neural changes, 65, 66 Experimentation, 45, 49 Expert knowledge, 390–391 Expert reversal effect, 383–384 Expert teachers, 581 Explicit memory, 344–349 Explicit teaching, 591–593, 601 Exploration, 127 Expository organizers, 419 Expressive vocabulary, 207–208 Extended families, 110 External comparisons, selfconcept development, 131 Extinction, 299 Extraneous cognitive load, 340–341 Extrinsic motivation, 491–492 Facilitation constructivist classrooms, 416–420 deep questions, asking and answering, 419–420 Failing, value of, 641–642 Failure-accepting students, 508–509 Failure-avoiding students, 508–509 False growth mindset, 508 Families bioecological model of development, 109–114 changing structure of, 109–110 classroom management, communication about, 566–569 conferences with, 172, 643, 650, 651 connecting with families, 112 discrimination, messages about, 263 English language learners, working with, 226–227 preoperational children, caring for, 78 Family and community partnerships, motivation to learn, 528 Feedback, 36, 40 accomplishment, recognizing, 521–522 cognitive development, 73, 92, 94

complex cognitive processes, 378, 384, 399 constructivism, 413, 416, 423, 424, 425, 428, 429, 436, 438, 442, 446 culture and diversity, 270, 274, 278, 279, 283, 307 development and, 129, 134, 135 goals and, 501–502 language development, 214, 218, 220, 234 learning differences and needs, 177 managing learning environments, 551, 552, 556 motivation in learning and teaching, 497, 501–502, 508, 513–514, 521–522, 524, 526, 528 praise-and-ignore approach, 301 reaching every student, 582–583, 591–593, 596, 599–600, 611 responding to student answers, 599–600 self-regulation, building of, 475 social cognitive views, 455, 458, 463, 464, 473, 475, 476, 480, 481, 482 student attributions and, 505 teaching every student, 582–583 triadic reciprocal causality, 455 Females ADHD diagnoses, 178 assessment bias, 623–624 gender and intelligence, 166–167 gender identity and sexual orientation, 266–267 gender roles and bias, 268–273 genderlects, 222 gifted students, identifying, 197 moral development, 137 self-concept, 133–134 stereotype threat, 264–267 Field experiments, 45 Fill-in-the-blank items, 626–627 Fine-motor skills, 102 Finger spelling, 190 Fixed-interval reinforcement schedule, 298 Fixed mindset, 505–507 Fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule, 298 Flashbulb memories, 349 Flexibility, 169

SU B JECT IN DEX Flexible grouping, 604–605 Flexible knowledge, 401 Flipped classroom, 446 Flow, 514 Fluency disorder, 180, 181 Fluid intelligence, 159 Flynn effect, 164–165 fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 62, 64 Focal seizures, 188 Focus, executive functioning, 84 Focusing, 77 Forgetting, memory and, 342, 351 Formal operational stage of development, 76, 80–82 Formative assessment, 621, 624–625, 630–634, 641, 644, 652 constructivism, 423 diagnostic testing, 266 Formative testing, 230. See also CLEAR model for teaching gifted students Framework for Teaching, 38–39 Free, appropriate public education (FAPE), 169 Frequent testing, 628. See also Testing effect cognitive views of learning, 353 complex cognitive processes, 399 culture and diversity, 278 retrieval practice, 355–356 Freud, Sigmund, 61 Friendships, 115–117 Frontal lobe, brain, 62, 63, 67, 174 Functional behavioral assessments (FBA), 312–313 Functional fixedness, 388 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 62, 64 Funds of knowledge, 227–228 g (general intelligence), 159 g (mental energy), 159 Games, digital media and learning, 440–441 Gardner, Howard, 159–162 Gates Foundation, 39–40 Gay students, 266–267, 271–273, 271–275 Gender ADHD diagnoses, 178 assessment bias, 623–624 drug use and abuse, 185 gender biases, 270–273

gender expression, 267, 273–275 gender identity, 267–268 gender roles, 267, 268–270 gender schemas, 268–269 gifted students, identifying, 197 goal setting and stereotypes, 509 intelligence, differences in, 166–167 moral development, 137 self-concept and, 133–134 stereotype threat, 264–267 Gender expression, 267, 273–275 Gender identity, 267–268 Genderlects, 222 General intelligence (g), 159 General knowledge, 329–330 General learning disability. See Intellectual disabilities; Learning disabilities Generalizability, scoring rubrics, 637 Generalized tonic-clonic seizures, 188 Generation 29.5, 225–226 Generative learning, 354 Generativity, 128 Genetics effect on development, 60, 61, 74 intelligence and, 167 Germane cognitive load, 340 Gestalt, 332–333 Gifted and talented students adaptive teaching, 604–608 cooperative learning, use of, 435–436 English language learners and, 238, 239 identification of, 196–197, 238, 239 overview, 194–198 racial and ethnic discrimination and, 263 research on, 43 teaching of, 198 Girls. See Females Glial cells, 66 Global self-esteem, 131, 134 Goal-directed actions, 76 Goal orientations, 497–502, 515 Goal structure, 522–523 Goals, 469, 497–502 achievement emotions, 515 epistemological beliefs and, 505–506 feedback, goal framing, and goal acceptance, 501–502 goal setting, observational learning, 457, 465, 474

learning targets, 584–587, 589–590, 598 motivation to learn and, 519 self-management and goalsetting, 315–316 student self-worth and, 508–510 Good behavior game, 307 Google Apps, 438–439 Grade-equivalent scores, 647 Grade retention, 641–642 Grading, 638–643 effects on students, 641–642 Guidelines for, 644–645 motivation and, 523, 641 norm-referenced vs. criterionreferenced, 638–641 Grading on a curve, 639–640 Gradual change, 61 Graduation rates, 258 Grammar skills, developmental milestones, 208–209 Grand mal seizures, 188 Graphemes, 210, 211 Gray matter, 63 Grit, 470, 472–473 Gross-motor skills, 102 Group consequences, 307 Group discussion, 600–601, 602 Group focus, 552 Groups assigning roles in cooperative groups, 431 collaboration and cooperation, 427–429 misuses of, 428–429 motivation and, 522–523 preparing students for, 431–432 setting up, 431–432 tasks for cooperative learning, 430 within-class and flexible grouping, 604–605 Growth assessment, 621, 624, 625, 652 Growth mindset, 266, 505–507 Guided participation, 424 Guidelines adolescents, positive body images, 108 aggression, dealing with, 119 anxiety, coping with, 518 attention, gaining and maintaining, 336 becoming expert students, 391 caring relationships, 556 children of divorce, helping, 114 class routines, 543 classical conditioning, application of, 293

S-7

classroom management, 573 computers, use of, 443 concrete-operational stage, teaching tips, 80 conferences, productive, 172 conferences, tips for, 651 connecting with families, 112 cooperative learning, 436 creativity, applying and encouraging, 172 culturally relevant teaching, 283 deep questions, facilitating through asking and answering, 420 direct instruction, 594 disciplining students with emotional problems, 184 emotional self-regulation, 479 English language learners, support for, 227 explosive situations, handling of, 565 family and community partnerships, 229, 573 flexible grouping, 605 formal operational stage of development, 82 gender bias, avoiding, 274 grading systems, 644–645 group discussions, 602 helping students understand and remember, 360 homework, 597 identity formation, supporting, 129 initiative and industry, encouraging, 126 intellectual disabilities, students with, 187 interest and curiosity, building on, 513 IQ scores, interpreting, 165 language and literacy promotion, 214 language learning, promotion of, 220 learning space, designing of, 548 learning targets, 590 media literacy development, 445 motivation to learn, family and community partnerships, 528 observational learning, use of, 461 organizing learning, 353 penalties, imposing of, 558 physical differences in classroom, 104 portfolios, creating, 636

S-8

SUB J ECT I NDE X

Guidelines (continued ) positive behaviors, encouraging, 304 poverty, teaching students who live in, 256 praise, appropriate use of, 302 preoperational children, caring for, 77 preparing for testing, 654–655 problem solving skill development, 389 punishment, use of, 310 rubrics, development of, 637 self-determination and autonomy, supporting, 497 self-efficacy, encouraging, 465 self-management, student, 316 self-worth, encouraging, 510 standardized test results, explaining, 651 student engagement, 551 teacher expectations, 612 transfer of learning, 400 Vygotsky’s theory, applying in teaching, 94 welcoming all families, 229 writing objective test items, 629 Haidt, Jonathan, 140–141 Hall, G. Stanley, 42 Handicap, 156–157 Hawking, Stephen, 156 Headline writing, 237 Health, student achievement and, 254 Hearing impairments, 189–190 Heredity, intelligence and, 167 Heritage language, 216–217 Heuristics, 387 Hierarchy of needs, 493–494 High functioning autism spectrum disorder, 190–193 High-Leverage Teaching Practices, TeachingWorks, 40 High school-aged children. See also Adolescents classroom arrangement, 549 classroom rules for, 544 effective managers of, 549, 550 first weeks of class, 549–550 formal operational stage (Piaget), 80–82 peers, influence of, 114–120 physical development, 103 psychosocial development (Erikson), 125–127

relationships with teachers, 120–121 self-concept, development of, 132–133 special problems with, 564–565 transition to high-school, caring communities, 554–555 High-stakes testing, 650–653 Higher-order thinking, 159 Highlighting, as learning strategy, 374 Highly mobile students, 252 Highly structured, review, and skill-building tasks, 430 Hippocampus, 62, 63 Hispanic students. See Latina/o Americans Home environment. See Environment, influence of Homelessness, 252 Homework, 591–592, 595–597 Homosexual students, 266–267 Homosexuality “fag” as bullying chant, 556 LGBTQ students, 249, 266–267, 271–275 Hostile aggression, 117 Housekeeping, 542, 543 Human agency, 462. See also Self-agency Hyperactivity disorders, 105, 117, 175, 177–180 Hypothalamus, 63 Hypothesis/hypotheses, definition, 50 Hypothetico-deductive reasoning, 81 “I” message, 567 Identity, 78 defined, 124 psychosocial development (Erikson), 123–135 racial and ethnic identity, 128–132 technology and, 128 Identity achievement, 127 Identity diffusion, 127 Identity-first reference, 158 Identity foreclosure, 127 IEP (Individualized Education Plan), 170–172, 187 IES Practice Guides, 47, 347, 358, 377, 383, 418–420, 598, 630 Ignoring behaviors, 299, 301, 320 Illusion of understanding, 169 Imagery, meaningful connections, 353–355 Images, 345–346 Imaginary audience, 81

Imaging techniques, brain, 62–64 Imitative learning, 92 Immersion/emersion stage of nigrescence, 130 Immersion strategies structured English immersion (SEI), 230, 231 two-way immersion, 233 Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE), 440–441 Immigrant students, teaching of, 222–236 Implicit memory, 344, 349–350 Importance value, 503 Impulse control adolescents, 68 executive functioning, development of, 84 psychosocial development (Erikson), 124–125 Tools of the Mind, 93 Incentives, 491–492, 502, 527 INCLUDE strategy, 607–608 Inclusion, 170 Inclusive classrooms, differentiated instruction, 606–607 Indicators, 585 Individual interests, 510–512 Individualized Education Plan (IEP), 170–172, 187 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 169–173, 174 assistive technology, 607–608 autism spectrum, 190–193 emotional and behavioral disorders, 182 emotional disturbance, defined, 182 intellectual disabilities, 186, 187 positive behavior supports, 311, 313–314 response to intervention (RTI), 191–193 Inductive reasoning, 81 Industry, 125–127 Infants brain development, 63–68 psychosocial development (Erikson), 124 sensorimotor stage (Piaget), 76–77 theory of cognitive development (Piaget), 76 Inferiority, psychosocial development (Erikson), 125–127 Inferring relationships, 81 Informal assessments, 631–632

Information, motivation and, 495–496 Information processing, 330–352 Information retrieval, memory, 350–351 Initiative, 124–125 Inquiry learning, 420–424 Inside-out skills, 210–211, 212 Insight, 162, 370 Instructed learning, 92 Instruction. See Teaching Instructional objectives, 584 Instructional support, 582–583 Instructional time, 539–540 Instrumental aggression, 117 Integration, 170, 514 ethnic identities and, 128–131 Integrity, 128 Intellectual disabilities. See also Learning disabilities behavioral views of learning, 306, 311, 313–314 development and, 105–106 learner differences and learning needs, 186–187 Intelligence cultural influences and, 247 defining, 158–159 gender differences, 166–167 gifted and talented students, 194–198 measures of, 163–166 neuroscience and, 157 as process, 162–163 student beliefs about, 506–507 Intelligence quotient (IQ), 164–166 Interest areas/learning spaces, classroom planning, 547, 548 Interest value, 503 Interests, motivation and, 510–512 Interference, 342 Interim (growth) assessment, 621, 624, 625, 652 Interleaved practice, 355–356 Intermittent reinforcement schedule, 298 Internal comparisons, selfconcept development, 131 Internalization and internalizationcommitment stages of nigrescence, 130 Internalize, 141 International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, 70 Interpersonal intelligence, 159–162

SU B JECT IN DEX Intersectionality, 249 Intersubjective attitude, 415 Interval schedule, 298 Interventions, autism spectrum disorders, 191–192 Intimacy, 128 Intrapersonal intelligence, 159–162 Intrinsic cognitive load, 340–341 Intrinsic motivation, 491–492 Intrinsic task motivation, 170 Intrinsic value, 503, 526–527 IRE (initiation, response, evaluation), 596 Irving, John, 167 James, William, 42 Jigsaw classroom, 434, 435–436 Journal of Educational Psychology, 42 Journals, 237, 631 Keyword method, 357 Khan, Salman, 446 Kinesthetic learning styles, 167, 168 Knowledge cognition and, 329–330 construction of, internal and external processes, 412–413 construction of, teaching implications, 91–92 constructivist views of learning, 410–414 epistemological beliefs about, 505–506 executive functioning, development of, 84 expert knowledge and problem solving, 390–391 expert teachers, 581 making meaningful connections, 352–356 metacognition and, 368–369 pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), 581 self-regulation and, 468–469 situated and general knowledge, 412–413 Knowledge acquisition components, intelligence, 162–163 Kohlberg, Lawrence, 136–138 KWL (know, want, learn) strategy, 370, 377 Labels for students, 156–158 possible bias in application of, 152 Laboratory School, University of Chicago, 42

Language, defined, 525 Language development. See also Bilingualism; English language learners (ELLs) academic language, 218–220 autism spectrum disorders, 190–191 brain plasticity and, 69 brain regions for, 67 cultural differences, 206–239 developmental milestones, 206–209 diversity in, 213–220. See also Language diversity dual-language development, 215–217 emergent literacy, 209–214 encouraging, 181 gender differences, 166–167 preoperational stage of development, 77–78 second-language learning, 215–216 signed language, 217 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky) on, 87–88 theory of multiple intelligences, 159–162 Language disabilities communication disorders, 180–181 language disorders, 181 neuroscience and, 173–174 Language diversity. See also Bilingualism; English language learners (ELLs) dialects, 221–222 emergent literacy and, 213–214 immigrant students, teaching of, 222–236 native-language maintenance instruction, 231 second-language learning, 215–216 semilingual, 230, 231 Language loss, 216–217 Langue des Signes Quebecoise (LSQ), 217 Lateralization, 66–67 Latina/o Americans advanced degrees, rates of, 263 culturally responsive classroom management, 571–572 discrimination, legacy of, 260–263 diversity in learning, 279–284 graduation rates, 258 poverty rates, 252–254 stereotype threat, 264–267 Learned helplessness, 176–177, 508

Learner differences. See also Learning disabilities adaptive teaching, 604–608 defining intelligence, 158–159 gender differences and, 166–167 gifted and talented students, 194–198 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 169–173 intelligence as process, 162–163 language and labels, 156–158 learning and thinking styles, 167–169 measuring intelligence, 163–166 referrals, process for, 193 types of learners, 596 Learning. See also Behavioral learning theories; Cognitive view of learning; Learning challenges; Learning disabilities; Theory of cognitive development (Piaget) behavioral views of learning, 290 brain regions and, 62–63 classroom time for, 539–540 cognitive development and, 90 constructivist views of, 410–414 diversity in, 279–284 epistemological beliefs about, 505–506 instructed learning, 92 motivation to learn, 519–528 neuroscience and, 67–72 performance and, 317–320 self-efficacy and, 464–466 social cognitive views, 482, 483 value of, promoting, 526–527 Learning challenges, 173– 193. See also Learning disabilities neuroscience and, 173–174 Learning disabilities, 174–177 adaptive teaching, 604–608 autism spectrum disorders, 190–193 communication disorders, 180–181 cooperative learning, use of, 435–436 emotional and behavioral disorders, 182–186 focusing attention, 369–370

S-9

health and sensory impairments, 187–190 high-stakes tests and, 655 hyperactivity and attention disorders, 177–180 intellectual disabilities, 186–187 labels and language, 156–158 note taking strategies, 375 overview of, 174–177 production deficiencies, 378 referrals, process for, 193 response to intervention (RTI), 191–193 Learning goals, 499 Learning management system (LMS), 439–440 Learning preferences, 167-113, 279–281 Learning sciences cognitive apprenticeships, 424–426 collaboration and cooperation, 427–429 constructivist perspectives, application of, 408–449 constructivist student-centered teaching, 414–415 constructivist views of learning, 410–414 cooperative learning, 427– 435 defined, 416 digital media, learning and, 438–446 inquiry and problem-based learning, 420–424 reciprocal teaching, 425–426 Learning Skills Research Centre, 167 Learning spaces/interest areas, classroom planning, 547, 548 Learning strategies, 371–379 application of, 378 attention, 372, 373, 378 note taking, 374–375 organizing, visual tools for, 375–377 reading strategies, 378 for struggling students, 378 students with learning disabilities, 176, 177 summaries, 373–374 transfer of learning, 396–400 underlining and highlighting, 374 Learning styles, 167–169, 279–281 problems with, 167–168 Learning targets, 584–587, 589–590, 598 Least restrictive environment (LRE), 170

S-10

SUB J ECT I NDE X

Left brain learning, 70 Legal issues Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 173 child abuse, 121–122 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 169–173 Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1973), 172–173 Legally blind, 189 Lesbians, 266–267 Lesson study, 584 Letter naming, 210 Levels of processing theory, 341–342 LGBTQ students, 249, 266–267, 271–275 Limited bilingual students, 230. See also English language learners (ELLs) Limited capacity, 341, 354 Limited English proficient (LEP), 230–236 Lingua de Signos Nicaraguense, 217 Linguistic intelligence, 159–162 Lip reading, 190 Listening empathetic listening, 566–567 phonological loop, 337–340 Literacy emergent literacy, 209–214 language diversity and emergent literacy, 213–214 media and digital literacy, 438–446 Literature response groups, teaching English language learners, 232–233 Loci method, 357 Locus of causality, 491, 504, 521 Logical consequences, 545, 557 Logical-mathematical intelligence, 159–162 Long-term memory, 344 capacity and duration of, 344–345 explicit (declarative) memories, 344–349 implicit memories, 344, 349–350 individual differences, 352 information processing system, 331 retrieving information, 350–351 Longitudinal studies, 46 Low expectations, 254 Low vision, defined, 189 Lower class, defined, 251

Magic middle, 93–94 Mainstreaming, 170 Maintenance rehearsal, 340 Males ADHD diagnoses, 178 drug use and abuse, 185 gender and intelligence, 166–167 gender identity and sexual orientation, 266–267 gender roles and bias, 268–273 genderlects, 222 stereotype threat, 264–267 Manipulatives, 91–92 Mapping, Cmaps, 376–377 Maslow, Abraham, 493–494 Massed practice, 358 Massive multi-player online games (MMOGs), 441 Mastery experiences, 463, 464 Mastery goals, 499–500, 515 Mastery-oriented students, 508–509 Matching exercises, 626–627 Mathematics and mathematic skills, 460. See also STEM fields comprehension and problem solving, 382, 383, 387 ethnic and racial achievement data, 258–259 gender differences, 166–167 learning disabilities, 173, 174, 175 neuroscience and, 173, 174 self-concept and, 131–133 stereotype threat, 264–266 technology, use of, 87 Maturation, 60, 74, 103–104 Mean, test scores, 643–645 Meaning, knowledge construction and, 341 Meaning, language development, 207–208 Means-ends analysis, 387 Measurement, 620–621 data-based decision making, 620 intelligence, measures of, 163–166 standard error of, 622 Measures of Teaching Effectiveness (MET) Project, 39–40 Media aggressive behavior and, 118–119 effects of, 122–123 impact of, 32–33 literacy, 438–446 prejudice and, 262, 263

Media literacy, 438–446 Median, test scores, 644 Mediation of mental processes, 87 Medulla oblongata, 63 Melting pot, 223 Memory cognitive load and retaining information, 339–342 emotions, neuroscience of, 515 executive control processes, 368 executive functioning, development of, 84 explicit memory, 344–349 implicit memory, 344, 349–350 individual differences, 342–343, 352 information processing system, 330–332 learning strategies, 374, 375 long-term memory, 344–352 mnemonics, 356–357 neuroscience of, 174 problem solving schemas, 384, 385, 387, 390 retrieval practice, 368, 377–378 robust knowledge, 401 rote memorization, 357–358 sensory memory, 332 short-term memory, 331, 337–338 working memory, 159, 337–344 Menarche, 103 Mental age, 164 Mental retardation. See Intellectual disabilities Mentorship, for developing critical thinking skills, 393 Metacognition, 368–371 development of, 370–371 executive control processes, 368 individual differences, 369 KWL (know, want, learn) strategy, 370, 377 self-regulation and, 467, 468 Metalinguistic awareness, 209 Microgenetic studies, 46 Middle class, defined, 251 Middle school aged children concrete-operational stage (Piaget), 78–80 peers, influence of, 114–120 psychosocial development (Erikson), 125–127 relationships with teachers, 120–121

self-concept, development of, 132–133 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 88–90 Mindful abstraction, 397 Mindfulness training, 479 Minority group, 257 Mirror systems, 328 Mixed methods, research, 47, 49 Mnemonics, 356–357 CAPS, 377 INCLUDE strategy, 607 as learning strategy, 372, 374, 378 READS, 378 TREE, 177 Mode, test scores, 644 Modeling, 454, 463 aggressive behavior, 118–119 cognitive behavior modification, 476 observational learning, 457–461 triadic reciprocal causality, 455 Moderately difficult goals, 498 Monitoring skills, 369, 390 Monolingual children, 215, 224 Moodle, 439, 446 Moral development, 135–143 Moral dilemmas, 136 Moral judgments, 139 Moral realism, 139 Moral reasoning, 136 Morality of cooperation, 139 Moratorium, 127 Morphemes, 175 Morphological awareness, 175 Motivation, 371, 373, 379, 399, 457, 490. See also Behavioral learning theories attribution theories, 503–505 autonomy, support of, 521–522 beliefs and, 505–510 classroom strategies, summary of, 526–527 curiosity and, 512–513 diversity in, 525 emotions and anxiety, 505, 514–518 evaluation and grading, 523 expectancy x value theories, 502–503 flow, 514 general approaches to, 490–493 goals and goal orientations, 497–502 grades and, 641 grouping and goal structures, 522–523

SUB J ECT I N DEX interests, tapping of, 510–512 intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, 491–492 intrinsic task motivation, 170 learning, motivation for, 519–528 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 493–494 needs and, 493–497 observational learning and, 459 recognition of accomplishment, 521–522 self-determination and, 493–497 self-efficacy and, 465 self-regulation and, 469 time available for tasks, 523 and transfer, 397, 399 triadic reciprocal causality, 455–456 Motivation to learn, 519–528 Motor skills, development and, 69, 76–77, 84, 93, 102–104 Movement, theory of multiple intelligence, 159–162 Movement management, 542, 552 Moving residences, impact on students, 252 Mozart effect, 70 Multicultural education, 276 creation of culturally compatible classrooms, 276–284 diversity in learning, 279–284 lessons for teachers, 281–284 overview of, 276–284 Multimedia learning activities, 438–446 Multiple-choice tests, 626–629 Multiple representations of content, 415 Multitasking, 334–335 Musical intelligence, 159–162 Myelination, 66 National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC), 194 National Association for the Education of Young Children, 91 Native Americans, 263, 279– 284 Native-language maintenance instruction, 231 Natural (logical) consequences, 545, 557 Naturalist intelligence, 159–162 Nature vs. nurture, 61, 167, 195 Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT), 63, 64 Need for autonomy, 494–495

Need for competence, 494–495 Need for relatedness, 494–496 Needs, 493–497 Negative behavior functional behavioral assessments, 312–313 ignoring of, 299, 301, 320 response to, 308–311 Negative correlation, 44 Negative reinforcement, 296– 297, 308–309, 313 Neglect, child, 121–122 Neglected children indicators of child abuse, 122 in peer popularity, 116, 117 Neglecting parents, 111 Negotiations, 568 Neo-Piagetian theories, 84–85 Nervous system, brain development, 62–69 Neurogenesis, 63–65 Neuromyths, 70–71 Neurons, 63–66, 69 Neuroscience behavioral learning and, 297–298 cognitive learning and the brain, 328–329 emotion and, 514–515 forgetting, memory and, 342 learning and teaching implications, 67–72 of learning challenges, 173–174 Neutral stimulus, 293 Nigrescence, 130 NIR-OT (near-infrared optical tomography), 63, 64 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (2002), 34, 47 Nonacademic self-concept, 131–134 Norm groups, 625 Norm-referenced grading, 638–641 Norm-referenced testing, 624–625 Normal distribution, 646, 648 Note taking skills, 374–375 Obama, Barack, 34 Obesity, 106–107 Object permanence, 76 Observational learning, 317, 455, 457, 458–461 Occipital lobe, 63, 67 Offensiveness, 623 Open-source software, 439 Operant conditioning, 294–300 challenges and criticisms, 317–319 encouraging positive behaviors, 296–302, 304 praise, 301, 302

punishment, 291, 296–298, 307–310 Operants, defined, 294 Operations, 77 Opportunity gaps, 258 Organization, 353, 580–583 Organization of thoughts, Piaget on, 74–75 Organizational skills, 452, 486–487 Organizing, learning strategies, 374, 375–377 Originality, 169 Outcome expectations, 457 Outside-in skills, 210–211, 212 Overlapping, 552 Overlearning, 399 Overregularize, 208 Overt aggression, 117 Overweight children and obesity, 106–107 Pacific Islanders, 258 Paraphrase rule, 566 PARCC tests, 653 Parenting styles, 110–111 Parietal lobe, brain, 63, 67 Part learning, 358 Participant observation, 46 Participants/subjects, research, 45 Participation structures, 281, 539, 544 Participatory appropriation, 424 Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC), 653 Passive construction, language development, 209 Pavlov, Ivan, 293 PBWorks, 439 Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), 581 Peer cultures, 115 bioecological model of development, 114–120 poverty, effect of, 254–255 social goals, 500–501 Peer mediation, 570 Penalties. See Discipline Percentile rank scores, 646–647 Perception, 332–334 Performance assessments, 632–637 Performance components, triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 162–163 Performance goals, 499–500, 515 Permissive parents, 111

S-11

Person-first language, 157–158 Personal caring, 120–121 Personal choice, 138, 139 Personal development, 60, 61 Personal interest, 491, 521 Personal learning environment (PLE), 439–440 Personal learning network (PLN), 440 Personal territories, classroom planning, 546–547 Personality, learning and thinking styles, 167–169 Perspective-taking ability, 136 Pervasive developmental disorder (PDD), 190–193 PET (positron emission tomography) scans, 62, 64 Petit mal seizures, 188 Phoneme-grapheme correspondence, 210, 211 Phonemic awareness, 175, 216 Phonological awareness, 210, 211 Phonological loop, 337–340 Physical abuse of children, 121–122 Physical activity, 104–106 Physical development, 60, 61 eating disorders, 107–108 obesity, 106–107 overview, 102–104 play, recess, and physical activity, 104–105 Physical disabilities adaptive teaching, 604–608 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 173 assistive technology, 607–608 cooperative learning, use of, 435–436 English language learners, 236–238 high-stakes tests and, 655 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 169–173 language and labels, 156–158 physical activity and, 105–106 positive behavior supports (PBS), 311, 313–314 trends in education, 32 Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1973), 172–173 Physical neglect of children, 121–122 Physiological arousal, 464 Physiological needs, 493–494 Piaget, Jean, 61, 73–85, 411, 413, 428, 434, 483. See also Theory of cognitive development (Piaget)

S-12

SUB J ECT I NDE X

Pituitary gland, 63 Planning, of instructional content constructivist approaches, 589–590 design process, 603 flexible and creative plans, 587–589 learning targets, 584–587, 589–590 research on, 583–584 Understanding by Design (UbD), 601–602 Planning tasks, students Framework for Teaching, 38–39 learning strategies, 374 metacognition and, 369 problem solving and, 390–391 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 88 Plasticity, brain, 63–65, 69, 71 culture and, 69 synaptic plasticity, 63–65 Play cultural differences and, 105 physical development and, 104–105 value of, 104–105 Podcasts academic optimism, 610 brain-based education, 69 classroom management, 539 cooperative learning, 427 cultural differences, 247 efficacy judgments, 465 learning theories, differences in, 329 positive and negative reinforcements, 296 procrastination, 508 self-efficacy, 463, 508 student sense of self, 131 teacher involvement, importance of, 35 as teaching tool, 169, 237 test taking skills, 624 understanding cultural differences, 224 Point/Counterpoint ADHD, pills or skills, 179 brain-based education, 70–71 building self-esteem, schools role, 135 Common Core standards, value of, 586 English language learners, teaching strategies, 231 gender differences and teaching, 272–273 grade retention, 642 grit, 472

inquiry and problem-based teaching approaches, 424–425 making learning fun, 512 multitasking, 335 research as guide to education, 48 rewards for learning, 318– 319 teaching of critical thinking and problem solving skills, 395 zero tolerance policies, 560 Pons, 63 Popular children, 116, 117 Popularity, 116–117 Portfolios, 632–636 Positive behavior supports (PBS), 311, 313–314 Positive correlation, 44 Positive practice, 303 Positive reinforcement, 296– 300 Positron emission tomography (PET) scans, 62, 64 Poverty achievement gap and, 258– 259 assessment bias, 623–624 gifted and talented students, identifying, 197 rates of, 252–254 student achievement and, 252–257 trends in education, 32 Practical intelligence, 162, 163 Practice. See also Deliberate practice; IES Practice Guides; Retrieval practice brain, retrieval practice/ testing effect, 377 deliberate practice, 359 developmentally appropriate practice, 91 distributed learning/practice, 358, 378 interleaved practice, 355–356 as learning strategy, 374, 402 massed practice, 358 memory, retrieval practice, 368, 377–378 positive practice, 303 retrieval practice, 355–356, 368, 377–378 Pragmatics, 281 of classroom, 281 language skills, 209 Praise-and-ignore approach, 301 PRAXIS II ADHD, 178 alternatives to standardized testing, 653 antecedents, 299

applied behavior analysis, 300 attention, 332 attribution theory, 503 authentic tests, 632 bilinguial Issues, 215 Characteristics of Cooperative Learning, 427 concepts of standardized testing, 643 criterion-/norm-referenced tests, 625 cultural and gender differences in the classroom, 249 developing basic skills, 359 Discovery Learning, 422 distinctions between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories, 93 economic conditions/ socioeconomic status (SES), 250 encouraging/discouraging behaviors, 302 Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development, 124 families, 111 Forms of Cooperative Learning, 434 gender bias, 270 implications of Vygotsky’s theory, 92 individual education programs (IEP), 171 instructional objectives, 584 intelligence testing, 164 interpreting achievement tests, 648 the larger community, 246 learning by association, 292 learning/cognitive styles, 167 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 493 memory and instruction, 337 memory and recall, 350 memory strategies, 357 modeling, 463 moral development, 140 multicultural education, 276 multiple intelligences, 159 observational learning, 459 operant conditioning, basics of, 294 planning thematic units, 589 portfolio assessment, 634 prior knowledge, 356 procedures and routines to minimize confusion and misbehavior, 542 promoting intrinsic motivation to learn, 492 questioning, 596 racial bias, 261

scoring rubrics, 635 self-determination, 494 self-regulation, 477 standardized testing: major issues, 652 Student-Centered Learning, 414 TARGET model, 519 taxonomies of educational objectives, 587 teacher-centered instruction, 591 teacher professionalism, 37, 41 teacher’s role in studentcentered instruction, 604 teaching and management, 311 teaching concepts, 346 test anxiety, 516 traditional assessment, 624 types of assessment, 620 Pre-encounter nigrescence, 130 Precorrection, 314 Preferences, learning, 167 Prejudice, 261 Premack principle, 301–302 Preoperational stage of development, 76, 77–78 Preparation tasks, 38–39 Preschool-aged children physical development, 102 psychosocial development (Erikson), 124–125 self-concept, development of, 132–133 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 88–90 Presentation punishment, 296 Pretest, 621 Priming, 350 Principle, defined, 50 Prior knowledge. See also Scaffolding cognitive views of learning, 352, 356, 359 complex cognitive processes, 374, 375 constructivism, 413, 416, 418, 420, 424–425, 440 managing learning environments, 572 motivation in learning and teaching, 506 social cognitive views of learning and motivation, 483 teaching every student, 591, 592, 604, 605, 609 Private speech, 87–89 Probing questions. See Deep questions Problem, defined, 380

SUB J ECT I N DEX Problem-based learning, 420–424, 520–521 defined, 422 inquiry and, 420–424 research on, 423 Problem solving, 47–48, 379–392 attention, 381, 390 cognitive development, 80 cognitive processes, 379–392 cognitive views of learning, 351, 356, 359, 361 complex cognitive processes, 378, 379–392, 395–401 creativity, 167–172 crystallized intelligence, 159 culture and diversity, 256, 264, 278, 315 defining goals and representing the problem, 382–386 examples and, 384–385 expert knowledge and, 390–391 learning differences and needs, 174, 175, 190 learning disabilities, 174, 175 mathematics comprehension and problem solving, 382, 383, 387 memory, problem solving schemas, 384, 385, 387, 390 planning tasks and, 390–391 Point/Counterpoint, 395 problem identification, 380 procedural knowledge and, 390 reconstruction, 351 representations and, 381, 383, 386 robust knowledge, 401 schema-driven, 383–386 self-concept and, 131, 132 skill development, 380, 389 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 86–89. See also Scaffolding successful intelligence, 156 teaching of critical thinking and problem solving skills, 395 translation and, 383–386 triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 162–163 well structured vs. ill structured problems, 380 Procedural fairness, 623 Procedural knowledge, 330 development of, 359–361 metacognition and, 369 problem solving and, 390 Procedural memory, 350

Procedures, classroom, 542–546 Process portfolio, 634–635 Production, observational learning and, 458 Production deficiencies, 378 Productions, 350 Productive Thinking Program, 395 Professional organizations, 41 Professional responsibilities, 47 Framework for Teaching, 38–39 Programming languages, digital literacy, 444 Project Look Sharp, 444–445 Promotive interaction, 427–428 Pronunciation, dialects and, 221 Propositional networks, 345 Prototype, 346 Proximal development, zone of (ZPD), 89–90 Proximal goals, 498 Pruning, synapses, 64–66 Psychological tools, 87 Psychomotor domain, 589 Psychosocial, defined, 124 Psychosocial development (Erikson), 123–135 Puberty, 103 Punishment, 291, 296–298, 307–310 Pygmalion effect, 609 Qualitative change, 61 Qualitative research, 46–47, 48 Quantitative change, 61 Quantitative research, 46, 47, 48 Quasi-experimental studies, 45 Quebec Sign Language, 217 Questioning. See also Deep questions as teaching method, 596–601 Race. See also Diversity American cultural diversity, 246–250 assessment bias, 623–624, 637 caring relationships and school connections, 554 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 276–284 culturally relevant pedagogy, 277–279 culturally responsive classroom management, 571–572 discrimination, legacy of, 260–263 diversity in learning, 279–284

drug use and abuse, 185 immigrant students, teaching of, 222–236 intelligence, differences in, 166–167 labels and, 158 moral reasoning, 140–141 motivation and, 505, 509 parenting styles, 111 poverty rates, 252–254 racial identity, 128–132 school achievement and, 258–259 self-concept, ideas of, 132, 133 stereotype threat, 264–267 trends in education, 32–33 use of term, 257–258 Racial and ethnic pride, 131 Racism, 261–263 Radical constructivism, 411 Random, 45 Range, test scores, 645 Ratio schedule, 298 Reading brain research and, 70–71 cognitive apprenticeships, 425–426 cultural differences, 69 emergent literacy, 209–214 language diversity and emergent literacy, 213– 214 learning disabilities, overview, 174–177 neuroscience and, 173, 174 poverty, student achievement and, 253, 255–256 summer reading programs, 255–256 READS, 378 Receptive vocabulary, 207–208 Recess, importance of, 105 Reciprocal questioning, 433– 434 Reciprocal teaching, 425–426 Recitation, 596–601 Recognition, providing, 521– 522 Reconstruction, 351 Reflective teachers, 38, 581 Refugees, 223–224 Rehearsal, executive control process, 368 Reinforcement, 295, 348 classical conditioning, 293–294 encouraging positive behaviors, 296–302, 304 observational learning and, 459 schedules, 298–299 Reinforcer, 295 Rejected children, 116–117

S-13

Rejecting parents, 111 Rejection, peer groups, 116–117 Relatedness, need for, 494–496 Relational aggression, 117, 118 Relationship skills, emotional self-regulation, 478. See also Social skills Relationships creating culturally compatible classrooms, 279 inferring, 81 Reliability, assessments, 621– 622, 637 Remarriage rates, 113 Remembering. See Memory Remembering questions, 587– 588, 598 Removal punishment, 297, 309, 310 Representations cognitive development theories and, 85 problem solving and, 381, 383, 386 Representativeness heuristics, 388 Reprimands, 309 Research descriptive studies, types of, 44–46 as guide to education, debate about, 47–48 insights from, 43 methods, summary chart, 49 role of time in, 46 in support of student learning, summary chart, 51–52 teachers as researchers, 47–49 theories for teaching, 50–51 Resistance culture, 255 Respondents, 293 Response, contiguity and, 292 Response cost, 308, 309, 311 Response set, 388 Response to intervention (RtI), 191–193 Restorative justice, 570–571 Restructuring, 170 Retention, observational learning and, 458 Retention in grade, 641–642 Retrieval, 350–351 Retrieval practice cognitive views of learning, 355–356 complex cognitive processes, 370, 374, 376, 377–378, 399, 402 Reversibility, 78 Reversible thinking, 77 Rewards, 491–492, 502, 527 Right brain learning, 70–71

S-14

SUB J ECT I NDE X

Ripple effect, 460 Risk taking behavior, adolescents, 68 Roam and review, 237 Robust knowledge, 400–402 Roles, cooperative learning groups, 431 Rosenshine’s six teaching functions, 591–592 Rote memorization, 357–358 Routines, classroom, 542, 543 Rubrics, scoring, 634–637 Rules, classroom, 542–546 Safety needs, 493–494 SBAC tests, 653 Scaffolding advance organizers as, 418–419 constructivism and, 414, 416, 417–419 development and, 89–90, 92, 93 Scheduling, learning tasks, 523 Schemas, 263, 347–348, 383–386 cognitive load theory, 384 embodied cognition, 385 schema-driven problem solving, 383–386 self-explanation, 384 worked examples, 383–385 Schemes, 75–77, 84–85 School connections, 552–554 Science, 460. See also STEM Scientifically based research, 46 Scoring rubrics, 634–637 Script, 350 Scripted cooperation, 592–593 Seating arrangements, 546–547 Seatwork, 593–594 Second-language learning, 215–216. See also Bilingualism common errors and accomplishments, 219 Secondary school students. See High school-aged children Section 532, 172–173 Seizure disorders, 188 Selected-response tests, 626–628 Self-actualization, 493–494 Self-agency, 279 Self-awareness, 478 Self-concept, 131–134, 462 defined, 131 development of, 132–133 gender differences, 133–134 poverty, effect of, 254 psychosocial development (Erikson), 123–135 structure of, 131–132

Self-control, 470. See also Selfregulation Self-determination culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 279 motivation and, 493–497, 508 Self-efficacy, 504–505 agency and, 462–467 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 279 social cognitive theory and, 462–467 teachers’ sense of, 466–467 teaching toward, 479–482 triadic reciprocal causality, 455, 457 Self-esteem, 134–135, 462–463 global self-esteem, 131, 134 need for, 493–494 social goals, 500 Self-evaluation, self-regulated learning and, 481–482 Self-explanation, 384, 402 Self-fulfilling prophecy, 609–610 Self-handicapping strategies, 509 Self-influence, 473 Self-instruction, 476 Self-knowledge, theory of multiple intelligence, 159–162 Self-management, 315–316, 476, 478. See also Selfregulation Self-motivation. See Motivation Self-regulated learning, 467–468 cognitive behavior modification, 476–477 examples of, 474–475 models of, 471–473 social cognitive model of, 471–473 teaching toward, 479–482 Zimmerman’s three-phase model of, 474 Self-regulation, 467, 541 achievement gap and, 258 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 278, 279 designing classrooms, 480 development of, 470–471 vs. discipline, 557, 564 emotional, 477–479 failure of, 452 influences on, 468–471 organizational skills and, 452, 486–487 self-reinforcement and, 459

sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 88 steps toward preventing management problems, 552 technology and, 475–476 Self-regulatory knowledge, 330, 369, 399 Self-reinforcement, 316, 459 Self-starter, 467 Self-worth, beliefs about, 508–510 Semantic memory, 345 Semilingual, 230, 231 Semiotic function, 77 Sensitive periods, development, 61 Sensitive periods, second language learning, 215 Sensorimotor stage of development, 76–77 Sensory memory, 331–336 Serial-position effect, 358 Seriation, 79 Sexual abuse, 121–122 Sexual orientation, 267, 271– 273 reaching out to help students, 275 Shaping, 303 Shared regulation, 471, 480 Sheltered instruction, 233–238 Sheltered Instruction Observational Protocol (SIOP), 234–238 Short-term memory, 337–338 information processing system, 331 Sickle cell disease, 188–189 Sign language, 190 Signed English, 217 Signed languages, 217 Simon, Theodore, 164 Single-subject experimental studies, 45, 47 Situated learning, 398, 413 Situational interests, 510–512 Skill-building tasks, for cooperative learning, 428–429 Skinner, B. F., 294–295, 483 Sleep, adolescents and, 68 Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) tests, 653 Social aggression, 117, 118 Social class, 250–257 Social cognitive theory, 454–457 cognitive behavior modification, 476–477 modeling, 457–461 motivation and, 493, 501

overview of, 453, 483 self-efficacy and agency, 462–467 self-regulated learning, 471–473 self-regulated learning, examples of, 474–475 self-regulated learning, teaching toward, 479–482 Social considerations, English language learners, 226, 239 Social constructivism, 410–415 Social context. See Bioecological model of development Social conventions, 138, 139 Social development, 60, 61 early and late maturation, 103–104 Piaget on, 74 psychosocial development (Erikson), 123–135 Vygotsky’s theory, 85–90 Social goals, 500–501 Social intuitionist model (Haidt), 140–141 Social isolation (time out), 309 Social learning theory, 317–318, 455 Social media bullying. See Cyber aggression eating disorders and, 107 effects of, 122–123 identity and technology, 128 Social negotiation, 415 Social organization, diversity in learning and, 279–280 Social persuasion, 463, 464 Social skills autism spectrum disorders, 190–191 gifted students, 195 practical intelligence and, 162 preventing problems, classroom management, 550–553 social awareness, 478 theory of multiple intelligence, 159–162 Social transmission, 74 Socialized speech, 88 Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 85 assisted learning, 93 cooperative learning and, 412–413, 415, 417, 428 implications for teaching, 90, 92–93 limitations of, 90 overview of, 85–90

SUB J ECT I N DEX Socioeconomic status (SES), 251 achievement gap and, 258– 259 assessment bias, 623–624 cultural differences, 250–257 Generation 29.5, 225–226 gifted and talented students, identifying, 197 poverty rates, 252–254 trends in education, 32 Sociohistoric theory. See Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky) Sociolinguistics, 281 Software appropriate for young children, checklist, 442 Sounds, language development, 207, 211 Spaced practice. See Distributed learning/ practice Spasticity, 187 Spatial information, brain regions for, 67 Spatial intelligence, 159–162 Special education. See Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Specific goals, 498 Speech disorders, 180–181 Speech reading, 190 Spermarche, 103 Spiral curriculum, 415 Spock, Benjamin, 124 Spreading activation, 351 Stability, 504 Standard deviation, 644–646 Standard error of measurement, 622 Standard scores, 647–648 Standardized testing, 620–621. See also Assessment accountability and highstakes testing, 650–653 No Child Left Behind Act and, 34 test reports, interpreting, 648–650 types of scores, 643–648 Standards, learning, 585–586 Stanford Achievement Test, 10th Edition, 649–650 Stanford-Binet test, 164–166 Stanine scores, 648 Statistically significant, 45 Stem, multiple choice questions, 628 STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields, 460 and gender bias, 269–270 Stereotype threat, 264–267

Stereotypes, 250, 263, 509. See also Bias Stimulated recall, 580 Stimulus, 292 Stimulus control, 299 Storage and retrieval, executive control processes, 368 Story grammar, 349 Strategies. See also Learning strategies executive functioning, development of, 84 strategy selection skills, 162–163 Strategy instruction, learning disabilities and, 176, 177 Stress brain research and, 71–72 English language learners and, 226, 239 student achievement and, 254 teacher burnout, 466, 479, 480 Structured controversies, 434–435 Structured English immersion (SEI), 230, 231 Student teachers, advice for, 41 Student teams achievement divisions (STAD), 430 Students. See also Learning assessment, involvement in, 631–632 current teaching trends, 32–36 grading, effects of, 641–642 learning, research summary chart, 51–52 sharing control with, 481 student-led conferences, 228–229 student ownership of learning, 415 teacher expectations and, 609–612 teacher relationships and, 35–36 Stuttering, 180, 181 Subjects, research, 45 Subtractive bilingualism, 216 Successful intelligence, 162–163 Successive approximation, 303 Suicide, 183–184 Summaries, learning strategies and, 373–374 Summarizing, paraphrase rule, 566 Summative assessment, 40, 621, 634 Summer, student achievement and, 255–256 Survival needs, 493–494 Sustaining expectation effect, 609–611

Symbols, preoperational stage of development, 77 Synapses, 63–66 Synaptic plasticity, 63–65 Syntactic awareness, 210, 211 Syntax, language development, 208–209, 210, 218 T score, 647–648 Talented students. See Gifted and talented students TARGET model, motivation to learn, 519–528 Task analysis, 303 Task goals, 499 Task value, 503, 519–520 Tasks academic, 519–520 authentic, 520–521 multitasking, 335–336 staying focused on, 527–528 Taxonomy, 587–589 Teacher attention, as reinforcement, 301 Teachers. See also Teaching advice for beginners, 41 attributions, 505 burnout, 466, 479, 480 caring relationships, 552–556 caring teacher-student relationships, 279 characteristics of effective teachers, 580–581 child abuse, recognizing, 121–122 control shared with students, 481 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 276–284 diversity of, 33 expectations of, 609–612 expert teachers, 581 multicultural classroom, tips for, 281–284 relationships with students, 120–121 as researchers, 47–49 response to cheating, 143 sense of efficacy, 33, 466–467 value of, 35–36 Teachers’ Casebook abstract concepts, teaching of, 58, 98–99 bullies and victims, 534, 576–577 culture clashes in classroom, 204, 242–243 ELL students and testing, 30, 56–57 failure to self-regulate, 452, 486–487 including all students, 154, 202–203

S-15

learning to cooperate, 408, 450–451 Leaving No Student Behind, 30, 56–57 mean girls, 100, 147 meaningful grades, 618, 660–661 motivating students, 488, 532–533 reaching and teaching every student, 578, 616–617 remembering the basics, 326, 364–365 sick of class, 288, 323–324 Symbols and Cymbals, 58, 98–99 uncritical thinking, 367, 406–407 “white girls club,” 244, 287 Teaching. See also Classroom management; Guidelines adaptive teaching, 604–608 anxiety, helping students cope, 516–518 attention and, 335–336 constructivist studentcentered teaching, 414–415 current trends in, 32–36 dialects and, 221–222 differentiated instruction, 604–608, 616–617 direct instruction, 591–594, 601 of English language learners, 222–239 fitting to goals, 601 Framework for Teaching, 38–39 gender bias in, 270–273 goals, motivation and, 497–502 good teaching, defined, 36–41 of immigrant students, 222–239 making meaningful connections, 352–356 meaningful lessons, 356–357 memorization, 357–358 metacognitive development skills, 370–371 moral climate of classroom, 139–140 motivation, supporting, 519–528 neuroscience and, 67–72 observational learning and, 459–461 questioning, discussion, and dialogue, 596–601 research on, 580–582 Rosenshine’s six functions of, 591–592

S-16

SUB J ECT I NDE X

Teaching (continued ) seatwork and homework, 591–592, 593–597 self-efficacy in learning and, 464–467 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), implications of, 90, 92–93 student learning research, summary chart, 51–52 students who live in poverty, 256 TeachingWorks, 39–40 theories for, 50–51 theory of cognitive development, implications of, 90–92 toward self-efficacy and self-regulated learning, 479–482 transfer of learning, 396–400 understanding by design (UbD), 601–602 TeachingWorks, 39–40 Teasing, 544, 561. See also Bullying dos and don’ts, 563 Technical tools, cognitive development and, 87 Technology, 460. See also STEM fields assistive technology, 607–608 digital media, learning and, 438–446 identity and, 128 self-regulated learning and, 475–476 social media, effects of, 122–123 STEM fields, and gender bias, 269–270 Technology-rich environments (TREs), 438–439 Television, aggressive behavior and, 118–119 Temporal lobe, brain, 63, 66, 67 Testing. See Assessment; Standardized testing Testing effect, 355–356, 377 Thalamus, 62, 63 Theory defined, 50 development, questions for, 60–62 teaching theories, 50–51 Theory-based, 347 Theory Into Practice, 49 Theory of cognitive development (Piaget), 61, 73–85 cooperative learning and, 411, 413, 428, 434 four stages of, 75–82

implications for teachers, 90–92 limitations of, 82–84 neo-Piagetian views, 84–85 private speech, 87–89 underestimation of children’s abilities, 83 Theory of fluid intelligence, 159 Theory of mind, 136 Theory of moral development (Kohlberg), 136–138 Theory of multiple intelligences (MI), 159–162 Think-Pair-Share, 237 Thinking styles, 167–169 Thorndike, E. L., 42 Three-tiered system, autism spectrum disorder interventions, 191–193 Time, for learning tasks, 523 Time for learning, 539, 540, 550 Time lines, 377 Time on task, 540, 550 Time out, 309 Token reinforcement systems, 306 Tools, cognitive development and, 86–87 Tools for Getting Along, 477 Tools of the Mind, 93, 94 Top-down processing, 334 Tracking, 256–257 Transfer of learning, 396–400 Transgendered people, 267– 268, 271–275 Transition programming, 187 Translation, problem solving and, 383–386 TREE, persuasive writing mnemonic, 177 Tree diagrams, 377 Trends in education, 32–36 Triadic reciprocal causality, 455–457 Triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 162–163 Tripod Student Perception Survey, 40 True/false testing, 626–627 True score, 622 Trust, importance of, 121 Tryptophan, 254 TV Talk Show, 237 Type 30 diabetes, 189 Unconditioned response (UR), 293 Unconditioned stimulus (US), 293 Underlining, as learning strategy, 374

Understanding by Design (UbD), 601–602 Understanding questions, 587– 588, 598 Undesirable behaviors, response to, 308–311 Unfair penalization, 623 Uninvolved parents, 111 United Spinal Association, 157 United States, education trends, 32–36 Universal design, 607 University of Chicago, Laboratory School, 42 Upper class, defined, 251 U.S. Institute of Education Sciences (IES), 47 Utility value, 503, 527 Vagueness, 580 Validity, 622–623, 637 Value, 503, 526–527 Value-added measures, 656 Variability, test scores, 645 Variable-interval reinforcement schedule, 298 Variable-ratio reinforcement schedule, 298 Venn diagrams, 377 Verbal learners, 168–169 Verbal skills. See Language development; Vocabulary development Verbalization, 387 Vicarious experiences, 463–464, 467 Vicarious reinforcement, 459 Video examples adaptation, 75 ADHD students, strategies for, 178 assisted learning, 93 autism spectrum disorders, teaching of, 191 behavioral learning theory, 292 bullying, 561 caring relationships, 554 classroom management, 539 classroom rules, 542 conferences, 631, 643 conflict resolution, 570 conservation, 77 constructivist view of learning, 410 critical thinking skills, 394 curiosity, motivation and, 511 desegregation and discrimination, 260 dialect and accents, 221 differentiated instruction, 606 digital media, learning and, 438

domain-specific knowledge, 330 effective teachers, qualities of, 581 emotional and behavioral disorders, 182 English language learners, teaching of, 224 extrinsic motivators, use of, 491 friendships, 115 gender roles and bias, 270 good teaching models, 35, 38 IEP conference, 170 literacy skill development, 211 long-term learning, 359 memory strategies, 329, 341 metacognition, 370 modeling, 457 moral development, 137 motivation, 493, 504, 519 multicultural teaching principles, 282 Native Americans, discrimination of, 264 peer teaching, 414 planning of instruction, 583 portfolios, 631, 634 positive behavior support system, 314 problem solving skill development, 380 public exhibitions, 634 recognizing responsible behavior, 455 reinforcement methods, 301 respecting cultural differences, 250 scaffolding, use of, 416 seatwork, 593 self-efficacy, building sense of, 464 self-evaluation, 482 self-regulation, 468 sheltered instruction, 233 state test data, use of, 653 student engagement, 550 tapping into cultural funds of knowledge, 228 teacher as researcher, 50 teacher expectations, 610 theory of multiple intelligences, 160 token reinforcement systems, 306 zone of proximal development, 89 Video games, aggressive behavior and, 119–120 Violence, effect of media, 118–119 Virtual learning environments (VLEs), 439 Vision impairments, 189

SUB J ECT I N DEX Visual cortex, brain, 67 Visual information, brain regions for, 67 Visual learners, 168–169 Visual-spatial information, working memory and, 174 Visual strategies for teaching English language learners, 232 Visuospatial sketchpad, 337–339 Vocabulary development. See also Language development developmental milestones and, 207–208 preoperational stage of development, 77

Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1973), 172–173 Voicing problems, 181 Volition, 469–470, 471, 472 Vygotsky, Lev, 85–90, 412–413, 415, 417, 428, 483 Warlpiri Sign Language, 217 Warm demanders, 572 Warmth, 581 Weiner, Bernard, 503–504 Welcome centers, 227–228 White coat syndrome, 293 White matter, 66 Wikis, 237, 438, 439, 446 Within-class ability grouping, 604

Withitness, 551 Work-avoidant learners, 500 Work ethic, 470 Worked examples cognitive views of learning, 340 complex cognitive processes, 383–386, 402, 425 constructivism and designing learning environments, 425 Working backward strategy, 387 Working class, defined, 251 Working memory, 337–344 cognitive load and retaining information, 339–342 fluid intelligence and, 159

S-17

individual differences, 342–343 information processing system, 331 limited capacity, 341, 354 neuroscience of, 174 Writing headlines, 237 Writing skills, 174, 176–177 z score, 647–648 Zero reject, 169 Zero tolerance policies, 560 Zimmerman’s three-phase model of self-regulated learning, 471, 473, 474 Zone of proximal development (ZPD), 89–90, 412, 417

First published in July 2021.

New Enterprise House St Helens Street Derby DE1 3GY UK

email: [email protected]

Copyright © 2021 David Icke

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission from the Publisher, except for the quotation of brief passages in criticism

Cover Design: Gareth Icke Book Design: Neil Hague

British Library Cataloguing-in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

eISBN 978-18384153-1-0

Dedication:

To

Freeeeeedom!

Renegade:

Adjective ‘Having rejected tradition: Unconventional.’ Merriam-Webster Dictionary

Acquiescence to tyranny is the death of the spirit You may be 38 years old, as I happen to be. And one day, some great opportunity stands before you and calls you to stand up for some great principle, some great issue, some great cause. And you refuse to do it because you are afraid … You refuse to do it because you want to live longer … You’re afraid that you will lose your job, or you are afraid that you will be criticised or that you will lose your popularity, or you’re afraid that somebody will stab you, or shoot at you or bomb your house; so you refuse to take the stand. Well, you may go on and live until you are 90, but you’re just as dead at 38 as you would be at 90. And the cessation of breathing in your life is but the belated announcement of an earlier death of the spirit. Martin Luther King

How the few control the many and always have – the many do whatever they’re told ‘Forward, the Light Brigade!’ Was there a man dismayed? Not though the soldier knew Someone had blundered. Theirs not to make reply, Theirs not to reason why, Theirs but to do and die. Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to le of them, Cannon in front of them Volleyed and thundered; Stormed at with shot and shell, Boldly they rode and well, Into the jaws of Death, Into the mouth of hell Rode the six hundred Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892)

The mist is li ing slowly I can see the way ahead And I’ve le behind the empty streets That once inspired my life And the strength of the emotion Is like thunder in the air ’Cos the promise that we made each other Haunts me to the end The secret of your beauty And the mystery of your soul I’ve been searching for in everyone I meet And the times I’ve been mistaken It’s impossible to say And the grass is growing Underneath our feet The words that I remember From my childhood still are true That there’s none so blind As those who will not see And to those who lack the courage And say it’s dangerous to try Well they just don’t know That love eternal will not be denied I know you’re out there somewhere Somewhere, somewhere I know you’re out there somewhere

Somewhere you can hear my voice I know I’ll find you somehow Somehow, somehow I know I’ll find you somehow And somehow I’ll return again to you The Moody Blues

Are you a gutless wonder - or a Renegade Mind? Monuments put from pen to paper, Turns me into a gutless wonder, And if you tolerate this, Then your children will be next. Gravity keeps my head down, Or is it maybe shame ... Manic Street Preachers

Rise like lions a er slumber In unvanquishable number. Shake your chains to earth like dew Which in sleep have fallen on you. Ye are many – they are few. Percy Shelley

Contents

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 Postscript APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

‘I’m thinking’ – Oh, but are you? Renegade perception The Pushbacker sting ‘Covid’: The calculated catastrophe There is no ‘virus’ Sequence of deceit War on your mind ‘Reframing’ insanity We must have it? So what is it? Human 2.0 Who controls the Cult? Escaping Wetiko     Cowan-Kaufman-Morell Statement on Virus Isolation    

CHAPTER ONE I’m thinking’ – Oh, but

are

you?

Think for yourself and let others enjoy the privilege of doing so too Voltaire

F

rench-born philosopher, mathematician and scientist René Descartes became famous for his statement in Latin in the 17th century which translates into English as: ‘I think, therefore I am.’ On the face of it that is true. Thought reflects perception and perception leads to both behaviour and self-identity. In that sense ‘we’ are what we think. But who or what is doing the thinking and is thinking the only route to perception? Clearly, as we shall see, ‘we’ are not always the source of ‘our’ perception, indeed with regard to humanity as a whole this is rarely the case; and thinking is far from the only means of perception. Thought is the village idiot compared with other expressions of consciousness that we all have the potential to access and tap into. This has to be true when we are those other expressions of consciousness which are infinite in nature. We have forgo en this, or, more to the point, been manipulated to forget. These are not just the esoteric musings of the navel. The whole foundation of human control and oppression is control of perception. Once perception is hijacked then so is behaviour which is dictated by perception. Collective perception becomes collective behaviour and collective behaviour is what we call human society. Perception is all and those behind human control know that which is

why perception is the target 24/7 of the psychopathic manipulators that I call the Global Cult. They know that if they dictate perception they will dictate behaviour and collectively dictate the nature of human society. They are further aware that perception is formed from information received and if they control the circulation of information they will to a vast extent direct human behaviour. Censorship of information and opinion has become globally Nazilike in recent years and never more blatantly than since the illusory ‘virus pandemic’ was triggered out of China in 2019 and across the world in 2020. Why have billions submi ed to house arrest and accepted fascistic societies in a way they would have never believed possible? Those controlling the information spewing from government, mainstream media and Silicon Valley (all controlled by the same Global Cult networks) told them they were in danger from a ‘deadly virus’ and only by submi ing to house arrest and conceding their most basic of freedoms could they and their families be protected. This monumental and provable lie became the perception of the billions and therefore the behaviour of the billions. In those few words you have the whole structure and modus operandi of human control. Fear is a perception – False Emotion Appearing Real – and fear is the currency of control. In short … get them by the balls (or give them the impression that you have) and their hearts and minds will follow. Nothing grips the dangly bits and freezes the rear-end more comprehensively than fear.

World number 1 There are two ‘worlds’ in what appears to be one ‘world’ and the prime difference between them is knowledge. First we have the mass of human society in which the population is maintained in coldlycalculated ignorance through control of information and the ‘education’ (indoctrination) system. That’s all you really need to control to enslave billions in a perceptual delusion in which what are perceived to be their thoughts and opinions are ever-repeated mantras that the system has been downloading all their lives through ‘education’, media, science, medicine, politics and academia

in which the personnel and advocates are themselves overwhelmingly the perceptual products of the same repetition. Teachers and academics in general are processed by the same programming machine as everyone else, but unlike the great majority they never leave the ‘education’ program. It gripped them as students and continues to grip them as programmers of subsequent generations of students. The programmed become the programmers – the programmed programmers. The same can largely be said for scientists, doctors and politicians and not least because as the American writer Upton Sinclair said: ‘It is difficult to get a man to understand something when his salary depends upon his not understanding it.’ If your career and income depend on thinking the way the system demands then you will – bar a few freeminded exceptions – concede your mind to the Perceptual Mainframe that I call the Postage Stamp Consensus. This is a tiny band of perceived knowledge and possibility ‘taught’ (downloaded) in the schools and universities, pounded out by the mainstream media and on which all government policy is founded. Try thinking, and especially speaking and acting, outside of the ‘box’ of consensus and see what that does for your career in the Mainstream Everything which bullies, harasses, intimidates and ridicules the population into compliance. Here we have the simple structure which enslaves most of humanity in a perceptual prison cell for an entire lifetime and I’ll go deeper into this process shortly. Most of what humanity is taught as fact is nothing more than programmed belief. American science fiction author Frank Herbert was right when he said: ‘Belief can be manipulated. Only knowledge is dangerous.’ In the ‘Covid’ age belief is promoted and knowledge is censored. It was always so, but never to the extreme of today.

World number 2 A ‘number 2’ is slang for ‘doing a poo’ and how appropriate that is when this other ‘world’ is doing just that on humanity every minute of every day. World number 2 is a global network of secret societies and semi-secret groups dictating the direction of society via

governments, corporations and authorities of every kind. I have spent more than 30 years uncovering and exposing this network that I call the Global Cult and knowing its agenda is what has made my books so accurate in predicting current and past events. Secret societies are secret for a reason. They want to keep their hoarded knowledge to themselves and their chosen initiates and to hide it from the population which they seek through ignorance to control and subdue. The whole foundation of the division between World 1 and World 2 is knowledge. What number 1 knows number 2 must not. Knowledge they have worked so hard to keep secret includes (a) the agenda to enslave humanity in a centrally-controlled global dictatorship, and (b) the nature of reality and life itself. The la er (b) must be suppressed to allow the former (a) to prevail as I shall be explaining. The way the Cult manipulates and interacts with the population can be likened to a spider’s web. The ‘spider’ sits at the centre in the shadows and imposes its will through the web with each strand represented in World number 2 by a secret society, satanic or semi-secret group, and in World number 1 – the world of the seen – by governments, agencies of government, law enforcement, corporations, the banking system, media conglomerates and Silicon Valley (Fig 1 overleaf). The spider and the web connect and coordinate all these organisations to pursue the same global outcome while the population sees them as individual entities working randomly and independently. At the level of the web governments are the banking system are the corporations are the media are Silicon Valley are the World Health Organization working from their inner cores as one unit. Apparently unconnected countries, corporations, institutions, organisations and people are on the same team pursuing the same global outcome. Strands in the web immediately around the spider are the most secretive and exclusive secret societies and their membership is emphatically restricted to the Cult inner-circle emerging through the generations from particular bloodlines for reasons I will come to. At the core of the core you would get them in a single room. That’s how many people are dictating the direction of human society and its transformation

through the ‘Covid’ hoax and other means. As the web expands out from the spider we meet the secret societies that many people will be aware of – the Freemasons, Knights Templar, Knights of Malta, Opus Dei, the inner sanctum of the Jesuit Order, and such like. Note how many are connected to the Church of Rome and there is a reason for that. The Roman Church was established as a revamp, a rebranding, of the relocated ‘Church’ of Babylon and the Cult imposing global tyranny today can be tracked back to Babylon and Sumer in what is now Iraq.

Figure 1: The global web through which the few control the many. (Image Neil Hague.)

Inner levels of the web operate in the unseen away from the public eye and then we have what I call the cusp organisations located at the point where the hidden meets the seen. They include a series of satellite organisations answering to a secret society founded in London in the late 19th century called the Round Table and among them are the Royal Institute of International Affairs (UK, founded in 1920); Council on Foreign Relations (US, 1921); Bilderberg Group (worldwide, 1954); Trilateral Commission (US/worldwide, 1972); and the Club of Rome (worldwide, 1968) which was created to exploit environmental concerns to justify the centralisation of global power to ‘save the planet’. The Club of Rome instigated with others the human-caused climate change hoax which has led to all the ‘green

new deals’ demanding that very centralisation of control. Cusp organisations, which include endless ‘think tanks’ all over the world, are designed to coordinate a single global policy between political and business leaders, intelligence personnel, media organisations and anyone who can influence the direction of policy in their own sphere of operation. Major players and regular a enders will know what is happening – or some of it – while others come and go and are kept overwhelmingly in the dark about the big picture. I refer to these cusp groupings as semi-secret in that they can be publicly identified, but what goes on at the inner-core is kept very much ‘in house’ even from most of their members and participants through a fiercely-imposed system of compartmentalisation. Only let them know what they need to know to serve your interests and no more. The structure of secret societies serves as a perfect example of this principle. Most Freemasons never get higher than the bo om three levels of ‘degree’ (degree of knowledge) when there are 33 official degrees of the Sco ish Rite. Initiates only qualify for the next higher ‘compartment’ or degree if those at that level choose to allow them. Knowledge can be carefully assigned only to those considered ‘safe’. I went to my local Freemason’s lodge a few years ago when they were having an ‘open day’ to show how cuddly they were and when I cha ed to some of them I was astonished at how li le the rank and file knew even about the most ubiquitous symbols they use. The mushroom technique – keep them in the dark and feed them bullshit – applies to most people in the web as well as the population as a whole. Sub-divisions of the web mirror in theme and structure transnational corporations which have a headquarters somewhere in the world dictating to all their subsidiaries in different countries. Subsidiaries operate in their methodology and branding to the same centrally-dictated plan and policy in pursuit of particular ends. The Cult web functions in the same way. Each country has its own web as a subsidiary of the global one. They consist of networks of secret societies, semi-secret groups and bloodline families and their job is to impose the will of the spider and the global web in their particular country. Subsidiary networks control and manipulate the national political system, finance, corporations, media, medicine, etc. to

ensure that they follow the globally-dictated Cult agenda. These networks were the means through which the ‘Covid’ hoax could be played out with almost every country responding in the same way.

The ‘Yessir’ pyramid Compartmentalisation is the key to understanding how a tiny few can dictate the lives of billions when combined with a top-down sequence of imposition and acquiescence. The inner core of the Cult sits at the peak of the pyramidal hierarchy of human society (Fig 2 overleaf). It imposes its will – its agenda for the world – on the level immediately below which acquiesces to that imposition. This level then imposes the Cult will on the level below them which acquiesces and imposes on the next level. Very quickly we meet levels in the hierarchy that have no idea there even is a Cult, but the sequence of imposition and acquiescence continues down the pyramid in just the same way. ‘I don’t know why we are doing this but the order came from “on-high” and so we be er just do it.’ Alfred Lord Tennyson said of the cannon fodder levels in his poem The Charge of the Light Brigade: ‘Theirs not to reason why; theirs but to do and die.’ The next line says that ‘into the valley of death rode the six hundred’ and they died because they obeyed without question what their perceived ‘superiors’ told them to do. In the same way the population capitulated to ‘Covid’. The whole hierarchical pyramid functions like this to allow the very few to direct the enormous many. Eventually imposition-acquiescence-imposition-acquiescence comes down to the mass of the population at the foot of the pyramid. If they acquiesce to those levels of the hierarchy imposing on them (governments/law enforcement/doctors/media) a circuit is completed between the population and the handful of superpsychopaths in the Cult inner core at the top of the pyramid. Without a circuit-breaking refusal to obey, the sequence of imposition and acquiescence allows a staggeringly few people to impose their will upon the entirety of humankind. We are looking at the very sequence that has subjugated billions since the start of 2020. Our freedom has not been taken from us. Humanity has given it

away. Fascists do not impose fascism because there are not enough of them. Fascism is imposed by the population acquiescing to fascism. Put another way allowing their perceptions to be programmed to the extent that leads to the population giving their freedom away by giving their perceptions – their mind – away. If this circuit is not broken by humanity ceasing to cooperate with their own enslavement then nothing can change. For that to happen people have to critically think and see through the lies and window dressing and then summon the backbone to act upon what they see. The Cult spends its days working to stop either happening and its methodology is systematic and highly detailed, but it can be overcome and that is what this book is all about.

Figure 2: The simple sequence of imposition and compliance that allows a handful of people at the peak of the pyramid to dictate the lives of billions.

The Life Program Okay, back to world number 1 or the world of the ‘masses’. Observe the process of what we call ‘life’ and it is a perceptual download from cradle to grave. The Cult has created a global structure in which perception can be programmed and the program continually topped-up with what appears to be constant confirmation that the program is indeed true reality. The important word here is ‘appears’.

This is the structure, the fly-trap, the Postage Stamp Consensus or Perceptual Mainframe, which represents that incredibly narrow band of perceived possibility delivered by the ‘education’ system, mainstream media, science and medicine. From the earliest age the download begins with parents who have themselves succumbed to the very programming their children are about to go through. Most parents don’t do this out of malevolence and mostly it is quite the opposite. They do what they believe is best for their children and that is what the program has told them is best. Within three or four years comes the major transition from parental programming to fullblown state (Cult) programming in school, college and university where perceptually-programmed teachers and academics pass on their programming to the next generations. Teachers who resist are soon marginalised and their careers ended while children who resist are called a problem child for whom Ritalin may need to be prescribed. A few years a er entering the ‘world’ children are under the control of authority figures representing the state telling them when they have to be there, when they can leave and when they can speak, eat, even go to the toilet. This is calculated preparation for a lifetime of obeying authority in all its forms. Reflex-action fear of authority is instilled by authority from the start. Children soon learn the carrot and stick consequences of obeying or defying authority which is underpinned daily for the rest of their life. Fortunately I daydreamed through this crap and never obeyed authority simply because it told me to. This approach to my alleged ‘be ers’ continues to this day. There can be consequences of pursuing open-minded freedom in a world of closed-minded conformity. I spent a lot of time in school corridors a er being ejected from the classroom for not taking some of it seriously and now I spend a lot of time being ejected from Facebook, YouTube and Twi er. But I can tell you that being true to yourself and not compromising your self-respect is far more exhilarating than bowing to authority for authority’s sake. You don’t have to be a sheep to the shepherd (authority) and the sheep dog (fear of not obeying authority).

The perceptual download continues throughout the formative years in school, college and university while script-reading ‘teachers’, ‘academics’ ‘scientists’, ‘doctors’ and ‘journalists’ insist that ongoing generations must be as programmed as they are. Accept the program or you will not pass your ‘exams’ which confirm your ‘degree’ of programming. It is tragic to think that many parents pressure their offspring to work hard at school to download the program and qualify for the next stage at college and university. The late, great, American comedian George Carlin said: ‘Here’s a bumper sticker I’d like to see: We are proud parents of a child who has resisted his teachers’ a empts to break his spirit and bend him to the will of his corporate masters.’ Well, the best of luck finding many of those, George. Then comes the moment to leave the formal programming years in academia and enter the ‘adult’ world of work. There you meet others in your chosen or prescribed arena who went through the same Postage Stamp Consensus program before you did. There is therefore overwhelming agreement between almost everyone on the basic foundations of Postage Stamp reality and the rejection, even contempt, of the few who have a mind of their own and are prepared to use it. This has two major effects. Firstly, the consensus confirms to the programmed that their download is really how things are. I mean, everyone knows that, right? Secondly, the arrogance and ignorance of Postage Stamp adherents ensure that anyone questioning the program will have unpleasant consequences for seeking their own truth and not picking their perceptions from the shelf marked: ‘Things you must believe without question and if you don’t you’re a dangerous lunatic conspiracy theorist and a harebrained nu er’. Every government, agency and corporation is founded on the same Postage Stamp prison cell and you can see why so many people believe the same thing while calling it their own ‘opinion’. Fusion of governments and corporations in pursuit of the same agenda was the definition of fascism described by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. The pressure to conform to perceptual norms downloaded for a lifetime is incessant and infiltrates society right

down to family groups that become censors and condemners of their own ‘black sheep’ for not, ironically, being sheep. We have seen an explosion of that in the ‘Covid’ era. Cult-owned global media unleashes its propaganda all day every day in support of the Postage Stamp and targets with abuse and ridicule anyone in the public eye who won’t bend their mind to the will of the tyranny. Any response to this is denied (certainly in my case). They don’t want to give a platform to expose official lies. Cult-owned-and-created Internet giants like Facebook, Google, YouTube and Twi er delete you for having an unapproved opinion. Facebook boasts that its AI censors delete 97-percent of ‘hate speech’ before anyone even reports it. Much of that ‘hate speech’ will simply be an opinion that Facebook and its masters don’t want people to see. Such perceptual oppression is widely known as fascism. Even Facebook executive Benny Thomas, a ‘CEO Global Planning Lead’, said in comments secretly recorded by investigative journalism operation Project Veritas that Facebook is ‘too powerful’ and should be broken up: I mean, no king in history has been the ruler of two billion people, but Mark Zuckerberg is … And he’s 36. That’s too much for a 36-year-old ... You should not have power over two billion people. I just think that’s wrong.

Thomas said Facebook-owned platforms like Instagram, Oculus, and WhatsApp needed to be separate companies. ‘It’s too much power when they’re all one together’. That’s the way the Cult likes it, however. We have an executive of a Cult organisation in Benny Thomas that doesn’t know there is a Cult such is the compartmentalisation. Thomas said that Facebook and Google ‘are no longer companies, they’re countries’. Actually they are more powerful than countries on the basis that if you control information you control perception and control human society.

I love my oppressor Another expression of this psychological trickery is for those who realise they are being pressured into compliance to eventually

convince themselves to believe the official narratives to protect their self-respect from accepting the truth that they have succumbed to meek and subservient compliance. Such people become some of the most vehement defenders of the system. You can see them everywhere screaming abuse at those who prefer to think for themselves and by doing so reminding the compliers of their own capitulation to conformity. ‘You are talking dangerous nonsense you Covidiot!!’ Are you trying to convince me or yourself? It is a potent form of Stockholm syndrome which is defined as: ‘A psychological condition that occurs when a victim of abuse identifies and a aches, or bonds, positively with their abuser.’ An example is hostages bonding and even ‘falling in love’ with their kidnappers. The syndrome has been observed in domestic violence, abused children, concentration camp inmates, prisoners of war and many and various Satanic cults. These are some traits of Stockholm syndrome listed at goodtherapy.org: • Positive regard towards perpetrators of abuse or captor [see ‘Covid’]. • Failure to cooperate with police and other government authorities when it comes to holding perpetrators of abuse or kidnapping accountable [or in the case of ‘Covid’ cooperating with the police to enforce and defend their captors’ demands]. • Li le or no effort to escape [see ‘Covid’]. • Belief in the goodness of the perpetrators or kidnappers [see ‘Covid’]. • Appeasement of captors. This is a manipulative strategy for maintaining one’s safety. As victims get rewarded – perhaps with less abuse or even with life itself – their appeasing behaviours are reinforced [see ‘Covid’]. • Learned helplessness. This can be akin to ‘if you can’t beat ‘em, join ‘em’. As the victims fail to escape the abuse or captivity, they may start giving up and soon realize it’s just easier for everyone if they acquiesce all their power to their captors [see ‘Covid’].

Feelings of pity toward the abusers, believing they are actually • victims themselves. Because of this, victims may go on a crusade or mission to ‘save’ [protect] their abuser [see the venom unleashed on those challenging the official ‘Covid’ narrative]. • Unwillingness to learn to detach from their perpetrators and heal. In essence, victims may tend to be less loyal to themselves than to their abuser [ definitely see ‘Covid’]. Ponder on those traits and compare them with the behaviour of great swathes of the global population who have defended governments and authorities which have spent every minute destroying their lives and livelihoods and those of their children and grandchildren since early 2020 with fascistic lockdowns, house arrest and employment deletion to ‘protect’ them from a ‘deadly virus’ that their abusers’ perceptually created to bring about this very outcome. We are looking at mass Stockholm syndrome. All those that agree to concede their freedom will believe those perceptions are originating in their own independent ‘mind’ when in fact by conceding their reality to Stockholm syndrome they have by definition conceded any independence of mind. Listen to the ‘opinions’ of the acquiescing masses in this ‘Covid’ era and what gushes forth is the repetition of the official version of everything delivered unprocessed, unfiltered and unquestioned. The whole programming dynamic works this way. I must be free because I’m told that I am and so I think that I am. You can see what I mean with the chapter theme of ‘I’m thinking – Oh, but are you?’ The great majority are not thinking, let alone for themselves. They are repeating what authority has told them to believe which allows them to be controlled. Weaving through this mentality is the fear that the ‘conspiracy theorists’ are right and this again explains the o en hysterical abuse that ensues when you dare to contest the official narrative of anything. Denial is the mechanism of hiding from yourself what you don’t want to be true. Telling people what they want to hear is easy, but it’s an infinitely greater challenge to tell them what they would rather not be happening.

One is akin to pushing against an open door while the other is met with vehement resistance no ma er what the scale of evidence. I don’t want it to be true so I’ll convince myself that it’s not. Examples are everywhere from the denial that a partner is cheating despite all the signs to the reflex-action rejection of any idea that world events in which country a er country act in exactly the same way are centrally coordinated. To accept the la er is to accept that a force of unspeakable evil is working to destroy your life and the lives of your children with nothing too horrific to achieve that end. Who the heck wants that to be true? But if we don’t face reality the end is duly achieved and the consequences are far worse and ongoing than breaking through the walls of denial today with the courage to make a stand against tyranny.

Connect the dots – but how? A crucial aspect of perceptual programming is to portray a world in which everything is random and almost nothing is connected to anything else. Randomness cannot be coordinated by its very nature and once you perceive events as random the idea they could be connected is waved away as the rantings of the tinfoil-hat brigade. You can’t plan and coordinate random you idiot! No, you can’t, but you can hide the coldly-calculated and long-planned behind the illusion of randomness. A foundation manifestation of the Renegade Mind is to scan reality for pa erns that connect the apparently random and turn pixels and dots into pictures. This is the way I work and have done so for more than 30 years. You look for similarities in people, modus operandi and desired outcomes and slowly, then ever quicker, the picture forms. For instance: There would seem to be no connection between the ‘Covid pandemic’ hoax and the human-caused global-warming hoax and yet they are masks (appropriately) on the same face seeking the same outcome. Those pushing the global warming myth through the Club of Rome and other Cult agencies are driving the lies about ‘Covid’ – Bill Gates is an obvious one, but they are endless. Why would the same people be involved in both when they are clearly not connected? Oh, but they

are. Common themes with personnel are matched by common goals. The ‘solutions’ to both ‘problems’ are centralisation of global power to impose the will of the few on the many to ‘save’ humanity from ‘Covid’ and save the planet from an ‘existential threat’ (we need ‘zero Covid’ and ‘zero carbon emissions’). These, in turn, connect with the ‘dot’ of globalisation which was coined to describe the centralisation of global power in every area of life through incessant political and corporate expansion, trading blocks and superstates like the European Union. If you are the few and you want to control the many you have to centralise power and decision-making. The more you centralise power the more power the few at the centre will have over the many; and the more that power is centralised the more power those at the centre have to centralise even quicker. The momentum of centralisation gets faster and faster which is exactly the process we have witnessed. In this way the hoaxed ‘pandemic’ and the fakery of human-caused global warming serve the interests of globalisation and the seizure of global power in the hands of the Cult inner-circle which is behind ‘Covid’, ‘climate change’ and globalisation. At this point random ‘dots’ become a clear and obvious picture or pa ern. Klaus Schwab, the classic Bond villain who founded the Cult’s Gates-funded World Economic Forum, published a book in 2020, The Great Reset, in which he used the ‘problem’ of ‘Covid’ to justify a total transformation of human society to ‘save’ humanity from ‘climate change’. Schwab said: ‘The pandemic represents a rare but narrow window of opportunity to reflect, reimagine, and reset our world.’ What he didn’t mention is that the Cult he serves is behind both hoaxes as I show in my book The Answer. He and the Cult don’t have to reimagine the world. They know precisely what they want and that’s why they destroyed human society with ‘Covid’ to ‘build back be er’ in their grand design. Their job is not to imagine, but to get humanity to imagine and agree with their plans while believing it’s all random. It must be pure coincidence that ‘The Great Reset’ has long been the Cult’s code name for the global imposition of fascism and replaced previous code-names of the ‘New World

Order’ used by Cult frontmen like Father George Bush and the ‘New Order of the Ages’ which emerged from Freemasonry and much older secret societies. New Order of the Ages appears on the reverse of the Great Seal of the United States as ‘Novus ordo seclorum’ underneath the Cult symbol used since way back of the pyramid and all seeing-eye (Fig 3). The pyramid is the hierarchy of human control headed by the illuminated eye that symbolises the force behind the Cult which I will expose in later chapters. The term ‘Annuit Coeptis’ translates as ‘He favours our undertaking’. We are told the ‘He’ is the Christian god, but ‘He’ is not as I will be explaining.

Figure 3: The all-seeing eye of the Cult ‘god’ on the Freemason-designed Great Seal of the United States and also on the dollar bill.

Having you on Two major Cult techniques of perceptual manipulation that relate to all this are what I have called since the 1990s Problem-ReactionSolution (PRS) and the Totalitarian Tiptoe (TT). They can be uncovered by the inquiring mind with a simple question: Who benefits? The answer usually identifies the perpetrators of a given action or happening through the concept of ‘he who most benefits from a crime is the one most likely to have commi ed it’. The Latin ‘Cue bono?’ – Who benefits? – is widely a ributed to the Roman orator and statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero. No wonder it goes back so far when the concept has been relevant to human behaviour since

history was recorded. Problem-Reaction-Solution is the technique used to manipulate us every day by covertly creating a problem (or the illusion of one) and offering the solution to the problem (or the illusion of one). In the first phase you create the problem and blame someone or something else for why it has happened. This may relate to a financial collapse, terrorist a ack, war, global warming or pandemic, anything in fact that will allow you to impose the ‘solution’ to change society in the way you desire at that time. The ‘problem’ doesn’t have to be real. PRS is manipulation of perception and all you need is the population to believe the problem is real. Human-caused global warming and the ‘Covid pandemic’ only have to be perceived to be real for the population to accept the ‘solutions’ of authority. I refer to this technique as NO-Problem-Reaction-Solution. Billions did not meekly accept house arrest from early 2020 because there was a real deadly ‘Covid pandemic’ but because they perceived – believed – that to be the case. The antidote to ProblemReaction-Solution is to ask who benefits from the proposed solution. Invariably it will be anyone who wants to justify more control through deletion of freedom and centralisation of power and decision-making. The two world wars were Problem-Reaction-Solutions that transformed and realigned global society. Both were manipulated into being by the Cult as I have detailed in books since the mid1990s. They dramatically centralised global power, especially World War Two, which led to the United Nations and other global bodies thanks to the overt and covert manipulations of the Rockefeller family and other Cult bloodlines like the Rothschilds. The UN is a stalking horse for full-blown world government that I will come to shortly. The land on which the UN building stands in New York was donated by the Rockefellers and the same Cult family was behind Big Pharma scalpel and drug ‘medicine’ and the creation of the World Health Organization as part of the UN. They have been stalwarts of the eugenics movement and funded Hitler’s race-purity expert’ Ernst Rudin. The human-caused global warming hoax has been orchestrated by the Club of Rome through the UN which is

manufacturing both the ‘problem’ through its Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and imposing the ‘solution’ through its Agenda 21 and Agenda 2030 which demand the total centralisation of global power to ‘save the world’ from a climate hoax the United Nations is itself perpetrating. What a small world the Cult can be seen to be particularly among the inner circles. The bedfellow of Problem-Reaction-Solution is the Totalitarian Tiptoe which became the Totalitarian Sprint in 2020. The technique is fashioned to hide the carefully-coordinated behind the cover of apparently random events. You start the sequence at ‘A’ and you know you are heading for ‘Z’. You don’t want people to know that and each step on the journey is presented as a random happening while all the steps strung together lead in the same direction. The speed may have quickened dramatically in recent times, but you can still see the incremental approach of the Tiptoe in the case of ‘Covid’ as each new imposition takes us deeper into fascism. Tell people they have to do this or that to get back to ‘normal’, then this and this and this. With each new demand adding to the ones that went before the population’s freedom is deleted until it disappears. The spider wraps its web around the flies more comprehensively with each new diktat. I’ll highlight this in more detail when I get to the ‘Covid’ hoax and how it has been pulled off. Another prime example of the Totalitarian Tiptoe is how the Cult-created European Union went from a ‘freetrade zone’ to a centralised bureaucratic dictatorship through the Tiptoe of incremental centralisation of power until nations became mere administrative units for Cult-owned dark suits in Brussels. The antidote to ignorance is knowledge which the Cult seeks vehemently to deny us, but despite the systematic censorship to that end the Renegade Mind can overcome this by vociferously seeking out the facts no ma er the impediments put in the way. There is also a method of thinking and perceiving – knowing – that doesn’t even need names, dates, place-type facts to identify the pa erns that reveal the story. I’ll get to that in the final chapter. All you need to know about the manipulation of human society and to what end is still out there – at the time of writing – in the form of books, videos

and websites for those that really want to breach the walls of programmed perception. To access this knowledge requires the abandonment of the mainstream media as a source of information in the awareness that this is owned and controlled by the Cult and therefore promotes mass perceptions that suit the Cult. Mainstream media lies all day, every day. That is its function and very reason for being. Where it does tell the truth, here and there, is only because the truth and the Cult agenda very occasionally coincide. If you look for fact and insight to the BBC, CNN and virtually all the rest of them you are asking to be conned and perceptually programmed.

Know the outcome and you’ll see the journey Events seem random when you have no idea where the world is being taken. Once you do the random becomes the carefully planned. Know the outcome and you’ll see the journey is a phrase I have been using for a long time to give context to daily happenings that appear unconnected. Does a problem, or illusion of a problem, trigger a proposed ‘solution’ that further drives society in the direction of the outcome? Invariably the answer will be yes and the random – abracadabra – becomes the clearly coordinated. So what is this outcome that unlocks the door to a massively expanded understanding of daily events? I will summarise its major aspects – the fine detail is in my other books – and those new to this information will see that the world they thought they were living in is a very different place. The foundation of the Cult agenda is the incessant centralisation of power and all such centralisation is ultimately in pursuit of Cult control on a global level. I have described for a long time the planned world structure of top-down dictatorship as the Hunger Games Society. The term obviously comes from the movie series which portrayed a world in which a few living in military-protected hi-tech luxury were the overlords of a population condemned to abject poverty in isolated ‘sectors’ that were not allowed to interact. ‘Covid’ lockdowns and travel bans anyone? The ‘Hunger Games’ pyramid of structural control has the inner circle of the Cult at the top with pre y much the entire

population at the bo om under their control through dependency for survival on the Cult. The whole structure is planned to be protected and enforced by a military-police state (Fig 4). Here you have the reason for the global lockdowns of the fake pandemic to coldly destroy independent incomes and livelihoods and make everyone dependent on the ‘state’ (the Cult that controls the ‘states’). I have warned in my books for many years about the plan to introduce a ‘guaranteed income’ – a barely survivable pi ance – designed to impose dependency when employment was destroyed by AI technology and now even more comprehensively at great speed by the ‘Covid’ scam. Once the pandemic was played and lockdown consequences began to delete independent income the authorities began to talk right on cue about the need for a guaranteed income and a ‘Great Reset’. Guaranteed income will be presented as benevolent governments seeking to help a desperate people – desperate as a direct result of actions of the same governments. The truth is that such payments are a trap. You will only get them if you do exactly what the authorities demand including mass vaccination (genetic manipulation). We have seen this theme already in Australia where those dependent on government benefits have them reduced if parents don’t agree to have their children vaccinated according to an insane healthdestroying government-dictated schedule. Calculated economic collapse applies to governments as well as people. The Cult wants rid of countries through the creation of a world state with countries broken up into regions ruled by a world government and super states like the European Union. Countries must be bankrupted, too, to this end and it’s being achieved by the trillions in ‘rescue packages’ and furlough payments, trillions in lost taxation, and money-no-object spending on ‘Covid’ including constant allmedium advertising (programming) which has made the media dependent on government for much of its income. The day of reckoning is coming – as planned – for government spending and given that it has been made possible by printing money and not by production/taxation there is inflation on the way that has the

potential to wipe out monetary value. In that case there will be no need for the Cult to steal your money. It just won’t be worth anything (see the German Weimar Republic before the Nazis took over). Many have been okay with lockdowns while ge ing a percentage of their income from so-called furlough payments without having to work. Those payments are dependent, however, on people having at least a theoretical job with a business considered non-essential and ordered to close. As these business go under because they are closed by lockdown a er lockdown the furlough stops and it will for everyone eventually. Then what? The ‘then what?’ is precisely the idea.

Figure 4: The Hunger Games Society structure I have long warned was planned and now the ‘Covid’ hoax has made it possible. This is the real reason for lockdowns.

Hired hands Between the Hunger Games Cult elite and the dependent population is planned to be a vicious military-police state (a fusion of the two into one force). This has been in the making for a long time with police looking ever more like the military and carrying weapons to match. The pandemic scam has seen this process accelerate so fast as

lockdown house arrest is brutally enforced by carefully recruited fascist minds and gormless system-servers. The police and military are planned to merge into a centrally-directed world army in a global structure headed by a world government which wouldn’t be elected even by the election fixes now in place. The world army is not planned even to be human and instead wars would be fought, primarily against the population, using robot technology controlled by artificial intelligence. I have been warning about this for decades and now militaries around the world are being transformed by this very AI technology. The global regime that I describe is a particular form of fascism known as a technocracy in which decisions are not made by clueless and co-opted politicians but by unelected technocrats – scientists, engineers, technologists and bureaucrats. Cult-owned-and-controlled Silicon Valley giants are examples of technocracy and they already have far more power to direct world events than governments. They are with their censorship selecting governments. I know that some are calling the ‘Great Reset’ a Marxist communist takeover, but fascism and Marxism are different labels for the same tyranny. Tell those who lived in fascist Germany and Stalinist Russia that there was a difference in the way their freedom was deleted and their lives controlled. I could call it a fascist technocracy or a Marxist technocracy and they would be equally accurate. The Hunger Games society with its world government structure would oversee a world army, world central bank and single world cashless currency imposing its will on a microchipped population (Fig 5). Scan its different elements and see how the illusory pandemic is forcing society in this very direction at great speed. Leaders of 23 countries and the World Health Organization (WHO) backed the idea in March, 2021, of a global treaty for ‘international cooperation’ in ‘health emergencies’ and nations should ‘come together as a global community for peaceful cooperation that extends beyond this crisis’. Cut the Orwellian bullshit and this means another step towards global government. The plan includes a cashless digital money system that I first warned about in 1993. Right at the start of ‘Covid’ the deeply corrupt Tedros

Adhanom Ghebreyesus, the crooked and merely gofer ‘head’ of the World Health Organization, said it was possible to catch the ‘virus’ by touching cash and it was be er to use cashless means. The claim was ridiculous nonsense and like the whole ‘Covid’ mind-trick it was nothing to do with ‘health’ and everything to do with pushing every aspect of the Cult agenda. As a result of the Tedros lie the use of cash has plummeted. The Cult script involves a single world digital currency that would eventually be technologically embedded in the body. China is a massive global centre for the Cult and if you watch what is happening there you will know what is planned for everywhere. The Chinese government is developing a digital currency which would allow fines to be deducted immediately via AI for anyone caught on camera breaking its fantastic list of laws and the money is going to be programmable with an expiry date to ensure that no one can accrue wealth except the Cult and its operatives.

Figure 5: The structure of global control the Cult has been working towards for so long and this has been enormously advanced by the ‘Covid’ illusion.

Serfdom is so smart The Cult plan is far wider, extreme, and more comprehensive than even most conspiracy researchers appreciate and I will come to the true depths of deceit and control in the chapters ‘Who controls the

Cult?’ and ‘Escaping Wetiko’. Even the world that we know is crazy enough. We are being deluged with ever more sophisticated and controlling technology under the heading of ‘smart’. We have smart televisions, smart meters, smart cards, smart cars, smart driving, smart roads, smart pills, smart patches, smart watches, smart skin, smart borders, smart pavements, smart streets, smart cities, smart communities, smart environments, smart growth, smart planet ... smart everything around us. Smart technologies and methods of operation are designed to interlock to create a global Smart Grid connecting the entirety of human society including human minds to create a centrally-dictated ‘hive’ mind. ‘Smart cities’ is code for densely-occupied megacities of total surveillance and control through AI. Ever more destructive frequency communication systems like 5G have been rolled out without any official testing for health and psychological effects (colossal). 5G/6G/7G systems are needed to run the Smart Grid and each one becomes more destructive of body and mind. Deleting independent income is crucial to forcing people into these AI-policed prisons by ending private property ownership (except for the Cult elite). The Cult’s Great Reset now openly foresees a global society in which no one will own any possessions and everything will be rented while the Cult would own literally everything under the guise of government and corporations. The aim has been to use the lockdowns to destroy sources of income on a mass scale and when the people are destitute and in unrepayable amounts of debt (problem) Cult assets come forward with the pledge to write-off debt in return for handing over all property and possessions (solution). Everything – literally everything including people – would be connected to the Internet via AI. I was warning years ago about the coming Internet of Things (IoT) in which all devices and technology from your car to your fridge would be plugged into the Internet and controlled by AI. Now we are already there with much more to come. The next stage is the Internet of Everything (IoE) which is planned to include the connection of AI to the human brain and body to replace the human mind with a centrally-controlled AI mind. Instead of perceptions

being manipulated through control of information and censorship those perceptions would come direct from the Cult through AI. What do you think? You think whatever AI decides that you think. In human terms there would be no individual ‘think’ any longer. Too incredible? The ravings of a lunatic? Not at all. Cult-owned crazies in Silicon Valley have been telling us the plan for years without explaining the real motivation and calculated implications. These include Google executive and ‘futurist’ Ray Kurzweil who highlights the year 2030 for when this would be underway. He said: Our thinking ... will be a hybrid of biological and non-biological thinking ... humans will be able to extend their limitations and ‘think in the cloud’ ... We’re going to put gateways to the cloud in our brains ... We’re going to gradually merge and enhance ourselves ... In my view, that’s the nature of being human – we transcend our limitations. As the technology becomes vastly superior to what we are then the small proportion that is still human gets smaller and smaller and smaller until it’s just utterly negligible.

The sales-pitch of Kurzweil and Cult-owned Silicon Valley is that this would make us ‘super-human’ when the real aim is to make us post-human and no longer ‘human’ in the sense that we have come to know. The entire global population would be connected to AI and become the centrally-controlled ‘hive-mind’ of externally-delivered perceptions. The Smart Grid being installed to impose the Cult’s will on the world is being constructed to allow particular locations – even one location – to control the whole global system. From these prime control centres, which absolutely include China and Israel, anything connected to the Internet would be switched on or off and manipulated at will. Energy systems could be cut, communication via the Internet taken down, computer-controlled driverless autonomous vehicles driven off the road, medical devices switched off, the potential is limitless given how much AI and Internet connections now run human society. We have seen nothing yet if we allow this to continue. Autonomous vehicle makers are working with law enforcement to produce cars designed to automatically pull over if they detect a police or emergency vehicle flashing from up to 100 feet away. At a police stop the car would be unlocked and the

window rolled down automatically. Vehicles would only take you where the computer (the state) allowed. The end of petrol vehicles and speed limiters on all new cars in the UK and EU from 2022 are steps leading to electric computerised transport over which ultimately you have no control. The picture is far bigger even than the Cult global network or web and that will become clear when I get to the nature of the ‘spider’. There is a connection between all these happenings and the instigation of DNA-manipulating ‘vaccines’ (which aren’t ‘vaccines’) justified by the ‘Covid’ hoax. That connection is the unfolding plan to transform the human body from a biological to a synthetic biological state and this is why synthetic biology is such a fast-emerging discipline of mainstream science. ‘Covid vaccines’ are infusing self-replicating synthetic genetic material into the cells to cumulatively take us on the Totalitarian Tiptoe from Human 1.0 to the synthetic biological Human 2.0 which will be physically and perceptually a ached to the Smart Grid to one hundred percent control every thought, perception and deed. Humanity needs to wake up and fast. This is the barest explanation of where the ‘outcome’ is planned to go but it’s enough to see the journey happening all around us. Those new to this information will already see ‘Covid’ in a whole new context. I will add much more detail as we go along, but for the minutiae evidence see my mega-works, The Answer, The Trigger and Everything You Need to Know But Have Never Been Told. Now – how does a Renegade Mind see the ‘world’?

CHAPTER TWO Renegade Perception It is one thing to be clever and another to be wise George R.R. Martin

A

simple definition of the difference between a programmed mind and a Renegade Mind would be that one sees only dots while the other connects them to see the picture. Reading reality with accuracy requires the observer to (a) know the planned outcome and (b) realise that everything, but everything, is connected. The entirety of infinite reality is connected – that’s its very nature – and with human society an expression of infinite reality the same must apply. Simple cause and effect is a connection. The effect is triggered by the cause and the effect then becomes the cause of another effect. Nothing happens in isolation because it can’t. Life in whatever reality is simple choice and consequence. We make choices and these lead to consequences. If we don’t like the consequences we can make different choices and get different consequences which lead to other choices and consequences. The choice and the consequence are not only connected they are indivisible. You can’t have one without the other as an old song goes. A few cannot control the world unless those being controlled allow that to happen – cause and effect, choice and consequence. Control – who has it and who doesn’t – is a two-way process, a symbiotic relationship, involving the controller and controlled. ‘They took my freedom away!!’ Well, yes, but you also gave it to them. Humanity is

subjected to mass control because humanity has acquiesced to that control. This is all cause and effect and literally a case of give and take. In the same way world events of every kind are connected and the Cult works incessantly to sell the illusion of the random and coincidental to maintain the essential (to them) perception of dots that hide the picture. Renegade Minds know this and constantly scan the world for pa erns of connection. This is absolutely pivotal in understanding the happenings in the world and without that perspective clarity is impossible. First you know the planned outcome and then you identify the steps on the journey – the day-byday apparently random which, when connected in relation to the outcome, no longer appear as individual events, but as the proverbial chain of events leading in the same direction. I’ll give you some examples:

Political puppet show We are told to believe that politics is ‘adversarial’ in that different parties with different beliefs engage in an endless tussle for power. There may have been some truth in that up to a point – and only a point – but today divisions between ‘different’ parties are rhetorical not ideological. Even the rhetorical is fusing into one-speak as the parties eject any remaining free thinkers while others succumb to the ever-gathering intimidation of anyone with the ‘wrong’ opinion. The Cult is not a new phenomenon and can be traced back thousands of years as my books have documented. Its intergenerational initiates have been manipulating events with increasing effect the more that global power has been centralised. In ancient times the Cult secured control through the system of monarchy in which ‘special’ bloodlines (of which more later) demanded the right to rule as kings and queens simply by birthright and by vanquishing others who claimed the same birthright. There came a time, however, when people had matured enough to see the unfairness of such tyranny and demanded a say in who governed them. Note the word – governed them. Not served them – governed them, hence government defined as ‘the political direction and control exercised over the

actions of the members, citizens, or inhabitants of communities, societies, and states; direction of the affairs of a state, community, etc.’ Governments exercise control over rather than serve just like the monarchies before them. Bizarrely there are still countries like the United Kingdom which are ruled by a monarch and a government that officially answers to the monarch. The UK head of state and that of Commonwealth countries such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand is ‘selected’ by who in a single family had unprotected sex with whom and in what order. Pinch me it can’t be true. Ouch! Shit, it is. The demise of monarchies in most countries offered a potential vacuum in which some form of free and fair society could arise and the Cult had that base covered. Monarchies had served its interests but they couldn’t continue in the face of such widespread opposition and, anyway, replacing a ‘royal’ dictatorship that people could see with a dictatorship ‘of the people’ hiding behind the concept of ‘democracy’ presented far greater manipulative possibilities and ways of hiding coordinated tyranny behind the illusion of ‘freedom’. Democracy is quite wrongly defined as government selected by the population. This is not the case at all. It is government selected by some of the population (and then only in theory). This ‘some’ doesn’t even have to be the majority as we have seen so o en in firstpast-the-post elections in which the so-called majority party wins fewer votes than the ‘losing’ parties combined. Democracy can give total power to a party in government from a minority of the votes cast. It’s a sleight of hand to sell tyranny as freedom. Seventy-four million Trump-supporting Americans didn’t vote for the ‘Democratic’ Party of Joe Biden in the distinctly dodgy election in 2020 and yet far from acknowledging the wishes and feelings of that great percentage of American society the Cult-owned Biden government set out from day one to destroy them and their right to a voice and opinion. Empty shell Biden and his Cult handlers said they were doing this to ‘protect democracy’. Such is the level of lunacy and sickness to which politics has descended. Connect the dots and relate them to the desired outcome – a world government run by self-appointed technocrats and no longer even elected

politicians. While operating through its political agents in government the Cult is at the same time encouraging public distain for politicians by pu ing idiots and incompetents in theoretical power on the road to deleting them. The idea is to instil a public reaction that says of the technocrats: ‘Well, they couldn’t do any worse than the pathetic politicians.’ It’s all about controlling perception and Renegade Minds can see through that while programmed minds cannot when they are ignorant of both the planned outcome and the manipulation techniques employed to secure that end. This knowledge can be learned, however, and fast if people choose to get informed. Politics may at first sight appear very difficult to control from a central point. I mean look at the ‘different’ parties and how would you be able to oversee them all and their constituent parts? In truth, it’s very straightforward because of their structure. We are back to the pyramid of imposition and acquiescence. Organisations are structured in the same way as the system as a whole. Political parties are not open forums of free expression. They are hierarchies. I was a national spokesman for the British Green Party which claimed to be a different kind of politics in which influence and power was devolved; but I can tell you from direct experience – and it’s far worse now – that Green parties are run as hierarchies like all the others however much they may try to hide that fact or kid themselves that it’s not true. A very few at the top of all political parties are directing policy and personnel. They decide if you are elevated in the party or serve as a government minister and to do that you have to be a yes man or woman. Look at all the maverick political thinkers who never ascended the greasy pole. If you want to progress within the party or reach ‘high-office’ you need to fall into line and conform. Exceptions to this are rare indeed. Should you want to run for parliament or Congress you have to persuade the local or state level of the party to select you and for that you need to play the game as dictated by the hierarchy. If you secure election and wish to progress within the greater structure you need to go on conforming to what is acceptable to those running the hierarchy

from the peak of the pyramid. Political parties are perceptual gulags and the very fact that there are party ‘Whips’ appointed to ‘whip’ politicians into voting the way the hierarchy demands exposes the ridiculous idea that politicians are elected to serve the people they are supposed to represent. Cult operatives and manipulation has long seized control of major parties that have any chance of forming a government and at least most of those that haven’t. A new party forms and the Cult goes to work to infiltrate and direct. This has reached such a level today that you see video compilations of ‘leaders’ of all parties whether Democrats, Republicans, Conservative, Labour and Green parroting the same Cult mantra of ‘Build Back Be er’ and the ‘Great Reset’ which are straight off the Cult song-sheet to describe the transformation of global society in response to the Cult-instigated hoaxes of the ‘Covid pandemic’ and human-caused ‘climate change’. To see Caroline Lucas, the Green Party MP that I knew when I was in the party in the 1980s, speaking in support of plans proposed by Cult operative Klaus Schwab representing the billionaire global elite is a real head-shaker.

Many parties – one master The party system is another mind-trick and was instigated to change the nature of the dictatorship by swapping ‘royalty’ for dark suits that people believed – though now ever less so – represented their interests. Understanding this trick is to realise that a single force (the Cult) controls all parties either directly in terms of the major ones or through manipulation of perception and ideology with others. You don’t need to manipulate Green parties to demand your transformation of society in the name of ‘climate change’ when they are obsessed with the lie that this is essential to ‘save the planet’. You just give them a platform and away they go serving your interests while believing they are being environmentally virtuous. America’s political structure is a perfect blueprint for how the two or multiparty system is really a one-party state. The Republican Party is controlled from one step back in the shadows by a group made up of billionaires and their gofers known as neoconservatives or Neocons.

I have exposed them in fine detail in my books and they were the driving force behind the policies of the imbecilic presidency of Boy George Bush which included 9/11 (see The Trigger for a comprehensive demolition of the official story), the subsequent ‘war on terror’ (war of terror) and the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq. The la er was a No-Problem-Reaction-Solution based on claims by Cult operatives, including Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair, about Saddam Hussein’s ‘weapons of mass destruction’ which did not exist as war criminals Bush and Blair well knew.

Figure 6: Different front people, different parties – same control system.

The Democratic Party has its own ‘Neocon’ group controlling from the background which I call the ‘Democons’ and here’s the penny-drop – the Neocons and Democons answer to the same masters one step further back into the shadows (Fig 6). At that level of the Cult the Republican and Democrat parties are controlled by the same people and no ma er which is in power the Cult is in power. This is how it works in almost every country and certainly in Britain with Conservative, Labour, Liberal Democrat and Green parties now all on the same page whatever the rhetoric may be in their feeble a empts to appear different. Neocons operated at the time of Bush through a think tank called The Project for the New American Century which in September, 2000, published a document entitled Rebuilding America’s Defenses: Strategies, Forces, and Resources

For a New Century demanding that America fight ‘multiple, simultaneous major theatre wars’ as a ‘core mission’ to force regimechange in countries including Iraq, Libya and Syria. Neocons arranged for Bush (‘Republican’) and Blair (‘Labour Party’) to frontup the invasion of Iraq and when they departed the Democons orchestrated the targeting of Libya and Syria through Barack Obama (‘Democrat’) and British Prime Minister David Cameron (‘Conservative Party’). We have ‘different’ parties and ‘different’ people, but the same unfolding script. The more the Cult has seized the reigns of parties and personnel the more their policies have transparently pursued the same agenda to the point where the fascist ‘Covid’ impositions of the Conservative junta of Jackboot Johnson in Britain were opposed by the Labour Party because they were not fascist enough. The Labour Party is likened to the US Democrats while the Conservative Party is akin to a British version of the Republicans and on both sides of the Atlantic they all speak the same language and support the direction demanded by the Cult although some more enthusiastically than others. It’s a similar story in country a er country because it’s all centrally controlled. Oh, but what about Trump? I’ll come to him shortly. Political ‘choice’ in the ‘party’ system goes like this: You vote for Party A and they get into government. You don’t like what they do so next time you vote for Party B and they get into government. You don’t like what they do when it’s pre y much the same as Party A and why wouldn’t that be with both controlled by the same force? Given that only two, sometimes three, parties have any chance of forming a government to get rid of Party B that you don’t like you have to vote again for Party A which … you don’t like. This, ladies and gentlemen, is what they call ‘democracy’ which we are told – wrongly – is a term interchangeable with ‘freedom’.

The cult of cults At this point I need to introduce a major expression of the Global Cult known as Sabbatian-Frankism. Sabbatian is also spelt as Sabbatean. I will summarise here. I have published major exposés

and detailed background in other works. Sabbatian-Frankism combines the names of two frauds posing as ‘Jewish’ men, Sabbatai Zevi (1626-1676), a rabbi, black magician and occultist who proclaimed he was the Jewish messiah; and Jacob Frank (1726-1791), the Polish ‘Jew’, black magician and occultist who said he was the reincarnation of ‘messiah’ Zevi and biblical patriarch Jacob. They worked across two centuries to establish the Sabbatian-Frankist cult that plays a major, indeed central, role in the manipulation of human society by the Global Cult which has its origins much further back in history than Sabbatai Zevi. I should emphasise two points here in response to the shrill voices that will scream ‘anti-Semitism’: (1) Sabbatian-Frankists are NOT Jewish and only pose as such to hide their cult behind a Jewish façade; and (2) my information about this cult has come from Jewish sources who have long realised that their society and community has been infiltrated and taken over by interloper Sabbatian-Frankists. Infiltration has been the foundation technique of Sabbatian-Frankism from its official origin in the 17th century. Zevi’s Sabbatian sect a racted a massive following described as the biggest messianic movement in Jewish history, spreading as far as Africa and Asia, and he promised a return for the Jews to the ‘Promised Land’ of Israel. Sabbatianism was not Judaism but an inversion of everything that mainstream Judaism stood for. So much so that this sinister cult would have a feast day when Judaism had a fast day and whatever was forbidden in Judaism the Sabbatians were encouraged and even commanded to do. This included incest and what would be today called Satanism. Members were forbidden to marry outside the sect and there was a system of keeping their children ignorant of what they were part of until they were old enough to be trusted not to unknowingly reveal anything to outsiders. The same system is employed to this day by the Global Cult in general which Sabbatian-Frankism has enormously influenced and now largely controls. Zevi and his Sabbatians suffered a setback with the intervention by the Sultan of the Islamic O oman Empire in the Middle East and what is now the Republic of Turkey where Zevi was located. The

Sultan gave him the choice of proving his ‘divinity’, converting to Islam or facing torture and death. Funnily enough Zevi chose to convert or at least appear to. Some of his supporters were disillusioned and dri ed away, but many did not with 300 families also converting – only in theory – to Islam. They continued behind this Islamic smokescreen to follow the goals, rules and rituals of Sabbatianism and became known as ‘crypto-Jews’ or the ‘Dönmeh’ which means ‘to turn’. This is rather ironic because they didn’t ‘turn’ and instead hid behind a fake Islamic persona. The process of appearing to be one thing while being very much another would become the calling card of Sabbatianism especially a er Zevi’s death and the arrival of the Satanist Jacob Frank in the 18th century when the cult became Sabbatian-Frankism and plumbed still new depths of depravity and infiltration which included – still includes – human sacrifice and sex with children. Wherever Sabbatians go paedophilia and Satanism follow and is it really a surprise that Hollywood is so infested with child abuse and Satanism when it was established by Sabbatian-Frankists and is still controlled by them? Hollywood has been one of the prime vehicles for global perceptual programming and manipulation. How many believe the version of ‘history’ portrayed in movies when it is a travesty and inversion (again) of the truth? Rabbi Marvin Antelman describes Frankism in his book, To Eliminate the Opiate, as ‘a movement of complete evil’ while Jewish professor Gershom Scholem said of Frank in The Messianic Idea in Judaism: ‘In all his actions [he was] a truly corrupt and degenerate individual ... one of the most frightening phenomena in the whole of Jewish history.’ Frank was excommunicated by traditional rabbis, as was Zevi, but Frank was undeterred and enjoyed vital support from the House of Rothschild, the infamous banking dynasty whose inner-core are Sabbatian-Frankists and not Jews. Infiltration of the Roman Church and Vatican was instigated by Frank with many Dönmeh ‘turning’ again to convert to Roman Catholicism with a view to hijacking the reins of power. This was the ever-repeating modus operandi and continues to be so. Pose as an advocate of the religion, culture or country that you want to control and then

manipulate your people into the positions of authority and influence largely as advisers, administrators and Svengalis for those that appear to be in power. They did this with Judaism, Christianity (Christian Zionism is part of this), Islam and other religions and nations until Sabbatian-Frankism spanned the world as it does today.

Sabbatian Saudis and the terror network One expression of the Sabbatian-Frankist Dönmeh within Islam is the ruling family of Saudi Arabia, the House of Saud, through which came the vile distortion of Islam known as Wahhabism. This is the violent creed followed by terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS or Islamic State. Wahhabism is the hand-chopping, head-chopping ‘religion’ of Saudi Arabia which is used to keep the people in a constant state of fear so the interloper House of Saud can continue to rule. Al-Qaeda and Islamic State were lavishly funded by the House of Saud while being created and directed by the Sabbatian-Frankist network in the United States that operates through the Pentagon, CIA and the government in general of whichever ‘party’. The front man for the establishment of Wahhabism in the middle of the 18th century was a Sabbatian-Frankist ‘crypto-Jew’ posing as Islamic called Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. His daughter would marry the son of Muhammad bin Saud who established the first Saudi state before his death in 1765 with support from the British Empire. Bin Saud’s successors would establish modern Saudi Arabia in league with the British and Americans in 1932 which allowed them to seize control of Islam’s major shrines in Mecca and Medina. They have dictated the direction of Sunni Islam ever since while Iran is the major centre of the Shiite version and here we have the source of at least the public conflict between them. The Sabbatian network has used its Wahhabi extremists to carry out Problem-Reaction-Solution terrorist a acks in the name of ‘Al-Qaeda’ and ‘Islamic State’ to justify a devastating ‘war on terror’, ever-increasing surveillance of the population and to terrify people into compliance. Another insight of the Renegade Mind is the streetwise understanding that

just because a country, location or people are a acked doesn’t mean that those apparently representing that country, location or people are not behind the a ackers. O en they are orchestrating the a acks because of the societal changes that can be then justified in the name of ‘saving the population from terrorists’. I show in great detail in The Trigger how Sabbatian-Frankists were the real perpetrators of 9/11 and not ‘19 Arab hijackers’ who were blamed for what happened. Observe what was justified in the name of 9/11 alone in terms of Middle East invasions, mass surveillance and control that fulfilled the demands of the Project for the New American Century document published by the Sabbatian Neocons. What appear to be enemies are on the deep inside players on the same Sabbatian team. Israel and Arab ‘royal’ dictatorships are all ruled by Sabbatians and the recent peace agreements between Israel and Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and others are only making formal what has always been the case behind the scenes. Palestinians who have been subjected to grotesque tyranny since Israel was bombed and terrorised into existence in 1948 have never stood a chance. Sabbatian-Frankists have controlled Israel (so the constant theme of violence and war which Sabbatians love) and they have controlled the Arab countries that Palestinians have looked to for real support that never comes. ‘Royal families’ of the Arab world in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, UAE, etc., are all Sabbatians with allegiance to the aims of the cult and not what is best for their Arabic populations. They have stolen the oil and financial resources from their people by false claims to be ‘royal dynasties’ with a genetic right to rule and by employing vicious militaries to impose their will.

Satanic ‘illumination’ The Satanist Jacob Frank formed an alliance in 1773 with two other Sabbatians, Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744-1812), founder of the Rothschild banking dynasty, and Jesuit-educated fraudulent Jew, Adam Weishaupt, and this led to the formation of the Bavarian Illuminati, firstly under another name, in 1776. The Illuminati would

be the manipulating force behind the French Revolution (1789-1799) and was also involved in the American Revolution (1775-1783) before and a er the Illuminati’s official creation. Weishaupt would later become (in public) a Protestant Christian in archetypal Sabbatian style. I read that his name can be decoded as Adam-Weishaupt or ‘the first man to lead those who know’. He wasn’t a leader in the sense that he was a subordinate, but he did lead those below him in a crusade of transforming human society that still continues today. The theme was confirmed as early as 1785 when a horseman courier called Lanz was reported to be struck by lighting and extensive Illuminati documents were found in his saddlebags. They made the link to Weishaupt and detailed the plan for world takeover. Current events with ‘Covid’ fascism have been in the making for a very long time. Jacob Frank was jailed for 13 years by the Catholic Inquisition a er his arrest in 1760 and on his release he headed for Frankfurt, Germany, home city and headquarters of the House of Rothschild where the alliance was struck with Mayer Amschel Rothschild and Weishaupt. Rothschild arranged for Frank to be given the title of Baron and he became a wealthy nobleman with a big following of Jews in Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and other European countries. Most of them would have believed he was on their side. The name ‘Illuminati’ came from the Zohar which is a body of works in the Jewish mystical ‘bible’ called the Kabbalah. ‘Zohar’ is the foundation of Sabbatian-Frankist belief and in Hebrew ‘Zohar’ means ‘splendour’, ‘radiance’, ‘illuminated’, and so we have ‘Illuminati’. They claim to be the ‘Illuminated Ones’ from their knowledge systematically hidden from the human population and passed on through generations of carefully-chosen initiates in the global secret society network or Cult. Hidden knowledge includes an awareness of the Cult agenda for the world and the nature of our collective reality that I will explore later. Cult ‘illumination’ is symbolised by the torch held by the Statue of Liberty which was gi ed to New York by French Freemasons in Paris who knew exactly what it represents. ‘Liberty’ symbolises the goddess worshipped in

Babylon as Queen Semiramis or Ishtar. The significance of this will become clear. Notice again the ubiquitous theme of inversion with the Statue of ‘Liberty’ really symbolising mass control (Fig 7). A mirror-image statute stands on an island in the River Seine in Paris from where New York Liberty originated (Fig 8). A large replica of the Liberty flame stands on top of the Pont de l’Alma tunnel in Paris where Princess Diana died in a Cult ritual described in The Biggest Secret. Lucifer ‘the light bringer’ is related to all this (and much more as we’ll see) and ‘Lucifer’ is a central figure in Sabbatian-Frankism and its associated Satanism. Sabbatians reject the Jewish Torah, or Pentateuch, the ‘five books of Moses’ in the Old Testament known as Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy which are claimed by Judaism and Christianity to have been dictated by ‘God’ to Moses on Mount Sinai. Sabbatians say these do not apply to them and they seek to replace them with the Zohar to absorb Judaism and its followers into their inversion which is an expression of a much greater global inversion. They want to delete all religions and force humanity to worship a one-world religion – Sabbatian Satanism that also includes worship of the Earth goddess. Satanic themes are being more and more introduced into mainstream society and while Christianity is currently the foremost target for destruction the others are planned to follow.

Figure 7: The Cult goddess of Babylon disguised as the Statue of Liberty holding the flame of Lucifer the ‘light bringer’.

Figure 8: Liberty’s mirror image in Paris where the New York version originated.

Marx brothers Rabbi Marvin Antelman connects the Illuminati to the Jacobins in To Eliminate the Opiate and Jacobins were the force behind the French Revolution. He links both to the Bund der Gerechten, or League of the Just, which was the network that inflicted communism/Marxism on the world. Antelman wrote: The original inner circle of the Bund der Gerechten consisted of born Catholics, Protestants and Jews [Sabbatian-Frankist infiltrators], and those representatives of respective subdivisions formulated schemes for the ultimate destruction of their faiths. The heretical Catholics laid plans which they felt would take a century or more for the ultimate destruction of the church; the apostate Jews for the ultimate destruction of the Jewish religion.

Sabbatian-created communism connects into this anti-religion agenda in that communism does not allow for the free practice of religion. The Sabbatian ‘Bund’ became the International Communist Party and Communist League and in 1848 ‘Marxism’ was born with the Communist Manifesto of Sabbatian assets Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It is absolutely no coincidence that Marxism, just a different name for fascist and other centrally-controlled tyrannies, is being imposed worldwide as a result of the ‘Covid’ hoax and nor that Marxist/fascist China was the place where the hoax originated. The reason for this will become very clear in the chapter ‘Covid: The calculated catastrophe’. The so-called ‘Woke’ mentality has hijacked

traditional beliefs of the political le and replaced them with farright make-believe ‘social justice’ be er known as Marxism. Woke will, however, be swallowed by its own perceived ‘revolution’ which is really the work of billionaires and billionaire corporations feigning being ‘Woke’. Marxism is being touted by Wokers as a replacement for ‘capitalism’ when we don’t have ‘capitalism’. We have cartelism in which the market is stitched up by the very Cult billionaires and corporations bankrolling Woke. Billionaires love Marxism which keeps the people in servitude while they control from the top. Terminally naïve Wokers think they are ‘changing the world’ when it’s the Cult that is doing the changing and when they have played their vital part and become surplus to requirements they, too, will be targeted. The Illuminati-Jacobins were behind the period known as ‘The Terror’ in the French Revolution in 1793 and 1794 when Jacobin Maximillian de Robespierre and his Orwellian ‘Commi ee of Public Safety’ killed 17,000 ‘enemies of the Revolution’ who had once been ‘friends of the Revolution’. Karl Marx (1818-1883), whose Sabbatian creed of Marxism has cost the lives of at least 100 million people, is a hero once again to Wokers who have been systematically kept ignorant of real history by their ‘education’ programming. As a result they now promote a Sabbatian ‘Marxist’ abomination destined at some point to consume them. Rabbi Antelman, who spent decades researching the Sabbatian plot, said of the League of the Just and Karl Marx: Contrary to popular opinion Karl Marx did not originate the Communist Manifesto. He was paid for his services by the League of the Just, which was known in its country of origin, Germany, as the Bund der Geaechteten.

Antelman said the text a ributed to Marx was the work of other people and Marx ‘was only repeating what others already said’. Marx was ‘a hired hack – lackey of the wealthy Illuminists’. Marx famously said that religion was the ‘opium of the people’ (part of the Sabbatian plan to demonise religion) and Antelman called his books, To Eliminate the Opiate. Marx was born Jewish, but his family converted to Christianity (Sabbatian modus operandi) and he

a acked Jews, not least in his book, A World Without Jews. In doing so he supported the Sabbatian plan to destroy traditional Jewishness and Judaism which we are clearly seeing today with the vindictive targeting of orthodox Jews by the Sabbatian government of Israel over ‘Covid’ laws. I don’t follow any religion and it has done much damage to the world over centuries and acted as a perceptual straightjacket. Renegade Minds, however, are always asking why something is being done. It doesn’t ma er if they agree or disagree with what is happening – why is it happening is the question. The ‘why?’ can be answered with regard to religion in that religions create interacting communities of believers when the Cult wants to dismantle all discourse, unity and interaction (see ‘Covid’ lockdowns) and the ultimate goal is to delete all religions for a oneworld religion of Cult Satanism worshipping their ‘god’ of which more later. We see the same ‘why?’ with gun control in America. I don’t have guns and don’t want them, but why is the Cult seeking to disarm the population at the same time that law enforcement agencies are armed to their molars and why has every tyrant in history sought to disarm people before launching the final takeover? They include Hitler, Stalin, Pol Pot and Mao who followed confiscation with violent seizing of power. You know it’s a Cult agenda by the people who immediately race to the microphones to exploit dead people in multiple shootings. Ultra-Zionist Cult lackey Senator Chuck Schumer was straight on the case a er ten people were killed in Boulder, Colorado in March, 2121. Simple rule … if Schumer wants it the Cult wants it and the same with his ultraZionist mate the wild-eyed Senator Adam Schiff. At the same time they were calling for the disarmament of Americans, many of whom live a long way from a police response, Schumer, Schiff and the rest of these pampered clowns were si ing on Capitol Hill behind a razor-wired security fence protected by thousands of armed troops in addition to their own armed bodyguards. Mom and pop in an isolated home? They’re just potential mass shooters.

Zion Mainframe

Sabbatian-Frankists and most importantly the Rothschilds were behind the creation of ‘Zionism’, a political movement that demanded a Jewish homeland in Israel as promised by Sabbatai Zevi. The very symbol of Israel comes from the German meaning of the name Rothschild. Dynasty founder Mayer Amschel Rothschild changed the family name from Bauer to Rothschild, or ‘Red-Shield’ in German, in deference to the six-pointed ‘Star of David’ hexagram displayed on the family’s home in Frankfurt. The symbol later appeared on the flag of Israel a er the Rothschilds were centrally involved in its creation. Hexagrams are not a uniquely Jewish symbol and are widely used in occult (‘hidden’) networks o en as a symbol for Saturn (see my other books for why). Neither are Zionism and Jewishness interchangeable. Zionism is a political movement and philosophy and not a ‘race’ or a people. Many Jews oppose Zionism and many non-Jews, including US President Joe Biden, call themselves Zionists as does Israel-centric Donald Trump. America’s support for the Israel government is pre y much a gimme with ultra-Zionist billionaires and corporations providing fantastic and dominant funding for both political parties. Former Congresswoman Cynthia McKinney has told how she was approached immediately she ran for office to ‘sign the pledge’ to Israel and confirm that she would always vote in that country’s best interests. All American politicians are approached in this way. Anyone who refuses will get no support or funding from the enormous and all-powerful Zionist lobby that includes organisations like mega-lobby group AIPAC, the American Israel Public Affairs Commi ee. Trump’s biggest funder was ultra-Zionist casino and media billionaire Sheldon Adelson while major funders of the Democratic Party include ultra-Zionist George Soros and ultraZionist financial and media mogul, Haim Saban. Some may reel back at the suggestion that Soros is an Israel-firster (Sabbatian-controlled Israel-firster), but Renegade Minds watch the actions not the words and everywhere Soros donates his billions the Sabbatian agenda benefits. In the spirit of Sabbatian inversion Soros pledged $1 billion for a new university network to promote ‘liberal values and tackle intolerance’. He made the announcement during his annual speech

at the Cult-owned World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, in January, 2020, a er his ‘harsh criticism’ of ‘authoritarian rulers’ around the world. You can only laugh at such brazen mendacity. How he doesn’t laugh is the mystery. Translated from the Orwellian ‘liberal values and tackle intolerance’ means teaching non-white people to hate white people and for white people to loathe themselves for being born white. The reason for that will become clear.

The ‘Anti-Semitism’ fraud Zionists support the Jewish homeland in the land of Palestine which has been the Sabbatian-Rothschild goal for so long, but not for the benefit of Jews. Sabbatians and their global Anti-Semitism Industry have skewed public and political opinion to equate opposing the violent extremes of Zionism to be a blanket a ack and condemnation of all Jewish people. Sabbatians and their global Anti-Semitism Industry have skewed public and political opinion to equate opposing the violent extremes of Zionism to be a blanket a ack and condemnation of all Jewish people. This is nothing more than a Sabbatian protection racket to stop legitimate investigation and exposure of their agendas and activities. The official definition of ‘anti-Semitism’ has more recently been expanded to include criticism of Zionism – a political movement – and this was done to further stop exposure of Sabbatian infiltrators who created Zionism as we know it today in the 19th century. Renegade Minds will talk about these subjects when they know the shit that will come their way. People must decide if they want to know the truth or just cower in the corner in fear of what others will say. Sabbatians have been trying to label me as ‘anti-Semitic’ since the 1990s as I have uncovered more and more about their background and agendas. Useless, gutless, fraudulent ‘journalists’ then just repeat the smears without question and on the day I was writing this section a pair of unquestioning repeaters called Ben Quinn and Archie Bland (how appropriate) outright called me an ‘anti-Semite’ in the establishment propaganda sheet, the London Guardian, with no supporting evidence. The

Sabbatian Anti-Semitism Industry said so and who are they to question that? They wouldn’t dare. Ironically ‘Semitic’ refers to a group of languages in the Middle East that are almost entirely Arabic. ‘Anti-Semitism’ becomes ‘anti-Arab’ which if the consequences of this misunderstanding were not so grave would be hilarious. Don’t bother telling Quinn and Bland. I don’t want to confuse them, bless ‘em. One reason I am dubbed ‘anti-Semitic’ is that I wrote in the 1990s that Jewish operatives (Sabbatians) were heavily involved in the Russian Revolution when Sabbatians overthrew the Romanov dynasty. This apparently made me ‘antiSemitic’. Oh, really? Here is a section from The Trigger: British journalist Robert Wilton confirmed these themes in his 1920 book The Last Days of the Romanovs when he studied official documents from the Russian government to identify the members of the Bolshevik ruling elite between 1917 and 1919. The Central Committee included 41 Jews among 62 members; the Council of the People’s Commissars had 17 Jews out of 22 members; and 458 of the 556 most important Bolshevik positions between 1918 and 1919 were occupied by Jewish people. Only 17 were Russian. Then there were the 23 Jews among the 36 members of the vicious Cheka Soviet secret police established in 1917 who would soon appear all across the country. Professor Robert Service of Oxford University, an expert on 20th century Russian history, found evidence that [‘Jewish’] Leon Trotsky had sought to make sure that Jews were enrolled in the Red Army and were disproportionately represented in the Soviet civil bureaucracy that included the Cheka which performed mass arrests, imprisonment and executions of ‘enemies of the people’. A US State Department Decimal File (861.00/5339) dated November 13th, 1918, names [Rothschild banking agent in America] Jacob Schiff and a list of ultra-Zionists as funders of the Russian Revolution leading to claims of a ‘Jewish plot’, but the key point missed by all is they were not ‘Jews’ – they were Sabbatian-Frankists.

Britain’s Winston Churchill made the same error by mistake or otherwise. He wrote in a 1920 edition of the Illustrated Sunday Herald that those behind the Russian revolution were part of a ‘worldwide conspiracy for the overthrow of civilisation and for the reconstitution of society on the basis of arrested development, of envious malevolence, and impossible equality’ (see ‘Woke’ today because that has been created by the same network). Churchill said there was no need to exaggerate the part played in the creation of Bolshevism and in the actual bringing about of the Russian

Revolution ‘by these international and for the most part atheistical Jews’ [‘atheistical Jews’ = Sabbatians]. Churchill said it is certainly a very great one and probably outweighs all others: ‘With the notable exception of Lenin, the majority of the leading figures are Jews.’ He went on to describe, knowingly or not, the Sabbatian modus operandi of placing puppet leaders nominally in power while they control from the background: Moreover, the principal inspiration and driving power comes from the Jewish leaders. Thus Tchitcherin, a pure Russian, is eclipsed by his nominal subordinate, Litvinoff, and the influence of Russians like Bukharin or Lunacharski cannot be compared with the power of Trotsky, or of Zinovieff, the Dictator of the Red Citadel (Petrograd), or of Krassin or Radek – all Jews. In the Soviet institutions the predominance of Jews is even more astonishing. And the prominent, if not indeed the principal, part in the system of terrorism applied by the Extraordinary Commissions for Combatting Counter-Revolution has been taken by Jews, and in some notable cases by Jewesses.

What I said about seriously disproportionate involvement in the Russian Revolution by Jewish ‘revolutionaries’ (Sabbatians) is provable fact, but truth is no defence against the Sabbatian AntiSemitism Industry, its repeater parrots like Quinn and Bland, and the now breathtaking network of so-called ‘Woke’ ‘anti-hate’ groups with interlocking leaderships and funding which have the role of discrediting and silencing anyone who gets too close to exposing the Sabbatians. We have seen ‘truth is no defence’ confirmed in legal judgements with the Saskatchewan Human Rights Commission in Canada decreeing this: ‘Truthful statements can be presented in a manner that would meet the definition of hate speech, and not all truthful statements must be free from restriction.’ Most ‘anti-hate’ activists, who are themselves consumed by hatred, are too stupid and ignorant of the world to know how they are being used. They are far too far up their own virtue-signalling arses and it’s far too dark for them to see anything.

The ‘revolution’ game The background and methods of the ‘Russian’ Revolution are straight from the Sabbatian playbook seen in the French Revolution

and endless others around the world that appear to start as a revolution of the people against tyrannical rule and end up with a regime change to more tyrannical rule overtly or covertly. Wars, terror a acks and regime overthrows follow the Sabbatian cult through history with its agents creating them as Problem-ReactionSolutions to remove opposition on the road to world domination. Sabbatian dots connect the Rothschilds with the Illuminati, Jacobins of the French Revolution, the ‘Bund’ or League of the Just, the International Communist Party, Communist League and the Communist Manifesto of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that would lead to the Rothschild-funded Russian Revolution. The sequence comes under the heading of ‘creative destruction’ when you advance to your global goal by continually destroying the status quo to install a new status quo which you then also destroy. The two world wars come to mind. With each new status quo you move closer to your planned outcome. Wars and mass murder are to Sabbatians a collective blood sacrifice ritual. They are obsessed with death for many reasons and one is that death is an inversion of life. Satanists and Sabbatians are obsessed with death and o en target churches and churchyards for their rituals. Inversion-obsessed Sabbatians explain the use of inverted symbolism including the inverted pentagram and inverted cross. The inversion of the cross has been related to targeting Christianity, but the cross was a religious symbol long before Christianity and its inversion is a statement about the Sabbatian mentality and goals more than any single religion. Sabbatians operating in Germany were behind the rise of the occult-obsessed Nazis and the subsequent Jewish exodus from Germany and Europe to Palestine and the United States a er World War Two. The Rothschild dynasty was at the forefront of this both as political manipulators and by funding the operation. Why would Sabbatians help to orchestrate the horrors inflicted on Jews by the Nazis and by Stalin a er they organised the Russian Revolution? Sabbatians hate Jews and their religion, that’s why. They pose as Jews and secure positions of control within Jewish society and play the ‘anti-Semitism’ card to protect themselves from exposure

through a global network of organisations answering to the Sabbatian-created-and-controlled globe-spanning intelligence network that involves a stunning web of military-intelligence operatives and operations for a tiny country of just nine million. Among them are Jewish assets who are not Sabbatians but have been convinced by them that what they are doing is for the good of Israel and the Jewish community to protect them from what they have been programmed since childhood to believe is a Jew-hating hostile world. The Jewish community is just a highly convenient cover to hide the true nature of Sabbatians. Anyone ge ing close to exposing their game is accused by Sabbatian place-people and gofers of ‘antiSemitism’ and claiming that all Jews are part of a plot to take over the world. I am not saying that. I am saying that Sabbatians – the real Jew-haters – have infiltrated the Jewish community to use them both as a cover and an ‘anti-Semitic’ defence against exposure. Thus we have the Anti-Semitism Industry targeted researchers in this way and most Jewish people think this is justified and genuine. They don’t know that their ‘Jewish’ leaders and institutions of state, intelligence and military are not controlled by Jews at all, but cultists and stooges of Sabbatian-Frankism. I once added my name to a proJewish freedom petition online and the next time I looked my name was gone and text had been added to the petition blurb to a ack me as an ‘anti-Semite’ such is the scale of perceptual programming.

Moving on America I tell the story in The Trigger and a chapter called ‘Atlantic Crossing’ how particularly a er Israel was established the Sabbatians moved in on the United States and eventually grasped control of government administration, the political system via both Democrats and Republicans, the intelligence community like the CIA and National Security Agency (NSA), the Pentagon and mass media. Through this seriously compartmentalised network Sabbatians and their operatives in Mossad, Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) and US agencies pulled off 9/11 and blamed it on 19 ‘Al-Qaeda hijackers’ dominated by men from, or connected to, Sabbatian-ruled Saudi

Arabia. The ‘19’ were not even on the planes let alone flew those big passenger jets into buildings while being largely incompetent at piloting one-engine light aircra . ‘Hijacker’ Hani Hanjour who is said to have flown American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon with a turn and manoeuvre most professional pilots said they would have struggled to do was banned from renting a small plane by instructors at the Freeway Airport in Bowie, Maryland, just six weeks earlier on the grounds that he was an incompetent pilot. The Jewish population of the world is just 0.2 percent with even that almost entirely concentrated in Israel (75 percent Jewish) and the United States (around two percent). This two percent and globally 0.2 percent refers to Jewish people and not Sabbatian interlopers who are a fraction of that fraction. What a sobering thought when you think of the fantastic influence on world affairs of tiny Israel and that the Project for the New America Century (PNAC) which laid out the blueprint in September, 2000, for America’s war on terror and regime change wars in Iraq, Libya and Syria was founded and dominated by Sabbatians known as ‘Neocons’. The document conceded that this plan would not be supported politically or publicly without a major a ack on American soil and a Problem-Reaction-Solution excuse to send troops to war across the Middle East. Sabbatian Neocons said: ... [The] process of transformation ... [war and regime change] ... is likely to be a long one, absent some catastrophic and catalysing event – like a new Pearl Harbor.

Four months later many of those who produced that document came to power with their inane puppet George Bush from the longtime Sabbatian Bush family. They included Sabbatian Dick Cheney who was officially vice-president, but really de-facto president for the entirety of the ‘Bush’ government. Nine months a er the ‘Bush’ inauguration came what Bush called at the time ‘the Pearl Harbor of the 21st century’ and with typical Sabbatian timing and symbolism 2001 was the 60th anniversary of the a ack in 1941 by the Japanese Air Force on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, which allowed President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to take the United States into a Sabbatian-

instigated Second World War that he said in his election campaign that he never would. The evidence is overwhelming that Roosevelt and his military and intelligence networks knew the a ack was coming and did nothing to stop it, but they did make sure that America’s most essential naval ships were not in Hawaii at the time. Three thousand Americans died in the Pearl Harbor a acks as they did on September 11th. By the 9/11 year of 2001 Sabbatians had widely infiltrated the US government, military and intelligence operations and used their compartmentalised assets to pull off the ‘Al-Qaeda’ a acks. If you read The Trigger it will blow your mind to see the u erly staggering concentration of ‘Jewish’ operatives (Sabbatian infiltrators) in essential positions of political, security, legal, law enforcement, financial and business power before, during, and a er the a acks to make them happen, carry them out, and then cover their tracks – and I do mean staggering when you think of that 0.2 percent of the world population and two percent of Americans which are Jewish while Sabbatian infiltrators are a fraction of that. A central foundation of the 9/11 conspiracy was the hijacking of government, military, Air Force and intelligence computer systems in real time through ‘back-door’ access made possible by Israeli (Sabbatian) ‘cyber security’ so ware. Sabbatian-controlled Israel is on the way to rivalling Silicon Valley for domination of cyberspace and is becoming the dominant force in cyber-security which gives them access to entire computer systems and their passcodes across the world. Then add to this that Zionists head (officially) Silicon Valley giants like Google (Larry Page and Sergey Brin), Googleowned YouTube (Susan Wojcicki), Facebook (Mark Zuckerberg and Sheryl Sandberg), and Apple (Chairman Arthur D. Levinson), and that ultra-Zionist hedge fund billionaire Paul Singer has a $1 billion stake in Twi er which is only nominally headed by ‘CEO’ pothead Jack Dorsey. As cable news host Tucker Carlson said of Dorsey: ‘There used to be debate in the medical community whether dropping a ton of acid had permanent effects and I think that debate has now ended.’ Carlson made the comment a er Dorsey told a hearing on Capitol Hill (if you cut through his bullshit) that he

believed in free speech so long as he got to decide what you can hear and see. These ‘big names’ of Silicon Valley are only front men and women for the Global Cult, not least the Sabbatians, who are the true controllers of these corporations. Does anyone still wonder why these same people and companies have been ferociously censoring and banning people (like me) for exposing any aspect of the Cult agenda and especially the truth about the ‘Covid’ hoax which Sabbatians have orchestrated? The Jeffrey Epstein paedophile ring was a Sabbatian operation. He was officially ‘Jewish’ but he was a Sabbatian and women abused by the ring have told me about the high number of ‘Jewish’ people involved. The Epstein horror has Sabbatian wri en all over it and matches perfectly their modus operandi and obsession with sex and ritual. Epstein was running a Sabbatian blackmail ring in which famous people with political and other influence were provided with young girls for sex while everything was being filmed and recorded on hidden cameras and microphones at his New York house, Caribbean island and other properties. Epstein survivors have described this surveillance system to me and some have gone public. Once the famous politician or other figure knew he or she was on video they tended to do whatever they were told. Here we go again …when you’ve got them by the balls their hearts and minds will follow. Sabbatians use this blackmail technique on a wide scale across the world to entrap politicians and others they need to act as demanded. Epstein’s private plane, the infamous ‘Lolita Express’, had many well-known passengers including Bill Clinton while Bill Gates has flown on an Epstein plane and met with him four years a er Epstein had been jailed for paedophilia. They subsequently met many times at Epstein’s home in New York according to a witness who was there. Epstein’s infamous side-kick was Ghislaine Maxwell, daughter of Mossad agent and ultra-Zionist mega-crooked British businessman, Bob Maxwell, who at one time owned the Daily Mirror newspaper. Maxwell was murdered at sea on his boat in 1991 by Sabbatian-controlled Mossad when he became a liability with his

business empire collapsing as a former Mossad operative has confirmed (see The Trigger).

Money, money, money, funny money … Before I come to the Sabbatian connection with the last three US presidents I will lay out the crucial importance to Sabbatians of controlling banking and finance. Sabbatian Mayer Amschel Rothschild set out to dominate this arena in his family’s quest for total global control. What is freedom? It is, in effect, choice. The more choices you have the freer you are and the fewer your choices the more you are enslaved. In the global structure created over centuries by Sabbatians the biggest decider and restrictor of choice is … money. Across the world if you ask people what they would like to do with their lives and why they are not doing that they will reply ‘I don’t have the money’. This is the idea. A global elite of multibillionaires are described as ‘greedy’ and that is true on one level; but control of money – who has it and who doesn’t – is not primarily about greed. It’s about control. Sabbatians have seized ever more control of finance and sucked the wealth of the world out of the hands of the population. We talk now, a er all, about the ‘Onepercent’ and even then the wealthiest are a lot fewer even than that. This has been made possible by a money scam so outrageous and so vast it could rightly be called the scam of scams founded on creating ‘money’ out of nothing and ‘loaning’ that with interest to the population. Money out of nothing is called ‘credit’. Sabbatians have asserted control over governments and banking ever more completely through the centuries and secured financial laws that allow banks to lend hugely more than they have on deposit in a confidence trick known as fractional reserve lending. Imagine if you could lend money that doesn’t exist and charge the recipient interest for doing so. You would end up in jail. Bankers by contrast end up in mansions, private jets, Malibu and Monaco. Banks are only required to keep a fraction of their deposits and wealth in their vaults and they are allowed to lend ‘money’ they don’t have called ‘credit. Go into a bank for a loan and if you succeed

the banker will not move any real wealth into your account. They will type into your account the amount of the agreed ‘loan’ – say £100,000. This is not wealth that really exists; it is non-existent, freshair, created-out-of-nothing ‘credit’ which has never, does not, and will never exist except in theory. Credit is backed by nothing except wind and only has buying power because people think that it has buying power and accept it in return for property, goods and services. I have described this situation as like those cartoon characters you see chasing each other and when they run over the edge of a cliff they keep running forward on fresh air until one of them looks down, realises what’s happened, and they all crash into the ravine. The whole foundation of the Sabbatian financial system is to stop people looking down except for periodic moments when they want to crash the system (as in 2008 and 2020 ongoing) and reap the rewards from all the property, businesses and wealth their borrowers had signed over as ‘collateral’ in return for a ‘loan’ of fresh air. Most people think that money is somehow created by governments when it comes into existence from the start as a debt through banks ‘lending’ illusory money called credit. Yes, the very currency of exchange is a debt from day one issued as an interest-bearing loan. Why don’t governments create money interest-free and lend it to their people interest-free? Governments are controlled by Sabbatians and the financial system is controlled by Sabbatians for whom interest-free money would be a nightmare come true. Sabbatians underpin their financial domination through their global network of central banks, including the privately-owned US Federal Reserve and Britain’s Bank of England, and this is orchestrated by a privately-owned central bank coordination body called the Bank for International Se lements in Basle, Switzerland, created by the usual suspects including the Rockefellers and Rothschilds. Central bank chiefs don’t answer to governments or the people. They answer to the Bank for International Se lements or, in other words, the Global Cult which is dominated today by Sabbatians.

Built-in disaster

There are so many constituent scams within the overall banking scam. When you take out a loan of thin-air credit only the amount of that loan is theoretically brought into circulation to add to the amount in circulation; but you are paying back the principle plus interest. The additional interest is not created and this means that with every ‘loan’ there is a shortfall in the money in circulation between what is borrowed and what has to be paid back. There is never even close to enough money in circulation to repay all outstanding public and private debt including interest. Coldly weaved in the very fabric of the system is the certainty that some will lose their homes, businesses and possessions to the banking ‘lender’. This is less obvious in times of ‘boom’ when the amount of money in circulation (and the debt) is expanding through more people wanting and ge ing loans. When a downturn comes and the money supply contracts it becomes painfully obvious that there is not enough money to service all debt and interest. This is less obvious in times of ‘boom’ when the amount of money in circulation (and the debt) is expanding through more people wanting and ge ing loans. When a downturn comes and the money supply contracts and it becomes painfully obvious – as in 2008 and currently – that there is not enough money to service all debt and interest. Sabbatian banksters have been leading the human population through a calculated series of booms (more debt incurred) and busts (when the debt can’t be repaid and the banks get the debtor’s tangible wealth in exchange for non-existent ‘credit’). With each ‘bust’ Sabbatian bankers have absorbed more of the world’s tangible wealth and we end up with the One-percent. Governments are in bankruptcy levels of debt to the same system and are therefore owned by a system they do not control. The Federal Reserve, ‘America’s central bank’, is privately-owned and American presidents only nominally appoint its chairman or woman to maintain the illusion that it’s an arm of government. It’s not. The ‘Fed’ is a cartel of private banks which handed billions to its associates and friends a er the crash of 2008 and has been Sabbatiancontrolled since it was manipulated into being in 1913 through the covert trickery of Rothschild banking agents Jacob Schiff and Paul

Warburg, and the Sabbatian Rockefeller family. Somehow from a Jewish population of two-percent and globally 0.2 percent (Sabbatian interlopers remember are far smaller) ultra-Zionists headed the Federal Reserve for 31 years between 1987 and 2018 in the form of Alan Greenspan, Bernard Bernanke and Janet Yellen (now Biden’s Treasury Secretary) with Yellen’s deputy chairman a IsraeliAmerican duel citizen and ultra-Zionist Stanley Fischer, a former governor of the Bank of Israel. Ultra-Zionist Fed chiefs spanned the presidencies of Ronald Reagan (‘Republican’), Father George Bush (‘Republican’), Bill Clinton (‘Democrat’), Boy George Bush (‘Republican’) and Barack Obama (‘Democrat’). We should really add the pre-Greenspan chairman, Paul Adolph Volcker, ‘appointed’ by Jimmy Carter (‘Democrat’) who ran the Fed between 1979 and 1987 during the Carter and Reagan administrations before Greenspan took over. Volcker was a long-time associate and business partner of the Rothschilds. No ma er what the ‘party’ officially in power the United States economy was directed by the same force. Here are members of the Obama, Trump and Biden administrations and see if you can make out a common theme.

Barack Obama (‘Democrat’) Ultra-Zionists Robert Rubin, Larry Summers, and Timothy Geithner ran the US Treasury in the Clinton administration and two of them reappeared with Obama. Ultra-Zionist Fed chairman Alan Greenspan had manipulated the crash of 2008 through deregulation and jumped ship just before the disaster to make way for ultraZionist Bernard Bernanke to hand out trillions to Sabbatian ‘too big to fail’ banks and businesses, including the ubiquitous ultra-Zionist Goldman Sachs which has an ongoing staff revolving door operation between itself and major financial positions in government worldwide. Obama inherited the fallout of the crash when he took office in January, 2009, and fortunately he had the support of his ultra-Zionist White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emmanuel, son of a terrorist who helped to bomb Israel into being in 1948, and his ultraZionist senior adviser David Axelrod, chief strategist in Obama’s two

successful presidential campaigns. Emmanuel, later mayor of Chicago and former senior fundraiser and strategist for Bill Clinton, is an example of the Sabbatian policy a er Israel was established of migrating insider families to America so their children would be born American citizens. ‘Obama’ chose this financial team throughout his administration to respond to the Sabbatian-instigated crisis: Timothy Geithner (ultra-Zionist) Treasury Secretary; Jacob J. Lew, Treasury Secretary; Larry Summers (ultra-Zionist), director of the White House National Economic Council; Paul Adolph Volcker (Rothschild business partner), chairman of the Economic Recovery Advisory Board; Peter Orszag (ultra-Zionist), director of the Office of Management and Budget overseeing all government spending; Penny Pritzker (ultra-Zionist), Commerce Secretary; Jared Bernstein (ultra-Zionist), chief economist and economic policy adviser to Vice President Joe Biden; Mary Schapiro (ultra-Zionist), chair of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC); Gary Gensler (ultraZionist), chairman of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC); Sheila Bair (ultra-Zionist), chair of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC); Karen Mills (ultra-Zionist), head of the Small Business Administration (SBA); Kenneth Feinberg (ultraZionist), Special Master for Executive [bail-out] Compensation. Feinberg would be appointed to oversee compensation (with strings) to 9/11 victims and families in a campaign to stop them having their day in court to question the official story. At the same time ultraZionist Bernard Bernanke was chairman of the Federal Reserve and these are only some of the ultra-Zionists with allegiance to Sabbatian-controlled Israel in the Obama government. Obama’s biggest corporate donor was ultra-Zionist Goldman Sachs which had employed many in his administration.

Donald Trump (‘Republican’) Trump claimed to be an outsider (he wasn’t) who had come to ‘drain the swamp’. He embarked on this goal by immediately appointing ultra-Zionist Steve Mnuchin, a Goldman Sachs employee for 17

years, as his Treasury Secretary. Others included Gary Cohn (ultraZionist), chief operating officer of Goldman Sachs, his first Director of the National Economic Council and chief economic adviser, who was later replaced by Larry Kudlow (ultra-Zionist). Trump’s senior adviser throughout his four years in the White House was his sinister son-in-law Jared Kushner, a life-long friend of Israel Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Kushner is the son of a convicted crook who was pardoned by Trump in his last days in office. Other ultra-Zionists in the Trump administration included: Stephen Miller, Senior Policy Adviser; Avrahm Berkowitz, Deputy Adviser to Trump and his Senior Adviser Jared Kushner; Ivanka Trump, Adviser to the President, who converted to Judaism when she married Jared Kushner; David Friedman, Trump lawyer and Ambassador to Israel; Jason Greenbla , Trump Organization executive vice president and chief legal officer, who was made Special Representative for International Negotiations and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict; Rod Rosenstein, Deputy A orney General; Elliot Abrams, Special Representative for Venezuela, then Iran; John Eisenberg, National Security Council Legal Adviser and Deputy Council to the President for National Security Affairs; Anne Neuberger, Deputy National Manager, National Security Agency; Ezra Cohen-Watnick, Acting Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence; Elan Carr, Special Envoy to monitor and combat anti-Semitism; Len Khodorkovsky, Deputy Special Envoy to monitor and combat anti-Semitism; Reed Cordish, Assistant to the President, Intragovernmental and Technology Initiatives. Trump Vice President Mike Pence and Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, both Christian Zionists, were also vehement supporters of Israel and its goals and ambitions. Donald ‘free-speech believer’ Trump pardoned a number of financial and violent criminals while ignoring calls to pardon Julian Assange and Edward Snowden whose crimes are revealing highly relevant information about government manipulation and corruption and the widespread illegal surveillance of the American people by US ‘security’ agencies. It’s so good to know that Trump is on the side of freedom and justice and not mega-criminals with

allegiance to Sabbatian-controlled Israel. These included a pardon for Israeli spy Jonathan Pollard who was jailed for life in 1987 under the Espionage Act. Aviem Sella, the Mossad agent who recruited Pollard, was also pardoned by Trump while Assange sat in jail and Snowden remained in exile in Russia. Sella had ‘fled’ (was helped to escape) to Israel in 1987 and was never extradited despite being charged under the Espionage Act. A Trump White House statement said that Sella’s clemency had been ‘supported by Benjamin Netanyahu, Ron Dermer, Israel’s US Ambassador, David Friedman, US Ambassador to Israel and Miriam Adelson, wife of leading Trump donor Sheldon Adelson who died shortly before. Other friends of Jared Kushner were pardoned along with Sholom Weiss who was believed to be serving the longest-ever white-collar prison sentence of more than 800 years in 2000. The sentence was commuted of Ponzi-schemer Eliyahu Weinstein who defrauded Jews and others out of $200 million. I did mention that Assange and Snowden were ignored, right? Trump gave Sabbatians almost everything they asked for in military and political support, moving the US Embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem with its critical symbolic and literal implications for Palestinian statehood, and the ‘deal of the Century’ designed by Jared Kushner and David Friedman which gave the Sabbatian Israeli government the green light to substantially expand its already widespread program of building illegal Jewish-only se lements in the occupied land of the West Bank. This made a two-state ‘solution’ impossible by seizing all the land of a potential Palestinian homeland and that had been the plan since 1948 and then 1967 when the Arab-controlled Gaza Strip, West Bank, Sinai Peninsula and Syrian Golan Heights were occupied by Israel. All the talks about talks and road maps and delays have been buying time until the West Bank was physically occupied by Israeli real estate. Trump would have to be a monumentally ill-informed idiot not to see that this was the plan he was helping to complete. The Trump administration was in so many ways the Kushner administration which means the Netanyahu administration which means the Sabbatian administration. I understand why many opposing Cult fascism in all its forms gravitated to Trump, but he

was a crucial part of the Sabbatian plan and I will deal with this in the next chapter.

Joe Biden (‘Democrat’) A barely cognitive Joe Biden took over the presidency in January, 2021, along with his fellow empty shell, Vice-President Kamala Harris, as the latest Sabbatian gofers to enter the White House. Names on the door may have changed and the ‘party’ – the force behind them remained the same as Zionists were appointed to a stream of pivotal areas relating to Sabbatian plans and policy. They included: Janet Yellen, Treasury Secretary, former head of the Federal Reserve, and still another ultra-Zionist running the US Treasury a er Mnuchin (Trump), Lew and Geithner (Obama), and Summers and Rubin (Clinton); Anthony Blinken, Secretary of State; Wendy Sherman, Deputy Secretary of State (so that’s ‘Biden’s’ Sabbatian foreign policy sorted); Jeff Zients, White House coronavirus coordinator; Rochelle Walensky, head of the Centers for Disease Control; Rachel Levine, transgender deputy health secretary (that’s ‘Covid’ hoax policy under control); Merrick Garland, A orney General; Alejandro Mayorkas, Secretary of Homeland Security; Cass Sunstein, Homeland Security with responsibility for new immigration laws; Avril Haines, Director of National Intelligence; Anne Neuberger, National Security Agency cybersecurity director (note, cybersecurity); David Cohen, CIA Deputy Director; Ronald Klain, Biden’s Chief of Staff (see Rahm Emanuel); Eric Lander, a ‘leading geneticist’, Office of Science and Technology Policy director (see Smart Grid, synthetic biology agenda); Jessica Rosenworcel, acting head of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) which controls Smart Grid technology policy and electromagnetic communication systems including 5G. How can it be that so many pivotal positions are held by two-percent of the American population and 0.2 percent of the world population administration a er administration no ma er who is the president and what is the party? It’s a coincidence? Of course it’s not and this is why Sabbatians have built their colossal global web of interlocking ‘anti-

hate’ hate groups to condemn anyone who asks these glaring questions as an ‘anti-Semite’. The way that Jewish people horrifically abused in Sabbatian-backed Nazi Germany are exploited to this end is stomach-turning and disgusting beyond words.

Political fusion Sabbatian manipulation has reversed the roles of Republicans and Democrats and the same has happened in Britain with the Conservative and Labour Parties. Republicans and Conservatives were always labelled the ‘right’ and Democrats and Labour the ‘le ’, but look at the policy positions now and the Democrat-Labour ‘le ’ has moved further to the ‘right’ than Republicans and Conservatives under the banner of ‘Woke’, the Cult-created far-right tyranny. Where once the Democrat-Labour ‘le ’ defended free speech and human rights they now seek to delete them and as I said earlier despite the ‘Covid’ fascism of the Jackboot Johnson Conservative government in the UK the Labour Party of leader Keir Starmer demanded even more extreme measures. The Labour Party has been very publicly absorbed by Sabbatians a er a political and media onslaught against the previous leader, the weak and inept Jeremy Corbyn, over made-up allegations of ‘anti-Semitism’ both by him and his party. The plan was clear with this ‘anti-Semite’ propaganda and what was required in response was a swi and decisive ‘fuck off’ from Corbyn and a statement to expose the Anti-Semitism Industry (Sabbatian) a empt to silence Labour criticism of the Israeli government (Sabbatians) and purge the party of all dissent against the extremes of ultra-Zionism (Sabbatians). Instead Corbyn and his party fell to their knees and appeased the abusers which, by definition, is impossible. Appeasing one demand leads only to a new demand to be appeased until takeover is complete. Like I say – ‘fuck off’ would have been a much more effective policy and I have used it myself with great effect over the years when Sabbatians are on my case which is most of the time. I consider that fact a great compliment, by the way. The outcome of the Labour Party capitulation is that we now have a Sabbatian-controlled

Conservative Party ‘opposed’ by a Sabbatian-controlled Labour Party in a one-party Sabbatian state that hurtles towards the extremes of tyranny (the Sabbatian cult agenda). In America the situation is the same. Labour’s Keir Starmer spends his days on his knees with his tongue out pointing to Tel Aviv, or I guess now Jerusalem, while Boris Johnson has an ‘anti-Semitism czar’ in the form of former Labour MP John Mann who keeps Starmer company on his prayer mat. Sabbatian influence can be seen in Jewish members of the Labour Party who have been ejected for criticism of Israel including those from families that suffered in Nazi Germany. Sabbatians despise real Jewish people and target them even more harshly because it is so much more difficult to dub them ‘anti-Semitic’ although in their desperation they do try.

CHAPTER THREE The Pushbacker sting Until you realize how easy it is for your mind to be manipulated, you remain the puppet of someone else’s game Evita Ochel

I

will use the presidencies of Trump and Biden to show how the manipulation of the one-party state plays out behind the illusion of political choice across the world. No two presidencies could – on the face of it – be more different and apparently at odds in terms of direction and policy. A Renegade Mind sees beyond the obvious and focuses on outcomes and consequences and not image, words and waffle. The Cult embarked on a campaign to divide America between those who blindly support its agenda (the mentality known as ‘Woke’) and those who are pushing back on where the Cult and its Sabbatians want to go. This presents infinite possibilities for dividing and ruling the population by se ing them at war with each other and allows a perceptual ring fence of demonisation to encircle the Pushbackers in a modern version of the Li le Big Horn in 1876 when American cavalry led by Lieutenant Colonel George Custer were drawn into a trap, surrounded and killed by Native American tribes defending their land of thousands of years from being seized by the government. In this modern version the roles are reversed and it’s those defending themselves from the Sabbatian government who are surrounded and the government that’s seeking to destroy them. This trap was set years ago and to explain how we must return to 2016

and the emergence of Donald Trump as a candidate to be President of the United States. He set out to overcome the best part of 20 other candidates in the Republican Party before and during the primaries and was not considered by many in those early stages to have a prayer of living in the White House. The Republican Party was said to have great reservations about Trump and yet somehow he won the nomination. When you know how American politics works – politics in general – there is no way that Trump could have become the party’s candidate unless the Sabbatian-controlled ‘Neocons’ that run the Republican Party wanted that to happen. We saw the proof in emails and documents made public by WikiLeaks that the Democratic Party hierarchy, or Democons, systematically undermined the campaign of Bernie Sanders to make sure that Sabbatian gofer Hillary Clinton won the nomination to be their presidential candidate. If the Democons could do that then the Neocons in the Republican Party could have derailed Trump in the same way. But they didn’t and at that stage I began to conclude that Trump could well be the one chosen to be president. If that was the case the ‘why’ was pre y clear to see – the goal of dividing America between Cult agenda-supporting Wokers and Pushbackers who gravitated to Trump because he was telling them what they wanted to hear. His constituency of support had been increasingly ignored and voiceless for decades and profoundly through the eight years of Sabbatian puppet Barack Obama. Now here was someone speaking their language of pulling back from the incessant globalisation of political and economic power, the exporting of American jobs to China and elsewhere by ‘American’ (Sabbatian) corporations, the deletion of free speech, and the mass immigration policies that had further devastated job opportunities for the urban working class of all races and the once American heartlands of the Midwest.

Beware the forked tongue Those people collectively sighed with relief that at last a political leader was apparently on their side, but another trait of the Renegade Mind is that you look even harder at people telling you

what you want to hear than those who are telling you otherwise. Obviously as I said earlier people wish what they want to hear to be true and genuine and they are much more likely to believe that than someone saying what they don’t want to here and don’t want to be true. Sales people are taught to be skilled in eliciting by calculated questioning what their customers want to hear and repeating that back to them as their own opinion to get their targets to like and trust them. Assets of the Cult are also sales people in the sense of selling perception. To read Cult manipulation you have to play the long and expanded game and not fall for the Vaudeville show of party politics. Both American parties are vehicles for the Cult and they exploit them in different ways depending on what the agenda requires at that moment. Trump and the Republicans were used to be the focus of dividing America and isolating Pushbackers to open the way for a Biden presidency to become the most extreme in American history by advancing the full-blown Woke (Cult) agenda with the aim of destroying and silencing Pushbackers now labelled Nazi Trump supporters and white supremacists. Sabbatians wanted Trump in office for the reasons described by ultra-Zionist Saul Alinsky (1909-1972) who was promoting the Woke philosophy through ‘community organising’ long before anyone had heard of it. In those days it still went by its traditional name of Marxism. The reason for the manipulated Trump phenomenon was laid out in Alinsky’s 1971 book, Rules for Radicals, which was his blueprint for overthrowing democratic and other regimes and replacing them with Sabbatian Marxism. Not surprisingly his to-do list was evident in the Sabbatian French and Russian ‘Revolutions’ and that in China which will become very relevant in the next chapter about the ‘Covid’ hoax. Among Alinsky’s followers have been the deeply corrupt Barack Obama, House Speaker Nancy Pelosi and Hillary Clinton who described him as a ‘hero’. All three are Sabbatian stooges with Pelosi personifying the arrogant corrupt idiocy that so widely fronts up for the Cult inner core. Predictably as a Sabbatian advocate of the ‘light-bringer’ Alinsky features Lucifer on the dedication page of his book as the original radical who gained

his own kingdom (‘Earth’ as we shall see). One of Alinsky’s golden radical rules was to pick an individual and focus all a ention, hatred and blame on them and not to target faceless bureaucracies and corporations. Rules for Radicals is really a Sabbatian handbook with its contents repeatedly employed all over the world for centuries and why wouldn’t Sabbatians bring to power their designer-villain to be used as the individual on which all a ention, hatred and blame was bestowed? This is what they did and the only question for me is how much Trump knew that and how much he was manipulated. A bit of both, I suspect. This was Alinsky’s Trump technique from a man who died in 1972. The technique has spanned history: Pick the target, freeze it, personalize it, polarize it. Don’t try to attack abstract corporations or bureaucracies. Identify a responsible individual. Ignore attempts to shift or spread the blame.

From the moment Trump came to illusory power everything was about him. It wasn’t about Republican policy or opinion, but all about Trump. Everything he did was presented in negative, derogatory and abusive terms by the Sabbatian-dominated media led by Cult operations such as CNN, MSNBC, The New York Times and the Jeff Bezos-owned Washington Post – ‘Pick the target, freeze it, personalize it, polarize it.’ Trump was turned into a demon to be vilified by those who hated him and a demi-god loved by those who worshipped him. This, in turn, had his supporters, too, presented as equally demonic in preparation for the punchline later down the line when Biden was about to take office. It was here’s a Trump, there’s a Trump, everywhere a Trump, Trump. Virtually every news story or happening was filtered through the lens of ‘The Donald’. You loved him or hated him and which one you chose was said to define you as Satan’s spawn or a paragon of virtue. Even supporting some Trump policies or statements and not others was enough for an assault on your character. No shades of grey were or are allowed. Everything is black and white (literally and figuratively). A Californian I knew had her head u erly scrambled by her hatred for Trump while telling people they should love each other. She was so totally consumed by

Trump Derangement Syndrome as it became to be known that this glaring contradiction would never have occurred to her. By definition anyone who criticised Trump or praised his opponents was a hero and this lady described Joe Biden as ‘a kind, honest gentleman’ when he’s a provable liar, mega-crook and vicious piece of work to boot. Sabbatians had indeed divided America using Trump as the fall-guy and all along the clock was ticking on the consequences for his supporters.

In hock to his masters Trump gave Sabbatians via Israel almost everything they wanted in his four years. Ask and you shall receive was the dynamic between himself and Benjamin Netanyahu orchestrated by Trump’s ultraZionist son-in-law Jared Kushner, his ultra-Zionist Ambassador to Israel, David Friedman, and ultra-Zionist ‘Israel adviser’, Jason Greenbla . The last two were central to the running and protecting from collapse of his business empire, the Trump Organisation, and colossal business failures made him forever beholding to Sabbatian networks that bailed him out. By the start of the 1990s Trump owed $4 billion to banks that he couldn’t pay and almost $1billion of that was down to him personally and not his companies. This megadisaster was the result of building two new casinos in Atlantic City and buying the enormous Taj Mahal operation which led to crippling debt payments. He had borrowed fantastic sums from 72 banks with major Sabbatian connections and although the scale of debt should have had him living in a tent alongside the highway they never foreclosed. A plan was devised to li Trump from the mire by BT Securities Corporation and Rothschild Inc. and the case was handled by Wilber Ross who had worked for the Rothschilds for 27 years. Ross would be named US Commerce Secretary a er Trump’s election. Another crucial figure in saving Trump was ultraZionist ‘investor’ Carl Icahn who bought the Taj Mahal casino. Icahn was made special economic adviser on financial regulation in the Trump administration. He didn’t stay long but still managed to find time to make a tidy sum of a reported $31.3 million when he sold his

holdings affected by the price of steel three days before Trump imposed a 235 percent tariff on steel imports. What amazing bits of luck these people have. Trump and Sabbatian operatives have long had a close association and his mentor and legal adviser from the early 1970s until 1986 was the dark and genetically corrupt ultraZionist Roy Cohn who was chief counsel to Senator Joseph McCarthy’s ‘communist’ witch-hunt in the 1950s. Esquire magazine published an article about Cohn with the headline ‘Don’t mess with Roy Cohn’. He was described as the most feared lawyer in New York and ‘a ruthless master of dirty tricks ... [with] ... more than one Mafia Don on speed dial’. Cohn’s influence, contacts, support and protection made Trump a front man for Sabbatians in New York with their connections to one of Cohn’s many criminal employers, the ‘Russian’ Sabbatian Mafia. Israel-centric media mogul Rupert Murdoch was introduced to Trump by Cohn and they started a long friendship. Cohn died in 1986 weeks a er being disbarred for unethical conduct by the Appellate Division of the New York State Supreme Court. The wheels of justice do indeed run slow given the length of Cohn’s crooked career.

QAnon-sense We are asked to believe that Donald Trump with his fundamental connections to Sabbatian networks and operatives has been leading the fight to stop the Sabbatian agenda for the fascistic control of America and the world. Sure he has. A man entrapped during his years in the White House by Sabbatian operatives and whose biggest financial donor was casino billionaire Sheldon Adelson who was Sabbatian to his DNA?? Oh, do come on. Trump has been used to divide America and isolate Pushbackers on the Cult agenda under the heading of ‘Trump supporters’, ‘insurrectionists’ and ‘white supremacists’. The US Intelligence/Mossad Psyop or psychological operation known as QAnon emerged during the Trump years as a central pillar in the Sabbatian campaign to lead Pushbackers into the trap set by those that wished to destroy them. I knew from the start that QAnon was a scam because I had seen the same scenario many

times before over 30 years under different names and I had wri en about one in particular in the books. ‘Not again’ was my reaction when QAnon came to the fore. The same script is pulled out every few years and a new name added to the le erhead. The story always takes the same form: ‘Insiders’ or ‘the good guys’ in the governmentintelligence-military ‘Deep State’ apparatus were going to instigate mass arrests of the ‘bad guys’ which would include the Rockefellers, Rothschilds, Barack Obama, Hillary Clinton, George Soros, etc., etc. Dates are given for when the ‘good guys’ are going to move in, but the dates pass without incident and new dates are given which pass without incident. The central message to Pushbackers in each case is that they don’t have to do anything because there is ‘a plan’ and it is all going to be sorted by the ‘good guys’ on the inside. ‘Trust the plan’ was a QAnon mantra when the only plan was to misdirect Pushbackers into pu ing their trust in a Psyop they believed to be real. Beware, beware, those who tell you what you want to hear and always check it out. Right up to Biden’s inauguration QAnon was still claiming that ‘the Storm’ was coming and Trump would stay on as president when Biden and his cronies were arrested and jailed. It was never going to happen and of course it didn’t, but what did happen as a result provided that punchline to the Sabbatian Trump/QAnon Psyop. On January 6th, 2021, a very big crowd of Trump supporters gathered in the National Mall in Washington DC down from the Capitol Building to protest at what they believed to be widespread corruption and vote fraud that stopped Trump being re-elected for a second term as president in November, 2020. I say as someone that does not support Trump or Biden that the evidence is clear that major vote-fixing went on to favour Biden, a man with cognitive problems so advanced he can o en hardly string a sentence together without reading the words wri en for him on the Teleprompter. Glaring ballot discrepancies included serious questions about electronic voting machines that make vote rigging a comparative cinch and hundreds of thousands of paper votes that suddenly appeared during already advanced vote counts and virtually all of

them for Biden. Early Trump leads in crucial swing states suddenly began to close and disappear. The pandemic hoax was used as the excuse to issue almost limitless numbers of mail-in ballots with no checks to establish that the recipients were still alive or lived at that address. They were sent to streams of people who had not even asked for them. Private organisations were employed to gather these ballots and who knows what they did with them before they turned up at the counts. The American election system has been manipulated over decades to become a sick joke with more holes than a Swiss cheese for the express purpose of dictating the results. Then there was the criminal manipulation of information by Sabbatian tech giants like Facebook, Twi er and Google-owned YouTube which deleted pro-Trump, anti-Biden accounts and posts while everything in support of Biden was le alone. Sabbatians wanted Biden to win because a er the dividing of America it was time for full-on Woke and every aspect of the Cult agenda to be unleashed.

Hunter gatherer Extreme Silicon Valley bias included blocking information by the New York Post exposing a Biden scandal that should have ended his bid for president in the final weeks of the campaign. Hunter Biden, his monumentally corrupt son, is reported to have sent a laptop to be repaired at a local store and failed to return for it. Time passed until the laptop became the property of the store for non-payment of the bill. When the owner saw what was on the hard drive he gave a copy to the FBI who did nothing even though it confirmed widespread corruption in which the Joe Biden family were using his political position, especially when he was vice president to Obama, to make multiple millions in countries around the world and most notably Ukraine and China. Hunter Biden’s one-time business partner Tony Bobulinski went public when the story broke in the New York Post to confirm the corruption he saw and that Joe Biden not only knew what was going on he also profited from the spoils. Millions were handed over by a Chinese company with close

connections – like all major businesses in China – to the Chinese communist party of President Xi Jinping. Joe Biden even boasted at a meeting of the Cult’s World Economic Forum that as vice president he had ordered the government of Ukraine to fire a prosecutor. What he didn’t mention was that the same man just happened to be investigating an energy company which was part of Hunter Biden’s corrupt portfolio. The company was paying him big bucks for no other reason than the influence his father had. Overnight Biden’s presidential campaign should have been over given that he had lied publicly about not knowing what his son was doing. Instead almost the entire Sabbatian-owned mainstream media and Sabbatianowned Silicon Valley suppressed circulation of the story. This alone went a mighty way to rigging the election of 2020. Cult assets like Mark Zuckerberg at Facebook also spent hundreds of millions to be used in support of Biden and vote ‘administration’. The Cult had used Trump as the focus to divide America and was now desperate to bring in moronic, pliable, corrupt Biden to complete the double-whammy. No way were they going to let li le things like the will of the people thwart their plan. Silicon Valley widely censored claims that the election was rigged because it was rigged. For the same reason anyone claiming it was rigged was denounced as a ‘white supremacist’ including the pathetically few Republican politicians willing to say so. Right across the media where the claim was mentioned it was described as a ‘false claim’ even though these excuses for ‘journalists’ would have done no research into the subject whatsoever. Trump won seven million more votes than any si ing president had ever achieved while somehow a cognitively-challenged soon to be 78-year-old who was hidden away from the public for most of the campaign managed to win more votes than any presidential candidate in history. It makes no sense. You only had to see election rallies for both candidates to witness the enthusiasm for Trump and the apathy for Biden. Tens of thousands would a end Trump events while Biden was speaking in empty car parks with o en only television crews a ending and framing their shots to hide the fact that no one was there. It was pathetic to see

footage come to light of Biden standing at a podium making speeches only to TV crews and party fixers while reading the words wri en for him on massive Teleprompter screens. So, yes, those protestors on January 6th had a point about election rigging, but some were about to walk into a trap laid for them in Washington by the Cult Deep State and its QAnon Psyop. This was the Capitol Hill riot ludicrously dubbed an ‘insurrection’.

The spider and the fly Renegade Minds know there are not two ‘sides’ in politics, only one side, the Cult, working through all ‘sides’. It’s a stage show, a puppet show, to direct the perceptions of the population into focusing on diversions like parties and candidates while missing the puppeteers with their hands holding all the strings. The Capitol Hill ‘insurrection’ brings us back to the Li le Big Horn. Having created two distinct opposing groupings – Woke and Pushbackers – the trap was about to be sprung. Pushbackers were to be encircled and isolated by associating them all in the public mind with Trump and then labelling Trump as some sort of Confederate leader. I knew immediately that the Capitol riot was a set-up because of two things. One was how easy the rioters got into the building with virtually no credible resistance and secondly I could see – as with the ‘Covid’ hoax in the West at the start of 2020 – how the Cult could exploit the situation to move its agenda forward with great speed. My experience of Cult techniques and activities over more than 30 years has showed me that while they do exploit situations they haven’t themselves created this never happens with events of fundamental agenda significance. Every time major events giving cultists the excuse to rapidly advance their plan you find they are manipulated into being for the specific reason of providing that excuse – ProblemReaction-Solution. Only a tiny minority of the huge crowd of Washington protestors sought to gain entry to the Capitol by smashing windows and breaching doors. That didn’t ma er. The whole crowd and all Pushbackers, even if they did not support Trump, were going to be lumped together as dangerous

insurrectionists and conspiracy theorists. The la er term came into widespread use through a CIA memo in the 1960s aimed at discrediting those questioning the nonsensical official story of the Kennedy assassination and it subsequently became widely employed by the media. It’s still being used by inept ‘journalists’ with no idea of its origin to discredit anyone questioning anything that authority claims to be true. When you are perpetrating a conspiracy you need to discredit the very word itself even though the dictionary definition of conspiracy is merely ‘the activity of secretly planning with other people to do something bad or illegal‘ and ‘a general agreement to keep silent about a subject for the purpose of keeping it secret’. On that basis there are conspiracies almost wherever you look. For obvious reasons the Cult and its lapdog media have to claim there are no conspiracies even though the word appears in state laws as with conspiracy to defraud, to murder, and to corrupt public morals. Agent provocateurs are widely used by the Cult Deep State to manipulate genuine people into acting in ways that suit the desired outcome. By genuine in this case I mean protestors genuinely supporting Trump and claims that the election was stolen. In among them, however, were agents of the state wearing the garb of Trump supporters and QAnon to pump-prime the Capital riot which some genuine Trump supporters naively fell for. I described the situation as ‘Come into my parlour said the spider to the fly’. Leaflets appeared through the Woke paramilitary arm Antifa, the anti-fascist fascists, calling on supporters to turn up in Washington looking like Trump supporters even though they hated him. Some of those arrested for breaching the Capitol Building were sourced to Antifa and its stable mate Black Lives Ma er. Both organisations are funded by Cult billionaires and corporations. One man charged for the riot was according to his lawyer a former FBI agent who had held top secret security clearance for 40 years. A orney Thomas Plofchan said of his client, 66-year-old Thomas Edward Caldwell: He has held a Top Secret Security Clearance since 1979 and has undergone multiple Special Background Investigations in support of his clearances. After retiring from the Navy, he

worked as a section chief for the Federal Bureau of Investigation from 2009-2010 as a GS-12 [mid-level employee]. He also formed and operated a consulting firm performing work, often classified, for U.S government customers including the US. Drug Enforcement Agency, Department of Housing and Urban Development, the US Coast Guard, and the US Army Personnel Command.

A judge later released Caldwell pending trial in the absence of evidence about a conspiracy or that he tried to force his way into the building. The New York Post reported a ‘law enforcement source‘ as saying that ‘at least two known Antifa members were spo ed’ on camera among Trump supporters during the riot while one of the rioters arrested was John Earle Sullivan, a seriously extreme Black Lives Ma er Trump-hater from Utah who was previously arrested and charged in July, 2020, over a BLM-Antifa riot in which drivers were threatened and one was shot. Sullivan is the founder of Utahbased Insurgence USA which is an affiliate of the Cult-created-andfunded Black Lives Ma er movement. Footage appeared and was then deleted by Twi er of Trump supporters calling out Antifa infiltrators and a group was filmed changing into pro-Trump clothing before the riot. Security at the building was pathetic – as planned. Colonel Leroy Fletcher Prouty, a man with long experience in covert operations working with the US security apparatus, once described the tell-tale sign to identify who is involved in an assassination. He said: No one has to direct an assassination – it happens. The active role is played secretly by permitting it to happen. This is the greatest single clue. Who has the power to call off or reduce the usual security precautions?

This principle applies to many other situations and certainly to the Capitol riot of January 6th, 2021.

The sting With such a big and potentially angry crowd known to be gathering near the Capitol the security apparatus would have had a major police detail to defend the building with National Guard troops on

standby given the strength of feeling among people arriving from all over America encouraged by the QAnon Psyop and statements by Donald Trump. Instead Capitol Police ‘security’ was flimsy, weak, and easily breached. The same number of officers was deployed as on a regular day and that is a blatant red flag. They were not staffed or equipped for a possible riot that had been an obvious possibility in the circumstances. No protective and effective fencing worth the name was put in place and there were no contingency plans. The whole thing was basically a case of standing aside and waving people in. Once inside police mostly backed off apart from one Capitol police officer who ridiculously shot dead unarmed Air Force veteran protestor Ashli Babbi without a warning as she climbed through a broken window. The ‘investigation’ refused to name or charge the officer a er what must surely be considered a murder in the circumstances. They just li ed a carpet and swept. The story was endlessly repeated about five people dying in the ‘armed insurrection’ when there was no report of rioters using weapons. Apart from Babbi the other four died from a heart a ack, strokes and apparently a drug overdose. Capitol police officer Brian Sicknick was reported to have died a er being bludgeoned with a fire extinguisher when he was alive a er the riot was over and died later of what the Washington Medical Examiner’s Office said was a stroke. Sicknick had no external injuries. The lies were delivered like rapid fire. There was a narrative to build with incessant repetition of the lie until the lie became the accepted ‘everybody knows that’ truth. The ‘Big Lie’ technique of Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels is constantly used by the Cult which was behind the Nazis and is today behind the ‘Covid’ and ‘climate change’ hoaxes. Goebbels said: If you tell a lie big enough and keep repeating it, people will eventually come to believe it. The lie can be maintained only for such time as the State can shield the people from the political, economic and/or military consequences of the lie. It thus becomes vitally important for the State to use all of its powers to repress dissent, for the truth is the mortal enemy of the lie, and thus by extension, the truth is the greatest enemy of the State.

Most protestors had a free run of the Capitol Building. This allowed pictures to be taken of rioters in iconic parts of the building including the Senate chamber which could be used as propaganda images against all Pushbackers. One Congresswoman described the scene as ‘the worst kind of non-security anybody could ever imagine’. Well, the first part was true, but someone obviously did imagine it and made sure it happened. Some photographs most widely circulated featured people wearing QAnon symbols and now the Psyop would be used to dub all QAnon followers with the ubiquitous fit-all label of ‘white supremacist’ and ‘insurrectionists’. When a Muslim extremist called Noah Green drove his car at two police officers at the Capitol Building killing one in April, 2021, there was no such political and media hysteria. They were just disappointed he wasn’t white.

The witch-hunt Government prosecutor Michael Sherwin, an aggressive, dark-eyed, professional Ro weiler led the ‘investigation’ and to call it over the top would be to understate reality a thousand fold. Hundreds were tracked down and arrested for the crime of having the wrong political views and people were jailed who had done nothing more than walk in the building, commi ed no violence or damage to property, took a few pictures and le . They were labelled a ‘threat to the Republic’ while Biden sat in the White House signing executive orders wri en for him that were dismantling ‘the Republic’. Even when judges ruled that a mother and son should not be in jail the government kept them there. Some of those arrested have been badly beaten by prison guards in Washington and lawyers for one man said he suffered a fractured skull and was made blind in one eye. Meanwhile a woman is shot dead for no reason by a Capitol Police officer and we are not allowed to know who he is never mind what has happened to him although that will be nothing. The Cult’s QAnon/Trump sting to identify and isolate Pushbackers and then target them on the road to crushing and deleting them was a resounding success. You would have thought the Russians had

invaded the building at gunpoint and lined up senators for a firing squad to see the political and media reaction. Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez is a child in a woman’s body, a terribletwos, me, me, me, Woker narcissist of such proportions that words have no meaning. She said she thought she was going to die when ‘insurrectionists’ banged on her office door. It turned out she wasn’t even in the Capitol Building when the riot was happening and the ‘banging’ was a Capitol Police officer. She referred to herself as a ‘survivor’ which is an insult to all those true survivors of violent and sexual abuse while she lives her pampered and privileged life talking drivel for a living. Her Woke colleague and fellow meganarcissist Rashida Tlaib broke down describing the devastating effect on her, too, of not being in the building when the rioters were there. Ocasio-Cortez and Tlaib are members of a fully-Woke group of Congresswomen known as ‘The Squad’ along with Ilhan Omar and Ayanna Pressley. The Squad from what I can see can be identified by its vehement anti-white racism, anti-white men agenda, and, as always in these cases, the absence of brain cells on active duty. The usual suspects were on the riot case immediately in the form of Democrat ultra-Zionist senators and operatives Chuck Schumer and Adam Schiff demanding that Trump be impeached for ‘his part in the insurrection’. The same pair of prats had led the failed impeachment of Trump over the invented ‘Russia collusion’ nonsense which claimed Russia had helped Trump win the 2016 election. I didn’t realise that Tel Aviv had been relocated just outside Moscow. I must find an up-to-date map. The Russia hoax was a Sabbatian operation to keep Trump occupied and impotent and to stop any rapport with Russia which the Cult wants to retain as a perceptual enemy to be pulled out at will. Puppet Biden began a acking Russia when he came to office as the Cult seeks more upheaval, division and war across the world. A two-year stage show ‘Russia collusion inquiry’ headed by the not-very-bright former 9/11 FBI chief Robert Mueller, with support from 19 lawyers, 40 FBI agents plus intelligence analysts, forensic accountants and other

staff, devoured tens of millions of dollars and found no evidence of Russia collusion which a ten-year-old could have told them on day one. Now the same moronic Schumer and Schiff wanted a second impeachment of Trump over the Capitol ‘insurrection’ (riot) which the arrested development of Schumer called another ‘Pearl Harbor’ while others compared it with 9/11 in which 3,000 died and, in the case of CNN, with the Rwandan genocide in the 1990s in which an estimated 500,000 to 600,000 were murdered, between 250, 000 and 500,000 women were raped, and populations of whole towns were hacked to death with machetes. To make those comparisons purely for Cult political reasons is beyond insulting to those that suffered and lost their lives and confirms yet again the callous inhumanity that we are dealing with. Schumer is a monumental idiot and so is Schiff, but they serve the Cult agenda and do whatever they’re told so they get looked a er. Talking of idiots – another inane man who spanned the Russia and Capitol impeachment a empts was Senator Eric Swalwell who had the nerve to accuse Trump of collusion with the Russians while sleeping with a Chinese spy called Christine Fang or ‘Fang Fang’ which is straight out of a Bond film no doubt starring Klaus Schwab as the bloke living on a secret island and controlling laser weapons positioned in space and pointing at world capitals. Fang Fang plays the part of Bond’s infiltrator girlfriend which I’m sure she would enjoy rather more than sharing a bed with the brainless Swalwell, lying back and thinking of China. The FBI eventually warned Swalwell about Fang Fang which gave her time to escape back to the Chinese dictatorship. How very thoughtful of them. The second Trump impeachment also failed and hardly surprising when an impeachment is supposed to remove a si ing president and by the time it happened Trump was no longer president. These people are running your country America, well, officially anyway. Terrifying isn’t it?

Outcomes tell the story - always The outcome of all this – and it’s the outcome on which Renegade Minds focus, not the words – was that a vicious, hysterical and

obviously pre-planned assault was launched on Pushbackers to censor, silence and discredit them and even targeted their right to earn a living. They have since been condemned as ‘domestic terrorists’ that need to be treated like Al-Qaeda and Islamic State. ‘Domestic terrorists’ is a label the Cult has been trying to make stick since the period of the Oklahoma bombing in 1995 which was blamed on ‘far-right domestic terrorists’. If you read The Trigger you will see that the bombing was clearly a Problem-Reaction-Solution carried out by the Deep State during a Bill Clinton administration so corrupt that no dictionary definition of the term would even nearly suffice. Nearly 30, 000 troops were deployed from all over America to the empty streets of Washington for Biden’s inauguration. Ten thousand of them stayed on with the pretext of protecting the capital from insurrectionists when it was more psychological programming to normalise the use of the military in domestic law enforcement in support of the Cult plan for a police-military state. Biden’s fascist administration began a purge of ‘wrong-thinkers’ in the military which means anyone that is not on board with Woke. The Capitol Building was surrounded by a fence with razor wire and the Land of the Free was further symbolically and literally dismantled. The circle was completed with the installation of Biden and the exploitation of the QAnon Psyop. America had never been so divided since the civil war of the 19th century, Pushbackers were isolated and dubbed terrorists and now, as was always going to happen, the Cult immediately set about deleting what li le was le of freedom and transforming American society through a swish of the hand of the most controlled ‘president’ in American history leading (officially at least) the most extreme regime since the country was declared an independent state on July 4th, 1776. Biden issued undebated, dictatorial executive orders almost by the hour in his opening days in office across the whole spectrum of the Cult wish-list including diluting controls on the border with Mexico allowing thousands of migrants to illegally enter the United States to transform the demographics of America and import an election-changing number of perceived Democrat

voters. Then there were Biden deportation amnesties for the already illegally resident (estimated to be as high as 20 or even 30 million). A bill before Congress awarded American citizenship to anyone who could prove they had worked in agriculture for just 180 days in the previous two years as ‘Big Ag’ secured its slave labour long-term. There were the plans to add new states to the union such as Puerto Rico and making Washington DC a state. They are all parts of a plan to ensure that the Cult-owned Woke Democrats would be permanently in power.

Border – what border? I have exposed in detail in other books how mass immigration into the United States and Europe is the work of Cult networks fuelled by the tens of billions spent to this and other ends by George Soros and his global Open Society (open borders) Foundations. The impact can be seen in America alone where the population has increased by 100 million in li le more than 30 years mostly through immigration. I wrote in The Answer that the plan was to have so many people crossing the southern border that the numbers become unstoppable and we are now there under Cult-owned Biden. El Salvador in Central America puts the scale of what is happening into context. A third of the population now lives in the United States, much of it illegally, and many more are on the way. The methodology is to crush Central and South American countries economically and spread violence through machete-wielding psychopathic gangs like MS-13 based in El Salvador and now operating in many American cities. Biden-imposed lax security at the southern border means that it is all but open. He said before his ‘election’ that he wanted to see a surge towards the border if he became president and that was the green light for people to do just that a er election day to create the human disaster that followed for both America and the migrants. When that surge came the imbecilic Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez said it wasn’t a ‘surge’ because they are ‘children, not insurgents’ and the term ‘surge’ (used by Biden) was a claim of ‘white supremacists’.

This disingenuous lady may one day enter the realm of the most basic intelligence, but it won’t be any time soon. Sabbatians and the Cult are in the process of destroying America by importing violent people and gangs in among the genuine to terrorise American cities and by overwhelming services that cannot cope with the sheer volume of new arrivals. Something similar is happening in Europe as Western society in general is targeted for demographic and cultural transformation and upheaval. The plan demands violence and crime to create an environment of intimidation, fear and division and Soros has been funding the election of district a orneys across America who then stop prosecuting many crimes, reduce sentences for violent crimes and free as many violent criminals as they can. Sabbatians are creating the chaos from which order – their order – can respond in a classic Problem-Reaction-Solution. A Freemasonic moto says ‘Ordo Ab Chao’ (Order out of Chaos) and this is why the Cult is constantly creating chaos to impose a new ‘order’. Here you have the reason the Cult is constantly creating chaos. The ‘Covid’ hoax can be seen with those entering the United States by plane being forced to take a ‘Covid’ test while migrants flooding through southern border processing facilities do not. Nothing is put in the way of mass migration and if that means ignoring the government’s own ‘Covid’ rules then so be it. They know it’s all bullshit anyway. Any pushback on this is denounced as ‘racist’ by Wokers and Sabbatian fronts like the ultra-Zionist Anti-Defamation League headed by the appalling Jonathan Greenbla which at the same time argues that Israel should not give citizenship and voting rights to more Palestinian Arabs or the ‘Jewish population’ (in truth the Sabbatian network) will lose control of the country.

Society-changing numbers Biden’s masters have declared that countries like El Salvador are so dangerous that their people must be allowed into the United States for humanitarian reasons when there are fewer murders in large parts of many Central American countries than in US cities like

Baltimore. That is not to say Central America cannot be a dangerous place and Cult-controlled American governments have been making it so since way back, along with the dismantling of economies, in a long-term plan to drive people north into the United States. Parts of Central America are very dangerous, but in other areas the story is being greatly exaggerated to justify relaxing immigration criteria. Migrants are being offered free healthcare and education in the United States as another incentive to head for the border and there is no requirement to be financially independent before you can enter to prevent the resources of America being drained. You can’t blame migrants for seeking what they believe will be a be er life, but they are being played by the Cult for dark and nefarious ends. The numbers since Biden took office are huge. In February, 2021, more than 100,000 people were known to have tried to enter the US illegally through the southern border (it was 34,000 in the same month in 2020) and in March it was 170,000 – a 418 percent increase on March, 2020. These numbers are only known people, not the ones who get in unseen. The true figure for migrants illegally crossing the border in a single month was estimated by one congressman at 250,000 and that number will only rise under Biden’s current policy. Gangs of murdering drug-running thugs that control the Mexican side of the border demand money – thousands of dollars – to let migrants cross the Rio Grande into America. At the same time gun ba les are breaking out on the border several times a week between rival Mexican drug gangs (which now operate globally) who are equipped with sophisticated military-grade weapons, grenades and armoured vehicles. While the Capitol Building was being ‘protected’ from a non-existent ‘threat’ by thousands of troops, and others were still deployed at the time in the Cult Neocon war in Afghanistan, the southern border of America was le to its fate. This is not incompetence, it is cold calculation. By March, 2021, there were 17,000 unaccompanied children held at border facilities and many of them are ensnared by people traffickers for paedophile rings and raped on their journey north to America. This is not conjecture – this is fact. Many of those designated

children are in reality teenage boys or older. Meanwhile Wokers posture their self-purity for encouraging poor and tragic people to come to America and face this nightmare both on the journey and at the border with the disgusting figure of House Speaker Nancy Pelosi giving disingenuous speeches about caring for migrants. The woman’s evil. Wokers condemned Trump for having children in cages at the border (so did Obama, Shhhh), but now they are sleeping on the floor without access to a shower with one border facility 729 percent over capacity. The Biden insanity even proposed flying migrants from the southern border to the northern border with Canada for ‘processing’. The whole shambles is being overseen by ultra-Zionist Secretary of Homeland Security, the moronic liar Alejandro Mayorkas, who banned news cameras at border facilities to stop Americans seeing what was happening. Mayorkas said there was not a ban on news crews; it was just that they were not allowed to film. Alongside him at Homeland Security is another ultra-Zionist Cass Sunstein appointed by Biden to oversee new immigration laws. Sunstein despises conspiracy researchers to the point where he suggests they should be banned or taxed for having such views. The man is not bonkers or anything. He’s perfectly well-adjusted, but adjusted to what is the question. Criticise what is happening and you are a ‘white supremacist’ when earlier non-white immigrants also oppose the numbers which effect their lives and opportunities. Black people in poor areas are particularly damaged by uncontrolled immigration and the increased competition for work opportunities with those who will work for less. They are also losing voting power as Hispanics become more dominant in former black areas. It’s a downward spiral for them while the billionaires behind the policy drone on about how much they care about black people and ‘racism’. None of this is about compassion for migrants or black people – that’s just wind and air. Migrants are instead being mercilessly exploited to transform America while the countries they leave are losing their future and the same is true in Europe. Mass immigration may now be the work of Woke Democrats, but it can be traced back to the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (it

wasn’t) signed into law by Republican hero President Ronald Reagan which gave amnesty to millions living in the United States illegally and other incentives for people to head for the southern border. Here we have the one-party state at work again.

Save me syndrome Almost every aspect of what I have been exposing as the Cult agenda was on display in even the first days of ‘Biden’ with silencing of Pushbackers at the forefront of everything. A Renegade Mind will view the Trump years and QAnon in a very different light to their supporters and advocates as the dots are connected. The QAnon/Trump Psyop has given the Cult all it was looking for. We may not know how much, or li le, that Trump realised he was being used, but that’s a side issue. This pincer movement produced the desired outcome of dividing America and having Pushbackers isolated. To turn this around we have to look at new routes to empowerment which do not include handing our power to other people and groups through what I will call the ‘Save Me Syndrome’ – ‘I want someone else to do it so that I don’t have to’. We have seen this at work throughout human history and the QAnon/Trump Psyop is only the latest incarnation alongside all the others. Religion is an obvious expression of this when people look to a ‘god’ or priest to save them or tell them how to be saved and then there are ‘save me’ politicians like Trump. Politics is a diversion and not a ‘saviour’. It is a means to block positive change, not make it possible. Save Me Syndrome always comes with the same repeating theme of handing your power to whom or what you believe will save you while your real ‘saviour’ stares back from the mirror every morning. Renegade Minds are constantly vigilant in this regard and always asking the question ‘What can I do?’ rather than ‘What can someone else do for me?’ Gandhi was right when he said: ‘You must be the change you want to see in the world.’ We are indeed the people we have been waiting for. We are presented with a constant ra of reasons to concede that power to others and forget where the real power is. Humanity has the numbers and the Cult does not. It has to

use diversion and division to target the unstoppable power that comes from unity. Religions, governments, politicians, corporations, media, QAnon, are all different manifestations of this powerdiversion and dilution. Refusing to give your power to governments and instead handing it to Trump and QAnon is not to take a new direction, but merely to recycle the old one with new names on the posters. I will explore this phenomenon as we proceed and how to break the cycles and recycles that got us here through the mists of repeating perception and so repeating history. For now we shall turn to the most potent example in the entire human story of the consequences that follow when you give your power away. I am talking, of course, of the ‘Covid’ hoax.

CHAPTER FOUR ‘Covid’: Calculated catastrophe Facts are threatening to those invested in fraud DaShanne Stokes

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e can easily unravel the real reason for the ‘Covid pandemic’ hoax by employing the Renegade Mind methodology that I have outlined this far. We’ll start by comparing the long-planned Cult outcome with the ‘Covid pandemic’ outcome. Know the outcome and you’ll see the journey. I have highlighted the plan for the Hunger Games Society which has been in my books for so many years with the very few controlling the very many through ongoing dependency. To create this dependency it is essential to destroy independent livelihoods, businesses and employment to make the population reliant on the state (the Cult) for even the basics of life through a guaranteed pi ance income. While independence of income remained these Cult ambitions would be thwarted. With this knowledge it was easy to see where the ‘pandemic’ hoax was going once talk of ‘lockdowns’ began and the closing of all but perceived ‘essential’ businesses to ‘save’ us from an alleged ‘deadly virus’. Cult corporations like Amazon and Walmart were naturally considered ‘essential’ while mom and pop shops and stores had their doors closed by fascist decree. As a result with every new lockdown and new regulation more small and medium, even large businesses not owned by the Cult, went to the wall while Cult giants and their frontmen and women grew financially fa er by the second. Mom and pop were

denied an income and the right to earn a living and the wealth of people like Jeff Bezos (Amazon), Mark Zuckerberg (Facebook) and Sergei Brin and Larry Page (Google/Alphabet) have reached record levels. The Cult was increasing its own power through further dramatic concentrations of wealth while the competition was being destroyed and brought into a state of dependency. Lockdowns have been instigated to secure that very end and were never anything to do with health. My brother Paul spent 45 years building up a bus repair business, but lockdowns meant buses were running at a fraction of normal levels for months on end. Similar stories can told in their hundreds of millions worldwide. Efforts of a lifetime coldly destroyed by Cult multi-billionaires and their lackeys in government and law enforcement who continued to earn their living from the taxation of the people while denying the right of the same people to earn theirs. How different it would have been if those making and enforcing these decisions had to face the same financial hardships of those they affected, but they never do.

Gates of Hell Behind it all in the full knowledge of what he is doing and why is the psychopathic figure of Cult operative Bill Gates. His puppet Tedros at the World Health Organization declared ‘Covid’ a pandemic in March, 2020. The WHO had changed the definition of a ‘pandemic’ in 2009 just a month before declaring the ‘swine flu pandemic’ which would not have been so under the previous definition. The same applies to ‘Covid’. The definition had included… ‘an infection by an infectious agent, occurring simultaneously in different countries, with a significant mortality rate relative to the proportion of the population infected’. The new definition removed the need for ‘significant mortality’. The ‘pandemic’ has been fraudulent even down to the definition, but Gates demanded economy-destroying lockdowns, school closures, social distancing, mandatory masks, a ‘vaccination’ for every man, woman and child on the planet and severe consequences and restrictions for those that refused. Who gave him this power? The

Cult did which he serves like a li le boy in short trousers doing what his daddy tells him. He and his psychopathic missus even smiled when they said that much worse was to come (what they knew was planned to come). Gates responded in the ma er-of-fact way of all psychopaths to a question about the effect on the world economy of what he was doing: Well, it won’t go to zero but it will shrink. Global GDP is probably going to take the biggest hit ever [Gates was smiling as he said this] … in my lifetime this will be the greatest economic hit. But you don’t have a choice. People act as if you have a choice. People don’t feel like going to the stadium when they might get infected … People are deeply affected by seeing these stats, by knowing they could be part of the transmission chain, old people, their parents and grandparents, could be affected by this, and so you don’t get to say ignore what is going on here. There will be the ability to open up, particularly in rich countries, if things are done well over the next few months, but for the world at large normalcy only returns when we have largely vaccinated the entire population.

The man has no compassion or empathy. How could he when he’s a psychopath like all Cult players? My own view is that even beyond that he is very seriously mentally ill. Look in his eyes and you can see this along with his crazy flailing arms. You don’t do what he has done to the world population since the start of 2020 unless you are mentally ill and at the most extreme end of psychopathic. You especially don’t do it when to you know, as we shall see, that cases and deaths from ‘Covid’ are fakery and a product of monumental figure massaging. ‘These stats’ that Gates referred to are based on a ‘test’ that’s not testing for the ‘virus’ as he has known all along. He made his fortune with big Cult support as an infamously ruthless so ware salesman and now buys global control of ‘health’ (death) policy without the population he affects having any say. It’s a breathtaking outrage. Gates talked about people being deeply affected by fear of ‘Covid’ when that was because of him and his global network lying to them minute-by-minute supported by a lying media that he seriously influences and funds to the tune of hundreds of millions. He’s handed big sums to media operations including the BBC, NBC, Al Jazeera, Univision, PBS NewsHour,

ProPublica, National Journal, The Guardian, The Financial Times, The Atlantic, Texas Tribune, USA Today publisher Ganne , Washington Monthly, Le Monde, Center for Investigative Reporting, Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting, National Press Foundation, International Center for Journalists, Solutions Journalism Network, the Poynter Institute for Media Studies, and many more. Gates is everywhere in the ‘Covid’ hoax and the man must go to prison – or a mental facility – for the rest of his life and his money distributed to those he has taken such enormous psychopathic pleasure in crushing.

The Muscle The Hunger Games global structure demands a police-military state – a fusion of the two into one force – which viciously imposes the will of the Cult on the population and protects the Cult from public rebellion. In that regard, too, the ‘Covid’ hoax just keeps on giving. O en unlawful, ridiculous and contradictory ‘Covid’ rules and regulations have been policed across the world by moronic automatons and psychopaths made faceless by face-nappy masks and acting like the Nazi SS and fascist blackshirts and brownshirts of Hitler and Mussolini. The smallest departure from the rules decreed by the psychos in government and their clueless gofers were jumped upon by the face-nappy fascists. Brutality against public protestors soon became commonplace even on girls, women and old people as the brave men with the batons – the Face-Nappies as I call them – broke up peaceful protests and handed out fines like confe i to people who couldn’t earn a living let alone pay hundreds of pounds for what was once an accepted human right. Robot Face-Nappies of No ingham police in the English East Midlands fined one group £11,000 for a ending a child’s birthday party. For decades I charted the transformation of law enforcement as genuine, decent officers were replaced with psychopaths and the brain dead who would happily and brutally do whatever their masters told them. Now they were let loose on the public and I would emphasise the point that none of this just happened. The step-by-step change in the dynamic between police and public was orchestrated from the shadows by

those who knew where this was all going and the same with the perceptual reframing of those in all levels of authority and official administration through ‘training courses’ by organisations such as Common Purpose which was created in the late 1980s and given a massive boost in Blair era Britain until it became a global phenomenon. Supposed public ‘servants’ began to view the population as the enemy and the same was true of the police. This was the start of the explosion of behaviour manipulation organisations and networks preparing for the all-war on the human psyche unleashed with the dawn of 2020. I will go into more detail about this later in the book because it is a core part of what is happening. Police desecrated beauty spots to deter people gathering and arrested women for walking in the countryside alone ‘too far’ from their homes. We had arrogant, clueless sergeants in the Isle of Wight police where I live posting on Facebook what they insisted the population must do or else. A schoolmaster sergeant called Radford looked young enough for me to ask if his mother knew he was out, but he was posting what he expected people to do while a Sergeant Wilkinson boasted about fining lads for meeting in a McDonald’s car park where they went to get a lockdown takeaway. Wilkinson added that he had even cancelled their order. What a pair of prats these people are and yet they have increasingly become the norm among Jackboot Johnson’s Yellowshirts once known as the British police. This was the theme all over the world with police savagery common during lockdown protests in the United States, the Netherlands, and the fascist state of Victoria in Australia under its tyrannical and again moronic premier Daniel Andrews. Amazing how tyrannical and moronic tend to work as a team and the same combination could be seen across America as arrogant, narcissistic Woke governors and mayors such as Gavin Newsom (California), Andrew Cuomo (New York), Gretchen Whitmer (Michigan), Lori Lightfoot (Chicago) and Eric Garce i (Los Angeles) did their Nazi and Stalin impressions with the full support of the compliant brutality of their enforcers in uniform as they arrested small business owners defying

fascist shutdown orders and took them to jail in ankle shackles and handcuffs. This happened to bistro owner Marlena Pavlos-Hackney in Gretchen Whitmer’s fascist state of Michigan when police arrived to enforce an order by a state-owned judge for ‘pu ing the community at risk’ at a time when other states like Texas were dropping restrictions and migrants were pouring across the southern border without any ‘Covid’ questions at all. I’m sure there are many officers appalled by what they are ordered to do, but not nearly enough of them. If they were truly appalled they would not do it. As the months passed every opportunity was taken to have the military involved to make their presence on the streets ever more familiar and ‘normal’ for the longer-term goal of police-military fusion. Another crucial element to the Hunger Games enforcement network has been encouraging the public to report neighbours and others for ‘breaking the lockdown rules’. The group faced with £11,000 in fines at the child’s birthday party would have been dobbed-in by a neighbour with a brain the size of a pea. The technique was most famously employed by the Stasi secret police in communist East Germany who had public informants placed throughout the population. A police chief in the UK says his force doesn’t need to carry out ‘Covid’ patrols when they are flooded with so many calls from the public reporting other people for visiting the beach. Dorset police chief James Vaughan said people were so enthusiastic about snitching on their fellow humans they were now operating as an auxiliary arm of the police: ‘We are still ge ing around 400 reports a week from the public, so we will respond to reports …We won’t need to be doing hotspot patrols because people are very quick to pick the phone up and tell us.’ Vaughan didn’t say that this is a pillar of all tyrannies of whatever complexion and the means to hugely extend the reach of enforcement while spreading distrust among the people and making them wary of doing anything that might get them reported. Those narcissistic Isle of Wight sergeants Radford and Wilkinson never fail to add a link to their Facebook posts where the public can inform on their fellow slaves.

Neither would be self-aware enough to realise they were imitating the Stasi which they might well never have heard of. Government psychologists that I will expose later laid out a policy to turn communities against each other in the same way.

A coincidence? Yep, and I can knit fog I knew from the start of the alleged pandemic that this was a Cult operation. It presented limitless potential to rapidly advance the Cult agenda and exploit manipulated fear to demand that every man, woman and child on the planet was ‘vaccinated’ in a process never used on humans before which infuses self-replicating synthetic material into human cells. Remember the plan to transform the human body from a biological to a synthetic biological state. I’ll deal with the ‘vaccine’ (that’s not actually a vaccine) when I focus on the genetic agenda. Enough to say here that mass global ‘vaccination’ justified by this ‘new virus’ set alarms ringing a er 30 years of tracking these people and their methods. The ‘Covid’ hoax officially beginning in China was also a big red flag for reasons I will be explaining. The agenda potential was so enormous that I could dismiss any idea that the ‘virus’ appeared naturally. Major happenings with major agenda implications never occur without Cult involvement in making them happen. My questions were twofold in early 2020 as the media began its campaign to induce global fear and hysteria: Was this alleged infectious agent released on purpose by the Cult or did it even exist at all? I then did what I always do in these situations. I sat, observed and waited to see where the evidence and information would take me. By March and early April synchronicity was strongly – and ever more so since then – pointing me in the direction of there is no ‘virus’. I went public on that with derision even from swathes of the alternative media that voiced a scenario that the Chinese government released the ‘virus’ in league with Deep State elements in the United States from a toplevel bio-lab in Wuhan where the ‘virus’ is said to have first appeared. I looked at that possibility, but I didn’t buy it for several reasons. Deaths from the ‘virus’ did not in any way match what they

would have been with a ‘deadly bioweapon’ and it is much more effective if you sell the illusion of an infectious agent rather than having a real one unless you can control through injection who has it and who doesn’t. Otherwise you lose control of events. A made-up ‘virus’ gives you a blank sheet of paper on which you can make it do whatever you like and have any symptoms or mutant ‘variants’ you choose to add while a real infectious agent would limit you to what it actually does. A phantom disease allows you to have endless ludicrous ‘studies’ on the ‘Covid’ dollar to widen the perceived impact by inventing ever more ‘at risk’ groups including one study which said those who walk slowly may be almost four times more likely to die from the ‘virus’. People are in psychiatric wards for less. A real ‘deadly bioweapon’ can take out people in the hierarchy that are not part of the Cult, but essential to its operation. Obviously they don’t want that. Releasing a real disease means you immediately lose control of it. Releasing an illusory one means you don’t. Again it’s vital that people are extra careful when dealing with what they want to hear. A bioweapon unleashed from a Chinese laboratory in collusion with the American Deep State may fit a conspiracy narrative, but is it true? Would it not be far more effective to use the excuse of a ‘virus’ to justify the real bioweapon – the ‘vaccine’? That way your disease agent does not have to be transmi ed and arrives directly through a syringe. I saw a French virologist Luc Montagnier quoted in the alternative media as saying he had discovered that the alleged ‘new’ severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus , or SARS-CoV-2, was made artificially and included elements of the human immunodeficiency ‘virus’ (HIV) and a parasite that causes malaria. SARS-CoV-2 is alleged to trigger an alleged illness called Covid-19. I remembered Montagnier’s name from my research years before into claims that an HIV ‘retrovirus’ causes AIDs – claims that were demolished by Berkeley virologist Peter Duesberg who showed that no one had ever proved that HIV causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS. Claims that become accepted as fact, publicly and medically, with no proof whatsoever are an ever-recurring story that profoundly applies to

‘Covid’. Nevertheless, despite the lack of proof, Montagnier’s team at the Pasteur Institute in Paris had a long dispute with American researcher Robert Gallo over which of them discovered and isolated the HIV ‘virus’ and with no evidence found it to cause AIDS. You will see later that there is also no evidence that any ‘virus’ causes any disease or that there is even such a thing as a ‘virus’ in the way it is said to exist. The claim to have ‘isolated’ the HIV ‘virus’ will be presented in its real context as we come to the shocking story – and it is a story – of SARS-CoV-2 and so will Montagnier’s assertion that he identified the full SARS-CoV-2 genome.

Hoax in the making We can pick up the ‘Covid’ story in 2010 and the publication by the Rockefeller Foundation of a document called ‘Scenarios for the Future of Technology and International Development’. The inner circle of the Rockefeller family has been serving the Cult since John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) made his fortune with Standard Oil. It is less well known that the same Rockefeller – the Bill Gates of his day – was responsible for establishing what is now referred to as ‘Big Pharma’, the global network of pharmaceutical companies that make outrageous profits dispensing scalpel and drug ‘medicine’ and are obsessed with pumping vaccines in ever-increasing number into as many human arms and backsides as possible. John D. Rockefeller was the driving force behind the creation of the ‘education’ system in the United States and elsewhere specifically designed to program the perceptions of generations therea er. The Rockefeller family donated exceptionally valuable land in New York for the United Nations building and were central in establishing the World Health Organization in 1948 as an agency of the UN which was created from the start as a Trojan horse and stalking horse for world government. Now enter Bill Gates. His family and the Rockefellers have long been extremely close and I have seen genealogy which claims that if you go back far enough the two families fuse into the same bloodline. Gates has said that the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation was inspired by the Rockefeller Foundation and why not

when both are serving the same Cult? Major tax-exempt foundations are overwhelmingly criminal enterprises in which Cult assets fund the Cult agenda in the guise of ‘philanthropy’ while avoiding tax in the process. Cult operatives can become mega-rich in their role of front men and women for the psychopaths at the inner core and they, too, have to be psychopaths to knowingly serve such evil. Part of the deal is that a big percentage of the wealth gleaned from representing the Cult has to be spent advancing the ambitions of the Cult and hence you have the Rockefeller Foundation, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (and so many more) and people like George Soros with his global Open Society Foundations spending their billions in pursuit of global Cult control. Gates is a global public face of the Cult with his interventions in world affairs including Big Tech influence; a central role in the ‘Covid’ and ‘vaccine’ scam; promotion of the climate change shakedown; manipulation of education; geoengineering of the skies; and his food-control agenda as the biggest owner of farmland in America, his GMO promotion and through other means. As one writer said: ‘Gates monopolizes or wields disproportionate influence over the tech industry, global health and vaccines, agriculture and food policy (including biopiracy and fake food), weather modification and other climate technologies, surveillance, education and media.’ The almost limitless wealth secured through Microso and other not-allowedto-fail ventures (including vaccines) has been ploughed into a long, long list of Cult projects designed to enslave the entire human race. Gates and the Rockefellers have been working as one unit with the Rockefeller-established World Health Organization leading global ‘Covid’ policy controlled by Gates through his mouth-piece Tedros. Gates became the WHO’s biggest funder when Trump announced that the American government would cease its donations, but Biden immediately said he would restore the money when he took office in January, 2021. The Gates Foundation (the Cult) owns through limitless funding the world health system and the major players across the globe in the ‘Covid’ hoax.

Okay, with that background we return to that Rockefeller Foundation document of 2010 headed ‘Scenarios for the Future of Technology and International Development’ and its ‘imaginary’ epidemic of a virulent and deadly influenza strain which infected 20 percent of the global population and killed eight million in seven months. The Rockefeller scenario was that the epidemic destroyed economies, closed shops, offices and other businesses and led to governments imposing fierce rules and restrictions that included mandatory wearing of face masks and body-temperature checks to enter communal spaces like railway stations and supermarkets. The document predicted that even a er the height of the Rockefellerenvisaged epidemic the authoritarian rule would continue to deal with further pandemics, transnational terrorism, environmental crises and rising poverty. Now you may think that the Rockefellers are our modern-day seers or alternatively, and rather more likely, that they well knew what was planned a few years further on. Fascism had to be imposed, you see, to ‘protect citizens from risk and exposure’. The Rockefeller scenario document said: During the pandemic, national leaders around the world flexed their authority and imposed airtight rules and restrictions, from the mandatory wearing of face masks to body-temperature checks at the entries to communal spaces like train stations and supermarkets. Even after the pandemic faded, this more authoritarian control and oversight of citizens and their activities stuck and even intensified. In order to protect themselves from the spread of increasingly global problems – from pandemics and transnational terrorism to environmental crises and rising poverty – leaders around the world took a firmer grip on power. At first, the notion of a more controlled world gained wide acceptance and approval. Citizens willingly gave up some of their sovereignty – and their privacy – to more paternalistic states in exchange for greater safety and stability. Citizens were more tolerant, and even eager, for topdown direction and oversight, and national leaders had more latitude to impose order in the ways they saw fit. In developed countries, this heightened oversight took many forms: biometric IDs for all citizens, for example, and tighter regulation of key industries whose stability was deemed vital to national interests. In many developed countries, enforced cooperation with a suite of new regulations and agreements slowly but steadily restored both order and, importantly, economic growth.

There we have the prophetic Rockefellers in 2010 and three years later came their paper for the Global Health Summit in Beijing, China, when government representatives, the private sector, international organisations and groups met to discuss the next 100 years of ‘global health’. The Rockefeller Foundation-funded paper was called ‘Dreaming the Future of Health for the Next 100 Years and more prophecy ensued as it described a dystopian future: ‘The abundance of data, digitally tracking and linking people may mean the ‘death of privacy’ and may replace physical interaction with transient, virtual connection, generating isolation and raising questions of how values are shaped in virtual networks.’ Next in the ‘Covid’ hoax preparation sequence came a ‘table top’ simulation in 2018 for another ‘imaginary’ pandemic of a disease called Clade X which was said to kill 900 million people. The exercise was organised by the Gates-funded Johns Hopkins University’s Center for Health Security in the United States and this is the very same university that has been compiling the disgustingly and systematically erroneous global figures for ‘Covid’ cases and deaths. Similar Johns Hopkins health crisis scenarios have included the Dark Winter exercise in 2001 and Atlantic Storm in 2005.

Nostradamus 201 For sheer predictive genius look no further prophecy-watchers than the Bill Gates-funded Event 201 held only six weeks before the ‘coronavirus pandemic’ is supposed to have broken out in China and Event 201 was based on a scenario of a global ‘coronavirus pandemic’. Melinda Gates, the great man’s missus, told the BBC that he had ‘prepared for years’ for a coronavirus pandemic which told us what we already knew. Nostradamugates had predicted in a TED talk in 2015 that a pandemic was coming that would kill a lot of people and demolish the world economy. My god, the man is a machine – possibly even literally. Now here he was only weeks before the real thing funding just such a simulated scenario and involving his friends and associates at Johns Hopkins, the World Economic Forum Cult-front of Klaus Schwab, the United Nations,

Johnson & Johnson, major banks, and officials from China and the Centers for Disease Control in the United States. What synchronicity – Johns Hopkins would go on to compile the fraudulent ‘Covid’ figures, the World Economic Forum and Schwab would push the ‘Great Reset’ in response to ‘Covid’, the Centers for Disease Control would be at the forefront of ‘Covid’ policy in the United States, Johnson & Johnson would produce a ‘Covid vaccine’, and everything would officially start just weeks later in China. Spooky, eh? They were even accurate in creating a simulation of a ‘virus’ pandemic because the ‘real thing’ would also be a simulation. Event 201 was not an exercise preparing for something that might happen; it was a rehearsal for what those in control knew was going to happen and very shortly. Hours of this simulation were posted on the Internet and the various themes and responses mirrored what would soon be imposed to transform human society. News stories were inserted and what they said would be commonplace a few weeks later with still more prophecy perfection. Much discussion focused on the need to deal with misinformation and the ‘anti-vax movement’ which is exactly what happened when the ‘virus’ arrived – was said to have arrived – in the West. Cult-owned social media banned criticism and exposure of the official ‘virus’ narrative and when I said there was no ‘virus’ in early April, 2020, I was banned by one platform a er another including YouTube, Facebook and later Twi er. The mainstream broadcast media in Britain was in effect banned from interviewing me by the Tony-Blair-created government broadcasting censor Ofcom headed by career government bureaucrat Melanie Dawes who was appointed just as the ‘virus’ hoax was about to play out in January, 2020. At the same time the Ickonic media platform was using Vimeo, another ultra-Zionist-owned operation, while our own player was being created and they deleted in an instant hundreds of videos, documentaries, series and shows to confirm their unbelievable vindictiveness. We had copies, of course, and they had to be restored one by one when our player was ready. These people have no class. Sabbatian Facebook promised free advertisements for the Gates-

controlled World Health Organization narrative while deleting ‘false claims and conspiracy theories’ to stop ‘misinformation’ about the alleged coronavirus. All these responses could be seen just a short while earlier in the scenarios of Event 201. Extreme censorship was absolutely crucial for the Cult because the official story was so ridiculous and unsupportable by the evidence that it could never survive open debate and the free-flow of information and opinion. If you can’t win a debate then don’t have one is the Cult’s approach throughout history. Facebook’s li le boy front man – front boy – Mark Zuckerberg equated ‘credible and accurate information’ with official sources and exposing their lies with ‘misinformation’.

Silencing those that can see The censorship dynamic of Event 201 is now the norm with an army of narrative-supporting ‘fact-checker’ organisations whose entire reason for being is to tell the public that official narratives are true and those exposing them are lying. One of the most appalling of these ‘fact-checkers’ is called NewsGuard founded by ultra-Zionist Americans Gordon Crovitz and Steven Brill. Crovitz is a former publisher of The Wall Street Journal, former Executive Vice President of Dow Jones, a member of the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), and on the board of the American Association of Rhodes Scholars. The CFR and Rhodes Scholarships, named a er Rothschild agent Cecil Rhodes who plundered the gold and diamonds of South Africa for his masters and the Cult, have featured widely in my books. NewsGuard don’t seem to like me for some reason – I really can’t think why – and they have done all they can to have me censored and discredited which is, to quote an old British politician, like being savaged by a dead sheep. They are, however, like all in the censorship network, very well connected and funded by organisations themselves funded by, or connected to, Bill Gates. As you would expect with anything associated with Gates NewsGuard has an offshoot called HealthGuard which ‘fights online health care hoaxes’. How very kind. Somehow the NewsGuard European Managing Director Anna-Sophie Harling, a remarkably young-

looking woman with no broadcasting experience and li le hands-on work in journalism, has somehow secured a position on the ‘Content Board’ of UK government broadcast censor Ofcom. An executive of an organisation seeking to discredit dissidents of the official narratives is making decisions for the government broadcast ‘regulator’ about content?? Another appalling ‘fact-checker’ is Full Fact funded by George Soros and global censors Google and Facebook. It’s amazing how many activists in the ‘fact-checking’, ‘anti-hate’, arena turn up in government-related positions – people like UK Labour Party activist Imran Ahmed who heads the Center for Countering Digital Hate founded by people like Morgan McSweeney, now chief of staff to the Labour Party’s hapless and useless ‘leader’ Keir Starmer. Digital Hate – which is what it really is – uses the American spelling of Center to betray its connection to a transatlantic network of similar organisations which in 2020 shapeshi ed from a acking people for ‘hate’ to a acking them for questioning the ‘Covid’ hoax and the dangers of the ‘Covid vaccine’. It’s just a coincidence, you understand. This is one of Imran Ahmed’s hysterical statements: ‘I would go beyond calling anti-vaxxers conspiracy theorists to say they are an extremist group that pose a national security risk.’ No one could ever accuse this prat of understatement and he’s including in that those parents who are now against vaccines a er their children were damaged for life or killed by them. He’s such a nice man. Ahmed does the rounds of the Woke media ge ing so -ball questions from spineless ‘journalists’ who never ask what right he has to campaign to destroy the freedom of speech of others while he demands it for himself. There also seems to be an overrepresentation in Ofcom of people connected to the narrative-worshipping BBC. This incredible global network of narrative-support was super-vital when the ‘Covid’ hoax was played in the light of the mega-whopper lies that have to be defended from the spotlight cast by the most basic intelligence.

Setting the scene

The Cult plays the long game and proceeds step-by-step ensuring that everything is in place before major cards are played and they don’t come any bigger than the ‘Covid’ hoax. The psychopaths can’t handle events where the outcome isn’t certain and as li le as possible – preferably nothing – is le to chance. Politicians, government and medical officials who would follow direction were brought to illusory power in advance by the Cult web whether on the national stage or others like state governors and mayors of America. For decades the dynamic between officialdom, law enforcement and the public was changed from one of service to one of control and dictatorship. Behaviour manipulation networks established within government were waiting to impose the coming ‘Covid’ rules and regulations specifically designed to subdue and rewire the psyche of the people in the guise of protecting health. These included in the UK the Behavioural Insights Team part-owned by the British government Cabinet Office; the Scientific Pandemic Insights Group on Behaviours (SPI-B); and a whole web of intelligence and military groups seeking to direct the conversation on social media and control the narrative. Among them are the cyberwarfare (on the people) 77th Brigade of the British military which is also coordinated through the Cabinet Office as civilian and military leadership continues to combine in what they call the Fusion Doctrine. The 77th Brigade is a British equivalent of the infamous Israeli (Sabbatian) military cyberwarfare and Internet manipulation operation Unit 8200 which I expose at length in The Trigger. Also carefully in place were the medical and science advisers to government – many on the payroll past or present of Bill Gates – and a whole alternative structure of unelected government stood by to take control when elected parliaments were effectively closed down once the ‘Covid’ card was slammed on the table. The structure I have described here and so much more was installed in every major country through the Cult networks. The top-down control hierarchy looks like this: The Cult – Cult-owned Gates – the World Health Organization and Tedros – Gates-funded or controlled chief medical officers and science ‘advisers’ (dictators) in each country –

political ‘leaders’– law enforcement – The People. Through this simple global communication and enforcement structure the policy of the Cult could be imposed on virtually the entire human population so long as they acquiesced to the fascism. With everything in place it was time for the bu on to be pressed in late 2019/early 2020. These were the prime goals the Cult had to secure for its will to prevail: 1) Locking down economies, closing all but designated ‘essential’ businesses (Cult-owned corporations were ‘essential’), and pu ing the population under house arrest was an imperative to destroy independent income and employment and ensure dependency on the Cult-controlled state in the Hunger Games Society. Lockdowns had to be established as the global blueprint from the start to respond to the ‘virus’ and followed by pre y much the entire world. 2) The global population had to be terrified into believing in a deadly ‘virus’ that didn’t actually exist so they would unquestioningly obey authority in the belief that authority must know how best to protect them and their families. So ware salesman Gates would suddenly morph into the world’s health expert and be promoted as such by the Cult-owned media. 3) A method of testing that wasn’t testing for the ‘virus’, but was only claimed to be, had to be in place to provide the illusion of ‘cases’ and subsequent ‘deaths’ that had a very different cause to the ‘Covid-19’ that would be scribbled on the death certificate. 4) Because there was no ‘virus’ and the great majority testing positive with a test not testing for the ‘virus’ would have no symptoms of anything the lie had to be sold that people without symptoms (without the ‘virus’) could still pass it on to others. This was crucial to justify for the first time quarantining – house arresting – healthy people. Without this the economy-destroying lockdown of everybody could not have been credibly sold. 5) The ‘saviour’ had to be seen as a vaccine which beyond evil drug companies were working like angels of mercy to develop as quickly as possible, with all corners cut, to save the day. The public must absolutely not know that the ‘vaccine’ had nothing to do with a ‘virus’ or that the contents were ready and waiting with a very different motive long before the ‘Covid’ card was even li ed from the pack.

I said in March, 2020, that the ‘vaccine’ would have been created way ahead of the ‘Covid’ hoax which justified its use and the following December an article in the New York Intelligencer magazine said the Moderna ‘vaccine’ had been ‘designed’ by

January, 2020. This was ‘before China had even acknowledged that the disease could be transmi ed from human to human, more than a week before the first confirmed coronavirus case in the United States’. The article said that by the time the first American death was announced a month later ‘the vaccine had already been manufactured and shipped to the National Institutes of Health for the beginning of its Phase I clinical trial’. The ‘vaccine’ was actually ‘designed’ long before that although even with this timescale you would expect the article to ask how on earth it could have been done that quickly. Instead it asked why the ‘vaccine’ had not been rolled out then and not months later. Journalism in the mainstream is truly dead. I am going to detail in the next chapter why the ‘virus’ has never existed and how a hoax on that scale was possible, but first the foundation on which the Big Lie of ‘Covid’ was built.

The test that doesn’t test Fraudulent ‘testing’ is the bo om line of the whole ‘Covid’ hoax and was the means by which a ‘virus’ that did not exist appeared to exist. They could only achieve this magic trick by using a test not testing for the ‘virus’. To use a test that was testing for the ‘virus’ would mean that every test would come back negative given there was no ‘virus’. They chose to exploit something called the RT-PCR test invented by American biochemist Kary Mullis in the 1980s who said publicly that his PCR test … cannot detect infectious disease. Yes, the ‘test’ used worldwide to detect infectious ‘Covid’ to produce all the illusory ‘cases’ and ‘deaths’ compiled by Johns Hopkins and others cannot detect infectious disease. This fact came from the mouth of the man who invented PCR and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 for doing so. Sadly, and incredibly conveniently for the Cult, Mullis died in August, 2019, at the age of 74 just before his test would be fraudulently used to unleash fascism on the world. He was said to have died from pneumonia which was an irony in itself. A few months later he would have had ‘Covid-19’ on his death certificate. I say the timing of his death was convenient because had he lived Mullis, a brilliant, honest and decent man, would have been

vociferously speaking out against the use of his test to detect ‘Covid’ when it was never designed, or able, to do that. I know that to be true given that Mullis made the same point when his test was used to ‘detect’ – not detect – HIV. He had been seriously critical of the Gallo/Montagnier claim to have isolated the HIV ‘virus’ and shown it to cause AIDS for which Mullis said there was no evidence. AIDS is actually not a disease but a series of diseases from which people die all the time. When they die from those same diseases a er a positive ‘test’ for HIV then AIDS goes on their death certificate. I think I’ve heard that before somewhere. Countries instigated a policy with ‘Covid’ that anyone who tested positive with a test not testing for the ‘virus’ and died of any other cause within 28 days and even longer ‘Covid-19’ had to go on the death certificate. Cases have come from the test that can’t test for infectious disease and the deaths are those who have died of anything a er testing positive with a test not testing for the ‘virus’. I’ll have much more later about the death certificate scandal. Mullis was deeply dismissive of the now US ‘Covid’ star Anthony Fauci who he said was a liar who didn’t know anything about anything – ‘and I would say that to his face – nothing.’ He said of Fauci: ‘The man thinks he can take a blood sample, put it in an electron microscope and if it’s got a virus in there you’ll know it – he doesn’t understand electron microscopy and he doesn’t understand medicine and shouldn’t be in a position like he’s in.’ That position, terrifyingly, has made him the decider of ‘Covid’ fascism policy on behalf of the Cult in his role as director since 1984 of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) while his record of being wrong is laughable; but being wrong, so long as it’s the right kind of wrong, is why the Cult loves him. He’ll say anything the Cult tells him to say. Fauci was made Chief Medical Adviser to the President immediately Biden took office. Biden was installed in the White House by Cult manipulation and one of his first decisions was to elevate Fauci to a position of even more control. This is a coincidence? Yes, and I identify as a flamenco dancer called Lola. How does such an incompetent criminal like Fauci remain in that

pivotal position in American health since the 1980s? When you serve the Cult it looks a er you until you are surplus to requirements. Kary Mullis said prophetically of Fauci and his like: ‘Those guys have an agenda and it’s not an agenda we would like them to have … they make their own rules, they change them when they want to, and Tony Fauci does not mind going on television in front of the people who pay his salary and lie directly into the camera.’ Fauci has done that almost daily since the ‘Covid’ hoax began. Lying is in Fauci’s DNA. To make the situation crystal clear about the PCR test this is a direct quote from its inventor Kary Mullis: It [the PCR test] doesn’t tell you that you’re sick and doesn’t tell you that the thing you ended up with was really going to hurt you ...’

Ask yourself why governments and medical systems the world over have been using this very test to decide who is ‘infected’ with the SARS-CoV-2 ‘virus’ and the alleged disease it allegedly causes, ‘Covid-19’. The answer to that question will tell you what has been going on. By the way, here’s a li le show-stopper – the ‘new’ SARSCoV-2 ‘virus’ was ‘identified’ as such right from the start using … the PCR test not testing for the ‘virus’. If you are new to this and find that shocking then stick around. I have hardly started yet. Even worse, other ‘tests’, like the ‘Lateral Flow Device’ (LFD), are considered so useless that they have to be confirmed by the PCR test! Leaked emails wri en by Ben Dyson, adviser to UK ‘Health’ Secretary Ma Hancock, said they were ‘dangerously unreliable’. Dyson, executive director of strategy at the Department of Health, wrote: ‘As of today, someone who gets a positive LFD result in (say) London has at best a 25 per cent chance of it being a true positive, but if it is a selfreported test potentially as low as 10 per cent (on an optimistic assumption about specificity) or as low as 2 per cent (on a more pessimistic assumption).’ These are the ‘tests’ that schoolchildren and the public are being urged to have twice a week or more and have to isolate if they get a positive. Each fake positive goes in the statistics as a ‘case’ no ma er how ludicrously inaccurate and the

‘cases’ drive lockdown, masks and the pressure to ‘vaccinate’. The government said in response to the email leak that the ‘tests’ were accurate which confirmed yet again what shocking bloody liars they are. The real false positive rate is 100 percent as we’ll see. In another ‘you couldn’t make it up’ the UK government agreed to pay £2.8 billion to California’s Innova Medical Group to supply the irrelevant lateral flow tests. The company’s primary test-making centre is in China. Innova Medical Group, established in March, 2020, is owned by Pasaca Capital Inc, chaired by Chinese-American millionaire Charles Huang who was born in Wuhan.

How it works – and how it doesn’t The RT-PCR test, known by its full title of Polymerase chain reaction, is used across the world to make millions, even billions, of copies of a DNA/RNA genetic information sample. The process is called ‘amplification’ and means that a tiny sample of genetic material is amplified to bring out the detailed content. I stress that it is not testing for an infectious disease. It is simply amplifying a sample of genetic material. In the words of Kary Mullis: ‘PCR is … just a process that’s used to make a whole lot of something out of something.’ To emphasise the point companies that make the PCR tests circulated around the world to ‘test’ for ‘Covid’ warn on the box that it can’t be used to detect ‘Covid’ or infectious disease and is for research purposes only. It’s okay, rest for a minute and you’ll be fine. This is the test that produces the ‘cases’ and ‘deaths’ that have been used to destroy human society. All those global and national medical and scientific ‘experts’ demanding this destruction to ‘save us’ KNOW that the test is not testing for the ‘virus’ and the cases and deaths they claim to be real are an almost unimaginable fraud. Every one of them and so many others including politicians and psychopaths like Gates and Tedros must be brought before Nuremburg-type trials and jailed for the rest of their lives. The more the genetic sample is amplified by PCR the more elements of that material become sensitive to the test and by that I don’t mean sensitive for a ‘virus’ but for elements of the genetic material which

is naturally in the body or relates to remnants of old conditions of various kinds lying dormant and causing no disease. Once the amplification of the PCR reaches a certain level everyone will test positive. So much of the material has been made sensitive to the test that everyone will have some part of it in their body. Even lying criminals like Fauci have said that once PCR amplifications pass 35 cycles everything will be a false positive that cannot be trusted for the reasons I have described. I say, like many proper doctors and scientists, that 100 percent of the ‘positives’ are false, but let’s just go with Fauci for a moment. He says that any amplification over 35 cycles will produce false positives and yet the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have recommended up to 40 cycles and the National Health Service (NHS) in Britain admi ed in an internal document for staff that it was using 45 cycles of amplification. A long list of other countries has been doing the same and at least one ‘testing’ laboratory has been using 50 cycles. Have you ever heard a doctor, medical ‘expert’ or the media ask what level of amplification has been used to claim a ‘positive’. The ‘test’ comes back ‘positive’ and so you have the ‘virus’, end of story. Now we can see how the government in Tanzania could send off samples from a goat and a pawpaw fruit under human names and both came back positive for ‘Covid-19’. Tanzania president John Magufuli mocked the ‘Covid’ hysteria, the PCR test and masks and refused to import the DNA-manipulating ‘vaccine’. The Cult hated him and an article sponsored by the Bill Gates Foundation appeared in the London Guardian in February, 2021, headed ‘It’s time for Africa to rein in Tanzania’s anti-vaxxer president’. Well, ‘reined in’ he shortly was. Magufuli appeared in good health, but then, in March, 2021, he was dead at 61 from ‘heart failure’. He was replaced by Samia Hassan Suhulu who is connected to Klaus Schwab’s World Economic Forum and she immediately reversed Magufuli’s ‘Covid’ policy. A sample of cola tested positive for ‘Covid’ with the PCR test in Germany while American actress and singer-songwriter Erykah Badu tested positive in one nostril and negative in the other. Footballer Ronaldo called

the PCR test ‘bullshit’ a er testing positive three times and being forced to quarantine and miss matches when there was nothing wrong with him. The mantra from Tedros at the World Health Organization and national governments (same thing) has been test, test, test. They know that the more tests they can generate the more fake ‘cases’ they have which go on to become ‘deaths’ in ways I am coming to. The UK government has its Operation Moonshot planned to test multiple millions every day in workplaces and schools with free tests for everyone to use twice a week at home in line with the Cult plan from the start to make testing part of life. A government advertisement for an ‘Interim Head of Asymptomatic Testing Communication’ said the job included responsibility for delivering a ‘communications strategy’ (propaganda) ‘to support the expansion of asymptomatic testing that ‘normalises testing as part of everyday life’. More tests means more fake ‘cases’, ‘deaths’ and fascism. I have heard of, and from, many people who booked a test, couldn’t turn up, and yet got a positive result through the post for a test they’d never even had. The whole thing is crazy, but for the Cult there’s method in the madness. Controlling and manipulating the level of amplification of the test means the authorities can control whenever they want the number of apparent ‘cases’ and ‘deaths’. If they want to justify more fascist lockdown and destruction of livelihoods they keep the amplification high. If they want to give the illusion that lockdowns and the ‘vaccine’ are working then they lower the amplification and ‘cases’ and ‘deaths’ will appear to fall. In January, 2021, the Cult-owned World Health Organization suddenly warned laboratories about over-amplification of the test and to lower the threshold. Suddenly headlines began appearing such as: ‘Why ARE “Covid” cases plummeting?’ This was just when the vaccine rollout was underway and I had predicted months before they would make cases appear to fall through amplification tampering when the ‘vaccine’ came. These people are so predictable.

Cow vaccines?

The question must be asked of what is on the test swabs being poked far up the nose of the population to the base of the brain? A nasal swab punctured one woman’s brain and caused it to leak fluid. Most of these procedures are being done by people with li le training or medical knowledge. Dr Lorraine Day, former orthopaedic trauma surgeon and Chief of Orthopaedic Surgery at San Francisco General Hospital, says the tests are really a ‘vaccine’. Cows have long been vaccinated this way. She points out that masks have to cover the nose and the mouth where it is claimed the ‘virus’ exists in saliva. Why then don’t they take saliva from the mouth as they do with a DNA test instead of pushing a long swab up the nose towards the brain? The ethmoid bone separates the nasal cavity from the brain and within that bone is the cribriform plate. Dr Day says that when the swab is pushed up against this plate and twisted the procedure is ‘depositing things back there’. She claims that among these ‘things’ are nanoparticles that can enter the brain. Researchers have noted that a team at the Gates-funded Johns Hopkins have designed tiny, star-shaped micro-devices that can latch onto intestinal mucosa and release drugs into the body. Mucosa is the thin skin that covers the inside surface of parts of the body such as the nose and mouth and produces mucus to protect them. The Johns Hopkins micro-devices are called ‘theragrippers’ and were ‘inspired’ by a parasitic worm that digs its sharp teeth into a host’s intestines. Nasal swabs are also coated in the sterilisation agent ethylene oxide. The US National Cancer Institute posts this explanation on its website: At room temperature, ethylene oxide is a flammable colorless gas with a sweet odor. It is used primarily to produce other chemicals, including antifreeze. In smaller amounts, ethylene oxide is used as a pesticide and a sterilizing agent. The ability of ethylene oxide to damage DNA makes it an effective sterilizing agent but also accounts for its cancer-causing activity.

The Institute mentions lymphoma and leukaemia as cancers most frequently reported to be associated with occupational exposure to ethylene oxide along with stomach and breast cancers. How does anyone think this is going to work out with the constant testing

regime being inflicted on adults and children at home and at school that will accumulate in the body anything that’s on the swab?

Doctors know best It is vital for people to realise that ‘hero’ doctors ‘know’ only what the Big Pharma-dominated medical authorities tell them to ‘know’ and if they refuse to ‘know’ what they are told to ‘know’ they are out the door. They are mostly not physicians or healers, but repeaters of the official narrative – or else. I have seen alleged professional doctors on British television make shocking statements that we are supposed to take seriously. One called ‘Dr’ Amir Khan, who is actually telling patients how to respond to illness, said that men could take the birth pill to ‘help slow down the effects of Covid-19’. In March, 2021, another ridiculous ‘Covid study’ by an American doctor proposed injecting men with the female sex hormone progesterone as a ‘Covid’ treatment. British doctor Nighat Arif told the BBC that face coverings were now going to be part of ongoing normal. Yes, the vaccine protects you, she said (evidence?) … but the way to deal with viruses in the community was always going to come down to hand washing, face covering and keeping a physical distance. That’s not what we were told before the ‘vaccine’ was circulating. Arif said she couldn’t imagine ever again going on the underground or in a li without a mask. I was just thanking my good luck that she was not my doctor when she said – in March, 2021 – that if ‘we are behaving and we are doing all the right things’ she thought we could ‘have our nearest and dearest around us at home … around Christmas and New Year! Her patronising delivery was the usual school teacher talking to six-year-olds as she repeated every government talking point and probably believed them all. If we have learned anything from the ‘Covid’ experience surely it must be that humanity’s perception of doctors needs a fundamental rethink. NHS ‘doctor’ Sara Kayat told her television audience that the ‘Covid vaccine’ would ‘100 percent prevent hospitalisation and death’. Not even Big Pharma claimed that. We have to stop taking ‘experts’ at their word without question when so many of them are

clueless and only repeating the party line on which their careers depend. That is not to say there are not brilliants doctors – there are and I have spoken to many of them since all this began – but you won’t see them in the mainstream media or quoted by the psychopaths and yes-people in government.

Remember the name – Christian Drosten German virologist Christian Drosten, Director of Charité Institute of Virology in Berlin, became a national star a er the pandemic hoax began. He was feted on television and advised the German government on ‘Covid’ policy. Most importantly to the wider world Drosten led a group that produced the ‘Covid’ testing protocol for the PCR test. What a remarkable feat given the PCR cannot test for infectious disease and even more so when you think that Drosten said that his method of testing for SARS-CoV-2 was developed ‘without having virus material available’. He developed a test for a ‘virus’ that he didn’t have and had never seen. Let that sink in as you survey the global devastation that came from what he did. The whole catastrophe of Drosten’s ‘test’ was based on the alleged genetic sequence published by Chinese scientists on the Internet. We will see in the next chapter that this alleged ‘genetic sequence’ has never been produced by China or anyone and cannot be when there is no SARS-CoV-2. Drosten, however, doesn’t seem to let li le details like that get in the way. He was the lead author with Victor Corman from the same Charité Hospital of the paper ‘Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time PCR‘ published in a magazine called Eurosurveillance. This became known as the Corman-Drosten paper. In November, 2020, with human society devastated by the effects of the Corman-Drosten test baloney, the protocol was publicly challenged by 22 international scientists and independent researchers from Europe, the United States, and Japan. Among them were senior molecular geneticists, biochemists, immunologists, and microbiologists. They produced a document headed ‘External peer review of the RTPCR test to detect SARS-Cov-2 Reveals 10 Major Flaws At The Molecular and Methodological Level: Consequences

For False-Positive Results’. The flaws in the Corman-Drosten test included the following: • The test is non-specific because of erroneous design • Results are enormously variable • The test is unable to discriminate between the whole ‘virus’ and viral fragments • It doesn’t have positive or negative controls • The test lacks a standard operating procedure • It is unsupported by proper peer view The scientists said the PCR ‘Covid’ testing protocol was not founded on science and they demanded the Corman-Drosten paper be retracted by Eurosurveillance. They said all present and previous Covid deaths, cases, and ‘infection rates’ should be subject to a massive retroactive inquiry. Lockdowns and travel restrictions should be reviewed and relaxed and those diagnosed through PCR to have ‘Covid-19’ should not be forced to isolate. Dr Kevin Corbe , a health researcher and nurse educator with a long academic career producing a stream of peer-reviewed publications at many UK universities, made the same point about the PCR test debacle. He said of the scientists’ conclusions: ‘Every scientific rationale for the development of that test has been totally destroyed by this paper. It’s like Hiroshima/Nagasaki to the Covid test.’ He said that China hadn’t given them an isolated ‘virus’ when Drosten developed the test. Instead they had developed the test from a sequence in a gene bank.’ Put another way … they made it up! The scientists were supported in this contention by a Portuguese appeals court which ruled in November, 2020, that PCR tests are unreliable and it is unlawful to quarantine people based solely on a PCR test. The point about China not providing an isolated virus must be true when the ‘virus’ has never been isolated to this day and the consequences of that will become clear. Drosten and company produced this useless ‘protocol’ right on cue in January, 2020, just as the ‘virus’ was said to

be moving westward and it somehow managed to successfully pass a peer-review in 24 hours. In other words there was no peer-review for a test that would be used to decide who had ‘Covid’ and who didn’t across the world. The Cult-created, Gates-controlled World Health Organization immediately recommended all its nearly 200 member countries to use the Drosten PCR protocol to detect ‘cases’ and ‘deaths’. The sting was underway and it continues to this day. So who is this Christian Drosten that produced the means through which death, destruction and economic catastrophe would be justified? His education background, including his doctoral thesis, would appear to be somewhat shrouded in mystery and his track record is dire as with another essential player in the ‘Covid’ hoax, the Gates-funded Professor Neil Ferguson at the Gates-funded Imperial College in London of whom more shortly. Drosten predicted in 2003 that the alleged original SARS ‘virus’ (SARS-1’) was an epidemic that could have serious effects on economies and an effective vaccine would take at least two years to produce. Drosten’s answer to every alleged ‘outbreak’ is a vaccine which you won’t be shocked to know. What followed were just 774 official deaths worldwide and none in Germany where there were only nine cases. That is even if you believe there ever was a SARS ‘virus’ when the evidence is zilch and I will expand on this in the next chapter. Drosten claims to be co-discoverer of ‘SARS-1’ and developed a test for it in 2003. He was screaming warnings about ‘swine flu’ in 2009 and how it was a widespread infection far more severe than any dangers from a vaccine could be and people should get vaccinated. It would be helpful for Drosten’s vocal chords if he simply recorded the words ‘the virus is deadly and you need to get vaccinated’ and copies could be handed out whenever the latest made-up threat comes along. Drosten’s swine flu epidemic never happened, but Big Pharma didn’t mind with governments spending hundreds of millions on vaccines that hardly anyone bothered to use and many who did wished they hadn’t. A study in 2010 revealed that the risk of dying from swine flu, or H1N1, was no higher than that of the annual seasonal flu which is what at least most of ‘it’ really was as in

the case of ‘Covid-19’. A media investigation into Drosten asked how with such a record of inaccuracy he could be the government adviser on these issues. The answer to that question is the same with Drosten, Ferguson and Fauci – they keep on giving the authorities the ‘conclusions’ and ‘advice’ they want to hear. Drosten certainly produced the goods for them in January, 2020, with his PCR protocol garbage and provided the foundation of what German internal medicine specialist Dr Claus Köhnlein, co-author of Virus Mania, called the ‘test pandemic’. The 22 scientists in the Eurosurveillance challenge called out conflicts of interest within the Drosten ‘protocol’ group and with good reason. Olfert Landt, a regular co-author of Drosten ‘studies’, owns the biotech company TIB Molbiol Syntheselabor GmbH in Berlin which manufactures and sells the tests that Drosten and his mates come up with. They have done this with SARS, Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), MERS, Zika ‘virus’, yellow fever, and now ‘Covid’. Landt told the Berliner Zeitung newspaper: The testing, design and development came from the Charité [Drosten and Corman]. We simply implemented it immediately in the form of a kit. And if we don’t have the virus, which originally only existed in Wuhan, we can make a synthetic gene to simulate the genome of the virus. That’s what we did very quickly.

This is more confirmation that the Drosten test was designed without access to the ‘virus’ and only a synthetic simulation which is what SARS-CoV-2 really is – a computer-generated synthetic fiction. It’s quite an enterprise they have going here. A Drosten team decides what the test for something should be and Landt’s biotech company flogs it to governments and medical systems across the world. His company must have made an absolute fortune since the ‘Covid’ hoax began. Dr Reiner Fuellmich, a prominent German consumer protection trial lawyer in Germany and California, is on Drosten’s case and that of Tedros at the World Health Organization for crimes against humanity with a class-action lawsuit being prepared in the United States and other legal action in Germany.

Why China? Scamming the world with a ‘virus’ that doesn’t exist would seem impossible on the face of it, but not if you have control of the relatively few people that make policy decisions and the great majority of the global media. Remember it’s not about changing ‘real’ reality it’s about controlling perception of reality. You don’t have to make something happen you only have make people believe that it’s happening. Renegade Minds understand this and are therefore much harder to swindle. ‘Covid-19’ is not a ‘real’ ‘virus’. It’s a mind virus, like a computer virus, which has infected the minds, not the bodies, of billions. It all started, publically at least, in China and that alone is of central significance. The Cult was behind the revolution led by its asset Mao Zedong, or Chairman Mao, which established the People’s Republic of China on October 1st, 1949. It should have been called The Cult’s Republic of China, but the name had to reflect the recurring illusion that vicious dictatorships are run by and for the people (see all the ‘Democratic Republics’ controlled by tyrants). In the same way we have the ‘Biden’ Democratic Republic of America officially ruled by a puppet tyrant (at least temporarily) on behalf of Cult tyrants. The creation of Mao’s merciless communist/fascist dictatorship was part of a frenzy of activity by the Cult at the conclusion of World War Two which, like the First World War, it had instigated through its assets in Germany, Britain, France, the United States and elsewhere. Israel was formed in 1948; the Soviet Union expanded its ‘Iron Curtain’ control, influence and military power with the Warsaw Pact communist alliance in 1955; the United Nations was formed in 1945 as a Cult precursor to world government; and a long list of world bodies would be established including the World Health Organization (1948), World Trade Organization (1948 under another name until 1995), International Monetary Fund (1945) and World Bank (1944). Human society was redrawn and hugely centralised in the global Problem-ReactionSolution that was World War Two. All these changes were significant. Israel would become the headquarters of the Sabbatians

and the revolution in China would prepare the ground and control system for the events of 2019/2020. Renegade Minds know there are no borders except for public consumption. The Cult is a seamless, borderless global entity and to understand the game we need to put aside labels like borders, nations, countries, communism, fascism and democracy. These delude the population into believing that countries are ruled within their borders by a government of whatever shade when these are mere agencies of a global power. America’s illusion of democracy and China’s communism/fascism are subsidiaries – vehicles – for the same agenda. We may hear about conflict and competition between America and China and on the lower levels that will be true; but at the Cult level they are branches of the same company in the way of the McDonald’s example I gave earlier. I have tracked in the books over the years support by US governments of both parties for Chinese Communist Party infiltration of American society through allowing the sale of land, even military facilities, and the acquisition of American business and university influence. All this is underpinned by the infamous stealing of intellectual property and technological know-how. Cult-owned Silicon Valley corporations waive their fraudulent ‘morality’ to do business with human-rightsfree China; Cult-controlled Disney has become China’s PR department; and China in effect owns ‘American’ sports such as basketball which depends for much of its income on Chinese audiences. As a result any sports player, coach or official speaking out against China’s horrific human rights record is immediately condemned or fired by the China-worshipping National Basketball Association. One of the first acts of China-controlled Biden was to issue an executive order telling federal agencies to stop making references to the ‘virus’ by the ‘geographic location of its origin’. Long-time Congressman Jerry Nadler warned that criticising China, America’s biggest rival, leads to hate crimes against Asian people in the United States. So shut up you bigot. China is fast closing in on Israel as a country that must not be criticised which is apt, really, given that Sabbatians control them both. The two countries have

developed close economic, military, technological and strategic ties which include involvement in China’s ‘Silk Road’ transport and economic initiative to connect China with Europe. Israel was the first country in the Middle East to recognise the establishment of Mao’s tyranny in 1950 months a er it was established.

Project Wuhan – the ‘Covid’ Psyop I emphasise again that the Cult plays the long game and what is happening to the world today is the result of centuries of calculated manipulation following a script to take control step-by-step of every aspect of human society. I will discuss later the common force behind all this that has spanned those centuries and thousands of years if the truth be told. Instigating the Mao revolution in China in 1949 with a 2020 ‘pandemic’ in mind is not only how they work – the 71 years between them is really quite short by the Cult’s standards of manipulation preparation. The reason for the Cult’s Chinese revolution was to create a fiercely-controlled environment within which an extreme structure for human control could be incubated to eventually be unleashed across the world. We have seen this happen since the ‘pandemic’ emerged from China with the Chinese controlstructure founded on AI technology and tyrannical enforcement sweep across the West. Until the moment when the Cult went for broke in the West and put its fascism on public display Western governments had to pay some lip-service to freedom and democracy to not alert too many people to the tyranny-in-the-making. Freedoms were more subtly eroded and power centralised with covert government structures put in place waiting for the arrival of 2020 when that smokescreen of ‘freedom’ could be dispensed with. The West was not able to move towards tyranny before 2020 anything like as fast as China which was created as a tyranny and had no limits on how fast it could construct the Cult’s blueprint for global control. When the time came to impose that structure on the world it was the same Cult-owned Chinese communist/fascist government that provided the excuse – the ‘Covid pandemic’. It was absolutely crucial to the Cult plan for the Chinese response to the ‘pandemic’ –

draconian lockdowns of the entire population – to become the blueprint that Western countries would follow to destroy the livelihoods and freedom of their people. This is why the Cultowned, Gates-owned, WHO Director-General Tedros said early on: The Chinese government is to be congratulated for the extraordinary measures it has taken to contain the outbreak. China is actually setting a new standard for outbreak response and it is not an exaggeration.

Forbes magazine said of China: ‘… those measures protected untold millions from ge ing the disease’. The Rockefeller Foundation ‘epidemic scenario’ document in 2010 said ‘prophetically’: However, a few countries did fare better – China in particular. The Chinese government’s quick imposition and enforcement of mandatory quarantine for all citizens, as well as its instant and near-hermetic sealing off of all borders, saved millions of lives, stopping the spread of the virus far earlier than in other countries and enabling a swifter post-pandemic recovery.

Once again – spooky. The first official story was the ‘bat theory’ or rather the bat diversion. The source of the ‘virus outbreak’ we were told was a ‘‘wet market’ in Wuhan where bats and other animals are bought and eaten in horrifically unhygienic conditions. Then another story emerged through the alternative media that the ‘virus’ had been released on purpose or by accident from a BSL-4 (biosafety level 4) laboratory in Wuhan not far from the wet market. The lab was reported to create and work with lethal concoctions and bioweapons. Biosafety level 4 is the highest in the World Health Organization system of safety and containment. Renegade Minds are aware of what I call designer manipulation. The ideal for the Cult is for people to buy its prime narrative which in the opening salvoes of the ‘pandemic’ was the wet market story. It knows, however, that there is now a considerable worldwide alternative media of researchers sceptical of anything governments say and they are o en given a version of events in a form they can perceive as credible while misdirecting them from the real truth. In this case let them

think that the conspiracy involved is a ‘bioweapon virus’ released from the Wuhan lab to keep them from the real conspiracy – there is no ‘virus’. The WHO’s current position on the source of the outbreak at the time of writing appears to be: ‘We haven’t got a clue, mate.’ This is a good position to maintain mystery and bewilderment. The inner circle will know where the ‘virus’ came from – nowhere. The bo om line was to ensure the public believed there was a ‘virus’ and it didn’t much ma er if they thought it was natural or had been released from a lab. The belief that there was a ‘deadly virus’ was all that was needed to trigger global panic and fear. The population was terrified into handing their power to authority and doing what they were told. They had to or they were ‘all gonna die’. In March, 2020, information began to come my way from real doctors and scientists and my own additional research which had my intuition screaming: ‘Yes, that’s it! There is no virus.’ The ‘bioweapon’ was not the ‘virus’; it was the ‘vaccine’ already being talked about that would be the bioweapon. My conclusion was further enhanced by happenings in Wuhan. The ‘virus’ was said to be sweeping the city and news footage circulated of people collapsing in the street (which they’ve never done in the West with the same ‘virus’). The Chinese government was building ‘new hospitals’ in a ma er of ten days to ‘cope with demand’ such was the virulent nature of the ‘virus’. Yet in what seemed like no time the ‘new hospitals’ closed – even if they even opened – and China declared itself ‘virus-free’. It was back to business as usual. This was more propaganda to promote the Chinese draconian lockdowns in the West as the way to ‘beat the virus’. Trouble was that we subsequently had lockdown a er lockdown, but never business as usual. As the people of the West and most of the rest of the world were caught in an ever-worsening spiral of lockdown, social distancing, masks, isolated old people, families forced apart, and livelihood destruction, it was party-time in Wuhan. Pictures emerged of thousands of people enjoying pool parties and concerts. It made no sense until you realised there never was a ‘virus’ and the

whole thing was a Cult set-up to transform human society out of one its major global strongholds – China. How is it possible to deceive virtually the entire world population into believing there is a deadly virus when there is not even a ‘virus’ let alone a deadly one? It’s nothing like as difficult as you would think and that’s clearly true because it happened. See end of book Postscript for more on the ‘Wuhan lab virus release’ story which the authorities and media were pushing heavily in the summer of 2021 to divert a ention from the truth that the ‘Covid virus’ is pure invention. Postscript:

CHAPTER FIVE There

is no

‘virus’

You can fool some of the people all of the time, and all of the people some of the time, but you cannot fool all of the people all of the time Abraham Lincoln

T

he greatest form of mind control is repetition. The more you repeat the same mantra of alleged ‘facts’ the more will accept them to be true. It becomes an ‘everyone knows that, mate’. If you can also censor any other version or alternative to your alleged ‘facts’ you are pre y much home and cooking. By the start of 2020 the Cult owned the global mainstream media almost in its entirety to spew out its ‘Covid’ propaganda and ignore or discredit any other information and view. Cult-owned social media platforms in Cult-owned Silicon Valley were poised and ready to unleash a campaign of ferocious censorship to obliterate all but the official narrative. To complete the circle many demands for censorship by Silicon Valley were led by the mainstream media as ‘journalists’ became full-out enforcers for the Cult both as propagandists and censors. Part of this has been the influx of young people straight out of university who have become ‘journalists’ in significant positions. They have no experience and a headful of programmed perceptions from their years at school and university at a time when today’s young are the most perceptually-targeted generations in known human history given the insidious impact of technology. They enter the media perceptually prepared and ready to repeat the narratives of the system that programmed them to

repeat its narratives. The BBC has a truly pathetic ‘specialist disinformation reporter’ called Marianna Spring who fits this bill perfectly. She is clueless about the world, how it works and what is really going on. Her role is to discredit anyone doing the job that a proper journalist would do and system-serving hacks like Spring wouldn’t dare to do or even see the need to do. They are too busy licking the arse of authority which can never be wrong and, in the case of the BBC propaganda programme, Panorama, contacting payments systems such as PayPal to have a donations page taken down for a film company making documentaries questioning vaccines. Even the BBC soap opera EastEnders included a disgracefully biased scene in which an inarticulate white working class woman was made to look foolish for questioning the ‘vaccine’ while a well-spoken black man and Asian woman promoted the government narrative. It ticked every BBC box and the fact that the black and minority community was resisting the ‘vaccine’ had nothing to do with the way the scene was wri en. The BBC has become a disgusting tyrannical propaganda and censorship operation that should be defunded and disbanded and a free media take its place with a brief to stop censorship instead of demanding it. A BBC ‘interview’ with Gates goes something like: ‘Mr Gates, sir, if I can call you sir, would you like to tell our audience why you are such a great man, a wonderful humanitarian philanthropist, and why you should absolutely be allowed as a so ware salesman to decide health policy for approaching eight billion people? Thank you, sir, please sir.’ Propaganda programming has been incessant and merciless and when all you hear is the same story from the media, repeated by those around you who have only heard the same story, is it any wonder that people on a grand scale believe absolute mendacious garbage to be true? You are about to see, too, why this level of information control is necessary when the official ‘Covid’ narrative is so nonsensical and unsupportable by the evidence.

Structure of Deceit

The pyramid structure through which the ‘Covid’ hoax has been manifested is very simple and has to be to work. As few people as possible have to be involved with full knowledge of what they are doing – and why – or the real story would get out. At the top of the pyramid are the inner core of the Cult which controls Bill Gates who, in turn, controls the World Health Organization through his pivotal funding and his puppet Director-General mouthpiece, Tedros. Before he was appointed Tedros was chair of the Gates-founded Global Fund to ‘fight against AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria’, a board member of the Gates-funded ‘vaccine alliance’ GAVI, and on the board of another Gates-funded organisation. Gates owns him and picked him for a specific reason – Tedros is a crook and worse. ‘Dr’ Tedros (he’s not a medical doctor, the first WHO chief not to be) was a member of the tyrannical Marxist government of Ethiopia for decades with all its human rights abuses. He has faced allegations of corruption and misappropriation of funds and was exposed three times for covering up cholera epidemics while Ethiopia’s health minister. Tedros appointed the mass-murdering genocidal Zimbabwe dictator Robert Mugabe as a WHO goodwill ambassador for public health which, as with Tedros, is like appointing a psychopath to run a peace and love campaign. The move was so ridiculous that he had to drop Mugabe in the face of widespread condemnation. American economist David Steinman, a Nobel peace prize nominee, lodged a complaint with the International Criminal Court in The Hague over alleged genocide by Tedros when he was Ethiopia’s foreign minister. Steinman says Tedros was a ‘crucial decision maker’ who directed the actions of Ethiopia’s security forces from 2013 to 2015 and one of three officials in charge when those security services embarked on the ‘killing’ and ‘torturing’ of Ethiopians. You can see where Tedros is coming from and it’s sobering to think that he has been the vehicle for Gates and the Cult to direct the global response to ‘Covid’. Think about that. A psychopathic Cult dictates to psychopath Gates who dictates to psychopath Tedros who dictates how countries of the world must respond to a ‘Covid virus’ never scientifically shown to exist. At the same time psychopathic Cult-owned Silicon Valley information

giants like Google, YouTube, Facebook and Twi er announced very early on that they would give the Cult/Gates/Tedros/WHO version of the narrative free advertising and censor those who challenged their intelligence-insulting, mendacious story. The next layer in the global ‘medical’ structure below the Cult, Gates and Tedros are the chief medical officers and science ‘advisers’ in each of the WHO member countries which means virtually all of them. Medical officers and arbiters of science (they’re not) then take the WHO policy and recommended responses and impose them on their country’s population while the political ‘leaders’ say they are deciding policy (they’re clearly not) by ‘following the science’ on the advice of the ‘experts’ – the same medical officers and science ‘advisers’ (dictators). In this way with the rarest of exceptions the entire world followed the same policy of lockdown, people distancing, masks and ‘vaccines’ dictated by the psychopathic Cult, psychopathic Gates and psychopathic Tedros who we are supposed to believe give a damn about the health of the world population they are seeking to enslave. That, amazingly, is all there is to it in terms of crucial decision-making. Medical staff in each country then follow like sheep the dictates of the shepherds at the top of the national medical hierarchies – chief medical officers and science ‘advisers’ who themselves follow like sheep the shepherds of the World Health Organization and the Cult. Shepherds at the national level o en have major funding and other connections to Gates and his Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation which carefully hands out money like confe i at a wedding to control the entire global medical system from the WHO down.

Follow the money Christopher Whi y, Chief Medical Adviser to the UK Government at the centre of ‘virus’ policy, a senior adviser to the government’s Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE), and Executive Board member of the World Health Organization, was gi ed a grant of $40 million by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation for malaria research in Africa. The BBC described the unelected Whi y as ‘the

official who will probably have the greatest impact on our everyday lives of any individual policymaker in modern times’ and so it turned out. What Gates and Tedros have said Whi y has done like his equivalents around the world. Patrick Vallance, co-chair of SAGE and the government’s Chief Scientific Adviser, is a former executive of Big Pharma giant GlaxoSmithKline with its fundamental financial and business connections to Bill Gates. In September, 2020, it was revealed that Vallance owned a deferred bonus of shares in GlaxoSmithKline worth £600,000 while the company was ‘developing’ a ‘Covid vaccine’. Move along now – nothing to see here – what could possibly be wrong with that? Imperial College in London, a major player in ‘Covid’ policy in Britain and elsewhere with its ‘Covid-19’ Response Team, is funded by Gates and has big connections to China while the now infamous Professor Neil Ferguson, the useless ‘computer modeller’ at Imperial College is also funded by Gates. Ferguson delivered the dramatically inaccurate excuse for the first lockdowns (much more in the next chapter). The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) in the United States, another source of outrageously false ‘Covid’ computer models to justify lockdowns, is bankrolled by Gates who is a vehement promotor of lockdowns. America’s version of Whi y and Vallance, the again now infamous Anthony Fauci, has connections to ‘Covid vaccine’ maker Moderna as does Bill Gates through funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Fauci is director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), a major recipient of Gates money, and they are very close. Deborah Birx who was appointed White House Coronavirus Response Coordinator in February, 2020, is yet another with ties to Gates. Everywhere you look at the different elements around the world behind the coordination and decision making of the ‘Covid’ hoax there is Bill Gates and his money. They include the World Health Organization; Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the United States; National Institutes of Health (NIH) of Anthony Fauci; Imperial College and Neil Ferguson; the London School of Hygiene where Chris Whi y worked; Regulatory agencies like the UK Medicines & Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA)

which gave emergency approval for ‘Covid vaccines’; Wellcome Trust; GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance; the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI); Johns Hopkins University which has compiled the false ‘Covid’ figures; and the World Economic Forum. A Nationalfile.com article said: Gates has a lot of pull in the medical world, he has a multi-million dollar relationship with Dr. Fauci, and Fauci originally took the Gates line supporting vaccines and casting doubt on [the drug hydroxychloroquine]. Coronavirus response team member Dr. Deborah Birx, appointed by former president Obama to serve as United States Global AIDS Coordinator, also sits on the board of a group that has received billions from Gates’ foundation, and Birx reportedly used a disputed Bill Gates-funded model for the White House’s Coronavirus effort. Gates is a big proponent for a population lockdown scenario for the Coronavirus outbreak.

Another funder of Moderna is the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the technology-development arm of the Pentagon and one of the most sinister organisations on earth. DARPA had a major role with the CIA covert technology-funding operation In-Q-Tel in the development of Google and social media which is now at the centre of global censorship. Fauci and Gates are extremely close and openly admit to talking regularly about ‘Covid’ policy, but then why wouldn’t Gates have a seat at every national ‘Covid’ table a er his Foundation commi ed $1.75 billion to the ‘fight against Covid-19’. When passed through our Orwellian Translation Unit this means that he has bought and paid for the Cultdriven ‘Covid’ response worldwide. Research the major ‘Covid’ response personnel in your own country and you will find the same Gates funding and other connections again and again. Medical and science chiefs following World Health Organization ‘policy’ sit atop a medical hierarchy in their country of administrators, doctors and nursing staff. These ‘subordinates’ are told they must work and behave in accordance with the policy delivered from the ‘top’ of the national ‘health’ pyramid which is largely the policy delivered by the WHO which is the policy delivered by Gates and the Cult. The whole ‘Covid’ narrative has been imposed on medical staff by a climate of fear although great numbers don’t even need that to comply. They do so through breathtaking levels of ignorance and

include doctors who go through life simply repeating what Big Pharma and their hierarchical masters tell them to say and believe. No wonder Big Pharma ‘medicine’ is one of the biggest killers on Planet Earth. The same top-down system of intimidation operates with regard to the Cult Big Pharma cartel which also dictates policy through national and global medical systems in this way. The Cult and Big Pharma agendas are the same because the former controls and owns the la er. ‘Health’ administrators, doctors, and nursing staff are told to support and parrot the dictated policy or they will face consequences which can include being fired. How sad it’s been to see medical staff meekly repeating and imposing Cult policy without question and most of those who can see through the deceit are only willing to speak anonymously off the record. They know what will happen if their identity is known. This has le the courageous few to expose the lies about the ‘virus’, face masks, overwhelmed hospitals that aren’t, and the dangers of the ‘vaccine’ that isn’t a vaccine. When these medical professionals and scientists, some renowned in their field, have taken to the Internet to expose the truth their articles, comments and videos have been deleted by Cult-owned Facebook, Twi er and YouTube. What a real head-shaker to see YouTube videos with leading world scientists and highly qualified medical specialists with an added link underneath to the notorious Cult propaganda website Wikipedia to find the ‘facts’ about the same subject.

HIV – the ‘Covid’ trial-run I’ll give you an example of the consequences for health and truth that come from censorship and unquestioning belief in official narratives. The story was told by PCR inventor Kary Mullis in his book Dancing Naked in the Mind Field. He said that in 1984 he accepted as just another scientific fact that Luc Montagnier of France’s Pasteur Institute and Robert Gallo of America’s National Institutes of Health had independently discovered that a ‘retrovirus’ dubbed HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) caused AIDS. They

were, a er all, Mullis writes, specialists in retroviruses. This is how the medical and science pyramids work. Something is announced or assumed and then becomes an everybody-knows-that purely through repetition of the assumption as if it is fact. Complete crap becomes accepted truth with no supporting evidence and only repetition of the crap. This is how a ‘virus’ that doesn’t exist became the ‘virus’ that changed the world. The HIV-AIDS fairy story became a multibillion pound industry and the media poured out propaganda terrifying the world about the deadly HIV ‘virus’ that caused the lethal AIDS. By then Mullis was working at a lab in Santa Monica, California, to detect retroviruses with his PCR test in blood donations received by the Red Cross. In doing so he asked a virologist where he could find a reference for HIV being the cause of AIDS. ‘You don’t need a reference,’ the virologist said … ‘Everybody knows it.’ Mullis said he wanted to quote a reference in the report he was doing and he said he felt a li le funny about not knowing the source of such an important discovery when everyone else seemed to. The virologist suggested he cite a report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) on morbidity and mortality. Mullis read the report, but it only said that an organism had been identified and did not say how. The report did not identify the original scientific work. Physicians, however, assumed (key recurring theme) that if the CDC was convinced that HIV caused AIDS then proof must exist. Mullis continues: I did computer searches. Neither Montagnier, Gallo, nor anyone else had published papers describing experiments which led to the conclusion that HIV probably caused AIDS. I read the papers in Science for which they had become well known as AIDS doctors, but all they had said there was that they had found evidence of a past infection by something which was probably HIV in some AIDS patients. They found antibodies. Antibodies to viruses had always been considered evidence of past disease, not present disease. Antibodies signaled that the virus had been defeated. The patient had saved himself. There was no indication in these papers that this virus caused a disease. They didn’t show that everybody with the antibodies had the disease. In fact they found some healthy people with antibodies.

Mullis asked why their work had been published if Montagnier and Gallo hadn’t really found this evidence, and why had they been fighting so hard to get credit for the discovery? He says he was hesitant to write ‘HIV is the probable cause of AIDS’ until he found published evidence to support that. ‘Tens of thousands of scientists and researchers were spending billions of dollars a year doing research based on this idea,’ Mullis writes. ‘The reason had to be there somewhere; otherwise these people would not have allowed their research to se le into one narrow channel of investigation.’ He said he lectured about PCR at numerous meetings where people were always talking about HIV and he asked them how they knew that HIV was the cause of AIDS: Everyone said something. Everyone had the answer at home, in the office, in some drawer. They all knew, and they would send me the papers as soon as they got back. But I never got any papers. Nobody ever sent me the news about how AIDS was caused by HIV.

Eventually Mullis was able to ask Montagnier himself about the reference proof when he lectured in San Diego at the grand opening of the University of California AIDS Research Center. Mullis says this was the last time he would ask his question without showing anger. Montagnier said he should reference the CDC report. ‘I read it’, Mullis said, and it didn’t answer the question. ‘If Montagnier didn’t know the answer who the hell did?’ Then one night Mullis was driving when an interview came on National Public Radio with Peter Duesberg, a prominent virologist at Berkeley and a California Scientist of the Year. Mullis says he finally understood why he could not find references that connected HIV to AIDS – there weren’t any! No one had ever proved that HIV causes AIDS even though it had spawned a multi-billion pound global industry and the media was repeating this as fact every day in their articles and broadcasts terrifying the shit out of people about AIDS and giving the impression that a positive test for HIV (see ‘Covid’) was a death sentence. Duesberg was a threat to the AIDS gravy train and the agenda that underpinned it. He was therefore abused and castigated a er he told the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

there was no good evidence implicating the new ‘virus’. Editors rejected his manuscripts and his research funds were deleted. Mullis points out that the CDC has defined AIDS as one of more than 30 diseases if accompanied by a positive result on a test that detects antibodies to HIV; but those same diseases are not defined as AIDS cases when antibodies are not detected: If an HIV-positive woman develops uterine cancer, for example, she is considered to have AIDS. If she is not HIV positive, she simply has uterine cancer. An HIV-positive man with tuberculosis has AIDS; if he tests negative he simply has tuberculosis. If he lives in Kenya or Colombia, where the test for HIV antibodies is too expensive, he is simply presumed to have the antibodies and therefore AIDS, and therefore he can be treated in the World Health Organization’s clinic. It’s the only medical help available in some places. And it’s free, because the countries that support WHO are worried about AIDS.

Mullis accuses the CDC of continually adding new diseases (see ever more ‘Covid symptoms’) to the grand AIDS definition and of virtually doctoring the books to make it appear as if the disease continued to spread. He cites how in 1993 the CDC enormously broadened its AIDS definition and county health authorities were delighted because they received $2,500 per year from the Federal government for every reported AIDS case. Ladies and gentlemen, I have just described, via Kary Mullis, the ‘Covid pandemic’ of 2020 and beyond. Every element is the same and it’s been pulled off in the same way by the same networks.

The ‘Covid virus’ exists? Okay – prove it. Er … still waiting What Kary Mullis described with regard to ‘HIV’ has been repeated with ‘Covid’. A claim is made that a new, or ‘novel’, infection has been found and the entire medical system of the world repeats that as fact exactly as they did with HIV and AIDS. No one in the mainstream asks rather relevant questions such as ‘How do you know?’ and ‘Where is your proof?’ The SARS-Cov-2 ‘virus’ and the ‘Covid-19 disease’ became an overnight ‘everybody-knows-that’. The origin could be debated and mulled over, but what you could not suggest was that ‘SARS-Cov-2’ didn’t exist. That would be

ridiculous. ‘Everybody knows’ the ‘virus’ exists. Well, I didn’t for one along with American proper doctors like Andrew Kaufman and Tom Cowan and long-time American proper journalist Jon Rappaport. We dared to pursue the obvious and simple question: ‘Where’s the evidence?’ The overwhelming majority in medicine, journalism and the general public did not think to ask that. A er all, everyone knew there was a new ‘virus’. Everyone was saying so and I heard it on the BBC. Some would eventually argue that the ‘deadly virus’ was nothing like as deadly as claimed, but few would venture into the realms of its very existence. Had they done so they would have found that the evidence for that claim had gone AWOL as with HIV causes AIDS. In fact, not even that. For something to go AWOL it has to exist in the first place and scientific proof for a ‘SARS-Cov-2’ can be filed under nothing, nowhere and zilch. Dr Andrew Kaufman is a board-certified forensic psychiatrist in New York State, a Doctor of Medicine and former Assistant Professor and Medical Director of Psychiatry at SUNY Upstate Medical University, and Medical Instructor of Hematology and Oncology at the Medical School of South Carolina. He also studied biology at the Massachuse s Institute of Technology (MIT) and trained in Psychiatry at Duke University. Kaufman is retired from allopathic medicine, but remains a consultant and educator on natural healing, I saw a video of his very early on in the ‘Covid’ hoax in which he questioned claims about the ‘virus’ in the absence of any supporting evidence and with plenty pointing the other way. I did everything I could to circulate his work which I felt was asking the pivotal questions that needed an answer. I can recommend an excellent pull-together interview he did with the website The Last Vagabond entitled Dr Andrew Kaufman: Virus Isolation, Terrain Theory and Covid-19 and his website is andrewkaufmanmd.com. Kaufman is not only a forensic psychiatrist; he is forensic in all that he does. He always reads original scientific papers, experiments and studies instead of second-third-fourth-hand reports about the ‘virus’ in the media which are repeating the repeated repetition of the narrative. When he did so with the original Chinese ‘virus’ papers Kaufman

realised that there was no evidence of a ‘SARS-Cov-2’. They had never – from the start – shown it to exist and every repeat of this claim worldwide was based on the accepted existence of proof that was nowhere to be found – see Kary Mullis and HIV. Here we go again.

Let’s postulate Kaufman discovered that the Chinese authorities immediately concluded that the cause of an illness that broke out among about 200 initial patients in Wuhan was a ‘new virus’ when there were no grounds to make that conclusion. The alleged ‘virus’ was not isolated from other genetic material in their samples and then shown through a system known as Koch’s postulates to be the causative agent of the illness. The world was told that the SARS-Cov-2 ‘virus’ caused a disease they called ‘Covid-19’ which had ‘flu-like’ symptoms and could lead to respiratory problems and pneumonia. If it wasn’t so tragic it would almost be funny. ‘Flu-like’ symptoms’? Pneumonia? Respiratory disease? What in CHINA and particularly in Wuhan, one of the most polluted cities in the world with a resulting epidemic of respiratory disease?? Three hundred thousand people get pneumonia in China every year and there are nearly a billion cases worldwide of ‘flu-like symptoms’. These have a whole range of causes – including pollution in Wuhan – but no other possibility was credibly considered in late 2019 when the world was told there was a new and deadly ‘virus’. The global prevalence of pneumonia and ‘flu-like systems’ gave the Cult networks unlimited potential to rediagnose these other causes as the mythical ‘Covid-19’ and that is what they did from the very start. Kaufman revealed how Chinese medical and science authorities (all subordinates to the Cult-owned communist government) took genetic material from the lungs of only a few of the first patients. The material contained their own cells, bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms living in their bodies. The only way you could prove the existence of the ‘virus’ and its responsibility for the alleged ‘Covid-19’ was to isolate the virus from all the other material – a process also known as ‘purification’ – and

then follow the postulates sequence developed in the late 19th century by German physician and bacteriologist Robert Koch which became the ‘gold standard’ for connecting an alleged causation agent to a disease: 1. The microorganism (bacteria, fungus, virus, etc.) must be present in every case of the disease and all patients must have the same symptoms. It must also not be present in healthy individuals. 2. The microorganism must be isolated from the host with the disease. If the microorganism is a bacteria or fungus it must be grown in a pure culture. If it is a virus, it must be purified (i.e. containing no other material except the virus particles) from a clinical sample. 3. The specific disease, with all of its characteristics, must be reproduced when the infectious agent (the purified virus or a pure culture of bacteria or fungi) is inoculated into a healthy, susceptible host. 4. The microorganism must be recoverable from the experimentally infected host as in step 2.

Not one of these criteria has been met in the case of ‘SARS-Cov-2’ and ‘Covid-19’. Not ONE. EVER. Robert Koch refers to bacteria and not viruses. What are called ‘viral particles’ are so minute (hence masks are useless by any definition) that they could only be seen a er the invention of the electron microscope in the 1930s and can still only be observed through that means. American bacteriologist and virologist Thomas Milton Rivers, the so-called ‘Father of Modern Virology’ who was very significantly director of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in the 1930s, developed a less stringent version of Koch’s postulates to identify ‘virus’ causation known as ‘Rivers criteria’. ‘Covid’ did not pass that process either. Some even doubt whether any ‘virus’ can be isolated from other particles containing genetic material in the Koch method. Freedom of Information requests in many countries asking for scientific proof that the ‘Covid virus’ has been purified and isolated and shown to exist have all come back with a ‘we don’t have that’ and when this happened with a request to the UK Department of Health they added this comment:

However, outside of the scope of the [Freedom of Information Act] and on a discretionary basis, the following information has been advised to us, which may be of interest. Most infectious diseases are caused by viruses, bacteria or fungi. Some bacteria or fungi have the capacity to grow on their own in isolation, for example in colonies on a petri dish. Viruses are different in that they are what we call ‘obligate pathogens’ – that is, they cannot survive or reproduce without infecting a host ... … For some diseases, it is possible to establish causation between a microorganism and a disease by isolating the pathogen from a patient, growing it in pure culture and reintroducing it to a healthy organism. These are known as ‘Koch’s postulates’ and were developed in 1882. However, as our understanding of disease and different disease-causing agents has advanced, these are no longer the method for determining causation [Andrew Kaufman asks why in that case are there two published articles falsely claiming to satisfy Koch’s postulates]. It has long been known that viral diseases cannot be identified in this way as viruses cannot be grown in ‘pure culture’. When a patient is tested for a viral illness, this is normally done by looking for the presence of antigens, or viral genetic code in a host with molecular biology techniques [Kaufman asks how you could know the origin of these chemicals without having a pure culture for comparison]. For the record ‘antigens’ are defined so: Invading microorganisms have antigens on their surface that the human body can recognise as being foreign – meaning not belonging to it. When the body recognises a foreign antigen, lymphocytes (white blood cells) produce antibodies, which are complementary in shape to the antigen.

Notwithstanding that this is open to question in relation to ‘SARSCov-2’ the presence of ‘antibodies’ can have many causes and they are found in people that are perfectly well. Kary Mullis said: ‘Antibodies … had always been considered evidence of past disease, not present disease.’

‘Covid’ really is a

computer

‘virus’

Where the UK Department of Health statement says ‘viruses’ are now ‘diagnosed’ through a ‘viral genetic code in a host with molecular biology techniques’, they mean … the PCR test which its inventor said cannot test for infectious disease. They have no credible method of connecting a ‘virus’ to a disease and we will see that there is no scientific proof that any ‘virus’ causes any disease or there is any such thing as a ‘virus’ in the way that it is described. Tenacious Canadian researcher Christine Massey and her team made

some 40 Freedom of Information requests to national public health agencies in different countries asking for proof that SARS-CoV-2 has been isolated and not one of them could supply that information. Massey said of her request in Canada: ‘Freedom of Information reveals Public Health Agency of Canada has no record of ‘SARSCOV-2’ isolation performed by anyone, anywhere, ever.’ If you accept the comment from the UK Department of Health it’s because they can’t isolate a ‘virus’. Even so many ‘science’ papers claimed to have isolated the ‘Covid virus’ until they were questioned and had to admit they hadn’t. A reply from the Robert Koch Institute in Germany was typical: ‘I am not aware of a paper which purified isolated SARS-CoV-2.’ So what the hell was Christian Drosten and his gang using to design the ‘Covid’ testing protocol that has produced all the illusory Covid’ cases and ‘Covid’ deaths when the head of the Chinese version of the CDC admi ed there was a problem right from the start in that the ‘virus’ had never been isolated/purified? Breathe deeply: What they are calling ‘Covid’ is actually created by a computer program i.e. they made it up – er, that’s it. They took lung fluid, with many sources of genetic material, from one single person alleged to be infected with Covid-19 by a PCR test which they claimed, without clear evidence, contained a ‘virus’. They used several computer programs to create a model of a theoretical virus genome sequence from more than fi y-six million small sequences of RNA, each of an unknown source, assembling them like a puzzle with no known solution. The computer filled in the gaps with sequences from bits in the gene bank to make it look like a bat SARS-like coronavirus! A wave of the magic wand and poof, an in silico (computer-generated) genome, a scientific fantasy, was created. UK health researcher Dr Kevin Corbe made the same point with this analogy: … It’s like giving you a few bones and saying that’s your fish. It could be any fish. Not even a skeleton. Here’s a few fragments of bones. That’s your fish … It’s all from gene bank and the bits of the virus sequence that weren’t there they made up. They synthetically created them to fill in the blanks. That’s what genetics is; it’s a code. So it’s ABBBCCDDD and you’re missing some what you think is EEE so you put it in. It’s all

synthetic. You just manufacture the bits that are missing. This is the end result of the geneticization of virology. This is basically a computer virus.

Further confirmation came in an email exchange between British citizen journalist Frances Leader and the government’s Medicines & Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (the Gates-funded MHRA) which gave emergency permission for untested ‘Covid vaccines’ to be used. The agency admi ed that the ‘vaccine’ is not based on an isolated ‘virus’, but comes from a computer-generated model. Frances Leader was naturally banned from Cult-owned fascist Twi er for making this exchange public. The process of creating computergenerated alleged ‘viruses’ is called ‘in silico’ or ‘in silicon’ – computer chips – and the term ‘in silico’ is believed to originate with biological experiments using only a computer in 1989. ‘Vaccines’ involved with ‘Covid’ are also produced ‘in silico’ or by computer not a natural process. If the original ‘virus’ is nothing more than a made-up computer model how can there be ‘new variants’ of something that never existed in the first place? They are not new ‘variants’; they are new computer models only minutely different to the original program and designed to further terrify the population into having the ‘vaccine’ and submi ing to fascism. You want a ‘new variant’? Click, click, enter – there you go. Tell the medical profession that you have discovered a ‘South African variant’, ‘UK variants’ or a ‘Brazilian variant’ and in the usual HIV-causes-AIDS manner they will unquestioningly repeat it with no evidence whatsoever to support these claims. They will go on television and warn about the dangers of ‘new variants’ while doing nothing more than repeating what they have been told to be true and knowing that any deviation from that would be career suicide. Big-time insiders will know it’s a hoax, but much of the medical community is clueless about the way they are being played and themselves play the public without even being aware they are doing so. What an interesting ‘coincidence’ that AstraZeneca and Oxford University were conducting ‘Covid vaccine trials’ in the three countries – the UK, South Africa and Brazil – where the first three ‘variants’ were claimed to have ‘broken out’.

Here’s your ‘virus’ – it’s a unicorn Dr Andrew Kaufman presented a brilliant analysis describing how the ‘virus’ was imagined into fake existence when he dissected an article published by Nature and wri en by 19 authors detailing alleged ‘sequencing of a complete viral genome’ of the ‘new SARSCoV-2 virus’. This computer-modelled in silico genome was used as a template for all subsequent genome sequencing experiments that resulted in the so-called variants which he said now number more than 6,000. The fake genome was constructed from more than 56 million individual short strands of RNA. Those li le pieces were assembled into longer pieces by finding areas of overlapping sequences. The computer programs created over two million possible combinations from which the authors simply chose the longest one. They then compared this to a ‘bat virus’ and the computer ‘alignment’ rearranged the sequence and filled in the gaps! They called this computer-generated abomination the ‘complete genome’. Dr Tom Cowan, a fellow medical author and collaborator with Kaufman, said such computer-generation constitutes scientific fraud and he makes this superb analogy: Here is an equivalency: A group of researchers claim to have found a unicorn because they found a piece of a hoof, a hair from a tail, and a snippet of a horn. They then add that information into a computer and program it to re-create the unicorn, and they then claim this computer re-creation is the real unicorn. Of course, they had never actually seen a unicorn so could not possibly have examined its genetic makeup to compare their samples with the actual unicorn’s hair, hooves and horn. The researchers claim they decided which is the real genome of SARS-CoV-2 by ‘consensus’, sort of like a vote. Again, different computer programs will come up with different versions of the imaginary ‘unicorn’, so they come together as a group and decide which is the real imaginary unicorn.

This is how the ‘virus’ that has transformed the world was brought into fraudulent ‘existence’. Extraordinary, yes, but as the Nazis said the bigger the lie the more will believe it. Cowan, however, wasn’t finished and he went on to identify what he called the real blockbuster in the paper. He quotes this section from a paper wri en

by virologists and published by the CDC and then explains what it means: Therefore, we examined the capacity of SARS-CoV-2 to infect and replicate in several common primate and human cell lines, including human adenocarcinoma cells (A549), human liver cells (HUH 7.0), and human embryonic kidney cells (HEK-293T). In addition to Vero E6 and Vero CCL81 cells. ... Each cell line was inoculated at high multiplicity of infection and examined 24h post-infection. No CPE was observed in any of the cell lines except in Vero cells, which grew to greater than 10 to the 7th power at 24 h post-infection. In contrast, HUH 7.0 and 293T showed only modest viral replication, and A549 cells were incompatible with SARS CoV-2 infection.

Cowan explains that when virologists a empt to prove infection they have three possible ‘hosts’ or models on which they can test. The first was humans. Exposure to humans was generally not done for ethical reasons and has never been done with SARS-CoV-2 or any coronavirus. The second possible host was animals. Cowan said that forge ing for a moment that they never actually use purified virus when exposing animals they do use solutions that they claim contain the virus. Exposure to animals has been done with SARS-CoV-2 in an experiment involving mice and this is what they found: None of the wild (normal) mice got sick. In a group of genetically-modified mice, a statistically insignificant number lost weight and had slightly bristled fur, but they experienced nothing like the illness called ‘Covid-19’. Cowan said the third method – the one they mostly rely on – is to inoculate solutions they say contain the virus onto a variety of tissue cultures. This process had never been shown to kill tissue unless the sample material was starved of nutrients and poisoned as part of the process. Yes, incredibly, in tissue experiments designed to show the ‘virus’ is responsible for killing the tissue they starve the tissue of nutrients and add toxic drugs including antibiotics and they do not have control studies to see if it’s the starvation and poisoning that is degrading the tissue rather than the ‘virus’ they allege to be in there somewhere. You want me to pinch you? Yep, I understand. Tom Cowan said this about the whole nonsensical farce as he explains what that quote from the CDC paper really means:

The shocking thing about the above quote is that using their own methods, the virologists found that solutions containing SARS-CoV-2 – even in high amounts – were NOT, I repeat NOT, infective to any of the three human tissue cultures they tested. In plain English, this means they proved, on their terms, that this ‘new coronavirus’ is not infectious to human beings. It is ONLY infective to monkey kidney cells, and only then when you add two potent drugs (gentamicin and amphotericin), known to be toxic to kidneys, to the mix. My friends, read this again and again. These virologists, published by the CDC, performed a clear proof, on their terms, showing that the SARS-CoV-2 virus is harmless to human beings. That is the only possible conclusion, but, unfortunately, this result is not even mentioned in their conclusion. They simply say they can provide virus stocks cultured only on monkey Vero cells, thanks for coming.

Cowan concluded: ‘If people really understood how this “science” was done, I would hope they would storm the gates and demand honesty, transparency and truth.’ Dr Michael Yeadon, former Vice President and Chief Scientific Adviser at drug giant Pfizer has been a vocal critic of the ‘Covid vaccine’ and its potential for multiple harm. He said in an interview in April, 2021, that ‘not one [vaccine] has the virus. He was asked why vaccines normally using a ‘dead’ version of a disease to activate the immune system were not used for ‘Covid’ and instead we had the synthetic methods of the ‘mRNA Covid vaccine’. Yeadon said that to do the former ‘you’d have to have some of [the virus] wouldn’t you?’ He added: ‘No-one’s got any – seriously.’ Yeadon said that surely they couldn’t have fooled the whole world for a year without having a virus, ‘but oddly enough ask around – no one’s got it’. He didn’t know why with all the ‘great labs’ around the world that the virus had not been isolated – ‘Maybe they’ve been too busy running bad PCR tests and vaccines that people don’t need.’ What is today called ‘science’ is not ‘science’ at all. Science is no longer what is, but whatever people can be manipulated to believe that it is. Real science has been hijacked by the Cult to dispense and produce the ‘expert scientists’ and contentions that suit the agenda of the Cult. How big-time this has happened with the ‘Covid’ hoax which is entirely based on fake science delivered by fake ‘scientists’ and fake ‘doctors’. The human-caused climate change hoax is also entirely based on fake science delivered by fake ‘scientists’ and fake ‘climate experts’. In both cases real

scientists, climate experts and doctors have their views suppressed and deleted by the Cult-owned science establishment, media and Silicon Valley. This is the ‘science’ that politicians claim to be ‘following’ and a common denominator of ‘Covid’ and climate are Cult psychopaths Bill Gates and his mate Klaus Schwab at the Gatesfunded World Economic Forum. But, don’t worry, it’s all just a coincidence and absolutely nothing to worry about. Zzzzzzzz.

What is a ‘virus’ REALLY? Dr Tom Cowan is one of many contesting the very existence of viruses let alone that they cause disease. This is understandable when there is no scientific evidence for a disease-causing ‘virus’. German virologist Dr Stefan Lanka won a landmark case in 2017 in the German Supreme Court over his contention that there is no such thing as a measles virus. He had offered a big prize for anyone who could prove there is and Lanka won his case when someone sought to claim the money. There is currently a prize of more than 225,000 euros on offer from an Isolate Truth Fund for anyone who can prove the isolation of SARS-CoV-2 and its genetic substance. Lanka wrote in an article headed ‘The Misconception Called Virus’ that scientists think a ‘virus’ is causing tissue to become diseased and degraded when in fact it is the processes they are using which do that – not a ‘virus’. Lanka has done an important job in making this point clear as Cowan did in his analysis of the CDC paper. Lanka says that all claims about viruses as disease-causing pathogens are wrong and based on ‘easily recognisable, understandable and verifiable misinterpretations.’ Scientists believed they were working with ‘viruses’ in their laboratories when they were really working with ‘typical particles of specific dying tissues or cells …’ Lanka said that the tissue decaying process claimed to be caused by a ‘virus’ still happens when no alleged ‘virus’ is involved. It’s the process that does the damage and not a ‘virus’. The genetic sample is deprived of nutrients, removed from its energy supply through removal from the body and then doused in toxic antibiotics to remove any bacteria. He confirms again that establishment scientists do not (pinch me)

conduct control experiments to see if this is the case and if they did they would see the claims that ‘viruses’ are doing the damage is nonsense. He adds that during the measles ‘virus’ court case he commissioned an independent laboratory to perform just such a control experiment and the result was that the tissues and cells died in the exact same way as with alleged ‘infected’ material. This is supported by a gathering number of scientists, doctors and researchers who reject what is called ‘germ theory’ or the belief in the body being infected by contagious sources emi ed by other people. Researchers Dawn Lester and David Parker take the same stance in their highly-detailed and sourced book What Really Makes You Ill – Why everything you thought you knew about disease is wrong which was recommended to me by a number of medical professionals genuinely seeking the truth. Lester and Parker say there is no provable scientific evidence to show that a ‘virus’ can be transmi ed between people or people and animals or animals and people: The definition also claims that viruses are the cause of many diseases, as if this has been definitively proven. But this is not the case; there is no original scientific evidence that definitively demonstrates that any virus is the cause of any disease. The burden of proof for any theory lies with those who proposed it; but none of the existing documents provides ‘proof’ that supports the claim that ‘viruses’ are pathogens.

Dr Tom Cowan employs one of his clever analogies to describe the process by which a ‘virus’ is named as the culprit for a disease when what is called a ‘virus’ is only material released by cells detoxing themselves from infiltration by chemical or radiation poisoning. The tidal wave of technologically-generated radiation in the ‘smart’ modern world plus all the toxic food and drink are causing this to happen more than ever. Deluded ‘scientists’ misread this as a gathering impact of what they wrongly label ‘viruses’.

Paper can infect houses Cowan said in an article for davidicke.com – with his tongue only mildly in his cheek – that he believed he had made a tremendous

discovery that may revolutionise science. He had discovered that small bits of paper are alive, ‘well alive-ish’, can ‘infect’ houses, and then reproduce themselves inside the house. The result was that this explosion of growth in the paper inside the house causes the house to explode, blowing it to smithereens. His evidence for this new theory is that in the past months he had carefully examined many of the houses in his neighbourhood and found almost no scraps of paper on the lawns and surrounds of the house. There was an occasional stray label, but nothing more. Then he would return to these same houses a week or so later and with a few, not all of them, particularly the old and decrepit ones, he found to his shock and surprise they were li ered with stray bits of paper. He knew then that the paper had infected these houses, made copies of itself, and blew up the house. A young boy on a bicycle at one of the sites told him he had seen a demolition crew using dynamite to explode the house the previous week, but Cowan dismissed this as the idle thoughts of silly boys because ‘I was on to something big’. He was on to how ‘scientists’ mistake genetic material in the detoxifying process for something they call a ‘virus’. Cowan said of his house and paper story: If this sounds crazy to you, it’s because it should. This scenario is obviously nuts. But consider this admittedly embellished, for effect, current viral theory that all scientists, medical doctors and virologists currently believe.

He takes the example of the ‘novel SARS-Cov2’ virus to prove the point. First they take someone with an undefined illness called ‘Covid-19’ and don’t even a empt to find any virus in their sputum. Never mind the scientists still describe how this ‘virus’, which they have not located a aches to a cell receptor, injects its genetic material, in ‘Covid’s’ case, RNA, into the cell. The RNA once inserted exploits the cell to reproduce itself and makes ‘thousands, nay millions, of copies of itself … Then it emerges victorious to claim its next victim’:

If you were to look in the scientific literature for proof, actual scientific proof, that uniform SARS-CoV2 viruses have been properly isolated from the sputum of a sick person, that actual spike proteins could be seen protruding from the virus (which has not been found), you would find that such evidence doesn’t exist. If you go looking in the published scientific literature for actual pictures, proof, that these spike proteins or any viral proteins are ever attached to any receptor embedded in any cell membrane, you would also find that no such evidence exists. If you were to look for a video or documented evidence of the intact virus injecting its genetic material into the body of the cell, reproducing itself and then emerging victorious by budding off the cell membrane, you would find that no such evidence exists. The closest thing you would find is electron micrograph pictures of cellular particles, possibly attached to cell debris, both of which to be seen were stained by heavy metals, a process that completely distorts their architecture within the living organism. This is like finding bits of paper stuck to the blown-up bricks, thereby proving the paper emerged by taking pieces of the bricks on its way out.

The Enders baloney Cowan describes the ‘Covid’ story as being just as make-believe as his paper story and he charts back this fantasy to a Nobel Prize winner called John Enders (1897-1985), an American biomedical scientist who has been dubbed ‘The Father of Modern Vaccines’. Enders is claimed to have ‘discovered’ the process of the viral culture which ‘proved’ that a ‘virus’ caused measles. Cowan explains how Enders did this ‘by using the EXACT same procedure that has been followed by every virologist to find and characterize every new virus since 1954’. Enders took throat swabs from children with measles and immersed them in 2ml of milk. Penicillin (100u/ml) and the antibiotic streptomycin (50,g/ml) were added and the whole mix was centrifuged – rotated at high speed to separate large cellular debris from small particles and molecules as with milk and cream, for example. Cowan says that if the aim is to find li le particles of genetic material (‘viruses’) in the snot from children with measles it would seem that the last thing you would do is mix the snot with other material – milk –that also has genetic material. ‘How are you ever going to know whether whatever you found came from the snot or the milk?’ He points out that streptomycin is a ‘nephrotoxic’ or poisonous-to-the-kidney drug. You will see the relevance of that

shortly. Cowan says that it gets worse, much worse, when Enders describes the culture medium upon which the virus ‘grows’: ‘The culture medium consisted of bovine amniotic fluid (90%), beef embryo extract (5%), horse serum (5%), antibiotics and phenol red as an indicator of cell metabolism.’ Cowan asks incredulously: ‘Did he just say that the culture medium also contained fluids and tissues that are themselves rich sources of genetic material?’ The genetic cocktail, or ‘medium’, is inoculated onto tissue and cells from rhesus monkey kidney tissue. This is where the importance of streptomycin comes in and currently-used antimicrobials and other drugs that are poisonous to kidneys and used in ALL modern viral cultures (e.g. gentamicin, streptomycin, and amphotericin). Cowan asks: ‘How are you ever going to know from this witch’s brew where any genetic material comes from as we now have five different sources of rich genetic material in our mix?’ Remember, he says, that all genetic material, whether from monkey kidney tissues, bovine serum, milk, etc., is made from the exact same components. The same central question returns: ‘How are you possibly going to know that it was the virus that killed the kidney tissue and not the toxic antibiotic and starvation rations on which you are growing the tissue?’ John Enders answered the question himself – you can’t: A second agent was obtained from an uninoculated culture of monkey kidney cells. The cytopathic changes [death of the cells] it induced in the unstained preparations could not be distinguished with confidence from the viruses isolated from measles.

The death of the cells (‘cytopathic changes’) happened in exactly the same manner, whether they inoculated the kidney tissue with the measles snot or not, Cowan says. ‘This is evidence that the destruction of the tissue, the very proof of viral causation of illness, was not caused by anything in the snot because they saw the same destructive effect when the snot was not even used … the cytopathic, i.e., cell-killing, changes come from the process of the culture itself, not from any virus in any snot, period.’ Enders quotes in his 1957 paper a virologist called Ruckle as reporting similar findings ‘and in addition has isolated an agent from monkey kidney tissue that is so

far indistinguishable from human measles virus’. In other words, Cowan says, these particles called ‘measles viruses’ are simply and clearly breakdown products of the starved and poisoned tissue. For measles ‘virus’ see all ‘viruses’ including the so-called ‘Covid virus’. Enders, the ‘Father of Modern Vaccines’, also said: There is a potential risk in employing cultures of primate cells for the production of vaccines composed of attenuated virus, since the presence of other agents possibly latent in primate tissues cannot be definitely excluded by any known method.

Cowan further quotes from a paper published in the journal Viruses in May, 2020, while the ‘Covid pandemic’ was well underway in the media if not in reality. ‘EVs’ here refers to particles of genetic debris from our own tissues, such as exosomes of which more in a moment: ‘The remarkable resemblance between EVs and viruses has caused quite a few problems in the studies focused on the analysis of EVs released during viral infections.’ Later the paper adds that to date a reliable method that can actually guarantee a complete separation (of EVs from viruses) DOES NOT EXIST. This was published at a time when a fairy tale ‘virus’ was claimed in total certainty to be causing a fairy tale ‘viral disease’ called ‘Covid-19’ – a fairy tale that was already well on the way to transforming human society in the image that the Cult has worked to achieve for so long. Cowan concludes his article: To summarize, there is no scientific evidence that pathogenic viruses exist. What we think of as ‘viruses’ are simply the normal breakdown products of dead and dying tissues and cells. When we are well, we make fewer of these particles; when we are starved, poisoned, suffocated by wearing masks, or afraid, we make more. There is no engineered virus circulating and making people sick. People in laboratories all over the world are making genetically modified products to make people sick. These are called vaccines. There is no virome, no ‘ecosystem’ of viruses, viruses are not 8%, 50% or 100 % of our genetic material. These are all simply erroneous ideas based on the misconception called a virus.

What is ‘Covid’? Load of bollocks

The background described here by Cowan and Lanka was emphasised in the first video presentation that I saw by Dr Andrew Kaufman when he asked whether the ‘Covid virus’ was in truth a natural defence mechanism of the body called ‘exosomes’. These are released by cells when in states of toxicity – see the same themes returning over and over. They are released ever more profusely as chemical and radiation toxicity increases and think of the potential effect therefore of 5G alone as its destructive frequencies infest the human energetic information field with a gathering pace (5G went online in Wuhan in 2019 as the ‘virus’ emerged). I’ll have more about this later. Exosomes transmit a warning to the rest of the body that ‘Houston, we have a problem’. Kaufman presented images of exosomes and compared them with ‘Covid’ under an electron microscope and the similarity was remarkable. They both a ach to the same cell receptors (claimed in the case of ‘Covid’), contain the same genetic material in the form of RNA or ribonucleic acid, and both are found in ‘viral cell cultures’ with damaged or dying cells. James Hildreth MD, President and Chief Executive Officer of the Meharry Medical College at Johns Hopkins, said: ‘The virus is fully an exosome in every sense of the word.’ Kaufman’s conclusion was that there is no ‘virus’: ‘This entire pandemic is a completely manufactured crisis … there is no evidence of anyone dying from [this] illness.’ Dr Tom Cowan and Sally Fallon Morell, authors of The Contagion Myth, published a statement with Dr Kaufman in February, 2021, explaining why the ‘virus’ does not exist and you can read it that in full in the Appendix. ‘Virus’ theory can be traced to the ‘cell theory’ in 1858 of German physician Rudolf Virchow (1821-1920) who contended that disease originates from a single cell infiltrated by a ‘virus’. Dr Stefan Lanka said that findings and insights with respect to the structure, function and central importance of tissues in the creation of life, which were already known in 1858, comprehensively refute the cell theory. Virchow ignored them. We have seen the part later played by John Enders in the 1950s and Lanka notes that infection theories were only established as a global dogma through the policies and

eugenics of the Third Reich in Nazi Germany (creation of the same Sabbatian cult behind the ‘Covid’ hoax). Lanka said: ‘Before 1933, scientists dared to contradict this theory; a er 1933, these critical scientists were silenced’. Dr Tom Cowan’s view is that ill-heath is caused by too much of something, too li le of something, or toxification from chemicals and radiation – not contagion. We must also highlight as a major source of the ‘virus’ theology a man still called the ‘Father of Modern Virology’ – Thomas Milton Rivers (1888-1962). There is no way given the Cult’s long game policy that it was a coincidence for the ‘Father of Modern Virology’ to be director of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research from 1937 to 1956 when he is credited with making the Rockefeller Institute a leader in ‘viral research’. Cult Rockefellers were the force behind the creation of Big Pharma ‘medicine’, established the World Health Organisation in 1948, and have long and close associations with the Gates family that now runs the WHO during the pandemic hoax through mega-rich Cult gofer and psychopath Bill Gates. Only a Renegade Mind can see through all this bullshit by asking the questions that need to be answered, not taking ‘no’ or prevarication for an answer, and certainly not hiding from the truth in fear of speaking it. Renegade Minds have always changed the world for the be er and they will change this one no ma er how bleak it may currently appear to be.

CHAPTER SIX Sequence of deceit If you tell the truth, you don’t have to remember anything Mark Twain

A

gainst the background that I have laid out this far the sequence that took us from an invented ‘virus’ in Cult-owned China in late 2019 to the fascist transformation of human society can be seen and understood in a whole new context. We were told that a deadly disease had broken out in Wuhan and the world media began its campaign (coordinated by behavioural psychologists as we shall see) to terrify the population into unquestioning compliance. We were shown images of Chinese people collapsing in the street which never happened in the West with what was supposed to be the same condition. In the earliest days when alleged cases and deaths were few the fear register was hysterical in many areas of the media and this would expand into the common media narrative across the world. The real story was rather different, but we were never told that. The Chinese government, one of the Cult’s biggest centres of global operation, said they had discovered a new illness with flu-like and pneumoniatype symptoms in a city with such toxic air that it is overwhelmed with flu-like symptoms, pneumonia and respiratory disease. Chinese scientists said it was a new – ‘novel’ – coronavirus which they called Sars-Cov-2 and that it caused a disease they labelled ‘Covid-19’. There was no evidence for this and the ‘virus’ has never to this day been isolated, purified and its genetic code established from that. It

was from the beginning a computer-generated fiction. Stories of Chinese whistleblowers saying the number of deaths was being supressed or that the ‘new disease’ was related to the Wuhan bio-lab misdirected mainstream and alternative media into cul-de-sacs to obscure the real truth – there was no ‘virus’. Chinese scientists took genetic material from the lung fluid of just a few people and said they had found a ‘new’ disease when this material had a wide range of content. There was no evidence for a ‘virus’ for the very reasons explained in the last two chapters. The ‘virus’ has never been shown to (a) exist and (b) cause any disease. People were diagnosed on symptoms that are so widespread in Wuhan and polluted China and with a PCR test that can’t detect infectious disease. On this farce the whole global scam was sold to the rest of the world which would also diagnose respiratory disease as ‘Covid-19’ from symptoms alone or with a PCR test not testing for a ‘virus’. Flu miraculously disappeared worldwide in 2020 and into 2021 as it was redesignated ‘Covid-19’. It was really the same old flu with its ‘flu-like’ symptoms a ributed to ‘flu-like’ ‘Covid-19’. At the same time with very few exceptions the Chinese response of draconian lockdown and fascism was the chosen weapon to respond across the West as recommended by the Cult-owned Tedros at the Cult-owned World Health Organization run by the Cult-owned Gates. All was going according to plan. Chinese scientists – everything in China is controlled by the Cult-owned government – compared their contaminated RNA lung-fluid material with other RNA sequences and said it appeared to be just under 80 percent identical to the SARS-CoV-1 ‘virus’ claimed to be the cause of the SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) ‘outbreak’ in 2003. They decreed that because of this the ‘new virus’ had to be related and they called it SARS-CoV-2. There are some serious problems with this assumption and assumption was all it was. Most ‘factual’ science turns out to be assumptions repeated into everyone-knows-that. A match of under 80-percent is meaningless. Dr Kaufman makes the point that there’s a 96 percent genetic correlation between humans and chimpanzees, but ‘no one would say our genetic material is part

of the chimpanzee family’. Yet the Chinese authorities were claiming that a much lower percentage, less than 80 percent, proved the existence of a new ‘coronavirus’. For goodness sake human DNA is 60 percent similar to a banana.

You are feeling sleepy The entire ‘Covid’ hoax is a global Psyop, a psychological operation to program the human mind into believing and fearing a complete fantasy. A crucial aspect of this was what appeared to happen in Italy. It was all very well streaming out daily images of an alleged catastrophe in Wuhan, but to the Western mind it was still on the other side of the world in a very different culture and se ing. A reaction of ‘this could happen to me and my family’ was still nothing like as intense enough for the mind-doctors. The Cult needed a Western example to push people over that edge and it chose Italy, one of its major global locations going back to the Roman Empire. An Italian ‘Covid’ crisis was manufactured in a particular area called Lombardy which just happens to be notorious for its toxic air and therefore respiratory disease. Wuhan, China, déjà vu. An hysterical media told horror stories of Italians dying from ‘Covid’ in their droves and how Lombardy hospitals were being overrun by a tidal wave of desperately ill people needing treatment a er being struck down by the ‘deadly virus’. Here was the psychological turning point the Cult had planned. Wow, if this is happening in Italy, the Western mind concluded, this indeed could happen to me and my family. Another point is that Italian authorities responded by following the Chinese blueprint so vehemently recommended by the Cult-owned World Health Organization. They imposed fascistic lockdowns on the whole country viciously policed with the help of surveillance drones sweeping through the streets seeking out anyone who escaped from mass house arrest. Livelihoods were destroyed and psychology unravelled in the way we have witnessed since in all lockdown countries. Crucial to the plan was that Italy responded in this way to set the precedent of suspending freedom and imposing fascism in a ‘Western liberal democracy’. I emphasised in an

animated video explanation on davidicke.com posted in the summer of 2020 how important it was to the Cult to expand the Chinese lockdown model across the West. Without this, and the bare-faced lie that non-symptomatic people could still transmit a ‘disease’ they didn’t have, there was no way locking down the whole population, sick and not sick, could be pulled off. At just the right time and with no evidence Cult operatives and gofers claimed that people without symptoms could pass on the ‘disease’. In the name of protecting the ‘vulnerable’ like elderly people, who lockdowns would kill by the tens of thousands, we had for the first time healthy people told to isolate as well as the sick. The great majority of people who tested positive had no symptoms because there was nothing wrong with them. It was just a trick made possible by a test not testing for the ‘virus’. Months a er my animated video the Gates-funded Professor Neil Ferguson at the Gates-funded Imperial College confirmed that I was right. He didn’t say it in those terms, naturally, but he did say it. Ferguson will enter the story shortly for his outrageously crazy ‘computer models’ that led to Britain, the United States and many other countries following the Chinese and now Italian methods of response. Put another way, following the Cult script. Ferguson said that SAGE, the UK government’s scientific advisory group which has controlled ‘Covid’ policy from the start, wanted to follow the Chinese lockdown model (while they all continued to work and be paid), but they wondered if they could possibly, in Ferguson’s words, ‘get away with it in Europe’. ‘Get away with it’? Who the hell do these moronic, arrogant people think they are? This appalling man Ferguson said that once Italy went into national lockdown they realised they, too, could mimic China: It’s a communist one-party state, we said. We couldn’t get away with it in Europe, we thought … and then Italy did it. And we realised we could. Behind this garbage from Ferguson is a simple fact: Doing the same as China in every country was the plan from the start and Ferguson’s ‘models’ would play a central role in achieving that. It’s just a coincidence, of course, and absolutely nothing to worry your little head about.

Oops, sorry, our mistake Once the Italian segment of the Psyop had done the job it was designed to do a very different story emerged. Italian authorities revealed that 99 percent of those who had ‘died from Covid-19’ in Italy had one, two, three, or more ‘co-morbidities’ or illnesses and health problems that could have ended their life. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published a figure of 94 percent for Americans dying of ‘Covid’ while having other serious medical conditions – on average two to three (some five or six) other potential causes of death. In terms of death from an unproven ‘virus’ I say it is 100 percent. The other one percent in Italy and six percent in the US would presumably have died from ‘Covid’s’ flu-like symptoms with a range of other possible causes in conjunction with a test not testing for the ‘virus’. Fox News reported that even more startling figures had emerged in one US county in which 410 of 422 deaths a ributed to ‘Covid-19’ had other potentially deadly health conditions. The Italian National Health Institute said later that the average age of people dying with a ‘Covid-19’ diagnosis in Italy was about 81. Ninety percent were over 70 with ten percent over 90. In terms of other reasons to die some 80 percent had two or more chronic diseases with half having three or more including cardiovascular problems, diabetes, respiratory problems and cancer. Why is the phantom ‘Covid-19’ said to kill overwhelmingly old people and hardly affect the young? Old people continually die of many causes and especially respiratory disease which you can rediagnose ‘Covid-19’ while young people die in tiny numbers by comparison and rarely of respiratory disease. Old people ‘die of Covid’ because they die of other things that can be redesignated ‘Covid’ and it really is that simple.

Flu has flown The blueprint was in place. Get your illusory ‘cases’ from a test not testing for the ‘virus’ and redesignate other causes of death as ‘Covid-19’. You have an instant ‘pandemic’ from something that is nothing more than a computer-generated fiction. With near-on a

billion people having ‘flu-like’ symptoms every year the potential was limitless and we can see why flu quickly and apparently miraculously disappeared worldwide by being diagnosed ‘Covid-19’. The painfully bloody obvious was explained away by the childlike media in headlines like this in the UK ‘Independent’: ‘Not a single case of flu detected by Public Health England this year as Covid restrictions suppress virus’. I kid you not. The masking, social distancing and house arrest that did not make the ‘Covid virus’ disappear somehow did so with the ‘flu virus’. Even worse the article, by a bloke called Samuel Love , suggested that maybe the masking, sanitising and other ‘Covid’ measures should continue to keep the flu away. With a ridiculousness that disturbs your breathing (it’s ‘Covid-19’) the said Love wrote: ‘With widespread social distancing and mask-wearing measures in place throughout the UK, the usual routes of transmission for influenza have been blocked.’ He had absolutely no evidence to support that statement, but look at the consequences of him acknowledging the obvious. With flu not disappearing at all and only being relabelled ‘Covid-19’ he would have to contemplate that ‘Covid’ was a hoax on a scale that is hard to imagine. You need guts and commitment to truth to even go there and that’s clearly something Samuel Love does not have in abundance. He would never have got it through the editors anyway. Tens of thousands die in the United States alone every winter from flu including many with pneumonia complications. CDC figures record 45 million Americans diagnosed with flu in 2017-2018 of which 61,000 died and some reports claim 80,000. Where was the same hysteria then that we have seen with ‘Covid-19’? Some 250,000 Americans are admi ed to hospital with pneumonia every year with about 50,000 cases proving fatal. About 65 million suffer respiratory disease every year and three million deaths makes this the third biggest cause of death worldwide. You only have to redesignate a portion of all these people ‘Covid-19’ and you have an instant global pandemic or the appearance of one. Why would doctors do this? They are told to do this and all but a few dare not refuse those who must be obeyed. Doctors in general are not researching their own

knowledge and instead take it direct and unquestioned from the authorities that own them and their careers. The authorities say they must now diagnose these symptoms ‘Covid-19’ and not flu, or whatever, and they do it. Dark suits say put ‘Covid-19’ on death certificates no ma er what the cause of death and the doctors do it. Renegade Minds don’t fall for the illusion that doctors and medical staff are all highly-intelligent, highly-principled, seekers of medical truth. Some are, but not the majority. They are repeaters, gofers, and yes sir, no sir, purveyors of what the system demands they purvey. The ‘Covid’ con is not merely confined to diseases of the lungs. Instructions to doctors to put ‘Covid-19’ on death certificates for anyone dying of anything within 28 days (or much more) of a positive test not testing for the ‘virus’ opened the floodgates. The term dying with ‘Covid’ and not of ‘Covid’ was coined to cover the truth. Whether it was a with or an of they were all added to the death numbers a ributed to the ‘deadly virus’ compiled by national governments and globally by the Gates-funded Johns Hopkins operation in the United States that was so involved in those ‘pandemic’ simulations. Fraudulent deaths were added to the evergrowing list of fraudulent ‘cases’ from false positives from a false test. No wonder Professor Walter Ricciardi, scientific advisor to the Italian minister of health, said a er the Lombardy hysteria had done its job that ‘Covid’ death rates were due to Italy having the second oldest population in the world and to how hospitals record deaths: The way in which we code deaths in our country is very generous in the sense that all the people who die in hospitals with the coronavirus are deemed to be dying of the coronavirus. On re-evaluation by the National Institute of Health, only 12 per cent of death certificates have shown a direct causality from coronavirus, while 88 per cent of patients who have died have at least one pre-morbidity – many had two or three.

This is extraordinary enough when you consider the propaganda campaign to use Italy to terrify the world, but how can they even say twelve percent were genuine when the ‘virus’ has not been shown to exist, its ‘code’ is a computer program, and diagnosis comes from a test not testing for it? As in China, and soon the world, ‘Covid-19’ in

Italy was a redesignation of diagnosis. Lies and corruption were to become the real ‘pandemic’ fuelled by a pathetically-compliant medical system taking its orders from the tiny few at the top of their national hierarchy who answered to the World Health Organization which answers to Gates and the Cult. Doctors were told – ordered – to diagnose a particular set of symptoms ‘Covid-19’ and put that on the death certificate for any cause of death if the patient had tested positive with a test not testing for the virus or had ‘Covid’ symptoms like the flu. The United States even introduced big financial incentives to manipulate the figures with hospitals receiving £4,600 from the Medicare system for diagnosing someone with regular pneumonia, $13,000 if they made the diagnosis from the same symptoms ‘Covid-19’ pneumonia, and $39, 000 if they put a ‘Covid’ diagnosed patient on a ventilator that would almost certainly kill them. A few – painfully and pathetically few – medical whistleblowers revealed (before Cult-owned YouTube deleted their videos) that they had been instructed to ‘let the patient crash’ and put them straight on a ventilator instead of going through a series of far less intrusive and dangerous methods as they would have done before the pandemic hoax began and the financial incentives kicked in. We are talking cold-blooded murder given that ventilators are so damaging to respiratory systems they are usually the last step before heaven awaits. Renegade Minds never fall for the belief that people in white coats are all angels of mercy and cannot be full-on psychopaths. I have explained in detail in The Answer how what I am describing here played out across the world coordinated by the World Health Organization through the medical hierarchies in almost every country.

Medical scientist calls it Information about the non-existence of the ‘virus’ began to emerge for me in late March, 2020, and mushroomed a er that. I was sent an email by Sir Julian Rose, a writer, researcher, and organic farming promotor, from a medical scientist friend of his in the United States. Even at that early stage in March the scientist was able to explain

how the ‘Covid’ hoax was being manipulated. He said there were no reliable tests for a specific ‘Covid-19 virus’ and nor were there any reliable agencies or media outlets for reporting numbers of actual ‘Covid-19’ cases. We have seen in the long period since then that he was absolutely right. ‘Every action and reaction to Covid-19 is based on totally flawed data and we simply cannot make accurate assessments,’ he said. Most people diagnosed with ‘Covid-19’ were showing nothing more than cold and flu-like symptoms ‘because most coronavirus strains are nothing more than cold/flu-like symptoms’. We had farcical situations like an 84-year-old German man testing positive for ‘Covid-19’ and his nursing home ordered to quarantine only for him to be found to have a common cold. The scientist described back then why PCR tests and what he called the ‘Mickey Mouse test kits’ were useless for what they were claimed to be identifying. ‘The idea these kits can isolate a specific virus like Covid-19 is nonsense,’ he said. Significantly, he pointed out that ‘if you want to create a totally false panic about a totally false pandemic – pick a coronavirus’. This is exactly what the Cult-owned Gates, World Economic Forum and Johns Hopkins University did with their Event 201 ‘simulation’ followed by their real-life simulation called the ‘pandemic’. The scientist said that all you had to do was select the sickest of people with respiratory-type diseases in a single location – ‘say Wuhan’ – and administer PCR tests to them. You can then claim that anyone showing ‘viral sequences’ similar to a coronavirus ‘which will inevitably be quite a few’ is suffering from a ‘new’ disease: Since you already selected the sickest flu cases a fairly high proportion of your sample will go on to die. You can then say this ‘new’ virus has a CFR [case fatality rate] higher than the flu and use this to infuse more concern and do more tests which will of course produce more ‘cases’, which expands the testing, which produces yet more ‘cases’ and so on and so on. Before long you have your ‘pandemic’, and all you have done is use a simple test kit trick to convert the worst flu and pneumonia cases into something new that doesn’t ACTUALLY EXIST [my emphasis].

He said that you then ‘just run the same scam in other countries’ and make sure to keep the fear message running high ‘so that people

will feel panicky and less able to think critically’. The only problem to overcome was the fact there is no actual new deadly pathogen and only regular sick people. This meant that deaths from the ‘new deadly pathogen’ were going to be way too low for a real new deadly virus pandemic, but he said this could be overcome in the following ways – all of which would go on to happen: 1. You can claim this is just the beginning and more deaths are imminent [you underpin this with fantasy ‘computer projections’]. Use this as an excuse to quarantine everyone and then claim the quarantine prevented the expected millions of dead. 2. You can [say that people] ‘minimizing’ the dangers are irresponsible and bully them into not talking about numbers. 3. You can talk crap about made up numbers hoping to blind people with pseudoscience. 4. You can start testing well people (who, of course, will also likely have shreds of coronavirus [RNA] in them) and thus inflate your ‘case figures’ with ‘asymptomatic carriers’ (you will of course have to spin that to sound deadly even though any virologist knows the more symptom-less cases you have the less deadly is your pathogen).

The scientist said that if you take these simple steps ‘you can have your own entirely manufactured pandemic up and running in weeks’. His analysis made so early in the hoax was brilliantly prophetic of what would actually unfold. Pulling all the information together in these recent chapters we have this is simple 1, 2, 3, of how you can delude virtually the entire human population into believing in a ‘virus’ that doesn’t exist: • A ‘Covid case’ is someone who tests positive with a test not testing for the ‘virus’. • A ‘Covid death’ is someone who dies of any cause within 28 days (or much longer) of testing positive with a test not testing for the ‘virus. • Asymptomatic means there is nothing wrong with you, but they claim you can pass on what you don’t have to justify locking

down (quarantining) healthy people in totality. The foundations of the hoax are that simple. A study involving ten million people in Wuhan, published in November, 2020, demolished the whole lie about those without symptoms passing on the ‘virus’. They found ‘300 asymptomatic cases’ and traced their contacts to find that not one of them was detected with the ‘virus’. ‘Asymptomatic’ patients and their contacts were isolated for no less than two weeks and nothing changed. I know it’s all crap, but if you are going to claim that those without symptoms can transmit ‘the virus’ then you must produce evidence for that and they never have. Even World Health Organization official Dr Maria Van Kerkhove, head of the emerging diseases and zoonosis unit, said as early as June, 2020, that she doubted the validity of asymptomatic transmission. She said that ‘from the data we have, it still seems to be rare that an asymptomatic person actually transmits onward to a secondary individual’ and by ‘rare’ she meant that she couldn’t cite any case of asymptomatic transmission.

The Ferguson factor The problem for the Cult as it headed into March, 2020, when the script had lockdown due to start, was that despite all the manipulation of the case and death figures they still did not have enough people alleged to have died from ‘Covid’ to justify mass house arrest. This was overcome in the way the scientist described: ‘You can claim this is just the beginning and more deaths are imminent … Use this as an excuse to quarantine everyone and then claim the quarantine prevented the expected millions of dead.’ Enter one Professor Neil Ferguson, the Gates-funded ‘epidemiologist’ at the Gates-funded Imperial College in London. Ferguson is Britain’s Christian Drosten in that he has a dire record of predicting health outcomes, but is still called upon to advise government on the next health outcome when another ‘crisis’ comes along. This may seem to be a strange and ridiculous thing to do. Why would you keep turning for policy guidance to people who have a history of being

monumentally wrong? Ah, but it makes sense from the Cult point of view. These ‘experts’ keep on producing predictions that suit the Cult agenda for societal transformation and so it was with Neil Ferguson as he revealed his horrific (and clearly insane) computer model predictions that allowed lockdowns to be imposed in Britain, the United States and many other countries. Ferguson does not have even an A-level in biology and would appear to have no formal training in computer modelling, medicine or epidemiology, according to Derek Winton, an MSc in Computational Intelligence. He wrote an article somewhat aghast at what Ferguson did which included taking no account of respiratory disease ‘seasonality’ which means it is far worse in the winter months. Who would have thought that respiratory disease could be worse in the winter? Well, certainly not Ferguson. The massively China-connected Imperial College and its bizarre professor provided the excuse for the long-incubated Chinese model of human control to travel westward at lightning speed. Imperial College confirms on its website that it collaborates with the Chinese Research Institute; publishes more than 600 research papers every year with Chinese research institutions; has 225 Chinese staff; 2,600 Chinese students – the biggest international group; 7,000 former students living in China which is the largest group outside the UK; and was selected for a tour by China’s President Xi Jinping during his state visit to the UK in 2015. The college takes major donations from China and describes itself as the UK’s number one university collaborator with Chinese research institutions. The China communist/fascist government did not appear phased by the woeful predictions of Ferguson and Imperial when during the lockdown that Ferguson induced the college signed a five-year collaboration deal with China tech giant Huawei that will have Huawei’s indoor 5G network equipment installed at the college’s West London tech campus along with an ‘AI cloud platform’. The deal includes Chinese sponsorship of Imperial’s Venture Catalyst entrepreneurship competition. Imperial is an example of the enormous influence the Chinese government has within British and North American

universities and research centres – and further afield. Up to 200 academics from more than a dozen UK universities are being investigated on suspicion of ‘unintentionally’ helping the Chinese government build weapons of mass destruction by ‘transferring world-leading research in advanced military technology such as aircra , missile designs and cyberweapons’. Similar scandals have broken in the United States, but it’s all a coincidence. Imperial College serves the agenda in many other ways including the promotion of every aspect of the United Nations Agenda 21/2030 (the Great Reset) and produced computer models to show that human-caused ‘climate change’ is happening when in the real world it isn’t. Imperial College is driving the climate agenda as it drives the ‘Covid’ agenda (both Cult hoaxes) while Patrick Vallance, the UK government’s Chief Scientific Adviser on ‘Covid’, was named Chief Scientific Adviser to the UN ‘climate change’ conference known as COP26 hosted by the government in Glasgow, Scotland. ‘Covid’ and ‘climate’ are fundamentally connected.

Professor Woeful From Imperial’s bosom came Neil Ferguson still advising government despite his previous disasters and it was announced early on that he and other key people like UK Chief Medical Adviser Chris Whi y had caught the ‘virus’ as the propaganda story was being sold. Somehow they managed to survive and we had Prime Minister Boris Johnson admi ed to hospital with what was said to be a severe version of the ‘virus’ in this same period. His whole policy and demeanour changed when he returned to Downing Street. It’s a small world with these government advisors – especially in their communal connections to Gates – and Ferguson had partnered with Whi y to write a paper called ‘Infectious disease: Tough choices to reduce Ebola transmission’ which involved another scare-story that didn’t happen. Ferguson’s ‘models’ predicted that up to150, 000 could die from ‘mad cow disease’, or BSE, and its version in sheep if it was transmi ed to humans. BSE was not transmi ed and instead triggered by an organophosphate pesticide used to treat a pest on

cows. Fewer than 200 deaths followed from the human form. Models by Ferguson and his fellow incompetents led to the unnecessary culling of millions of pigs, ca le and sheep in the foot and mouth outbreak in 2001 which destroyed the lives and livelihoods of farmers and their families who had o en spent decades building their herds and flocks. Vast numbers of these animals did not have foot and mouth and had no contact with the infection. Another ‘expert’ behind the cull was Professor Roy Anderson, a computer modeller at Imperial College specialising in the epidemiology of human, not animal, disease. Anderson has served on the Bill and Melinda Gates Grand Challenges in Global Health advisory board and chairs another Gates-funded organisation. Gates is everywhere. In a precursor to the ‘Covid’ script Ferguson backed closing schools ‘for prolonged periods’ over the swine flu ‘pandemic’ in 2009 and said it would affect a third of the world population if it continued to spread at the speed he claimed to be happening. His mates at Imperial College said much the same and a news report said: ‘One of the authors, the epidemiologist and disease modeller Neil Ferguson, who sits on the World Health Organisation’s emergency commi ee for the outbreak, said the virus had “full pandemic potential”.’ Professor Liam Donaldson, the Chris Whi y of his day as Chief Medical Officer, said the worst case could see 30 percent of the British people infected by swine flu with 65,000 dying. Ferguson and Donaldson were indeed proved correct when at the end of the year the number of deaths a ributed to swine flu was 392. The term ‘expert’ is rather liberally applied unfortunately, not least to complete idiots. Swine flu ‘projections’ were great for GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) as millions rolled in for its Pandemrix influenza vaccine which led to brain damage with children most affected. The British government (taxpayers) paid out more than £60 million in compensation a er GSK was given immunity from prosecution. Yet another ‘Covid’ déjà vu. Swine flu was supposed to have broken out in Mexico, but Dr Wolfgang Wodarg, a German doctor, former member of parliament and critic of the ‘Covid’ hoax, observed ‘the spread of swine flu’ in Mexico City at the time. He

said: ‘What we experienced in Mexico City was a very mild flu which did not kill more than usual – which killed even fewer people than usual.’ Hyping the fear against all the facts is not unique to ‘Covid’ and has happened many times before. Ferguson is reported to have over-estimated the projected death toll of bird flu (H5N1) by some three million-fold, but bird flu vaccine makers again made a killing from the scare. This is some of the background to the Neil Ferguson who produced the perfectly-timed computer models in early 2020 predicting that half a million people would die in Britain without draconian lockdown and 2.2 million in the United States. Politicians panicked, people panicked, and lockdowns of alleged short duration were instigated to ‘fla en the curve’ of cases gleaned from a test not testing for the ‘virus’. I said at the time that the public could forget the ‘short duration’ bit. This was an agenda to destroy the livelihoods of the population and force them into mass control through dependency and there was going to be nothing ‘short’ about it. American researcher Daniel Horowitz described the consequences of the ‘models’ spewed out by Gates-funded Ferguson and Imperial College: What led our government and the governments of many other countries into panic was a single Imperial College of UK study, funded by global warming activists, that predicted 2.2 million deaths if we didn’t lock down the country. In addition, the reported 8-9% death rate in Italy scared us into thinking there was some other mutation of this virus that they got, which might have come here. Together with the fact that we were finally testing and had the ability to actually report new cases, we thought we were headed for a death spiral. But again … we can’t flatten a curve if we don’t know when the curve started.

How about it never started?

Giving them what they want An investigation by German news outlet Welt Am Sonntag (World on Sunday) revealed how in March, 2020, the German government gathered together ‘leading scientists from several research institutes and universities’ and ‘together, they were to produce a [modelling]

paper that would serve as legitimization for further tough political measures’. The Cult agenda was justified by computer modelling not based on evidence or reality; it was specifically constructed to justify the Cult demand for lockdowns all over the world to destroy the independent livelihoods of the global population. All these modellers and everyone responsible for the ‘Covid’ hoax have a date with a trial like those in Nuremberg a er World War Two when Nazis faced the consequences of their war crimes. These corruptbeyond-belief ‘modellers’ wrote the paper according to government instructions and it said that that if lockdown measures were li ed then up to one million Germans would die from ‘Covid-19’ adding that some would die ‘agonizingly at home, gasping for breath’ unable to be treated by hospitals that couldn’t cope. All lies. No ma er – it gave the Cult all that it wanted. What did long-time government ‘modeller’ Neil Ferguson say? If the UK and the United States didn’t lockdown half a million would die in Britain and 2.2 million Americans. Anyone see a theme here? ‘Modellers’ are such a crucial part of the lockdown strategy that we should look into their background and follow the money. Researcher Rosemary Frei produced an excellent article headlined ‘The Modelling-paper Mafiosi’. She highlights a guy called John Edmunds, a British epidemiologist, and professor in the Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. He studied at Imperial College. Edmunds is a member of government ‘Covid’ advisory bodies which have been dictating policy, the New and Emerging Respiratory Virus Threats Advisory Group (NERVTAG) and the Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE). Ferguson, another member of NERVTAG and SAGE, led the way with the original ‘virus’ and Edmunds has followed in the ‘variant’ stage and especially the so-called UK or Kent variant known as the ‘Variant of Concern’ (VOC) B.1.1.7. He said in a co-wri en report for the Centre for Mathematical modelling of Infectious Diseases at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, with input from the Centre’s ‘Covid-19’ Working Group, that there was ‘a realistic

possibility that VOC B.1.1.7 is associated with an increased risk of death compared to non-VOC viruses’. Fear, fear, fear, get the vaccine, fear, fear, fear, get the vaccine. Rosemary Frei reveals that almost all the paper’s authors and members of the modelling centre’s ‘Covid-19’ Working Group receive funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and/or the associated Gates-funded Wellcome Trust. The paper was published by e-journal Medr χiv which only publishes papers not peer-reviewed and the journal was established by an organisation headed by Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg and his missus. What a small world it is. Frei discovered that Edmunds is on the Scientific Advisory Board of the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) which was established by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Klaus Schwab’s Davos World Economic Forum and Big Pharma giant Wellcome. CEPI was ‘launched in Davos [in 2017] to develop vaccines to stop future epidemics’, according to its website. ‘Our mission is to accelerate the development of vaccines against emerging infectious diseases and enable equitable access to these vaccines for people during outbreaks.’ What kind people they are. Rosemary Frei reveals that Public Health England (PHE) director Susan Hopkins is an author of her organisation’s non-peer-reviewed reports on ‘new variants’. Hopkins is a professor of infectious diseases at London’s Imperial College which is gi ed tens of millions of dollars a year by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Gates-funded modelling disaster Neil Ferguson also co-authors Public Health England reports and he spoke in December, 2020, about the potential danger of the B.1.1.7. ‘UK variant’ promoted by Gates-funded modeller John Edmunds. When I come to the ‘Covid vaccines’ the ‘new variants’ will be shown for what they are – bollocks.

Connections, connections All these people and modellers are lockdown-obsessed or, put another way, they demand what the Cult demands. Edmunds said in January, 2021, that to ease lockdowns too soon would be a disaster and they had to ‘vaccinate much, much, much more widely than the

elderly’. Rosemary Frei highlights that Edmunds is married to Jeanne Pimenta who is described in a LinkedIn profile as director of epidemiology at GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) and she held shares in the company. Patrick Vallance, co-chair of SAGE and the government’s Chief Scientific Adviser, is a former executive of GSK and has a deferred bonus of shares in the company worth £600,000. GSK has serious business connections with Bill Gates and is collaborating with mRNA-’vaccine’ company CureVac to make ‘vaccines’ for the new variants that Edmunds is talking about. GSK is planning a ‘Covid vaccine’ with drug giant Sanofi. Puppet Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced in the spring of 2021 that up to 60 million vaccine doses were to be made at the GSK facility at Barnard Castle in the English North East. Barnard Castle, with a population of just 6,000, was famously visited in breach of lockdown rules in April, 2020, by Johnson aide Dominic Cummings who said that he drove there ‘to test his eyesight’ before driving back to London. Cummings would be be er advised to test his integrity – not that it would take long. The GSK facility had nothing to do with his visit then although I’m sure Patrick Vallance would have been happy to arrange an introduction and some tea and biscuits. Ruthless psychopath Gates has made yet another fortune from vaccines in collaboration with Big Pharma companies and gushes at the phenomenal profits to be made from vaccines – more than a 20-to-1 return as he told one interviewer. Gates also tweeted in December, 2019, with the foreknowledge of what was coming: ‘What’s next for our foundation? I’m particularly excited about what the next year could mean for one of the best buys in global health: vaccines.’ Modeller John Edmunds is a big promotor of vaccines as all these people appear to be. He’s the dean of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine’s Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health which is primarily funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Gates-established and funded GAVI vaccine alliance which is the Gates vehicle to vaccinate the world. The organisation Doctors Without Borders has described GAVI as being ‘aimed more at supporting drug-industry desires to promote new

products than at finding the most efficient and sustainable means for fighting the diseases of poverty’. But then that’s why the psychopath Gates created it. John Edmunds said in a video that the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine is involved in every aspect of vaccine development including large-scale clinical trials. He contends that mathematical modelling can show that vaccines protect individuals and society. That’s on the basis of shit in and shit out, I take it. Edmunds serves on the UK Vaccine Network as does Ferguson and the government’s foremost ‘Covid’ adviser, the grimfaced, dark-eyed Chris Whi y. The Vaccine Network says it works ‘to support the government to identify and shortlist targeted investment opportunities for the most promising vaccines and vaccine technologies that will help combat infectious diseases with epidemic potential, and to address structural issues related to the UK’s broader vaccine infrastructure’. Ferguson is acting Director of the Imperial College Vaccine Impact Modelling Consortium which has funding from the Bill and Melina Gates Foundation and the Gates-created GAVI ‘vaccine alliance’. Anyone wonder why these characters see vaccines as the answer to every problem? Ferguson is wildly enthusiastic in his support for GAVI’s campaign to vaccine children en masse in poor countries. You would expect someone like Gates who has constantly talked about the need to reduce the population to want to fund vaccines to keep more people alive. I’m sure that’s why he does it. The John Edmunds London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM) has a Vaccines Manufacturing Innovation Centre which develops, tests and commercialises vaccines. Rosemary Frei writes: The vaccines centre also performs affiliated activities like combating ‘vaccine hesitancy’. The latter includes the Vaccine Confidence Project. The project’s stated purpose is, among other things, ‘to provide analysis and guidance for early response and engagement with the public to ensure sustained confidence in vaccines and immunisation’. The Vaccine Confidence Project’s director is LSHTM professor Heidi Larson. For more than a decade she’s been researching how to combat vaccine hesitancy.

How the bloody hell can blokes like John Edmunds and Neil Ferguson with those connections and financial ties model ‘virus’ case

and death projections for the government and especially in a way that gives their paymasters like Gates exactly what they want? It’s insane, but this is what you find throughout the world.

‘Covid’ is not dangerous, oops, wait, yes it is Only days before Ferguson’s nightmare scenario made Jackboot Johnson take Britain into a China-style lockdown to save us from a deadly ‘virus’ the UK government website gov.uk was reporting something very different to Ferguson on a page of official government guidance for ‘high consequence infectious diseases (HCID)’. It said this about ‘Covid-19’: As of 19 March 2020, COVID-19 is no longer considered to be a high consequence infectious diseases (HCID) in the UK [my emphasis]. The 4 nations public health HCID group made an interim recommendation in January 2020 to classify COVID-19 as an HCID. This was based on consideration of the UK HCID criteria about the virus and the disease with information available during the early stages of the outbreak. Now that more is known about COVID-19, the public health bodies in the UK have reviewed the most up to date information about COVID-19 against the UK HCID criteria. They have determined that several features have now changed; in particular, more information is available about mortality rates (low overall), and there is now greater clinical awareness and a specific and sensitive laboratory test, the availability of which continues to increase. The Advisory Committee on Dangerous Pathogens (ACDP) is also of the opinion that COVID-19 should no longer be classified as an HCID.

Soon a er the government had been exposed for downgrading the risk they upgraded it again and everyone was back to singing from the same Cult hymn book. Ferguson and his fellow Gates clones indicated that lockdowns and restrictions would have to continue until a Gates-funded vaccine was developed. Gates said the same because Ferguson and his like were repeating the Gates script which is the Cult script. ‘Fla en the curve’ became an ongoing nightmare of continuing lockdowns with periods in between of severe restrictions in pursuit of destroying independent incomes and had nothing to do with protecting health about which the Cult gives not a shit. Why wouldn’t Ferguson be pushing a vaccine ‘solution’ when he’s owned by vaccine-obsessive Gates who makes a fortune from them and

when Ferguson heads the Vaccine Impact Modelling Consortium at Imperial College funded by the Gates Foundation and GAVI, the ‘vaccine alliance’, created by Gates as his personal vaccine promotion operation? To compound the human catastrophe that Ferguson’s ‘models’ did so much to create he was later exposed for breaking his own lockdown rules by having sexual liaisons with his married girlfriend Antonia Staats at his home while she was living at another location with her husband and children. Staats was a ‘climate’ activist and senior campaigner at the Soros-funded Avaaz which I wouldn’t trust to tell me that grass is green. Ferguson had to resign as a government advisor over this hypocrisy in May, 2020, but a er a period of quiet he was back being quoted by the ridiculous media on the need for more lockdowns and a vaccine rollout. Other government-advising ‘scientists’ from Imperial College’ held the fort in his absence and said lockdown could be indefinite until a vaccine was found. The Cult script was being sung by the payrolled choir. I said there was no intention of going back to ‘normal’ when the ‘vaccine’ came because the ‘vaccine’ is part of a very different agenda that I will discuss in Human 2.0. Why would the Cult want to let the world go back to normal when destroying that normal forever was the whole point of what was happening? House arrest, closing businesses and schools through lockdown, (un)social distancing and masks all followed the Ferguson fantasy models. Again as I predicted (these people are so predictable) when the ‘vaccine’ arrived we were told that house arrest, lockdown, (un)social distancing and masks would still have to continue. I will deal with the masks in the next chapter because they are of fundamental importance.

Where’s the ‘pandemic’? Any mildly in-depth assessment of the figures revealed what was really going on. Cult-funded and controlled organisations still have genuine people working within them such is the number involved. So it is with Genevieve Briand, assistant program director of the Applied Economics master’s degree program at Johns Hopkins

University. She analysed the impact that ‘Covid-19’ had on deaths from all causes in the United States using official data from the CDC for the period from early February to early September, 2020. She found that allegedly ‘Covid’ related-deaths exceeded those from heart disease which she found strange with heart disease always the biggest cause of fatalities. Her research became even more significant when she noted the sudden decline in 2020 of all non-’Covid’ deaths: ‘This trend is completely contrary to the pa ern observed in all previous years … the total decrease in deaths by other causes almost exactly equals the increase in deaths by Covid-19.’ This was such a game, set and match in terms of what was happening that Johns Hopkins University deleted the article on the grounds that it ‘was being used to support false and dangerous inaccuracies about the impact of the pandemic’. No – because it exposed the scam from official CDC figures and this was confirmed when those figures were published in January, 2021. Here we can see the effect of people dying from heart a acks, cancer, road accidents and gunshot wounds – anything – having ‘Covid-19’ on the death certificate along with those diagnosed from ‘symptoms’ who had even not tested positive with a test not testing for the ‘virus’. I am not kidding with the gunshot wounds, by the way. Brenda Bock, coroner in Grand County, Colorado, revealed that two gunshot victims tested positive for the ‘virus’ within the previous 30 days and were therefore classified as ‘Covid deaths’. Bock said: ‘These two people had tested positive for Covid, but that’s not what killed them. A gunshot wound is what killed them.’ She said she had not even finished her investigation when the state listed the gunshot victims as deaths due to the ‘virus’. The death and case figures for ‘Covid-19’ are an absolute joke and yet they are repeated like parrots by the media, politicians and alleged medical ‘experts’. The official Cult narrative is the only show in town. Genevieve Briand found that deaths from all causes were not exceptional in 2020 compared with previous years and a Spanish magazine published figures that said the same about Spain which was a ‘Covid’ propaganda hotspot at one point. Discovery Salud, a

health and medicine magazine, quoted government figures which showed how 17,000 fewer people died in Spain in 2020 than in 2019 and more than 26,000 fewer than in 2018. The age-standardised mortality rate for England and Wales when age distribution is taken into account was significantly lower in 2020 than the 1970s, 80s and 90s, and was only the ninth highest since 2000. Where is the ‘pandemic’? Post mortems and autopsies virtually disappeared for ‘Covid’ deaths amid claims that ‘virus-infected’ bodily fluids posed a risk to those carrying out the autopsy. This was rejected by renowned German pathologist and forensic doctor Klaus Püschel who said that he and his staff had by then done 150 autopsies on ‘Covid’ patients with no problems at all. He said they were needed to know why some ‘Covid’ patients suffered blood clots and not severe respiratory infections. The ‘virus’ is, a er all, called SARS or ‘severe acute respiratory syndrome’. I highlighted in the spring of 2020 this phenomenon and quoted New York intensive care doctor Cameron Kyle-Sidell who posted a soon deleted YouTube video to say that they had been told to prepare to treat an infectious disease called ‘Covid-19’, but that was not what they were dealing with. Instead he likened the lung condition of the most severely ill patients to what you would expect with cabin depressurisation in a plane at 30,000 feet or someone dropped on the top of Everest without oxygen or acclimatisation. I have never said this is not happening to a small minority of alleged ‘Covid’ patients – I am saying this is not caused by a phantom ‘contagious virus’. Indeed Kyle-Sidell said that ‘Covid-19’ was not the disease they were told was coming their way. ‘We are operating under a medical paradigm that is untrue,’ he said, and he believed they were treating the wrong disease: ‘These people are being slowly starved of oxygen.’ Patients would take off their oxygen masks in a state of fear and stress and while they were blue in the face on the brink of death. They did not look like patients dying of pneumonia. You can see why they don’t want autopsies when their virus doesn’t exist and there is another condition in some people that they don’t wish to be uncovered. I should add here that

the 5G system of millimetre waves was being rapidly introduced around the world in 2020 and even more so now as they fire 5G at the Earth from satellites. At 60 gigahertz within the 5G range that frequency interacts with the oxygen molecule and stops people breathing in sufficient oxygen to be absorbed into the bloodstream. They are installing 5G in schools and hospitals. The world is not mad or anything. 5G can cause major changes to the lungs and blood as I detail in The Answer and these consequences are labelled ‘Covid19’, the alleged symptoms of which can be caused by 5G and other electromagnetic frequencies as cells respond to radiation poisoning.

The ‘Covid death’ scam Dr Sco Jensen, a Minnesota state senator and medical doctor, exposed ‘Covid’ Medicare payment incentives to hospitals and death certificate manipulation. He said he was sent a seven-page document by the US Department of Health ‘coaching’ him on how to fill out death certificates which had never happened before. The document said that he didn’t need to have a laboratory test for ‘Covid-19’ to put that on the death certificate and that shocked him when death certificates are supposed to be about facts. Jensen described how doctors had been ‘encouraged, if not pressured’ to make a diagnosis of ‘Covid-19’ if they thought it was probable or ‘presumed’. No positive test was necessary – not that this would have ma ered anyway. He said doctors were told to diagnose ‘Covid’ by symptoms when these were the same as colds, allergies, other respiratory problems, and certainly with influenza which ‘disappeared’ in the ‘Covid’ era. A common sniffle was enough to get the dreaded verdict. Ontario authorities decreed that a single care home resident with one symptom from a long list must lead to the isolation of the entire home. Other courageous doctors like Jensen made the same point about death figure manipulation and how deaths by other causes were falling while ‘Covid-19 deaths’ were rising at the same rate due to re-diagnosis. Their videos rarely survive long on YouTube with its Cult-supporting algorithms courtesy of CEO Susan Wojcicki and her bosses at Google. Figure-tampering was so glaring

and ubiquitous that even officials were le ing it slip or outright saying it. UK chief scientific adviser Patrick Vallance said on one occasion that ‘Covid’ on the death certificate doesn’t mean ‘Covid’ was the cause of death (so why the hell is it there?) and we had the rare sight of a BBC reporter telling the truth when she said: ‘Someone could be successfully treated for Covid, in say April, discharged, and then in June, get run over by a bus and die … That person would still be counted as a Covid death in England.’ Yet the BBC and the rest of the world media went on repeating the case and death figures as if they were real. Illinois Public Health Director Dr Ngozi Ezike revealed the deceit while her bosses must have been clenching their bu ocks: If you were in a hospice and given a few weeks to live and you were then found to have Covid that would be counted as a Covid death. [There might be] a clear alternate cause, but it is still listed as a Covid death. So everyone listed as a Covid death doesn’t mean that was the cause of the death, but that they had Covid at the time of death.

Yes, a ‘Covid virus’ never shown to exist and tested for with a test not testing for the ‘virus’. In the first period of the pandemic hoax through the spring of 2020 the process began of designating almost everything a ‘Covid’ death and this has continued ever since. I sat in a restaurant one night listening to a loud conversation on the next table where a family was discussing in bewilderment how a relative who had no symptoms of ‘Covid’, and had died of a long-term problem, could have been diagnosed a death by the ‘virus’. I could understand their bewilderment. If they read this book they will know why this medical fraud has been perpetrated the world over.

Some media truth shock The media ignored the evidence of death certificate fraud until eventually one columnist did speak out when she saw it first-hand. Bel Mooney is a long-time national newspaper journalist in Britain currently working for the Daily Mail. Her article on February 19th, 2021, carried this headline: ‘My dad Ted passed three Covid tests

and died of a chronic illness yet he’s officially one of Britain’s 120,000 victims of the virus and is far from alone ... so how many more are there?’ She told how her 99-year-old father was in a care home with a long-standing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and vascular dementia. Maybe, but he was still aware enough to tell her from the start that there was no ‘virus’ and he refused the ‘vaccine’ for that reason. His death was not unexpected given his chronic health problems and Mooney said she was shocked to find that ‘Covid-19’ was declared the cause of death on his death certificate. She said this was a ‘bizarre and unacceptable untruth’ for a man with long-time health problems who had tested negative twice at the home for the ‘virus’. I was also shocked by this story although not by what she said. I had been highlighting the death certificate manipulation for ten months. It was the confirmation that a professional full-time journalist only realised this was going on when it affected her directly and neither did she know that whether her dad tested positive or negative was irrelevant with the test not testing for the ‘virus’. Where had she been? She said she did not believe in ‘conspiracy theories’ without knowing I’m sure that this and ‘conspiracy theorists’ were terms put into widespread circulation by the CIA in the 1960s to discredit those who did not accept the ridiculous official story of the Kennedy assassination. A blanket statement of ‘I don’t believe in conspiracy theories’ is always bizarre. The dictionary definition of the term alone means the world is drowning in conspiracies. What she said was even more da when her dad had just been affected by the ‘Covid’ conspiracy. Why else does she think that ‘Covid-19’ was going on the death certificates of people who died of something else? To be fair once she saw from personal experience what was happening she didn’t mince words. Mooney was called by the care home on the morning of February 9th to be told her father had died in his sleep. When she asked for the official cause of death what came back was ‘Covid-19’. Mooney challenged this and was told there had been deaths from Covid on the dementia floor (confirmed by a test not testing for the ‘virus’) so they considered it ‘reasonable

to assume’. ‘But doctor,’ Mooney rightly protested, ‘an assumption isn’t a diagnosis.’ She said she didn’t blame the perfectly decent and sympathetic doctor – ‘he was just doing his job’. Sorry, but that’s bullshit. He wasn’t doing his job at all. He was pu ing a false cause of death on the death certificate and that is a criminal offence for which he should be brought to account and the same with the millions of doctors worldwide who have done the same. They were not doing their job they were following orders and that must not wash at new Nuremberg trials any more than it did at the first ones. Mooney’s doctor was ‘assuming’ (presuming) as he was told to, but ‘just following orders’ makes no difference to his actions. A doctor’s job is to serve the patient and the truth, not follow orders, but that’s what they have done all over the world and played a central part in making the ‘Covid’ hoax possible with all its catastrophic consequences for humanity. Shame on them and they must answer for their actions. Mooney said her disquiet worsened when she registered her father’s death by telephone and was told by the registrar there had been very many other cases like hers where ‘the deceased’ had not tested positive for ‘Covid’ yet it was recorded as the cause of death. The test may not ma er, but those involved at their level think it ma ers and it shows a callous disregard for accurate diagnosis. The pressure to do this is coming from the top of the national ‘health’ pyramids which in turn obey the World Health Organization which obeys Gates and the Cult. Mooney said the registrar agreed that this must distort the national figures adding that ‘the strangest thing is that every winter we record countless deaths from flu, and this winter there have been none. Not one!’ She asked if the registrar thought deaths from flu were being misdiagnosed and lumped together with ‘Covid’ deaths. The answer was a ‘puzzled yes’. Mooney said that the funeral director said the same about ‘Covid’ deaths which had nothing to do with ‘Covid’. They had lost count of the number of families upset by this and other funeral companies in different countries have had the same experience. Mooney wrote:

The nightly shroud-waving and shocking close-ups of pain imposed on us by the TV news bewildered and terrified the population into eager compliance with lockdowns. We were invited to ‘save the NHS’ and to grieve for strangers – the real-life loved ones behind those shocking death counts. Why would the public imagine what I now fear, namely that the way Covid-19 death statistics are compiled might make the numbers seem greater than they are?

Oh, just a li le bit – like 100 percent.

Do the maths Mooney asked why a country would wish to skew its mortality figures by wrongly certifying deaths? What had been going on? Well, if you don’t believe in conspiracies you will never find the answer which is that it’s a conspiracy. She did, however, describe what she had discovered as a ‘national scandal’. In reality it’s a global scandal and happening everywhere. Pillars of this conspiracy were all put into place before the bu on was pressed with the Drosten PCR protocol and high amplifications to produce the cases and death certificate changes to secure illusory ‘Covid’ deaths. Mooney notes that normally two doctors were needed to certify a death, with one having to know the patient, and how the rules were changed in the spring of 2020 to allow one doctor to do this. In the same period ‘Covid deaths’ were decreed to be all cases where Covid-19 was put on the death certificate even without a positive test or any symptoms. Mooney asked: ‘How many of the 30,851 (as of January 15) care home resident deaths with Covid-19 on the certificate (32.4 per cent of all deaths so far) were based on an assumption, like that of my father? And what has that done to our national psyche?’All of them is the answer to the first question and it has devastated and dismantled the national psyche, actually the global psyche, on a colossal scale. In the UK case and death data is compiled by organisations like Public Health England (PHE) and the Office for National Statistics (ONS). Mooney highlights the insane policy of counting a death from any cause as ‘Covid-19’ if this happens within 28 days of a positive test (with a test not testing for the ‘virus’) and she points out that ONS statistics reflect deaths ‘involving Covid’ ‘or due to Covid’ which meant in practice any

death where ‘Covid-19’ was mentioned on the death certificate. She described the consequences of this fraud: Most people will accept the narrative they are fed, so panicky governments here and in Europe witnessed the harsh measures enacted in totalitarian China and jumped into lockdown. Headlines about Covid deaths tolled like the knell that would bring doomsday to us all. Fear stalked our empty streets. Politicians parroted the frankly ridiculous aim of ‘zero Covid’ and shut down the economy, while most British people agreed that lockdown was essential and (astonishingly to me, as a patriotic Brit) even wanted more restrictions. For what? Lies on death certificates? Never mind the grim toll of lives ruined, suicides, schools closed, rising inequality, depression, cancelled hospital treatments, cancer patients in a torture of waiting, poverty, economic devastation, loneliness, families kept apart, and so on. How many lives have been lost as a direct result of lockdown?

She said that we could join in a national chorus of shock and horror at reaching the 120,000 death toll which was surely certain to have been totally skewed all along, but what about the human cost of lockdown justified by these ‘death figures’? The British Medical Journal had reported a 1,493 percent increase in cases of children taken to Great Ormond Street Hospital with abusive head injuries alone and then there was the effect on families: Perhaps the most shocking thing about all this is that families have been kept apart – and obeyed the most irrational, changing rules at the whim of government – because they believed in the statistics. They succumbed to fear, which his generation rejected in that war fought for freedom. Dad (God rest his soul) would be angry. And so am I.

Another theme to watch is that in the winter months when there are more deaths from all causes they focus on ‘Covid’ deaths and in the summer when the British Lung Foundation says respiratory disease plummets by 80 percent they rage on about ‘cases’. Either way fascism on population is always the answer.

Nazi eugenics in the 21st century Elderly people in care homes have been isolated from their families month a er lonely month with no contact with relatives and grandchildren who were banned from seeing them. We were told

that lockdown fascism was to ‘protect the vulnerable’ like elderly people. At the same time Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) orders were placed on their medical files so that if they needed resuscitation it wasn’t done and ‘Covid-19’ went on their death certificates. Old people were not being ‘protected’ they were being culled – murdered in truth. DNR orders were being decreed for disabled and young people with learning difficulties or psychological problems. The UK Care Quality Commission, a non-departmental body of the Department of Health and Social Care, found that 34 percent of those working in health and social care were pressured into placing ‘do not a empt cardiopulmonary resuscitation’ orders on ‘Covid’ patients who suffered from disabilities and learning difficulties without involving the patient or their families in the decision. UK judges ruled that an elderly woman with dementia should have the DNA-manipulating ‘Covid vaccine’ against her son’s wishes and that a man with severe learning difficulties should have the jab despite his family’s objections. Never mind that many had already died. The judiciary always supports doctors and government in fascist dictatorships. They wouldn’t dare do otherwise. A horrific video was posted showing fascist officers from Los Angeles police forcibly giving the ‘Covid’ shot to women with special needs who were screaming that they didn’t want it. The same fascists are seen giving the jab to a sleeping elderly woman in a care home. This is straight out of the Nazi playbook. Hitler’s Nazis commi ed mass murder of the mentally ill and physically disabled throughout Germany and occupied territories in the programme that became known as Aktion T4, or just T4. Sabbatian-controlled Hitler and his grotesque crazies set out to kill those they considered useless and unnecessary. The Reich Commi ee for the Scientific Registering of Hereditary and Congenital Illnesses registered the births of babies identified by physicians to have ‘defects’. By 1941 alone more than 5,000 children were murdered by the state and it is estimated that in total the number of innocent people killed in Aktion T4 was between 275,000 and 300,000. Parents were told their children had been sent away for ‘special treatment’ never to return. It is rather pathetic to see claims about plans for new extermination camps being dismissed today

when the same force behind current events did precisely that 80 years ago. Margaret Sanger was a Cult operative who used ‘birth control’ to sanitise her programme of eugenics. Organisations she founded became what is now Planned Parenthood. Sanger proposed that ‘the whole dysgenic population would have its choice of segregation or sterilization’. These included epileptics, ‘feebleminded’, and prostitutes. Sanger opposed charity because it perpetuated ‘human waste‘. She reveals the Cult mentality and if anyone thinks that extermination camps are a ‘conspiracy theory’ their naivety is touching if breathtakingly stupid. If you don’t believe that doctors can act with callous disregard for their patients it is worth considering that doctors and medical staff agreed to put government-decreed DNR orders on medical files and do nothing when resuscitation is called for. I don’t know what you call such people in your house. In mine they are Nazis from the Josef Mengele School of Medicine. Phenomenal numbers of old people have died worldwide from the effects of lockdown, depression, lack of treatment, the ‘vaccine’ (more later) and losing the will to live. A common response at the start of the manufactured pandemic was to remove old people from hospital beds and transfer them to nursing homes. The decision would result in a mass cull of elderly people in those homes through lack of treatment – not ‘Covid’. Care home whistleblowers have told how once the ‘Covid’ era began doctors would not come to their homes to treat patients and they were begging for drugs like antibiotics that o en never came. The most infamous example was ordered by New York governor Andrew Cuomo, brother of a moronic CNN host, who amazingly was given an Emmy Award for his handling of the ‘Covid crisis’ by the ridiculous Wokers that hand them out. Just how ridiculous could be seen in February, 2021, when a Department of Justice and FBI investigation began into how thousands of old people in New York died in nursing homes a er being discharged from hospital to make way for ‘Covid’ patients on Cuomo’s say-so – and how he and his staff covered up these facts. This couldn’t have happened to a nicer psychopath. Even then there was a ‘Covid’ spin. Reports said that

thousands of old people who tested positive for ‘Covid’ in hospital were transferred to nursing homes to both die of ‘Covid’ and transmit it to others. No – they were in hospital because they were ill and the fact that they tested positive with a test not testing for the ‘virus’ is irrelevant. They were ill o en with respiratory diseases ubiquitous in old people near the end of their lives. Their transfer out of hospital meant that their treatment stopped and many would go on to die.

They’re old. Who gives a damn? I have exposed in the books for decades the Cult plan to cull the world’s old people and even to introduce at some point what they call a ‘demise pill’ which at a certain age everyone would take and be out of here by law. In March, 2021, Spain legalised euthanasia and assisted suicide following the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Canada on the Tiptoe to the demise pill. Treatment of old people by many ‘care’ homes has been a disgrace in the ‘Covid’ era. There are many, many, caring staff – I know some. There have, however, been legions of stories about callous treatment of old people and their families. Police were called when families came to take their loved ones home in the light of isolation that was killing them. They became prisoners of the state. Care home residents in insane, fascist Ontario, Canada, were not allowed to leave their room once the ‘Covid’ hoax began. UK staff have even wheeled elderly people away from windows where family members were talking with them. Oriana Criscuolo from Stockport in the English North West dropped off some things for her 80-year-old father who has Parkinson’s disease and dementia and she wanted to wave to him through a ground-floor window. She was told that was ‘illegal’. When she went anyway they closed the curtains in the middle of the day. Oriana said: It’s just unbelievable. I cannot understand how care home staff – people who are being paid to care – have become so uncaring. Their behaviour is inhumane and cruel. It’s beyond belief.

She was right and this was not a one-off. What a way to end your life in such loveless circumstances. UK registered nurse Nicky Millen, a proper old school nurse for 40 years, said that when she started her career care was based on dignity, choice, compassion and empathy. Now she said ‘the things that are important to me have gone out of the window.’ She was appalled that people were dying without their loved ones and saying goodbye on iPads. Nicky described how a distressed 89-year-old lady stroked her face and asked her ‘how many paracetamol would it take to finish me off’. Life was no longer worth living while not seeing her family. Nicky said she was humiliated in front of the ward staff and patients for le ing the lady stroke her face and giving her a cuddle. Such is the dehumanisation that the ‘Covid’ hoax has brought to the surface. Nicky worked in care homes where patients told her they were being held prisoner. ‘I want to live until I die’, one said to her. ‘I had a lady in tears because she hadn’t seen her great-grandson.’ Nicky was compassionate old school meeting psychopathic New Normal. She also said she had worked on a ‘Covid’ ward with no ‘Covid’ patients. Jewish writer Shai Held wrote an article in March, 2020, which was headlined ‘The Staggering, Heartless Cruelty Toward the Elderly’. What he described was happening from the earliest days of lockdown. He said ‘the elderly’ were considered a group and not unique individuals (the way of the Woke). Shai Held said: Notice how the all-too-familiar rhetoric of dehumanization works: ‘The elderly’ are bunched together as a faceless mass, all of them considered culprits and thus effectively deserving of the suffering the pandemic will inflict upon them. Lost entirely is the fact that the elderly are individual human beings, each with a distinctive face and voice, each with hopes and dreams, memories and regrets, friendships and marriages, loves lost and loves sustained.

‘The elderly’ have become another dehumanised group for which anything goes and for many that has resulted in cold disregard for their rights and their life. The distinctive face that Held talks about is designed to be deleted by masks until everyone is part of a faceless mass.

‘War-zone’ hospitals myth Again and again medical professionals have told me what was really going on and how hospitals ‘overrun like war zones’ according to the media were virtually empty. The mantra from medical whistleblowers was please don’t use my name or my career is over. Citizen journalists around the world sneaked into hospitals to film evidence exposing the ‘war-zone’ lie. They really were largely empty with closed wards and operating theatres. I met a hospital worker in my town on the Isle of Wight during the first lockdown in 2020 who said the only island hospital had never been so quiet. Lockdown was justified by the psychopaths to stop hospitals being overrun. At the same time that the island hospital was near-empty the military arrived here to provide extra beds. It was all propaganda to ramp up the fear to ensure compliance with fascism as were never-used temporary hospitals with thousands of beds known as Nightingales and never-used make-shi mortuaries opened by the criminal UK government. A man who helped to install those extra island beds a ributed to the army said they were never used and the hospital was empty. Doctors and nurses ‘stood around talking or on their phones, wandering down to us to see what we were doing’. There were no masks or social distancing. He accused the useless local island paper, the County Press, of ‘pumping the fear as if our hospital was overrun and we only have one so it should have been’. He described ambulances parked up with crews outside in deck chairs. When his brother called an ambulance he was told there was a twohour backlog which he called ‘bullshit’. An old lady on the island fell ‘and was in a bad way’, but a caller who rang for an ambulance was told the situation wasn’t urgent enough. Ambulance stations were working under capacity while people would hear ambulances with sirens blaring driving through the streets. When those living near the stations realised what was going on they would follow them as they le , circulated around an urban area with the sirens going, and then came back without stopping. All this was to increase levels of fear and the same goes for the ‘ventilator shortage crisis’ that cost tens of millions for hastily produced ventilators never to be used.

Ambulance crews that agreed to be exploited in this way for fear propaganda might find themselves a mirror. I wish them well with that. Empty hospitals were the obvious consequence of treatment and diagnoses of non-’Covid’ conditions cancelled and those involved handed a death sentence. People have been dying at home from undiagnosed and untreated cancer, heart disease and other lifethreatening conditions to allow empty hospitals to deal with a ‘pandemic’ that wasn’t happening.

Death of the innocent ‘War-zones’ have been laying off nursing staff, even doctors where they can. There was no work for them. Lockdown was justified by saving lives and protecting the vulnerable they were actually killing with DNR orders and preventing empty hospitals being ‘overrun’. In Britain the mantra of stay at home to ‘save the NHS’ was everywhere and across the world the same story was being sold when it was all lies. Two California doctors, Dan Erickson and Artin Massihi at Accelerated Urgent Care in Bakersfield, held a news conference in April, 2020, to say that intensive care units in California were ‘empty, essentially’, with hospitals shu ing floors, not treating patients and laying off doctors. The California health system was working at minimum capacity ‘ge ing rid of doctors because we just don’t have the volume’. They said that people with conditions such as heart disease and cancer were not coming to hospital out of fear of ‘Covid19’. Their video was deleted by Susan Wojcicki’s Cult-owned YouTube a er reaching five million views. Florida governor Ron Desantis, who rejected the severe lockdowns of other states and is being targeted for doing so, said that in March, 2020, every US governor was given models claiming they would run out of hospital beds in days. That was never going to happen and the ‘modellers’ knew it. Deceit can be found at every level of the system. Urgent children’s operations were cancelled including fracture repairs and biopsies to spot cancer. Eric Nicholls, a consultant paediatrician, said ‘this is obviously concerning and we need to return to normal operating and to increase capacity as soon as possible’. Psychopaths

in power were rather less concerned because they are psychopaths. Deletion of urgent care and diagnosis has been happening all over the world and how many kids and others have died as a result of the actions of these cold and heartless lunatics dictating ‘health’ policy? The number must be stratospheric. Richard Sullivan, professor of cancer and global health at King’s College London, said people feared ‘Covid’ more than cancer such was the campaign of fear. ‘Years of lost life will be quite dramatic’, Sullivan said, with ‘a huge amount of avoidable mortality’. Sarah Woolnough, executive director for policy at Cancer Research UK, said there had been a 75 percent drop in urgent referrals to hospitals by family doctors of people with suspected cancer. Sullivan said that ‘a lot of services have had to scale back – we’ve seen a dramatic decrease in the amount of elective cancer surgery’. Lockdown deaths worldwide has been absolutely fantastic with the New York Post reporting how data confirmed that ‘lockdowns end more lives than they save’: There was a sharp decline in visits to emergency rooms and an increase in fatal heart attacks because patients didn’t receive prompt treatment. Many fewer people were screened for cancer. Social isolation contributed to excess deaths from dementia and Alzheimer’s. Researchers predicted that the social and economic upheaval would lead to tens of thousands of “deaths of despair” from drug overdoses, alcoholism and suicide. As unemployment surged and mental-health and substance-abuse treatment programs were interrupted, the reported levels of anxiety, depression and suicidal thoughts increased dramatically, as did alcohol sales and fatal drug overdoses.

This has been happening while nurses and other staff had so much time on their hands in the ‘war-zones’ that Tic-Tok dancing videos began appearing across the Internet with medical staff dancing around in empty wards and corridors as people died at home from causes that would normally have been treated in hospital.

Mentions in dispatches One brave and truth-commi ed whistleblower was Louise Hampton, a call handler with the UK NHS who made a viral Internet video saying she had done ‘fuck all’ during the ‘pandemic’

which was ‘a load of bollocks’. She said that ‘Covid-19’ was rebranded flu and of course she lost her job. This is what happens in the medical and endless other professions now when you tell the truth. Louise filmed inside ‘war-zone’ accident and emergency departments to show they were empty and I mean empty as in no one there. The mainstream media could have done the same and blown the gaff on the whole conspiracy. They haven’t to their eternal shame. Not that most ‘journalists’ seem capable of manifesting shame as with the psychopaths they slavishly repeat without question. The relative few who were admi ed with serious health problems were le to die alone with no loved ones allowed to see them because of ‘Covid’ rules and they included kids dying without the comfort of mum and dad at their bedside while the evil behind this couldn’t give a damn. It was all good fun to them. A Sco ish NHS staff nurse publicly quit in the spring of 2021 saying: ‘I can no longer be part of the lies and the corruption by the government.’ She said hospitals ‘aren’t full, the beds aren’t full, beds have been shut, wards have been shut’. Hospitals were never busy throughout ‘Covid’. The staff nurse said that Nicola Sturgeon, tragically the leader of the Sco ish government, was on television saying save the hospitals and the NHS – ‘but the beds are empty’ and ‘we’ve not seen flu, we always see flu every year’. She wrote to government and spoke with her union Unison (the unions are Cult-compromised and useless, but nothing changed. Many of her colleagues were scared of losing their jobs if they spoke out as they wanted to. She said nursing staff were being affected by wearing masks all day and ‘my head is spli ing every shi from wearing a mask’. The NHS is part of the fascist tyranny and must be dismantled so we can start again with human beings in charge. (Ironically, hospitals were reported to be busier again when official ‘Covid’ cases fell in spring/summer of 2021 and many other conditions required treatment at the same time as the fake vaccine rollout.) I will cover the ‘Covid vaccine’ scam in detail later, but it is another indicator of the sickening disregard for human life that I am highlighting here. The DNA-manipulating concoctions do not fulfil

the definition of a ‘vaccine’, have never been used on humans before and were given only emergency approval because trials were not completed and they continued using the unknowing public. The result was what a NHS senior nurse with responsibility for ‘vaccine’ procedure said was ‘genocide’. She said the ‘vaccines’ were not ‘vaccines’. They had not been shown to be safe and claims about their effectiveness by drug companies were ‘poetic licence’. She described what was happening as a ‘horrid act of human annihilation’. The nurse said that management had instigated a policy of not providing a Patient Information Leaflet (PIL) before people were ‘vaccinated’ even though health care professionals are supposed to do this according to protocol. Patients should also be told that they are taking part in an ongoing clinical trial. Her challenges to what is happening had seen her excluded from meetings and ridiculed in others. She said she was told to ‘watch my step … or I would find myself surplus to requirements’. The nurse, who spoke anonymously in fear of her career, said she asked her NHS manager why he/she was content with taking part in genocide against those having the ‘vaccines’. The reply was that everyone had to play their part and to ‘put up, shut up, and get it done’. Government was ‘leaning heavily’ on NHS management which was clearly leaning heavily on staff. This is how the global ‘medical’ hierarchy operates and it starts with the Cult and its World Health Organization. She told the story of a doctor who had the Pfizer jab and when questioned had no idea what was in it. The doctor had never read the literature. We have to stop treating doctors as intellectual giants when so many are moral and medical pygmies. The doctor did not even know that the ‘vaccines’ were not fully approved or that their trials were ongoing. They were, however, asking their patients if they minded taking part in follow-ups for research purposes – yes, the ongoing clinical trial. The nurse said the doctor’s ignorance was not rare and she had spoken to a hospital consultant who had the jab without any idea of the background or that the ‘trials’ had not been completed. Nurses and pharmacists had shown the same ignorance.

‘My NHS colleagues have forsaken their duty of care, broken their code of conduct – Hippocratic Oath – and have been brainwashed just the same as the majority of the UK public through propaganda …’ She said she had not been able to recruit a single NHS colleague, doctor, nurse or pharmacist to stand with her and speak out. Her union had refused to help. She said that if the genocide came to light she would not hesitate to give evidence at a Nuremberg-type trial against those in power who could have affected the outcomes but didn’t.

And all for what? To put the nonsense into perspective let’s say the ‘virus’ does exist and let’s go completely crazy and accept that the official manipulated figures for cases and deaths are accurate. Even then a study by Stanford University epidemiologist Dr John Ioannidis published on the World Health Organization website produced an average infection to fatality rate of … 0.23 percent! Ioannidis said: ‘If one could sample equally from all locations globally, the median infection fatality rate might even be substantially lower than the 0.23% observed in my analysis.’ For healthy people under 70 it was … 0.05 percent! This compares with the 3.4 percent claimed by the Cult-owned World Health Organization when the hoax was first played and maximum fear needed to be generated. An updated Stanford study in April, 2021, put the ‘infection’ to ‘fatality’ rate at just 0.15 percent. Another team of scientists led by Megan O’Driscoll and Henrik Salje studied data from 45 countries and published their findings on the Nature website. For children and young people the figure is so small it virtually does not register although authorities will be hyping dangers to the young when they introduce DNAmanipulating ‘vaccines’ for children. The O’Driscoll study produced an average infection-fatality figure of 0.003 for children from birth to four; 0.001 for 5 to 14; 0.003 for 15 to 19; and it was still only 0.456 up to 64. To claim that children must be ‘vaccinated’ to protect them from ‘Covid’ is an obvious lie and so there must be another reason and there is. What’s more the average age of a ‘Covid’ death is akin

to the average age that people die in general. The average age of death in England is about 80 for men and 83 for women. The average age of death from alleged ‘Covid’ is between 82 and 83. California doctors, Dan Erickson and Artin Massihi, said at their April media conference that projection models of millions of deaths had been ‘woefully inaccurate’. They produced detailed figures showing that Californians had a 0.03 chance of dying from ‘Covid’ based on the number of people who tested positive (with a test not testing for the ‘virus’). Erickson said there was a 0.1 percent chance of dying from ‘Covid’ in the state of New York, not just the city, and a 0.05 percent chance in Spain, a centre of ‘Covid-19’ hysteria at one stage. The Stanford studies supported the doctors’ data with fatality rate estimates of 0.23 and 0.15 percent. How close are these figures to my estimate of zero? Death-rate figures claimed by the World Health Organization at the start of the hoax were some 15 times higher. The California doctors said there was no justification for lockdowns and the economic devastation they caused. Everything they had ever learned about quarantine was that you quarantine the sick and not the healthy. They had never seen this before and it made no medical sense. Why in the in the light of all this would governments and medical systems the world over say that billions must go under house arrest; lose their livelihood; in many cases lose their mind, their health and their life; force people to wear masks dangerous to health and psychology; make human interaction and even family interaction a criminal offence; ban travel; close restaurants, bars, watching live sport, concerts, theatre, and any activity involving human togetherness and discourse; and closing schools to isolate children from their friends and cause many to commit suicide in acts of hopelessness and despair? The California doctors said lockdown consequences included increased child abuse, partner abuse, alcoholism, depression, and other impacts they were seeing every day. Who would do that to the entire human race if not mentally-ill psychopaths of almost unimaginable extremes like Bill Gates? We must face the reality of what we are dealing with and come out of

denial. Fascism and tyranny are made possible only by the target population submi ing and acquiescing to fascism and tyranny. The whole of human history shows that to be true. Most people naively and unquestioning believed what they were told about a ‘deadly virus’ and meekly and weakly submi ed to house arrest. Those who didn’t believe it – at least in total – still submi ed in fear of the consequences of not doing so. For the rest who wouldn’t submit draconian fines have been imposed, brutal policing by psychopaths for psychopaths, and condemnation from the meek and weak who condemn the Pushbackers on behalf of the very force that has them, too, in its gunsights. ‘Pathetic’ does not even begin to suffice. Britain’s brainless ‘Health’ Secretary Ma Hancock warned anyone lying to border officials about returning from a list of ‘hotspot’ countries could face a jail sentence of up to ten years which is more than for racially-aggravated assault, incest and a empting to have sex with a child under 13. Hancock is a lunatic, but he has the state apparatus behind him in a Cult-led chain reaction and the same with UK ‘Vaccine Minister’ Nadhim Zahawi, a prominent member of the mega-Cult secret society, Le Cercle, which featured in my earlier books. The Cult enforces its will on governments and medical systems; government and medical systems enforce their will on business and police; business enforces its will on staff who enforce it on customers; police enforce the will of the Cult on the population and play their essential part in creating a world of fascist control that their own children and grandchildren will have to live in their entire lives. It is a hierarchical pyramid of imposition and acquiescence and, yes indeedy, of clinical insanity. Does anyone bright enough to read this book have to ask what the answer is? I think not, but I will reveal it anyway in the fewest of syllables: Tell the psychos and their moronic lackeys to fuck off and let’s get on with our lives. We are many – They are few.

CHAPTER SEVEN War on your mind One believes things because one has been conditioned to believe them Aldous Huxley, Brave New World

I

have described the ‘Covid’ hoax as a ‘Psyop’ and that is true in every sense and on every level in accordance with the definition of that term which is psychological warfare. Break down the ‘Covid pandemic’ to the foundation themes and it is psychological warfare on the human individual and collective mind. The same can be said for the entire human belief system involving every subject you can imagine. Huxley was right in his contention that people believe what they are conditioned to believe and this comes from the repetition throughout their lives of the same falsehoods. They spew from government, corporations, media and endless streams of ‘experts’ telling you what the Cult wants you to believe and o en believing it themselves (although far from always). ‘Experts’ are rewarded with ‘prestigious’ jobs and titles and as agents of perceptual programming with regular access to the media. The Cult has to control the narrative – control information – or they lose control of the vital, crucial, without-which-they-cannot-prevail public perception of reality. The foundation of that control today is the Internet made possible by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the incredibly sinister technological arm of the Pentagon. The Internet is the result of military technology.

DARPA openly brags about establishing the Internet which has been a long-term project to lasso the minds of the global population. I have said for decades the plan is to control information to such an extreme that eventually no one would see or hear anything that the Cult does not approve. We are closing in on that end with ferocious censorship since the ‘Covid’ hoax began and in my case it started back in the 1990s in terms of books and speaking venues. I had to create my own publishing company in 1995 precisely because no one else would publish my books even then. I think they’re all still running.

Cult Internet To secure total control of information they needed the Internet in which pre-programmed algorithms can seek out ‘unclean’ content for deletion and even stop it being posted in the first place. The Cult had to dismantle print and non-Internet broadcast media to ensure the transfer of information to the appropriate-named ‘Web’ – a critical expression of the Cult web. We’ve seen the ever-quickening demise of traditional media and control of what is le by a tiny number of corporations operating worldwide. Independent journalism in the mainstream is already dead and never was that more obvious than since the turn of 2020. The Cult wants all information communicated via the Internet to globally censor and allow the plug to be pulled any time. Lockdowns and forced isolation has meant that communication between people has been through electronic means and no longer through face-to-face discourse and discussion. Cult psychopaths have targeted the bars, restaurants, sport, venues and meeting places in general for this reason. None of this is by chance and it’s to stop people gathering in any kind of privacy or number while being able to track and monitor all Internet communications and block them as necessary. Even private messages between individuals have been censored by these fascists that control Cult fronts like Facebook, Twi er, Google and YouTube which are all officially run by Sabbatian place-people and from the background by higher-level Sabbatian place people.

Facebook, Google, Amazon and their like were seed-funded and supported into existence with money-no-object infusions of funds either directly or indirectly from DARPA and CIA technology arm In-Q-Tel. The Cult plays the long game and prepares very carefully for big plays like ‘Covid’. Amazon is another front in the psychological war and pre y much controls the global market in book sales and increasingly publishing. Amazon’s limitless funds have deleted fantastic numbers of independent publishers to seize global domination on the way to deciding which books can be sold and circulated and which cannot. Moves in that direction are already happening. Amazon’s leading light Jeff Bezos is the grandson of Lawrence Preston Gise who worked with DARPA predecessor ARPA. Amazon has big connections to the CIA and the Pentagon. The plan I have long described went like this: 1. Employ military technology to establish the Internet. 2. Sell the Internet as a place where people can freely communicate without censorship and allow that to happen until the Net becomes the central and irreversible pillar of human society. If the Internet had been highly censored from the start many would have rejected it. 3. Fund and manipulate major corporations into being to control the circulation of information on your Internet using cover stories about geeks in garages to explain how they came about. Give them unlimited funds to expand rapidly with no need to make a profit for years while non-Cult companies who need to balance the books cannot compete. You know that in these circumstances your Googles, YouTubes, Facebooks and Amazons are going to secure near monopolies by either crushing or buying up the opposition. 4. Allow freedom of expression on both the Internet and communication platforms to draw people in until the Internet is the central and irreversible pillar of human society and your communication corporations have reached a stage of near monopoly domination. 5. Then unleash your always-planned frenzy of censorship on the basis of ‘where else are you going to go?’ and continue to expand that until nothing remains that the Cult does not want its human targets to see.

The process was timed to hit the ‘Covid’ hoax to ensure the best chance possible of controlling the narrative which they knew they had to do at all costs. They were, a er all, about to unleash a ‘deadly virus’ that didn’t really exist. If you do that in an environment of free-flowing information and opinion you would be dead in the

water before you could say Gates is a psychopath. The network was in place through which the Cult-created-and-owned World Health Organization could dictate the ‘Covid’ narrative and response policy slavishly supported by Cult-owned Internet communication giants and mainstream media while those telling a different story were censored. Google, YouTube, Facebook and Twi er openly announced that they would do this. What else would we expect from Cult-owned operations like Facebook which former executives have confirmed set out to make the platform more addictive than cigare es and coldly manipulates emotions of its users to sow division between people and groups and scramble the minds of the young? If Zuckerberg lives out the rest of his life without going to jail for crimes against humanity, and most emphatically against the young, it will be a travesty of justice. Still, no ma er, cause and effect will catch up with him eventually and the same with Sergey Brin and Larry Page at Google with its CEO Sundar Pichai who fix the Google search results to promote Cult narratives and hide the opposition. Put the same key words into Google and other search engines like DuckDuckGo and you will see how different results can be. Wikipedia is another intensely biased ‘encyclopaedia’ which skews its content to the Cult agenda. YouTube links to Wikipedia’s version of ‘Covid’ and ‘climate change’ on video pages in which experts in their field offer a different opinion (even that is increasingly rare with Wojcicki censorship). Into this ‘Covid’ silencethem network must be added government media censors, sorry ‘regulators’, such as Ofcom in the UK which imposed tyrannical restrictions on British broadcasters that had the effect of banning me from ever appearing. Just to debate with me about my evidence and views on ‘Covid’ would mean breaking the fascistic impositions of Ofcom and its CEO career government bureaucrat Melanie Dawes. Gutless British broadcasters tremble at the very thought of fascist Ofcom.

Psychos behind ‘Covid’

The reason for the ‘Covid’ catastrophe in all its facets and forms can be seen by whom and what is driving the policies worldwide in such a coordinated way. Decisions are not being made to protect health, but to target psychology. The dominant group guiding and ‘advising’ government policy are not medical professionals. They are psychologists and behavioural scientists. Every major country has its own version of this phenomenon and I’ll use the British example to show how it works. In many ways the British version has been affecting the wider world in the form of the huge behaviour manipulation network in the UK which operates in other countries. The network involves private companies, government, intelligence and military. The Cabinet Office is at the centre of the government ‘Covid’ Psyop and part-owns, with ‘innovation charity’ Nesta, the Behavioural Insights Team (BIT) which claims to be independent of government but patently isn’t. The BIT was established in 2010 and its job is to manipulate the psyche of the population to acquiesce to government demands and so much more. It is also known as the ‘Nudge Unit’, a name inspired by the 2009 book by two ultraZionists, Cass Sunstein and Richard Thaler, called Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. The book, as with the Behavioural Insights Team, seeks to ‘nudge’ behaviour (manipulate it) to make the public follow pa erns of action and perception that suit those in authority (the Cult). Sunstein is so skilled at this that he advises the World Health Organization and the UK Behavioural Insights Team and was Administrator of the White House Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs in the Obama administration. Biden appointed him to the Department of Homeland Security – another ultra-Zionist in the fold to oversee new immigration laws which is another policy the Cult wants to control. Sunstein is desperate to silence anyone exposing conspiracies and co-authored a 2008 report on the subject in which suggestions were offered to ban ‘conspiracy theorizing’ or impose ‘some kind of tax, financial or otherwise, on those who disseminate such theories’. I guess a psychiatrist’s chair is out of the question?

Sunstein’s mate Richard Thaler, an ‘academic affiliate’ of the UK Behavioural Insights Team, is a proponent of ‘behavioural economics’ which is defined as the study of ‘the effects of psychological, cognitive, emotional, cultural and social factors on the decisions of individuals and institutions’. Study the effects so they can be manipulated to be what you want them to be. Other leading names in the development of behavioural economics are ultraZionists Daniel Kahneman and Robert J. Shiller and they, with Thaler, won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for their work in this field. The Behavioural Insights Team is operating at the heart of the UK government and has expanded globally through partnerships with several universities including Harvard, Oxford, Cambridge, University College London (UCL) and Pennsylvania. They claim to have ‘trained’ (reframed) 20,000 civil servants and run more than 750 projects involving 400 randomised controlled trials in dozens of countries’ as another version of mind reframers Common Purpose. BIT works from its office in New York with cities and their agencies, as well as other partners, across the United States and Canada – this is a company part-owned by the British government Cabinet Office. An executive order by President Cult-servant Obama established a US Social and Behavioral Sciences Team in 2015. They all have the same reason for being and that’s to brainwash the population directly and by brainwashing those in positions of authority.

‘Covid’ mind game Another prime aspect of the UK mind-control network is the ‘independent’ [joke] Scientific Pandemic Insights Group on Behaviours (SPI-B) which ‘provides behavioural science advice aimed at anticipating and helping people adhere to interventions that are recommended by medical or epidemiological experts’. That means manipulating public perception and behaviour to do whatever government tells them to do. It’s disgusting and if they really want the public to be ‘safe’ this lot should all be under lock and key. According to the government website SPI-B consists of

‘behavioural scientists, health and social psychologists, anthropologists and historians’ and advises the Whi y-Vallance-led Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE) which in turn advises the government on ‘the science’ (it doesn’t) and ‘Covid’ policy. When politicians say they are being guided by ‘the science’ this is the rabble in each country they are talking about and that ‘science’ is dominated by behaviour manipulators to enforce government fascism through public compliance. The Behaviour Insight Team is headed by psychologist David Solomon Halpern, a visiting professor at King’s College London, and connects with a national and global web of other civilian and military organisations as the Cult moves towards its goal of fusing them into one fascistic whole in every country through its ‘Fusion Doctrine’. The behaviour manipulation network involves, but is not confined to, the Foreign Office; National Security Council; government communications headquarters (GCHQ); MI5; MI6; the Cabinet Office-based Media Monitoring Unit; and the Rapid Response Unit which ‘monitors digital trends to spot emerging issues; including misinformation and disinformation; and identifies the best way to respond’. There is also the 77th Brigade of the UK military which operates like the notorious Israeli military’s Unit 8200 in manipulating information and discussion on the Internet by posing as members of the public to promote the narrative and discredit those who challenge it. Here we have the military seeking to manipulate domestic public opinion while the Nazis in government are fine with that. Conservative Member of Parliament Tobias Ellwood, an advocate of lockdown and control through ‘vaccine passports’, is a Lieutenant Colonel reservist in the 77th Brigade which connects with the military operation jHub, the ‘innovation centre’ for the Ministry of Defence and Strategic Command. jHub has also been involved with the civilian National Health Service (NHS) in ‘symptom tracing’ the population. The NHS is a key part of this mind control network and produced a document in December, 2020, explaining to staff how to use psychological manipulation with different groups and ages to get them to have the DNA-manipulating ‘Covid vaccine’

that’s designed to cumulatively rewrite human genetics. The document, called ‘Optimising Vaccination Roll Out – Do’s and Dont’s for all messaging, documents and “communications” in the widest sense’, was published by NHS England and the NHS Improvement Behaviour Change Unit in partnership with Public Health England and Warwick Business School. I hear the mantra about ‘save the NHS’ and ‘protect the NHS’ when we need to scrap the NHS and start again. The current version is far too corrupt, far too anti-human and totally compromised by Cult operatives and their assets. UK government broadcast media censor Ofcom will connect into this web – as will the BBC with its tremendous Ofcom influence – to control what the public see and hear and dictate mass perception. Nuremberg trials must include personnel from all these organisations.

The fear factor The ‘Covid’ hoax has led to the creation of the UK Cabinet Officeconnected Joint Biosecurity Centre (JBC) which is officially described as providing ‘expert advice on pandemics’ using its independent [all Cult operations are ‘independent’] analytical function to provide real-time analysis about infection outbreaks to identify and respond to outbreaks of Covid-19’. Another role is to advise the government on a response to spikes in infections – ‘for example by closing schools or workplaces in local areas where infection levels have risen’. Put another way, promoting the Cult agenda. The Joint Biosecurity Centre is modelled on the Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre which analyses intelligence to set ‘terrorism threat levels’ and here again you see the fusion of civilian and military operations and intelligence that has led to military intelligence producing documents about ‘vaccine hesitancy’ and how it can be combated. Domestic civilian ma ers and opinions should not be the business of the military. The Joint Biosecurity Centre is headed by Tom Hurd, director general of the Office for Security and Counter-Terrorism from the establishment-to-its-fingertips Hurd family. His father is former Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd. How coincidental that Tom

Hurd went to the elite Eton College and Oxford University with Boris Johnson. Imperial College with its ridiculous computer modeller Neil Ferguson will connect with this gigantic web that will itself interconnect with similar set-ups in other major and not so major countries. Compared with this Cult network the politicians, be they Boris Johnson, Donald Trump or Joe Biden, are bit-part players ‘following the science’. The network of psychologists was on the ‘Covid’ case from the start with the aim of generating maximum fear of the ‘virus’ to ensure compliance by the population. A government behavioural science group known as SPI-B produced a paper in March, 2020, for discussion by the main government science advisory group known as SAGE. It was headed ‘Options for increasing adherence to social distancing measures’ and it said the following in a section headed ‘Persuasion’: • A substantial number of people still do not feel sufficiently personally threatened; it could be that they are reassured by the low death rate in their demographic group, although levels of concern may be rising. Having a good understanding of the risk has been found to be positively associated with adoption of COVID-19 social distancing measures in Hong Kong. • The perceived level of personal threat needs to be increased among those who are complacent, using hard-hi ing evaluation of options for increasing social distancing emotional messaging. To be effective this must also empower people by making clear the actions they can take to reduce the threat. • Responsibility to others: There seems to be insufficient understanding of, or feelings of responsibility about, people’s role in transmi ing the infection to others … Messaging about actions need to be framed positively in terms of protecting oneself and the community, and increase confidence that they will be effective. • Some people will be more persuaded by appeals to play by the rules, some by duty to the community, and some to personal risk.

All these different approaches are needed. The messaging also needs to take account of the realities of different people’s lives. Messaging needs to take account of the different motivational levers and circumstances of different people. All this could be achieved the SPI-B psychologists said by using the media to increase the sense of personal threat which translates as terrify the shit out of the population, including children, so they all do what we want. That’s not happened has it? Those excuses for ‘journalists’ who wouldn’t know journalism if it bit them on the arse (the great majority) have played their crucial part in serving this Cultgovernment Psyop to enslave their own kids and grandkids. How they live with themselves I have no idea. The psychological war has been underpinned by constant government ‘Covid’ propaganda in almost every television and radio ad break, plus the Internet and print media, which has pounded out the fear with taxpayers footing the bill for their own programming. The result has been people terrified of a ‘virus’ that doesn’t exist or one with a tiny fatality rate even if you believe it does. People walk down the street and around the shops wearing face-nappies damaging their health and psychology while others report those who refuse to be that naïve to the police who turn up in their own face-nappies. I had a cameraman come to my flat and he was so frightened of ‘Covid’ he came in wearing a mask and refused to shake my hand in case he caught something. He had – naïveitis – and the thought that he worked in the mainstream media was both depressing and made his behaviour perfectly explainable. The fear which has gripped the minds of so many and frozen them into compliance has been carefully cultivated by these psychologists who are really psychopaths. If lives get destroyed and a lot of young people commit suicide it shows our plan is working. SPI-B then turned to compulsion on the public to comply. ‘With adequate preparation, rapid change can be achieved’, it said. Some countries had introduced mandatory self-isolation on a wide scale without evidence of major public unrest and a large majority of the UK’s population appeared to be supportive of more coercive measures with 64 percent of adults saying they would

support pu ing London under a lockdown (watch the ‘polls’ which are designed to make people believe that public opinion is in favour or against whatever the subject in hand). For ‘aggressive protective measures’ to be effective, the SPI-B paper said, special a ention should be devoted to those population groups that are more at risk. Translated from the Orwellian this means making the rest of population feel guilty for not protecting the ‘vulnerable’ such as old people which the Cult and its agencies were about to kill on an industrial scale with lockdown, lack of treatment and the Gates ‘vaccine’. Psychopath psychologists sold their guilt-trip so comprehensively that Los Angeles County Supervisor Hilda Solis reported that children were apologising (from a distance) to their parents and grandparents for bringing ‘Covid’ into their homes and ge ing them sick. ‘… These apologies are just some of the last words that loved ones will ever hear as they die alone,’ she said. Gut-wrenchingly Solis then used this childhood tragedy to tell children to stay at home and ‘keep your loved ones alive’. Imagine heaping such potentially life-long guilt on a kid when it has absolutely nothing to do with them. These people are deeply disturbed and the psychologists behind this even more so.

Uncivil war – divide and rule Professional mind-controllers at SPI-B wanted the media to increase a sense of responsibility to others (do as you’re told) and promote ‘positive messaging’ for those actions while in contrast to invoke ‘social disapproval’ by the unquestioning, obedient, community of anyone with a mind of their own. Again the compliant Goebbels-like media obliged. This is an old, old, trick employed by tyrannies the world over throughout human history. You get the target population to keep the target population in line – your line. SPI-B said this could ‘play an important role in preventing anti-social behaviour or discouraging failure to enact pro-social behaviour’. For ‘anti-social’ in the Orwellian parlance of SPI-B see any behaviour that government doesn’t approve. SPI-B recommendations said that ‘social disapproval’ should be accompanied by clear messaging and

promotion of strong collective identity – hence the government and celebrity mantra of ‘we’re all in this together’. Sure we are. The mind doctors have such contempt for their targets that they think some clueless comedian, actor or singer telling them to do what the government wants will be enough to win them over. We have had UK comedian Lenny Henry, actor Michael Caine and singer Elton John wheeled out to serve the propagandists by urging people to have the DNA-manipulating ‘Covid’ non-’vaccine’. The role of Henry and fellow black celebrities in seeking to coax a ‘vaccine’ reluctant black community into doing the government’s will was especially stomach-turning. An emotion-manipulating script and carefully edited video featuring these black ‘celebs’ was such an insult to the intelligence of black people and where’s the self-respect of those involved selling their souls to a fascist government agenda? Henry said he heard black people’s ‘legitimate worries and concerns’, but people must ‘trust the facts’ when they were doing exactly that by not having the ‘vaccine’. They had to include the obligatory reference to Black Lives Ma er with the line … ‘Don’t let coronavirus cost even more black lives – because we ma er’. My god, it was pathetic. ‘I know the vaccine is safe and what it does.’ How? ‘I’m a comedian and it says so in my script.’ SPI-B said social disapproval needed to be carefully managed to avoid victimisation, scapegoating and misdirected criticism, but they knew that their ‘recommendations’ would lead to exactly that and the media were specifically used to stir-up the divide-and-conquer hostility. Those who conform like good li le baa, baas, are praised while those who have seen through the tidal wave of lies are ‘Covidiots’. The awake have been abused by the fast asleep for not conforming to fascism and impositions that the awake know are designed to endanger their health, dehumanise them, and tear asunder the very fabric of human society. We have had the curtaintwitchers and morons reporting neighbours and others to the facenappied police for breaking ‘Covid rules’ with fascist police delighting in posting links and phone numbers where this could be done. The Cult cannot impose its will without a compliant police

and military or a compliant population willing to play their part in enslaving themselves and their kids. The words of a pastor in Nazi Germany are so appropriate today: First they came for the socialists and I did not speak out because I was not a socialist. Then they came for the trade unionists and I did not speak out because I was not a trade unionist. Then they came for the Jews and I did not speak out because I was not a Jew. Then they came for me and there was no one left to speak for me.

Those who don’t learn from history are destined to repeat it and so many are.

‘Covid’ rules: Rewiring the mind With the background laid out to this gigantic national and global web of psychological manipulation we can put ‘Covid’ rules into a clear and sinister perspective. Forget the claims about protecting health. ‘Covid’ rules are about dismantling the human mind, breaking the human spirit, destroying self-respect, and then pu ing Humpty Dumpty together again as a servile, submissive slave. Social isolation through lockdown and distancing have devastating effects on the human psyche as the psychological psychopaths well know and that’s the real reason for them. Humans need contact with each other, discourse, closeness and touch, or they eventually, and literarily, go crazy. Masks, which I will address at some length, fundamentally add to the effects of isolation and the Cult agenda to dehumanise and de-individualise the population. To do this while knowing – in fact seeking – this outcome is the very epitome of evil and psychologists involved in this are the epitome of evil. They must like all the rest of the Cult demons and their assets stand trial for crimes against humanity on a scale that defies the imagination. Psychopaths in uniform use isolation to break enemy troops and agents and make them subservient and submissive to tell what they know. The technique is rightly considered a form of torture and

torture is most certainly what has been imposed on the human population. Clinically-insane American psychologist Harry Harlow became famous for his isolation experiments in the 1950s in which he separated baby monkeys from their mothers and imprisoned them for months on end in a metal container or ‘pit of despair’. They soon began to show mental distress and depression as any idiot could have predicted. Harlow put other monkeys in steel chambers for three, six or twelve months while denying them any contact with animals or humans. He said that the effects of total social isolation for six months were ‘so devastating and debilitating that we had assumed initially that twelve months of isolation would not produce any additional decrement’; but twelve months of isolation ‘almost obliterated the animals socially’. This is what the Cult and its psychopaths are doing to you and your children. Even monkeys in partial isolation in which they were not allowed to form relationships with other monkeys became ‘aggressive and hostile, not only to others, but also towards their own bodies’. We have seen this in the young as a consequence of lockdown. UK government psychopaths launched a public relations campaign telling people not to hug each other even a er they received the ‘Covid-19 vaccine’ which we were told with more lies would allow a return to ‘normal life’. A government source told The Telegraph: ‘It will be along the lines that it is great that you have been vaccinated, but if you are going to visit your family and hug your grandchildren there is a chance you are going to infect people you love.’ The source was apparently speaking from a secure psychiatric facility. Janet Lord, director of Birmingham University’s Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, said that parents and grandparents should avoid hugging their children. Well, how can I put it, Ms Lord? Fuck off. Yep, that’ll do.

Destroying the kids – where are the parents? Observe what has happened to people enslaved and isolated by lockdown as suicide and self-harm has soared worldwide,

particularly among the young denied the freedom to associate with their friends. A study of 49,000 people in English-speaking countries concluded that almost half of young adults are at clinical risk of mental health disorders. A national survey in America of 1,000 currently enrolled high school and college students found that 5 percent reported a empting suicide during the pandemic. Data from the US CDC’s National Syndromic Surveillance Program from January 1st to October 17th, 2020, revealed a 31 percent increase in mental health issues among adolescents aged 12 to 17 compared with 2019. The CDC reported that America in general suffered the biggest drop in life expectancy since World War Two as it fell by a year in the first half of 2020 as a result of ‘deaths of despair’ – overdoses and suicides. Deaths of despair have leapt by more than 20 percent during lockdown and include the highest number of fatal overdoses ever recorded in a single year – 81,000. Internet addiction is another consequence of being isolated at home which lowers interest in physical activities as kids fall into inertia and what’s the point? Children and young people are losing hope and giving up on life, sometimes literally. A 14-year-old boy killed himself in Maryland because he had ‘given up’ when his school district didn’t reopen; an 11-year-old boy shot himself during a zoom class; a teenager in Maine succumbed to the isolation of the ‘pandemic’ when he ended his life a er experiencing a disrupted senior year at school. Children as young as nine have taken their life and all these stories can be repeated around the world. Careers are being destroyed before they start and that includes those in sport in which promising youngsters have not been able to take part. The plan of the psycho-psychologists is working all right. Researchers at Cambridge University found that lockdowns cause significant harm to children’s mental health. Their study was published in the Archives of Disease in Childhood, and followed 168 children aged between 7 and 11. The researchers concluded: During the UK lockdown, children’s depression symptoms have increased substantially, relative to before lockdown. The scale of this effect has direct relevance for the continuation of different elements of lockdown policy, such as complete or partial school closures …

… Specifically, we observed a statistically significant increase in ratings of depression, with a medium-to-large effect size. Our findings emphasise the need to incorporate the potential impact of lockdown on child mental health in planning the ongoing response to the global pandemic and the recovery from it.

Not a chance when the Cult’s psycho-psychologists were ge ing exactly what they wanted. The UK’s Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health has urged parents to look for signs of eating disorders in children and young people a er a three to four fold increase. Specialists say the ‘pandemic’ is a major reason behind the rise. You don’t say. The College said isolation from friends during school closures, exam cancellations, loss of extra-curricular activities like sport, and an increased use of social media were all contributory factors along with fears about the virus (psycho-psychologists again), family finances, and students being forced to quarantine. Doctors said young people were becoming severely ill by the time they were seen with ‘Covid’ regulations reducing face-to-face consultations. Nor is it only the young that have been devastated by the psychopaths. Like all bullies and cowards the Cult is targeting the young, elderly, weak and infirm. A typical story was told by a British lady called Lynn Parker who was not allowed to visit her husband in 2020 for the last ten and half months of his life ‘when he needed me most’ between March 20th and when he died on December 19th. This vacates the criminal and enters the territory of evil. The emotional impact on the immune system alone is immense as are the number of people of all ages worldwide who have died as a result of Cult-demanded, Gates-demanded, lockdowns.

Isolation is torture The experience of imposing solitary confinement on millions of prisoners around the world has shown how a large percentage become ‘actively psychotic and/or acutely suicidal’. Social isolation has been found to trigger ‘a specific psychiatric syndrome, characterized by hallucinations; panic a acks; overt paranoia; diminished impulse control; hypersensitivity to external stimuli; and difficulties with thinking, concentration and memory’. Juan Mendez,

a United Nations rapporteur (investigator), said that isolation is a form of torture. Research has shown that even a er isolation prisoners find it far more difficult to make social connections and I remember cha ing to a shop assistant a er one lockdown who told me that when her young son met another child again he had no idea how to act or what to do. Hannah Flanagan, Director of Emergency Services at Journey Mental Health Center in Dane County, Wisconsin, said: ‘The specificity about Covid social distancing and isolation that we’ve come across as contributing factors to the suicides are really new to us this year.’ But they are not new to those that devised them. They are ge ing the effect they want as the population is psychologically dismantled to be rebuilt in a totally different way. Children and the young are particularly targeted. They will be the adults when the full-on fascist AI-controlled technocracy is planned to be imposed and they are being prepared to meekly submit. At the same time older people who still have a memory of what life was like before – and how fascist the new normal really is – are being deleted. You are going to see efforts to turn the young against the old to support this geriatric genocide. Hannah Flanagan said the big increase in suicide in her county proved that social isolation is not only harmful, but deadly. Studies have shown that isolation from others is one of the main risk factors in suicide and even more so with women. Warnings that lockdown could create a ‘perfect storm’ for suicide were ignored. A er all this was one of the reasons for lockdown. Suicide, however, is only the most extreme of isolation consequences. There are many others. Dr Dhruv Khullar, assistant professor of healthcare policy at Weill Cornell Medical College, said in a New York Times article in 2016 long before the fake ‘pandemic’: A wave of new research suggests social separation is bad for us. Individuals with less social connection have disrupted sleep patterns, altered immune systems, more inflammation and higher levels of stress hormones. One recent study found that isolation increases the risk of heart disease by 29 percent and stroke by 32 percent. Another analysis that pooled data from 70 studies and 3.4 million people found that socially isolated individuals had a 30 percent higher risk of dying in the next seven years, and that this effect was largest in middle age.

Loneliness can accelerate cognitive decline in older adults, and isolated individuals are twice as likely to die prematurely as those with more robust social interactions. These effects start early: Socially isolated children have significantly poorer health 20 years later, even after controlling for other factors. All told, loneliness is as important a risk factor for early death as obesity and smoking.

There you have proof from that one article alone four years before 2020 that those who have enforced lockdown, social distancing and isolation knew what the effect would be and that is even more so with professional psychologists that have been driving the policy across the globe. We can go back even further to the years 2000 and 2003 and the start of a major study on the effects of isolation on health by Dr Janine Gronewold and Professor Dirk M. Hermann at the University Hospital in Essen, Germany, who analysed data on 4,316 people with an average age of 59 who were recruited for the long-term research project. They found that socially isolated people are more than 40 percent more likely to have a heart a ack, stroke, or other major cardiovascular event and nearly 50 percent more likely to die from any cause. Given the financial Armageddon unleashed by lockdown we should note that the study found a relationship between increased cardiovascular risk and lack of financial support. A er excluding other factors social isolation was still connected to a 44 percent increased risk of cardiovascular problems and a 47 percent increased risk of death by any cause. Lack of financial support was associated with a 30 percent increase in the risk of cardiovascular health events. Dr Gronewold said it had been known for some time that feeling lonely or lacking contact with close friends and family can have an impact on physical health and the study had shown that having strong social relationships is of high importance for heart health. Gronewold said they didn’t understand yet why people who are socially isolated have such poor health outcomes, but this was obviously a worrying finding, particularly during these times of prolonged social distancing. Well, it can be explained on many levels. You only have to identify the point in the body where people feel loneliness and missing people they are parted from – it’s in the centre of the chest where they feel the ache of loneliness and the ache of missing people. ‘My heart aches for

you’ … ‘My heart aches for some company.’ I will explain this more in the chapter Escaping Wetiko, but when you realise that the body is the mind – they are expressions of each other – the reason why state of the mind dictates state of the body becomes clear. American psychologist Ranjit Powar was highlighting the effects of lockdown isolation as early as April, 2020. She said humans have evolved to be social creatures and are wired to live in interactive groups. Being isolated from family, friends and colleagues could be unbalancing and traumatic for most people and could result in short or even long-term psychological and physical health problems. An increase in levels of anxiety, aggression, depression, forgetfulness and hallucinations were possible psychological effects of isolation. ‘Mental conditions may be precipitated for those with underlying pre-existing susceptibilities and show up in many others without any pre-condition.’ Powar said personal relationships helped us cope with stress and if we lost this outlet for le ing off steam the result can be a big emotional void which, for an average person, was difficult to deal with. ‘Just a few days of isolation can cause increased levels of anxiety and depression’ – so what the hell has been the effect on the global population of 18 months of this at the time of writing? Powar said: ‘Add to it the looming threat of a dreadful disease being repeatedly hammered in through the media and you have a recipe for many shades of mental and physical distress.’ For those with a house and a garden it is easy to forget that billions have had to endure lockdown isolation in tiny overcrowded flats and apartments with nowhere to go outside. The psychological and physical consequences of this are unimaginable and with lunatic and abusive partners and parents the consequences have led to tremendous increases in domestic and child abuse and alcoholism as people seek to shut out the horror. Ranjit Powar said: Staying in a confined space with family is not all a rosy picture for everyone. It can be extremely oppressive and claustrophobic for large low-income families huddled together in small single-room houses. Children here are not lucky enough to have many board/electronic games or books to keep them occupied.

Add to it the deep insecurity of running out of funds for food and basic necessities. On the other hand, there are people with dysfunctional family dynamics, such as domineering, abusive or alcoholic partners, siblings or parents which makes staying home a period of trial. Incidence of suicide and physical abuse against women has shown a worldwide increase. Heightened anxiety and depression also affect a person’s immune system, making them more susceptible to illness.

To think that Powar’s article was published on April 11th, 2020.

Six-feet fantasy Social (unsocial) distancing demanded that people stay six feet or two metres apart. UK government advisor Robert Dingwall from the New and Emerging Respiratory Virus Threats Advisory Group said in a radio interview that the two-metre rule was ‘conjured up out of nowhere’ and was not based on science. No, it was not based on medical science, but it didn’t come out of nowhere. The distance related to psychological science. Six feet/two metres was adopted in many countries and we were told by people like the criminal Anthony Fauci and his ilk that it was founded on science. Many schools could not reopen because they did not have the space for sixfeet distancing. Then in March, 2021, a er a year of six-feet ‘science’, a study published in the Journal of Infectious Diseases involving more than 500,000 students and almost 100,000 staff over 16 weeks revealed no significant difference in ‘Covid’ cases between six feet and three feet and Fauci changed his tune. Now three feet was okay. There is no difference between six feet and three inches when there is no ‘virus’ and they got away with six feet for psychological reasons for as long as they could. I hear journalists and others talk about ‘unintended consequences’ of lockdown. They are not unintended at all; they have been coldly-calculated for a specific outcome of human control and that’s why super-psychopaths like Gates have called for them so vehemently. Super-psychopath psychologists have demanded them and psychopathic or clueless, spineless, politicians have gone along with them by ‘following the science’. But it’s not science at all. ‘Science’ is not what is; it’s only what people can be manipulated to believe it is. The whole ‘Covid’ catastrophe is

founded on mind control. Three word or three statement mantras issued by the UK government are a well-known mind control technique and so we’ve had ‘Stay home/protect the NHS/save lives’, ‘Stay alert/control the virus/save lives’ and ‘hands/face/space’. One of the most vocal proponents of extreme ‘Covid’ rules in the UK has been Professor Susan Michie, a member of the British Communist Party, who is not a medical professional. Michie is the director of the Centre for Behaviour Change at University College London. She is a behavioural psychologist and another filthy rich ‘Marxist’ who praised China’s draconian lockdown. She was known by fellow students at Oxford University as ‘Stalin’s nanny’ for her extreme Marxism. Michie is an influential member of the UK government’s Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE) and behavioural manipulation groups which have dominated ‘Covid’ policy. She is a consultant adviser to the World Health Organization on ‘Covid-19’ and behaviour. Why the hell are lockdowns anything to do with her when they are claimed to be about health? Why does a behavioural psychologist from a group charged with changing the behaviour of the public want lockdown, human isolation and mandatory masks? Does that question really need an answer? Michie absolutely has to explain herself before a Nuremberg court when humanity takes back its world again and even more so when you see the consequences of masks that she demands are compulsory. This is a Michie classic: The benefits of getting primary school children to wear masks is that regardless of what little degree of transmission is occurring in those age groups it could help normalise the practice. Young children wearing masks may be more likely to get their families to accept masks.

Those words alone should carry a prison sentence when you ponder on the callous disregard for children involved and what a statement it makes about the mind and motivations of Susan Michie. What a lovely lady and what she said there encapsulates the mentality of the psychopaths behind the ‘Covid’ horror. Let us compare what Michie said with a countrywide study in Germany published at researchsquare.com involving 25,000 school children and 17,854 health complaints submi ed by parents. Researchers

found that masks are harming children physically, psychologically, and behaviourally with 24 health issues associated with mask wearing. They include: shortness of breath (29.7%); dizziness (26.4%); increased headaches (53%); difficulty concentrating (50%); drowsiness or fatigue (37%); and malaise (42%). Nearly a third of children experienced more sleep issues than before and a quarter developed new fears. Researchers found health issues and other impairments in 68 percent of masked children covering their faces for an average of 4.5 hours a day. Hundreds of those taking part experienced accelerated respiration, tightness in the chest, weakness, and short-term impairment of consciousness. A reminder of what Michie said again: The benefits of getting primary school children to wear masks is that regardless of what little degree of transmission is occurring in those age groups it could help normalise the practice. Young children wearing masks may be more likely to get their families to accept masks.

Psychopaths in government and psychology now have children and young people – plus all the adults – wearing masks for hours on end while clueless teachers impose the will of the psychopaths on the young they should be protecting. What the hell are parents doing?

Cult lab rats We have some schools already imposing on students microchipped buzzers that activate when they get ‘too close’ to their pals in the way they do with lab rats. How apt. To the Cult and its brain-dead servants our children are lab rats being conditioned to be unquestioning, dehumanised slaves for the rest of their lives. Children and young people are being weaned and frightened away from the most natural human instincts including closeness and touch. I have tracked in the books over the years how schools were banning pupils from greeting each other with a hug and the whole Cult-induced Me Too movement has terrified men and boys from a relaxed and natural interaction with female friends and work colleagues to the point where many men try never to be in a room

alone with a woman that’s not their partner. Airhead celebrities have as always played their virtue-signalling part in making this happen with their gross exaggeration. For every monster like Harvey Weinstein there are at least tens of thousands of men that don’t treat women like that; but everyone must be branded the same and policy changed for them as well as the monster. I am going to be using the word ‘dehumanise’ many times in this chapter because that is what the Cult is seeking to do and it goes very deep as we shall see. Don’t let them kid you that social distancing is planned to end one day. That’s not the idea. We are seeing more governments and companies funding and producing wearable gadgets to keep people apart and they would not be doing that if this was meant to be short-term. A tech start-up company backed by GCHQ, the British Intelligence and military surveillance headquarters, has created a social distancing wrist sensor that alerts people when they get too close to others. The CIA has also supported tech companies developing similar devices. The wearable sensor was developed by Tended, one of a number of start-up companies supported by GCHQ (see the CIA and DARPA). The device can be worn on the wrist or as a tag on the waistband and will vibrate whenever someone wearing the device breaches social distancing and gets anywhere near natural human contact. The company had a lucky break in that it was developing a distancing sensor when the ‘Covid’ hoax arrived which immediately provided a potentially enormous market. How fortunate. The government in big-time Cult-controlled Ontario in Canada is investing $2.5 million in wearable contact tracing technology that ‘will alert users if they may have been exposed to the Covid-19 in the workplace and will beep or vibrate if they are within six feet of another person’. Facedrive Inc., the technology company behind this, was founded in 2016 with funding from the Ontario Together Fund and obviously they, too, had a prophet on the board of directors. The human surveillance and control technology is called TraceSCAN and would be worn by the human cyborgs in places such as airports, workplaces, construction sites, care homes and … schools.

I emphasise schools with children and young people the prime targets. You know what is planned for society as a whole if you keep your eyes on the schools. They have always been places where the state program the next generation of slaves to be its compliant worker-ants – or Woker-ants these days; but in the mist of the ‘Covid’ madness they have been transformed into mind laboratories on a scale never seen before. Teachers and head teachers are just as programmed as the kids – o en more so. Children are kept apart from human interaction by walk lanes, classroom distancing, staggered meal times, masks, and the rolling-out of buzzer systems. Schools are now physically laid out as a laboratory maze for lab-rats. Lunatics at a school in Anchorage, Alaska, who should be prosecuted for child abuse, took away desks and forced children to kneel (know your place) on a mat for five hours a day while wearing a mask and using their chairs as a desk. How this was supposed to impact on a ‘virus’ only these clinically insane people can tell you and even then it would be clap-trap. The school banned recess (interaction), art classes (creativity), and physical exercise (ge ing body and mind moving out of inertia). Everyone behind this outrage should be in jail or be er still a mental institution. The behavioural manipulators are all for this dystopian approach to schools. Professor Susan Michie, the mind-doctor and British Communist Party member, said it was wrong to say that schools were safe. They had to be made so by ‘distancing’, masks and ventilation (si ing all day in the cold). I must ask this lady round for dinner on a night I know I am going to be out and not back for weeks. She probably wouldn’t be able to make it, anyway, with all the visits to her own psychologist she must have block-booked.

Masking identity I know how shocking it must be for you that a behaviour manipulator like Michie wants everyone to wear masks which have long been a feature of mind-control programs like the infamous MKUltra in the United States, but, there we are. We live and learn. I spent many years from 1996 to right across the millennium

researching mind control in detail on both sides of the Atlantic and elsewhere. I met a large number of mind-control survivors and many had been held captive in body and mind by MKUltra. MK stands for mind-control, but employs the German spelling in deference to the Nazis spirited out of Germany at the end of World War Two by Operation Paperclip in which the US authorities, with help from the Vatican, transported Nazi mind-controllers and engineers to America to continue their work. Many of them were behind the creation of NASA and they included Nazi scientist and SS officer Wernher von Braun who swapped designing V-2 rockets to bombard London with designing the Saturn V rockets that powered the NASA moon programme’s Apollo cra . I think I may have mentioned that the Cult has no borders. Among Paperclip escapees was Josef Mengele, the Angel of Death in the Nazi concentration camps where he conducted mind and genetic experiments on children o en using twins to provide a control twin to measure the impact of his ‘work’ on the other. If you want to observe the Cult mentality in all its extremes of evil then look into the life of Mengele. I have met many people who suffered mercilessly under Mengele in the United States where he operated under the name Dr Greene and became a stalwart of MKUltra programming and torture. Among his locations was the underground facility in the Mojave Desert in California called the China Lake Naval Weapons Station which is almost entirely below the surface. My books The Biggest Secret, Children of the Matrix and The Perception Deception have the detailed background to MKUltra. The best-known MKUltra survivor is American Cathy O’Brien. I first met her and her late partner Mark Phillips at a conference in Colorado in 1996. Mark helped her escape and deprogram from decades of captivity in an offshoot of MKUltra known as Project Monarch in which ‘sex slaves’ were provided for the rich and famous including Father George Bush, Dick Cheney and the Clintons. Read Cathy and Mark’s book Trance-Formation of America and if you are new to this you will be shocked to the core. I read it in 1996 shortly before, with the usual synchronicity of my life, I found

myself given a book table at the conference right next to hers. MKUltra never ended despite being very publicly exposed (only a small part of it) in the 1970s and continues in other guises. I am still in touch with Cathy. She contacted me during 2020 a er masks became compulsory in many countries to tell me how they were used as part of MKUltra programming. I had been observing ‘Covid regulations’ and the relationship between authority and public for months. I saw techniques that I knew were employed on individuals in MKUltra being used on the global population. I had read many books and manuals on mind control including one called Silent Weapons for Quiet Wars which came to light in the 1980s and was a guide on how to perceptually program on a mass scale. ‘Silent Weapons’ refers to mind-control. I remembered a line from the manual as governments, medical authorities and law enforcement agencies have so obviously talked to – or rather at – the adult population since the ‘Covid’ hoax began as if they are children. The document said: If a person is spoken to by a T.V. advertiser as if he were a twelve-year-old, then, due to suggestibility, he will, with a certain probability, respond or react to that suggestion with the uncritical response of a twelve-year-old and will reach in to his economic reservoir and deliver its energy to buy that product on impulse when he passes it in the store.

That’s why authority has spoken to adults like children since all this began.

Why did Michael Jackson wear masks? Every aspect of the ‘Covid’ narrative has mind-control as its central theme. Cathy O’Brien wrote an article for davidicke.com about the connection between masks and mind control. Her daughter Kelly who I first met in the 1990s was born while Cathy was still held captive in MKUltra. Kelly was forced to wear a mask as part of her programming from the age of two to dehumanise her, target her sense of individuality and reduce the amount of oxygen her brain and body received. Bingo. This is the real reason for compulsory

masks, why they have been enforced en masse, and why they seek to increase the number they demand you wear. First one, then two, with one disgraceful alleged ‘doctor’ recommending four which is nothing less than a death sentence. Where and how o en they must be worn is being expanded for the purpose of mass mind control and damaging respiratory health which they can call ‘Covid-19’. Canada’s government headed by the man-child Justin Trudeau, says it’s fine for children of two and older to wear masks. An insane ‘study’ in Italy involving just 47 children concluded there was no problem for babies as young as four months wearing them. Even a er people were ‘vaccinated’ they were still told to wear masks by the criminal that is Anthony Fauci. Cathy wrote that mandating masks is allowing the authorities literally to control the air we breathe which is what was done in MKUltra. You might recall how the singer Michael Jackson wore masks and there is a reason for that. He was subjected to MKUltra mind control through Project Monarch and his psyche was scrambled by these simpletons. Cathy wrote: In MKUltra Project Monarch mind control, Michael Jackson had to wear a mask to silence his voice so he could not reach out for help. Remember how he developed that whisper voice when he wasn’t singing? Masks control the mind from the outside in, like the redefining of words is doing. By controlling what we can and cannot say for fear of being labeled racist or beaten, for example, it ultimately controls thought that drives our words and ultimately actions (or lack thereof). Likewise, a mask muffles our speech so that we are not heard, which controls voice … words … mind. This is Mind Control. Masks are an obvious mind control device, and I am disturbed so many people are complying on a global scale. Masks depersonalize while making a person feel as though they have no voice. It is a barrier to others. People who would never choose to comply but are forced to wear a mask in order to keep their job, and ultimately their family fed, are compromised. They often feel shame and are subdued. People have stopped talking with each other while media controls the narrative.

The ‘no voice’ theme has o en become literal with train passengers told not to speak to each other in case they pass on the ‘virus’, singing banned for the same reason and bonkers California officials telling people riding roller coasters that they cannot shout and scream. Cathy said she heard every day from healed MKUltra survivors who cannot wear a mask without flashing back on ways

their breathing was controlled – ‘from ball gags and penises to water boarding’. She said that through the years when she saw images of people in China wearing masks ‘due to pollution’ that it was really to control their oxygen levels. ‘I knew it was as much of a population control mechanism of depersonalisation as are burkas’, she said. Masks are another Chinese communist/fascist method of control that has been swept across the West as the West becomes China at lightning speed since we entered 2020.

Mask-19 There are other reasons for mandatory masks and these include destroying respiratory health to call it ‘Covid-19’ and stunting brain development of children and the young. Dr Margarite GrieszBrisson MD, PhD, is a Consultant Neurologist and Neurophysiologist and the Founder and Medical Director of the London Neurology and Pain Clinic. Her CV goes down the street and round the corner. She is clearly someone who cares about people and won’t parrot the propaganda. Griesz-Brisson has a PhD in pharmacology, with special interest in neurotoxicology, environmental medicine, neuroregeneration and neuroplasticity (the way the brain can change in the light of information received). She went public in October, 2020, with a passionate warning about the effects of mask-wearing laws: The reinhalation of our exhaled air will without a doubt create oxygen deficiency and a flooding of carbon dioxide. We know that the human brain is very sensitive to oxygen deprivation. There are nerve cells for example in the hippocampus that can’t be longer than 3 minutes without oxygen – they cannot survive. The acute warning symptoms are headaches, drowsiness, dizziness, issues in concentration, slowing down of reaction time – reactions of the cognitive system.

Oh, I know, let’s tell bus, truck and taxi drivers to wear them and people working machinery. How about pilots, doctors and police? Griesz-Brisson makes the important point that while the symptoms she mentions may fade as the body readjusts this does not alter the fact that people continue to operate in oxygen deficit with long list of

potential consequences. She said it was well known that neurodegenerative diseases take years or decades to develop. ‘If today you forget your phone number, the breakdown in your brain would have already started 20 or 30 years ago.’ She said degenerative processes in your brain are ge ing amplified as your oxygen deprivation continues through wearing a mask. Nerve cells in the brain are unable to divide themselves normally in these circumstances and lost nerve cells will no longer be regenerated. ‘What is gone is gone.’ Now consider that people like shop workers and schoolchildren are wearing masks for hours every day. What in the name of sanity is going to be happening to them? ‘I do not wear a mask, I need my brain to think’, Griesz-Brisson said, ‘I want to have a clear head when I deal with my patients and not be in a carbon dioxide-induced anaesthesia’. If you are told to wear a mask anywhere ask the organisation, police, store, whatever, for their risk assessment on the dangers and negative effects on mind and body of enforcing mask-wearing. They won’t have one because it has never been done not even by government. All of them must be subject to class-action lawsuits as the consequences come to light. They don’t do mask risk assessments for an obvious reason. They know what the conclusions would be and independent scientific studies that have been done tell a horror story of consequences.

‘Masks are criminal’ Dr Griesz-Brisson said that for children and adolescents, masks are an absolute no-no. They had an extremely active and adaptive immune system and their brain was incredibly active with so much to learn. ‘The child’s brain, or the youth’s brain, is thirsting for oxygen.’ The more metabolically active an organ was, the more oxygen it required; and in children and adolescents every organ was metabolically active. Griesz-Brisson said that to deprive a child’s or adolescent’s brain of oxygen, or to restrict it in any way, was not only dangerous to their health, it was absolutely criminal. ‘Oxygen deficiency inhibits the development of the brain, and the damage that has taken place as a result CANNOT be reversed.’ Mind

manipulators of MKUltra put masks on two-year-olds they wanted to neurologically rewire and you can see why. Griesz-Brisson said a child needs the brain to learn and the brain needs oxygen to function. ‘We don’t need a clinical study for that. This is simple, indisputable physiology.’ Consciously and purposely induced oxygen deficiency was an absolutely deliberate health hazard, and an absolute medical contraindication which means that ‘this drug, this therapy, this method or measure should not be used, and is not allowed to be used’. To coerce an entire population to use an absolute medical contraindication by force, she said, there had to be definite and serious reasons and the reasons must be presented to competent interdisciplinary and independent bodies to be verified and authorised. She had this warning of the consequences that were coming if mask wearing continued: When, in ten years, dementia is going to increase exponentially, and the younger generations couldn’t reach their god-given potential, it won’t help to say ‘we didn’t need the masks’. I know how damaging oxygen deprivation is for the brain, cardiologists know how damaging it is for the heart, pulmonologists know how damaging it is for the lungs. Oxygen deprivation damages every single organ. Where are our health departments, our health insurance, our medical associations? It would have been their duty to be vehemently against the lockdown and to stop it and stop it from the very beginning. Why do the medical boards issue punishments to doctors who give people exemptions? Does the person or the doctor seriously have to prove that oxygen deprivation harms people? What kind of medicine are our doctors and medical associations representing? Who is responsible for this crime? The ones who want to enforce it? The ones who let it happen and play along, or the ones who don’t prevent it?

All of the organisations and people she mentions there either answer directly to the Cult or do whatever hierarchical levels above them tell them to do. The outcome of both is the same. ‘It’s not about masks, it’s not about viruses, it’s certainly not about your health’, Griesz-Brisson said. ‘It is about much, much more. I am not participating. I am not afraid.’ They were taking our air to breathe and there was no unfounded medical exemption from face masks. Oxygen deprivation was dangerous for every single brain. It had to be the free decision of every human being whether they want to

wear a mask that was absolutely ineffective to protect themselves from a virus. She ended by rightly identifying where the responsibility lies for all this: The imperative of the hour is personal responsibility. We are responsible for what we think, not the media. We are responsible for what we do, not our superiors. We are responsible for our health, not the World Health Organization. And we are responsible for what happens in our country, not the government.

Halle-bloody-lujah.

But surgeons wear masks, right? Independent studies of mask-wearing have produced a long list of reports detailing mental, emotional and physical dangers. What a definition of insanity to see police officers imposing mask-wearing on the public which will cumulatively damage their health while the police themselves wear masks that will cumulatively damage their health. It’s u er madness and both public and police do this because ‘the government says so’ – yes a government of brain-donor idiots like UK Health Secretary Ma Hancock reading the ‘follow the science’ scripts of psychopathic, lunatic psychologists. The response you get from Stockholm syndrome sufferers defending the very authorities that are destroying them and their families is that ‘surgeons wear masks’. This is considered the game, set and match that they must work and don’t cause oxygen deficit. Well, actually, scientific studies have shown that they do and oxygen levels are monitored in operating theatres to compensate. Surgeons wear masks to stop spi le and such like dropping into open wounds – not to stop ‘viral particles’ which are so miniscule they can only be seen through an electron microscope. Holes in the masks are significantly bigger than ‘viral particles’ and if you sneeze or cough they will breach the mask. I watched an incredibly disingenuous ‘experiment’ that claimed to prove that masks work in catching ‘virus’ material from the mouth and nose. They did this with a slow motion camera and the mask did block big stuff which stayed inside the mask and

against the face to be breathed in or cause infections on the face as we have seen with many children. ‘Viral particles’, however, would never have been picked up by the camera as they came through the mask when they are far too small to be seen. The ‘experiment’ was therefore disingenuous and useless. Studies have concluded that wearing masks in operating theatres (and thus elsewhere) make no difference to preventing infection while the opposite is true with toxic shite building up in the mask and this had led to an explosion in tooth decay and gum disease dubbed by dentists ‘mask mouth’. You might have seen the Internet video of a furious American doctor urging people to take off their masks a er a four-year-old patient had been rushed to hospital the night before and nearly died with a lung infection that doctors sourced to mask wearing. A study in the journal Cancer Discovery found that inhalation of harmful microbes can contribute to advanced stage lung cancer in adults and long-term use of masks can help breed dangerous pathogens. Microbiologists have said frequent mask wearing creates a moist environment in which microbes can grow and proliferate before entering the lungs. The Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health, or CADTH, a Canadian national organisation that provides research and analysis to healthcare decision-makers, said this as long ago as 2013 in a report entitled ‘Use of Surgical Masks in the Operating Room: A Review of the Clinical Effectiveness and Guidelines’. It said: • No evidence was found to support the use of surgical face masks to reduce the frequency of surgical site infections • No evidence was found on the effectiveness of wearing surgical face masks to protect staff from infectious material in the operating room. • Guidelines recommend the use of surgical face masks by staff in the operating room to protect both operating room staff and patients (despite the lack of evidence).

We were told that the world could go back to ‘normal’ with the arrival of the ‘vaccines’. When they came, fraudulent as they are, the story changed as I knew that it would. We are in the midst of transforming ‘normal’, not going back to it. Mary Ramsay, head of immunisation at Public Health England, echoed the words of US criminal Anthony Fauci who said masks and other regulations must stay no ma er if people are vaccinated. The Fauci idiot continued to wear two masks – different colours so both could be clearly seen – a er he claimed to have been vaccinated. Senator Rand Paul told Fauci in one exchange that his double-masks were ‘theatre’ and he was right. It’s all theatre. Mary Ramsay back-tracked on the vaccinereturn-to-normal theme when she said the public may need to wear masks and social-distance for years despite the jabs. ‘People have got used to those lower-level restrictions now, and [they] can live with them’, she said telling us what the idea has been all along. ‘The vaccine does not give you a pass, even if you have had it, you must continue to follow all the guidelines’ said a Public Health England statement which reneged on what we had been told before and made having the ‘vaccine’ irrelevant to ‘normality’ even by the official story. Spain’s fascist government trumped everyone by passing a law mandating the wearing of masks on the beach and even when swimming in the sea. The move would have devastated what’s le of the Spanish tourist industry, posed potential breathing dangers to swimmers and had Northern European sunbathers walking around with their forehead brown and the rest of their face white as a sheet. The ruling was so crazy that it had to be retracted a er pressure from public and tourist industry, but it confirmed where the Cult wants to go with masks and how clinically insane authority has become. The determination to make masks permanent and hide the serious dangers to body and mind can be seen in the censorship of scientist Professor Denis Rancourt by Bill Gatesfunded academic publishing website ResearchGate over his papers exposing the dangers and uselessness of masks. Rancourt said: ResearchGate today has permanently locked my account, which I have had since 2015. Their reasons graphically show the nature of their attack against democracy, and their corruption of

science … By their obscene non-logic, a scientific review of science articles reporting on harms caused by face masks has a ‘potential to cause harm’. No criticism of the psychological device (face masks) is tolerated, if the said criticism shows potential to influence public policy.

This is what happens in a fascist world.

Where are the ‘greens’ (again)? Other dangers of wearing masks especially regularly relate to the inhalation of minute plastic fibres into the lungs and the deluge of discarded masks in the environment and oceans. Estimates predicted that more than 1.5 billion disposable masks will end up in the world’s oceans every year polluting the water with tons of plastic and endangering marine wildlife. Studies project that humans are using 129 billion face masks each month worldwide – about three million a minute. Most are disposable and made from plastic, nonbiodegradable microfibers that break down into smaller plastic particles that become widespread in ecosystems. They are li ering cities, clogging sewage channels and turning up in bodies of water. I have wri en in other books about the immense amounts of microplastics from endless sources now being absorbed into the body. Rolf Halden, director of the Arizona State University (ASU) Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, was the senior researcher in a 2020 study that analysed 47 human tissue samples and found microplastics in all of them. ‘We have detected these chemicals of plastics in every single organ that we have investigated’, he said. I wrote in The Answer about the world being deluged with microplastics. A study by the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) found that people are consuming on average every week some 2,000 tiny pieces of plastic mostly through water and also through marine life and the air. Every year humans are ingesting enough microplastics to fill a heaped dinner plate and in a life-time of 79 years it is enough to fill two large waste bins. Marco Lambertini, WWF International director general said: ‘Not only are plastics polluting our oceans and waterways and killing marine life – it’s in all of us and we can’t escape consuming plastics,’ American

geologists found tiny plastic fibres, beads and shards in rainwater samples collected from the remote slopes of the Rocky Mountain National Park near Denver, Colorado. Their report was headed: ‘It is raining plastic.’ Rachel Adams, senior lecturer in Biomedical Science at Cardiff Metropolitan University, said that among health consequences are internal inflammation and immune responses to a ‘foreign body’. She further pointed out that microplastics become carriers of toxins including mercury, pesticides and dioxins (a known cause of cancer and reproductive and developmental problems). These toxins accumulate in the fa y tissues once they enter the body through microplastics. Now this is being compounded massively by people pu ing plastic on their face and throwing it away. Workers exposed to polypropylene plastic fibres known as ‘flock’ have developed ‘flock worker’s lung’ from inhaling small pieces of the flock fibres which can damage lung tissue, reduce breathing capacity and exacerbate other respiratory problems. Now … commonly used surgical masks have three layers of melt-blown textiles made of … polypropylene. We have billions of people pu ing these microplastics against their mouth, nose and face for hours at a time day a er day in the form of masks. How does anyone think that will work out? I mean – what could possibly go wrong? We posted a number of scientific studies on this at davidicke.com, but when I went back to them as I was writing this book the links to the science research website where they were hosted were dead. Anything that challenges the official narrative in any way is either censored or vilified. The official narrative is so unsupportable by the evidence that only deleting the truth can protect it. A study by Chinese scientists still survived – with the usual twist which it why it was still active, I guess. Yes, they found that virtually all the masks they tested increased the daily intake of microplastic fibres, but people should still wear them because the danger from the ‘virus’ was worse said the crazy ‘team’ from the Institute of Hydrobiology in Wuhan. Scientists first discovered microplastics in lung tissue of some patients who died of lung cancer

in the 1990s. Subsequent studies have confirmed the potential health damage with the plastic degrading slowly and remaining in the lungs to accumulate in volume. Wuhan researchers used a machine simulating human breathing to establish that masks shed up to nearly 4,000 microplastic fibres in a month with reused masks producing more. Scientists said some masks are laced with toxic chemicals and a variety of compounds seriously restricted for both health and environmental reasons. They include cobalt (used in blue dye) and formaldehyde known to cause watery eyes, burning sensations in the eyes, nose, and throat, plus coughing, wheezing and nausea. No – that must be ‘Covid-19’.

Mask ‘worms’ There is another and potentially even more sinister content of masks. Mostly new masks of different makes filmed under a microscope around the world have been found to contain strange black fibres or ‘worms’ that appear to move or ‘crawl’ by themselves and react to heat and water. The nearest I have seen to them are the selfreplicating fibres that are pulled out through the skin of those suffering from Morgellons disease which has been connected to the phenomena of ‘chemtrails’ which I will bring into the story later on. Morgellons fibres continue to grow outside the body and have a form of artificial intelligence. Black ‘worm’ fibres in masks have that kind of feel to them and there is a nanotechnology technique called ‘worm micelles’ which carry and release drugs or anything else you want to deliver to the body. For sure the suppression of humanity by mind altering drugs is the Cult agenda big time and the more excuses they can find to gain access to the body the more opportunities there are to make that happen whether through ‘vaccines’ or masks pushed against the mouth and nose for hours on end. So let us summarise the pros and cons of masks:

Against masks: Breathing in your own carbon dioxide; depriving the body and brain of sufficient oxygen; build-up of toxins in the mask that can be breathed into the lungs and cause rashes on the face and ‘mask-mouth’; breathing microplastic fibres and toxic chemicals into the lungs; dehumanisation and deleting individualisation by literally making people faceless; destroying human emotional interaction through facial expression and deleting parental connection with their babies which look for guidance to their facial expression. For masks: They don’t protect you from a ‘virus’ that doesn’t exist and even if it did ‘viral’ particles are so minute they are smaller than the holes in the mask. Governments, police, supermarkets, businesses, transport companies, and all the rest who seek to impose masks have done no risk assessment on their consequences for health and psychology and are now open to group lawsuits when the impact becomes clear with a cumulative epidemic of respiratory and other disease. Authorities will try to exploit these effects and hide the real cause by dubbing them ‘Covid-19’. Can you imagine se ing out to force the population to wear health-destroying masks without doing any assessment of the risks? It is criminal and it is evil, but then how many people targeted in this way, who see their children told to wear them all day at school, have asked for a risk assessment? Billions can’t be imposed upon by the few unless the billions allow it. Oh, yes, with just a tinge of irony, 85 percent of all masks made worldwide come from China.

Wash your hands in toxic shite ‘Covid’ rules include the use of toxic sanitisers and again the health consequences of constantly applying toxins to be absorbed through the skin is obvious to any level of Renegade Mind. America’s Food and Drug Administration (FDA) said that sanitisers are drugs and issued a warning about 75 dangerous brands which contain

methanol used in antifreeze and can cause death, kidney damage and blindness. The FDA circulated the following warning even for those brands that it claims to be safe: Store hand sanitizer out of the reach of pets and children, and children should use it only with adult supervision. Do not drink hand sanitizer. This is particularly important for young children, especially toddlers, who may be attracted by the pleasant smell or brightly colored bottles of hand sanitizer. Drinking even a small amount of hand sanitizer can cause alcohol poisoning in children. (However, there is no need to be concerned if your children eat with or lick their hands after using hand sanitizer.) During this coronavirus pandemic, poison control centers have had an increase in calls about accidental ingestion of hand sanitizer, so it is important that adults monitor young children’s use. Do not allow pets to swallow hand sanitizer. If you think your pet has eaten something potentially dangerous, call your veterinarian or a pet poison control center right away. Hand sanitizer is flammable and should be stored away from heat and flames. When using hand sanitizer, rub your hands until they feel completely dry before performing activities that may involve heat, sparks, static electricity, or open flames.

There you go, perfectly safe, then, and that’s without even a mention of the toxins absorbed through the skin. Come on kids – sanitise your hands everywhere you go. It will save you from the ‘virus’. Put all these elements together of the ‘Covid’ normal and see how much health and psychology is being cumulatively damaged, even devastated, to ‘protect your health’. Makes sense, right? They are only imposing these things because they care, right? Right?

Submitting to insanity Psychological reframing of the population goes very deep and is done in many less obvious ways. I hear people say how contradictory and crazy ‘Covid’ rules are and how they are ever changing. This is explained away by dismissing those involved as idiots. It is a big mistake. The Cult is delighted if its cold calculation is perceived as incompetence and idiocy when it is anything but. Oh, yes, there are idiots within the system – lots of them – but they are administering the Cult agenda, mostly unknowingly. They are not deciding and dictating it. The bulwark against tyranny is self-

respect, always has been, always will be. It is self-respect that has broken every tyranny in history. By its very nature self-respect will not bow to oppression and its perpetrators. There is so li le selfrespect that it’s always the few that overturn dictators. Many may eventually follow, but the few with the iron spines (self-respect) kick it off and generate the momentum. The Cult targets self-respect in the knowledge that once this has gone only submission remains. Crazy, contradictory, ever-changing ‘Covid’ rules are systematically applied by psychologists to delete self-respect. They want you to see that the rules make no sense. It is one thing to decide to do something when you have made the choice based on evidence and logic. You still retain your self-respect. It is quite another when you can see what you are being told to do is insane, ridiculous and makes no sense, and yet you still do it. Your self-respect is extinguished and this has been happening as ever more obviously stupid and nonsensical things have been demanded and the great majority have complied even when they can see they are stupid and nonsensical. People walk around in face-nappies knowing they are damaging their health and make no difference to a ‘virus’. They do it in fear of not doing it. I know it’s da , but I’ll do it anyway. When that happens something dies inside of you and submissive reframing has begun. Next there’s a need to hide from yourself that you have conceded your self-respect and you convince yourself that you have not really submi ed to fear and intimidation. You begin to believe that you are complying with craziness because it’s the right thing to do. When first you concede your self-respect of 2+2 = 4 to 2+2 = 5 you know you are compromising your self-respect. Gradually to avoid facing that fact you begin to believe that 2+2=5. You have been reframed and I have been watching this process happening in the human psyche on an industrial scale. The Cult is working to break your spirit and one of its major tools in that war is humiliation. I read how former American soldier Bradley Manning (later Chelsea Manning a er a sex-change) was treated a er being jailed for supplying WikiLeaks with documents exposing the enormity of

government and elite mendacity. Manning was isolated in solitary confinement for eight months, put under 24-hour surveillance, forced to hand over clothing before going to bed, and stand naked for every roll call. This is systematic humiliation. The introduction of anal swab ‘Covid’ tests in China has been done for the same reason to delete self-respect and induce compliant submission. Anal swabs are mandatory for incoming passengers in parts of China and American diplomats have said they were forced to undergo the indignity which would have been calculated humiliation by the Cult-owned Chinese government that has America in its sights.

Government-people: An abusive relationship Spirit-breaking psychological techniques include giving people hope and apparent respite from tyranny only to take it away again. This happened in the UK during Christmas, 2020, when the psychopsychologists and their political lackeys announced an easing of restrictions over the holiday only to reimpose them almost immediately on the basis of yet another lie. There is a big psychological difference between ge ing used to oppression and being given hope of relief only to have that dashed. Psychologists know this and we have seen the technique used repeatedly. Then there is traumatising people before you introduce more extreme regulations that require compliance. A perfect case was the announcement by the dark and sinister Whi y and Vallance in the UK that ‘new data’ predicted that 4,000 could die every day over the winter of 2020/2021 if we did not lockdown again. I think they call it lying and a er traumatising people with that claim out came Jackboot Johnson the next day with new curbs on human freedom. Psychologists know that a frightened and traumatised mind becomes suggestable to submission and behaviour reframing. Underpinning all this has been to make people fearful and suspicious of each other and see themselves as a potential danger to others. In league with deleted self-respect you have the perfect psychological recipe for self-loathing. The relationship between authority and public is now demonstrably the same as that of

subservience to an abusive partner. These are signs of an abusive relationship explained by psychologist Leslie Becker-Phelps: Undermining a partner’s self-worth with verbal a acks, name-calling, and beli ling. Humiliating the partner in public, unjustly accusing them of having an affair, or interrogating them about their every behavior. Keeping partner confused or off balance by saying they were just kidding or blaming the partner for ‘making’ them act this way … Feigning in public that they care while turning against them in private. This leads to victims frequently feeling confused, incompetent, unworthy, hopeless, and chronically self-doubting. [Apply these techniques to how governments have treated the population since New Year, 2020, and the parallels are obvious.] Psychological and emotional abuse:

The abuser might physically harm their partner in a range of ways, such as grabbing, hi ing, punching, or shoving them. They might throw objects at them or harm them with a weapon. [Observe the physical harm imposed by masks, lockdown, and so on.] Physical abuse:

One way abusers keep their partners in line is by instilling fear. They might be verbally threatening, or give threatening looks or gestures. Abusers o en make it known that they are tracking their partner’s every move. They might destroy their partner’s possessions, threaten to harm them, or threaten to harm their family members. Not surprisingly, victims of this abuse o en feel anxiety, fear, and panic. [No words necessary.] Threats and intimidation:

Abusers o en limit their partner’s activities, forbidding them to talk or interact with friends or family. They might limit access to a car or even turn off their phone. All of this might be done by physically holding them against their will, but is o en accomplished through psychological abuse and intimidation. The more isolated a person feels, the fewer resources they have to help gain perspective on their situation and to escape from it. [No words necessary.] Isolation:

Abusers o en make their partners beholden to them for money by controlling access to funds of any kind. They might prevent their partner from ge ing a job or withhold access to money they earn from a job. This creates financial dependency that makes leaving the relationship very difficult. [See destruction of livelihoods and the proposed meagre ‘guaranteed income’ so long as you do whatever you are told.] Economic abuse:

An abuser might disparage their partner’s parenting skills, tell their children lies about their partner, threaten to take custody of their children, or threaten to harm their children. These tactics instil fear and o en elicit compliance. [See reframed social service mafia and how children are being mercilessly abused by the state over ‘Covid’ while their parents look on too frightened to do anything.] A further recurring trait in an abusive relationship is the abused blaming themselves for their abuse and making excuses for the abuser. We have the public blaming each other for lockdown abuse by government and many making excuses for the government while a acking those who challenge the government. How o en we have heard authorities say that rules are being imposed or reimposed only because people have refused to ‘behave’ and follow the rules. We don’t want to do it – it’s you. Renegade Minds are an antidote to all of these things. They will never concede their self-respect no ma er what the circumstances. Even when apparent humiliation is heaped upon them they laugh in its face and reflect back the humiliation on the abuser where it belongs. Renegade Minds will never wear masks they know are only imposed to humiliate, suppress and damage both physically and psychologically. Consequences will take care of themselves and they will never break their spirit or cause them to concede to tyranny. UK newspaper columnist Peter Hitchens was one of the few in the mainstream media to speak out against lockdowns and forced vaccinations. He then announced he had taken the jab. He wanted to see family members abroad and he believed vaccine passports were inevitable even though they had not yet been introduced. Hitchens Using children:

has a questioning and critical mind, but not a Renegade one. If he had no amount of pressure would have made him concede. Hitchens excused his action by saying that the ba le has been lost. Renegade Minds never accept defeat when freedom is at stake and even if they are the last one standing the self-respect of not submi ing to tyranny is more important than any outcome or any consequence. That’s why Renegade Minds are the only minds that ever changed anything worth changing.

CHAPTER EIGHT ‘Reframing’ insanity Insanity is relative. It depends on who has who locked in what cage Ray Bradbury

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eframing’ a mind means simply to change its perception and behaviour. This can be done subconsciously to such an extent that subjects have no idea they have been ‘reframed’ while to any observer changes in behaviour and a itudes are obvious. Human society is being reframed on a ginormous scale since the start of 2020 and here we have the reason why psychologists rather than doctors have been calling the shots. Ask most people who have succumbed to ‘Covid’ reframing if they have changed and most will say ‘no’; but they have and fundamentally. The Cult’s long-game has been preparing for these times since way back and crucial to that has been to prepare both population and officialdom mentally and emotionally. To use the mind-control parlance they had to reframe the population with a mentality that would submit to fascism and reframe those in government and law enforcement to impose fascism or at least go along with it. The result has been the factdeleted mindlessness of ‘Wokeness’ and officialdom that has either enthusiastically or unquestioningly imposed global tyranny demanded by reframed politicians on behalf of psychopathic and deeply evil cultists. ‘Cognitive reframing’ identifies and challenges the way someone sees the world in the form of situations, experiences and emotions and then restructures those perceptions to view the same set of circumstances in a different way. This can have

benefits if the a itudes are personally destructive while on the other side it has the potential for individual and collective mind control which the subject has no idea has even happened. Cognitive therapy was developed in the 1960s by Aaron T. Beck who was born in Rhode Island in 1921 as the son of Jewish immigrants from the Ukraine. He became interested in the techniques as a treatment for depression. Beck’s daughter Judith S. Beck is prominent in the same field and they founded the Beck Institute for Cognitive Behavior Therapy in Philadelphia in 1994. Cognitive reframing, however, began to be used worldwide by those with a very dark agenda. The Cult reframes politicians to change their a itudes and actions until they are completely at odds with what they once appeared to stand for. The same has been happening to government administrators at all levels, law enforcement, military and the human population. Cultists love mind control for two main reasons: It allows them to control what people think, do and say to secure agenda advancement and, by definition, it calms their legendary insecurity and fear of the unexpected. I have studied mind control since the time I travelled America in 1996. I may have been talking to next to no one in terms of an audience in those years, but my goodness did I gather a phenomenal amount of information and knowledge about so many things including the techniques of mind control. I have described this in detail in other books going back to The Biggest Secret in 1998. I met a very large number of people recovering from MKUltra and its offshoots and successors and I began to see how these same techniques were being used on the population in general. This was never more obvious than since the ‘Covid’ hoax began.

Reframing the enforcers I have observed over the last two decades and more the very clear transformation in the dynamic between the police, officialdom and the public. I tracked this in the books as the relationship mutated from one of serving the public to seeing them as almost the enemy and certainly a lower caste. There has always been a class divide

based on income and always been some psychopathic, corrupt, and big-I-am police officers. This was different. Wholesale change was unfolding in the collective dynamic; it was less about money and far more about position and perceived power. An us-and-them was emerging. Noses were li ed skyward by government administration and law enforcement and their a itude to the public they were supposed to be serving changed to one of increasing contempt, superiority and control. The transformation was so clear and widespread that it had to be planned. Collective a itudes and dynamics do not change naturally and organically that quickly on that scale. I then came across an organisation in Britain called Common Purpose created in the late 1980s by Julia Middleton who would work in the office of Deputy Prime Minister John Presco during the long and disastrous premiership of war criminal Tony Blair. When Blair speaks the Cult is speaking and the man should have been in jail a long time ago. Common Purpose proclaims itself to be one of the biggest ‘leadership development’ organisations in the world while functioning as a charity with all the financial benefits which come from that. It hosts ‘leadership development’ courses and programmes all over the world and claims to have ‘brought together’ what it calls ‘leaders’ from more than 100 countries on six continents. The modus operandi of Common Purpose can be compared with the work of the UK government’s reframing network that includes the Behavioural Insights Team ‘nudge unit’ and ‘Covid’ reframing specialists at SPI-B. WikiLeaks described Common Purpose long ago as ‘a hidden virus in our government and schools’ which is unknown to the general public: ‘It recruits and trains “leaders” to be loyal to the directives of Common Purpose and the EU, instead of to their own departments, which they then undermine or subvert, the NHS [National Health Service] being an example.’ This is a vital point to understand the ‘Covid’ hoax. The NHS, and its equivalent around the world, has been u erly reframed in terms of administrators and much of the medical personnel with the transformation underpinned by recruitment policies. The outcome has been the criminal and psychopathic behaviour of the

NHS over ‘Covid’ and we have seen the same in every other major country. WikiLeaks said Common Purpose trainees are ‘learning to rule without regard to democracy’ and to usher in a police state (current events explained). Common Purpose operated like a ‘glue’ and had members in the NHS, BBC, police, legal profession, church, many of Britain’s 7,000 quangos, local councils, the Civil Service, government ministries and Parliament, and controlled many RDA’s (Regional Development Agencies). Here we have one answer for how and why British institutions and their like in other countries have changed so negatively in relation to the public. This further explains how and why the beyond-disgraceful reframed BBC has become a propaganda arm of ‘Covid’ fascism. They are all part of a network pursuing the same goal. By 2019 Common Purpose was quoting a figure of 85,000 ‘leaders’ that had a ended its programmes. These ‘students’ of all ages are known as Common Purpose ‘graduates’ and they consist of government, state and local government officials and administrators, police chiefs and officers, and a whole range of others operating within the national, local and global establishment. Cressida Dick, Commissioner of the London Metropolitan Police, is the Common Purpose graduate who was the ‘Gold Commander’ that oversaw what can only be described as the murder of Brazilian electrician Jean Charles de Menezes in 2005. He was held down by psychopathic police and shot seven times in the head by a psychopathic lunatic a er being mistaken for a terrorist when he was just a bloke going about his day. Dick authorised officers to pursue and keep surveillance on de Menezes and ordered that he be stopped from entering the underground train system. Police psychopaths took her at her word clearly. She was ‘disciplined’ for this outrage by being promoted – eventually to the top of the ‘Met’ police where she has been a disaster. Many Chief Constables controlling the police in different parts of the UK are and have been Common Purpose graduates. I have heard the ‘graduate’ network described as a sort of Mafia or secret society operating within the fabric of government at all levels pursuing a collective policy

ingrained at Common Purpose training events. Founder Julia Middleton herself has said: Locally and internationally, Common Purpose graduates will be ‘lighting small fires’ to create change in their organisations and communities … The Common Purpose effect is best illustrated by the many stories of small changes brought about by leaders, who themselves have changed.

A Common Purpose mission statement declared: Common Purpose aims to improve the way society works by expanding the vision, decisionmaking ability and influence of all kinds of leaders. The organisation runs a variety of educational programmes for leaders of all ages, backgrounds and sectors, in order to provide them with the inspirational, information and opportunities they need to change the world.

Yes, but into what? Since 2020 the answer has become clear.

NLP and the Delphi technique Common Purpose would seem to be a perfect name or would common programming be be er? One of the foundation methods of reaching ‘consensus’ (group think) is by se ing the agenda theme and then encouraging, cajoling or pressuring everyone to agree a ‘consensus’ in line with the core theme promoted by Common Purpose. The methodology involves the ‘Delphi technique’, or an adaption of it, in which opinions are expressed that are summarised by a ‘facilitator or change agent’ at each stage. Participants are ‘encouraged’ to modify their views in the light of what others have said. Stage by stage the former individual opinions are merged into group consensus which just happens to be what Common Purpose wants them to believe. A key part of this is to marginalise anyone refusing to concede to group think and turn the group against them to apply pressure to conform. We are seeing this very technique used on the general population to make ‘Covid’ group-thinkers hostile to those who have seen through the bullshit. People can be reframed by using perception manipulation methods such as Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) in which you change perception with the use of

carefully constructed language. An NLP website described the technique this way: … A method of influencing brain behaviour (the ‘neuro’ part of the phrase) through the use of language (the ‘linguistic’ part) and other types of communication to enable a person to ‘recode’ the way the brain responds to stimuli (that’s the ‘programming’) and manifest new and better behaviours. Neuro-Linguistic Programming often incorporates hypnosis and selfhypnosis to help achieve the change (or ‘programming’) that is wanted.

British alternative media operation UKColumn has done very detailed research into Common Purpose over a long period. I quoted co-founder and former naval officer Brian Gerrish in my book Remember Who You Are, published in 2011, as saying the following years before current times: It is interesting that many of the mothers who have had children taken by the State speak of the Social Services people being icily cool, emotionless and, as two ladies said in slightly different words, ‘… like little robots’. We know that NLP is cumulative, so people can be given small imperceptible doses of NLP in a course here, another in a few months, next year etc. In this way, major changes are accrued in their personality, but the day by day change is almost unnoticeable.

In these and other ways ‘graduates’ have had their perceptions uniformly reframed and they return to their roles in the institutions of government, law enforcement, legal profession, military, ‘education’, the UK National Health Service and the whole swathe of the establishment structure to pursue a common agenda preparing for the ‘post-industrial’, ‘post-democratic’ society. I say ‘preparing’ but we are now there. ‘Post-industrial’ is code for the Great Reset and ‘post-democratic’ is ‘Covid’ fascism. UKColumn has spoken to partners of those who have a ended Common Purpose ‘training’. They have described how personalities and a itudes of ‘graduates’ changed very noticeably for the worse by the time they had completed the course. They had been ‘reframed’ and told they are the ‘leaders’ – the special ones – who know be er than the population. There has also been the very demonstrable recruitment of psychopaths and narcissists into government administration at all

levels and law enforcement. If you want psychopathy hire psychopaths and you get a simple cause and effect. If you want administrators, police officers and ‘leaders’ to perceive the public as lesser beings who don’t ma er then employ narcissists. These personalities are identified using ‘psychometrics’ that identifies knowledge, abilities, a itudes and personality traits, mostly through carefully-designed questionnaires and tests. As this policy has passed through the decades we have had power-crazy, powertrippers appointed into law enforcement, security and government administration in preparation for current times and the dynamic between public and law enforcement/officialdom has been transformed. UKColumn’s Brian Gerrish said of the narcissistic personality: Their love of themselves and power automatically means that they will crush others who get in their way. I received a major piece of the puzzle when a friend pointed out that when they made public officials re-apply for their own jobs several years ago they were also required to do psychometric tests. This was undoubtedly the start of the screening process to get ‘their’ sort of people in post.

How obvious that has been since 2020 although it was clear what was happening long before if people paid a ention to the changing public-establishment dynamic.

Change agents At the centre of events in ‘Covid’ Britain is the National Health Service (NHS) which has behaved disgracefully in slavishly following the Cult agenda. The NHS management structure is awash with Common Purpose graduates or ‘change agents’ working to a common cause. Helen Bevan, a Chief of Service Transformation at the NHS Institute for Innovation and Improvement, co-authored a document called ‘Towards a million change agents, a review of the social movements literature: implications for large scale change in the NHS‘. The document compared a project management approach to that of change and social movements where ‘people change

themselves and each other – peer to peer’. Two definitions given for a ‘social movement’ were: A group of people who consciously attempt to build a radically new social order; involves people of a broad range of social backgrounds; and deploys politically confrontational and socially disruptive tactics – Cyrus Zirakzadeh 1997 Collective challenges, based on common purposes and social solidarities, in sustained interaction with elites, opponents, and authorities – Sidney Tarrow 1994 Helen Bevan wrote another NHS document in which she defined ‘framing’ as ‘the process by which leaders construct, articulate and put across their message in a powerful and compelling way in order to win people to their cause and call them to action’. I think I could come up with another definition that would be rather more accurate. The National Health Service and institutions of Britain and the wider world have been taken over by reframed ‘change agents’ and that includes everything from the United Nations to national governments, local councils and social services which have been kidnapping children from loving parents on an extraordinary and gathering scale on the road to the end of parenthood altogether. Children from loving homes are stolen and kidnapped by the state and put into the ‘care’ (inversion) of the local authority through council homes, foster parents and forced adoption. At the same time children are allowed to be abused without response while many are under council ‘care’. UKColumn highlighted the Common Purpose connection between South Yorkshire Police and Rotherham council officers in the case of the scandal in that area of the sexual exploitation of children to which the authorities turned not one blind eye, but both:

We were alarmed to discover that the Chief Executive, the Strategic Director of Children and Young People’s Services, the Manager for the Local Strategic Partnership, the Community Cohesion Manager, the Cabinet Member for Cohesion, the Chief Constable and his predecessor had all attended Leadership training courses provided by the pseudo-charity Common Purpose.

Once ‘change agents’ have secured positions of hire and fire within any organisation things start to move very quickly. Personnel are then hired and fired on the basis of whether they will work towards the agenda the change agent represents. If they do they are rapidly promoted even though they may be incompetent. Those more qualified and skilled who are pre-Common Purpose ‘old school’ see their careers stall and even disappear. This has been happening for decades in every institution of state, police, ‘health’ and social services and all of them have been transformed as a result in their a itudes to their jobs and the public. Medical professions, including nursing, which were once vocations for the caring now employ many cold, callous and couldn’t give a shit personality types. The UKColumn investigation concluded: By blurring the boundaries between people, professions, public and private sectors, responsibility and accountability, Common Purpose encourages ‘graduates’ to believe that as new selected leaders, they can work together, outside of the established political and social structures, to achieve a paradigm shift or CHANGE – so called ‘Leading Beyond Authority’. In doing so, the allegiance of the individual becomes ‘reframed’ on CP colleagues and their NETWORK.

Reframing the Face-Nappies Nowhere has this process been more obvious than in the police where recruitment of psychopaths and development of unquestioning mind-controlled group-thinkers have transformed law enforcement into a politically-correct ‘Woke’ joke and a travesty of what should be public service. Today they wear their face-nappies like good li le gofers and enforce ‘Covid’ rules which are fascism under another name. Alongside the specifically-recruited psychopaths we have so ware minds incapable of free thought. Brian Gerrish again:

An example is the policeman who would not get on a bike for a press photo because he had not done the cycling proficiency course. Normal people say this is political correctness gone mad. Nothing could be further from the truth. The policeman has been reframed, and in his reality it is perfect common sense not to get on the bike ‘because he hasn’t done the cycling course’. Another example of this is where the police would not rescue a boy from a pond until they had taken advice from above on the ‘risk assessment’. A normal person would have arrived, perhaps thought of the risk for a moment, and dived in. To the police now ‘reframed’, they followed ‘normal’ procedure.

There are shocking cases of reframed ambulance crews doing the same. Sheer unthinking stupidity of London Face-Nappies headed by Common Purpose graduate Cressida Dick can be seen in their behaviour at a vigil in March, 2021, for a murdered woman, Sarah Everard. A police officer had been charged with the crime. Anyone with a brain would have le the vigil alone in the circumstances. Instead they ‘manhandled’ women to stop them breaking ‘Covid rules’ to betray classic reframing. Minds in the thrall of perception control have no capacity for seeing a situation on its merits and acting accordingly. ‘Rules is rules’ is their only mind-set. My father used to say that rules and regulations are for the guidance of the intelligent and the blind obedience of the idiot. Most of the intelligent, decent, coppers have gone leaving only the other kind and a few old school for whom the job must be a daily nightmare. The combination of psychopaths and rule-book so ware minds has been clearly on public display in the ‘Covid’ era with automaton robots in uniform imposing fascistic ‘Covid’ regulations on the population without any personal initiative or judging situations on their merits. There are thousands of examples around the world, but I’ll make my point with the infamous Derbyshire police in the English East Midlands – the ones who think pouring dye into beauty spots and using drones to track people walking in the countryside away from anyone is called ‘policing’. To them there are rules decreed by the government which they have to enforce and in their bewildered state a group gathering in a closed space and someone walking alone in the countryside are the same thing. It is beyond idiocy and enters the realm of clinical insanity.

Police officers in Derbyshire said they were ‘horrified’ – horrified – to find 15 to 20 ‘irresponsible’ kids playing a football match at a closed leisure centre ‘in breach of coronavirus restrictions’. When they saw the police the kids ran away leaving their belongings behind and the reframed men and women of Derbyshire police were seeking to establish their identities with a view to fining their parents. The most natural thing for youngsters to do – kicking a ball about – is turned into a criminal activity and enforced by the moronic so ware programs of Derbyshire police. You find the same mentality in every country. These barely conscious ‘horrified’ officers said they had to take action because ‘we need to ensure these rules are being followed’ and ‘it is of the utmost importance that you ensure your children are following the rules and regulations for Covid-19’. Had any of them done ten seconds of research to see if this parroting of their masters’ script could be supported by any evidence? Nope. Reframed people don’t think – others think for them and that’s the whole idea of reframing. I have seen police officers one a er the other repeating without question word for word what officialdom tells them just as I have seen great swathes of the public doing the same. Ask either for ‘their’ opinion and out spews what they have been told to think by the official narrative. Police and public may seem to be in different groups, but their mentality is the same. Most people do whatever they are told in fear not doing so or because they believe what officialdom tells them; almost the entirety of the police do what they are told for the same reason. Ultimately it’s the tiny inner core of the global Cult that’s telling both what to do. So Derbyshire police were ‘horrified’. Oh, really? Why did they think those kids were playing football? It was to relieve the psychological consequences of lockdown and being denied human contact with their friends and interaction, touch and discourse vital to human psychological health. Being denied this month a er month has dismantled the psyche of many children and young people as depression and suicide have exploded. Were Derbyshire police horrified by that? Are you kidding? Reframed people don’t have those

mental and emotional processes that can see how the impact on the psychological health of youngsters is far more dangerous than any ‘virus’ even if you take the mendacious official figures to be true. The reframed are told (programmed) how to act and so they do. The Derbyshire Chief Constable in the first period of lockdown when the black dye and drones nonsense was going on was Peter Goodman. He was the man who severed the connection between his force and the Derbyshire Constabulary Male Voice Choir when he decided that it was not inclusive enough to allow women to join. The fact it was a male voice choir making a particular sound produced by male voices seemed to elude a guy who terrifyingly ran policing in Derbyshire. He retired weeks a er his force was condemned as disgraceful by former Supreme Court Justice Jonathan Sumption for their behaviour over extreme lockdown impositions. Goodman was replaced by his deputy Rachel Swann who was in charge when her officers were ‘horrified’. The police statement over the boys commi ing the hanging-offence of playing football included the line about the youngsters being ‘irresponsible in the times we are all living through’ missing the point that the real relevance of the ‘times we are all living through’ is the imposition of fascism enforced by psychopaths and reframed minds of police officers playing such a vital part in establishing the fascist tyranny that their own children and grandchildren will have to live in their entire lives. As a definition of insanity that is hard to beat although it might be run close by imposing masks on people that can have a serious effect on their health while wearing a face nappy all day themselves. Once again public and police do it for the same reason – the authorities tell them to and who are they to have the self-respect to say no?

Wokers in uniform How reframed do you have to be to arrest a six-year-old and take him to court for picking a flower while waiting for a bus? Brain dead police and officialdom did just that in North Carolina where criminal proceedings happen regularly for children under nine. A orney Julie Boyer gave the six-year-old crayons and a colouring book

during the ‘flower’ hearing while the ‘adults’ decided his fate. County Chief District Court Judge Jay Corpening asked: ‘Should a child that believes in Santa Claus, the Easter Bunny and the tooth fairy be making life-altering decisions?’ Well, of course not, but common sense has no meaning when you have a common purpose and a reframed mind. Treating children in this way, and police operating in American schools, is all part of the psychological preparation for children to accept a police state as normal all their adult lives. The same goes for all the cameras and biometric tracking technology in schools. Police training is focused on reframing them as snowflake Wokers and this is happening in the military. Pentagon top brass said that ‘training sessions on extremism’ were needed for troops who asked why they were so focused on the Capitol Building riot when Black Lives Ma er riots were ignored. What’s the difference between them some apparently and rightly asked. Actually, there is a difference. Five people died in the Capitol riot, only one through violence, and that was a police officer shooting an unarmed protestor. BLM riots killed at least 25 people and cost billions. Asking the question prompted the psychopaths and reframed minds that run the Pentagon to say that more ‘education’ (programming) was needed. Troop training is all based on psychological programming to make them fodder for the Cult – ‘Military men are just dumb, stupid animals to be used as pawns in foreign policy’ as Cult-to-his-DNA former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger famously said. Governments see the police in similar terms and it’s time for those among them who can see this to defend the people and stop being enforcers of the Cult agenda upon the people. The US military, like the country itself, is being targeted for destruction through a long list of Woke impositions. Cult-owned gaga ‘President’ Biden signed an executive order when he took office to allow taxpayer money to pay for transgender surgery for active military personnel and veterans. Are you a man soldier? No, I’m a LGBTQIA+ with a hint of Skoliosexual and Spectrasexual. Oh, good man. Bad choice of words you bigot. The Pentagon announced in March, 2021, the appointment of the first ‘diversity and inclusion

officer’ for US Special Forces. Richard Torres-Estrada arrived with the publication of a ‘D&I Strategic Plan which will guide the enterprise-wide effort to institutionalize and sustain D&I’. If you think a Special Forces ‘Strategic Plan’ should have something to do with defending America you haven’t been paying a ention. Defending Woke is now the military’s new role. Torres-Estrada has posted images comparing Donald Trump with Adolf Hitler and we can expect no bias from him as a representative of the supposedly non-political Pentagon. Cable news host Tucker Carlson said: ‘The Pentagon is now the Yale faculty lounge but with cruise missiles.’ Meanwhile Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin, a board member of weapons-maker Raytheon with stock and compensation interests in October, 2020, worth $1.4 million, said he was purging the military of the ‘enemy within’ – anyone who isn’t Woke and supports Donald Trump. Austin refers to his targets as ‘racist extremists’ while in true Woke fashion being himself a racist extremist. Pentagon documents pledge to ‘eradicate, eliminate and conquer all forms of racism, sexism and homophobia’. The definitions of these are decided by ‘diversity and inclusion commi ees’ peopled by those who see racism, sexism and homophobia in every situation and opinion. Woke (the Cult) is dismantling the US military and purging testosterone as China expands its military and gives its troops ‘masculinity training’. How do we think that is going to end when this is all Cult coordinated? The US military, like the British military, is controlled by Woke and spineless top brass who just go along with it out of personal career interests.

‘Woke’ means fast asleep Mind control and perception manipulation techniques used on individuals to create group-think have been unleashed on the global population in general. As a result many have no capacity to see the obvious fascist agenda being installed all around them or what ‘Covid’ is really all about. Their brains are firewalled like a computer system not to process certain concepts, thoughts and realisations that are bad for the Cult. The young are most targeted as the adults they

will be when the whole fascist global state is planned to be fully implemented. They need to be prepared for total compliance to eliminate all pushback from entire generations. The Cult has been pouring billions into taking complete control of ‘education’ from schools to universities via its operatives and corporations and not least Bill Gates as always. The plan has been to transform ‘education’ institutions into programming centres for the mentality of ‘Woke’. James McConnell, professor of psychology at the University of Michigan, wrote in Psychology Today in 1970: The day has come when we can combine sensory deprivation with drugs, hypnosis, and astute manipulation of reward and punishment, to gain almost absolute control over an individual’s behaviour. It should then be possible to achieve a very rapid and highly effective type of brainwashing that would allow us to make dramatic changes in a person’s behaviour and personality ... … We should reshape society so that we all would be trained from birth to want to do what society wants us to do. We have the techniques to do it... no-one owns his own personality you acquired, and there’s no reason to believe you should have the right to refuse to acquire a new personality if your old one is anti-social.

This was the potential for mass brainwashing in 1970 and the mentality there displayed captures the arrogant psychopathy that drives it forward. I emphasise that not all young people have succumbed to Woke programming and those that haven’t are incredibly impressive people given that today’s young are the most perceptually-targeted generations in history with all the technology now involved. Vast swathes of the young generations, however, have fallen into the spell – and that’s what it is – of Woke. The Woke mentality and perceptual program is founded on inversion and you will appreciate later why that is so significant. Everything with Woke is inverted and the opposite of what it is claimed to be. Woke was a term used in African-American culture from the 1900s and referred to an awareness of social and racial justice. This is not the meaning of the modern version or ‘New Woke’ as I call it in The Answer. Oh, no, Woke today means something very different no ma er how much Wokers may seek to hide that and insist Old Woke and New

Woke are the same. See if you find any ‘awareness of social justice’ here in the modern variety: • Woke demands ‘inclusivity’ while excluding anyone with a different opinion and calls for mass censorship to silence other views. • Woke claims to stand against oppression when imposing oppression is the foundation of all that it does. It is the driver of political correctness which is nothing more than a Cult invention to manipulate the population to silence itself. • Woke believes itself to be ‘liberal’ while pursuing a global society that can only be described as fascist (see ‘anti-fascist’ fascist Antifa). • Woke calls for ‘social justice’ while spreading injustice wherever it goes against the common ‘enemy’ which can be easily identified as a differing view. • Woke is supposed to be a metaphor for ‘awake’ when it is solidgold asleep and deep in a Cult-induced coma that meets the criteria for ‘off with the fairies’. I state these points as obvious facts if people only care to look. I don’t do this with a sense of condemnation. We need to appreciate that the onslaught of perceptual programming on the young has been incessant and merciless. I can understand why so many have been reframed, or, given their youth, framed from the start to see the world as the Cult demands. The Cult has had access to their minds day a er day in its ‘education’ system for their entire formative years. Perception is formed from information received and the Cultcreated system is a life-long download of information delivered to elicit a particular perception, thus behaviour. The more this has expanded into still new extremes in recent decades and everincreasing censorship has deleted other opinions and information why wouldn’t that lead to a perceptual reframing on a mass scale? I

have described already cradle-to-grave programming and in more recent times the targeting of young minds from birth to adulthood has entered the stratosphere. This has taken the form of skewing what is ‘taught’ to fit the Cult agenda and the omnipresent techniques of group-think to isolate non-believers and pressure them into line. There has always been a tendency to follow the herd, but we really are in a new world now in relation to that. We have parents who can see the ‘Covid’ hoax told by their children not to stop them wearing masks at school, being ‘Covid’ tested or having the ‘vaccine’ in fear of the peer-pressure consequences of being different. What is ‘peer-pressure’ if not pressure to conform to group-think? Renegade Minds never group-think and always retain a set of perceptions that are unique to them. Group-think is always underpinned by consequences for not group-thinking. Abuse now aimed at those refusing DNA-manipulating ‘Covid vaccines’ are a potent example of this. The biggest pressure to conform comes from the very group which is itself being manipulated. ‘I am programmed to be part of a hive mind and so you must be.’ Woke control structures in ‘education’ now apply to every mainstream organisation. Those at the top of the ‘education’ hierarchy (the Cult) decide the policy. This is imposed on governments through the Cult network; governments impose it on schools, colleges and universities; their leadership impose the policy on teachers and academics and they impose it on children and students. At any level where there is resistance, perhaps from a teacher or university lecturer, they are targeted by the authorities and o en fired. Students themselves regularly demand the dismissal of academics (increasingly few) at odds with the narrative that the students have been programmed to believe in. It is quite a thought that students who are being targeted by the Cult become so consumed by programmed group-think that they launch protests and demand the removal of those who are trying to push back against those targeting the students. Such is the scale of perceptual inversion. We see this with ‘Covid’ programming as the Cult imposes the rules via psycho-psychologists and governments on

shops, transport companies and businesses which impose them on their staff who impose them on their customers who pressure Pushbackers to conform to the will of the Cult which is in the process of destroying them and their families. Scan all aspects of society and you will see the same sequence every time.

Fact free Woke and hijacking the ‘left’ There is no more potent example of this than ‘Woke’, a mentality only made possible by the deletion of factual evidence by an ‘education’ system seeking to produce an ever more uniform society. Why would you bother with facts when you don’t know any? Deletion of credible history both in volume and type is highly relevant. Orwell said: ‘Who controls the past controls the future: who controls the present controls the past.’ They who control the perception of the past control the perception of the future and they who control the present control the perception of the past through the writing and deleting of history. Why would you oppose the imposition of Marxism in the name of Wokeism when you don’t know that Marxism cost at least 100 million lives in the 20th century alone? Watch videos and read reports in which Woker generations are asked basic historical questions – it’s mind-blowing. A survey of 2,000 people found that six percent of millennials (born approximately early1980s to early 2000s) believed the Second World War (1939-1945) broke out with the assassination of President Kennedy (in 1963) and one in ten thought Margaret Thatcher was British Prime Minister at the time. She was in office between 1979 and 1990. We are in a post-fact society. Provable facts are no defence against the fascism of political correctness or Silicon Valley censorship. Facts don’t ma er anymore as we have witnessed with the ‘Covid’ hoax. Sacrificing uniqueness to the Woke group-think religion is all you are required to do and that means thinking for yourself is the biggest Woke no, no. All religions are an expression of group-think and censorship and Woke is just another religion with an orthodoxy defended by group-think and censorship. Burned at

the stake becomes burned on Twi er which leads back eventually to burned at the stake as Woke humanity regresses to ages past. The biggest Woke inversion of all is its creators and funders. I grew up in a traditional le of centre political household on a council estate in Leicester in the 1950s and 60s – you know, the le that challenged the power of wealth-hoarding elites and threats to freedom of speech and opinion. In those days students went on marches defending freedom of speech while today’s Wokers march for its deletion. What on earth could have happened? Those very elites (collectively the Cult) that we opposed in my youth and early life have funded into existence the antithesis of that former le and hijacked the ‘brand’ while inverting everything it ever stood for. We have a mentality that calls itself ‘liberal’ and ‘progressive’ while acting like fascists. Cult billionaires and their corporations have funded themselves into control of ‘education’ to ensure that Woke programming is unceasing throughout the formative years of children and young people and that non-Wokers are isolated (that word again) whether they be students, teachers or college professors. The Cult has funded into existence the now colossal global network of Woke organisations that have spawned and promoted all the ‘causes’ on the Cult wish-list for global transformation and turned Wokers into demanders of them. Does anyone really think it’s a coincidence that the Cult agenda for humanity is a carbon (sorry) copy of the societal transformations desired by Woke?? These are only some of them: The means by which the Cult deletes all public debates that it knows it cannot win if we had the free-flow of information and evidence. Political correctness:

The means by which the Cult seeks to transform society into a globally-controlled dictatorship imposing its will over the fine detail of everyone’s lives ‘to save the planet’ which doesn’t actually need saving. Human-caused ‘climate change’:

Preparing collective perception to accept the ‘new human’ which would not have genders because it would be created technologically and not through procreation. I’ll have much more on this in Human 2.0. Transgender obsession:

The means by which the Cult seeks to divide and rule the population by triggering racial division through the perception that society is more racist than ever when the opposite is the case. Is it perfect in that regard? No. But to compare today with the racism of apartheid and segregation brought to an end by the civil rights movement in the 1960s is to insult the memory of that movement and inspirations like Martin Luther King. Why is the ‘anti-racism’ industry (which it is) so dominated by privileged white people? Race obsession:

This is a label used by privileged white people to demonise poor and deprived white people pushing back on tyranny to marginalise and destroy them. White people are being especially targeted as the dominant race by number within Western society which the Cult seeks to transform in its image. If you want to change a society you must weaken and undermine its biggest group and once you have done that by using the other groups you next turn on them to do the same … ‘Then they came for the Jews and I was not a Jew so I did nothing.’ White supremacy:

The mass movement of people from the Middle East, Africa and Asia into Europe, from the south into the United States and from Asia into Australia are another way the Cult seeks to dilute the racial, cultural and political influence of white people on Western society. White people ask why their governments appear to be working against them while being politically and culturally biased towards incoming cultures. Well, here’s your answer. In the same way sexually ‘straight’ people, men and women, ask why the Mass migration:

authorities are biased against them in favour of other sexualities. The answer is the same – that’s the way the Cult wants it to be for very sinister motives. These are all central parts of the Cult agenda and central parts of the Woke agenda and Woke was created and continues to be funded to an immense degree by Cult billionaires and corporations. If anyone begins to say ‘coincidence’ the syllables should stick in their throat.

Billionaire ‘social justice warriors’ Joe Biden is a 100 percent-owned asset of the Cult and the Wokers’ man in the White House whenever he can remember his name and for however long he lasts with his rapidly diminishing cognitive function. Even walking up the steps of an aircra without falling on his arse would appear to be a challenge. He’s not an empty-shell puppet or anything. From the minute Biden took office (or the Cult did) he began his executive orders promoting the Woke wish-list. You will see the Woke agenda imposed ever more severely because it’s really the Cult agenda. Woke organisations and activist networks spawned by the Cult are funded to the extreme so long as they promote what the Cult wants to happen. Woke is funded to promote ‘social justice’ by billionaires who become billionaires by destroying social justice. The social justice mantra is only a cover for dismantling social justice and funded by billionaires that couldn’t give a damn about social justice. Everything makes sense when you see that. One of Woke’s premier funders is Cult billionaire financier George Soros who said: ‘I am basically there to make money, I cannot and do not look at the social consequences of what I do.’ This is the same Soros who has given more than $32 billion to his Open Society Foundations global Woke network and funded Black Lives Ma er, mass immigration into Europe and the United States, transgender activism, climate change activism, political correctness and groups targeting ‘white supremacy’ in the form of privileged white thugs that dominate Antifa. What a scam it all is and when

you are dealing with the unquestioning fact-free zone of Woke scamming them is child’s play. All you need to pull it off in all these organisations are a few in-the-know agents of the Cult and an army of naïve, reframed, uninformed, narcissistic, know-nothings convinced of their own self-righteousness, self-purity and virtue. Soros and fellow billionaires and billionaire corporations have poured hundreds of millions into Black Lives Ma er and connected groups and promoted them to a global audience. None of this is motivated by caring about black people. These are the billionaires that have controlled and exploited a system that leaves millions of black people in abject poverty and deprivation which they do absolutely nothing to address. The same Cult networks funding BLM were behind the slave trade! Black Lives Ma er hijacked a phrase that few would challenge and they have turned this laudable concept into a political weapon to divide society. You know that BLM is a fraud when it claims that All Lives Ma er, the most inclusive statement of all, is ‘racist’. BLM and its Cult masters don’t want to end racism. To them it’s a means to an end to control all of humanity never mind the colour, creed, culture or background. What has destroying the nuclear family got to do with ending racism? Nothing – but that is one of the goals of BLM and also happens to be a goal of the Cult as I have been exposing in my books for decades. Stealing children from loving parents and giving schools ever more power to override parents is part of that same agenda. BLM is a Marxist organisation and why would that not be the case when the Cult created Marxism and BLM? Patrisse Cullors, a BLM co-founder, said in a 2015 video that she and her fellow organisers, including co-founder Alicia Garza, are ‘trained Marxists’. The lady known a er marriage as Patrisse Khan-Cullors bought a $1.4 million home in 2021 in one of the whitest areas of California with a black population of just 1.6 per cent and has so far bought four high-end homes for a total of $3.2 million. How very Marxist. There must be a bit of spare in the BLM coffers, however, when Cult corporations and billionaires have handed over the best part of $100 million. Many black people can see that Black Lives Ma er is not

working for them, but against them, and this is still more confirmation. Black journalist Jason Whitlock, who had his account suspended by Twi er for simply linking to the story about the ‘Marxist’s’ home buying spree, said that BLM leaders are ‘making millions of dollars off the backs of these dead black men who they wouldn’t spit on if they were on fire and alive’.

Black Lies Matter Cult assets and agencies came together to promote BLM in the wake of the death of career criminal George Floyd who had been jailed a number of times including for forcing his way into the home of a black woman with others in a raid in which a gun was pointed at her stomach. Floyd was filmed being held in a Minneapolis street in 2020 with the knee of a police officer on his neck and he subsequently died. It was an appalling thing for the officer to do, but the same technique has been used by police on peaceful protestors of lockdown without any outcry from the Woke brigade. As unquestioning supporters of the Cult agenda Wokers have supported lockdown and all the ‘Covid’ claptrap while a acking anyone standing up to the tyranny imposed in its name. Court documents would later include details of an autopsy on Floyd by County Medical Examiner Dr Andrew Baker who concluded that Floyd had taken a fatal level of the drug fentanyl. None of this ma ered to fact-free, question-free, Woke. Floyd’s death was followed by worldwide protests against police brutality amid calls to defund the police. Throwing babies out with the bathwater is a Woke speciality. In the wake of the murder of British woman Sarah Everard a Green Party member of the House of Lords, Baroness Jones of Moulescoomb (Nincompoopia would have been be er), called for a 6pm curfew for all men. This would be in breach of the Geneva Conventions on war crimes which ban collective punishment, but that would never have crossed the black and white Woke mind of Baroness Nincompoopia who would have been far too convinced of her own self-righteousness to compute such details. Many American cities did defund the police in the face of Floyd riots

and a er $15 million was deleted from the police budget in Washington DC under useless Woke mayor Muriel Bowser carjacking alone rose by 300 percent and within six months the US capital recorded its highest murder rate in 15 years. The same happened in Chicago and other cities in line with the Cult/Soros plan to bring fear to streets and neighbourhoods by reducing the police, releasing violent criminals and not prosecuting crime. This is the mob-rule agenda that I have warned in the books was coming for so long. Shootings in the area of Minneapolis where Floyd was arrested increased by 2,500 percent compared with the year before. Defunding the police over George Floyd has led to a big increase in dead people with many of them black. Police protection for politicians making these decisions stayed the same or increased as you would expect from professional hypocrites. The Cult doesn’t actually want to abolish the police. It wants to abolish local control over the police and hand it to federal government as the psychopaths advance the Hunger Games Society. Many George Floyd protests turned into violent riots with black stores and businesses destroyed by fire and looting across America fuelled by Black Lives Ma er. Woke doesn’t do irony. If you want civil rights you must loot the liquor store and the supermarket and make off with a smart TV. It’s the only way.

It’s not a race war – it’s a class war Black people are patronised by privileged blacks and whites alike and told they are victims of white supremacy. I find it extraordinary to watch privileged blacks supporting the very system and bloodline networks behind the slave trade and parroting the same Cult-serving manipulative crap of their privileged white, o en billionaire, associates. It is indeed not a race war but a class war and colour is just a diversion. Black Senator Cory Booker and black Congresswoman Maxine Waters, more residents of Nincompoopia, personify this. Once you tell people they are victims of someone else you devalue both their own responsibility for their plight and the power they have to impact on their reality and experience. Instead

we have: ‘You are only in your situation because of whitey – turn on them and everything will change.’ It won’t change. Nothing changes in our lives unless we change it. Crucial to that is never seeing yourself as a victim and always as the creator of your reality. Life is a simple sequence of choice and consequence. Make different choices and you create different consequences. You have to make those choices – not Black Lives Ma er, the Woke Mafia and anyone else that seeks to dictate your life. Who are they these Wokers, an emotional and psychological road traffic accident, to tell you what to do? Personal empowerment is the last thing the Cult and its Black Lives Ma er want black people or anyone else to have. They claim to be defending the underdog while creating and perpetuating the underdog. The Cult’s worst nightmare is human unity and if they are going to keep blacks, whites and every other race under economic servitude and control then the focus must be diverted from what they have in common to what they can be manipulated to believe divides them. Blacks have to be told that their poverty and plight is the fault of the white bloke living on the street in the same poverty and with the same plight they are experiencing. The difference is that your plight black people is due to him, a white supremacist with ‘white privilege’ living on the street. Don’t unite as one human family against your mutual oppressors and suppressors – fight the oppressor with the white face who is as financially deprived as you are. The Cult knows that as its ‘Covid’ agenda moves into still new levels of extremism people are going to respond and it has been spreading the seeds of disunity everywhere to stop a united response to the evil that targets all of us. Racist a acks on ‘whiteness’ are ge ing ever more outrageous and especially through the American Democratic Party which has an appalling history for anti-black racism. Barack Obama, Joe Biden, Hillary Clinton and Nancy Pelosi all eulogised about Senator Robert Byrd at his funeral in 2010 a er a nearly 60-year career in Congress. Byrd was a brutal Ku Klux Klan racist and a violent abuser of Cathy O’Brien in MKUltra. He said he would never fight in the military ‘with a negro by my side’ and ‘rather I should die a thousand times,

and see Old Glory trampled in the dirt never to rise again, than to see this beloved land of ours become degraded by race mongrels, a throwback to the blackest specimen from the wilds’. Biden called Byrd a ‘very close friend and mentor’. These ‘Woke’ hypocrites are not anti-racist they are anti-poor and anti-people not of their perceived class. Here is an illustration of the scale of anti-white racism to which we have now descended. Seriously Woke and moronic New York Times contributor Damon Young described whiteness as a ‘virus’ that ‘like other viruses will not die until there are no bodies le for it to infect’. He went on: ‘… the only way to stop it is to locate it, isolate it, extract it, and kill it.’ Young can say that as a black man with no consequences when a white man saying the same in reverse would be facing a jail sentence. That’s racism. We had super-Woke numbskull senators Tammy Duckworth and Mazie Hirono saying they would object to future Biden Cabinet appointments if he did not nominate more Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders. Never mind the ability of the candidate what do they look like? Duckworth said: ‘I will vote for racial minorities and I will vote for LGBTQ, but anyone else I’m not voting for.’ Appointing people on the grounds of race is illegal, but that was not a problem for this ludicrous pair. They were on-message and that’s a free pass in any situation.

Critical race racism White children are told at school they are intrinsically racist as they are taught the divisive ‘critical race theory’. This claims that the law and legal institutions are inherently racist and that race is a socially constructed concept used by white people to further their economic and political interests at the expense of people of colour. White is a ‘virus’ as we’ve seen. Racial inequality results from ‘social, economic, and legal differences that white people create between races to maintain white interests which leads to poverty and criminality in minority communities‘. I must tell that to the white guy sleeping on the street. The principal of East Side Community School in New York sent white parents a manifesto that called on

them to become ‘white traitors’ and advocate for full ‘white abolition’. These people are teaching your kids when they urgently need a psychiatrist. The ‘school’ included a chart with ‘eight white identities’ that ranged from ‘white supremacist’ to ‘white abolition’ and defined the behaviour white people must follow to end ‘the regime of whiteness’. Woke blacks and their privileged white associates are acting exactly like the slave owners of old and Ku Klux Klan racists like Robert Byrd. They are too full of their own selfpurity to see that, but it’s true. Racism is not a body type; it’s a state of mind that can manifest through any colour, creed or culture. Another racial fraud is ‘equity’. Not equality of treatment and opportunity – equity. It’s a term spun as equality when it means something very different. Equality in its true sense is a raising up while ‘equity’ is a race to the bo om. Everyone in the same level of poverty is ‘equity’. Keep everyone down – that’s equity. The Cult doesn’t want anyone in the human family to be empowered and BLM leaders, like all these ‘anti-racist’ organisations, continue their privileged, pampered existence by perpetuating the perception of gathering racism. When is the last time you heard an ‘anti-racist’ or ‘anti-Semitism’ organisation say that acts of racism and discrimination have fallen? It’s not in the interests of their fundraising and power to influence and the same goes for the professional soccer anti-racism operation, Kick It Out. Two things confirmed that the Black Lives Ma er riots in the summer of 2020 were Cult creations. One was that while anti-lockdown protests were condemned in this same period for ‘transmi ing ‘Covid’ the authorities supported mass gatherings of Black Lives Ma er supporters. I even saw self-deluding people claiming to be doctors say the two types of protest were not the same. No – the non-existent ‘Covid’ was in favour of lockdowns and a acked those that protested against them while ‘Covid’ supported Black Lives Ma er and kept well away from its protests. The whole thing was a joke and as lockdown protestors were arrested, o en brutally, by reframed Face-Nappies we had the grotesque sight of police officers taking the knee to Black Lives Ma er, a Cult-funded Marxist

organisation that supports violent riots and wants to destroy the nuclear family and white people.

He’s not white? Shucks! Woke obsession with race was on display again when ten people were shot dead in Boulder, Colorado, in March, 2021. Cult-owned Woke TV channels like CNN said the shooter appeared to be a white man and Wokers were on Twi er condemning ‘violent white men’ with the usual mantras. Then the shooter’s name was released as Ahmad Al Aliwi Alissa, an anti-Trump Arab-American, and the sigh of disappointment could be heard five miles away. Never mind that ten people were dead and what that meant for their families. Race baiting was all that ma ered to these sick Cult-serving people like Barack Obama who exploited the deaths to further divide America on racial grounds which is his job for the Cult. This is the man that ‘racist’ white Americans made the first black president of the United States and then gave him a second term. Not-very-bright Obama has become filthy rich on the back of that and today appears to have a big influence on the Biden administration. Even so he’s still a downtrodden black man and a victim of white supremacy. This disingenuous fraud reveals the contempt he has for black people when he puts on a Deep South Alabama accent whenever he talks to them, no, at them. Another BLM red flag was how the now fully-Woke (fully-Cult) and fully-virtue-signalled professional soccer authorities had their teams taking the knee before every match in support of Marxist Black Lives Ma er. Soccer authorities and clubs displayed ‘Black Lives Ma er’ on the players’ shirts and flashed the name on electronic billboards around the pitch. Any fans that condemned what is a Freemasonic taking-the-knee ritual were widely condemned as you would expect from the Woke virtue-signallers of professional sport and the now fully-Woke media. We have reverse racism in which you are banned from criticising any race or culture except for white people for whom anything goes – say what you like, no problem. What has this got to do with racial harmony and

equality? We’ve had black supremacists from Black Lives Ma er telling white people to fall to their knees in the street and apologise for their white supremacy. Black supremacists acting like white supremacist slave owners of the past couldn’t breach their selfobsessed, race-obsessed sense of self-purity. Joe Biden appointed a race-obsessed black supremacist Kristen Clarke to head the Justice Department Civil Rights Division. Clarke claimed that blacks are endowed with ‘greater mental, physical and spiritual abilities’ than whites. If anyone reversed that statement they would be vilified. Clarke is on-message so no problem. She’s never seen a black-white situation in which the black figure is anything but a virtuous victim and she heads the Civil Rights Division which should treat everyone the same or it isn’t civil rights. Another perception of the Renegade Mind: If something or someone is part of the Cult agenda they will be supported by Woke governments and media no ma er what. If they’re not, they will be condemned and censored. It really is that simple and so racist Clarke prospers despite (make that because of) her racism.

The end of culture Biden’s administration is full of such racial, cultural and economic bias as the Cult requires the human family to be divided into warring factions. We are now seeing racially-segregated graduations and everything, but everything, is defined through the lens of perceived ‘racism. We have ‘racist’ mathematics, ‘racist’ food and even ‘racist’ plants. World famous Kew Gardens in London said it was changing labels on plants and flowers to tell its pre-‘Covid’ more than two million visitors a year how racist they are. Kew director Richard Deverell said this was part of an effort to ‘move quickly to decolonise collections’ a er they were approached by one Ajay Chhabra ‘an actor with an insight into how sugar cane was linked to slavery’. They are plants you idiots. ‘Decolonisation’ in the Woke manual really means colonisation of society with its mentality and by extension colonisation by the Cult. We are witnessing a new Chinese-style ‘Cultural Revolution’ so essential to the success of all

Marxist takeovers. Our cultural past and traditions have to be swept away to allow a new culture to be built-back-be er. Woke targeting of long-standing Western cultural pillars including historical monuments and cancelling of historical figures is what happened in the Mao revolution in China which ‘purged remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society‘ and installed Maoism as the dominant ideology‘. For China see the Western world today and for ‘dominant ideology’ see Woke. Be er still see Marxism or Maoism. The ‘Covid’ hoax has specifically sought to destroy the arts and all elements of Western culture from people meeting in a pub or restaurant to closing theatres, music venues, sports stadiums, places of worship and even banning singing. Destruction of Western society is also why criticism of any religion is banned except for Christianity which again is the dominant religion as white is the numericallydominant race. Christianity may be fading rapidly, but its history and traditions are weaved through the fabric of Western society. Delete the pillars and other structures will follow until the whole thing collapses. I am not a Christian defending that religion when I say that. I have no religion. It’s just a fact. To this end Christianity has itself been turned Woke to usher its own downfall and its ranks are awash with ‘change agents’ – knowing and unknowing – at every level including Pope Francis (definitely knowing) and the clueless Archbishop of Canterbury Justin Welby (possibly not, but who can be sure?). Woke seeks to coordinate a acks on Western culture, traditions, and ways of life through ‘intersectionality’ defined as ‘the complex, cumulative way in which the effects of multiple forms of discrimination (such as racism, sexism, and classism) combine, overlap, or intersect especially in the experiences of marginalised individuals or groups’. Wade through the Orwellian Woke-speak and this means coordinating disparate groups in a common cause to overthrow freedom and liberal values. The entire structure of public institutions has been infested with Woke – government at all levels, political parties, police, military, schools, universities, advertising, media and trade unions. This abomination has been achieved through the Cult web by appointing

Wokers to positions of power and ba ering non-Wokers into line through intimidation, isolation and threats to their job. Many have been fired in the wake of the empathy-deleted, vicious hostility of ‘social justice’ Wokers and the desire of gutless, spineless employers to virtue-signal their Wokeness. Corporations are filled with Wokers today, most notably those in Silicon Valley. Ironically at the top they are not Woke at all. They are only exploiting the mentality their Cult masters have created and funded to censor and enslave while the Wokers cheer them on until it’s their turn. Thus the Woke ‘liberal le ’ is an inversion of the traditional liberal le . Campaigning for justice on the grounds of power and wealth distribution has been replaced by campaigning for identity politics. The genuine traditional le would never have taken money from today’s billionaire abusers of fairness and justice and nor would the billionaires have wanted to fund that genuine le . It would not have been in their interests to do so. The division of opinion in those days was between the haves and have nots. This all changed with Cult manipulated and funded identity politics. The division of opinion today is between Wokers and non-Wokers and not income brackets. Cult corporations and their billionaires may have taken wealth disparity to cataclysmic levels of injustice, but as long as they speak the language of Woke, hand out the dosh to the Woke network and censor the enemy they are ‘one of us’. Billionaires who don’t give a damn about injustice are laughing at them till their bellies hurt. Wokers are not even close to self-aware enough to see that. The transformed ‘le ’ dynamic means that Wokers who drone on about ‘social justice’ are funded by billionaires that have destroyed social justice the world over. It’s why they are billionaires.

The climate con Nothing encapsulates what I have said more comprehensively than the hoax of human-caused global warming. I have detailed in my books over the years how Cult operatives and organisations were the pump-primers from the start of the climate con. A purpose-built vehicle for this is the Club of Rome established by the Cult in 1968

with the Rockefellers and Rothschilds centrally involved all along. Their gofer frontman Maurice Strong, a Canadian oil millionaire, hosted the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 where the global ‘green movement’ really expanded in earnest under the guiding hand of the Cult. The Earth Summit established Agenda 21 through the Cult-created-and-owned United Nations to use the illusion of human-caused climate change to justify the transformation of global society to save the world from climate disaster. It is a No-Problem-Reaction-Solution sold through governments, media, schools and universities as whole generations have been terrified into believing that the world was going to end in their lifetimes unless what old people had inflicted upon them was stopped by a complete restructuring of how everything is done. Chill, kids, it’s all a hoax. Such restructuring is precisely what the Cult agenda demands (purely by coincidence of course). Today this has been given the codename of the Great Reset which is only an updated term for Agenda 21 and its associated Agenda 2030. The la er, too, is administered through the UN and was voted into being by the General Assembly in 2015. Both 21 and 2030 seek centralised control of all resources and food right down to the raindrops falling on your own land. These are some of the demands of Agenda 21 established in 1992. See if you recognise this society emerging today: • End national sovereignty • State planning and management of all land resources, ecosystems, deserts, forests, mountains, oceans and fresh water; agriculture; rural development; biotechnology; and ensuring ‘equity’ • The state to ‘define the role’ of business and financial resources • Abolition of private property • ‘Restructuring’ the family unit (see BLM) • Children raised by the state • People told what their job will be • Major restrictions on movement • Creation of ‘human se lement zones’

• Mass rese lement as people are forced to vacate land where they live • Dumbing down education • Mass global depopulation in pursuit of all the above The United Nations was created as a Trojan horse for world government. With the climate con of critical importance to promoting that outcome you would expect the UN to be involved. Oh, it’s involved all right. The UN is promoting Agenda 21 and Agenda 2030 justified by ‘climate change’ while also driving the climate hoax through its Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), one of the world’s most corrupt organisations. The IPCC has been lying ferociously and constantly since the day it opened its doors with the global media hanging unquestioningly on its every mendacious word. The Green movement is entirely Woke and has long lost its original environmental focus since it was coopted by the Cult. An obsession with ‘global warming’ has deleted its values and scrambled its head. I experienced a small example of what I mean on a beautiful country walk that I have enjoyed several times a week for many years. The path merged into the fields and forests and you felt at one with the natural world. Then a ‘Green’ organisation, the Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust, took over part of the land and proceeded to cut down a large number of trees, including mature ones, to install a horrible big, bright steel ‘this-is-ours-stay-out’ fence that destroyed the whole atmosphere of this beautiful place. No one with a feel for nature would do that. Day a er day I walked to the sound of chainsaws and a magnificent mature weeping willow tree that I so admired was cut down at the base of the trunk. When I challenged a Woke young girl in a green shirt (of course) about this vandalism she replied: ‘It’s a weeping willow – it will grow back.’ This is what people are paying for when they donate to the Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust and many other ‘green’ organisations today. It is not the environmental movement that I knew and instead has become a support-system – as with Extinction Rebellion – for a very dark agenda.

Private jets for climate justice The Cult-owned, Gates-funded, World Economic Forum and its founder Klaus Schwab were behind the emergence of Greta Thunberg to harness the young behind the climate agenda and she was invited to speak to the world at … the UN. Schwab published a book, Covid-19: The Great Reset in 2020 in which he used the ‘Covid’ hoax and the climate hoax to lay out a new society straight out of Agenda 21 and Agenda 2030. Bill Gates followed in early 2021 when he took time out from destroying the world to produce a book in his name about the way to save it. Gates flies across the world in private jets and admi ed that ‘I probably have one of the highest greenhouse gas footprints of anyone on the planet … my personal flying alone is gigantic.’ He has also bid for the planet’s biggest private jet operator. Other climate change saviours who fly in private jets include John Kerry, the US Special Presidential Envoy for Climate, and actor Leonardo DiCaprio, a ‘UN Messenger of Peace with special focus on climate change’. These people are so full of bullshit they could corner the market in manure. We mustn’t be sceptical, though, because the Gates book, How to Avoid a Climate Disaster: The Solutions We Have and the Breakthroughs We Need, is a genuine a empt to protect the world and not an obvious pile of excrement a ributed to a mega-psychopath aimed at selling his masters’ plans for humanity. The Gates book and the other shite-pile by Klaus Schwab could have been wri en by the same person and may well have been. Both use ‘climate change’ and ‘Covid’ as the excuses for their new society and by coincidence the Cult’s World Economic Forum and Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation promote the climate hoax and hosted Event 201 which pre-empted with a ‘simulation’ the very ‘coronavirus’ hoax that would be simulated for real on humanity within weeks. The British ‘royal’ family is promoting the ‘Reset’ as you would expect through Prince ‘climate change caused the war in Syria’ Charles and his hapless son Prince William who said that we must ‘reset our relationship with nature and our trajectory as a species’ to avoid a climate disaster. Amazing how many promotors of the ‘Covid’ and ‘climate change’ control

systems are connected to Gates and the World Economic Forum. A ‘study’ in early 2021 claimed that carbon dioxide emissions must fall by the equivalent of a global lockdown roughly every two years for the next decade to save the planet. The ‘study’ appeared in the same period that the Schwab mob claimed in a video that lockdowns destroying the lives of billions are good because they make the earth ‘quieter’ with less ‘ambient noise’. They took down the video amid a public backlash for such arrogant, empathy-deleted stupidity You see, however, where they are going with this. Corinne Le Quéré, a professor at the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, University of East Anglia, was lead author of the climate lockdown study, and she writes for … the World Economic Forum. Gates calls in ‘his’ book for changing ‘every aspect of the economy’ (long-time Cult agenda) and for humans to eat synthetic ‘meat’ (predicted in my books) while cows and other farm animals are eliminated. Australian TV host and commentator Alan Jones described what carbon emission targets would mean for farm animals in Australia alone if emissions were reduced as demanded by 35 percent by 2030 and zero by 2050: Well, let’s take agriculture, the total emissions from agriculture are about 75 million tonnes of carbon dioxide, equivalent. Now reduce that by 35 percent and you have to come down to 50 million tonnes, I’ve done the maths. So if you take for example 1.5 million cows, you’re going to have to reduce the herd by 525,000 [by] 2030, nine years, that’s 58,000 cows a year. The beef herd’s 30 million, reduce that by 35 percent, that’s 10.5 million, which means 1.2 million cattle have to go every year between now and 2030. This is insanity! There are 75 million sheep. Reduce that by 35 percent, that’s 26 million sheep, that’s almost 3 million a year. So under the Paris Agreement over 30 million beasts. dairy cows, cattle, pigs and sheep would go. More than 8,000 every minute of every hour for the next decade, do these people know what they’re talking about?

Clearly they don’t at the level of campaigners, politicians and administrators. The Cult does know; that’s the outcome it wants. We are faced with not just a war on humanity. Animals and the natural world are being targeted and I have been saying since the ‘Covid’ hoax began that the plan eventually was to claim that the ‘deadly virus’ is able to jump from animals, including farm animals and

domestic pets, to humans. Just before this book went into production came this story: ‘Russia registers world’s first Covid-19 vaccine for cats & dogs as makers of Sputnik V warn pets & farm animals could spread virus’. The report said ‘top scientists warned that the deadly pathogen could soon begin spreading through homes and farms’ and ‘the next stage is the infection of farm and domestic animals’. Know the outcome and you’ll see the journey. Think what that would mean for animals and keep your eye on a term called zoonosis or zoonotic diseases which transmit between animals and humans. The Cult wants to break the connection between animals and people as it does between people and people. Farm animals fit with the Cult agenda to transform food from natural to synthetic.

The gas of life is killing us There can be few greater examples of Cult inversion than the condemnation of carbon dioxide as a dangerous pollutant when it is the gas of life. Without it the natural world would be dead and so we would all be dead. We breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide while plants produce oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide. It is a perfect symbiotic relationship that the Cult wants to dismantle for reasons I will come to in the final two chapters. Gates, Schwab, other Cult operatives and mindless repeaters, want the world to be ‘carbon neutral’ by at least 2050 and the earlier the be er. ‘Zero carbon’ is the cry echoed by lunatics calling for ‘Zero Covid’ when we already have it. These carbon emission targets will deindustrialise the world in accordance with Cult plans – the postindustrial, post-democratic society – and with so-called renewables like solar and wind not coming even close to meeting human energy needs blackouts and cold are inevitable. Texans got the picture in the winter of 2021 when a snow storm stopped wind turbines and solar panels from working and the lights went down along with water which relies on electricity for its supply system. Gates wants everything to be powered by electricity to ensure that his masters have the kill switch to stop all human activity, movement, cooking, water and warmth any time they like. The climate lie is so

stupendously inverted that it claims we must urgently reduce carbon dioxide when we don’t have enough. Co2 in the atmosphere is a li le above 400 parts per million when the optimum for plant growth is 2,000 ppm and when it falls anywhere near 150 ppm the natural world starts to die and so do we. It fell to as low as 280 ppm in an 1880 measurement in Hawaii and rose to 413 ppm in 2019 with industrialisation which is why the planet has become greener in the industrial period. How insane then that psychopathic madman Gates is not satisfied only with blocking the rise of Co2. He’s funding technology to suck it out of the atmosphere. The reason why will become clear. The industrial era is not destroying the world through Co2 and has instead turned around a potentially disastrous ongoing fall in Co2. Greenpeace cofounder and scientist Patrick Moore walked away from Greenpeace in 1986 and has exposed the green movement for fear-mongering and lies. He said that 500 million years ago there was 17 times more Co2 in the atmosphere than we have today and levels have been falling for hundreds of millions of years. In the last 150 million years Co2 levels in Earth’s atmosphere had reduced by 90 percent. Moore said that by the time humanity began to unlock carbon dioxide from fossil fuels we were at ‘38 seconds to midnight’ and in that sense: ‘Humans are [the Earth’s] salvation.’ Moore made the point that only half the Co2 emi ed by fossil fuels stays in the atmosphere and we should remember that all pollution pouring from chimneys that we are told is carbon dioxide is in fact nothing of the kind. It’s pollution. Carbon dioxide is an invisible gas. William Happer, Professor of Physics at Princeton University and long-time government adviser on climate, has emphasised the Co2 deficiency for maximum growth and food production. Greenhouse growers don’t add carbon dioxide for a bit of fun. He said that most of the warming in the last 100 years, a er the earth emerged from the super-cold period of the ‘Li le Ice Age’ into a natural warming cycle, was over by 1940. Happer said that a peak year for warming in 1988 can be explained by a ‘monster El Nino’ which is a natural and cyclical warming of the Pacific that has nothing to do with ‘climate

change’. He said the effect of Co2 could be compared to painting a wall with red paint in that once two or three coats have been applied it didn’t ma er how much more you slapped on because the wall will not get much redder. Almost all the effect of the rise in Co2 has already happened, he said, and the volume in the atmosphere would now have to double to increase temperature by a single degree. Climate hoaxers know this and they have invented the most ridiculously complicated series of ‘feedback’ loops to try to overcome this rather devastating fact. You hear puppet Greta going on cluelessly about feedback loops and this is why.

The Sun affects temperature? No you

climate denier

Some other nonsense to contemplate: Climate graphs show that rises in temperature do not follow rises in Co2 – it’s the other way round with a lag between the two of some 800 years. If we go back 800 years from present time we hit the Medieval Warm Period when temperatures were higher than now without any industrialisation and this was followed by the Li le Ice Age when temperatures plummeted. The world was still emerging from these centuries of serious cold when many climate records began which makes the ever-repeated line of the ‘ho est year since records began’ meaningless when you are not comparing like with like. The coldest period of the Li le Ice Age corresponded with the lowest period of sunspot activity when the Sun was at its least active. Proper scientists will not be at all surprised by this when it confirms the obvious fact that earth temperature is affected by the scale of Sun activity and the energetic power that it subsequently emits; but when is the last time you heard a climate hoaxer talking about the Sun as a source of earth temperature?? Everything has to be focussed on Co2 which makes up just 0.117 percent of so-called greenhouse gases and only a fraction of even that is generated by human activity. The rest is natural. More than 90 percent of those greenhouse gases are water vapour and clouds (Fig 9). Ban moisture I say. Have you noticed that the climate hoaxers no longer use the polar bear as their promotion image? That’s because far from becoming extinct polar

bear communities are stable or thriving. Joe Bastardi, American meteorologist, weather forecaster and outspoken critic of the climate lie, documents in his book The Climate Chronicles how weather pa erns and events claimed to be evidence of climate change have been happening since long before industrialisation: ‘What happened before naturally is happening again, as is to be expected given the cyclical nature of the climate due to the design of the planet.’ If you read the detailed background to the climate hoax in my other books you will shake your head and wonder how anyone could believe the crap which has spawned a multi-trillion dollar industry based on absolute garbage (see HIV causes AIDs and Sars-Cov-2 causes ‘Covid-19’). Climate and ‘Covid’ have much in common given they have the same source. They both have the contradictory everything factor in which everything is explained by reference to them. It’s hot – ‘it’s climate change’. It’s cold – ‘it’s climate change’. I got a sniffle – ‘it’s Covid’. I haven’t got a sniffle – ‘it’s Covid’. Not having a sniffle has to be a symptom of ‘Covid’. Everything is and not having a sniffle is especially dangerous if you are a slow walker. For sheer audacity I offer you a Cambridge University ‘study’ that actually linked ‘Covid’ to ‘climate change’. It had to happen eventually. They concluded that climate change played a role in ‘Covid-19’ spreading from animals to humans because … wait for it … I kid you not … the two groups were forced closer together as populations grow. Er, that’s it. The whole foundation on which this depended was that ‘Bats are the likely zoonotic origin of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2’. Well, they are not. They are nothing to do with it. Apart from bats not being the origin and therefore ‘climate change’ effects on bats being irrelevant I am in awe of their academic insight. Where would we be without them? Not where we are that’s for sure.

Figure 9: The idea that the gas of life is disastrously changing the climate is an insult to brain cell activity.

One other point about the weather is that climate modification is now well advanced and not every major weather event is natural – or earthquake come to that. I cover this subject at some length in other books. China is openly planning a rapid expansion of its weather modification programme which includes changing the climate in an area more than one and a half times the size of India. China used weather manipulation to ensure clear skies during the 2008 Olympics in Beijing. I have quoted from US military documents detailing how to employ weather manipulation as a weapon of war and they did that in the 1960s and 70s during the conflict in Vietnam with Operation Popeye manipulating monsoon rains for military purposes. Why would there be international treaties on weather modification if it wasn’t possible? Of course it is. Weather is energetic information and it can be changed.

How was the climate hoax pulled off? See ‘Covid’ If you can get billions to believe in a ‘virus’ that doesn’t exist you can get them to believe in human-caused climate change that doesn’t exist. Both are being used by the Cult to transform global society in the way it has long planned. Both hoaxes have been achieved in pre y much the same way. First you declare a lie is a fact. There’s a

‘virus’ you call SARS-Cov-2 or humans are warming the planet with their behaviour. Next this becomes, via Cult networks, the foundation of government, academic and science policy and belief. Those who parrot the mantra are given big grants to produce research that confirms the narrative is true and ever more ‘symptoms’ are added to make the ‘virus’/’climate change’ sound even more scary. Scientists and researchers who challenge the narrative have their grants withdrawn and their careers destroyed. The media promote the lie as the unquestionable truth and censor those with an alternative view or evidence. A great percentage of the population believe what they are told as the lie becomes an everybody-knows-that and the believing-masses turn on those with a mind of their own. The technique has been used endlessly throughout human history. Wokers are the biggest promotors of the climate lie and ‘Covid’ fascism because their minds are owned by the Cult; their sense of self-righteous self-purity knows no bounds; and they exist in a bubble of reality in which facts are irrelevant and only get in the way of looking without seeing. Running through all of this like veins in a blue cheese is control of information, which means control of perception, which means control of behaviour, which collectively means control of human society. The Cult owns the global media and Silicon Valley fascists for the simple reason that it has to. Without control of information it can’t control perception and through that human society. Examine every facet of the Cult agenda and you will see that anything supporting its introduction is never censored while anything pushing back is always censored. I say again: Psychopaths that know why they are doing this must go before Nuremberg trials and those that follow their orders must trot along behind them into the same dock. ‘I was just following orders’ didn’t work the first time and it must not work now. Nuremberg trials must be held all over the world before public juries for politicians, government officials, police, compliant doctors, scientists and virologists, and all Cult operatives such as Gates, Tedros, Fauci, Vallance, Whi y, Ferguson, Zuckerberg, Wojcicki, Brin, Page, Dorsey, the whole damn lot of

them – including, no especially, the psychopath psychologists. Without them and the brainless, gutless excuses for journalists that have repeated their lies, none of this could be happening. Nobody can be allowed to escape justice for the psychological and economic Armageddon they are all responsible for visiting upon the human race. As for the compliant, unquestioning, swathes of humanity, and the self-obsessed, all-knowing ignorance of the Wokers … don’t start me. God help their kids. God help their grandkids. God help them.

CHAPTER NINE We must have it? So what is it? Well I won’t back down. No, I won’t back down. You can stand me up at the Gates of Hell. But I won’t back down Tom Petty

I

will now focus on the genetically-manipulating ‘Covid vaccines’ which do not meet this official definition of a vaccine by the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC): ‘A product that stimulates a person’s immune system to produce immunity to a specific disease, protecting the person from that disease.’ On that basis ‘Covid vaccines’ are not a vaccine in that the makers don’t even claim they stop infection or transmission. They are instead part of a multi-levelled conspiracy to change the nature of the human body and what it means to be ‘human’ and to depopulate an enormous swathe of humanity. What I shall call Human 1.0 is on the cusp of becoming Human 2.0 and for very sinister reasons. Before I get to the ‘Covid vaccine’ in detail here’s some background to vaccines in general. Government regulators do not test vaccines – the makers do – and the makers control which data is revealed and which isn’t. Children in America are given 50 vaccine doses by age six and 69 by age 19 and the effect of the whole combined schedule has never been tested. Autoimmune diseases when the immune system a acks its own body have soared in the mass vaccine era and so has disease in general in children and the young. Why wouldn’t this be the case when vaccines target the immune system? The US government gave Big Pharma drug

companies immunity from prosecution for vaccine death and injury in the 1986 National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (NCVIA) and since then the government (taxpayer) has been funding compensation for the consequences of Big Pharma vaccines. The criminal and satanic drug giants can’t lose and the vaccine schedule has increased dramatically since 1986 for this reason. There is no incentive to make vaccines safe and a big incentive to make money by introducing ever more. Even against a ridiculously high bar to prove vaccine liability, and with the government controlling the hearing in which it is being challenged for compensation, the vaccine court has so far paid out more than $4 billion. These are the vaccines we are told are safe and psychopaths like Zuckerberg censor posts saying otherwise. The immunity law was even justified by a ruling that vaccines by their nature were ‘unavoidably unsafe’. Check out the ingredients of vaccines and you will be shocked if you are new to this. They put that in children’s bodies?? What?? Try aluminium, a brain toxin connected to dementia, aborted foetal tissue and formaldehyde which is used to embalm corpses. Worldrenowned aluminium expert Christopher Exley had his research into the health effect of aluminium in vaccines shut down by Keele University in the UK when it began taking funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Research when diseases ‘eradicated’ by vaccines began to decline and you will find the fall began long before the vaccine was introduced. Sometimes the fall even plateaued a er the vaccine. Diseases like scarlet fever for which there was no vaccine declined in the same way because of environmental and other factors. A perfect case in point is the polio vaccine. Polio began when lead arsenate was first sprayed as an insecticide and residues remained in food products. Spraying started in 1892 and the first US polio epidemic came in Vermont in 1894. The simple answer was to stop spraying, but Rockefeller-created Big Pharma had a be er idea. Polio was decreed to be caused by the poliovirus which ‘spreads from person to person and can infect a person’s spinal cord’. Lead arsenate was replaced by the lethal DDT which had the same effect of causing paralysis by damaging the brain and central nervous

system. Polio plummeted when DDT was reduced and then banned, but the vaccine is still given the credit for something it didn’t do. Today by far the biggest cause of polio is the vaccines promoted by Bill Gates. Vaccine justice campaigner Robert Kennedy Jr, son of assassinated (by the Cult) US A orney General Robert Kennedy, wrote: In 2017, the World Health Organization (WHO) reluctantly admitted that the global explosion in polio is predominantly vaccine strain. The most frightening epidemics in Congo, Afghanistan, and the Philippines, are all linked to vaccines. In fact, by 2018, 70% of global polio cases were vaccine strain.

Vaccines make fortunes for Cult-owned Gates and Big Pharma while undermining the health and immune systems of the population. We had a glimpse of the mentality behind the Big Pharma cartel with a report on WION (World is One News), an international English language TV station based in India, which exposed the extraordinary behaviour of US drug company Pfizer over its ‘Covid vaccine’. The WION report told how Pfizer had made fantastic demands of Argentina, Brazil and other countries in return for its ‘vaccine’. These included immunity from prosecution, even for Pfizer negligence, government insurance to protect Pfizer from law suits and handing over as collateral sovereign assets of the country to include Argentina’s bank reserves, military bases and embassy buildings. Pfizer demanded the same of Brazil in the form of waiving sovereignty of its assets abroad; exempting Pfizer from Brazilian laws; and giving Pfizer immunity from all civil liability. This is a ‘vaccine’ developed with government funding. Big Pharma is evil incarnate as a creation of the Cult and all must be handed tickets to Nuremberg.

Phantom ‘vaccine’ for a phantom ‘disease’ I’ll expose the ‘Covid vaccine’ fraud and then go on to the wider background of why the Cult has set out to ‘vaccinate’ every man, woman and child on the planet for an alleged ‘new disease’ with a survival rate of 99.77 percent (or more) even by the grotesquely-

manipulated figures of the World Health Organization and Johns Hopkins University. The ‘infection’ to ‘death’ ratio is 0.23 to 0.15 percent according to Stanford epidemiologist Dr John Ioannidis and while estimates vary the danger remains tiny. I say that if the truth be told the fake infection to fake death ratio is zero. Never mind all the evidence I have presented here and in The Answer that there is no ‘virus’ let us just focus for a moment on that death-rate figure of say 0.23 percent. The figure includes all those worldwide who have tested positive with a test not testing for the ‘virus’ and then died within 28 days or even longer of any other cause – any other cause. Now subtract all those illusory ‘Covid’ deaths on the global data sheets from the 0.23 percent. What do you think you would be le with? Zero. A vaccination has never been successfully developed for a so-called coronavirus. They have all failed at the animal testing stage when they caused hypersensitivity to what they were claiming to protect against and made the impact of a disease far worse. Cultowned vaccine corporations got around that problem this time by bypassing animal trials, going straight to humans and making the length of the ‘trials’ before the public rollout as short as they could get away with. Normally it takes five to ten years or more to develop vaccines that still cause demonstrable harm to many people and that’s without including the long-term effects that are never officially connected to the vaccination. ‘Covid’ non-vaccines have been officially produced and approved in a ma er of months from a standing start and part of the reason is that (a) they were developed before the ‘Covid’ hoax began and (b) they are based on computer programs and not natural sources. Official non-trials were so short that government agencies gave emergency, not full, approval. ‘Trials’ were not even completed and full approval cannot be secured until they are. Public ‘Covid vaccination’ is actually a continuation of the trial. Drug company ‘trials’ are not scheduled to end until 2023 by which time a lot of people are going to be dead. Data on which government agencies gave this emergency approval was supplied by the Big Pharma corporations themselves in the form of Pfizer/BioNTech, AstraZeneca, Moderna, Johnson & Johnson, and

others, and this is the case with all vaccines. By its very nature emergency approval means drug companies do not have to prove that the ‘vaccine’ is ‘safe and effective’. How could they with trials way short of complete? Government regulators only have to believe that they could be safe and effective. It is criminal manipulation to get products in circulation with no testing worth the name. Agencies giving that approval are infested with Big Pharma-connected placepeople and they act in the interests of Big Pharma (the Cult) and not the public about whom they do not give a damn.

More human lab rats ‘Covid vaccines’ produced in record time by Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna employ a technique never approved before for use on humans. They are known as mRNA ‘vaccines’ and inject a synthetic version of ‘viral’ mRNA or ‘messenger RNA’. The key is in the term ‘messenger’. The body works, or doesn’t, on the basis of information messaging. Communications are constantly passing between and within the genetic system and the brain. Change those messages and you change the state of the body and even its very nature and you can change psychology and behaviour by the way the brain processes information. I think you are going to see significant changes in personality and perception of many people who have had the ‘Covid vaccine’ synthetic potions. Insider Aldous Huxley predicted the following in 1961 and mRNA ‘vaccines’ can be included in the term ‘pharmacological methods’: There will be, in the next generation or so, a pharmacological method of making people love their servitude, and producing dictatorship without tears, so to speak, producing a kind of painless concentration camp for entire societies, so that people will in fact have their own liberties taken away from them, but rather enjoy it, because they will be distracted from any desire to rebel by propaganda or brainwashing, or brainwashing enhanced by pharmacological methods. And this seems to be the final revolution.

Apologists claim that mRNA synthetic ‘vaccines’ don’t change the DNA genetic blueprint because RNA does not affect DNA only the other way round. This is so disingenuous. A process called ‘reverse

transcription’ can convert RNA into DNA and be integrated into DNA in the cell nucleus. This was highlighted in December, 2020, by scientists at Harvard and Massachuse s Institute of Technology (MIT). Geneticists report that more than 40 percent of mammalian genomes results from reverse transcription. On the most basic level if messaging changes then that sequence must lead to changes in DNA which is receiving and transmi ing those communications. How can introducing synthetic material into cells not change the cells where DNA is located? The process is known as transfection which is defined as ‘a technique to insert foreign nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) into a cell, typically with the intention of altering the properties of the cell’. Researchers at the Sloan Ke ering Institute in New York found that changes in messenger RNA can deactivate tumour-suppressing proteins and thereby promote cancer. This is what happens when you mess with messaging. ‘Covid vaccine’ maker Moderna was founded in 2010 by Canadian stem cell biologist Derrick J. Rossi a er his breakthrough discovery in the field of transforming and reprogramming stem cells. These are neutral cells that can be programmed to become any cell including sperm cells. Moderna was therefore founded on the principle of genetic manipulation and has never produced any vaccine or drug before its genetically-manipulating synthetic ‘Covid’ shite. Look at the name – Mode-RNA or Modify-RNA. Another important point is that the US Supreme Court has ruled that genetically-modified DNA, or complementary DNA (cDNA) synthesized in the laboratory from messenger RNA, can be patented and owned. These psychopaths are doing this to the human body. Cells replicate synthetic mRNA in the ‘Covid vaccines’ and in theory the body is tricked into making antigens which trigger antibodies to target the ‘virus spike proteins’ which as Dr Tom Cowan said have never been seen. Cut the crap and these ‘vaccines’ deliver self-replicating synthetic material to the cells with the effect of changing human DNA. The more of them you have the more that process is compounded while synthetic material is all the time selfreplicating. ‘Vaccine’-maker Moderna describes mRNA as ‘like

so ware for the cell’ and so they are messing with the body’s so ware. What happens when you change the so ware in a computer? Everything changes. For this reason the Cult is preparing a production line of mRNA ‘Covid vaccines’ and a long list of excuses to use them as with all the ‘variants’ of a ‘virus’ never shown to exist. The plan is further to transfer the mRNA technique to other vaccines mostly given to children and young people. The cumulative consequences will be a transformation of human DNA through a constant infusion of synthetic genetic material which will kill many and change the rest. Now consider that governments that have given emergency approval for a vaccine that’s not a vaccine; never been approved for humans before; had no testing worth the name; and the makers have been given immunity from prosecution for any deaths or adverse effects suffered by the public. The UK government awarded permanent legal indemnity to itself and its employees for harm done when a patient is being treated for ‘Covid-19’ or ‘suspected Covid-19’. That is quite a thought when these are possible ‘side-effects’ from the ‘vaccine’ (they are not ‘side’, they are effects) listed by the US Food and Drug Administration: Guillain-Barre syndrome; acute disseminated encephalomyelitis; transverse myelitis; encephalitis; myelitis; encephalomyelitis; meningoencephalitis; meningitis; encephalopathy; convulsions; seizures; stroke; narcolepsy; cataplexy; anaphylaxis; acute myocardial infarction (heart a ack); myocarditis; pericarditis; autoimmune disease; death; implications for pregnancy, and birth outcomes; other acute demyelinating diseases; non anaphylactic allergy reactions; thrombocytopenia ; disseminated intravascular coagulation; venous thromboembolism; arthritis; arthralgia; joint pain; Kawasaki disease; multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children; vaccine enhanced disease. The la er is the way the ‘vaccine’ has the potential to make diseases far worse than they would otherwise be.

UK doctor and freedom campaigner Vernon Coleman described the conditions in this list as ‘all unpleasant, most of them very serious, and you can’t get more serious than death’. The thought that anyone at all has had the ‘vaccine’ in these circumstances is testament to the potential that humanity has for clueless, unquestioning, stupidity and for many that programmed stupidity has already been terminal.

An insider speaks Dr Michael Yeadon is a former Vice President, head of research and Chief Scientific Adviser at vaccine giant Pfizer. Yeadon worked on the inside of Big Pharma, but that did not stop him becoming a vocal critic of ‘Covid vaccines’ and their potential for multiple harms, including infertility in women. By the spring of 2021 he went much further and even used the no, no, term ‘conspiracy’. When you begin to see what is going on it is impossible not to do so. Yeadon spoke out in an interview with freedom campaigner James Delingpole and I mentioned earlier how he said that no one had samples of ‘the virus’. He explained that the mRNA technique originated in the anticancer field and ways to turn on and off certain genes which could be advantageous if you wanted to stop cancer growing out of control. ‘That’s the origin of them. They are a very unusual application, really.’ Yeadon said that treating a cancer patient with an aggressive procedure might be understandable if the alternative was dying, but it was quite another thing to use the same technique as a public health measure. Most people involved wouldn’t catch the infectious agent you were vaccinating against and if they did they probably wouldn’t die: If you are really using it as a public health measure you really want to as close as you can get to zero sides-effects … I find it odd that they chose techniques that were really cutting their teeth in the field of oncology and I’m worried that in using gene-based vaccines that have to be injected in the body and spread around the body, get taken up into some cells, and the regulators haven’t quite told us which cells they get taken up into … you are going to be generating a wide range of responses … with multiple steps each of which could go well or badly.

I doubt the Cult intends it to go well. Yeadon said that you can put any gene you like into the body through the ‘vaccine’. ‘You can certainly give them a gene that would do them some harm if you wanted.’ I was intrigued when he said that when used in the cancer field the technique could turn genes on and off. I explore this process in The Answer and with different genes having different functions you could create mayhem – physically and psychologically – if you turned the wrong ones on and the right ones off. I read reports of an experiment by researchers at the University of Washington’s school of computer science and engineering in which they encoded DNA to infect computers. The body is itself a biological computer and if human DNA can inflict damage on a computer why can’t the computer via synthetic material mess with the human body? It can. The Washington research team said it was possible to insert malicious malware into ‘physical DNA strands’ and corrupt the computer system of a gene sequencing machine as it ‘reads gene le ers and stores them as binary digits 0 and 1’. They concluded that hackers could one day use blood or spit samples to access computer systems and obtain sensitive data from police forensics labs or infect genome files. It is at this level of digital interaction that synthetic ‘vaccines’ need to be seen to get the full picture and that will become very clear later on. Michael Yeadon said it made no sense to give the ‘vaccine’ to younger people who were in no danger from the ‘virus’. What was the benefit? It was all downside with potential effects: The fact that my government in what I thought was a civilised, rational country, is raining [the ‘vaccine’] on people in their 30s and 40s, even my children in their 20s, they’re getting letters and phone calls, I know this is not right and any of you doctors who are vaccinating you know it’s not right, too. They are not at risk. They are not at risk from the disease, so you are now hoping that the side-effects are so rare that you get away with it. You don’t give new technology … that you don’t understand to 100 percent of the population.

Blood clot problems with the AstraZeneca ‘vaccine’ have been affecting younger people to emphasise the downside risks with no benefit. AstraZeneca’s version, produced with Oxford University, does not use mRNA, but still gets its toxic cocktail inside cells where

it targets DNA. The Johnson & Johnson ‘vaccine’ which uses a similar technique has also produced blood clot effects to such an extent that the United States paused its use at one point. They are all ‘gene therapy’ (cell modification) procedures and not ‘vaccines’. The truth is that once the content of these injections enter cells we have no idea what the effect will be. People can speculate and some can give very educated opinions and that’s good. In the end, though, only the makers know what their potions are designed to do and even they won’t know every last consequence. Michael Yeadon was scathing about doctors doing what they knew to be wrong. ‘Everyone’s mute’, he said. Doctors in the NHS must know this was not right, coming into work and injecting people. ‘I don’t know how they sleep at night. I know I couldn’t do it. I know that if I were in that position I’d have to quit.’ He said he knew enough about toxicology to know this was not a good risk-benefit. Yeadon had spoken to seven or eight university professors and all except two would not speak out publicly. Their universities had a policy that no one said anything that countered the government and its medical advisors. They were afraid of losing their government grants. This is how intimidation has been used to silence the truth at every level of the system. I say silence, but these people could still speak out if they made that choice. Yeadon called them ‘moral cowards’ – ‘This is about your children and grandchildren’s lives and you have just buggered off and le it.’

‘Variant’ nonsense Some of his most powerful comments related to the alleged ‘variants’ being used to instil more fear, justify more lockdowns, and introduce more ‘vaccines’. He said government claims about ‘variants’ were nonsense. He had checked the alleged variant ‘codes’ and they were 99.7 percent identical to the ‘original’. This was the human identity difference equivalent to pu ing a baseball cap on and off or wearing it the other way round. A 0.3 percent difference would make it impossible for that ‘variant’ to escape immunity from the ‘original’. This made no sense of having new ‘vaccines’ for

‘variants’. He said there would have to be at least a 30 percent difference for that to be justified and even then he believed the immune system would still recognise what it was. Gates-funded ‘variant modeller’ and ‘vaccine’-pusher John Edmunds might care to comment. Yeadon said drug companies were making new versions of the ‘vaccine’ as a ‘top up’ for ‘variants’. Worse than that, he said, the ‘regulators’ around the world like the MHRA in the UK had got together and agreed that because ‘vaccines’ for ‘variants’ were so similar to the first ‘vaccines’ they did not have to do safety studies. How transparently sinister that is. This is when Yeadon said: ‘There is a conspiracy here.’ There was no need for another vaccine for ‘variants’ and yet we were told that there was and the country had shut its borders because of them. ‘They are going into hundreds of millions of arms without passing ‘go’ or any regulator. Why did they do that? Why did they pick this method of making the vaccine?’ The reason had to be something bigger than that it seemed and ‘it’s not protection against the virus’. It’s was a far bigger project that meant politicians and advisers were willing to do things and not do things that knowingly resulted in avoidable deaths – ‘that’s already happened when you think about lockdown and deprivation of health care for a year.’ He spoke of people prepared to do something that results in the avoidable death of their fellow human beings and it not bother them. This is the penny-drop I have been working to get across for more than 30 years – the level of pure evil we are dealing with. Yeadon said his friends and associates could not believe there could be that much evil, but he reminded them of Stalin, Pol Pot and Hitler and of what Stalin had said: ‘One death is a tragedy. A million? A statistic.’ He could not think of a benign explanation for why you need top-up vaccines ‘which I’m sure you don’t’ and for the regulators ‘to just get out of the way and wave them through’. Why would the regulators do that when they were still wrestling with the dangers of the ‘parent’ vaccine? He was clearly shocked by what he had seen since the ‘Covid’ hoax began and now he was thinking the previously unthinkable:

If you wanted to depopulate a significant proportion of the world and to do it in a way that doesn’t involve destruction of the environment with nuclear weapons, poisoning everyone with anthrax or something like that, and you wanted plausible deniability while you had a multi-year infectious disease crisis, I actually don’t think you could come up with a better plan of work than seems to be in front of me. I can’t say that’s what they are going to do, but I can’t think of a benign explanation why they are doing it.

He said he never thought that they would get rid of 99 percent of humans, but now he wondered. ‘If you wanted to that this would be a hell of a way to do it – it would be unstoppable folks.’ Yeadon had concluded that those who submi ed to the ‘vaccine’ would be allowed to have some kind of normal life (but for how long?) while screws were tightened to coerce and mandate the last few percent. ‘I think they’ll put the rest of them in a prison camp. I wish I was wrong, but I don’t think I am.’ Other points he made included: There were no coronavirus vaccines then suddenly they all come along at the same time; we have no idea of the long term affect with trials so short; coercing or forcing people to have medical procedures is against the Nuremberg Code instigated when the Nazis did just that; people should at least delay having the ‘vaccine’; a quick Internet search confirms that masks don’t reduce respiratory viral transmission and ‘the government knows that’; they have smashed civil society and they know that, too; two dozen peer-reviewed studies show no connection between lockdown and reducing deaths; he knew from personal friends the elite were still flying around and going on holiday while the public were locked down; the elite were not having the ‘vaccines’. He was also asked if ‘vaccines’ could be made to target difference races. He said he didn’t know, but the document by the Project for the New American Century in September, 2000, said developing ‘advanced forms of biological warfare that can target specific genotypes may transform biological warfare from the realm of terror to a politically useful tool.’ Oh, they’re evil all right. Of that we can be absolutely sure.

Another cull of old people

We have seen from the CDC definition that the mRNA ‘Covid vaccine’ is not a vaccine and nor are the others that claim to reduce ‘severity of symptoms’ in some people, but not protect from infection or transmission. What about all the lies about returning to ‘normal’ if people were ‘vaccinated’? If they are not claimed to stop infection and transmission of the alleged ‘virus’, how does anything change? This was all lies to manipulate people to take the jabs and we are seeing that now with masks and distancing still required for the ‘vaccinated’. How did they think that elderly people with fragile health and immune responses were going to be affected by infusing their cells with synthetic material and other toxic substances? They knew that in the short and long term it would be devastating and fatal as the culling of the old that began with the first lockdowns was continued with the ‘vaccine’. Death rates in care homes soared immediately residents began to be ‘vaccinated’ – infused with synthetic material. Brave and commi ed whistleblower nurses put their careers at risk by exposing this truth while the rest kept their heads down and their mouths shut to put their careers before those they are supposed to care for. A long-time American Certified Nursing Assistant who gave his name as James posted a video in which he described emotionally what happened in his care home when vaccination began. He said that during 2020 very few residents were sick with ‘Covid’ and no one died during the entire year; but shortly a er the Pfizer mRNA injections 14 people died within two weeks and many others were near death. ‘They’re dropping like flies’, he said. Residents who walked on their own before the shot could no longer and they had lost their ability to conduct an intelligent conversation. The home’s management said the sudden deaths were caused by a ‘super-spreader’ of ‘Covid-19’. Then how come, James asked, that residents who refused to take the injections were not sick? It was a case of inject the elderly with mRNA synthetic potions and blame their illness and death that followed on the ‘virus’. James described what was happening in care homes as ‘the greatest crime of genocide this country has ever seen’. Remember the NHS staff nurse from earlier who used the same

word ‘genocide’ for what was happening with the ‘vaccines’ and that it was an ‘act of human annihilation’. A UK care home whistleblower told a similar story to James about the effect of the ‘vaccine’ in deaths and ‘outbreaks’ of illness dubbed ‘Covid’ a er ge ing the jab. She told how her care home management and staff had zealously imposed government regulations and no one was allowed to even question the official narrative let alone speak out against it. She said the NHS was even worse. Again we see the results of reframing. A worker at a local care home where I live said they had not had a single case of ‘Covid’ there for almost a year and when the residents were ‘vaccinated’ they had 19 positive cases in two weeks with eight dying.

It’s not the ‘vaccine’ – honest The obvious cause and effect was being ignored by the media and most of the public. Australia’s health minister Greg Hunt (a former head of strategy at the World Economic Forum) was admi ed to hospital a er he had the ‘vaccine’. He was suffering according to reports from the skin infection ‘cellulitis’ and it must have been a severe case to have warranted days in hospital. Immediately the authorities said this was nothing to do with the ‘vaccine’ when an effect of some vaccines is a ‘cellulitis-like reaction’. We had families of perfectly healthy old people who died a er the ‘vaccine’ saying that if only they had been given the ‘vaccine’ earlier they would still be alive. As a numbskull rating that is off the chart. A father of four ‘died of Covid’ at aged 48 when he was taken ill two days a er having the ‘vaccine’. The man, a health administrator, had been ‘shielding during the pandemic’ and had ‘not really le the house’ until he went for the ‘vaccine’. Having the ‘vaccine’ and then falling ill and dying does not seem to have qualified as a possible cause and effect and ‘Covid-19’ went on his death certificate. His family said they had no idea how he ‘caught the virus’. A family member said: ‘Tragically, it could be that going for a vaccination ultimately led to him catching Covid …The sad truth is that they are never going to know where it came from.’ The family warned people to remember

that the virus still existed and was ‘very real’. So was their stupidity. Nurses and doctors who had the first round of the ‘vaccine’ were collapsing, dying and ending up in a hospital bed while they or their grieving relatives were saying they’d still have the ‘vaccine’ again despite what happened. I kid you not. You mean if your husband returned from the dead he’d have the same ‘vaccine’ again that killed him?? Doctors at the VCU Medical Center in Richmond, Virginia, said the Johnson & Johnson ‘vaccine’ was to blame for a man’s skin peeling off. Patient Richard Terrell said: ‘It all just happened so fast. My skin peeled off. It’s still coming off on my hands now.’ He said it was stinging, burning and itching and when he bent his arms and legs it was very painful with ‘the skin swollen and rubbing against itself’. Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna vaccines use mRNA to change the cell while the Johnson & Johnson version uses DNA in a process similar to AstraZeneca’s technique. Johnson & Johnson and AstraZeneca have both had their ‘vaccines’ paused by many countries a er causing serious blood problems. Terrell’s doctor Fnu Nutan said he could have died if he hadn’t got medical a ention. It sounds terrible so what did Nutan and Terrell say about the ‘vaccine’ now? Oh, they still recommend that people have it. A nurse in a hospital bed 40 minutes a er the vaccination and unable to swallow due to throat swelling was told by a doctor that he lost mobility in his arm for 36 hours following the vaccination. What did he say to the ailing nurse? ‘Good for you for ge ing the vaccination.’ We are dealing with a serious form of cognitive dissonance madness in both public and medical staff. There is a remarkable correlation between those having the ‘vaccine’ and trumpeting the fact and suffering bad happenings shortly a erwards. Witold Rogiewicz, a Polish doctor, made a video of his ‘vaccination’ and ridiculed those who were questioning its safety and the intentions of Bill Gates: ‘Vaccinate yourself to protect yourself, your loved ones, friends and also patients. And to mention quickly I have info for anti-vaxxers and anti-Coviders if you want to contact Bill Gates you can do this through me.’ He further ridiculed the dangers of 5G. Days later he

was dead, but naturally the vaccination wasn’t mentioned in the verdict of ‘heart a ack’.

Lies, lies and more lies So many members of the human race have slipped into extreme states of insanity and unfortunately they include reframed doctors and nursing staff. Having a ‘vaccine’ and dying within minutes or hours is not considered a valid connection while death from any cause within 28 days or longer of a positive test with a test not testing for the ‘virus’ means ‘Covid-19’ goes on the death certificate. How could that ‘vaccine’-death connection not have been made except by calculated deceit? US figures in the initial rollout period to February 12th, 2020, revealed that a third of the deaths reported to the CDC a er ‘Covid vaccines’ happened within 48 hours. Five men in the UK suffered an ‘extremely rare’ blood clot problem a er having the AstraZeneca ‘vaccine’, but no causal link was established said the Gates-funded Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) which had given the ‘vaccine’ emergency approval to be used. Former Pfizer executive Dr Michael Yeadon explained in his interview how the procedures could cause blood coagulation and clots. People who should have been at no risk were dying from blood clots in the brain and he said he had heard from medical doctor friends that people were suffering from skin bleeding and massive headaches. The AstraZeneca ‘shot’ was stopped by some 20 countries over the blood clo ing issue and still the corrupt MHRA, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and the World Health Organization said that it should continue to be given even though the EMA admi ed that it ‘still cannot rule out definitively’ a link between blood clo ing and the ‘vaccine’. Later Marco Cavaleri, head of EMA vaccine strategy, said there was indeed a clear link between the ‘vaccine’ and thrombosis, but they didn’t know why. So much for the trials showing the ‘vaccine’ is safe. Blood clots were affecting younger people who would be under virtually no danger from ‘Covid’ even if it existed which makes it all the more stupid and sinister.

The British government responded to public alarm by wheeling out June Raine, the terrifyingly weak infant school headmistress sound-alike who heads the UK MHRA drug ‘regulator’. The idea that she would stand up to Big Pharma and government pressure is laughable and she told us that all was well in the same way that she did when allowing untested, never-used-on-humans-before, genetically-manipulating ‘vaccines’ to be exposed to the public in the first place. Mass lying is the new normal of the ‘Covid’ era. The MHRA later said 30 cases of rare blood clots had by then been connected with the AstraZeneca ‘vaccine’ (that means a lot more in reality) while stressing that the benefits of the jab in preventing ‘Covid-19’ outweighed any risks. A more ridiculous and disingenuous statement with callous disregard for human health it is hard to contemplate. Immediately a er the mendacious ‘all-clears’ two hospital workers in Denmark experienced blood clots and cerebral haemorrhaging following the AstraZeneca jab and one died. Top Norwegian health official Pål Andre Holme said the ‘vaccine’ was the only common factor: ‘There is nothing in the patient history of these individuals that can give such a powerful immune response … I am confident that the antibodies that we have found are the cause, and I see no other explanation than it being the vaccine which triggers it.’ Strokes, a clot or bleed in the brain, were clearly associated with the ‘vaccine’ from word of mouth and whistleblower reports. Similar consequences followed with all these ‘vaccines’ that we were told were so safe and as the numbers grew by the day it was clear we were witnessing human carnage.

Learning the hard way A woman interviewed by UKColumn told how her husband suffered dramatic health effects a er the vaccine when he’d been in good health all his life. He went from being a li le unwell to losing all feeling in his legs and experiencing ‘excruciating pain’. Misdiagnosis followed twice at Accident and Emergency (an ‘allergy’ and ‘sciatica’) before he was admi ed to a neurology ward where doctors said his serious condition had been caused by the

‘vaccine’. Another seven ‘vaccinated’ people were apparently being treated on the same ward for similar symptoms. The woman said he had the ‘vaccine’ because they believed media claims that it was safe. ‘I didn’t think the government would give out a vaccine that does this to somebody; I believed they would be bringing out a vaccination that would be safe.’ What a tragic way to learn that lesson. Another woman posted that her husband was transporting stroke patients to hospital on almost every shi and when he asked them if they had been ‘vaccinated’ for ‘Covid’ they all replied ‘yes’. One had a ‘massive brain bleed’ the day a er his second dose. She said her husband reported the ‘just been vaccinated’ information every time to doctors in A and E only for them to ignore it, make no notes and appear annoyed that it was even mentioned. This particular report cannot be verified, but it expresses a common theme that confirms the monumental underreporting of ‘vaccine’ consequences. Interestingly as the ‘vaccines’ and their brain blood clot/stroke consequences began to emerge the UK National Health Service began a publicity campaign telling the public what to do in the event of a stroke. A Sco ish NHS staff nurse who quit in disgust in March, 2021, said: I have seen traumatic injuries from the vaccine, they’re not getting reported to the yellow card [adverse reaction] scheme, they’re treating the symptoms, not asking why, why it’s happening. It’s just treating the symptoms and when you speak about it you’re dismissed like you’re crazy, I’m not crazy, I’m not crazy because every other colleague I’ve spoken to is terrified to speak out, they’ve had enough.

Videos appeared on the Internet of people uncontrollably shaking a er the ‘vaccine’ with no control over muscles, limbs and even their face. A Sco ish mother broke out in a severe rash all over her body almost immediately a er she was given the AstraZeneca ‘vaccine’. The pictures were horrific. Leigh King, a 41-year-old hairdresser from Lanarkshire said: ‘Never in my life was I prepared for what I was about to experience … My skin was so sore and constantly hot … I have never felt pain like this …’ But don’t you worry, the ‘vaccine’ is perfectly safe. Then there has been the effect on medical

staff who have been pressured to have the ‘vaccine’ by psychopathic ‘health’ authorities and government. A London hospital consultant who gave the name K. Polyakova wrote this to the British Medical Journal or BMJ: I am currently struggling with … the failure to report the reality of the morbidity caused by our current vaccination program within the health service and staff population. The levels of sickness after vaccination is unprecedented and staff are getting very sick and some with neurological symptoms which is having a huge impact on the health service function. Even the young and healthy are off for days, some for weeks, and some requiring medical treatment. Whole teams are being taken out as they went to get vaccinated together. Mandatory vaccination in this instance is stupid, unethical and irresponsible when it comes to protecting our staff and public health. We are in the voluntary phase of vaccination, and encouraging staff to take an unlicensed product that is impacting on their immediate health … it is clearly stated that these vaccine products do not offer immunity or stop transmission. In which case why are we doing it?

Not to protect health that’s for sure. Medical workers are lauded by governments for agenda reasons when they couldn’t give a toss about them any more than they can for the population in general. Schools across America faced the same situation as they closed due to the high number of teachers and other staff with bad reactions to the Pfizer/BioNTech, Moderna, and Johnson & Johnson ‘Covid vaccines’ all of which were linked to death and serious adverse effects. The BMJ took down the consultant’s comments pre y quickly on the grounds that they were being used to spread ‘disinformation’. They were exposing the truth about the ‘vaccine’ was the real reason. The cover-up is breathtaking.

Hiding the evidence The scale of the ‘vaccine’ death cover-up worldwide can be confirmed by comparing official figures with the personal experience of the public. I heard of many people in my community who died immediately or soon a er the vaccine that would never appear in the media or even likely on the official totals of ‘vaccine’ fatalities and adverse reactions when only about ten percent are estimated to be

reported and I have seen some estimates as low as one percent in a Harvard study. In the UK alone by April 29th, 2021, some 757,654 adverse reactions had been officially reported from the Pfizer/BioNTech, Oxford/AstraZeneca and Moderna ‘vaccines’ with more than a thousand deaths linked to jabs and that means an estimated ten times this number in reality from a ten percent reporting rate percentage. That’s seven million adverse reactions and 10,000 potential deaths and a one percent reporting rate would be ten times those figures. In 1976 the US government pulled the swine flu vaccine a er 53 deaths. The UK data included a combined 10,000 eye disorders from the ‘Covid vaccines’ with more than 750 suffering visual impairment or blindness and again multiply by the estimated reporting percentages. As ‘Covid cases’ officially fell hospitals virtually empty during the ‘Covid crisis’ began to fill up with a range of other problems in the wake of the ‘vaccine’ rollout. The numbers across America have also been catastrophic. Deaths linked to all types of vaccine increased by 6,000 percent in the first quarter of 2021 compared with 2020. A 39-year-old woman from Ogden, Utah, died four days a er receiving a second dose of Moderna’s ‘Covid vaccine’ when her liver, heart and kidneys all failed despite the fact that she had no known medical issues or conditions. Her family sought an autopsy, but Dr Erik Christensen, Utah’s chief medical examiner, said proving vaccine injury as a cause of death almost never happened. He could think of only one instance where an autopsy would name a vaccine as the official cause of death and that would be anaphylaxis where someone received a vaccine and died almost instantaneously. ‘Short of that, it would be difficult for us to definitively say this is the vaccine,’ Christensen said. If that is true this must be added to the estimated ten percent (or far less) reporting rate of vaccine deaths and serious reactions and the conclusion can only be that vaccine deaths and serious reactions – including these ‘Covid’ potions’ – are phenomenally understated in official figures. The same story can be found everywhere. Endless accounts of deaths and serious reactions among the public, medical

and care home staff while official figures did not even begin to reflect this. Professional script-reader Dr David Williams, a ‘top public-health official’ in Ontario, Canada, insulted our intelligence by claiming only four serious adverse reactions and no deaths from the more than 380,000 vaccine doses then given. This bore no resemblance to what people knew had happened in their owns circles and we had Dirk Huyer in charge of ge ing millions vaccinated in Ontario while at the same time he was Chief Coroner for the province investigating causes of death including possible death from the vaccine. An aide said he had stepped back from investigating deaths, but evidence indicated otherwise. Rosemary Frei, who secured a Master of Science degree in molecular biology at the Faculty of Medicine at Canada’s University of Calgary before turning to investigative journalism, was one who could see that official figures for ‘vaccine’ deaths and reactions made no sense. She said that doctors seldom reported adverse events and when people got really sick or died a er ge ing a vaccination they would a ribute that to anything except the vaccines. It had been that way for years and anyone who wondered aloud whether the ‘Covid vaccines’ or other shots cause harm is immediately branded as ‘anti-vax’ and ‘anti-science’. This was ‘career-threatening’ for health professionals. Then there was the huge pressure to support the push to ‘vaccinate’ billions in the quickest time possible. Frei said: So that’s where we’re at today. More than half a million vaccine doses have been given to people in Ontario alone. The rush is on to vaccinate all 15 million of us in the province by September. And the mainstream media are screaming for this to be sped up even more. That all adds up to only a very slim likelihood that we’re going to be told the truth by officials about how many people are getting sick or dying from the vaccines.

What is true of Ontario is true of everywhere.

They KNEW – and still did it The authorities knew what was going to happen with multiple deaths and adverse reactions. The UK government’s Gates-funded

and Big Pharma-dominated Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) hired a company to employ AI in compiling the projected reactions to the ‘vaccine’ that would otherwise be uncountable. The request for applications said: ‘The MHRA urgently seeks an Artificial Intelligence (AI) so ware tool to process the expected high volume of Covid-19 vaccine Adverse Drug Reaction …’ This was from the agency, headed by the disingenuous June Raine, that gave the ‘vaccines’ emergency approval and the company was hired before the first shot was given. ‘We are going to kill and maim you – is that okay?’ ‘Oh, yes, perfectly fine – I’m very grateful, thank you, doctor.’ The range of ‘Covid vaccine’ adverse reactions goes on for page a er page in the MHRA criminally underreported ‘Yellow Card’ system and includes affects to eyes, ears, skin, digestion, blood and so on. Raine’s MHRA amazingly claimed that the ‘overall safety experience … is so far as expected from the clinical trials’. The death, serious adverse effects, deafness and blindness were expected? When did they ever mention that? If these human tragedies were expected then those that gave approval for the use of these ‘vaccines’ must be guilty of crimes against humanity including murder – a definition of which is ‘killing a person with malice aforethought or with recklessness manifesting extreme indifference to the value of human life.’ People involved at the MHRA, the CDC in America and their equivalent around the world must go before Nuremberg trials to answer for their callous inhumanity. We are only talking here about the immediate effects of the ‘vaccine’. The longer-term impact of the DNA synthetic manipulation is the main reason they are so hysterically desperate to inoculate the entire global population in the shortest possible time. Africa and the developing world are a major focus for the ‘vaccine’ depopulation agenda and a mass vaccination sales-pitch is underway thanks to caring people like the Rockefellers and other Cult assets. The Rockefeller Foundation, which pre-empted the ‘Covid pandemic’ in a document published in 2010 that ‘predicted’ what happened a decade later, announced an initial $34.95 million grant in February, 2021, ‘to ensure more equitable access to Covid-19

testing and vaccines’ among other things in Africa in collaboration with ‘24 organizations, businesses, and government agencies’. The pan-Africa initiative would focus on 10 countries: Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia’. Rajiv Shah, President of the Rockefeller Foundation and former administrator of CIA-controlled USAID, said that if Africa was not mass-vaccinated (to change the DNA of its people) it was a ‘threat to all of humanity’ and not fair on Africans. When someone from the Rockefeller Foundation says they want to do something to help poor and deprived people and countries it is time for a belly-laugh. They are doing this out of the goodness of their ‘heart’ because ‘vaccinating’ the entire global population is what the ‘Covid’ hoax set out to achieve. Official ‘decolonisation’ of Africa by the Cult was merely a prelude to financial colonisation on the road to a return to physical colonisation. The ‘vaccine’ is vital to that and the sudden and convenient death of the ‘Covid’ sceptic president of Tanzania can be seen in its true light. A lot of people in Africa are aware that this is another form of colonisation and exploitation and they need to stand their ground.

The ‘vaccine is working’ scam A potential problem for the Cult was that the ‘vaccine’ is meant to change human DNA and body messaging and not to protect anyone from a ‘virus’ never shown to exist. The vaccine couldn’t work because it was not designed to work and how could they make it appear to be working so that more people would have it? This was overcome by lowering the amplification rate of the PCR test to produce fewer ‘cases’ and therefore fewer ‘deaths’. Some of us had been pointing out since March, 2020, that the amplification rate of the test not testing for the ‘virus’ had been made artificially high to generate positive tests which they could call ‘cases’ to justify lockdowns. The World Health Organization recommended an absurdly high 45 amplification cycles to ensure the high positives required by the Cult and then remained silent on the issue until January 20th, 2021 – Biden’s Inauguration Day. This was when the

‘vaccinations’ were seriously underway and on that day the WHO recommended a er discussions with America’s CDC that laboratories lowered their testing amplification. Dr David Samadi, a certified urologist and health writer, said the WHO was encouraging all labs to reduce their cycle count for PCR tests. He said the current cycle was much too high and was ‘resulting in any particle being declared a positive case’. Even one mainstream news report I saw said this meant the number of ‘Covid’ infections may have been ‘dramatically inflated’. Oh, just a li le bit. The CDC in America issued new guidance to laboratories in April, 2021, to use 28 cycles but only for ‘vaccinated’ people. The timing of the CDC/WHO interventions were cynically designed to make it appear the ‘vaccines’ were responsible for falling cases and deaths when the real reason can be seen in the following examples. New York’s state lab, the Wadsworth Center, identified 872 positive tests in July, 2020, based on a threshold of 40 cycles. When the figure was lowered to 35 cycles 43 percent of the 872 were no longer ‘positives’. At 30 cycles the figure was 63 percent. A Massachuse s lab found that between 85 to 90 percent of people who tested positive in July with a cycle threshold of 40 would be negative at 30 cycles, Ashish Jha, MD, director of the Harvard Global Health Institute, said: ‘I’m really shocked that it could be that high … Boy, does it really change the way we need to be thinking about testing.’ I’m shocked that I could see the obvious in the spring of 2020, with no medical background, and most medical professionals still haven’t worked it out. No, that’s not shocking – it’s terrifying. Three weeks a er the WHO directive to lower PCR cycles the London Daily Mail ran this headline: ‘Why ARE Covid cases plummeting? New infections have fallen 45% in the US and 30% globally in the past 3 weeks but experts say vaccine is NOT the main driver because only 8% of Americans and 13% of people worldwide have received their first dose.’ They acknowledged that the drop could not be a ributed to the ‘vaccine’, but soon this morphed throughout the media into the ‘vaccine’ has caused cases and deaths to fall when it was the PCR threshold. In December, 2020, there was

chaos at English Channel ports with truck drivers needing negative ‘Covid’ tests before they could board a ferry home for Christmas. The government wanted to remove the backlog as fast as possible and they brought in troops to do the ‘testing’. Out of 1,600 drivers just 36 tested positive and the rest were given the all clear to cross the Channel. I guess the authorities thought that 36 was the least they could get away with without the unquestioning catching on. The amplification trick which most people believed in the absence of information in the mainstream applied more pressure on those refusing the ‘vaccine’ to succumb when it ‘obviously worked’. The truth was the exact opposite with deaths in care homes soaring with the ‘vaccine’ and in Israel the term used was ‘skyrocket’. A reanalysis of published data from the Israeli Health Ministry led by Dr Hervé Seligmann at the Medicine Emerging Infectious and Tropical Diseases at Aix-Marseille University found that Pfizer’s ‘Covid vaccine’ killed ‘about 40 times more [elderly] people than the disease itself would have killed’ during a five-week vaccination period and 260 times more younger people than would have died from the ‘virus’ even according to the manipulated ‘virus’ figures. Dr Seligmann and his co-study author, Haim Yativ, declared a er reviewing the Israeli ‘vaccine’ death data: ‘This is a new Holocaust.’ Then, in mid-April, 2021, a er vast numbers of people worldwide had been ‘vaccinated’, the story changed with clear coordination. The UK government began to prepare the ground for more future lockdowns when Nuremberg-destined Boris Johnson told yet another whopper. He said that cases had fallen because of lockdowns not ‘vaccines’. Lockdowns are irrelevant when there is no ‘virus’ and the test and fraudulent death certificates are deciding the number of ‘cases’ and ‘deaths’. Study a er study has shown that lockdowns don’t work and instead kill and psychologically destroy people. Meanwhile in the United States Anthony Fauci and Rochelle Walensky, the ultra-Zionist head of the CDC, peddled the same line. More lockdown was the answer and not the ‘vaccine’, a line repeated on cue by the moron that is Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. Why all the hysteria to get everyone ‘vaccinated’ if lockdowns and

not ‘vaccines’ made the difference? None of it makes sense on the face of it. Oh, but it does. The Cult wants lockdowns and the ‘vaccine’ and if the ‘vaccine’ is allowed to be seen as the total answer lockdowns would no longer be justified when there are still livelihoods to destroy. ‘Variants’ and renewed upward manipulation of PCR amplification are planned to instigate never-ending lockdown and more ‘vaccines’.

You

must

have it – we’re desperate

Israel, where the Jewish and Arab population are ruled by the Sabbatian Cult, was the front-runner in imposing the DNAmanipulating ‘vaccine’ on its people to such an extent that Jewish refusers began to liken what was happening to the early years of Nazi Germany. This would seem to be a fantastic claim. Why would a government of Jewish people be acting like the Nazis did? If you realise that the Sabbatian Cult was behind the Nazis and that Sabbatians hate Jews the pieces start to fit and the question of why a ‘Jewish’ government would treat Jews with such callous disregard for their lives and freedom finds an answer. Those controlling the government of Israel aren’t Jewish – they’re Sabbatian. Israeli lawyer Tamir Turgal was one who made the Nazi comparison in comments to German lawyer Reiner Fuellmich who is leading a class action lawsuit against the psychopaths for crimes against humanity. Turgal described how the Israeli government was vaccinating children and pregnant women on the basis that there was no evidence that this was dangerous when they had no evidence that it wasn’t dangerous either. They just had no evidence. This was medical experimentation and Turgal said this breached the Nuremberg Code about medical experimentation and procedures requiring informed consent and choice. Think about that. A Nuremberg Code developed because of Nazi experimentation on Jews and others in concentration camps by people like the evil-beyond-belief Josef Mengele is being breached by the Israeli government; but when you know that it’s a Sabbatian government along with its intelligence and military agencies like Mossad, Shin Bet and the Israeli Defense Forces, and that Sabbatians

were the force behind the Nazis, the kaleidoscope comes into focus. What have we come to when Israeli Jews are suing their government for violating the Nuremberg Code by essentially making Israelis subject to a medical experiment using the controversial ‘vaccines’? It’s a shocker that this has to be done in the light of what happened in Nazi Germany. The Anshe Ha-Emet, or ‘People of the Truth’, made up of Israeli doctors, lawyers, campaigners and public, have launched a lawsuit with the International Criminal Court. It says: When the heads of the Ministry of Health as well as the prime minister presented the vaccine in Israel and began the vaccination of Israeli residents, the vaccinated were not advised, that, in practice, they are taking part in a medical experiment and that their consent is required for this under the Nuremberg Code.

The irony is unbelievable, but easily explained in one word: Sabbatians. The foundation of Israeli ‘Covid’ apartheid is the ‘green pass’ or ‘green passport’ which allows Jews and Arabs who have had the DNA-manipulating ‘vaccine’ to go about their lives – to work, fly, travel in general, go to shopping malls, bars, restaurants, hotels, concerts, gyms, swimming pools, theatres and sports venues, while non-’vaccinated’ are banned from all those places and activities. Israelis have likened the ‘green pass’ to the yellow stars that Jews in Nazi Germany were forced to wear – the same as the yellow stickers that a branch of UK supermarket chain Morrisons told exempt mask-wears they had to display when shopping. How very sensitive. The Israeli system is blatant South African-style apartheid on the basis of compliance or non-compliance to fascism rather than colour of the skin. How appropriate that the Sabbatian Israeli government was so close to the pre-Mandela apartheid regime in Pretoria. The Sabbatian-instigated ‘vaccine passport’ in Israel is planned for everywhere. Sabbatians struck a deal with Pfizer that allowed them to lead the way in the percentage of a national population infused with synthetic material and the result was catastrophic. Israeli freedom activist Shai Dannon told me how chairs were appearing on beaches that said ‘vaccinated only’. Health Minister Yuli Edelstein said that anyone unwilling or unable to get

the jabs that ‘confer immunity’ will be ‘le behind’. The man’s a liar. Not even the makers claim the ‘vaccines’ confer immunity. When you see those figures of ‘vaccine’ deaths these psychopaths were saying that you must take the chance the ‘vaccine’ will kill you or maim you while knowing it will change your DNA or lockdown for you will be permanent. That’s fascism. The Israeli parliament passed a law to allow personal information of the non-vaccinated to be shared with local and national authorities for three months. This was claimed by its supporters to be a way to ‘encourage’ people to be vaccinated. Hadas Ziv from Physicians for Human Rights described this as a ‘draconian law which crushed medical ethics and the patient rights’. But that’s the idea, the Sabbatians would reply.

Your papers, please Sabbatian Israel was leading what has been planned all along to be a global ‘vaccine pass’ called a ‘green passport’ without which you would remain in permanent lockdown restriction and unable to do anything. This is how badly – desperately – the Cult is to get everyone ‘vaccinated’. The term and colour ‘green’ was not by chance and related to the psychology of fusing the perception of the green climate hoax with the ‘Covid’ hoax and how the ‘solution’ to both is the same Great Reset. Lying politicians, health officials and psychologists denied there were any plans for mandatory vaccinations or restrictions based on vaccinations, but they knew that was exactly what was meant to happen with governments of all countries reaching agreements to enforce a global system. ‘Free’ Denmark and ‘free’ Sweden unveiled digital vaccine certification. Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, and Spain have all commi ed to a vaccine passport system and the rest including the whole of the EU would follow. The satanic UK government will certainly go this way despite mendacious denials and at the time of writing it is trying to manipulate the public into having the ‘vaccine’ so they could go abroad on a summer holiday. How would that work without something to prove you had the synthetic toxicity injected into you?

Documents show that the EU’s European Commission was moving towards ‘vaccine certificates’ in 2018 and 2019 before the ‘Covid’ hoax began. They knew what was coming. Abracadabra – Ursula von der Leyen, the German President of the Commission, announced in March, 2021, an EU ‘Digital Green Certificate’ – green again – to track the public’s ‘Covid status’. The passport sting is worldwide and the Far East followed the same pa ern with South Korea ruling that only those with ‘vaccination’ passports – again the green pass – would be able to ‘return to their daily lives’. Bill Gates has been preparing for this ‘passport’ with other Cult operatives for years and beyond the paper version is a Gates-funded ‘digital ta oo’ to identify who has been vaccinated and who hasn’t. The ‘ta oo’ is reported to include a substance which is externally readable to confirm who has been vaccinated. This is a bio-luminous light-generating enzyme (think fireflies) called … Luciferase. Yes, named a er the Cult ‘god’ Lucifer the ‘light bringer’ of whom more to come. Gates said he funded the readable ta oo to ensure children in the developing world were vaccinated and no one was missed out. He cares so much about poor kids as we know. This was just the cover story to develop a vaccine tagging system for everyone on the planet. Gates has been funding the ID2020 ‘alliance’ to do just that in league with other lovely people at Microso , GAVI, the Rockefeller Foundation, Accenture and IDEO.org. He said in interviews in March, 2020, before any ‘vaccine’ publicly existed, that the world must have a globalised digital certificate to track the ‘virus’ and who had been vaccinated. Gates knew from the start that the mRNA vaccines were coming and when they would come and that the plan was to tag the ‘vaccinated’ to marginalise the intelligent and stop them doing anything including travel. Evil just doesn’t suffice. Gates was exposed for offering a $10 million bribe to the Nigerian House of Representatives to invoke compulsory ‘Covid’ vaccination of all Nigerians. Sara Cunial, a member of the Italian Parliament, called Gates a ‘vaccine criminal’. She urged the Italian President to hand him over to the International Criminal Court for crimes against

humanity and condemned his plans to ‘chip the human race’ through ID2020. You know it’s a long-planned agenda when war criminal and Cult gofer Tony Blair is on the case. With the scale of arrogance only someone as dark as Blair can muster he said: ‘Vaccination in the end is going to be your route to liberty.’ Blair is a disgusting piece of work and he confirms that again. The media has given a lot of coverage to a bloke called Charlie Mullins, founder of London’s biggest independent plumbing company, Pimlico Plumbers, who has said he won’t employ anyone who has not been vaccinated or have them go to any home where people are not vaccinated. He said that if he had his way no one would be allowed to walk the streets if they have not been vaccinated. Gates was cheering at the time while I was alerting the white coats. The plan is that people will qualify for ‘passports’ for having the first two doses and then to keep it they will have to have all the follow ups and new ones for invented ‘variants’ until human genetics is transformed and many are dead who can’t adjust to the changes. Hollywood celebrities – the usual propaganda stunt – are promoting something called the WELL Health-Safety Rating to verify that a building or space has ‘taken the necessary steps to prioritize the health and safety of their staff, visitors and other stakeholders’. They included Lady Gaga, Jennifer Lopez, Michael B. Jordan, Robert DeNiro, Venus Williams, Wolfgang Puck, Deepak Chopra and 17th Surgeon General Richard Carmona. Yawn. WELL Health-Safety has big connections with China. Parent company Delos is headed by former Goldman Sachs partner Paul Scialla. This is another example – and we will see so many others – of using the excuse of ‘health’ to dictate the lives and activities of the population. I guess one confirmation of the ‘safety’ of buildings is that only ‘vaccinated’ people can go in, right?

Electronic concentration camps I wrote decades ago about the plans to restrict travel and here we are for those who refuse to bow to tyranny. This can be achieved in one go with air travel if the aviation industry makes a blanket decree.

The ‘vaccine’ and guaranteed income are designed to be part of a global version of China’s social credit system which tracks behaviour 24/7 and awards or deletes ‘credits’ based on whether your behaviour is supported by the state or not. I mean your entire lifestyle – what you do, eat, say, everything. Once your credit score falls below a certain level consequences kick in. In China tens of millions have been denied travel by air and train because of this. All the locations and activities denied to refusers by the ‘vaccine’ passports will be included in one big mass ban on doing almost anything for those that don’t bow their head to government. It’s beyond fascist and a new term is required to describe its extremes – I guess fascist technocracy will have to do. The way the Chinese system of technological – technocratic – control is sweeping the West can be seen in the Los Angeles school system and is planned to be expanded worldwide. Every child is required to have a ‘Covid’tracking app scanned daily before they can enter the classroom. The so-called Daily Pass tracking system is produced by Gates’ Microso which I’m sure will shock you rigid. The pass will be scanned using a barcode (one step from an inside-the-body barcode) and the information will include health checks, ‘Covid’ tests and vaccinations. Entry codes are for one specific building only and access will only be allowed if a student or teacher has a negative test with a test not testing for the ‘virus’, has no symptoms of anything alleged to be related to ‘Covid’ (symptoms from a range of other illness), and has a temperature under 100 degrees. No barcode, no entry, is planned to be the case for everywhere and not only schools. Kids are being psychologically prepared to accept this as ‘normal’ their whole life which is why what they can impose in schools is so important to the Cult and its gofers. Long-time American freedom campaigner John Whitehead of the Rutherford Institute was not exaggerating when he said: ‘Databit by databit, we are building our own electronic concentration camps.’ Canada under its Cult gofer prime minister Justin Trudeau has taken a major step towards the real thing with people interned against their will if they test positive with a test not testing for the ‘virus’ when they arrive at a Canadian

airport. They are jailed in internment hotels o en without food or water for long periods and with many doors failing to lock there have been sexual assaults. The interned are being charged sometimes $2,000 for the privilege of being abused in this way. Trudeau is fully on board with the Cult and says the ‘Covid pandemic’ has provided an opportunity for a global ‘reset’ to permanently change Western civilisation. His number two, Deputy Prime Minister Chrystia Freeland, is a trustee of the World Economic Forum and a Rhodes Scholar. The Trudeau family have long been servants of the Cult. See The Biggest Secret and Cathy O’Brien’s book Trance-Formation of America for the horrific background to Trudeau’s father Pierre Trudeau another Canadian prime minister. Hide your fascism behind the façade of a heart-on-the-sleeve liberal. It’s a wellhoned Cult technique.

What can the ‘vaccine’

really

do?

We have a ‘virus’ never shown to exist and ‘variants’ of the ‘virus’ that have also never been shown to exist except, like the ‘original’, as computer-generated fictions. Even if you believe there’s a ‘virus’ the ‘case’ to ‘death’ rate is in the region of 0.23 to 0.15 percent and those ‘deaths’ are concentrated among the very old around the same average age that people die anyway. In response to this lack of threat (in truth none) psychopaths and idiots, knowingly and unknowingly answering to Gates and the Cult, are seeking to ‘vaccinate’ every man, woman and child on Planet Earth. Clearly the ‘vaccine’ is not about ‘Covid’ – none of this ever has been. So what is it all about really? Why the desperation to infuse genetically-manipulating synthetic material into everyone through mRNA fraudulent ‘vaccines’ with the intent of doing this over and over with the excuses of ‘variants’ and other ‘virus’ inventions? Dr Sherri Tenpenny, an osteopathic medical doctor in the United States, has made herself an expert on vaccines and their effects as a vehement campaigner against their use. Tenpenny was board certified in emergency medicine, the director of a level two trauma centre for 12 years, and moved to Cleveland in 1996 to start an integrative

medicine practice which has treated patients from all 50 states and some 17 other countries. Weaning people off pharmaceutical drugs is a speciality. She became interested in the consequences of vaccines a er a ending a meeting at the National Vaccine Information Center in Washington DC in 2000 where she ‘sat through four days of listening to medical doctors and scientists and lawyers and parents of vaccine injured kids’ and asked: ‘What’s going on?’ She had never been vaccinated and never got ill while her father was given a list of vaccines to be in the military and was ‘sick his entire life’. The experience added to her questions and she began to examine vaccine documents from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). A er reading the first one, the 1998 version of The General Recommendations of Vaccination, she thought: ‘This is it?’ The document was poorly wri en and bad science and Tenpenny began 20 years of research into vaccines that continues to this day. She began her research into ‘Covid vaccines’ in March, 2020, and she describes them as ‘deadly’. For many, as we have seen, they already have been. Tenpenny said that in the first 30 days of the ‘vaccine’ rollout in the United States there had been more than 40,000 adverse events reported to the vaccine adverse event database. A document had been delivered to her the day before that was 172 pages long. ‘We have over 40,000 adverse events; we have over 3,100 cases of [potentially deadly] anaphylactic shock; we have over 5,000 neurological reactions.’ Effects ranged from headaches to numbness, dizziness and vertigo, to losing feeling in hands or feet and paraesthesia which is when limbs ‘fall asleep’ and people have the sensation of insects crawling underneath their skin. All this happened in the first 30 days and remember that only about ten percent (or far less) of adverse reactions and vaccine-related deaths are estimated to be officially reported. Tenpenny said: So can you think of one single product in any industry, any industry, for as long as products have been made on the planet that within 30 days we have 40,000 people complaining of side effects that not only is still on the market but … we’ve got paid actors telling us how great

they are for getting their vaccine. We’re offering people $500 if they will just get their vaccine and we’ve got nurses and doctors going; ‘I got the vaccine, I got the vaccine’.

Tenpenny said they were not going to be ‘happy dancing folks’ when they began to suffer Bell’s palsy (facial paralysis), neuropathies, cardiac arrhythmias and autoimmune reactions that kill through a blood disorder. ‘They’re not going to be so happy, happy then, but we’re never going to see pictures of those people’ she said. Tenpenny described the ‘vaccine’ as ‘a well-designed killing tool’.

No off-switch Bad as the initial consequences had been Tenpenny said it would be maybe 14 months before we began to see the ‘full ravage’ of what is going to happen to the ‘Covid vaccinated’ with full-out consequences taking anything between two years and 20 years to show. You can understand why when you consider that variations of the ‘Covid vaccine’ use mRNA (messenger RNA) to in theory activate the immune system to produce protective antibodies without using the actual ‘virus’. How can they when it’s a computer program and they’ve never isolated what they claim is the ‘real thing’? Instead they use synthetic mRNA. They are inoculating synthetic material into the body which through a technique known as the Trojan horse is absorbed into cells to change the nature of DNA. Human DNA is changed by an infusion of messenger RNA and with each new ‘vaccine’ of this type it is changed even more. Say so and you are banned by Cult Internet platforms. The contempt the contemptuous Mark Zuckerberg has for the truth and human health can be seen in an internal Facebook video leaked to the Project Veritas investigative team in which he said of the ‘Covid vaccines’: ‘… I share some caution on this because we just don’t know the long term side-effects of basically modifying people’s DNA and RNA.’ At the same time this disgusting man’s Facebook was censoring and banning anyone saying exactly the same. He must go before a Nuremberg trial for crimes against humanity when he knows that he

is censoring legitimate concerns and denying the right of informed consent on behalf of the Cult that owns him. People have been killed and damaged by the very ‘vaccination’ technique he cast doubt on himself when they may not have had the ‘vaccine’ with access to information that he denied them. The plan is to have at least annual ‘Covid vaccinations’, add others to deal with invented ‘variants’, and change all other vaccines into the mRNA system. Pfizer executives told shareholders at a virtual Barclays Global Healthcare Conference in March, 2021, that the public may need a third dose of ‘Covid vaccine’, plus regular yearly boosters and the company planned to hike prices to milk the profits in a ‘significant opportunity for our vaccine’. These are the professional liars, cheats and opportunists who are telling you their ‘vaccine’ is safe. Given this volume of mRNA planned to be infused into the human body and its ability to then replicate we will have a transformation of human genetics from biological to synthetic biological – exactly the long-time Cult plan for reasons we’ll see – and many will die. Sherri Tenpenny said of this replication: It’s like having an on-button but no off-button and that whole mechanism … they actually give it a name and they call it the Trojan horse mechanism, because it allows that [synthetic] virus and that piece of that [synthetic] virus to get inside of your cells, start to replicate and even get inserted into other parts of your DNA as a Trojan-horse.

Ask the overwhelming majority of people who have the ‘vaccine’ what they know about the contents and what they do and they would reply: ‘The government says it will stop me ge ing the virus.’ Governments give that false impression on purpose to increase takeup. You can read Sherri Tenpenny’s detailed analysis of the health consequences in her blog at Vaxxter.com, but in summary these are some of them. She highlights the statement by Bill Gates about how human beings can become their own ‘vaccine manufacturing machine’. The man is insane. [‘Vaccine’-generated] ‘antibodies’ carry synthetic messenger RNA into the cells and the damage starts, Tenpenny contends, and she says that lungs can be adversely affected through varying degrees of pus and bleeding which

obviously affects breathing and would be dubbed ‘Covid-19’. Even more sinister was the impact of ‘antibodies’ on macrophages, a white blood cell of the immune system. They consist of Type 1 and Type 2 which have very different functions. She said Type 1 are ‘hypervigilant’ white blood cells which ‘gobble up’ bacteria etc. However, in doing so, this could cause inflammation and in extreme circumstances be fatal. She says these affects are mitigated by Type 2 macrophages which kick in to calm down the system and stop it going rogue. They clear up dead tissue debris and reduce inflammation that the Type 1 ‘fire crews’ have caused. Type 1 kills the infection and Type 2 heals the damage, she says. This is her punchline with regard to ‘Covid vaccinations’: She says that mRNA ‘antibodies’ block Type 2 macrophages by a aching to them and deactivating them. This meant that when the Type 1 response was triggered by infection there was nothing to stop that ge ing out of hand by calming everything down. There’s an on-switch, but no offswitch, she says. What follows can be ‘over and out, see you when I see you’.

Genetic suicide Tenpenny also highlights the potential for autoimmune disease – the body a acking itself – which has been associated with vaccines since they first appeared. Infusing a synthetic foreign substance into cells could cause the immune system to react in a panic believing that the body is being overwhelmed by an invader (it is) and the consequences can again be fatal. There is an autoimmune response known as a ‘cytokine storm’ which I have likened to a homeowner panicked by an intruder and picking up a gun to shoot randomly in all directions before turning the fire on himself. The immune system unleashes a storm of inflammatory response called cytokines to a threat and the body commits hara-kiri. The lesson is that you mess with the body’s immune response at your peril and these ‘vaccines’ seriously – fundamentally – mess with immune response. Tenpenny refers to a consequence called anaphylactic shock which is a severe and highly dangerous allergic reaction when the immune system

floods the body with chemicals. She gives the example of having a bee sting which primes the immune system and makes it sensitive to those chemicals. When people are stung again maybe years later the immune response can be so powerful that it leads to anaphylactic shock. Tenpenny relates this ‘shock’ with regard to the ‘Covid vaccine’ to something called polyethylene glycol or PEG. Enormous numbers of people have become sensitive to this over decades of use in a whole range of products and processes including food, drink, skin creams and ‘medicine’. Studies have claimed that some 72 percent of people have antibodies triggered by PEG compared with two percent in the 1960s and allergic hypersensitive reactions to this become a gathering cause for concern. Tenpenny points out that the ‘mRNA vaccine’ is coated in a ‘bubble’ of polyethylene glycol which has the potential to cause anaphylactic shock through immune sensitivity. Many reports have appeared of people reacting this way a er having the ‘Covid vaccine’. What do we think is going to happen as humanity has more and more of these ‘vaccines’? Tenpenny said: ‘All these pictures we have seen with people with these rashes … these weepy rashes, big reactions on their arms and things like that – it’s an acute allergic reaction most likely to the polyethylene glycol that you’ve been previously primed and sensitised to.’ Those who have not studied the conspiracy and its perpetrators at length might think that making the population sensitive to PEG and then pu ing it in these ‘vaccines’ is just a coincidence. It is not. It is instead testament to how carefully and coldly-planned current events have been and the scale of the conspiracy we are dealing with. Tenpenny further explains that the ‘vaccine’ mRNA procedure can breach the blood-brain barrier which protects the brain from toxins and other crap that will cause malfunction. In this case they could make two proteins corrupt brain function to cause Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) , a progressive nervous system disease leading to loss of muscle control, and frontal lobe degeneration – Alzheimer’s and dementia. Immunologist J. Bart Classon published a paper connecting mRNA ‘vaccines’ to prion

disease which can lead to Alzheimer’s and other forms of neurogenerative disease while others have pointed out the potential to affect the placenta in ways that make women infertile. This will become highly significant in the next chapter when I will discuss other aspects of this non-vaccine that relate to its nanotechnology and transmission from the injected to the uninjected.

Qualified in idiocy Tenpenny describes how research has confirmed that these ‘vaccine’generated antibodies can interact with a range of other tissues in the body and a ack many other organs including the lungs. ‘This means that if you have a hundred people standing in front of you that all got this shot they could have a hundred different symptoms.’ Anyone really think that Cult gofers like the Queen, Tony Blair, Christopher Whi y, Anthony Fauci, and all the other psychopaths have really had this ‘vaccine’ in the pictures we’ve seen? Not a bloody chance. Why don’t doctors all tell us about all these dangers and consequences of the ‘Covid vaccine’? Why instead do they encourage and pressure patients to have the shot? Don’t let’s think for a moment that doctors and medical staff can’t be stupid, lazy, and psychopathic and that’s without the financial incentives to give the jab. Tenpenny again: Some people are going to die from the vaccine directly but a large number of people are going to start to get horribly sick and get all kinds of autoimmune diseases 42 days to maybe a year out. What are they going to do, these stupid doctors who say; ‘Good for you for getting that vaccine.’ What are they going to say; ‘Oh, it must be a mutant, we need to give an extra dose of that vaccine.’ Because now the vaccine, instead of one dose or two doses we need three or four because the stupid physicians aren’t taking the time to learn anything about it. If I can learn this sitting in my living room reading a 19 page paper and several others so can they. There’s nothing special about me, I just take the time to do it.

Remember how Sara Kayat, the NHS and TV doctor, said that the ‘Covid vaccine’ would ‘100 percent prevent hospitalisation and death’. Doctors can be idiots like every other profession and they

should not be worshipped as infallible. They are not and far from it. Behind many medical and scientific ‘experts’ lies an uninformed prat trying to hide themselves from you although in the ‘Covid’ era many have failed to do so as with UK narrative-repeating ‘TV doctor’ Hilary Jones. Pushing back against the minority of proper doctors and scientists speaking out against the ‘vaccine’ has been the entire edifice of the Cult global state in the form of governments, medical systems, corporations, mainstream media, Silicon Valley, and an army of compliant doctors, medical staff and scientists willing to say anything for money and to enhance their careers by promoting the party line. If you do that you are an ‘expert’ and if you won’t you are an ‘anti-vaxxer’ and ‘Covidiot’. The pressure to be ‘vaccinated’ is incessant. We have even had reports claiming that the ‘vaccine’ can help cure cancer and Alzheimer’s and make the lame walk. I am waiting for the announcement that it can bring you coffee in the morning and cook your tea. Just as the symptoms of ‘Covid’ seem to increase by the week so have the miracles of the ‘vaccine’. American supermarket giant Kroger Co. offered nearly 500,000 employees in 35 states a $100 bonus for having the ‘vaccine’ while donut chain Krispy Kreme promised ‘vaccinated’ customers a free glazed donut every day for the rest of 2021. Have your DNA changed and you will get a doughnut although we might not have to give you them for long. Such offers and incentives confirm the desperation. Perhaps the worse vaccine-stunt of them all was UK ‘Health’ Secretary Ma -the-prat Hancock on live TV a er watching a clip of someone being ‘vaccinated’ when the roll-out began. Hancock faked tears so badly it was embarrassing. Brain-of-Britain Piers Morgan, the lockdown-supporting, ‘vaccine’ supporting, ‘vaccine’ passportsupporting, TV host played along with Hancock – ‘You’re quite emotional about that’ he said in response to acting so atrocious it would have been called out at a school nativity which will presumably today include Mary and Jesus in masks, wise men keeping their camels six feet apart, and shepherds under tent arrest. System-serving Morgan tweeted this: ‘Love the idea of covid vaccine passports for everywhere: flights, restaurants, clubs, football, gyms,

shops etc. It’s time covid-denying, anti-vaxxer loonies had their bullsh*t bluff called & bar themselves from going anywhere that responsible citizens go.’ If only I could aspire to his genius. To think that Morgan, who specialises in shouting over anyone he disagrees with, was lauded as a free speech hero when he lost his job a er storming off the set of his live show like a child throwing his dolly out of the pram. If he is a free speech hero we are in real trouble. I have no idea what ‘bullsh*t’ means, by the way, the * throws me completely. The Cult is desperate to infuse its synthetic DNA-changing concoction into everyone and has been using every lie, trick and intimidation to do so. The question of ‘Why?’ we shall now address.

CHAPTER TEN Human 2.0 I believe that at the end of the century the use of words and general educated opinion will have altered so much that one will be able to speak of machines thinking without expecting to be contradicted – Alan Turing (1912-1954), the ‘Father of artificial intelligence‘

I

have been exposing for decades the plan to transform the human body from a biological to a synthetic-biological state. The new human that I will call Human 2.0 is planned to be connected to artificial intelligence and a global AI ‘Smart Grid’ that would operate as one global system in which AI would control everything from your fridge to your heating system to your car to your mind. Humans would no longer be ‘human’, but post-human and subhuman, with their thinking and emotional processes replaced by AI. What I said sounded crazy and beyond science fiction and I could understand that. To any balanced, rational, mind it is crazy. Today, however, that world is becoming reality and it puts the ‘Covid vaccine’ into its true context. Ray Kurzweil is the ultra-Zionist ‘computer scientist, inventor and futurist’ and co-founder of the Singularity University. Singularity refers to the merging of humans with machines or ‘transhumanism’. Kurzweil has said humanity would be connected to the cyber ‘cloud’ in the period of the everrecurring year of 2030: Our thinking … will be a hybrid of biological and non-biological thinking … humans will be able to extend their limitations and ‘think in the cloud’ … We’re going to put gateways to the

cloud in our brains ... We’re going to gradually merge and enhance ourselves ... In my view, that’s the nature of being human – we transcend our limitations. As the technology becomes vastly superior to what we are then the small proportion that is still human gets smaller and smaller and smaller until it’s just utterly negligible.

They are trying to sell this end-of-humanity-as-we-know-it as the next stage of ‘evolution’ when we become super-human and ‘like the gods’. They are lying to you. Shocked, eh? The population, and again especially the young, have been manipulated into addiction to technologies designed to enslave them for life. First they induced an addiction to smartphones (holdables); next they moved to technology on the body (wearables); and then began the invasion of the body (implantables). I warned way back about the plan for microchipped people and we are now entering that era. We should not be diverted into thinking that this refers only to chips we can see. Most important are the nanochips known as smart dust, neural dust and nanobots which are far too small to be seen by the human eye. Nanotechnology is everywhere, increasingly in food products, and released into the atmosphere by the geoengineering of the skies funded by Bill Gates to ‘shut out the Sun’ and ‘save the planet from global warming’. Gates has been funding a project to spray millions of tonnes of chalk (calcium carbonate) into the stratosphere over Sweden to ‘dim the Sun’ and cool the Earth. Scientists warned the move could be disastrous for weather systems in ways no one can predict and opposition led to the Swedish space agency announcing that the ‘experiment’ would not be happening as planned in the summer of 2021; but it shows where the Cult is going with dimming the impact of the Sun and there’s an associated plan to change the planet’s atmosphere. Who gives psychopath Gates the right to dictate to the entire human race and dismantle planetary systems? The world will not be safe while this man is at large. The global warming hoax has made the Sun, like the gas of life, something to fear when both are essential to good health and human survival (more inversion). The body transforms sunlight into vital vitamin D through a process involving … cholesterol. This is the cholesterol we are also told to fear. We are urged to take Big Pharma

statin drugs to reduce cholesterol and it’s all systematic. Reducing cholesterol means reducing vitamin D uptake with all the multiple health problems that will cause. At least if you take statins long term it saves the government from having to pay you a pension. The delivery system to block sunlight is widely referred to as chemtrails although these have a much deeper agenda, too. They appear at first to be contrails or condensation trails streaming from aircra into cold air at high altitudes. Contrails disperse very quickly while chemtrails do not and spread out across the sky before eventually their content falls to earth. Many times I have watched aircra crosscross a clear blue sky releasing chemtrails until it looks like a cloudy day. Chemtrails contain many things harmful to humans and the natural world including toxic heavy metals, aluminium (see Alzheimer’s) and nanotechnology. Ray Kurzweil reveals the reason without actually saying so: ‘Nanobots will infuse all the ma er around us with information. Rocks, trees, everything will become these intelligent creatures.’ How do you deliver that? From the sky. Self-replicating nanobots would connect everything to the Smart Grid. The phenomenon of Morgellons disease began in the chemtrail era and the correlation has led to it being dubbed the ‘chemtrail disease’. Self-replicating fibres appear in the body that can be pulled out through the skin. Morgellons fibres continue to grow outside the body and have a form of artificial intelligence. I cover this at greater length in Phantom Self.

‘Vaccine’ operating system ‘Covid vaccines’ with their self-replicating synthetic material are also designed to make the connection between humanity and Kurzweil’s ‘cloud’. American doctor and dedicated campaigner for truth, Carrie Madej, an Internal Medicine Specialist in Georgia with more than 20 years medical experience, has highlighted the nanotechnology aspect of the fake ‘vaccines’. She explains how one of the components in at least the Moderna and Pfizer synthetic potions are ‘lipid nanoparticles’ which are ‘like li le tiny computer bits’ – a ‘sci-fi substance’ known as nanobots and hydrogel which can be ‘triggered

at any moment to deliver its payload’ and act as ‘biosensors’. The synthetic substance had ‘the ability to accumulate data from your body like your breathing, your respiration, thoughts and emotions, all kind of things’ and each syringe could carry a million nanobots: This substance because it’s like little bits of computers in your body, crazy, but it’s true, it can do that, [and] obviously has the ability to act through Wi-Fi. It can receive and transmit energy, messages, frequencies or impulses. That issue has never been addressed by these companies. What does that do to the human? Just imagine getting this substance in you and it can react to things all around you, the 5G, your smart device, your phones, what is happening with that? What if something is triggering it, too, like an impulse, a frequency? We have something completely foreign in the human body.

Madej said her research revealed that electromagnetic (EMF) frequencies emi ed by phones and other devices had increased dramatically in the same period of the ‘vaccine’ rollout and she was seeing more people with radiation problems as 5G and other electromagnetic technology was expanded and introduced to schools and hospitals. She said she was ‘floored with the EMF coming off’ the devices she checked. All this makes total sense and syncs with my own work of decades when you think that Moderna refers in documents to its mRNA ‘vaccine’ as an ‘operating system’: Recognizing the broad potential of mRNA science, we set out to create an mRNA technology platform that functions very much like an operating system on a computer. It is designed so that it can plug and play interchangeably with different programs. In our case, the ‘program’ or ‘app’ is our mRNA drug – the unique mRNA sequence that codes for a protein … … Our MRNA Medicines – ‘The ‘Software Of Life’: When we have a concept for a new mRNA medicine and begin research, fundamental components are already in place. Generally, the only thing that changes from one potential mRNA medicine to another is the coding region – the actual genetic code that instructs ribosomes to make protein. Utilizing these instruction sets gives our investigational mRNA medicines a software-like quality. We also have the ability to combine different mRNA sequences encoding for different proteins in a single mRNA investigational medicine.

Who needs a real ‘virus’ when you can create a computer version to justify infusing your operating system into the entire human race on the road to making living, breathing people into cyborgs? What is missed with the ‘vaccines’ is the digital connection between synthetic material and the body that I highlighted earlier with the study that hacked a computer with human DNA. On one level the body is digital, based on mathematical codes, and I’ll have more about that in the next chapter. Those who ridiculously claim that mRNA ‘vaccines’ are not designed to change human genetics should explain the words of Dr Tal Zaks, chief medical officer at Moderna, in a 2017 TED talk. He said that over the last 30 years ‘we’ve been living this phenomenal digital scientific revolution, and I’m here today to tell you, that we are actually hacking the software of life, and that it’s changing the way we think about prevention and treatment of disease’: In every cell there’s this thing called messenger RNA, or mRNA for short, that transmits the critical information from the DNA in our genes to the protein, which is really the stuff we’re all made out of. This is the critical information that determines what the cell will do. So we think about it as an operating system. So if you could change that, if you could introduce a line of code, or change a line of code, it turns out, that has profound implications for everything, from the flu to cancer.

Zaks should more accurately have said that this has profound implications for the human genetic code and the nature of DNA. Communications within the body go both ways and not only one. But, hey, no, the ‘Covid vaccine’ will not affect your genetics. Cult fact-checkers say so even though the man who helped to develop the mRNA technique says that it does. Zaks said in 2017: If you think about what it is we’re trying to do. We’ve taken information and our understanding of that information and how that information is transmitted in a cell, and we’ve taken our understanding of medicine and how to make drugs, and we’re fusing the two. We think of it as information therapy.

I have been writing for decades that the body is an information field communicating with itself and the wider world. This is why

radiation which is information can change the information field of body and mind through phenomena like 5G and change their nature and function. ‘Information therapy’ means to change the body’s information field and change the way it operates. DNA is a receivertransmi er of information and can be mutated by information like mRNA synthetic messaging. Technology to do this has been ready and waiting in the underground bases and other secret projects to be rolled out when the ‘Covid’ hoax was played. ‘Trials’ of such short and irrelevant duration were only for public consumption. When they say the ‘vaccine’ is ‘experimental’ that is not true. It may appear to be ‘experimental’ to those who don’t know what’s going on, but the trials have already been done to ensure the Cult gets the result it desires. Zaks said that it took decades to sequence the human genome, completed in 2003, but now they could do it in a week. By ‘they’ he means scientists operating in the public domain. In the secret projects they were sequencing the genome in a week long before even 2003.

Deluge of mRNA Highly significantly the Moderna document says the guiding premise is that if using mRNA as a medicine works for one disease then it should work for many diseases. They were leveraging the flexibility afforded by their platform and the fundamental role mRNA plays in protein synthesis to pursue mRNA medicines for a broad spectrum of diseases. Moderna is confirming what I was saying through 2020 that multiple ‘vaccines’ were planned for ‘Covid’ (and later invented ‘variants’) and that previous vaccines would be converted to the mRNA system to infuse the body with massive amounts of genetically-manipulating synthetic material to secure a transformation to a synthetic-biological state. The ‘vaccines’ are designed to kill stunning numbers as part of the long-exposed Cult depopulation agenda and transform the rest. Given this is the goal you can appreciate why there is such hysterical demand for every human to be ‘vaccinated’ for an alleged ‘disease’ that has an estimated ‘infection’ to ‘death’ ratio of 0.23-0.15 percent. As I write

children are being given the ‘vaccine’ in trials (their parents are a disgrace) and ever-younger people are being offered the vaccine for a ‘virus’ that even if you believe it exists has virtually zero chance of harming them. Horrific effects of the ‘trials’ on a 12-year-old girl were revealed by a family member to be serious brain and gastric problems that included a bowel obstruction and the inability to swallow liquids or solids. She was unable to eat or drink without throwing up, had extreme pain in her back, neck and abdomen, and was paralysed from the waist down which stopped her urinating unaided. When the girl was first taken to hospital doctors said it was all in her mind. She was signed up for the ‘trial’ by her parents for whom no words suffice. None of this ‘Covid vaccine’ insanity makes any sense unless you see what the ‘vaccine’ really is – a bodychanger. Synthetic biology or ‘SynBio’ is a fast-emerging and expanding scientific discipline which includes everything from genetic and molecular engineering to electrical and computer engineering. Synthetic biology is defined in these ways: • A multidisciplinary area of research that seeks to create new biological parts, devices, and systems, or to redesign systems that are already found in nature. • The use of a mixture of physical engineering and genetic engineering to create new (and therefore synthetic) life forms. • An emerging field of research that aims to combine the knowledge and methods of biology, engineering and related disciplines in the design of chemically-synthesized DNA to create organisms with novel or enhanced characteristics and traits (synthetic organisms including humans). We now have synthetic blood, skin, organs and limbs being developed along with synthetic body parts produced by 3D printers. These are all elements of the synthetic human programme and this comment by Kurzweil’s co-founder of the Singularity University,

Peter Diamandis, can be seen in a whole new light with the ‘Covid’ hoax and the sanctions against those that refuse the ‘vaccine’: Anybody who is going to be resisting the progress forward [to transhumanism] is going to be resisting evolution and, fundamentally, they will die out. It’s not a matter of whether it’s good or bad. It’s going to happen.

‘Resisting evolution’? What absolute bollocks. The arrogance of these people is without limit. His ‘it’s going to happen’ mantra is another way of saying ‘resistance is futile’ to break the spirit of those pushing back and we must not fall for it. Ge ing this geneticallytransforming ‘vaccine’ into everyone is crucial to the Cult plan for total control and the desperation to achieve that is clear for anyone to see. Vaccine passports are a major factor in this and they, too, are a form of resistance is futile. It’s NOT. The paper funded by the Rockefeller Foundation for the 2013 ‘health conference’ in China said: We will interact more with artificial intelligence. The use of robotics, bio-engineering to augment human functioning is already well underway and will advance. Re-engineering of humans into potentially separate and unequal forms through genetic engineering or mixed human-robots raises debates on ethics and equality. A new demography is projected to emerge after 2030 [that year again] of technologies (robotics, genetic engineering, nanotechnology) producing robots, engineered organisms, ‘nanobots’ and artificial intelligence (AI) that can self-replicate. Debates will grow on the implications of an impending reality of human designed life.

What is happening today is so long planned. The world army enforcing the will of the world government is intended to be a robot army, not a human one. Today’s military and its technologically ‘enhanced’ troops, pilotless planes and driverless vehicles are just stepping stones to that end. Human soldiers are used as Cult fodder and its time they woke up to that and worked for the freedom of the population instead of their own destruction and their family’s destruction – the same with the police. Join us and let’s sort this out. The phenomenon of enforce my own destruction is widespread in the ‘Covid’ era with Woker ‘luvvies’ in the acting and entertainment

industries supporting ‘Covid’ rules which have destroyed their profession and the same with those among the public who put signs on the doors of their businesses ‘closed due to Covid – stay safe’ when many will never reopen. It’s a form of masochism and most certainly insanity.

Transgender = transhumanism When something explodes out of nowhere and is suddenly everywhere it is always the Cult agenda and so it is with the tidal wave of claims and demands that have infiltrated every aspect of society under the heading of ‘transgenderism’. The term ‘trans’ is so ‘in’ and this is the dictionary definition: A prefix meaning ‘across’, ’through’, occurring … in loanwords from Latin, used in particular for denoting movement or conveyance from place to place (transfer; transmit; transplant) or complete change (transform; transmute), or to form adjectives meaning ’crossing’, ‘on the other side of’, or ‘going beyond’ the place named (transmontane; transnational; transSiberian).

Transgender means to go beyond gender and transhuman means to go beyond human. Both are aspects of the Cult plan to transform the human body to a synthetic state with no gender. Human 2.0 is not designed to procreate and would be produced technologically with no need for parents. The new human would mean the end of parents and so men, and increasingly women, are being targeted for the deletion of their rights and status. Parental rights are disappearing at an ever-quickening speed for the same reason. The new human would have no need for men or women when there is no procreation and no gender. Perhaps the transgender movement that appears to be in a permanent state of frenzy might now contemplate on how it is being used. This was never about transgender rights which are only the interim excuse for confusing gender, particularly in the young, on the road to fusing gender. Transgender activism is not an end; it is a means to an end. We see again the technique of creative destruction in which you destroy the status quo to ‘build back be er’ in the form that you want. The gender status quo had to be

destroyed by persuading the Cult-created Woke mentality to believe that you can have 100 genders or more. A programme for 9 to 12 year olds produced by the Cult-owned BBC promoted the 100 genders narrative. The very idea may be the most monumental nonsense, but it is not what is true that counts, only what you can make people believe is true. Once the gender of 2 + 2 = 4 has been dismantled through indoctrination, intimidation and 2 + 2 = 5 then the new no-gender normal can take its place with Human 2.0. Aldous Huxley revealed the plan in his prophetic Brave New World in 1932: Natural reproduction has been done away with and children are created, decanted’, and raised in ‘hatcheries and conditioning centres’. From birth, people are genetically designed to fit into one of five castes, which are further split into ‘Plus’ and ‘Minus’ members and designed to fulfil predetermined positions within the social and economic strata of the World State.

How could Huxley know this in 1932? For the same reason George Orwell knew about the Big Brother state in 1948, Cult insiders I have quoted knew about it in 1969, and I have known about it since the early 1990s. If you are connected to the Cult or you work your balls off to uncover the plan you can predict the future. The process is simple. If there is a plan for the world and nothing intervenes to stop it then it will happen. Thus if you communicate the plan ahead of time you are perceived to have predicted the future, but you haven’t. You have revealed the plan which without intervention will become the human future. The whole reason I have done what I have is to alert enough people to inspire an intervention and maybe at last that time has come with the Cult and its intentions now so obvious to anyone with a brain in working order.

The future is here Technological wombs that Huxley described to replace parent procreation are already being developed and they are only the projects we know about in the public arena. Israeli scientists told The Times of Israel in March, 2021, that they have grown 250-cell embryos

into mouse foetuses with fully formed organs using artificial wombs in a development they say could pave the way for gestating humans outside the womb. Professor Jacob Hanna of the Weizmann Institute of Science said: We took mouse embryos from the mother at day five of development, when they are just of 250 cells, and had them in the incubator from day five until day 11, by which point they had grown all their organs. By day 11 they make their own blood and have a beating heart, a fully developed brain. Anybody would look at them and say, ‘this is clearly a mouse foetus with all the characteristics of a mouse.’ It’s gone from being a ball of cells to being an advanced foetus.

A special liquid is used to nourish embryo cells in a laboratory dish and they float on the liquid to duplicate the first stage of embryonic development. The incubator creates all the right conditions for its development, Hanna said. The liquid gives the embryo ‘all the nutrients, hormones and sugars they need’ along with a custom-made electronic incubator which controls gas concentration, pressure and temperature. The cu ing-edge in the underground bases and other secret locations will be light years ahead of that, however, and this was reported by the London Guardian in 2017: We are approaching a biotechnological breakthrough. Ectogenesis, the invention of a complete external womb, could completely change the nature of human reproduction. In April this year, researchers at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia announced their development of an artificial womb.

The article was headed ‘Artificial wombs could soon be a reality. What will this mean for women?’ What would it mean for children is an even bigger question. No mother to bond with only a machine in preparation for a life of soulless interaction and control in a world governed by machines (see the Matrix movies). Now observe the calculated manipulations of the ‘Covid’ hoax as human interaction and warmth has been curtailed by distancing, isolation and fear with people communicating via machines on a scale never seen before.

These are all dots in the same picture as are all the personal assistants, gadgets and children’s toys through which kids and adults communicate with AI as if it is human. The AI ‘voice’ on SatNav should be included. All these things are psychological preparation for the Cult endgame. Before you can make a physical connection with AI you have to make a psychological connection and that is what people are being conditioned to do with this ever gathering human-AI interaction. Movies and TV programmes depicting the transhuman, robot dystopia relate to a phenomenon known as ‘pre-emptive programming’ in which the world that is planned is portrayed everywhere in movies, TV and advertising. This is conditioning the conscious and subconscious mind to become familiar with the planned reality to dilute resistance when it happens for real. What would have been a shock such is the change is made less so. We have young children put on the road to transgender transition surgery with puberty blocking drugs at an age when they could never be able to make those life-changing decisions. Rachel Levine, a professor of paediatrics and psychiatry who believes in treating children this way, became America’s highestranked openly-transgender official when she was confirmed as US Assistant Secretary at the Department of Health and Human Services a er being nominated by Joe Biden (the Cult). Activists and governments press for laws to deny parents a say in their children’s transition process so the kids can be isolated and manipulated into agreeing to irreversible medical procedures. A Canadian father Robert Hoogland was denied bail by the Vancouver Supreme Court in 2021 and remained in jail for breaching a court order that he stay silent over his young teenage daughter, a minor, who was being offered life-changing hormone therapy without parental consent. At the age of 12 the girl’s ‘school counsellor’ said she may be transgender, referred her to a doctor and told the school to treat her like a boy. This is another example of state-serving schools imposing ever more control over children’s lives while parents have ever less.

Contemptible and extreme child abuse is happening all over the world as the Cult gender-fusion operation goes into warp-speed.

Why the war on men – and now women? The question about what artificial wombs mean for women should rightly be asked. The answer can be seen in the deletion of women’s rights involving sport, changing rooms, toilets and status in favour of people in male bodies claiming to identify as women. I can identify as a mountain climber, but it doesn’t mean I can climb a mountain any more than a biological man can be a biological woman. To believe so is a triumph of belief over factual reality which is the very perceptual basis of everything Woke. Women’s sport is being destroyed by allowing those with male bodies who say they identify as female to ‘compete’ with girls and women. Male body ‘women’ dominate ‘women’s’ competition with their greater muscle mass, bone density, strength and speed. With that disadvantage sport for women loses all meaning. To put this in perspective nearly 300 American high school boys can run faster than the quickest woman sprinter in the world. Women are seeing their previously protected spaces invaded by male bodies simply because they claim to identify as women. That’s all they need to do to access all women’s spaces and activities under the Biden ‘Equality Act’ that destroys equality for women with the usual Orwellian Woke inversion. Male sex offenders have already commi ed rapes in women’s prisons a er claiming to identify as women to get them transferred. Does this not ma er to the Woke ‘equality’ hypocrites? Not in the least. What ma ers to Cult manipulators and funders behind transgender activists is to advance gender fusion on the way to the no-gender ‘human’. When you are seeking to impose transparent nonsense like this, or the ‘Covid’ hoax, the only way the nonsense can prevail is through censorship and intimidation of dissenters, deletion of factual information, and programming of the unquestioning, bewildered and naive. You don’t have to scan the world for long to see that all these things are happening.

Many women’s rights organisations have realised that rights and status which took such a long time to secure are being eroded and that it is systematic. Kara Dansky of the global Women’s Human Rights Campaign said that Biden’s transgender executive order immediately he took office, subsequent orders, and Equality Act legislation that followed ‘seek to erase women and girls in the law as a category’. Exactly. I said during the long ago-started war on men (in which many women play a crucial part) that this was going to turn into a war on them. The Cult is phasing out both male and female genders. To get away with that they are brought into conflict so they are busy fighting each other while the Cult completes the job with no unity of response. Unity, people, unity. We need unity everywhere. Transgender is the only show in town as the big step towards the no-gender human. It’s not about rights for transgender people and never has been. Woke political correctness is deleting words relating to genders to the same end. Wokers believe this is to be ‘inclusive’ when the opposite is true. They are deleting words describing gender because gender itself is being deleted by Human 2.0. Terms like ‘man’, ‘woman’, ‘mother’ and ‘father’ are being deleted in the universities and other institutions to be replaced by the no-gender, not trans-gender, ‘individuals’ and ‘guardians’. Women’s rights campaigner Maria Keffler of Partners for Ethical Care said: ‘Children are being taught from kindergarten upward that some boys have a vagina, some girls have a penis, and that kids can be any gender they want to be.’ Do we really believe that suddenly countries all over the world at the same time had the idea of having drag queens go into schools or read transgender stories to very young children in the local library? It’s coldly-calculated confusion of gender on the way to the fusion of gender. Suzanne Vierling, a psychologist from Southern California, made another important point: Yesterday’s slave woman who endured gynecological medical experiments is today’s girlchild being butchered in a booming gender-transitioning sector. Ovaries removed, pushing her into menopause and osteoporosis, uncharted territory, and parents’ rights and authority decimated.

The erosion of parental rights is a common theme in line with the Cult plans to erase the very concept of parents and ‘ovaries removed, pushing her into menopause’ means what? Those born female lose the ability to have children – another way to discontinue humanity as we know it.

Eliminating Human 1.0 (before our very eyes) To pave the way for Human 2.0 you must phase out Human 1.0. This is happening through plummeting sperm counts and making women infertile through an onslaught of chemicals, radiation (including smartphones in pockets of men) and mRNA ‘vaccines’. Common agriculture pesticides are also having a devastating impact on human fertility. I have been tracking collapsing sperm counts in the books for a long time and in 2021 came a book by fertility scientist and reproductive epidemiologist Shanna Swan, Count Down: How Our Modern World Is Threatening Sperm Counts, Altering Male and Female Reproductive Development and Imperiling the Future of the Human Race. She reports how the global fertility rate dropped by half between 1960 and 2016 with America’s birth rate 16 percent below where it needs to be to sustain the population. Women are experiencing declining egg quality, more miscarriages, and more couples suffer from infertility. Other findings were an increase in erectile dysfunction, infant boys developing more genital abnormalities, male problems with conception, and plunging levels of the male hormone testosterone which would explain why so many men have lost their backbone and masculinity. This has been very evident during the ‘Covid’ hoax when women have been prominent among the Pushbackers and big strapping blokes have bowed their heads, covered their faces with a nappy and quietly submi ed. Mind control expert Cathy O’Brien also points to how global education introduced the concept of ‘we’re all winners’ in sport and classrooms: ‘Competition was defused, and it in turn defused a sense of fighting back.’ This is another version of the ‘equity’ doctrine in which you drive down rather than raise up. What a contrast in Cult-controlled China with its global ambitions

where the government published plans in January, 2021, to ‘cultivate masculinity’ in boys from kindergarten through to high school in the face of a ‘masculinity crisis’. A government adviser said boys would be soon become ‘delicate, timid and effeminate’ unless action was taken. Don’t expect any similar policy in the targeted West. A 2006 study showed that a 65-year-old man in 2002 had testosterone levels 15 percent lower than a 65-year-old man in 1987 while a 2020 study found a similar story with young adults and adolescents. Men are ge ing prescriptions for testosterone replacement therapy which causes an even greater drop in sperm count with up to 99 percent seeing sperm counts drop to zero during the treatment. More sperm is defective and malfunctioning with some having two heads or not pursuing an egg. A class of synthetic chemicals known as phthalates are being blamed for the decline. These are found everywhere in plastics, shampoos, cosmetics, furniture, flame retardants, personal care products, pesticides, canned foods and even receipts. Why till receipts? Everyone touches them. Let no one delude themselves that all this is not systematic to advance the long-time agenda for human body transformation. Phthalates mimic hormones and disrupt the hormone balance causing testosterone to fall and genital birth defects in male infants. Animals and fish have been affected in the same way due to phthalates and other toxins in rivers. When fish turn gay or change sex through chemicals in rivers and streams it is a pointer to why there has been such an increase in gay people and the sexually confused. It doesn’t ma er to me what sexuality people choose to be, but if it’s being affected by chemical pollution and consumption then we need to know. Does anyone really think that this is not connected to the transgender agenda, the war on men and the condemnation of male ‘toxic masculinity’? You watch this being followed by ‘toxic femininity’. It’s already happening. When breastfeeding becomes ‘chest-feeding’, pregnant women become pregnant people along with all the other Woke claptrap you know that the world is going insane and there’s a Cult scam in progress. Transgender activists are promoting the Cult agenda while Cult

billionaires support and fund the insanity as they laugh themselves to sleep at the sheer stupidity for which humans must be infamous in galaxies far, far away.

‘Covid vaccines’ and female infertility We can now see why the ‘vaccine’ has been connected to potential infertility in women. Dr Michael Yeadon, former Vice President and Chief Scientific Advisor at Pfizer, and Dr Wolfgang Wodarg in Germany, filed a petition with the European Medicines Agency in December, 2020, urging them to stop trials for the Pfizer/BioNTech shot and all other mRNA trials until further studies had been done. They were particularly concerned about possible effects on fertility with ‘vaccine’-produced antibodies a acking the protein Syncytin-1 which is responsible for developing the placenta. The result would be infertility ‘of indefinite duration’ in women who have the ‘vaccine’ with the placenta failing to form. Section 10.4.2 of the Pfizer/BioNTech trial protocol says that pregnant women or those who might become so should not have mRNA shots. Section 10.4 warns men taking mRNA shots to ‘be abstinent from heterosexual intercourse’ and not to donate sperm. The UK government said that it did not know if the mRNA procedure had an effect on fertility. Did not know? These people have to go to jail. UK government advice did not recommend at the start that pregnant women had the shot and said they should avoid pregnancy for at least two months a er ‘vaccination’. The ‘advice’ was later updated to pregnant women should only have the ‘vaccine’ if the benefits outweighed the risks to mother and foetus. What the hell is that supposed to mean? Then ‘spontaneous abortions’ began to appear and rapidly increase on the adverse reaction reporting schemes which include only a fraction of adverse reactions. Thousands and ever-growing numbers of ‘vaccinated’ women are describing changes to their menstrual cycle with heavier blood flow, irregular periods and menstruating again a er going through the menopause – all links to reproduction effects. Women are passing blood clots and the lining of their uterus while men report erectile dysfunction and blood effects. Most

significantly of all unvaccinated women began to report similar menstrual changes a er interaction with ‘vaccinated’ people and men and children were also affected with bleeding noses, blood clots and other conditions. ‘Shedding’ is when vaccinated people can emit the content of a vaccine to affect the unvaccinated, but this is different. ‘Vaccinated’ people were not shedding a ‘live virus’ allegedly in ‘vaccines’ as before because the fake ‘Covid vaccines’ involve synthetic material and other toxicity. Doctors exposing what is happening prefer the term ‘transmission’ to shedding. Somehow those that have had the shots are transmi ing effects to those that haven’t. Dr Carrie Madej said the nano-content of the ‘vaccines’ can ‘act like an antenna’ to others around them which fits perfectly with my own conclusions. This ‘vaccine’ transmission phenomenon was becoming known as the book went into production and I deal with this further in the Postscript. Vaccine effects on sterility are well known. The World Health Organization was accused in 2014 of sterilising millions of women in Kenya with the evidence confirmed by the content of the vaccines involved. The same WHO behind the ‘Covid’ hoax admi ed its involvement for more than ten years with the vaccine programme. Other countries made similar claims. Charges were lodged by Tanzania, Nicaragua, Mexico, and the Philippines. The Gardasil vaccine claimed to protect against a genital ‘virus’ known as HPV has also been linked to infertility. Big Pharma and the WHO (same thing) are criminal and satanic entities. Then there’s the Bill Gates Foundation which is connected through funding and shared interests with 20 pharmaceutical giants and laboratories. He stands accused of directing the policy of United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), vaccine alliance GAVI, and other groupings, to advance the vaccine agenda and silence opposition at great cost to women and children. At the same time Gates wants to reduce the global population. Coincidence?

Great Reset = Smart Grid = new human

The Cult agenda I have been exposing for 30 years is now being openly promoted by Cult assets like Gates and Klaus Schwab of the World Economic Forum under code-terms like the ‘Great Reset’, ‘Build Back Be er’ and ‘a rare but narrow window of opportunity to reflect, reimagine, and reset our world’. What provided this ‘rare but narrow window of opportunity’? The ‘Covid’ hoax did. Who created that? They did. My books from not that long ago warned about the planned ‘Internet of Things’ (IoT) and its implications for human freedom. This was the plan to connect all technology to the Internet and artificial intelligence and today we are way down that road with an estimated 36 billion devices connected to the World Wide Web and that figure is projected to be 76 billion by 2025. I further warned that the Cult planned to go beyond that to the Internet of Everything when the human brain was connected via AI to the Internet and Kurzweil’s ‘cloud’. Now we have Cult operatives like Schwab calling for precisely that under the term ‘Internet of Bodies’, a fusion of the physical, digital and biological into one centrally-controlled Smart Grid system which the Cult refers to as the ‘Fourth Industrial Revolution’. They talk about the ‘biological’, but they really mean the synthetic-biological which is required to fully integrate the human body and brain into the Smart Grid and artificial intelligence planned to replace the human mind. We have everything being synthetically manipulated including the natural world through GMO and smart dust, the food we eat and the human body itself with synthetic ‘vaccines’. I said in The Answer that we would see the Cult push for synthetic meat to replace animals and in February, 2021, the so predictable psychopath Bill Gates called for the introduction of synthetic meat to save us all from ‘climate change’. The climate hoax just keeps on giving like the ‘Covid’ hoax. The war on meat by vegan activists is a carbon (oops, sorry) copy of the manipulation of transgender activists. They have no idea (except their inner core) that they are being used to promote and impose the agenda of the Cult or that they are only the vehicle and not the reason. This is not to say those who choose not to eat meat shouldn’t be respected and supported in that right, but there are ulterior motives

for those in power. A Forbes article in December, 2019, highlighted the plan so beloved of Schwab and the Cult under the heading: ‘What Is The Internet of Bodies? And How Is It Changing Our World?’ The article said the human body is the latest data platform (remember ‘our vaccine is an operating system’). Forbes described the plan very accurately and the words could have come straight out of my books from long before: The Internet of Bodies (IoB) is an extension of the IoT and basically connects the human body to a network through devices that are ingested, implanted, or connected to the body in some way. Once connected, data can be exchanged, and the body and device can be remotely monitored and controlled.

They were really describing a human hive mind with human perception centrally-dictated via an AI connection as well as allowing people to be ‘remotely monitored and controlled’. Everything from a fridge to a human mind could be directed from a central point by these insane psychopaths and ‘Covid vaccines’ are crucial to this. Forbes explained the process I mentioned earlier of holdable and wearable technology followed by implantable. The article said there were three generations of the Internet of Bodies that include: • Body external: These are wearable devices such as Apple Watches or Fitbits that can monitor our health. • Body internal: These include pacemakers, cochlear implants, and digital pills that go inside our bodies to monitor or control various aspects of health. • Body embedded: The third generation of the Internet of Bodies is embedded technology where technology and the human body are melded together and have a real-time connection to a remote machine.

Forbes noted the development of the Brain Computer Interface (BCI) which merges the brain with an external device for monitoring and controlling in real-time. ‘The ultimate goal is to help restore function to individuals with disabilities by using brain signals rather than conventional neuromuscular pathways.’ Oh, do fuck off. The goal of brain interface technology is controlling human thought and emotion from the central point in a hive mind serving its masters wishes. Many people are now agreeing to be chipped to open doors without a key. You can recognise them because they’ll be wearing a mask, social distancing and lining up for the ‘vaccine’. The Cult plans a Great Reset money system a er they have completed the demolition of the global economy in which ‘money’ will be exchanged through communication with body operating systems. Rand Corporation, a Cult-owned think tank, said of the Internet of Bodies or IoB: Internet of Bodies technologies fall under the broader IoT umbrella. But as the name suggests, IoB devices introduce an even more intimate interplay between humans and gadgets. IoB devices monitor the human body, collect health metrics and other personal information, and transmit those data over the Internet. Many devices, such as fitness trackers, are already in use … IoB devices … and those in development can track, record, and store users’ whereabouts, bodily functions, and what they see, hear, and even think.

Schwab’s World Economic Forum, a long-winded way of saying ‘fascism’ or ‘the Cult’, has gone full-on with the Internet of Bodies in the ‘Covid’ era. ‘We’re entering the era of the Internet of Bodies’, it declared, ‘collecting our physical data via a range of devices that can be implanted, swallowed or worn’. The result would be a huge amount of health-related data that could improve human wellbeing around the world, and prove crucial in fighting the ‘Covid-19 pandemic’. Does anyone think these clowns care about ‘human wellbeing’ a er the death and devastation their pandemic hoax has purposely caused? Schwab and co say we should move forward with the Internet of Bodies because ‘Keeping track of symptoms could help us stop the spread of infection, and quickly detect new cases’. How wonderful, but keeping track’ is all they are really bothered

about. Researchers were investigating if data gathered from smartwatches and similar devices could be used as viral infection alerts by tracking the user’s heart rate and breathing. Schwab said in his 2018 book Shaping the Future of the Fourth Industrial Revolution: The lines between technologies and beings are becoming blurred and not just by the ability to create lifelike robots or synthetics. Instead it is about the ability of new technologies to literally become part of us. Technologies already influence how we understand ourselves, how we think about each other, and how we determine our realities. As the technologies … give us deeper access to parts of ourselves, we may begin to integrate digital technologies into our bodies.

You can see what the game is. Twenty-four hour control and people – if you could still call them that – would never know when something would go ping and take them out of circulation. It’s the most obvious rush to a global fascist dictatorship and the complete submission of humanity and yet still so many are locked away in their Cult-induced perceptual coma and can’t see it.

Smart Grid control centres The human body is being transformed by the ‘vaccines’ and in other ways into a synthetic cyborg that can be a ached to the global Smart Grid which would be controlled from a central point and other sublocations of Grid manipulation. Where are these planned to be? Well, China for a start which is one of the Cult’s biggest centres of operation. The technological control system and technocratic rule was incubated here to be unleashed across the world a er the ‘Covid’ hoax came out of China in 2020. Another Smart Grid location that will surprise people new to this is Israel. I have exposed in The Trigger how Sabbatian technocrats, intelligence and military operatives were behind the horrors of 9/11 and not 1` 9 Arab hijackers’ who somehow manifested the ability to pilot big passenger airliners when instructors at puddle-jumping flying schools described some of them as a joke. The 9/11 a acks were made possible through control of civilian and military air computer systems and those of the White House, Pentagon and connected agencies. See The Trigger – it

will blow your mind. The controlling and coordinating force were the Sabbatian networks in Israel and the United States which by then had infiltrated the entire US government, military and intelligence system. The real name of the American Deep State is ‘Sabbatian State’. Israel is a tiny country of only nine million people, but it is one of the global centres of cyber operations and fast catching Silicon Valley in importance to the Cult. Israel is known as the ‘start-up nation’ for all the cyber companies spawned there with the Sabbatian specialisation of ‘cyber security’ that I mentioned earlier which gives those companies access to computer systems of their clients in real time through ‘backdoors’ wri en into the coding when security so ware is downloaded. The Sabbatian centre of cyber operations outside Silicon Valley is the Israeli military Cyber Intelligence Unit, the biggest infrastructure project in Israel’s history, headquartered in the desert-city of Beersheba and involving some 20,000 ‘cyber soldiers’. Here are located a literal army of Internet trolls scanning social media, forums and comment lists for anyone challenging the Cult agenda. The UK military has something similar with its 77th Brigade and associated operations. The Beersheba complex includes research and development centres for other Cult operations such as Intel, Microso , IBM, Google, Apple, Hewle Packard, Cisco Systems, Facebook and Motorola. Techcrunch.com ran an article about the Beersheba global Internet technology centre headlined ‘Israel’s desert city of Beersheba is turning into a cybertech oasis’: The military’s massive relocation of its prestigious technology units, the presence of multinational and local companies, a close proximity to Ben Gurion University and generous government subsidies are turning Beersheba into a major global cybertech hub. Beersheba has all of the ingredients of a vibrant security technology ecosystem, including Ben Gurion University with its graduate program in cybersecurity and Cyber Security Research Center, and the presence of companies such as EMC, Deutsche Telekom, PayPal, Oracle, IBM, and Lockheed Martin. It’s also the future home of the INCB (Israeli National Cyber Bureau); offers a special income tax incentive for cyber security companies, and was the site for the relocation of the army’s intelligence corps units.

Sabbatians have taken over the cyber world through the following process: They scan the schools for likely cyber talent and develop them at Ben Gurion University and their period of conscription in the Israeli Defense Forces when they are stationed at the Beersheba complex. When the cyber talented officially leave the army they are funded to start cyber companies with technology developed by themselves or given to them by the state. Much of this is stolen through backdoors of computer systems around the world with America top of the list. Others are sent off to Silicon Valley to start companies or join the major ones and so we have many major positions filled by apparently ‘Jewish’ but really Sabbatian operatives. Google, YouTube and Facebook are all run by ‘Jewish’ CEOs while Twi er is all but run by ultra-Zionist hedge-fund shark Paul Singer. At the centre of the Sabbatian global cyber web is the Israeli army’s Unit 8200 which specialises in hacking into computer systems of other countries, inserting viruses, gathering information, instigating malfunction, and even taking control of them from a distance. A long list of Sabbatians involved with 9/11, Silicon Valley and Israeli cyber security companies are operatives of Unit 8200. This is not about Israel. It’s about the Cult. Israel is planned to be a Smart Grid hub as with China and what is happening at Beersheba is not for the benefit of Jewish people who are treated disgustingly by the Sabbatian elite that control the country. A glance at the Nuremberg Codes will tell you that. The story is much bigger than ‘Covid’, important as that is to where we are being taken. Now, though, it’s time to really strap in. There’s more … much more …

CHAPTER ELEVEN Who controls the Cult? Awake, arise or be forever fall’n John Milton, Paradise Lost

I

have exposed this far the level of the Cult conspiracy that operates in the world of the seen and within the global secret society and satanic network which operates in the shadows one step back from the seen. The story, however, goes much deeper than that. The ‘Covid’ hoax is major part of the Cult agenda, but only part, and to grasp the biggest picture we have to expand our a ention beyond the realm of human sight and into the infinity of possibility that we cannot see. It is from here, ultimately, that humanity is being manipulated into a state of total control by the force which dictates the actions of the Cult. How much of reality can we see? Next to damn all is the answer. We may appear to see all there is to see in the ‘space’ our eyes survey and observe, but li le could be further from the truth. The human ‘world’ is only a tiny band of frequency that the body’s visual and perceptual systems can decode into perception of a ‘world’. According to mainstream science the electromagnetic spectrum is 0.005 percent of what exists in the Universe (Fig 10). The maximum estimate I have seen is 0.5 percent and either way it’s miniscule. I say it is far, far, smaller even than 0.005 percent when you compare reality we see with the totality of reality that we don’t. Now get this if you are new to such information: Visible light, the only band of frequency that we can see, is a fraction of the 0.005

percent (Fig 11 overleaf). Take this further and realise that our universe is one of infinite universes and that universes are only a fragment of overall reality – infinite reality. Then compare that with the almost infinitesimal frequency band of visible light or human sight. You see that humans are as near blind as it is possible to be without actually being so. Artist and filmmaker, Sergio Toporek, said:

Figure 10: Humans can perceive such a tiny band of visual reality it’s laughable.

Figure 11: We can see a smear of the 0.005 percent electromagnetic spectrum, but we still know it all. Yep, makes sense. Consider that you can see less than 1% of the electromagnetic spectrum and hear less than 1% of the acoustic spectrum. 90% of the cells in your body carry their own microbial DNA and are not ‘you’. The atoms in your body are 99.9999999999999999% empty space and none of them are the ones you were born with ... Human beings have 46 chromosomes, two less than a potato.

The existence of the rainbow depends on the conical photoreceptors in your eyes; to animals without cones, the rainbow does not exist. So you don’t just look at a rainbow, you create it. This is pretty amazing, especially considering that all the beautiful colours you see represent less than 1% of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Suddenly the ‘world’ of humans looks a very different place. Take into account, too, that Planet Earth when compared with the projected size of this single universe is the equivalent of a billionth of a pinhead. Imagine the ratio that would be when compared to infinite reality. To think that Christianity once insisted that Earth and humanity were the centre of everything. This background is vital if we are going to appreciate the nature of ‘human’ and how we can be manipulated by an unseen force. To human visual reality virtually everything is unseen and yet the prevailing perception within the institutions and so much of the public is that if we can’t see it, touch it, hear it, taste it and smell it then it cannot exist. Such perception is indoctrinated and encouraged by the Cult and its agents because it isolates believers in the strictly limited, village-idiot, realm of the five senses where perceptions can be firewalled and information controlled. Most of those perpetuating the ‘this-world-is-all-there-is’ insanity are themselves indoctrinated into believing the same delusion. While major players and influencers know that official reality is laughable most of those in science, academia and medicine really believe the nonsense they peddle and teach succeeding generations. Those who challenge the orthodoxy are dismissed as nu ers and freaks to protect the manufactured illusion from exposure. Observe the dynamic of the ‘Covid’ hoax and you will see how that takes the same form. The inner-circle psychopaths knows it’s a gigantic scam, but almost the entirety of those imposing their fascist rules believe that ‘Covid’ is all that they’re told it is.

Stolen identity Ask people who they are and they will give you their name, place of birth, location, job, family background and life story. Yet that is not who they are – it is what they are experiencing. The difference is absolutely crucial. The true ‘I’, the eternal, infinite ‘I’, is consciousness,

a state of being aware. Forget ‘form’. That is a vehicle for a brief experience. Consciousness does not come from the brain, but through the brain and even that is more symbolic than literal. We are awareness, pure awareness, and this is what withdraws from the body at what we call ‘death’ to continue our eternal beingness, isness, in other realms of reality within the limitlessness of infinity or the Biblical ‘many mansions in my father’s house’. Labels of a human life, man, woman, transgender, black, white, brown, nationality, circumstances and income are not who we are. They are what we are – awareness – is experiencing in a brief connection with a band of frequency we call ‘human’. The labels are not the self; they are, to use the title of one of my books, a Phantom Self. I am not David Icke born in Leicester, England, on April 29th, 1952. I am the consciousness having that experience. The Cult and its non-human masters seek to convince us through the institutions of ‘education’, science, medicine, media and government that what we are experiencing is who we are. It’s so easy to control and direct perception locked away in the bewildered illusions of the five senses with no expanded radar. Try, by contrast, doing the same with a humanity aware of its true self and its true power to consciously create its reality and experience. How is it possible to do this? We do it all day every day. If you perceive yourself as ‘li le me’ with no power to impact upon your life and the world then your life experience will reflect that. You will hand the power you don’t think you have to authority in all its forms which will use it to control your experience. This, in turn, will appear to confirm your perception of ‘li le me’ in a self-fulfilling feedback loop. But that is what ‘li le me’ really is – a perception. We are all ‘big-me’, infinite me, and the Cult has to make us forget that if its will is to prevail. We are therefore manipulated and pressured into self-identifying with human labels and not the consciousness/awareness experiencing those human labels. The phenomenon of identity politics is a Cult-instigated manipulation technique to sub-divide previous labels into even smaller ones. A United States university employs this list of le ers to

describe student identity: LGBTTQQFAGPBDSM or lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, transsexual, queer, questioning, flexual, asexual, gender-fuck, polyamorous, bondage/discipline, dominance/submission and sadism/masochism. I’m sure other lists are even longer by now as people feel the need to self-identity the ‘I’ with the minutiae of race and sexual preference. Wokers programmed by the Cult for generations believe this is about ‘inclusivity’ when it’s really the Cult locking them away into smaller and smaller versions of Phantom Self while firewalling them from the influence of their true self, the infinite, eternal ‘I’. You may notice that my philosophy which contends that we are all unique points of a ention/awareness within the same infinite whole or Oneness is the ultimate non-racism. The very sense of Oneness makes the judgement of people by their body-type, colour or sexuality u erly ridiculous and confirms that racism has no understanding of reality (including anti-white racism). Yet despite my perception of life Cult agents and fast-asleep Wokers label me racist to discredit my information while they are themselves phenomenally racist and sexist. All they see is race and sexuality and they judge people as good or bad, demons or untouchables, by their race and sexuality. All they see is Phantom Self and perceive themselves in terms of Phantom Self. They are pawns and puppets of the Cult agenda to focus a ention and self-identity in the five senses and play those identities against each other to divide and rule. Columbia University has introduced segregated graduations in another version of social distancing designed to drive people apart and teach them that different racial and cultural groups have nothing in common with each other. The last thing the Cult wants is unity. Again the pumpprimers of this will be Cult operatives in the knowledge of what they are doing, but the rest are just the Phantom Self blind leading the Phantom Self blind. We do have something in common – we are all the same consciousness having different temporary experiences.

What is this ‘human’?

Yes, what is ‘human’? That is what we are supposed to be, right? I mean ‘human’? True, but ‘human’ is the experience not the ‘I’. Break it down to basics and ‘human’ is the way that information is processed. If we are to experience and interact with this band of frequency we call the ‘world’ we must have a vehicle that operates within that band of frequency. Our consciousness in its prime form cannot do that; it is way beyond the frequency of the human realm. My consciousness or awareness could not tap these keys and pick up the cup in front of me in the same way that radio station A cannot interact with radio station B when they are on different frequencies. The human body is the means through which we have that interaction. I have long described the body as a biological computer which processes information in a way that allows consciousness to experience this reality. The body is a receiver, transmi er and processor of information in a particular way that we call human. We visually perceive only the world of the five senses in a wakened state – that is the limit of the body’s visual decoding system. In truth it’s not even visual in the way we experience ‘visual reality’ as I will come to in a moment. We are ‘human’ because the body processes the information sources of human into a reality and behaviour system that we perceive as human. Why does an elephant act like an elephant and not like a human or a duck? The elephant’s biological computer is a different information field and processes information according to that program into a visual and behaviour type we call an elephant. The same applies to everything in our reality. These body information fields are perpetuated through procreation (like making a copy of a so ware program). The Cult wants to break that cycle and intervene technologically to transform the human information field into one that will change what we call humanity. If it can change the human information field it will change the way that field processes information and change humanity both ‘physically’ and psychologically. Hence the messenger (information) RNA ‘vaccines’ and so much more that is targeting human genetics by changing the body’s information – messaging – construct through food, drink, radiation, toxicity and other means.

Reality that we experience is nothing like reality as it really is in the same way that the reality people experience in virtual reality games is not the reality they are really living in. The game is only a decoded source of information that appears to be a reality. Our world is also an information construct – a simulation (more later). In its base form our reality is a wavefield of information much the same in theme as Wi-Fi. The five senses decode wavefield information into electrical information which they communicate to the brain to decode into holographic (illusory ‘physical’) information. Different parts of the brain specialise in decoding different senses and the information is fused into a reality that appears to be outside of us but is really inside the brain and the genetic structure in general (Fig 12 overleaf). DNA is a receiver-transmi er of information and a vital part of this decoding process and the body’s connection to other realities. Change DNA and you change the way we decode and connect with reality – see ‘Covid vaccines’. Think of computers decoding Wi-Fi. You have information encoded in a radiation field and the computer decodes that information into a very different form on the screen. You can’t see the Wi-Fi until its information is made manifest on the screen and the information on the screen is inside the computer and not outside. I have just described how we decode the ‘human world’. All five senses decode the waveform ‘WiFi’ field into electrical signals and the brain (computer) constructs reality inside the brain and not outside – ‘You don’t just look at a rainbow, you create it’. Sound is a simple example. We don’t hear sound until the brain decodes it. Waveform sound waves are picked up by the hearing sense and communicated to the brain in an electrical form to be decoded into the sounds that we hear. Everything we hear is inside the brain along with everything we see, feel, smell and taste. Words and language are waveform fields generated by our vocal chords which pass through this process until they are decoded by the brain into words that we hear. Different languages are different frequency fields or sound waves generated by vocal chords. Late British philosopher Alan Wa s said:

Figure 12: The brain receives information from the five senses and constructs from that our perceived reality. [Without the brain] the world is devoid of light, heat, weight, solidity, motion, space, time or any other imaginable feature. All these phenomena are interactions, or transactions, of vibrations with a certain arrangement of neurons.

That’s exactly what they are and scientist Robert Lanza describes in his book, Biocentrism, how we decode electromagnetic waves and energy into visual and ‘physical’ experience. He uses the example of a flame emi ing photons, electromagnetic energy, each pulsing electrically and magnetically: … these … invisible electromagnetic waves strike a human retina, and if (and only if) the waves happen to measure between 400 and 700 nano meters in length from crest to crest, then their energy is just right to deliver a stimulus to the 8 million cone-shaped cells in the retina. Each in turn send an electrical pulse to a neighbour neuron, and on up the line this goes, at 250 mph, until it reaches the … occipital lobe of the brain, in the back of the head. There, a cascading complex of neurons fire from the incoming stimuli, and we subjectively perceive this experience as a yellow brightness occurring in a place we have been conditioned to call the ‘external world’.

You hear what you decode

If a tree falls or a building collapses they make no noise unless someone is there to decode the energetic waves generated by the disturbance into what we call sound. Does a falling tree make a noise? Only if you hear it – decode it. Everything in our reality is a frequency field of information operating within the overall ‘Wi-Fi’ field that I call The Field. A vibrational disturbance is generated in The Field by the fields of the falling tree or building. These disturbance waves are what we decode into the sound of them falling. If no one is there to do that then neither will make any noise. Reality is created by the observer – decoder – and the perceptions of the observer affect the decoding process. For this reason different people – different perceptions – will perceive the same reality or situation in a different way. What one may perceive as a nightmare another will see as an opportunity. The question of why the Cult is so focused on controlling human perception now answers itself. All experienced reality is the act of decoding and we don’t experience Wi-Fi until it is decoded on the computer screen. The sight and sound of an Internet video is encoded in the Wi-Fi all around us, but we don’t see or hear it until the computer decodes that information. Taste, smell and touch are all phenomena of the brain as a result of the same process. We don’t taste, smell or feel anything except in the brain and there are pain relief techniques that seek to block the signal from the site of discomfort to the brain because if the brain doesn’t decode that signal we don’t feel pain. Pain is in the brain and only appears to be at the point of impact thanks to the feedback loop between them. We don’t see anything until electrical information from the sight senses is decoded in an area at the back of the brain. If that area is damaged we can go blind when our eyes are perfectly okay. So why do we go blind if we damage an eye? We damage the information processing between the waveform visual information and the visual decoding area of the brain. If information doesn’t reach the brain in a form it can decode then we can’t see the visual reality that it represents. What’s more the brain is decoding only a fraction of the information it receives and the rest is absorbed by the

sub-conscious mind. This explanation is from the science magazine, Wonderpedia: Every second, 11 million sensations crackle along these [brain] pathways ... The brain is confronted with an alarming array of images, sounds and smells which it rigorously filters down until it is left with a manageable list of around 40. Thus 40 sensations per second make up what we perceive as reality.

The ‘world’ is not what people are told to believe that is it and the inner circles of the Cult know that.

Illusory ‘physical’ reality We can only see a smear of 0.005 percent of the Universe which is only one of a vast array of universes – ‘mansions’ – within infinite reality. Even then the brain decodes only 40 pieces of information (‘sensations’) from a potential 11 million that we receive every second. Two points strike you from this immediately: The sheer breathtaking stupidity of believing we know anything so rigidly that there’s nothing more to know; and the potential for these processes to be manipulated by a malevolent force to control the reality of the population. One thing I can say for sure with no risk of contradiction is that when you can perceive an almost indescribable fraction of infinite reality there is always more to know as in tidal waves of it. Ancient Greek philosopher Socrates was so right when he said that wisdom is to know how li le we know. How obviously true that is when you think that we are experiencing a physical world of solidity that is neither physical nor solid and a world of apartness when everything is connected. Cult-controlled ‘science’ dismisses the socalled ‘paranormal’ and all phenomena related to that when the ‘para’-normal is perfectly normal and explains the alleged ‘great mysteries’ which dumbfound scientific minds. There is a reason for this. A ‘scientific mind’ in terms of the mainstream is a material mind, a five-sense mind imprisoned in see it, touch it, hear it, smell it and taste it. Phenomena and happenings that can’t be explained that way leave the ‘scientific mind’ bewildered and the rule is that if they

can’t account for why something is happening then it can’t, by definition, be happening. I beg to differ. Telepathy is thought waves passing through The Field (think wave disturbance again) to be decoded by someone able to connect with that wavelength (information). For example: You can pick up the thought waves of a friend at any distance and at the very least that will bring them to mind. A few minutes later the friend calls you. ‘My god’, you say, ‘that’s incredible – I was just thinking of you.’ Ah, but they were thinking of you before they made the call and that’s what you decoded. Native peoples not entrapped in five-sense reality do this so well it became known as the ‘bush telegraph’. Those known as psychics and mediums (genuine ones) are doing the same only across dimensions of reality. ‘Mind over ma er’ comes from the fact that ma er and mind are the same. The state of one influences the state of the other. Indeed one and the other are illusions. They are aspects of the same field. Paranormal phenomena are all explainable so why are they still considered ‘mysteries’ or not happening? Once you go down this road of understanding you begin to expand awareness beyond the five senses and that’s the nightmare for the Cult.

Figure 13: Holograms are not solid, but the best ones appear to be.

Figure 14: How holograms are created by capturing a waveform version of the subject image.

Holographic ‘solidity’ Our reality is not solid, it is holographic. We are now well aware of holograms which are widely used today. Two-dimensional information is decoded into a three-dimensional reality that is not solid although can very much appear to be (Fig 13). Holograms are created with a laser divided into two parts. One goes directly onto a holographic photographic print (‘reference beam’) and the other takes a waveform image of the subject (‘working beam’) before being directed onto the print where it ‘collides’ with the other half of the laser (Fig 14). This creates a waveform interference pa ern which contains the wavefield information of whatever is being photographed (Fig 15 overleaf). The process can be likened to dropping pebbles in a pond. Waves generated by each one spread out across the water to collide with the others and create a wave representation of where the stones fell and at what speed, weight and distance. A waveform interference pa ern of a hologram is akin to the waveform information in The Field which the five senses decode into electrical signals to be decoded by the brain into a holographic illusory ‘physical’ reality. In the same way when a laser (think human a ention) is directed at the waveform interference pa ern a three-dimensional version of the subject is projected into apparently ‘solid’ reality (Fig 16). An amazing trait of holograms reveals more ‘paranormal mysteries’. Information of the whole

hologram is encoded in waveform in every part of the interference pa ern by the way they are created. This means that every part of a hologram is a smaller version of the whole. Cut the interference wave-pa ern into four and you won’t get four parts of the image. You get quarter-sized versions of the whole image. The body is a hologram and the same applies. Here we have the basis of acupuncture, reflexology and other forms of healing which identify representations of the whole body in all of the parts, hands, feet, ears, everywhere. Skilled palm readers can do what they do because the information of whole body is encoded in the hand. The concept of as above, so below, comes from this.

Figure 15: A waveform interference pattern that holds the information that transforms into a hologram.

Figure 16: Holographic people including ‘Elvis’ holographically inserted to sing a duet with Celine Dion.

The question will be asked of why, if solidity is illusory, we can’t just walk through walls and each other. The resistance is not solid against solid; it is electromagnetic field against electromagnetic field and we decode this into the experience of solid against solid. We should also not underestimate the power of belief to dictate reality. What you believe is impossible will be. Your belief impacts on your decoding processes and they won’t decode what you think is impossible. What we believe we perceive and what we perceive we experience. ‘Can’t dos’ and ‘impossibles’ are like a firewall in a computer system that won’t put on the screen what the firewall blocks. How vital that is to understanding how human experience has been hijacked. I explain in The Answer, Everything You Need To Know But Have Never Been Told and other books a long list of ‘mysteries’ and ‘paranormal’ phenomena that are not mysterious and perfectly normal once you realise what reality is and how it works. ‘Ghosts’ can be seen to pass through ‘solid’ walls because the walls are not solid and the ghost is a discarnate entity operating on a frequency so different to that of the wall that it’s like two radio stations sharing the same space while never interfering with each other. I have seen ghosts do this myself. The apartness of people and objects is also an illusion. Everything is connected by the Field like all sea life is connected by the sea. It’s just that within the limits of our visual reality we only ‘see’ holographic information and not the field of information that connects everything and from which the holographic world is made manifest. If you can only see holographic ‘objects’ and not the field that connects them they will appear to you as unconnected to each other in the same way that we see the computer while not seeing the Wi-Fi.

What you don’t know

can

hurt you

Okay, we return to those ‘two worlds’ of human society and the Cult with its global network of interconnecting secret societies and satanic groups which manipulate through governments, corporations, media, religions, etc. The fundamental difference between them is knowledge. The idea has been to keep humanity

ignorant of the plan for its total enslavement underpinned by a crucial ignorance of reality – who we are and where we are – and how we interact with it. ‘Human’ should be the interaction between our expanded eternal consciousness and the five-sense body experience. We are meant to be in this world in terms of the five senses but not of this world in relation to our greater consciousness and perspective. In that state we experience the small picture of the five senses within the wider context of the big picture of awareness beyond the five senses. Put another way the five senses see the dots and expanded awareness connects them into pictures and pa erns that give context to the apparently random and unconnected. Without the context of expanded awareness the five senses see only apartness and randomness with apparently no meaning. The Cult and its other-dimensional controllers seek to intervene in the frequency realm where five-sense reality is supposed to connect with expanded reality and to keep the two apart (more on this in the final chapter). When that happens five-sense mental and emotional processes are no longer influenced by expanded awareness, or the True ‘I’, and instead are driven by the isolated perceptions of the body’s decoding systems. They are in the world and of it. Here we have the human plight and why humanity with its potential for infinite awareness can be so easily manipulatable and descend into such extremes of stupidity. Once the Cult isolates five-sense mind from expanded awareness it can then program the mind with perceptions and beliefs by controlling information that the mind receives through the ‘education’ system of the formative years and the media perceptual bombardment and censorship of an entire lifetime. Limit perception and a sense of the possible through limiting knowledge by limiting and skewing information while censoring and discrediting that which could set people free. As the title of another of my books says … And The Truth Shall Set You Free. For this reason the last thing the Cult wants in circulation is the truth about anything – especially the reality of the eternal ‘I’ – and that’s why it is desperate to control information. The Cult knows that information becomes perception

which becomes behaviour which, collectively, becomes human society. Cult-controlled and funded mainstream ‘science’ denies the existence of an eternal ‘I’ and seeks to dismiss and trash all evidence to the contrary. Cult-controlled mainstream religion has a version of ‘God’ that is li le more than a system of control and dictatorship that employs threats of damnation in an a erlife to control perceptions and behaviour in the here and now through fear and guilt. Neither is true and it’s the ‘neither’ that the Cult wishes to suppress. This ‘neither’ is that everything is an expression, a point of a ention, within an infinite state of consciousness which is the real meaning of the term ‘God’. Perceptual obsession with the ‘physical body’ and five-senses means that ‘God’ becomes personified as a bearded bloke si ing among the clouds or a raging bully who loves us if we do what ‘he’ wants and condemns us to the fires of hell if we don’t. These are no more than a ‘spiritual’ fairy tales to control and dictate events and behaviour through fear of this ‘God’ which has bizarrely made ‘Godfearing’ in religious circles a state to be desired. I would suggest that fearing anything is not to be encouraged and celebrated, but rather deleted. You can see why ‘God fearing’ is so beneficial to the Cult and its religions when they decide what ‘God’ wants and what ‘God’ demands (the Cult demands) that everyone do. As the great American comedian Bill Hicks said satirising a Christian zealot: ‘I think what God meant to say.’ How much of this infinite awareness (‘God’) that we access is decided by how far we choose to expand our perceptions, self-identity and sense of the possible. The scale of self-identity reflects itself in the scale of awareness that we can connect with and are influenced by – how much knowing and insight we have instead of programmed perception. You cannot expand your awareness into the infinity of possibility when you believe that you are li le me Peter the postman or Mary in marketing and nothing more. I’ll deal with this in the concluding chapter because it’s crucial to how we turnaround current events.

Where the Cult came from

When I realised in the early 1990s there was a Cult network behind global events I asked the obvious question: When did it start? I took it back to ancient Rome and Egypt and on to Babylon and Sumer in Mesopotamia, the ‘Land Between Two Rivers’, in what we now call Iraq. The two rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates and this region is of immense historical and other importance to the Cult, as is the land called Israel only 550 miles away by air. There is much more going with deep esoteric meaning across this whole region. It’s not only about ‘wars for oil’. Priceless artefacts from Mesopotamia were stolen or destroyed a er the American and British invasion of Iraq in 2003 justified by the lies of Boy Bush and Tony Blair (their Cult masters) about non-existent ‘weapons of mass destruction’. Mesopotamia was the location of Sumer (about 5,400BC to 1,750BC), and Babylon (about 2,350BC to 539BC). Sabbatians may have become immensely influential in the Cult in modern times but they are part of a network that goes back into the mists of history. Sumer is said by historians to be the ‘cradle of civilisation’. I disagree. I say it was the re-start of what we call human civilisation a er cataclysmic events symbolised in part as the ‘Great Flood’ destroyed the world that existed before. These fantastic upheavals that I have been describing in detail in the books since the early1990s appear in accounts and legends of ancient cultures across the world and they are supported by geological and biological evidence. Stone tablets found in Iraq detailing the Sumer period say the cataclysms were caused by nonhuman ‘gods’ they call the Anunnaki. These are described in terms of extraterrestrial visitations in which knowledge supplied by the Anunnaki is said to have been the source of at least one of the world’s oldest writing systems and developments in astronomy, mathematics and architecture that were way ahead of their time. I have covered this subject at length in The Biggest Secret and Children of the Matrix and the same basic ‘Anunnaki’ story can be found in Zulu accounts in South Africa where the late and very great Zulu high shaman Credo Mutwa told me that the Sumerian Anunnaki were known by Zulus as the Chitauri or ‘children of the serpent’. See my six-hour video interview with Credo on this subject entitled The

Reptilian Agenda recorded at his then home near Johannesburg in 1999 which you can watch on the Ickonic media platform. The Cult emerged out of Sumer, Babylon and Egypt (and elsewhere) and established the Roman Empire before expanding with the Romans into northern Europe from where many empires were savagely imposed in the form of Cult-controlled societies all over the world. Mass death and destruction was their calling card. The Cult established its centre of operations in Europe and European Empires were Cult empires which allowed it to expand into a global force. Spanish and Portuguese colonialists headed for Central and South America while the British and French targeted North America. Africa was colonised by Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Germany. Some like Britain and France moved in on the Middle East. The British Empire was by far the biggest for a simple reason. By now Britain was the headquarters of the Cult from which it expanded to form Canada, the United States, Australia and New Zealand. The Sun never set on the British Empire such was the scale of its occupation. London remains a global centre for the Cult along with Rome and the Vatican although others have emerged in Israel and China. It is no accident that the ‘virus’ is alleged to have come out of China while Italy was chosen as the means to terrify the Western population into compliance with ‘Covid’ fascism. Nor that Israel has led the world in ‘Covid’ fascism and mass ‘vaccination’. You would think that I would mention the United States here, but while it has been an important means of imposing the Cult’s will it is less significant than would appear and is currently in the process of having what power it does have deleted. The Cult in Europe has mostly loaded the guns for the US to fire. America has been controlled from Europe from the start through Cult operatives in Britain and Europe. The American Revolution was an illusion to make it appear that America was governing itself while very different forces were pulling the strings in the form of Cult families such as the Rothschilds through the Rockefellers and other subordinates. The Rockefellers are extremely close to Bill Gates and

established both scalpel and drug ‘medicine’ and the World Health Organization. They play a major role in the development and circulation of vaccines through the Rockefeller Foundation on which Bill Gates said his Foundation is based. Why wouldn’t this be the case when the Rockefellers and Gates are on the same team? Cult infiltration of human society goes way back into what we call history and has been constantly expanding and centralising power with the goal of establishing a global structure to dictate everything. Look how this has been advanced in great leaps with the ‘Covid’ hoax.

The non-human dimension I researched and observed the comings and goings of Cult operatives through the centuries and even thousands of years as they were born, worked to promote the agenda within the secret society and satanic networks, and then died for others to replace them. Clearly there had to be a coordinating force that spanned this entire period while operatives who would not have seen the end goal in their lifetimes came and went advancing the plan over millennia. I went in search of that coordinating force with the usual support from the extraordinary synchronicity of my life which has been an almost daily experience since 1990. I saw common themes in religious texts and ancient cultures about a non-human force manipulating human society from the hidden. Christianity calls this force Satan, the Devil and demons; Islam refers to the Jinn or Djinn; Zulus have their Chitauri (spelt in other ways in different parts of Africa); and the Gnostic people in Egypt in the period around and before 400AD referred to this phenomena as the ‘Archons’, a word meaning rulers in Greek. Central American cultures speak of the ‘Predators’ among other names and the same theme is everywhere. I will use ‘Archons’ as a collective name for all of them. When you see how their nature and behaviour is described all these different sources are clearly talking about the same force. Gnostics described the Archons in terms of ‘luminous fire’ while Islam relates the Jinn to ‘smokeless fire’. Some refer to beings in form that could occasionally be seen, but the most common of common theme is that they operate from

unseen realms which means almost all existence to the visual processes of humans. I had concluded that this was indeed the foundation of human control and that the Cult was operating within the human frequency band on behalf of this hidden force when I came across the writings of Gnostics which supported my conclusions in the most extraordinary way. A sealed earthen jar was found in 1945 near the town of Nag Hammadi about 75-80 miles north of Luxor on the banks of the River Nile in Egypt. Inside was a treasure trove of manuscripts and texts le by the Gnostic people some 1,600 years earlier. They included 13 leather-bound papyrus codices (manuscripts) and more than 50 texts wri en in Coptic Egyptian estimated to have been hidden in the jar in the period of 400AD although the source of the information goes back much further. Gnostics oversaw the Great or Royal Library of Alexandria, the fantastic depository of ancient texts detailing advanced knowledge and accounts of human history. The Library was dismantled and destroyed in stages over a long period with the death-blow delivered by the Cult-established Roman Church in the period around 415AD. The Church of Rome was the Church of Babylon relocated as I said earlier. Gnostics were not a race. They were a way of perceiving reality. Whenever they established themselves and their information circulated the terrorists of the Church of Rome would target them for destruction. This happened with the Great Library and with the Gnostic Cathars who were burned to death by the psychopaths a er a long period of oppression at the siege of the Castle of Monségur in southern France in 1244. The Church has always been terrified of Gnostic information which demolishes the official Christian narrative although there is much in the Bible that supports the Gnostic view if you read it in another way. To anyone studying the texts of what became known as the Nag Hammadi Library it is clear that great swathes of Christian and Biblical belief has its origin with Gnostics sources going back to Sumer. Gnostic themes have been twisted to manipulate the perceived reality of Bible believers. Biblical texts have been in the open for centuries where they could be changed while Gnostic

documents found at Nag Hammadi were sealed away and untouched for 1,600 years. What you see is what they wrote.

Use your

pneuma

not your

nous

Gnosticism and Gnostic come from ‘gnosis’ which means knowledge, or rather secret knowledge, in the sense of spiritual awareness – knowledge about reality and life itself. The desperation of the Cult’s Church of Rome to destroy the Gnostics can be understood when the knowledge they were circulating was the last thing the Cult wanted the population to know. Sixteen hundred years later the same Cult is working hard to undermine and silence me for the same reason. The dynamic between knowledge and ignorance is a constant. ‘Time’ appears to move on, but essential themes remain the same. We are told to ‘use your nous’, a Gnostic word for head/brain/intelligence. They said, however, that spiritual awakening or ‘salvation’ could only be secured by expanding awareness beyond what they called nous and into pneuma or Infinite Self. Obviously as I read these texts the parallels with what I have been saying since 1990 were fascinating to me. There is a universal truth that spans human history and in that case why wouldn’t we be talking the same language 16 centuries apart? When you free yourself from the perception program of the five senses and explore expanded realms of consciousness you are going to connect with the same information no ma er what the perceived ‘era’ within a manufactured timeline of a single and tiny range of manipulated frequency. Humans working with ‘smart’ technology or knocking rocks together in caves is only a timeline appearing to operate within the human frequency band. Expanded awareness and the knowledge it holds have always been there whether the era be Stone Age or computer age. We can only access that knowledge by opening ourselves to its frequency which the five-sense prison cell is designed to stop us doing. Gates, Fauci, Whi y, Vallance, Zuckerberg, Brin, Page, Wojcicki, Bezos, and all the others behind the ‘Covid’ hoax clearly have a long wait before their range of frequency can make that connection given that an open heart is

crucial to that as we shall see. Instead of accessing knowledge directly through expanded awareness it is given to Cult operatives by the secret society networks of the Cult where it has been passed on over thousands of years outside the public arena. Expanded realms of consciousness is where great artists, composers and writers find their inspiration and where truth awaits anyone open enough to connect with it. We need to go there fast.

Archon hijack A fi h of the Nag Hammadi texts describe the existence and manipulation of the Archons led by a ‘Chief Archon’ they call ‘Yaldabaoth’, or the ‘Demiurge’, and this is the Christian ‘Devil’, ‘Satan’, ‘Lucifer’, and his demons. Archons in Biblical symbolism are the ‘fallen ones’ which are also referred to as fallen angels a er the angels expelled from heaven according to the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. These angels are claimed to tempt humans to ‘sin’ ongoing and you will see how accurate that symbolism is during the rest of the book. The theme of ‘original sin’ is related to the ‘Fall’ when Adam and Eve were ‘tempted by the serpent’ and fell from a state of innocence and ‘obedience’ (connection) with God into a state of disobedience (disconnection). The Fall is said to have brought sin into the world and corrupted everything including human nature. Yaldabaoth, the ‘Lord Archon’, is described by Gnostics as a ‘counterfeit spirit’, ‘The Blind One’, ‘The Blind God’, and ‘The Foolish One’. The Jewish name for Yaldabaoth in Talmudic writings is Samael which translates as ‘Poison of God’, or ‘Blindness of God’. You see the parallels. Yaldabaoth in Islamic belief is the Muslim Jinn devil known as Shaytan – Shaytan is Satan as the same themes are found all over the world in every religion and culture. The ‘Lord God’ of the Old Testament is the ‘Lord Archon’ of Gnostic manuscripts and that’s why he’s such a bloodthirsty bastard. Satan is known by Christians as ‘the Demon of Demons’ and Gnostics called Yaldabaoth the ‘Archon of Archons’. Both are known as ‘The Deceiver’. We are talking about the same ‘bloke’ for sure and these common themes

using different names, storylines and symbolism tell a common tale of the human plight. Archons are referred to in Nag Hammadi documents as mind parasites, inverters, guards, gatekeepers, detainers, judges, pitiless ones and deceivers. The ‘Covid’ hoax alone is a glaring example of all these things. The Biblical ‘God’ is so different in the Old and New Testaments because they are not describing the same phenomenon. The vindictive, angry, hate-filled, ‘God’ of the Old Testament, known as Yahweh, is Yaldabaoth who is depicted in Cult-dictated popular culture as the ‘Dark Lord’, ‘Lord of Time’, Lord (Darth) Vader and Dormammu, the evil ruler of the ‘Dark Dimension’ trying to take over the ‘Earth Dimension’ in the Marvel comic movie, Dr Strange. Yaldabaoth is both the Old Testament ‘god’ and the Biblical ‘Satan’. Gnostics referred to Yaldabaoth as the ‘Great Architect of the Universe’and the Cult-controlled Freemason network calls their god ‘the ‘Great Architect of the Universe’ (also Grand Architect). The ‘Great Architect’ Yaldabaoth is symbolised by the Cult as the allseeing eye at the top of the pyramid on the Great Seal of the United States and the dollar bill. Archon is encoded in arch-itect as it is in arch-angels and arch-bishops. All religions have the theme of a force for good and force for evil in some sort of spiritual war and there is a reason for that – the theme is true. The Cult and its non-human masters are quite happy for this to circulate. They present themselves as the force for good fighting evil when they are really the force of evil (absence of love). The whole foundation of Cult modus operandi is inversion. They promote themselves as a force for good and anyone challenging them in pursuit of peace, love, fairness, truth and justice is condemned as a satanic force for evil. This has been the game plan throughout history whether the Church of Rome inquisitions of non-believers or ‘conspiracy theorists’ and ‘anti-vaxxers’ of today. The technique is the same whatever the timeline era.

Yaldabaoth is revolting (true)

Yaldabaoth and the Archons are said to have revolted against God with Yaldabaoth claiming to be God – the All That Is. The Old Testament ‘God’ (Yaldabaoth) demanded to be worshipped as such: ‘ I am the LORD, and there is none else, there is no God beside me’ (Isaiah 45:5). I have quoted in other books a man who said he was the unofficial son of the late Baron Philippe de Rothschild of the Mouton-Rothschild wine producing estates in France who died in 1988 and he told me about the Rothschild ‘revolt from God’. The man said he was given the name Phillip Eugene de Rothschild and we shared long correspondence many years ago while he was living under another identity. He said that he was conceived through ‘occult incest’ which (within the Cult) was ‘normal and to be admired’. ‘Phillip’ told me about his experience a ending satanic rituals with rich and famous people whom he names and you can see them and the wider background to Cult Satanism in my other books starting with The Biggest Secret. Cult rituals are interactions with Archontic ‘gods’. ‘Phillip’ described Baron Philippe de Rothschild as ‘a master Satanist and hater of God’ and he used the same term ‘revolt from God’ associated with Yaldabaoth/Satan/Lucifer/the Devil in describing the Sabbatian Rothschild dynasty. ‘I played a key role in my family’s revolt from God’, he said. That role was to infiltrate in classic Sabbatian style the Christian Church, but eventually he escaped the mind-prison to live another life. The Cult has been targeting religion in a plan to make worship of the Archons the global one-world religion. Infiltration of Satanism into modern ‘culture’, especially among the young, through music videos, stage shows and other means, is all part of this. Nag Hammadi texts describe Yaldabaoth and the Archons in their prime form as energy – consciousness – and say they can take form if they choose in the same way that consciousness takes form as a human. Yaldabaoth is called ‘formless’ and represents a deeply inverted, distorted and chaotic state of consciousness which seeks to a ached to humans and turn them into a likeness of itself in an a empt at assimilation. For that to happen it has to manipulate

humans into low frequency mental and emotional states that match its own. Archons can certainly appear in human form and this is the origin of the psychopathic personality. The energetic distortion Gnostics called Yaldabaoth is psychopathy. When psychopathic Archons take human form that human will be a psychopath as an expression of Yaldabaoth consciousness. Cult psychopaths are Archons in human form. The principle is the same as that portrayed in the 2009 Avatar movie when the American military travelled to a fictional Earth-like moon called Pandora in the Alpha Centauri star system to infiltrate a society of blue people, or Na’vi, by hiding within bodies that looked like the Na’vi. Archons posing as humans have a particular hybrid information field, part human, part Archon, (the ancient ‘demigods’) which processes information in a way that manifests behaviour to match their psychopathic evil, lack of empathy and compassion, and stops them being influenced by the empathy, compassion and love that a fully-human information field is capable of expressing. Cult bloodlines interbreed, be they royalty or dark suits, for this reason and you have their obsession with incest. Interbreeding with full-blown humans would dilute the Archontic energy field that guarantees psychopathy in its representatives in the human realm. Gnostic writings say the main non-human forms that Archons take are serpentine (what I have called for decades ‘reptilian’ amid unbounded ridicule from the Archontically-programmed) and what Gnostics describe as ‘an unborn baby or foetus with grey skin and dark, unmoving eyes’. This is an excellent representation of the ET ‘Greys’ of UFO folklore which large numbers of people claim to have seen and been abducted by – Zulu shaman Credo Mutwa among them. I agree with those that believe in extraterrestrial or interdimensional visitations today and for thousands of years past. No wonder with their advanced knowledge and technological capability they were perceived and worshipped as gods for technological and other ‘miracles’ they appeared to perform. Imagine someone arriving in a culture disconnected from the modern world with a smartphone and computer. They would be

seen as a ‘god’ capable of ‘miracles’. The Renegade Mind, however, wants to know the source of everything and not only the way that source manifests as human or non-human. In the same way that a Renegade Mind seeks the original source material for the ‘Covid virus’ to see if what is claimed is true. The original source of Archons in form is consciousness – the distorted state of consciousness known to Gnostics as Yaldabaoth.

‘Revolt from God’ is energetic disconnection Where I am going next will make a lot of sense of religious texts and ancient legends relating to ‘Satan’, Lucifer’ and the ‘gods’. Gnostic descriptions sync perfectly with the themes of my own research over the years in how they describe a consciousness distortion seeking to impose itself on human consciousness. I’ve referred to the core of infinite awareness in previous books as Infinite Awareness in Awareness of Itself. By that I mean a level of awareness that knows that it is all awareness and is aware of all awareness. From here comes the frequency of love in its true sense and balance which is what love is on one level – the balance of all forces into a single whole called Oneness and Isness. The more we disconnect from this state of love that many call ‘God’ the constituent parts of that Oneness start to unravel and express themselves as a part and not a whole. They become individualised as intellect, mind, selfishness, hatred, envy, desire for power over others, and such like. This is not a problem in the greater scheme in that ‘God’, the All That Is, can experience all these possibilities through different expressions of itself including humans. What we as expressions of the whole experience the All That Is experiences. We are the All That Is experiencing itself. As we withdraw from that state of Oneness we disconnect from its influence and things can get very unpleasant and very stupid. Archontic consciousness is at the extreme end of that. It has so disconnected from the influence of Oneness that it has become an inversion of unity and love, an inversion of everything, an inversion of life itself. Evil is appropriately live wri en backwards. Archontic consciousness is obsessed with death, an inversion of life,

and so its manifestations in Satanism are obsessed with death. They use inverted symbols in their rituals such as the inverted pentagram and cross. Sabbatians as Archontic consciousness incarnate invert Judaism and every other religion and culture they infiltrate. They seek disunity and chaos and they fear unity and harmony as they fear love like garlic to a vampire. As a result the Cult, Archons incarnate, act with such evil, psychopathy and lack of empathy and compassion disconnected as they are from the source of love. How could Bill Gates and the rest of the Archontic psychopaths do what they have to human society in the ‘Covid’ era with all the death, suffering and destruction involved and have no emotional consequence for the impact on others? Now you know. Why have Zuckerberg, Brin, Page, Wojcicki and company callously censored information warning about the dangers of the ‘vaccine’ while thousands have been dying and having severe, sometimes lifechanging reactions? Now you know. Why have Tedros, Fauci, Whi y, Vallance and their like around the world been using case and death figures they’re aware are fraudulent to justify lockdowns and all the deaths and destroyed lives that have come from that? Now you know. Why did Christian Drosten produce and promote a ‘testing’ protocol that he knew couldn’t test for infectious disease which led to a global human catastrophe. Now you know. The Archontic mind doesn’t give a shit (Fig 17). I personally think that Gates and major Cult insiders are a form of AI cyborg that the Archons want humans to become.

Figure 17: Artist Neil Hague’s version of the ‘Covid’ hierarchy.

Human batteries A state of such inversion does have its consequences, however. The level of disconnection from the Source of All means that you withdraw from that source of energetic sustenance and creativity. This means that you have to find your own supply of energetic power and it has – us. When the Morpheus character in the first Matrix movie held up a ba ery he spoke a profound truth when he said: ‘The Matrix is a computer-generated dream world built to keep us under control in order to change the human being into one of

these.’ The statement was true in all respects. We do live in a technologically-generated virtual reality simulation (more very shortly) and we have been manipulated to be an energy source for Archontic consciousness. The Disney-Pixar animated movie Monsters, Inc. in 2001 symbolised the dynamic when monsters in their world had no energy source and they would enter the human world to terrify children in their beds, catch the child’s scream, terror (low-vibrational frequencies), and take that energy back to power the monster world. The lead character you might remember was a single giant eye and the symbolism of the Cult’s all-seeing eye was obvious. Every thought and emotion is broadcast as a frequency unique to that thought and emotion. Feelings of love and joy, empathy and compassion, are high, quick, frequencies while fear, depression, anxiety, suffering and hate are low, slow, dense frequencies. Which kind do you think Archontic consciousness can connect with and absorb? In such a low and dense frequency state there’s no way it can connect with the energy of love and joy. Archons can only feed off energy compatible with their own frequency and they and their Cult agents want to delete the human world of love and joy and manipulate the transmission of low vibrational frequencies through low-vibrational human mental and emotional states. We are their energy source. Wars are energetic banquets to the Archons – a world war even more so – and think how much low-frequency mental and emotional energy has been generated from the consequences for humanity of the ‘Covid’ hoax orchestrated by Archons incarnate like Gates. The ancient practice of human sacrifice ‘to the gods’, continued in secret today by the Cult, is based on the same principle. ‘The gods’ are Archontic consciousness in different forms and the sacrifice is induced into a state of intense terror to generate the energy the Archontic frequency can absorb. Incarnate Archons in the ritual drink the blood which contains an adrenaline they crave which floods into the bloodstream when people are terrorised. Most of the sacrifices, ancient and modern, are children and the theme of ‘sacrificing young virgins to the gods’ is just code for children. They

have a particular pre-puberty energy that Archons want more than anything and the energy of the young in general is their target. The California Department of Education wants students to chant the names of Aztec gods (Archontic gods) once worshipped in human sacrifice rituals in a curriculum designed to encourage them to ‘challenge racist, bigoted, discriminatory, imperialist/colonial beliefs’, join ‘social movements that struggle for social justice’, and ‘build new possibilities for a post-racist, post-systemic racism society’. It’s the usual Woke crap that inverts racism and calls it antiracism. In this case solidarity with ‘indigenous tribes’ is being used as an excuse to chant the names of ‘gods’ to which people were sacrificed (and still are in secret). What an example of Woke’s inability to see beyond black and white, us and them, They condemn the colonisation of these tribal cultures by Europeans (quite right), but those cultures sacrificing people including children to their ‘gods’, and mass murdering untold numbers as the Aztecs did, is just fine. One chant is to the Aztec god Tezcatlipoca who had a man sacrificed to him in the 5th month of the Aztec calendar. His heart was cut out and he was eaten. Oh, that’s okay then. Come on children … a er three … Other sacrificial ‘gods’ for the young to chant their allegiance include Quetzalcoatl, Huitzilopochtli and Xipe Totec. The curriculum says that ‘chants, affirmations, and energizers can be used to bring the class together, build unity around ethnic studies principles and values, and to reinvigorate the class following a lesson that may be emotionally taxing or even when student engagement may appear to be low’. Well, that’s the cover story, anyway. Chanting and mantras are the repetition of a particular frequency generated from the vocal cords and chanting the names of these Archontic ‘gods’ tunes you into their frequency. That is the last thing you want when it allows for energetic synchronisation, a achment and perceptual influence. Initiates chant the names of their ‘Gods’ in their rituals for this very reason.

Vampires of the Woke

Paedophilia is another way that Archons absorb the energy of children. Paedophiles possessed by Archontic consciousness are used as the conduit during sexual abuse for discarnate Archons to vampire the energy of the young they desire so much. Stupendous numbers of children disappear every year never to be seen again although you would never know from the media. Imagine how much low-vibrational energy has been generated by children during the ‘Covid’ hoax when so many have become depressed and psychologically destroyed to the point of killing themselves. Shocking numbers of children are now taken by the state from loving parents to be handed to others. I can tell you from long experience of researching this since 1996 that many end up with paedophiles and assets of the Cult through corrupt and Cult-owned social services which in the reframing era has hired many psychopaths and emotionless automatons to do the job. Children are even stolen to order using spurious reasons to take them by the corrupt and secret (because they’re corrupt) ‘family courts’. I have wri en in detail in other books, starting with The Biggest Secret in 1997, about the ubiquitous connections between the political, corporate, government, intelligence and military elites (Cult operatives) and Satanism and paedophilia. If you go deep enough both networks have an interlocking leadership. The Woke mentality has been developed by the Cult for many reasons: To promote almost every aspect of its agenda; to hijack the traditional political le and turn it fascist; to divide and rule; and to target agenda pushbackers. But there are other reasons which relate to what I am describing here. How many happy and joyful Wokers do you ever see especially at the extreme end? They are a mental and psychological mess consumed by emotional stress and constantly emotionally cocked for the next explosion of indignation at someone referring to a female as a female. They are walking, talking, ba eries as Morpheus might say emi ing frequencies which both enslave them in low-vibrational bubbles of perceptual limitation and feed the Archons. Add to this the hatred claimed to be love; fascism claimed to ‘anti-fascism’, racism claimed to be ‘anti-racism’;

exclusion claimed to inclusion; and the abuse-filled Internet trolling. You have a purpose-built Archontic energy system with not a wind turbine in sight and all founded on Archontic inversion. We have whole generations now manipulated to serve the Archons with their actions and energy. They will be doing so their entire adult lives unless they snap out of their Archon-induced trance. Is it really a surprise that Cult billionaires and corporations put so much money their way? Where is the energy of joy and laughter, including laughing at yourself which is confirmation of your own emotional security? Mark Twain said: ‘The human race has one really effective weapon, and that is laughter.‘ We must use it all the time. Woke has destroyed comedy because it has no humour, no joy, sense of irony, or self-deprecation. Its energy is dense and intense. Mmmmm, lunch says the Archontic frequency. Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) was the Austrian philosopher and famous esoteric thinker who established Waldorf education or Steiner schools to treat children like unique expressions of consciousness and not minds to be programmed with the perceptions determined by authority. I’d been writing about this energy vampiring for decades when I was sent in 2016 a quote by Steiner. He was spot on: There are beings in the spiritual realms for whom anxiety and fear emanating from human beings offer welcome food. When humans have no anxiety and fear, then these creatures starve. If fear and anxiety radiates from people and they break out in panic, then these creatures find welcome nutrition and they become more and more powerful. These beings are hostile towards humanity. Everything that feeds on negative feelings, on anxiety, fear and superstition, despair or doubt, are in reality hostile forces in super-sensible worlds, launching cruel attacks on human beings, while they are being fed ... These are exactly the feelings that belong to contemporary culture and materialism; because it estranges people from the spiritual world, it is especially suited to evoke hopelessness and fear of the unknown in people, thereby calling up the above mentioned hostile forces against them.

Pause for a moment from this perspective and reflect on what has happened in the world since the start of 2020. Not only will pennies drop, but billion dollar bills. We see the same theme from Don Juan Matus, a Yaqui Indian shaman in Mexico and the information source for Peruvian-born writer, Carlos Castaneda, who wrote a series of

books from the 1960s to 1990s. Don Juan described the force manipulating human society and his name for the Archons was the predator: We have a predator that came from the depths of the cosmos and took over the rule of our lives. Human beings are its prisoners. The predator is our lord and master. It has rendered us docile, helpless. If we want to protest, it suppresses our protest. If we want to act independently, it demands that we don’t do so ... indeed we are held prisoner! They took us over because we are food to them, and they squeeze us mercilessly because we are their sustenance. Just as we rear chickens in coops, the predators rear us in human coops, humaneros. Therefore, their food is always available to them. Different cultures, different eras, same recurring theme.

The ‘ennoia’ dilemma Nag Hammadi Gnostic manuscripts say that Archon consciousness has no ‘ennoia’. This is directly translated as ‘intentionality’, but I’ll use the term ‘creative imagination’. The All That Is in awareness of itself is the source of all creativity – all possibility – and the more disconnected you are from that source the more you are subsequently denied ‘creative imagination’. Given that Archon consciousness is almost entirely disconnected it severely lacks creativity and has to rely on far more mechanical processes of thought and exploit the creative potential of those that do have ‘ennoia’. You can see cases of this throughout human society. Archon consciousness almost entirely dominates the global banking system and if we study how that system works you will appreciate what I mean. Banks manifest ‘money’ out of nothing by issuing lines of ‘credit’ which is ‘money’ that has never, does not, and will never exist except in theory. It’s a confidence trick. If you think ‘credit’ figures-on-a-screen ‘money’ is worth anything you accept it as payment. If you don’t then the whole system collapses through lack of confidence in the value of that ‘money’. Archontic bankers with no ‘ennoia’ are ‘lending’ ‘money’ that doesn’t exist to humans that do have creativity – those that have the inspired ideas and create businesses and products. Archon banking feeds off human creativity

which it controls through ‘money’ creation and debt. Humans have the creativity and Archons exploit that for their own benefit and control while having none themselves. Archon Internet platforms like Facebook claim joint copyright of everything that creative users post and while Archontic minds like Zuckerberg may officially head that company it will be human creatives on the staff that provide the creative inspiration. When you have limitless ‘money’ you can then buy other companies established by creative humans. Witness the acquisition record of Facebook, Google and their like. Survey the Archon-controlled music industry and you see non-creative dark suit executives making their fortune from the human creativity of their artists. The cases are endless. Research the history of people like Gates and Zuckerberg and how their empires were built on exploiting the creativity of others. Archon minds cannot create out of nothing, but they are skilled (because they have to be) in what Gnostic texts call ‘countermimicry’. They can imitate, but not innovate. Sabbatians trawl the creativity of others through backdoors they install in computer systems through their cybersecurity systems. Archon-controlled China is globally infamous for stealing intellectual property and I remember how Hong Kong, now part of China, became notorious for making counterfeit copies of the creativity of others – ‘countermimicry’. With the now pervasive and all-seeing surveillance systems able to infiltrate any computer you can appreciate the potential for Archons to vampire the creativity of humans. Author John Lamb Lash wrote in his book about the Nag Hammadi texts, Not In His Image: Although they cannot originate anything, because they lack the divine factor of ennoia (intentionality), Archons can imitate with a vengeance. Their expertise is simulation (HAL, virtual reality). The Demiurge [Yaldabaoth] fashions a heaven world copied from the fractal patterns [of the original] ... His construction is celestial kitsch, like the fake Italianate villa of a Mafia don complete with militant angels to guard every portal.

This brings us to something that I have been speaking about since the turn of the millennium. Our reality is a simulation; a virtual reality that we think is real. No, I’m not kidding.

Human reality? Well, virtually I had pondered for years about whether our reality is ‘real’ or some kind of construct. I remembered being immensely affected on a visit as a small child in the late 1950s to the then newly-opened Planetarium on the Marylebone Road in London which is now closed and part of the adjacent Madame Tussauds wax museum. It was in the middle of the day, but when the lights went out there was the night sky projected in the Planetarium’s domed ceiling and it appeared to be so real. The experience never le me and I didn’t know why until around the turn of the millennium when I became certain that our ‘night sky’ and entire reality is a projection, a virtual reality, akin to the illusory world portrayed in the Matrix movies. I looked at the sky one day in this period and it appeared to me like the domed roof of the Planetarium. The release of the first Matrix movie in 1999 also provided a synchronistic and perfect visual representation of where my mind had been going for a long time. I hadn’t come across the Gnostic Nag Hammadi texts then. When I did years later the correlation was once again astounding. As I read Gnostic accounts from 1,600 years and more earlier it was clear that they were describing the same simulation phenomenon. They tell how the Yaldabaoth ‘Demiurge’ and Archons created a ‘bad copy’ of original reality to rule over all that were captured by its illusions and the body was a prison to trap consciousness in the ‘bad copy’ fake reality. Read how Gnostics describe the ‘bad copy’ and update that to current times and they are referring to what we would call today a virtual reality simulation. Author John Lamb Lash said ‘the Demiurge fashions a heaven world copied from the fractal pa erns’ of the original through expertise in ‘HAL’ or virtual reality simulation. Fractal pa erns are part of the energetic information construct of our reality, a sort of blueprint. If these pa erns were copied in computer terms it would indeed give you a copy of a ‘natural’ reality in a non-natural frequency and digital form. The principle is the same as making a copy of a website. The original website still exists, but now you can change the copy version to make it whatever you like and it can

become very different to the original website. Archons have done this with our reality, a synthetic copy of prime reality that still exists beyond the frequency walls of the simulation. Trapped within the illusions of this synthetic Matrix, however, were and are human consciousness and other expressions of prime reality and this is why the Archons via the Cult are seeking to make the human body synthetic and give us synthetic AI minds to complete the job of turning the entire reality synthetic including what we perceive to be the natural world. To quote Kurzweil: ‘Nanobots will infuse all the ma er around us with information. Rocks, trees, everything will become these intelligent creatures.’ Yes, synthetic ‘creatures’ just as ‘Covid’ and other genetically-manipulating ‘vaccines’ are designed to make the human body synthetic. From this perspective it is obvious why Archons and their Cult are so desperate to infuse synthetic material into every human with their ‘Covid’ scam.

Let there be (electromagnetic) light Yaldabaoth, the force that created the simulation, or Matrix, makes sense of the Gnostic reference to ‘The Great Architect’ and its use by Cult Freemasonry as the name of its deity. The designer of the Matrix in the movies is called ‘The Architect’ and that trilogy is jam-packed with symbolism relating to these subjects. I have contended for years that the angry Old Testament God (Yaldabaoth) is the ‘God’ being symbolically ‘quoted’ in the opening of Genesis as ‘creating the world’. This is not the creation of prime reality – it’s the creation of the simulation. The Genesis ‘God’ says: ‘Let there be Light: and there was light.’ But what is this ‘Light’? I have said for decades that the speed of light (186,000 miles per second) is not the fastest speed possible as claimed by mainstream science and is in fact the frequency walls or outer limits of the Matrix. You can’t have a fastest or slowest anything within all possibility when everything is possible. The human body is encoded to operate within the speed of light or within the simulation and thus we see only the tiny frequency band of visible light. Near-death experiencers who perceive reality outside the body during temporary ‘death’ describe a very different

form of light and this is supported by the Nag Hammadi texts. Prime reality beyond the simulation (‘Upper Aeons’ to the Gnostics) is described as a realm of incredible beauty, bliss, love and harmony – a realm of ‘watery light’ that is so powerful ‘there are no shadows’. Our false reality of Archon control, which Gnostics call the ‘Lower Aeons’, is depicted as a realm with a different kind of ‘light’ and described in terms of chaos, ‘Hell’, ‘the Abyss’ and ‘Outer Darkness’, where trapped souls are tormented and manipulated by demons (relate that to the ‘Covid’ hoax alone). The watery light theme can be found in near-death accounts and it is not the same as simulation ‘light’ which is electromagnetic or radiation light within the speed of light – the ‘Lower Aeons’. Simulation ‘light’ is the ‘luminous fire’ associated by Gnostics with the Archons. The Bible refers to Yaldabaoth as ‘that old serpent, called the Devil, and Satan, which deceiveth the whole world’ (Revelation 12:9). I think that making a simulated copy of prime reality (‘countermimicry’) and changing it dramatically while all the time manipulating humanity to believe it to be real could probably meet the criteria of deceiving the whole world. Then we come to the Cult god Lucifer – the Light Bringer. Lucifer is symbolic of Yaldabaoth, the bringer of radiation light that forms the bad copy simulation within the speed of light. ‘He’ is symbolised by the lighted torch held by the Statue of Liberty and in the name ‘Illuminati’. Sabbatian-Frankism declares that Lucifer is the true god and Lucifer is the real god of Freemasonry honoured as their ‘Great or Grand Architect of the Universe’ (simulation). I would emphasise, too, the way Archontic technologicallygenerated luminous fire of radiation has deluged our environment since I was a kid in the 1950s and changed the nature of The Field with which we constantly interact. Through that interaction technological radiation is changing us. The Smart Grid is designed to operate with immense levels of communication power with 5G expanding across the world and 6G, 7G, in the process of development. Radiation is the simulation and the Archontic manipulation system. Why wouldn’t the Archon Cult wish to unleash radiation upon us to an ever-greater extreme to form

Kurzweil’s ‘cloud’? The plan for a synthetic human is related to the need to cope with levels of radiation beyond even anything we’ve seen so far. Biological humans would not survive the scale of radiation they have in their script. The Smart Grid is a technological sub-reality within the technological simulation to further disconnect five-sense perception from expanded consciousness. It’s a technological prison of the mind.

Infusing the ‘spirit of darkness’ A recurring theme in religion and native cultures is the manipulation of human genetics by a non-human force and most famously recorded as the biblical ‘sons of god’ (the gods plural in the original) who interbred with the daughters of men. The Nag Hammadi Apocryphon of John tells the same story this way: He [Yaldabaoth] sent his angels [Archons/demons] to the daughters of men, that they might take some of them for themselves and raise offspring for their enjoyment. And at first they did not succeed. When they had no success, they gathered together again and they made a plan together ... And the angels changed themselves in their likeness into the likeness of their mates, filling them with the spirit of darkness, which they had mixed for them, and with evil ... And they took women and begot children out of the darkness according to the likeness of their spirit.

Possession when a discarnate entity takes over a human body is an age-old theme and continues today. It’s very real and I’ve seen it. Satanic and secret society rituals can create an energetic environment in which entities can a ach to initiates and I’ve heard many stories of how people have changed their personality a er being initiated even into lower levels of the Freemasons. I have been inside three Freemasonic temples, one at a public open day and two by just walking in when there was no one around to stop me. They were in Ryde, the town where I live, Birmingham, England, when I was with a group, and Boston, Massachuse s. They all felt the same energetically – dark, dense, low-vibrational and sinister. Demonic a achment can happen while the initiate has no idea what is going on. To them it’s just a ritual to get in the Masons and do a bit of good

business. In the far more extreme rituals of Satanism human possession is even more powerful and they are designed to make possession possible. The hierarchy of the Cult is dictated by the power and perceived status of the possessing Archon. In this way the Archon hierarchy becomes the Cult hierarchy. Once the entity has a ached it can influence perception and behaviour and if it a aches to the extreme then so much of its energy (information) infuses into the body information field that the hologram starts to reflect the nature of the possessing entity. This is the Exorcist movie type of possession when facial features change and it’s known as shapeshi ing. Islam’s Jinn are said to be invisible tricksters who change shape, ‘whisper’, confuse and take human form. These are all traits of the Archons and other versions of the same phenomenon. Extreme possession could certainty infuse the ‘spirit of darkness’ into a partner during sex as the Nag Hammadi texts appear to describe. Such an infusion can change genetics which is also energetic information. Human genetics is information and the ‘spirit of darkness’ is information. Mix one with the other and change must happen. Islam has the concept of a ‘Jinn baby’ through possession of the mother and by Jinn taking human form. There are many ways that human genetics can be changed and remember that Archons have been aware all along of advanced techniques to do this. What is being done in human society today – and far more – was known about by Archons at the time of the ‘fallen ones’ and their other versions described in religions and cultures. Archons and their human-world Cult are obsessed with genetics as we see today and they know this dictates how information is processed into perceived reality during a human life. They needed to produce a human form that would decode the simulation and this is symbolically known as ‘Adam and Eve’ who le the ‘garden’ (prime reality) and ‘fell’ into Matrix reality. The simulation is not a ‘physical’ construct (there is no ‘physical’); it is a source of information. Think Wi-Fi again. The simulation is an energetic field encoded with information and body-brain systems are designed to decode that information encoded in wave or frequency form which

is transmi ed to the brain as electrical signals. These are decoded by the brain to construct our sense of reality – an illusory ‘physical’ world that only exists in the brain or the mind. Virtual reality games mimic this process using the same sensory decoding system. Information is fed to the senses to decode a virtual reality that can appear so real, but isn’t (Figs 18 and 19). Some scientists believe – and I agree with them – that what we perceive as ‘physical’ reality only exists when we are looking or observing. The act of perception or focus triggers the decoding systems which turn waveform information into holographic reality. When we are not observing something our reality reverts from a holographic state to a waveform state. This relates to the same principle as a falling tree not making a noise unless someone is there to hear it or decode it. The concept makes sense from the simulation perspective. A computer is not decoding all the information in a Wi-Fi field all the time and only decodes or brings into reality on the screen that part of Wi-Fi that it’s decoding – focusing upon – at that moment.

Figure 18: Virtual reality technology ‘hacks’ into the body’s five-sense decoding system.

Figure 19: The result can be experienced as very ‘real’.

Interestingly, Professor Donald Hoffman at the Department of Cognitive Sciences at the University of California, Irvine, says that our experienced reality is like a computer interface that shows us only the level with which we interact while hiding all that exists beyond it: ‘Evolution shaped us with a user interface that hides the truth. Nothing that we see is the truth – the very language of space and time and objects is the wrong language to describe reality.’ He is correct in what he says on so many levels. Space and time are not a universal reality. They are a phenomenon of decoded simulation reality as part of the process of enslaving our sense of reality. Neardeath experiencers report again and again how space and time did not exist as we perceive them once they were free of the body – body decoding systems. You can appreciate from this why Archons and their Cult are so desperate to entrap human a ention in the five senses where we are in the Matrix and of the Matrix. Opening your mind to expanded states of awareness takes you beyond the information confines of the simulation and you become aware of knowledge and insights denied to you before. This is what we call ‘awakening’ – awakening from the Matrix – and in the final chapter I will relate this to current events.

Where are the ‘aliens’? A simulation would explain the so-called ‘Fermi Paradox’ named a er Italian physicist Enrico Fermi (1901-1954) who created the first nuclear reactor. He considered the question of why there is such a lack of extraterrestrial activity when there are so many stars and planets in an apparently vast universe; but what if the night sky that we see, or think we do, is a simulated projection as I say? If you control the simulation and your aim is to hold humanity fast in essential ignorance would you want other forms of life including advanced life coming and going sharing information with humanity? Or would you want them to believe they were isolated and apparently alone? Themes of human isolation and apartness are common whether they be the perception of a lifeless universe or the fascist isolation laws of the ‘Covid’ era. Paradoxically the very

existence of a simulation means that we are not alone when some force had to construct it. My view is that experiences that people have reported all over the world for centuries with Reptilians and Grey entities are Archon phenomena as Nag Hammadi texts describe; and that benevolent ‘alien’ interactions are non-human groups that come in and out of the simulation by overcoming Archon a empts to keep them out. It should be highlighted, too, that Reptilians and Greys are obsessed with genetics and technology as related by cultural accounts and those who say they have been abducted by them. Technology is their way of overcoming some of the limitations in their creative potential and our technology-driven and controlled human society of today is archetypical ArchonReptilian-Grey modus operandi. Technocracy is really Archontocracy. The Universe does not have to be as big as it appears with a simulation. There is no space or distance only information decoded into holographic reality. What we call ‘space’ is only the absence of holographic ‘objects’ and that ‘space’ is The Field of energetic information which connects everything into a single whole. The same applies with the artificially-generated information field of the simulation. The Universe is not big or small as a physical reality. It is decoded information, that’s all, and its perceived size is decided by the way the simulation is encoded to make it appear. The entire night sky as we perceive it only exists in our brain and so where are those ‘millions of light years’? The ‘stars’ on the ceiling of the Planetarium looked a vast distance away. There’s another point to mention about ‘aliens’. I have been highlighting since the 1990s the plan to stage a fake ‘alien invasion’ to justify the centralisation of global power and a world military. Nazi scientist Werner von Braun, who was taken to America by Operation Paperclip a er World War Two to help found NASA, told his American assistant Dr Carol Rosin about the Cult agenda when he knew he was dying in 1977. Rosin said that he told her about a sequence that would lead to total human control by a one-world government. This included threats from terrorism, rogue nations, meteors and asteroids before finally an ‘alien invasion’. All of these

things, von Braun said, would be bogus and what I would refer to as a No-Problem-Reaction-Solution. Keep this in mind when ‘the aliens are coming’ is the new mantra. The aliens are not coming – they are already here and they have infiltrated human society while looking human. French-Canadian investigative journalist Serge Monast said in 1994 that he had uncovered a NASA/military operation called Project Blue Beam which fits with what Werner von Braun predicted. Monast died of a ‘heart a ack’ in 1996 the day a er he was arrested and spent a night in prison. He was 51. He said Blue Beam was a plan to stage an alien invasion that would include religious figures beamed holographically into the sky as part of a global manipulation to usher in a ‘new age’ of worshipping what I would say is the Cult ‘god’ Yaldabaoth in a one-world religion. Fake holographic asteroids are also said to be part of the plan which again syncs with von Braun. How could you stage an illusory threat from asteroids unless they were holographic inserts? This is pre y straightforward given the advanced technology outside the public arena and the fact that our ‘physical’ reality is holographic anyway. Information fields would be projected and we would decode them into the illusion of a ‘physical’ asteroid. If they can sell a global ‘pandemic’ with a ‘virus’ that doesn’t exist what will humans not believe if government and media tell them? All this is particularly relevant as I write with the Pentagon planning to release in June, 2021, information about ‘UFO sightings’. I have been following the UFO story since the early 1990s and the common theme throughout has been government and military denials and cover up. More recently, however, the Pentagon has suddenly become more talkative and apparently open with Air Force pilot radar images released of unexplained cra moving and changing direction at speeds well beyond anything believed possible with human technology. Then, in March, 2021, former Director of National Intelligence John Ratcliffe said a Pentagon report months later in June would reveal a great deal of information about UFO sightings unknown to the public. He said the report would have ‘massive implications’. The order to do this was included bizarrely

in a $2.3 trillion ‘coronavirus’ relief and government funding bill passed by the Trump administration at the end of 2020. I would add some serious notes of caution here. I have been pointing out since the 1990s that the US military and intelligence networks have long had cra – ‘flying saucers’ or anti-gravity cra – which any observer would take to be extraterrestrial in origin. Keeping this knowledge from the public allows cra flown by humans to be perceived as alien visitations. I am not saying that ‘aliens’ do not exist. I would be the last one to say that, but we have to be streetwise here. President Ronald Reagan told the UN General Assembly in 1987: ‘I occasionally think how quickly our differences worldwide would vanish if we were facing an alien threat from outside this world.’ That’s the idea. Unite against a common ‘enemy’ with a common purpose behind your ‘saviour force’ (the Cult) as this age-old technique of mass manipulation goes global.

Science moves this way … I could find only one other person who was discussing the simulation hypothesis publicly when I concluded it was real. This was Nick Bostrom, a Swedish-born philosopher at the University of Oxford, who has explored for many years the possibility that human reality is a computer simulation although his version and mine are not the same. Today the simulation and holographic reality hypothesis have increasingly entered the scientific mainstream. Well, the more open-minded mainstream, that is. Here are a few of the ever-gathering examples. American nuclear physicist Silas Beane led a team of physicists at the University of Bonn in Germany pursuing the question of whether we live in a simulation. They concluded that we probably do and it was likely based on a la ice of cubes. They found that cosmic rays align with that specific pa ern. The team highlighted the Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin (GZK) limit which refers to cosmic ray particle interaction with cosmic background radiation that creates an apparent boundary for cosmic ray particles. They say in a paper entitled ‘Constraints on the Universe as a Numerical Simulation’ that this ‘pa ern of constraint’ is exactly what you

would find with a computer simulation. They also made the point that a simulation would create its own ‘laws of physics’ that would limit possibility. I’ve been making the same point for decades that the perceived laws of physics relate only to this reality, or what I would later call the simulation. When designers write codes to create computer and virtual reality games they are the equivalent of the laws of physics for that game. Players interact within the limitations laid out by the coding. In the same way those who wrote the codes for the simulation decided the laws of physics that would apply. These can be overridden by expanded states of consciousness, but not by those enslaved in only five-sense awareness where simulation codes rule. Overriding the codes is what people call ‘miracles’. They are not. They are bypassing the encoded limits of the simulation. A population caught in simulation perception would have no idea that this was their plight. As the Bonn paper said: ‘Like a prisoner in a pitch-black cell we would not be able to see the “walls” of our prison,’ That’s true if people remain mesmerised by the five senses. Open to expanded awareness and those walls become very clear. The main one is the speed of light. American theoretical physicist James Gates is another who has explored the simulation question and found considerable evidence to support the idea. Gates was Professor of Physics at the University of Maryland, Director of The Center for String and Particle Theory, and on Barack Obama’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. He and his team found computer codes of digital data embedded in the fabric of our reality. They relate to on-off electrical charges of 1 and 0 in the binary system used by computers. ‘We have no idea what they are doing there’, Gates said. They found within the energetic fabric mathematical sequences known as errorcorrecting codes or block codes that ‘reboot’ data to its original state or ‘default se ings’ when something knocks it out of sync. Gates was asked if he had found a set of equations embedded in our reality indistinguishable from those that drive search engines and browsers and he said: ‘That is correct.’ Rich Terrile, director of the Centre for Evolutionary Computation and Automated Design at NASA’s Jet

Propulsion Laboratory, has said publicly that he believes the Universe is a digital hologram that must have been created by a form of intelligence. I agree with that in every way. Waveform information is delivered electrically by the senses to the brain which constructs a digital holographic reality that we call the ‘world’. This digital level of reality can be read by the esoteric art of numerology. Digital holograms are at the cu ing edge of holographics today. We have digital technology everywhere designed to access and manipulate our digital level of perceived reality. Synthetic mRNA in ‘Covid vaccines’ has a digital component to manipulate the body’s digital ‘operating system’.

Reality is numbers How many know that our reality can be broken down to numbers and codes that are the same as computer games? Max Tegmark, a physicist at the Massachuse s Institute of Technology (MIT), is the author of Our Mathematical Universe in which he lays out how reality can be entirely described by numbers and maths in the way that a video game is encoded with the ‘physics’ of computer games. Our world and computer virtual reality are essentially the same. Tegmark imagines the perceptions of characters in an advanced computer game when the graphics are so good they don’t know they are in a game. They think they can bump into real objects (electromagnetic resistance in our reality), fall in love and feel emotions like excitement. When they began to study the apparently ‘physical world’ of the video game they would realise that everything was made of pixels (which have been found in our energetic reality as must be the case when on one level our world is digital). What computer game characters thought was physical ‘stuff’, Tegmark said, could actually be broken down into numbers: And we’re exactly in this situation in our world. We look around and it doesn’t seem that mathematical at all, but everything we see is made out of elementary particles like quarks and electrons. And what properties does an electron have? Does it have a smell or a colour or a texture? No! ... We physicists have come up with geeky names for [Electron] properties, like

electric charge, or spin, or lepton number, but the electron doesn’t care what we call it, the properties are just numbers.

This is the illusory reality Gnostics were describing. This is the simulation. The A, C, G, and T codes of DNA have a binary value – A and C = 0 while G and T = 1. This has to be when the simulation is digital and the body must be digital to interact with it. Recurring mathematical sequences are encoded throughout reality and the body. They include the Fibonacci sequence in which the two previous numbers are added to get the next one, as in ... 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, etc. The sequence is encoded in the human face and body, proportions of animals, DNA, seed heads, pine cones, trees, shells, spiral galaxies, hurricanes and the number of petals in a flower. The list goes on and on. There are fractal pa erns – a ‘neverending pa ern that is infinitely complex and self-similar across all scales in the as above, so below, principle of holograms. These and other famous recurring geometrical and mathematical sequences such as Phi, Pi, Golden Mean, Golden Ratio and Golden Section are computer codes of the simulation. I had to laugh and give my head a shake the day I finished this book and it went into the production stage. I was sent an article in Scientific American published in April, 2021, with the headline ‘Confirmed! We Live in a Simulation’. Two decades a er I first said our reality is a simulation and the speed of light is it’s outer limit the article suggested that we do live in a simulation and that the speed of light is its outer limit. I le school at 15 and never passed a major exam in my life while the writer was up to his eyes in qualifications. As I will explain in the final chapter knowing is far be er than thinking and they come from very different sources. The article rightly connected the speed of light to the processing speed of the ‘Matrix’ and said what has been in my books all this time … ‘If we are in a simulation, as it appears, then space is an abstract property wri en in code. It is not real’. No it’s not and if we live in a simulation something created it and it wasn’t us. ‘That David Icke says we are manipulated by aliens’ – he’s crackers.’

Wow … The reality that humanity thinks is so real is an illusion. Politicians, governments, scientists, doctors, academics, law enforcement, media, school and university curriculums, on and on, are all founded on a world that does not exist except as a simulated prison cell. Is it such a stretch to accept that ‘Covid’ doesn’t exist when our entire ‘physical’ reality doesn’t exist? Revealed here is the knowledge kept under raps in the Cult networks of compartmentalised secrecy to control humanity’s sense of reality by inducing the population to believe in a reality that’s not real. If it wasn’t so tragic in its experiential consequences the whole thing would be hysterically funny. None of this is new to Renegade Minds. Ancient Greek philosopher Plato (about 428 to about 347BC) was a major influence on Gnostic belief and he described the human plight thousands of years ago with his Allegory of the Cave. He told the symbolic story of prisoners living in a cave who had never been outside. They were chained and could only see one wall of the cave while behind them was a fire that they could not see. Figures walked past the fire casting shadows on the prisoners’ wall and those moving shadows became their sense of reality. Some prisoners began to study the shadows and were considered experts on them (today’s academics and scientists), but what they studied was only an illusion (today’s academics and scientists). A prisoner escaped from the cave and saw reality as it really is. When he returned to report this revelation they didn’t believe him, called him mad and threatened to kill him if he tried to set them free. Plato’s tale is not only a brilliant analogy of the human plight and our illusory reality. It describes, too, the dynamics of the ‘Covid’ hoax. I have only skimmed the surface of these subjects here. The aim of this book is to crisply connect all essential dots to put what is happening today into its true context. All subject areas and their connections in this chapter are covered in great evidential detail in Everything You Need To Know, But Have Never Been Told and The Answer. They say that bewildered people ‘can’t see the forest for the trees’. Humanity, however, can’t see the forest for the twigs. The five senses

see only twigs while Renegade Minds can see the forest and it’s the forest where the answers lie with the connections that reveals. Breaking free of perceptual programming so the forest can be seen is the way we turn all this around. Not breaking free is how humanity got into this mess. The situation may seem hopeless, but I promise you it’s not. We are a perceptual heartbeat from paradise if only we knew.

CHAPTER TWELVE Escaping Wetiko Life is simply a vacation from the infinite Dean Cavanagh

R

enegade Minds weave the web of life and events and see common themes in the apparently random. They are always there if you look for them and their pursuit is aided by incredible synchronicity that comes when your mind is open rather than mesmerised by what it thinks it can see. Infinite awareness is infinite possibility and the more of infinite possibility that we access the more becomes infinitely possible. That may be stating the apparently obvious, but it is a devastatinglypowerful fact that can set us free. We are a point of a ention within an infinity of consciousness. The question is how much of that infinity do we choose to access? How much knowledge, insight, awareness, wisdom, do we want to connect with and explore? If your focus is only in the five senses you will be influenced by a fraction of infinite awareness. I mean a range so tiny that it gives new meaning to infinitesimal. Limitation of self-identity and a sense of the possible limit accordingly your range of consciousness. We are what we think we are. Life is what we think it is. The dream is the dreamer and the dreamer is the dream. Buddhist philosophy puts it this way: ‘As a thing is viewed, so it appears.’ Most humans live in the realm of touch, taste, see, hear, and smell and that’s the limit of their sense of the possible and sense of self. Many will follow a religion and speak of a God in his heaven, but their lives are still

dominated by the five senses in their perceptions and actions. The five senses become the arbiter of everything. When that happens all except a smear of infinity is sealed away from influence by the rigid, unyielding, reality bubbles that are the five-sense human or Phantom Self. Archon Cult methodology is to isolate consciousness within five-sense reality – the simulation – and then program that consciousness with a sense of self and the world through a deluge of life-long information designed to instil the desired perception that allows global control. Efforts to do this have increased dramatically with identity politics as identity bubbles are squeezed into the minutiae of five-sense detail which disconnect people even more profoundly from the infinite ‘I’. Five-sense focus and self-identity are like a firewall that limits access to the infinite realms. You only perceive one radio or television station and no other. We’ll take that literally for a moment. Imagine a vast array of stations giving different information and angles on reality, but you only ever listen to one. Here we have the human plight in which the population is overwhelmingly confined to CultFM. This relates only to the frequency range of CultFM and limits perception and insight to that band – limits possibility to that band. It means you are connecting with an almost imperceptibly minuscule range of possibility and creative potential within the infinite Field. It’s a world where everything seems apart from everything else and where synchronicity is rare. Synchronicity is defined in the dictionary as ‘the happening by chance of two or more related or similar events at the same time‘. Use of ‘by chance’ betrays a complete misunderstanding of reality. Synchronicity is not ‘by chance’. As people open their minds, or ‘awaken’ to use the term, they notice more and more coincidences in their lives, bits of ‘luck’, apparently miraculous happenings that put them in the right place at the right time with the right people. Days become peppered with ‘fancy meeting you here’ and ‘what are the chances of that?’ My entire life has been lived like this and ever more so since my own colossal awakening in 1990 and 91 which transformed my sense of reality. Synchronicity is not ‘by chance’; it is by accessing expanded

realms of possibility which allow expanded potential for manifestation. People broadcasting the same vibe from the same openness of mind tend to be drawn ‘by chance’ to each other through what I call frequency magnetism and it’s not only people. In the last more than 30 years incredible synchronicity has also led me through the Cult maze to information in so many forms and to crucial personal experiences. These ‘coincidences’ have allowed me to put the puzzle pieces together across an enormous array of subjects and situations. Those who have breached the bubble of fivesense reality will know exactly what I mean and this escape from the perceptual prison cell is open to everyone whenever they make that choice. This may appear super-human when compared with the limitations of ‘human’, but it’s really our natural state. ‘Human’ as currently experienced is consciousness in an unnatural state of induced separation from the infinity of the whole. I’ll come to how this transformation into unity can be made when I have described in more detail the force that holds humanity in servitude by denying this access to infinite self.

The Wetiko factor I have been talking and writing for decades about the way five-sense mind is systematically barricaded from expanded awareness. I have used the analogy of a computer (five-sense mind) and someone at the keyboard (expanded awareness). Interaction between the computer and the operator is symbolic of the interaction between five-sense mind and expanded awareness. The computer directly experiences the Internet and the operator experiences the Internet via the computer which is how it’s supposed to be – the two working as one. Archons seek to control that point where the operator connects with the computer to stop that interaction (Fig 20). Now the operator is banging the keyboard and clicking the mouse, but the computer is not responding and this happens when the computer is taken over – possessed – by an appropriately-named computer ‘virus’. The operator has lost all influence over the computer which goes its own way making decisions under the control of the ‘virus’. I have

just described the dynamic through which the force known to Gnostics as Yaldabaoth and Archons disconnects five-sense mind from expanded awareness to imprison humanity in perceptual servitude.

Figure 20: The mind ‘virus’ I have been writing about for decades seeks to isolate five-sense mind (the computer) from the true ‘I’. (Image by Neil Hague).

About a year ago I came across a Native American concept of Wetiko which describes precisely the same phenomenon. Wetiko is the spelling used by the Cree and there are other versions including wintiko and windigo used by other tribal groups. They spell the name with lower case, but I see Wetiko as a proper noun as with Archons and prefer a capital. I first saw an article about Wetiko by writer and researcher Paul Levy which so synced with what I had been writing about the computer/operator disconnection and later the Archons. I then read his book, the fascinating Dispelling Wetiko, Breaking the Spell of Evil. The parallels between what I had concluded long before and the Native American concept of Wetiko were so clear and obvious that it was almost funny. For Wetiko see the Gnostic Archons for sure and the Jinn, the Predators, and every other name for a force of evil, inversion and chaos. Wetiko is the Native American name for the force that divides the computer from

the operator (Fig 21). Indigenous author Jack D. Forbes, a founder of the Native American movement in the 1960s, wrote another book about Wetiko entitled Columbus And Other Cannibals – The Wetiko Disease of Exploitation, Imperialism, and Terrorism which I also read. Forbes says that Wetiko refers to an evil person or spirit ‘who terrorizes other creatures by means of terrible acts, including cannibalism’. Zulu shaman Credo Mutwa told me that African accounts tell how cannibalism was brought into the world by the Chitauri ‘gods’ – another manifestation of Wetiko. The distinction between ‘evil person or spirit’ relates to Archons/Wetiko possessing a human or acting as pure consciousness. Wetiko is said to be a sickness of the soul or spirit and a state of being that takes but gives nothing back – the Cult and its operatives perfectly described. Black Hawk, a Native American war leader defending their lands from confiscation, said European invaders had ‘poisoned hearts’ – Wetiko hearts – and that this would spread to native societies. Mention of the heart is very significant as we shall shortly see. Forbes writes: ‘Tragically, the history of the world for the past 2,000 years is, in great part, the story of the epidemiology of the wetiko disease.’ Yes, and much longer. Forbes is correct when he says: ‘The wetikos destroyed Egypt and Babylon and Athens and Rome and Tenochtitlan [capital of the Aztec empire] and perhaps now they will destroy the entire earth.’ Evil, he said, is the number one export of a Wetiko culture – see its globalisation with ‘Covid’. Constant war, mass murder, suffering of all kinds, child abuse, Satanism, torture and human sacrifice are all expressions of Wetiko and the Wetiko possessed. The world is Wetiko made manifest, but it doesn’t have to be. There is a way out of this even now.

Figure 21: The mind ‘virus’ is known to Native Americans as ‘Wetiko’. (Image by Neil Hague).

Cult of Wetiko Wetiko is the Yaldabaoth frequency distortion that seeks to a ach to human consciousness and absorb it into its own. Once this connection is made Wetiko can drive the perceptions of the target which they believe to be coming from their own mind. All the horrors of history and today from mass killers to Satanists, paedophiles like Jeffrey Epstein and other psychopaths, are the embodiment of Wetiko and express its state of being in all its grotesqueness. The Cult is Wetiko incarnate, Yaldabaoth incarnate, and it seeks to facilitate Wetiko assimilation of humanity in totality into its distortion by manipulating the population into low frequency states that match its own. Paul Levy writes: ‘Holographically enforced within the psyche of every human being the wetiko virus pervades and underlies the entire field of consciousness, and can therefore potentially manifest through any one of us at any moment if we are not mindful.’ The ‘Covid’ hoax has achieved this with many people, but others have not fallen into Wetiko’s frequency lair. Players in the ‘Covid’ human catastrophe including Gates, Schwab, Tedros, Fauci, Whi y, Vallance, Johnson, Hancock, Ferguson, Drosten, and all the rest, including the psychopath psychologists, are expressions of Wetiko. This is why

they have no compassion or empathy and no emotional consequence for what they do that would make them stop doing it. Observe all the people who support the psychopaths in authority against the Pushbackers despite the damaging impact the psychopaths have on their own lives and their family’s lives. You are again looking at Wetiko possession which prevents them seeing through the lies to the obvious scam going on. Why can’t they see it? Wetiko won’t let them see it. The perceptual divide that has now become a chasm is between the Wetikoed and the non-Wetikoed. Paul Levy describes Wetiko in the same way that I have long described the Archontic force. They are the same distorted consciousness operating across dimensions of reality: ‘… the subtle body of wetiko is not located in the third dimension of space and time, literally existing in another dimension … it is able to affect ordinary lives by mysteriously interpenetrating into our threedimensional world.’ Wetiko does this through its incarnate representatives in the Cult and by weaving itself into The Field which on our level of reality is the electromagnetic information field of the simulation or Matrix. More than that, the simulation is Wetiko / Yaldabaoth. Caleb Scharf, Director of Astrobiology at Columbia University, has speculated that ‘alien life’ could be so advanced that it has transcribed itself into the quantum realm to become what we call physics. He said intelligence indistinguishable from the fabric of the Universe would solve many of its greatest mysteries: Perhaps hyper-advanced life isn’t just external. Perhaps it’s already all around. It is embedded in what we perceive to be physics itself, from the root behaviour of particles and fields to the phenomena of complexity and emergence ... In other words, life might not just be in the equations. It might BE the equations [My emphasis].

Scharf said it is possible that ‘we don’t recognise advanced life because it forms an integral and unsuspicious part of what we’ve considered to be the natural world’. I agree. Wetiko/Yaldabaoth is the simulation. We are literally in the body of the beast. But that doesn’t mean it has to control us. We all have the power to overcome Wetiko

influence and the Cult knows that. I doubt it sleeps too well because it knows that.

Which Field? This, I suggest, is how it all works. There are two Fields. One is the fierce electromagnetic light of the Matrix within the speed of light; the other is the ‘watery light’ of The Field beyond the walls of the Matrix that connects with the Great Infinity. Five-sense mind and the decoding systems of the body a ach us to the Field of Matrix light. They have to or we could not experience this reality. Five-sense mind sees only the Matrix Field of information while our expanded consciousness is part of the Infinity Field. When we open our minds, and most importantly our hearts, to the Infinity Field we have a mission control which gives us an expanded perspective, a road map, to understand the nature of the five-sense world. If we are isolated only in five-sense mind there is no mission control. We’re on our own trying to understand a world that’s constantly feeding us information to ensure we do not understand. People in this state can feel ‘lost’ and bewildered with no direction or radar. You can see ever more clearly those who are influenced by the Fields of Big Infinity or li le five-sense mind simply by their views and behaviour with regard to the ‘Covid’ hoax. We have had this division throughout known human history with the mass of the people on one side and individuals who could see and intuit beyond the walls of the simulation – Plato’s prisoner who broke out of the cave and saw reality for what it is. Such people have always been targeted by Wetiko/Archon-possessed authority, burned at the stake or demonised as mad, bad and dangerous. The Cult today and its global network of ‘anti-hate’, ‘anti-fascist’ Woke groups are all expressions of Wetiko a acking those exposing the conspiracy, ‘Covid’ lies and the ‘vaccine’ agenda. Woke as a whole is Wetiko which explains its black and white mentality and how at one it is with the Wetiko-possessed Cult. Paul Levy said: ‘To be in this paradigm is to still be under the thrall of a two-valued logic – where things are either true or false – of a

wetikoized mind.’ Wetiko consciousness is in a permanent rage, therefore so is Woke, and then there is Woke inversion and contradiction. ‘Anti-fascists’ act like fascists because fascists and ‘antifascists’ are both Wetiko at work. Political parties act the same while claiming to be different for the same reason. Secret society and satanic rituals are a aching initiates to Wetiko and the cold, ruthless, psychopathic mentality that secures the positions of power all over the world is Wetiko. Reframing ‘training programmes’ have the same cumulative effect of a aching Wetiko and we have their graduates described as automatons and robots with a cold, psychopathic, uncaring demeanour. They are all traits of Wetiko possession and look how many times they have been described in this book and elsewhere with regard to personnel behind ‘Covid’ including the police and medical profession. Climbing the greasy pole in any profession in a Wetiko society requires traits of Wetiko to get there and that is particularly true of politics which is not about fair competition and pre-eminence of ideas. It is founded on how many backs you can stab and arses you can lick. This culminated in the global ‘Covid’ coordination between the Wetiko possessed who pulled it off in all the different countries without a trace of empathy and compassion for their impact on humans. Our sight sense can see only holographic form and not the Field which connects holographic form. Therefore we perceive ‘physical’ objects with ‘space’ in between. In fact that ‘space’ is energy/consciousness operating on multiple frequencies. One of them is Wetiko and that connects the Cult psychopaths, those who submit to the psychopaths, and those who serve the psychopaths in the media operations of the world. Wetiko is Gates. Wetiko is the mask-wearing submissive. Wetiko is the fake journalist and ‘fact-checker’. The Wetiko Field is coordinating the whole thing. Psychopaths, gofers, media operatives, ‘anti-hate’ hate groups, ‘fact-checkers’ and submissive people work as one unit even without human coordination because they are a ached to the same Field which is organising it all (Fig 22). Paul Levy is here describing how Wetiko-possessed people are drawn together and refuse to let any information breach their rigid

perceptions. He was writing long before ‘Covid’, but I think you will recognise followers of the ‘Covid’ religion oh just a little bit: People who are channelling the vibratory frequency of wetiko align with each other through psychic resonance to reinforce their unspoken shared agreement so as to uphold their deranged view of reality. Once an unconscious content takes possession of certain individuals, it irresistibly draws them together by mutual attraction and knits them into groups tied together by their shared madness that can easily swell into an avalanche of insanity. A psychic epidemic is a closed system, which is to say that it is insular and not open to any new information or informing influences from the outside world which contradict its fixed, limited, and limiting perspective.

There we have the Woke mind and the ‘Covid’ mind. Compatible resonance draws the awakening together, too, which is clearly happening today.

Figure 22: The Wetiko Field from which the Cult pyramid and its personnel are made manifest. (Image by Neil Hague).

Spiritual servitude Wetiko doesn’t care about humans. It’s not human; it just possesses humans for its own ends and the effect (depending on the scale of

possession) can be anything from extreme psychopathy to unquestioning obedience. Wetiko’s worst nightmare is for human consciousness to expand beyond the simulation. Everything is focussed on stopping that happening through control of information, thus perception, thus frequency. The ‘education system’, media, science, medicine, academia, are all geared to maintaining humanity in five-sense servitude as is the constant stimulation of low-vibrational mental and emotional states (see ‘Covid’). Wetiko seeks to dominate those subconscious spaces between five-sense perception and expanded consciousness where the computer meets the operator. From these subconscious hiding places Wetiko speaks to us to trigger urges and desires that we take to be our own and manipulate us into anything from low-vibrational to psychopathic states. Remember how Islam describes the Jinn as invisible tricksters that ‘whisper’ and confuse. Wetiko is the origin of the ‘trickster god’ theme that you find in cultures all over the world. Jinn, like the Archons, are Wetiko which is terrified of humans awakening and reconnecting with our true self for then its energy source has gone. With that the feedback loop breaks between Wetiko and human perception that provides the energetic momentum on which its very existence depends as a force of evil. Humans are both its target and its source of survival, but only if we are operating in low-vibrational states of fear, hate, depression and the background anxiety that most people suffer. We are Wetiko’s target because we are its key to survival. It needs us, not the other way round. Paul Levy writes: A vampire has no intrinsic, independent, substantial existence in its own right; it only exists in relation to us. The pathogenic, vampiric mind-parasite called wetiko is nothing in itself – not being able to exist from its own side – yet it has a ‘virtual reality’ such that it can potentially destroy our species … …The fact that a vampire is not reflected by a mirror can also mean that what we need to see is that there’s nothing, no-thing to see, other than ourselves. The fact that wetiko is the expression of something inside of us means that the cure for wetiko is with us as well. The critical issue is finding this cure within us and then putting it into effect.

Evil begets evil because if evil does not constantly expand and find new sources of energetic sustenance its evil, its distortion, dies with the assimilation into balance and harmony. Love is the garlic to Wetiko’s vampire. Evil, the absence of love, cannot exist in the presence of love. I think I see a way out of here. I have emphasised so many times over the decades that the Archons/Wetiko and their Cult are not all powerful. They are not. I don’t care how it looks even now they are not. I have not called them li le boys in short trousers for effect. I have said it because it is true. Wetiko’s insatiable desire for power over others is not a sign of its omnipotence, but its insecurity. Paul Levy writes: ‘Due to the primal fear which ultimately drives it and which it is driven to cultivate, wetiko’s body politic has an intrinsic and insistent need for centralising power and control so as to create imagined safety for itself.’ Yeeeeeees! Exactly! Why does Wetiko want humans in an ongoing state of fear? Wetiko itself is fear and it is petrified of love. As evil is an absence of love, so love is an absence of fear. Love conquers all and especially Wetiko which is fear. Wetiko brought fear into the world when it wasn’t here before. Fear was the ‘fall’, the fall into low-frequency ignorance and illusion – fear is False Emotion Appearing Real. The simulation is driven and energised by fear because Wetiko/Yaldabaoth (fear) are the simulation. Fear is the absence of love and Wetiko is the absence of love.

Wetiko today We can now view current events from this level of perspective. The ‘Covid’ hoax has generated momentous amounts of ongoing fear, anxiety, depression and despair which have empowered Wetiko. No wonder people like Gates have been the instigators when they are Wetiko incarnate and exhibit every trait of Wetiko in the extreme. See how cold and unemotional these people are like Gates and his cronies, how dead of eye they are. That’s Wetiko. Sabbatians are Wetiko and everything they control including the World Health Organization, Big Pharma and the ‘vaccine’ makers, national ‘health’

hierarchies, corporate media, Silicon Valley, the banking system, and the United Nations with its planned transformation into world government. All are controlled and possessed by the Wetiko distortion into distorting human society in its image. We are with this knowledge at the gateway to understanding the world. Divisions of race, culture, creed and sexuality are diversions to hide the real division between those possessed and influenced by Wetiko and those that are not. The ‘Covid’ hoax has brought both clearly into view. Human behaviour is not about race. Tyrants and dictatorships come in all colours and creeds. What unites the US president bombing the innocent and an African tribe commi ing genocide against another as in Rwanda? What unites them? Wetiko. All wars are Wetiko, all genocide is Wetiko, all hunger over centuries in a world of plenty is Wetiko. Children going to bed hungry, including in the West, is Wetiko. Cult-generated Woke racial divisions that focus on the body are designed to obscure the reality that divisions in behaviour are manifestations of mind, not body. Obsession with body identity and group judgement is a means to divert a ention from the real source of behaviour – mind and perception. Conflict sown by the Woke both within themselves and with their target groups are Wetiko providing lunch for itself through still more agents of the division, chaos, and fear on which it feeds. The Cult is seeking to assimilate the entirety of humanity and all children and young people into the Wetiko frequency by manipulating them into states of fear and despair. Witness all the suicide and psychological unravelling since the spring of 2020. Wetiko psychopaths want to impose a state of unquestioning obedience to authority which is no more than a conduit for Wetiko to enforce its will and assimilate humanity into itself. It needs us to believe that resistance is futile when it fears resistance and even more so the game-changing non-cooperation with its impositions. It can use violent resistance for its benefit. Violent impositions and violent resistance are both Wetiko. The Power of Love with its Power of No will sweep Wetiko from our world. Wetiko and its Cult know that. They just don’t want us to know.

AI Wetiko This brings me to AI or artificial intelligence and something else Wetikos don’t want us to know. What is AI really? I know about computer code algorithms and AI that learns from data input. These, however, are more diversions, the expeditionary force, for the real AI that they want to connect to the human brain as promoted by Silicon Valley Wetikos like Kurzweil. What is this AI? It is the frequency of Wetiko, the frequency of the Archons. The connection of AI to the human brain is the connection of the Wetiko frequency to create a Wetiko hive mind and complete the job of assimilation. The hive mind is planned to be controlled from Israel and China which are both 100 percent owned by Wetiko Sabbatians. The assimilation process has been going on minute by minute in the ‘smart’ era which fused with the ‘Covid’ era. We are told that social media is scrambling the minds of the young and changing their personality. This is true, but what is social media? Look more deeply at how it works, how it creates divisions and conflict, the hostility and cruelty, the targeting of people until they are destroyed. That’s Wetiko. Social media is manipulated to tune people to the Wetiko frequency with all the emotional exploitation tricks employed by platforms like Facebook and its Wetiko front man, Zuckerberg. Facebook’s Instagram announced a new platform for children to overcome a legal bar on them using the main site. This is more Wetiko exploitation and manipulation of kids. Amnesty International likened the plan to foxes offering to guard the henhouse and said it was incompatible with human rights. Since when did Wetiko or Zuckerberg (I repeat myself) care about that? Would Brin and Page at Google, Wojcicki at YouTube, Bezos at Amazon and whoever the hell runs Twi er act as they do if they were not channelling Wetiko? Would those who are developing technologies for no other reason than human control? How about those designing and selling technologies to kill people and Big Pharma drug and ‘vaccine’ producers who know they will end or devastate lives? Quite a thought for these people to consider is that if you are Wetiko in a human life you are Wetiko on the ‘other side’ unless your frequency

changes and that can only change by a change of perception which becomes a change of behaviour. Where Gates is going does not bear thinking about although perhaps that’s exactly where he wants to go. Either way, that’s where he’s going. His frequency will make it so.

The frequency lair I have been saying for a long time that a big part of the addiction to smartphones and devices is that a frequency is coming off them that entraps the mind. People spend ages on their phones and sometimes even a minute or so a er they put them down they pick them up again and it all repeats. ‘Covid’ lockdowns will have increased this addiction a million times for obvious reasons. Addictions to alcohol overindulgence and drugs are another way that Wetiko entraps consciousness to a ach to its own. Both are symptoms of lowvibrational psychological distress which alcoholism and drug addiction further compound. Do we think it’s really a coincidence that access to them is made so easy while potions that can take people into realms beyond the simulation are banned and illegal? I have explored smartphone addiction in other books, the scale is mind-blowing, and that level of addiction does not come without help. Tech companies that make these phones are Wetiko and they will have no qualms about destroying the minds of children. We are seeing again with these companies the Wetiko perceptual combination of psychopathic enforcers and weak and meek unquestioning compliance by the rank and file. The global Smart Grid is the Wetiko Grid and it is crucial to complete the Cult endgame. The simulation is radiation and we are being deluged with technological radiation on a devastating scale. Wetiko frauds like Elon Musk serve Cult interests while occasionally criticising them to maintain his street-cred. 5G and other forms of Wi-Fi are being directed at the earth from space on a volume and scale that goes on increasing by the day. Elon Musk’s (officially) SpaceX Starlink project is in the process of pu ing tens of thousands of satellites in low orbit to cover every inch of the planet with 5G and other Wi-Fi to create Kurzweil’s global ‘cloud’ to which the

human mind is planned to be a ached very soon. SpaceX has approval to operate 12,000 satellites with more than 1,300 launched at the time of writing and applications filed for 30,000 more. Other operators in the Wi-Fi, 5G, low-orbit satellite market include OneWeb (UK), Telesat (Canada), and AST & Science (US). Musk tells us that AI could be the end of humanity and then launches a company called Neuralink to connect the human brain to computers. Musk’s (in theory) Tesla company is building electric cars and the driverless vehicles of the smart control grid. As frauds and bullshi ers go Elon Musk in my opinion is Major League. 5G and technological radiation in general are destructive to human health, genetics and psychology and increasing the strength of artificial radiation underpins the five-sense perceptual bubbles which are themselves expressions of radiation or electromagnetism. Freedom activist John Whitehead was so right with his ‘databit by databit, we are building our own electronic concentration camps’. The Smart Grid and 5G is a means to control the human mind and infuse perceptual information into The Field to influence anyone in sync with its frequency. You can change perception and behaviour en masse if you can manipulate the population into those levels of frequency and this is happening all around us today. The arrogance of Musk and his fellow Cult operatives knows no bounds in the way that we see with Gates. Musk’s satellites are so many in number already they are changing the night sky when viewed from Earth. The astronomy community has complained about this and they have seen nothing yet. Some consequences of Musk’s Wetiko hubris include: Radiation; visible pollution of the night sky; interference with astronomy and meteorology; ground and water pollution from intensive use of increasingly many spaceports; accumulating space debris; continual deorbiting and burning up of aging satellites, polluting the atmosphere with toxic dust and smoke; and everincreasing likelihood of collisions. A collective public open le er of complaint to Musk said: We are writing to you … because SpaceX is in process of surrounding the Earth with a network of thousands of satellites whose very purpose is to irradiate every square inch of the

Earth. SpaceX, like everyone else, is treating the radiation as if it were not there. As if the mitochondria in our cells do not depend on electrons moving undisturbed from the food we digest to the oxygen we breathe. As if our nervous systems and our hearts are not subject to radio frequency interference like any piece of electronic equipment. As if the cancer, diabetes, and heart disease that now afflict a majority of the Earth’s population are not metabolic diseases that result from interference with our cellular machinery. As if insects everywhere, and the birds and animals that eat them, are not starving to death as a result.

People like Musk and Gates believe in their limitless Wetiko arrogance that they can do whatever they like to the world because they own it. Consequences for humanity are irrelevant. It’s absolutely time that we stopped taking this shit from these selfstyled masters of the Earth when you consider where this is going.

Why is the Cult so anti-human? I hear this question o en: Why would they do this when it will affect them, too? Ah, but will it? Who is this them? Forget their bodies. They are just vehicles for Wetiko consciousness. When you break it all down to the foundations we are looking at a state of severely distorted consciousness targeting another state of consciousness for assimilation. The rest is detail. The simulation is the fly-trap in which unique sensations of the five senses create a cycle of addiction called reincarnation. Renegade Minds see that everything which happens in our reality is a smaller version of the whole picture in line with the holographic principle. Addiction to the radiation of smart technology is a smaller version of addiction to the whole simulation. Connecting the body/brain to AI is taking that addiction on a giant step further to total ongoing control by assimilating human incarnate consciousness into Wetiko. I have watched during the ‘Covid’ hoax how many are becoming ever more profoundly a ached to Wetiko’s perceptual calling cards of aggressive response to any other point of view (‘There is no other god but me’), psychopathic lack of compassion and empathy, and servile submission to the narrative and will of authority. Wetiko is the psychopaths and subservience to psychopaths. The Cult of Wetiko is

so anti-human because it is not human. It embarked on a mission to destroy human by targeting everything that it means to be human and to survive as human. ‘Covid’ is not the end, just a means to an end. The Cult with its Wetiko consciousness is seeking to change Earth systems, including the atmosphere, to suit them, not humans. The gathering bombardment of 5G alone from ground and space is dramatically changing The Field with which the five senses interact. There is so much more to come if we sit on our hands and hope it will all go away. It is not meant to go away. It is meant to get ever more extreme and we need to face that while we still can – just. Carbon dioxide is the gas of life. Without that human is over. Kaput, gone, history. No natural world, no human. The Cult has created a cock and bull story about carbon dioxide and climate change to justify its reduction to the point where Gates and the ignoramus Biden ‘climate chief’ John Kerry want to suck it out of the atmosphere. Kerry wants to do this because his master Gates does. Wetikos have made the gas of life a demon with the usual support from the Wokers of Extinction Rebellion and similar organisations and the bewildered puppet-child that is Greta Thunberg who was put on the world stage by Klaus Schwab and the World Economic Forum. The name Extinction Rebellion is both ironic and as always Wetiko inversion. The gas that we need to survive must be reduced to save us from extinction. The most basic need of human is oxygen and we now have billions walking around in face nappies depriving body and brain of this essential requirement of human existence. More than that 5G at 60 gigahertz interacts with the oxygen molecule to reduce the amount of oxygen the body can absorb into the bloodstream. The obvious knock-on consequences of that for respiratory and cognitive problems and life itself need no further explanation. Psychopaths like Musk are assembling a global system of satellites to deluge the human atmosphere with this insanity. The man should be in jail. Here we have two most basic of human needs, oxygen and carbon dioxide, being dismantled. Two others, water and food, are ge ing similar treatment with the United Nations Agendas 21 and 2030 – the Great Reset – planning to

centrally control all water and food supplies. People will not even own rain water that falls on their land. Food is affected at the most basic level by reducing carbon dioxide. We have genetic modification or GMO infiltrating the food chain on a mass scale, pesticides and herbicides polluting the air and destroying the soil. Freshwater fish that provide livelihoods for 60 million people and feed hundreds of millions worldwide are being ‘pushed to the brink’ according the conservationists while climate change is the only focus. Now we have Gates and Schwab wanting to dispense with current food sources all together and replace them with a synthetic version which the Wetiko Cult would control in terms of production and who eats and who doesn’t. We have been on the Totalitarian Tiptoe to this for more than 60 years as food has become ever more processed and full of chemical shite to the point today when it’s not natural food at all. As Dr Tom Cowan says: ‘If it has a label don’t eat it.’ Bill Gates is now the biggest owner of farmland in the United States and he does nothing without an ulterior motive involving the Cult. Klaus Schwab wrote: ‘To feed the world in the next 50 years we will need to produce as much food as was produced in the last 10,000 years … food security will only be achieved, however, if regulations on genetically modified foods are adapted to reflect the reality that gene editing offers a precise, efficient and safe method of improving crops.’ Liar. People and the world are being targeted with aluminium through vaccines, chemtrails, food, drink cans, and endless other sources when aluminium has been linked to many health issues including dementia which is increasing year a er year. Insects, bees and wildlife essential to the food chain are being deleted by pesticides, herbicides and radiation which 5G is dramatically increasing with 6G and 7G to come. The pollinating bee population is being devastated while wildlife including birds, dolphins and whales are having their natural radar blocked by the effects of ever-increasing radiation. In the summer windscreens used to be spla ered with insects so numerous were they. It doesn’t happen now. Where have they gone?

Synthetic everything The Cult is introducing genetically-modified versions of trees, plants and insects including a Gates-funded project to unleash hundreds of millions of genetically-modified, lab-altered and patented male mosquitoes to mate with wild mosquitoes and induce genetic flaws that cause them to die out. Clinically-insane Gates-funded Japanese researchers have developed mosquitos that spread vaccine and are dubbed ‘flying vaccinators’. Gates is funding the modification of weather pa erns in part to sell the myth that this is caused by carbon dioxide and he’s funding geoengineering of the skies to change the atmosphere. Some of this came to light with the Gates-backed plan to release tonnes of chalk into the atmosphere to ‘deflect the Sun and cool the planet’. Funny how they do this while the heating effect of the Sun is not factored into climate projections focussed on carbon dioxide. The reason is that they want to reduce carbon dioxide (so don’t mention the Sun), but at the same time they do want to reduce the impact of the Sun which is so essential to human life and health. I have mentioned the sun-cholesterol-vitamin D connection as they demonise the Sun with warnings about skin cancer (caused by the chemicals in sun cream they tell you to splash on). They come from the other end of the process with statin drugs to reduce cholesterol that turns sunlight into vitamin D. A lack of vitamin D leads to a long list of health effects and how vitamin D levels must have fallen with people confined to their homes over ‘Covid’. Gates is funding other forms of geoengineering and most importantly chemtrails which are dropping heavy metals, aluminium and self-replicating nanotechnology onto the Earth which is killing the natural world. See Everything You Need To Know, But Have Never Been Told for the detailed background to this. Every human system is being targeted for deletion by a force that’s not human. The Wetiko Cult has embarked on the process of transforming the human body from biological to synthetic biological as I have explained. Biological is being replaced by the artificial and synthetic – Archontic ‘countermimicry’ – right across human society. The plan eventually is to dispense with the human body altogether

and absorb human consciousness – which it wouldn’t really be by then – into cyberspace (the simulation which is Wetiko/Yaldabaoth). Preparations for that are already happening if people would care to look. The alternative media rightly warns about globalism and ‘the globalists’, but this is far bigger than that and represents the end of the human race as we know it. The ‘bad copy’ of prime reality that Gnostics describe was a bad copy of harmony, wonder and beauty to start with before Wetiko/Yaldabaoth set out to change the simulated ‘copy’ into something very different. The process was slow to start with. Entrapped humans in the simulation timeline were not technologically aware and they had to be brought up to intellectual speed while being suppressed spiritually to the point where they could build their own prison while having no idea they were doing so. We have now reached that stage where technological intellect has the potential to destroy us and that’s why events are moving so fast. Central American shaman Don Juan Matus said: Think for a moment, and tell me how you would explain the contradictions between the intelligence of man the engineer and the stupidity of his systems of belief, or the stupidity of his contradictory behaviour. Sorcerers believe that the predators have given us our systems of beliefs, our ideas of good and evil; our social mores. They are the ones who set up our dreams of success or failure. They have given us covetousness, greed, and cowardice. It is the predator who makes us complacent, routinary, and egomaniacal. In order to keep us obedient and meek and weak, the predators engaged themselves in a stupendous manoeuvre – stupendous, of course, from the point of view of a fighting strategist; a horrendous manoeuvre from the point of those who suffer it. They gave us their mind. The predators’ mind is baroque, contradictory, morose, filled with the fear of being discovered any minute now.

For ‘predators’ see Wetiko, Archons, Yaldabaoth, Jinn, and all the other versions of the same phenomenon in cultures and religions all over the world. The theme is always the same because it’s true and it’s real. We have reached the point where we have to deal with it. The question is – how?

Don’t fight – walk away

I thought I’d use a controversial subheading to get things moving in terms of our response to global fascism. What do you mean ‘don’t fight’? What do you mean ‘walk away’? We’ve got to fight. We can’t walk away. Well, it depends what we mean by fight and walk away. If fighting means physical combat we are playing Wetiko’s game and falling for its trap. It wants us to get angry, aggressive, and direct hate and hostility at the enemy we think we must fight. Every war, every ba le, every conflict, has been fought with Wetiko leading both sides. It’s what it does. Wetiko wants a fight, anywhere, any place. Just hit me, son, so I can hit you back. Wetiko hits Wetiko and Wetiko hits Wetiko in return. I am very forthright as you can see in exposing Wetikos of the Cult, but I don’t hate them. I refuse to hate them. It’s what they want. What you hate you become. What you fight you become. Wokers, ‘anti-haters’ and ‘anti-fascists’ prove this every time they reach for their keyboards or don their balaclavas. By walk away I mean to disengage from Wetiko which includes ceasing to cooperate with its tyranny. Paul Levy says of Wetiko: The way to ‘defeat’ evil is not to try to destroy it (for then, in playing evil’s game, we have already lost), but rather, to find the invulnerable place within ourselves where evil is unable to vanquish us – this is to truly ‘win’ our battle with evil.

Wetiko is everywhere in human society and it’s been on steroids since the ‘Covid’ hoax. Every shouting match over wearing masks has Wetiko wearing a mask and Wetiko not wearing one. It’s an electrical circuit of push and resist, push and resist, with Wetiko pushing and resisting. Each polarity is Wetiko empowering itself. Dictionary definitions of ‘resist’ include ‘opposing, refusing to accept or comply with’ and the word to focus on is ‘opposing’. What form does this take – se ing police cars alight or ‘refusing to accept or comply with’? The former is Wetiko opposing Wetiko while the other points the way forward. This is the difference between those aggressively demanding that government fascism must be obeyed who stand in stark contrast to the great majority of Pushbackers. We saw this clearly with a march by thousands of Pushbackers against lockdown in London followed days later by a Woker-hijacked

protest in Bristol in which police cars were set on fire. Masks were virtually absent in London and widespread in Bristol. Wetiko wants lockdown on every level of society and infuses its aggression to police it through its unknowing stooges. Lockdown protesters are the ones with the smiling faces and the hugs, The two blatantly obvious states of being – ge ing more obvious by the day – are the result of Wokers and their like becoming ever more influenced by the simulation Field of Wetiko and Pushbackers ever more influenced by The Field of a far higher vibration beyond the simulation. Wetiko can’t invade the heart which is where most lockdown opponents are coming from. It’s the heart that allows them to see through the lies to the truth in ways I will be highlighting. Renegade Minds know that calmness is the place from which wisdom comes. You won’t find wisdom in a hissing fit and wisdom is what we need in abundance right now. Calmness is not weakness – you don’t have to scream at the top of your voice to be strong. Calmness is indeed a sign of strength. ‘No’ means I’m not doing it. NOOOO!!! doesn’t mean you’re not doing it even more. Volume does not advance ‘No – I’m not doing it’. You are just not doing it. Wetiko possessed and influenced don’t know how to deal with that. Wetiko wants a fight and we should not give it one. What it needs more than anything is our cooperation and we should not give that either. Mass rallies and marches are great in that they are a visual representation of feeling, but if it ends there they are irrelevant. You demand that Wetikos act differently? Well, they’re not going to are they? They are Wetikos. We don’t need to waste our time demanding that something doesn’t happen when that will make no difference. We need to delete the means that allows it to happen. This, invariably, is our cooperation. You can demand a child stop firing a peashooter at the dog or you can refuse to buy the peashooter. If you provide the means you are cooperating with the dog being smacked on the nose with a pea. How can the authorities enforce mask-wearing if millions in a country refuse? What if the 74 million Pushbackers that voted for Trump in 2020 refused to wear masks, close their businesses or stay in their homes. It would be unenforceable. The

few control the many through the compliance of the many and that’s always been the dynamic be it ‘Covid’ regulations or the Roman Empire. I know people can find it intimidating to say no to authority or stand out in a crowd for being the only one with a face on display; but it has to be done or it’s over. I hope I’ve made clear in this book that where this is going will be far more intimidating than standing up now and saying ‘No’ – I will not cooperate with my own enslavement and that of my children. There might be consequences for some initially, although not so if enough do the same. The question that must be addressed is what is going to happen if we don’t? It is time to be strong and unyieldingly so. No means no. Not here and there, but everywhere and always. I have refused to wear a mask and obey all the other nonsense. I will not comply with tyranny. I repeat: Fascism is not imposed by fascists – there are never enough of them. Fascism is imposed by the population acquiescing to fascism. I will not do it. I will die first, or my body will. Living meekly under fascism is a form of death anyway, the death of the spirit that Martin Luther King described.

Making things happen We must not despair. This is not over till it’s over and it’s far from that. The ‘fat lady’ must refuse to sing. The longer the ‘Covid’ hoax has dragged on and impacted on more lives we have seen an awakening of phenomenal numbers of people worldwide to the realisation that what they have believed all their lives is not how the world really is. Research published by the system-serving University of Bristol and King’s College London in February, 2021, concluded: ‘One in every 11 people in Britain say they trust David Icke’s take on the coronavirus pandemic.’ It will be more by now and we have gathering numbers to build on. We must urgently progress from seeing the scam to ceasing to cooperate with it. Prominent German lawyer Reiner Fuellmich, also licenced to practice law in America, is doing a magnificent job taking the legal route to bring the psychopaths to justice through a second Nuremberg tribunal for crimes against humanity. Fuellmich has an impressive record of

beating the elite in court and he formed the German Corona Investigative Commi ee to pursue civil charges against the main perpetrators with a view to triggering criminal charges. Most importantly he has grasped the foundation of the hoax – the PCR test not testing for the ‘virus’ – and Christian Drosten is therefore on his charge sheet along with Gates frontman Tedros at the World Health Organization. Major players must be not be allowed to inflict their horrors on the human race without being brought to book. A life sentence must follow for Bill Gates and the rest of them. A group of researchers has also indicted the government of Norway for crimes against humanity with copies sent to the police and the International Criminal Court. The lawsuit cites participation in an internationally-planned false pandemic and violation of international law and human rights, the European Commission’s definition of human rights by coercive rules, Nuremberg and Hague rules on fundamental human rights, and the Norwegian constitution. We must take the initiative from hereon and not just complain, protest and react. There are practical ways to support vital mass non-cooperation. Organising in numbers is one. Lockdown marches in London in the spring in 2021 were mass non-cooperation that the authorities could not stop. There were too many people. Hundreds of thousands walked the London streets in the centre of the road for mile a er mile while the Face-Nappies could only look on. They were determined, but calm, and just did it with no histrionics and lots of smiles. The police were impotent. Others are organising group shopping without masks for mutual support and imagine if that was happening all over. Policing it would be impossible. If the store refuses to serve people in these circumstances they would be faced with a long line of trolleys full of goods standing on their own and everything would have to be returned to the shelves. How would they cope with that if it kept happening? I am talking here about moving on from complaining to being pro-active; from watching things happen to making things happen. I include in this our relationship with the police. The behaviour of many Face-Nappies

has been disgraceful and anyone who thinks they would never find concentration camp guards in the ‘enlightened’ modern era have had that myth busted big-time. The period and se ing may change – Wetikos never do. I watched film footage from a London march in which a police thug viciously kicked a protestor on the floor who had done nothing. His fellow Face-Nappies stood in a ring protecting him. What he did was a criminal assault and with a crowd far outnumbering the police this can no longer be allowed to happen unchallenged. I get it when people chant ‘shame on you’ in these circumstances, but that is no longer enough. They have no shame those who do this. Crowds needs to start making a citizen’s arrest of the police who commit criminal offences and brutally a ack innocent people and defenceless women. A citizen’s arrest can be made under section 24A of the UK Police and Criminal Evidence (PACE) Act of 1984 and you will find something similar in other countries. I prefer to call it a Common Law arrest rather than citizen’s for reasons I will come to shortly. Anyone can arrest a person commi ing an indictable offence or if they have reasonable grounds to suspect they are commi ing an indictable offence. On both counts the a ack by the police thug would have fallen into this category. A citizen’s arrest can be made to stop someone: • • • •

Causing physical injury to himself or any other person Suffering physical injury Causing loss of or damage to property Making off before a constable can assume responsibility for him

A citizen’s arrest may also be made to prevent a breach of the peace under Common Law and if they believe a breach of the peace will happen or anything related to harm likely to be done or already done in their presence. This is the way to go I think – the Common Law version. If police know that the crowd and members of the public will no longer be standing and watching while they commit

their thuggery and crimes they will think twice about acting like Brownshirts and Blackshirts.

Common Law – common sense Mention of Common Law is very important. Most people think the law is the law as in one law. This is not the case. There are two bodies of law, Common Law and Statute Law, and they are not the same. Common Law is founded on the simple premise of do no harm. It does not recognise victimless crimes in which no harm is done while Statute Law does. There is a Statute Law against almost everything. So what is Statute Law? Amazingly it’s the law of the sea that was brought ashore by the Cult to override the law of the land which is Common Law. They had no right to do this and as always they did it anyway. They had to. They could not impose their will on the people through Common Law which only applies to do no harm. How could you stitch up the fine detail of people’s lives with that? Instead they took the law of the sea, or Admiralty Law, and applied it to the population. Statute Law refers to all the laws spewing out of governments and their agencies including all the fascist laws and regulations relating to ‘Covid’. The key point to make is that Statute Law is contract law. It only applies between contracting corporations. Most police officers don’t even know this. They have to be kept in the dark, too. Long ago when merchants and their sailing ships began to trade with different countries a contractual law was developed called Admiralty Law and other names. Again it only applied to contracts agreed between corporate entities. If there is no agreed contract the law of the sea had no jurisdiction and that still applies to its new alias of Statute Law. The problem for the Cult when the law of the sea was brought ashore was an obvious one. People were not corporations and neither were government entities. To overcome the la er they made governments and all associated organisations corporations. All the institutions are private corporations and I mean governments and their agencies, local councils, police, courts, military, US states, the whole lot. Go to the

Dun and Bradstreet corporate listings website for confirmation that they are all corporations. You are arrested by a private corporation called the police by someone who is really a private security guard and they take you to court which is another private corporation. Neither have jurisdiction over you unless you consent and contract with them. This is why you hear the mantra about law enforcement policing by consent of the people. In truth the people ‘consent’ only in theory through monumental trickery. Okay, the Cult overcame the corporate law problem by making governments and institutions corporate entities; but what about people? They are not corporations are they? Ah ... well in a sense, and only a sense, they are. Not people exactly – the illusion of people. The Cult creates a corporation in the name of everyone at the time that their birth certificate is issued. Note birth/ berth certificate and when you go to court under the law of the sea on land you stand in a dock. These are throwbacks to the origin. My Common Law name is David Vaughan Icke. The name of the corporation created by the government when I was born is called Mr David Vaughan Icke usually wri en in capitals as MR DAVID VAUGHAN ICKE. That is not me, the living, breathing man. It is a fictitious corporate entity. The trick is to make you think that David Vaughan Icke and MR DAVID VAUGHAN ICKE are the same thing. They are not. When police charge you and take you to court they are prosecuting the corporate entity and not the living, breathing, man or woman. They have to trick you into identifying as the corporate entity and contracting with them. Otherwise they have no jurisdiction. They do this through a language known as legalese. Lawful and legal are not the same either. Lawful relates to Common Law and legal relates to Statute Law. Legalese is the language of Statue Law which uses terms that mean one thing to the public and another in legalese. Notice that when a police officer tells someone why they are being charged he or she will say at the end: ‘Do you understand?’ To the public that means ‘Do you comprehend?’ In legalese it means ‘Do you stand under me?’ Do you stand under my authority? If you say

yes to the question you are unknowingly agreeing to give them jurisdiction over you in a contract between two corporate entities. This is a confidence trick in every way. Contracts have to be agreed between informed parties and if you don’t know that David Vaughan Icke is agreeing to be the corporation MR DAVID VAUGHAN ICKE you cannot knowingly agree to contract. They are deceiving you and another way they do this is to ask for proof of identity. You usually show them a driving licence or other document on which your corporate name is wri en. In doing so you are accepting that you are that corporate entity when you are not. Referring to yourself as a ‘person’ or ‘citizen’ is also identifying with your corporate fiction which is why I made the Common Law point about the citizen’s arrest. If you are approached by a police officer you identify yourself immediately as a living, breathing, man or woman and say ‘I do not consent, I do not contract with you and I do not understand’ or stand under their authority. I have a Common Law birth certificate as a living man and these are available at no charge from commonlawcourt.com. Businesses registered under the Statute Law system means that its laws apply. There are, however, ways to run a business under Common Law. Remember all ‘Covid’ laws and regulations are Statute Law – the law of contracts and you do not have to contract. This doesn’t mean that you can kill someone and get away with it. Common Law says do no harm and that applies to physical harm, financial harm etc. Police are employees of private corporations and there needs to be a new system of noncorporate Common Law constables operating outside the Statute Law system. If you go to davidicke.com and put Common Law into the search engine you will find videos that explain Common Law in much greater detail. It is definitely a road we should walk.

With all my heart I have heard people say that we are in a spiritual war. I don’t like the term ‘war’ with its Wetiko dynamic, but I know what they mean. Sweep aside all the bodily forms and we are in a situation in which two states of consciousness are seeking very different realities.

Wetiko wants upheaval, chaos, fear, suffering, conflict and control. The other wants love, peace, harmony, fairness and freedom. That’s where we are. We should not fall for the idea that Wetiko is allpowerful and there’s nothing we can do. Wetiko is not all-powerful. It’s a joke, pathetic. It doesn’t have to be, but it has made that choice for now. A handful of times over the years when I have felt the presence of its frequency I have allowed it to a ach briefly so I could consciously observe its nature. The experience is not pleasant, the energy is heavy and dark, but the ease with which you can kick it back out the door shows that its real power is in persuading us that it has power. It’s all a con. Wetiko is a con. It’s a trickster and not a power that can control us if we unleash our own. The con is founded on manipulating humanity to give its power to Wetiko which recycles it back to present the illusion that it has power when its power is ours that we gave away. This happens on an energetic level and plays out in the world of the seen as humanity giving its power to Wetiko authority which uses that power to control the population when the power is only the power the population has handed over. How could it be any other way for billions to be controlled by a relative few? I have had experiences with people possessed by Wetiko and again you can kick its arse if you do it with an open heart. Oh yes – the heart which can transform the world of perceived ‘ma er’. We are receiver-transmi ers and processors of information, but what information and where from? Information is processed into perception in three main areas – the brain, the heart and the belly. These relate to thinking, knowing, and emotion. Wetiko wants us to be head and belly people which means we think within the confines of the Matrix simulation and low-vibrational emotional reaction scrambles balance and perception. A few minutes on social media and you see how emotion is the dominant force. Woke is all emotion and is therefore thought-free and fact-free. Our heart is something different. It knows while the head thinks and has to try to work it out because it doesn’t know. The human energy field has seven prime vortexes which connect us with wider reality (Fig 23). Chakra means

‘wheels of light’ in the Sanskrit language of ancient India. The main ones are: The crown chakra on top of the head; brow (or ‘third eye’) chakra in the centre of the forehead; throat chakra; heart chakra in the centre of the chest; solar plexus chakra below the sternum; sacral chakra beneath the navel; and base chakra at the bo om of the spine. Each one has a particular function or functions. We feel anxiety and nervousness in the belly where the sacral chakra is located and this processes emotion that can affect the colon to give people ‘the shits’ or make them ‘shit scared’ when they are nervous. Chakras all play an important role, but the Mr and Mrs Big is the heart chakra which sits at the centre of the seven, above the chakras that connect us to the ‘physical’ and below those that connect with higher realms (or at least should). Here in the heart chakra we feel love, empathy and compassion – ‘My heart goes out to you’. Those with closed hearts become literally ‘heart-less’ in their a itudes and behaviour (see Bill Gates). Native Americans portrayed Wetiko with what Paul Levy calls a ‘frigid, icy heart, devoid of mercy’ (see Bill Gates).

Figure 23: The chakra system which interpenetrates the human energy field. The heart chakra is the governor – or should be.

Wetiko trembles at the thought of heart energy which it cannot infiltrate. The frequency is too high. What it seeks to do instead is close the heart chakra vortex to block its perceptual and energetic influence. Psychopaths have ‘hearts of stone’ and emotionallydamaged people have ‘heartache’ and ‘broken hearts’. The astonishing amount of heart disease is related to heart chakra

disruption with its fundamental connection to the ‘physical’ heart. Dr Tom Cowan has wri en an outstanding book challenging the belief that the heart is a pump and making the connection between the ‘physical’ and spiritual heart. Rudolph Steiner who was way ahead of his time said the same about the fallacy that the heart is a pump. What? The heart is not a pump? That’s crazy, right? Everybody knows that. Read Cowan’s Human Heart, Cosmic Heart and you will realise that the very idea of the heart as a pump is ridiculous when you see the evidence. How does blood in the feet so far from the heart get pumped horizontally up the body by the heart?? Cowan explains in the book the real reason why blood moves as it does. Our ‘physical’ heart is used to symbolise love when the source is really the heart vortex or spiritual heart which is our most powerful energetic connection to ‘out there’ expanded consciousness. That’s why we feel knowing – intuitive knowing – in the centre of the chest. Knowing doesn’t come from a process of thoughts leading to a conclusion. It is there in an instant all in one go. Our heart knows because of its connection to levels of awareness that do know. This is the meaning and source of intuition – intuitive knowing. For the last more than 30 years of uncovering the global game and the nature of reality my heart has been my constant antenna for truth and accuracy. An American intelligence insider once said that I had quoted a disinformer in one of my books and yet I had only quoted the part that was true. He asked: ‘How do you do that?’ By using my heart antenna was the answer and anyone can do it. Heartcentred is how we are meant to be. With a closed heart chakra we withdraw into a closed mind and the bubble of five-sense reality. If you take a moment to focus your a ention on the centre of your chest, picture a spinning wheel of light and see it opening and expanding. You will feel it happening, too, and perceptions of the heart like joy and love as the heart impacts on the mind as they interact. The more the chakra opens the more you will feel expressions of heart consciousness and as the process continues, and becomes part of you, insights and knowings will follow. An open

heart is connected to that level of awareness that knows all is One. You will see from its perspective that the fault-lines that divide us are only illusions to control us. An open heart does not process the illusions of race, creed and sexuality except as brief experiences for a consciousness that is all. Our heart does not see division, only unity (Figs 24 and 25). There’s something else, too. Our hearts love to laugh. Mark Twain’s quote that says ‘The human race has one really effective weapon, and that is laughter’ is really a reference to the heart which loves to laugh with the joy of knowing the true nature of infinite reality and that all the madness of human society is an illusion of the mind. Twain also said: ‘Against the assault of laughter nothing can stand.’ This is so true of Wetiko and the Cult. Their insecurity demands that they be taken seriously and their power and authority acknowledged and feared. We should do nothing of the sort. We should not get aggressive or fearful which their insecurity so desires. We should laugh in their face. Even in their no-face as police come over in their face-nappies and expect to be taken seriously. They don’t take themselves seriously looking like that so why should we? Laugh in the face of intimidation. Laugh in the face of tyranny. You will see by its reaction that you have pressed all of its bu ons. Wetiko does not know what to do in the face of laughter or when its targets refuse to concede their joy to fear. We have seen many examples during the ‘Covid’ hoax when people have expressed their energetic power and the string puppets of Wetiko retreat with their tail limp between their knees. Laugh – the world is bloody mad a er all and if it’s a choice between laughter and tears I know which way I’m going.

Figure 24: Head consciousness without the heart sees division and everything apart from everything else.

Figure 25: Heart consciousness sees everything as One.

‘Vaccines’ and the soul The foundation of Wetiko/Archon control of humans is the separation of incarnate five-sense mind from the infinite ‘I’ and closing the heart chakra where the True ‘I’ lives during a human life. The goal has been to achieve complete separation in both cases. I was interested therefore to read an account by a French energetic healer of what she said she experienced with a patient who had been given the ‘Covid’ vaccine. Genuine energy healers can sense information and consciousness fields at different levels of being which are referred to as ‘subtle bodies’. She described treating the patient who later returned a er having, without the healer’s knowledge, two doses of the ‘Covid vaccine’. The healer said: I noticed immediately the change, very heavy energy emanating from [the] subtle bodies. The scariest thing was when I was working on the heart chakra, I connected with her soul: it was detached from the physical body, it had no contact and it was, as if it was floating in a state of total confusion: a damage to the consciousness that loses contact with the physical body, i.e. with our biological machine, there is no longer any communication between them. I continued the treatment by sending light to the heart chakra, the soul of the person, but it seemed that the soul could no longer receive any light, frequency or energy. It was a very powerful experience for me. Then I understood that this substance is indeed used to detach consciousness so that this consciousness can no longer interact through this body that it possesses in life, where there is no longer any contact, no frequency, no light, no more energetic balance or mind.

This would create a human that is rudderless and at the extreme almost zombie-like operating with a fractional state of consciousness at the mercy of Wetiko. I was especially intrigued by what the healer said in the light of the prediction by the highly-informed Rudolf Steiner more than a hundred years ago. He said: In the future, we will eliminate the soul with medicine. Under the pretext of a ‘healthy point of view’, there will be a vaccine by which the human body will be treated as soon as possible directly at birth, so that the human being cannot develop the thought of the existence of soul and Spirit. To materialistic doctors will be entrusted the task of removing the soul of humanity. As today, people are vaccinated against this disease or that disease, so in the future, children will be vaccinated with a substance that can be produced precisely in such a way that people, thanks to this vaccination, will be immune to being subjected to the ‘madness’ of spiritual life. He would be extremely smart, but he would not develop a conscience, and that is the true goal of some materialistic circles.

Steiner said the vaccine would detach the physical body from the etheric body (subtle bodies) and ‘once the etheric body is detached the relationship between the universe and the etheric body would become extremely unstable, and man would become an automaton’. He said ‘the physical body of man must be polished on this Earth by spiritual will – so the vaccine becomes a kind of arymanique (Wetiko) force’ and ‘man can no longer get rid of a given materialistic feeling’. Humans would then, he said, become ‘materialistic of constitution and can no longer rise to the spiritual’. I have been writing for years about DNA being a receiver-transmi er of information that connects us to other levels of reality and these ‘vaccines’ changing DNA can be likened to changing an antenna and what it can transmit and receive. Such a disconnection would clearly lead to changes in personality and perception. Steiner further predicted the arrival of AI. Big Pharma ‘Covid vaccine’ makers, expressions of Wetiko, are testing their DNA-manipulating evil on children as I write with a view to giving the ‘vaccine’ to babies. If it’s a soul-body disconnector – and I say that it is or can be – every child would be disconnected from ‘soul’ at birth and the ‘vaccine’ would create a closed system in which spiritual guidance from the greater self would play no part. This has been the ambition of Wetiko all

along. A Pentagon video from 2005 was leaked of a presentation explaining the development of vaccines to change behaviour by their effect on the brain. Those that believe this is not happening with the ‘Covid’ genetically-modifying procedure masquerading as a ‘vaccine’ should make an urgent appointment with Naivety Anonymous. Klaus Schwab wrote in 2018: Neurotechnologies enable us to better influence consciousness and thought and to understand many activities of the brain. They include decoding what we are thinking in fine levels of detail through new chemicals and interventions that can influence our brains to correct for errors or enhance functionality.

The plan is clear and only the heart can stop it. With every heart that opens, every mind that awakens, Wetiko is weakened. Heart and love are far more powerful than head and hate and so nothing like a majority is needed to turn this around.

Beyond the Phantom Our heart is the prime target of Wetiko and so it must be the answer to Wetiko. We are our heart which is part of one heart, the infinite heart. Our heart is where the true self lives in a human life behind firewalls of five-sense illusion when an imposter takes its place – Phantom Self; but our heart waits patiently to be set free any time we choose to see beyond the Phantom, beyond Wetiko. A Wetikoed Phantom Self can wreak mass death and destruction while the love of forever is locked away in its heart. The time is here to unleash its power and let it sweep away the fear and despair that is Wetiko. Heart consciousness does not seek manipulated, censored, advantage for its belief or religion, its activism and desires. As an expression of the One it treats all as One with the same rights to freedom and opinion. Our heart demands fairness for itself no more than for others. From this unity of heart we can come together in mutual support and transform this Wetikoed world into what reality is meant to be – a place of love, joy, happiness, fairness, justice and freedom. Wetiko has another agenda and that’s why the world is as

it is, but enough of this nonsense. Wetiko can’t stay where hearts are open and it works so hard to keep them closed. Fear is its currency and its food source and love in its true sense has no fear. Why would love have fear when it knows it is All That Is, Has Been, And Ever Can Be on an eternal exploration of all possibility? Love in this true sense is not the physical a raction that passes for love. This can be an expression of it, yes, but Infinite Love, a love without condition, goes far deeper to the core of all being. It is the core of all being. Infinite realty was born from love beyond the illusions of the simulation. Love infinitely expressed is the knowing that all is One and the swi ly-passing experience of separation is a temporary hallucination. You cannot disconnect from Oneness; you can only perceive that you have and withdraw from its influence. This is the most important of all perception trickery by the mind parasite that is Wetiko and the foundation of all its potential for manipulation. If we open our hearts, open the sluice gates of the mind, and redefine self-identity amazing things start to happen. Consciousness expands or contracts in accordance with self-identity. When true self is recognised as infinite awareness and label self – Phantom Self – is seen as only a series of brief experiences life is transformed. Consciousness expands to the extent that self-identity expands and everything changes. You see unity, not division, the picture, not the pixels. From this we can play the long game. No more is an experience something in and of itself, but a fleeting moment in the eternity of forever. Suddenly people in uniform and dark suits are no longer intimidating. Doing what your heart knows to be right is no longer intimidating and consequences for those actions take on the same nature of a brief experience that passes in the blink of an infinite eye. Intimidation is all in the mind. Beyond the mind there is no intimidation. An open heart does not consider consequences for what it knows to be right. To do so would be to consider not doing what it knows to be right and for a heart in its power that is never an option. The Renegade Mind is really the Renegade Heart. Consideration of consequences will always provide a getaway car for the mind and

the heart doesn’t want one. What is right in the light of what we face today is to stop cooperating with Wetiko in all its forms and to do it without fear or compromise. You cannot compromise with tyranny when tyranny always demands more until it has everything. Life is your perception and you are your destiny. Change your perception and you change your life. Change collective perception and we change the world. Come on people … One human family, One heart, One goal … FREEEEEEDOM! We must se le for nothing less.

Postscript

T

he big scare story as the book goes to press is the ‘Indian’ variant and the world is being deluged with propaganda about the ‘Covid catastrophe’ in India which mirrors in its lies and misrepresentations what happened in Italy before the first lockdown in 2020. The New York Post published a picture of someone who had ‘collapsed in the street from Covid’ in India in April, 2021, which was actually taken during a gas leak in May, 2020. Same old, same old. Media articles in mid-February were asking why India had been so untouched by ‘Covid’ and then as their vaccine rollout gathered pace the alleged ‘cases’ began to rapidly increase. Indian ‘Covid vaccine’ maker Bharat Biotech was funded into existence by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (the pair announced their divorce in May, 2021, which is a pity because they so deserve each other). The Indian ‘Covid crisis’ was ramped up by the media to terrify the world and prepare people for submission to still more restrictions. The scam that worked the first time was being repeated only with far more people seeing through the deceit. Davidicke.com and Ickonic.com have sought to tell the true story of what is happening by talking to people living through the Indian nightmare which has nothing to do with ‘Covid’. We posted a le er from ‘Alisha’ in Pune who told a very different story to government and media mendacity. She said scenes of dying people and overwhelmed hospitals were designed to hide what was really happening – genocide and starvation. Alisha said that millions had already died of starvation during the ongoing lockdowns while government and media were lying and making it look like the ‘virus’:

Restaurants, shops, gyms, theatres, basically everything is shut. The cities are ghost towns. Even so-called ‘essential’ businesses are only open till 11am in the morning. You basically have just an hour to buy food and then your time is up. Inter-state travel and even inter-district travel is banned. The cops wait at all major crossroads to question why you are traveling outdoors or to fine you if you are not wearing a mask. The medical community here is also complicit in genocide, lying about hospitals being full and turning away people with genuine illnesses, who need immediate care. They have even created a shortage of oxygen cylinders.

This is the classic Cult modus operandi played out in every country. Alisha said that people who would not have a PCR test not testing for the ‘virus’ were being denied hospital treatment. She said the people hit hardest were migrant workers and those in rural areas. Most businesses employed migrant workers and with everything closed there were no jobs, no income and no food. As a result millions were dying of starvation or malnutrition. All this was happening under Prime Minister Narendra Modi, a 100-percent asset of the Cult, and it emphasises yet again the scale of pure antihuman evil we are dealing with. Australia banned its people from returning home from India with penalties for trying to do so of up to five years in jail and a fine of £37,000. The manufactured ‘Covid’ crisis in India was being prepared to justify further fascism in the West. Obvious connections could be seen between the Indian ‘vaccine’ programme and increased ‘cases’ and this became a common theme. The Seychelles, the most per capita ‘Covid vaccinated’ population in the world, went back into lockdown a er a ‘surge of cases’. Long ago the truly evil Monsanto agricultural biotechnology corporation with its big connections to Bill Gates devastated Indian farming with genetically-modified crops. Human rights activist Gurcharan Singh highlighted the efforts by the Indian government to complete the job by destroying the food supply to hundreds of millions with ‘Covid’ lockdowns. He said that 415 million people at the bo om of the disgusting caste system (still going whatever they say) were below the poverty line and struggled to feed themselves every year. Now the government was imposing lockdown at just the

time to destroy the harvest. This deliberate policy was leading to mass starvation. People may reel back at the suggestion that a government would do that, but Wetiko-controlled ‘leaders’ are capable of any level of evil. In fact what is described in India is in the process of being instigated worldwide. The food chain and food supply are being targeted at every level to cause world hunger and thus control. Bill Gates is not the biggest owner of farmland in America for no reason and destroying access to food aids both the depopulation agenda and the plan for synthetic ‘food’ already being funded into existence by Gates. Add to this the coming hyperinflation from the suicidal creation of fake ‘money’ in response to ‘Covid’ and the breakdown of container shipping systems and you have a cocktail that can only lead one way and is meant to. The Cult plan is to crash the entire system to ‘build back be er’ with the Great Reset.

‘Vaccine’ transmission Reports from all over the world continue to emerge of women suffering menstrual and fertility problems a er having the fake ‘vaccine’ and of the non-’vaccinated’ having similar problems when interacting with the ‘vaccinated’. There are far too many for ‘coincidence’ to be credible. We’ve had menopausal women ge ing periods, others having periods stop or not stopping for weeks, passing clots, sometimes the lining of the uterus, breast irregularities, and miscarriages (which increased by 400 percent in parts of the United States). Non-‘vaccinated’ men and children have suffered blood clots and nose bleeding a er interaction with the ‘vaccinated’. Babies have died from the effects of breast milk from a ‘vaccinated’ mother. Awake doctors – the small minority – speculated on the cause of non-’vaccinated’ suffering the same effects as the ‘vaccinated’. Was it nanotechnology in the synthetic substance transmi ing frequencies or was it a straight chemical bioweapon that was being transmi ed between people? I am not saying that some kind of chemical transmission is not one possible answer, but the foundation of all that the Cult does is frequency and

this is fertile ground for understanding how transmission can happen. American doctor Carrie Madej, an internal medicine physician and osteopath, has been practicing for the last 20 years, teaching medical students, and she says a ending different meetings where the agenda for humanity was discussed. Madej, who operates out of Georgia, did not dismiss other possible forms of transmission, but she focused on frequency in search of an explanation for transmission. She said the Moderna and Pfizer ‘vaccines’ contained nano-lipid particles as a key component. This was a brand new technology never before used on humanity. ‘They’re using a nanotechnology which is pre y much li le tiny computer bits … nanobots or hydrogel.’ Inside the ‘vaccines’ was ‘this sci-fi kind of substance’ which suppressed immune checkpoints to get into the cell. I referred to this earlier as the ‘Trojan horse’ technique that tricks the cell into opening a gateway for the self-replicating synthetic material and while the immune system is artificially suppressed the body has no defences. Madej said the substance served many purposes including an on-demand ability to ‘deliver the payload’ and using the nano ‘computer bits’ as biosensors in the body. ‘It actually has the ability to accumulate data from your body, like your breathing, your respiration, thoughts, emotions, all kinds of things.’ She said the technology obviously has the ability to operate through Wi-Fi and transmit and receive energy, messages, frequencies or impulses. ‘Just imagine you’re ge ing this new substance in you and it can react to things all around you, the 5G, your smart device, your phones.’ We had something completely foreign in the human body that had never been launched large scale at a time when we were seeing 5G going into schools and hospitals (plus the Musk satellites) and she believed the ‘vaccine’ transmission had something to do with this: ‘… if these people have this inside of them … it can act like an antenna and actually transmit it outwardly as well.’ The synthetic substance produced its own voltage and so it could have that kind of effect. This fits with my own contention that the nano receiver-transmi ers are designed to connect people to the

Smart Grid and break the receiver-transmi er connection to expanded consciousness. That would explain the French energy healer’s experience of the disconnection of body from ‘soul’ with those who have had the ‘vaccine’. The nanobots, self-replicating inside the body, would also transmit the synthetic frequency which could be picked up through close interaction by those who have not been ‘vaccinated’. Madej speculated that perhaps it was 5G and increased levels of other radiation that was causing the symptoms directly although interestingly she said that non-‘vaccinated’ patients had shown improvement when they were away from the ‘vaccinated’ person they had interacted with. It must be remembered that you can control frequency and energy with your mind and you can consciously create energetic barriers or bubbles with the mind to stop damaging frequencies from penetrating your field. American paediatrician Dr Larry Palevsky said the ‘vaccine’ was not a ‘vaccine’ and was never designed to protect from a ‘viral’ infection. He called it ‘a massive, brilliant propaganda of genocide’ because they didn’t have to inject everyone to get the result they wanted. He said the content of the jabs was able to infuse any material into the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, sperm and female productive system. ‘This is genocide; this is a weapon of mass destruction.’ At the same time American colleges were banning students from a ending if they didn’t have this life-changing and potentially life-ending ‘vaccine’. Class action lawsuits must follow when the consequences of this college fascism come to light. As the book was going to press came reports about fertility effects on sperm in ‘vaccinated’ men which would absolutely fit with what I have been saying and hospitals continued to fill with ‘vaccine’ reactions. Another question is what about transmission via blood transfusions? The NHS has extended blood donation restrictions from seven days a er a ‘Covid vaccination’ to 28 days a er even a sore arm reaction. I said in the spring of 2020 that the then touted ‘Covid vaccine’ would be ongoing each year like the flu jab. A year later Pfizer CEO, the appalling Albert Bourla, said people would ‘likely’ need a ‘booster dose’ of the ‘vaccine’ within 12 months of ge ing ‘fully

vaccinated’ and then a yearly shot. ‘Variants will play a key role’, he said confirming the point. Johnson & Johnson CEO Alex Gorsky also took time out from his ‘vaccine’ disaster to say that people may need to be vaccinated against ‘Covid-19’ each year. UK Health Secretary, the psychopath Ma Hancock, said additional ‘boosters’ would be available in the autumn of 2021. This is the trap of the ‘vaccine passport’. The public will have to accept every last ‘vaccine’ they introduce, including for the fake ‘variants’, or it would cease to be valid. The only other way in some cases would be continuous testing with a test not testing for the ‘virus’ and what is on the swabs constantly pushed up your noise towards the brain every time?

‘Vaccines’ changing behaviour I mentioned in the body of the book how I believed we would see gathering behaviour changes in the ‘vaccinated’ and I am already hearing such comments from the non-‘vaccinated’ describing behaviour changes in friends, loved ones and work colleagues. This will only increase as the self-replicating synthetic material and nanoparticles expand in body and brain. An article in the Guardian in 2016 detailed research at the University of Virginia in Charlo esville which developed a new method for controlling brain circuits associated with complex animal behaviour. The method, dubbed ‘magnetogenetics’, involves genetically-engineering a protein called ferritin, which stores and releases iron, to create a magnetised substance – ‘Magneto’ – that can activate specific groups of nerve cells from a distance. This is claimed to be an advance on other methods of brain activity manipulation known as optogenetics and chemogenetics (the Cult has been developing methods of brain control for a long time). The ferritin technique is said to be noninvasive and able to activate neurons ‘rapidly and reversibly’. In other words, human thought and perception. The article said that earlier studies revealed how nerve cell proteins ‘activated by heat and mechanical pressure can be genetically engineered so that they become sensitive to radio waves and magnetic fields, by a aching them to an iron-storing protein called ferritin, or to inorganic

paramagnetic particles’. Sensitive to radio waves and magnetic fields? You mean like 5G, 6G and 7G? This is the human-AI Smart Grid hive mind we are talking about. The Guardian article said: … the researchers injected Magneto into the striatum of freely behaving mice, a deep brain structure containing dopamine-producing neurons that are involved in reward and motivation, and then placed the animals into an apparatus split into magnetised and non-magnetised sections. Mice expressing Magneto spent far more time in the magnetised areas than mice that did not, because activation of the protein caused the striatal neurons expressing it to release dopamine, so that the mice found being in those areas rewarding. This shows that Magneto can remotely control the firing of neurons deep within the brain, and also control complex behaviours.

Make no mistake this basic methodology will be part of the ‘Covid vaccine’ cocktail and using magnetics to change brain function through electromagnetic field frequency activation. The Pentagon is developing a ‘Covid vaccine’ using ferritin. Magnetics would explain changes in behaviour and why videos are appearing across the Internet as I write showing how magnets stick to the skin at the point of the ‘vaccine’ shot. Once people take these ‘vaccines’ anything becomes possible in terms of brain function and illness which will be blamed on ‘Covid-19’ and ‘variants’. Magnetic field manipulation would further explain why the non-‘vaccinated’ are reporting the same symptoms as the ‘vaccinated’ they interact with and why those symptoms are reported to decrease when not in their company. Interestingly ‘Magneto’, a ‘mutant’, is a character in the Marvel Comic X-Men stories with the ability to manipulate magnetic fields and he believes that mutants should fight back against their human oppressors by any means necessary. The character was born Erik Lehnsherr to a Jewish family in Germany.

Cult-controlled courts The European Court of Human Rights opened the door for mandatory ‘Covid-19 vaccines’ across the continent when it ruled in a Czech Republic dispute over childhood immunisation that legally

enforced vaccination could be ‘necessary in a democratic society’. The 17 judges decided that compulsory vaccinations did not breach human rights law. On the face of it the judgement was so inverted you gasp for air. If not having a vaccine infused into your body is not a human right then what is? Ah, but they said human rights law which has been specifically wri en to delete all human rights at the behest of the state (the Cult). Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights relates to the right to a private life. The crucial word here is ‘except’: There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right EXCEPT such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic wellbeing of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others [My emphasis].

No interference except in accordance with the law means there are no ‘human rights’ except what EU governments decide you can have at their behest. ‘As is necessary in a democratic society’ explains that reference in the judgement and ‘in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others’ gives the EU a coach and horses to ride through ‘human rights’ and sca er them in all directions. The judiciary is not a check and balance on government extremism; it is a vehicle to enforce it. This judgement was almost laughably predictable when the last thing the Cult wanted was a decision that went against mandatory vaccination. Judges rule over and over again to benefit the system of which they are a part. Vaccination disputes that come before them are invariably delivered in favour of doctors and authorities representing the view of the state which owns the judiciary. Oh, yes, and we have even had calls to stop pu ing ‘Covid-19’ on death certificates within 28 days of a ‘positive test’ because it is claimed the practice makes the ‘vaccine’ appear not to work. They are laughing at you.

The scale of madness, inhumanity and things to come was highlighted when those not ‘vaccinated’ for ‘Covid’ were refused evacuation from the Caribbean island of St Vincent during massive volcanic eruptions. Cruise ships taking residents to the safety of another island allowed only the ‘vaccinated’ to board and the rest were le to their fate. Even in life and death situations like this we see ‘Covid’ stripping people of their most basic human instincts and the insanity is even more extreme when you think that fake ‘vaccine’-makers are not even claiming their body-manipulating concoctions stop ‘infection’ and ‘transmission’ of a ‘virus’ that doesn’t exist. St Vincent Prime Minister Ralph Gonsalves said: ‘The chief medical officer will be identifying the persons already vaccinated so that we can get them on the ship.’ Note again the power of the chief medical officer who, like Whi y in the UK, will be answering to the World Health Organization. This is the Cult network structure that has overridden politicians who ‘follow the science’ which means doing what WHO-controlled ‘medical officers’ and ‘science advisers’ tell them. Gonsalves even said that residents who were ‘vaccinated’ a er the order so they could board the ships would still be refused entry due to possible side effects such as ‘wooziness in the head’. The good news is that if they were woozy enough in the head they could qualify to be prime minister of St Vincent.

Microchipping freedom The European judgement will be used at some point to justify moves to enforce the ‘Covid’ DNA-manipulating procedure. Sandra Ro, CEO of the Global Blockchain Business Council, told a World Economic Forum event that she hoped ‘vaccine passports’ would help to ‘drive forced consent and standardisation’ of global digital identity schemes: ‘I’m hoping with the desire and global demand for some sort of vaccine passport – so that people can get travelling and working again – [it] will drive forced consent, standardisation, and frankly, cooperation across the world.’ The lady is either not very bright, or thoroughly mendacious, to use the term ‘forced consent’.

You do not ‘consent’ if you are forced – you submit. She was describing what the plan has been all along and that’s to enforce a digital identity on every human without which they could not function. ‘Vaccine passports’ are opening the door and are far from the end goal. A digital identity would allow you to be tracked in everything you do in cyberspace and this is the same technique used by Cult-owned China to enforce its social credit system of total control. The ultimate ‘passport’ is planned to be a microchip as my books have warned for nearly 30 years. Those nice people at the Pentagon working for the Cult-controlled Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) claimed in April, 2021, they have developed a microchip inserted under the skin to detect ‘asymptomatic Covid-19 infection’ before it becomes an outbreak and a ‘revolutionary filter’ that can remove the ‘virus’ from the blood when a ached to a dialysis machine. The only problems with this are that the ‘virus’ does not exist and people transmi ing the ‘virus’ with no symptoms is brain-numbing bullshit. This is, of course, not a ruse to get people to be microchipped for very different reasons. DARPA also said it was producing a one-stop ‘vaccine’ for the ‘virus’ and all ‘variants’. One of the most sinister organisations on Planet Earth is doing this? Be er have it then. These people are insane because Wetiko that possesses them is insane. Researchers from the Salk Institute in California announced they have created an embryo that is part human and part monkey. My books going back to the 1990s have exposed experiments in top secret underground facilities in the United States where humans are being crossed with animal and non-human ‘extraterrestrial’ species. They are now easing that long-developed capability into the public arena and there is much more to come given we are dealing with psychiatric basket cases. Talking of which – Elon Musk’s scientists at Neuralink trained a monkey to play Pong and other puzzles on a computer screen using a joystick and when the monkey made the correct move a metal tube squirted banana smoothie into his mouth which is the basic technique for training humans into unquestioning compliance. Two Neuralink chips were in the monkey’s skull and

more than 2,000 wires ‘fanned out’ into its brain. Eventually the monkey played a video game purely with its brain waves. Psychopathic narcissist Musk said the ‘breakthrough’ was a step towards pu ing Neuralink chips into human skulls and merging minds with artificial intelligence. Exactly. This man is so dark and Cult to his DNA.

World Economic Fascism (WEF) The World Economic Forum is telling you the plan by the statements made at its many and various events. Cult-owned fascist YouTube CEO Susan Wojcicki spoke at the 2021 WEF Global Technology Governance Summit (see the name) in which 40 governments and 150 companies met to ensure ‘the responsible design and deployment of emerging technologies’. Orwellian translation: ‘Ensuring the design and deployment of long-planned technologies will advance the Cult agenda for control and censorship.’ Freedomdestroyer and Nuremberg-bound Wojcicki expressed support for tech platforms like hers to censor content that is ‘technically legal but could be harmful’. Who decides what is ‘harmful’? She does and they do. ‘Harmful’ will be whatever the Cult doesn’t want people to see and we have legislation proposed by the UK government that would censor content on the basis of ‘harm’ no ma er if the information is fair, legal and provably true. Make that especially if it is fair, legal and provably true. Wojcicki called for a global coalition to be formed to enforce content moderation standards through automated censorship. This is a woman and mega-censor so selfdeluded that she shamelessly accepted a ‘free expression’ award – Wojcicki – in an event sponsored by her own YouTube. They have no shame and no self-awareness. You know that ‘Covid’ is a scam and Wojcicki a Cult operative when YouTube is censoring medical and scientific opinion purely on the grounds of whether it supports or opposes the Cult ‘Covid’ narrative. Florida governor Ron DeSantis compiled an expert panel with four professors of medicine from Harvard, Oxford, and Stanford Universities who spoke against forcing children and

vaccinated people to wear masks. They also said there was no proof that lockdowns reduced spread or death rates of ‘Covid-19’. Cultgofer Wojcicki and her YouTube deleted the panel video ‘because it included content that contradicts the consensus of local and global health authorities regarding the efficacy of masks to prevent the spread of Covid-19’. This ‘consensus’ refers to what the Cult tells the World Health Organization to say and the WHO tells ‘local health authorities’ to do. Wojcicki knows this, of course. The panellists pointed out that censorship of scientific debate was responsible for deaths from many causes, but Wojcicki couldn’t care less. She would not dare go against what she is told and as a disgrace to humanity she wouldn’t want to anyway. The UK government is seeking to pass a fascist ‘Online Safety Bill’ to specifically target with massive fines and other means non-censored video and social media platforms to make them censor ‘lawful but harmful’ content like the Cult-owned Facebook, Twi er, Google and YouTube. What is ‘lawful but harmful’ would be decided by the fascist Blair-created Ofcom. Another WEF obsession is a cyber-a ack on the financial system and this is clearly what the Cult has planned to take down the bank accounts of everyone – except theirs. Those that think they have enough money for the Cult agenda not to ma er to them have got a big lesson coming if they continue to ignore what is staring them in the face. The World Economic Forum, funded by Gates and fronted by Klaus Schwab, announced it would be running a ‘simulation’ with the Russian government and global banks of just such an a ack called Cyber Polygon 2021. What they simulate – as with the ‘Covid’ Event 201 – they plan to instigate. The WEF is involved in a project with the Cult-owned Carnegie Endowment for International Peace called the WEF-Carnegie Cyber Policy Initiative which seeks to merge Wall Street banks, ‘regulators’ (I love it) and intelligence agencies to ‘prevent’ (arrange and allow) a cyber-a ack that would bring down the global financial system as long planned by those that control the WEF and the Carnegie operation. The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace sent an instruction to First World

War US President Woodrow Wilson not to let the war end before society had been irreversibly transformed.

The Wuhan lab diversion As I close, the Cult-controlled authorities and lapdog media are systematically pushing ‘the virus was released from the Wuhan lab’ narrative. There are two versions – it happened by accident and it happened on purpose. Both are nonsense. The perceived existence of the never-shown-to-exist ‘virus’ is vital to sell the impression that there is actually an infective agent to deal with and to allow the endless potential for terrifying the population with ‘variants’ of a ‘virus’ that does not exist. The authorities at the time of writing are going with the ‘by accident’ while the alternative media is promoting the ‘on purpose’. Cable news host Tucker Carlson who has questioned aspects of lockdown and ‘vaccine’ compulsion has bought the Wuhan lab story. ‘Everyone now agrees’ he said. Well, I don’t and many others don’t and the question is why does the system and its media suddenly ‘agree’? When the media moves as one unit with a narrative it is always a lie – witness the hour by hour mendacity of the ‘Covid’ era. Why would this Cult-owned combination which has unleashed lies like machine gun fire suddenly ‘agree’ to tell the truth?? Much of the alternative media is buying the lie because it fits the conspiracy narrative, but it’s the wrong conspiracy. The real conspiracy is that there is no virus and that is what the Cult is desperate to hide. The idea that the ‘virus’ was released by accident is ludicrous when the whole ‘Covid’ hoax was clearly long-planned and waiting to be played out as it was so fast in accordance with the Rockefeller document and Event 201. So they prepared everything in detail over decades and then sat around strumming their fingers waiting for an ‘accidental’ release from a bio-lab? What?? It’s crazy. Then there’s the ‘on purpose’ claim. You want to circulate a ‘deadly virus’ and hide the fact that you’ve done so and you release it down the street from the highest-level bio-lab in China? I repeat – What??

You would release it far from that lab to stop any association being made. But, no, we’ll do it in a place where the connection was certain to be made. Why would you need to scam ‘cases’ and ‘deaths’ and pay hospitals to diagnose ‘Covid-19’ if you had a real ‘virus’? What are sections of the alternative media doing believing this crap? Where were all the mass deaths in Wuhan from a ‘deadly pathogen’ when the recovery to normal life a er the initial propaganda was dramatic in speed? Why isn’t the ‘deadly pathogen’ now circulating all over China with bodies in the street? Once again we have the technique of tell them what they want to hear and they will likely believe it. The alternative media has its ‘conspiracy’ and with Carlson it fits with his ‘China is the danger’ narrative over years. China is a danger as a global Cult operations centre, but not for this reason. The Wuhan lab story also has the potential to instigate conflict with China when at some stage the plan is to trigger a Problem-Reaction-Solution confrontation with the West. Question everything – everything – and especially when the media agrees on a common party line.

Third wave … fourth wave … fifth wave … As the book went into production the world was being set up for more lockdowns and a ‘third wave’ supported by invented ‘variants’ that were increasing all the time and will continue to do so in public statements and computer programs, but not in reality. India became the new Italy in the ‘Covid’ propaganda campaign and we were told to be frightened of the new ‘Indian strain’. Somehow I couldn’t find it within myself to do so. A document produced for the UK government entitled ‘Summary of further modelling of easing of restrictions – Roadmap Step 2’ declared that a third wave was inevitable (of course when it’s in the script) and it would be the fault of children and those who refuse the health-destroying fake ‘Covid vaccine’. One of the computer models involved came from the Cultowned Imperial College and the other from Warwick University which I wouldn’t trust to tell me the date in a calendar factory. The document states that both models presumed extremely high uptake

of the ‘Covid vaccines’ and didn’t allow for ‘variants’. The document states: ‘The resurgence is a result of some people (mostly children) being ineligible for vaccination; others choosing not to receive the vaccine; and others being vaccinated but not perfectly protected.’ The mendacity takes the breath away. Okay, blame those with a brain who won’t take the DNA-modifying shots and put more pressure on children to have it as ‘trials’ were underway involving children as young as six months with parents who give insanity a bad name. Massive pressure is being put on the young to have the fake ‘vaccine’ and child age consent limits have been systematically lowered around the world to stop parents intervening. Most extraordinary about the document was its claim that the ‘third wave’ would be driven by ‘the resurgence in both hospitalisations and deaths … dominated by those that have received two doses of the vaccine, comprising around 60-70% of the wave respectively’. The predicted peak of the ‘third wave’ suggested 300 deaths per day with 250 of them fully ‘vaccinated’ people. How many more lies do acquiescers need to be told before they see the obvious? Those who took the jab to ‘protect themselves’ are projected to be those who mostly get sick and die? So what’s in the ‘vaccine’? The document went on: It is possible that a summer of low prevalence could be followed by substantial increases in incidence over the following autumn and winter. Low prevalence in late summer should not be taken as an indication that SARS-CoV-2 has retreated or that the population has high enough levels of immunity to prevent another wave.

They are telling you the script and while many British people believed ‘Covid’ restrictions would end in the summer of 2021 the government was preparing for them to be ongoing. Authorities were awarding contracts for ‘Covid marshals’ to police the restrictions with contracts starting in July, 2021, and going through to January 31st, 2022, and the government was advertising for ‘Media Buying Services’ to secure media propaganda slots worth a potential £320 million for ‘Covid-19 campaigns’ with a contract not ending until March, 2022. The recipient – via a list of other front companies – was reported to be American media marketing giant Omnicom Group

Inc. While money is no object for ‘Covid’ the UK waiting list for all other treatment – including life-threatening conditions – passed 4.5 million. Meantime the Cult is seeking to control all official ‘inquiries’ to block revelations about what has really been happening and why. It must not be allowed to – we need Nuremberg jury trials in every country. The cover-up doesn’t get more obvious than appointing ultra-Zionist professor Philip Zelikow to oversee two dozen US virologists, public health officials, clinicians, former government officials and four American ‘charitable foundations’ to ‘learn the lessons’ of the ‘Covid’ debacle. The personnel will be those that created and perpetuated the ‘Covid’ lies while Zelikow is the former executive director of the 9/11 Commission who ensured that the truth about those a acks never came out and produced a report that must be among the most mendacious and manipulative documents ever wri en – see The Trigger for the detailed exposure of the almost unimaginable 9/11 story in which Sabbatians can be found at every level.

Passive no more People are increasingly challenging the authorities with amazing numbers of people taking to the streets in London well beyond the ability of the Face-Nappies to stop them. Instead the Nappies choose situations away from the mass crowds to target, intimidate, and seek to promote the impression of ‘violent protestors’. One such incident happened in London’s Hyde Park. Hundreds of thousands walking through the streets in protest against ‘Covid’ fascism were ignored by the Cult-owned BBC and most of the rest of the mainstream media, but they delighted in reporting how police were injured in ‘clashes with protestors’. The truth was that a group of people gathered in Hyde Park at the end of one march when most had gone home and they were peacefully having a good time with music and chat. Face-Nappies who couldn’t deal with the full-march crowd then waded in with their batons and got more than they bargained for. Instead of just standing for this criminal brutality the crowd used their numerical superiority to push the Face-Nappies out of the

park. Eventually the Nappies turned and ran. Unfortunately two or three idiots in the crowd threw drink cans striking two officers which gave the media and the government the image they wanted to discredit the 99.9999 percent who were peaceful. The idiots walked straight into the trap and we must always be aware of potential agent provocateurs used by the authorities to discredit their targets. This response from the crowd – the can people apart – must be a turning point when the public no longer stand by while the innocent are arrested and brutally a acked by the Face-Nappies. That doesn’t mean to be violent, that’s the last thing we need. We’ll leave the violence to the Face-Nappies and government. But it does mean that when the Face-Nappies use violence against peaceful people the numerical superiority is employed to stop them and make citizen’s arrests or Common Law arrests for a breach of the peace. The time for being passive in the face of fascism is over. We are the many, they are the few, and we need to make that count before there is no freedom le and our children and grandchildren face an ongoing fascist nightmare. COME ON PEOPLE – IT’S TIME.

One final thought …

The power of love A force from above Cleaning my soul Flame on burn desire Love with tongues of fire Purge the soul Make love your goal

I’ll protect you from the hooded claw Keep the vampires from your door When the chips are down I’ll be around With my undying, death-defying Love for you

Envy will hurt itself Let yourself be beautiful Sparkling love, flowers And pearls and pre y girls Love is like an energy Rushin’ rushin’ inside of me

This time we go sublime Lovers entwine, divine, divine, Love is danger, love is pleasure Love is pure – the only treasure

I’m so in love with you Purge the soul Make love your goal

The power of love A force from above Cleaning my soul The power of love A force from above A sky-scraping dove

Flame on burn desire Love with tongues of fire Purge the soul Make love your goal

Frankie Goes To Hollywood

Appendix Cowan-Kaufman-Morell Statement on Virus Isolation (SOVI) Isolation: The action of isolating; the fact or condition of being isolated or standing alone; separation from other things or persons; solitariness Oxford English Dictionary

T

he controversy over whether the SARS-CoV-2 virus has ever been isolated or purified continues. However, using the above definition, common sense, the laws of logic and the dictates of science, any unbiased person must come to the conclusion that the SARS-CoV-2 virus has never been isolated or purified. As a result, no confirmation of the virus’ existence can be found. The logical, common sense, and scientific consequences of this fact are: • the structure and composition of something not shown to exist can’t be known, including the presence, structure, and function of any hypothetical spike or other proteins; • the genetic sequence of something that has never been found can’t be known; • “variants” of something that hasn’t been shown to exist can’t be known; • it’s impossible to demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 causes a disease called Covid-19.

In as concise terms as possible, here’s the proper way to isolate, characterize and demonstrate a new virus. First, one takes samples (blood, sputum, secretions) from many people (e.g. 500) with symptoms which are unique and specific enough to characterize an illness. Without mixing these samples with ANY tissue or products that also contain genetic material, the virologist macerates, filters and ultracentrifuges i.e. purifies the specimen. This common virology technique, done for decades to isolate bacteriophages1 and so-called giant viruses in every virology lab, then allows the virologist to demonstrate with electron microscopy thousands of identically sized and shaped particles. These particles are the isolated and purified virus. These identical particles are then checked for uniformity by physical and/or microscopic techniques. Once the purity is determined, the particles may be further characterized. This would include examining the structure, morphology, and chemical composition of the particles. Next, their genetic makeup is characterized by extracting the genetic material directly from the purified particles and using genetic-sequencing techniques, such as Sanger sequencing, that have also been around for decades. Then one does an analysis to confirm that these uniform particles are exogenous (outside) in origin as a virus is conceptualized to be, and not the normal breakdown products of dead and dying tissues.2 (As of May 2020, we know that virologists have no way to determine whether the particles they’re seeing are viruses or just normal breakdown products of dead and dying tissues.)3 1

Isolation, characterization and analysis of bacteriophages from the haloalkaline lake Elmenteita, KenyaJuliah Khayeli Akhwale et al, PLOS One, Published: April 25, 2019. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0215734 – accessed 2/15/21

2 “Extracellular Vesicles Derived From Apoptotic Cells: An Essential Link Between Death and Regeneration,” Maojiao Li1 et al, Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 2020 October 2. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcell.2020.573511/full – accessed 2/15/21

3 “The Role of Extraellular Vesicles as Allies of HIV, HCV and SARS Viruses,” Flavia Giannessi, et al, Viruses, 2020 May

If we have come this far then we have fully isolated, characterized, and genetically sequenced an exogenous virus particle. However, we still have to show it is causally related to a disease. This is carried out by exposing a group of healthy subjects (animals are usually used) to this isolated, purified virus in the manner in which the disease is thought to be transmi ed. If the animals get sick with the same disease, as confirmed by clinical and autopsy findings, one has now shown that the virus actually causes a disease. This demonstrates infectivity and transmission of an infectious agent. None of these steps has even been a empted with the SARS-CoV-2 virus, nor have all these steps been successfully performed for any so-called pathogenic virus. Our research indicates that a single study showing these steps does not exist in the medical literature. Instead, since 1954, virologists have taken unpurified samples from a relatively few people, o en less than ten, with a similar disease. They then minimally process this sample and inoculate this unpurified sample onto tissue culture containing usually four to six other types of material – all of which contain identical genetic material as to what is called a “virus.” The tissue culture is starved and poisoned and naturally disintegrates into many types of particles, some of which contain genetic material. Against all common sense, logic, use of the English language and scientific integrity, this process is called “virus isolation.” This brew containing fragments of genetic material from many sources is then subjected to genetic analysis, which then creates in a computersimulation process the alleged sequence of the alleged virus, a so called in silico genome. At no time is an actual virus confirmed by electron microscopy. At no time is a genome extracted and sequenced from an actual virus. This is scientific fraud.

The observation that the unpurified specimen — inoculated onto tissue culture along with toxic antibiotics, bovine fetal tissue, amniotic fluid and other tissues — destroys the kidney tissue onto which it is inoculated is given as evidence of the virus’ existence and pathogenicity. This is scientific fraud. From now on, when anyone gives you a paper that suggests the SARS-CoV-2 virus has been isolated, please check the methods sections. If the researchers used Vero cells or any other culture method, you know that their process was not isolation. You will hear the following excuses for why actual isolation isn’t done: 1. There were not enough virus particles found in samples from patients to analyze. 2. Viruses are intracellular parasites; they can’t be found outside the cell in this manner.

If No. 1 is correct, and we can’t find the virus in the sputum of sick people, then on what evidence do we think the virus is dangerous or even lethal? If No. 2 is correct, then how is the virus spread from person to person? We are told it emerges from the cell to infect others. Then why isn’t it possible to find it? Finally, questioning these virology techniques and conclusions is not some distraction or divisive issue. Shining the light on this truth is essential to stop this terrible fraud that humanity is confronting. For, as we now know, if the virus has never been isolated, sequenced or shown to cause illness, if the virus is imaginary, then why are we wearing masks, social distancing and pu ing the whole world into prison? Finally, if pathogenic viruses don’t exist, then what is going into those injectable devices erroneously called “vaccines,” and what is their purpose? This scientific question is the most urgent and relevant one of our time.

We are correct. The SARS-CoV2 virus does not exist. Sally Fallon Morell, MA Dr. Thomas Cowan, MD Dr. Andrew Kaufman, MD

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Index A abusive relationships

blaming themselves, abused as ref1 children ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10 conspiracy theories ref1 domestic abuse ref1, ref2 economic abuse and dependency ref1 isolation ref1 physical abuse ref1 psychological abuse ref1 signs of abuse ref1 addiction

alcoholism ref1 frequencies ref1 substance abuse ref1, ref2 technology ref1, ref2, ref3 Adelson, Sheldon ref1, ref2, ref3 Agenda 21/Agenda 2030 (UN) ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 AIDs/HIV ref1 causal link between HIV and AIDs ref1, ref2 retroviruses ref1 testing ref1, ref2 trial-run for Covid-19, as ref1, ref2 aliens/extraterrestrials ref1, ref2 aluminium ref1 Amazon ref1, ref2, ref3

ref1, ref2 anaphylactic shock ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 animals ref1, ref2, ref3 antibodies ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Antifa ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 antigens ref1, ref2 anti-Semitism ref1, ref2, ref3 Archons ref1, ref2 consciousness ref1, ref2, ref3 energy ref1, ref2, ref3 ennoia ref1 genetic manipulation ref1, ref2 inversion ref1, ref2, ref3 lockdowns ref1 money ref1 radiation ref1 religion ref1, ref2 technology ref1, ref2, ref3 Wetiko factor ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 artificial intelligence (AI) ref1 army made up of robots ref1, ref2 Human 2.0 ref1, ref2 Internet ref1 MHRA ref1 Morgellons fibres ref1, ref2 Smart Grid ref1 Wetiko factor ref1 asymptomatic, Covid-19 as ref1, ref2, ref3 aviation industry ref1 amplification cycles

B

banking, finance and money

ref1, ref2, ref3

2008 crisis ref1, ref2 boom and bust ref1 cashless digital money systems ref1 central banks ref1 credit ref1 digital currency ref1 fractional reserve lending ref1 Great Reset ref1 guaranteed income ref1, ref2, ref3 Human 2.0 ref1 incomes, destruction of ref1, ref2 interest ref1 one per cent ref1, ref2 scams ref1 BBC ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 Becker-Phelps, Leslie ref1 ref1, ref2, ref3 behavioural scientists and psychologists, advice from ref1, ref2 Bezos, Jeff ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Biden, Hunter ref1 Biden, Joe ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10, ref11, ref12, ref13, ref14, ref15, ref16, ref17 Behavioural Insights Team (BIT) (Nudge Unit)

Big Pharma

cholesterol ref1 health professionals ref1, ref2 immunity from prosecution in US ref1 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 Wetiko factor ref1, ref2 WHO ref1, ref2, ref3 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7

ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9 ref10, ref11 bird flu (H5N1) ref1 Black Lives Matter (BLM) ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Blair, Tony ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 Brin, Sergei ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 British Empire ref1 Bush, George HW ref1, ref2 Bush, George W ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Byrd, Robert ref1 billionaires

C Canada

Global Cult ref1 hate speech ref1 internment ref1 masks ref1 old people ref1 SARS-COV-2 ref1 satellites ref1 vaccines ref1 wearable technology ref1 Capitol Hill riot ref1, ref2 agents provocateur ref1 Antifa ref1 Black Lives Ma er (BLM) ref1, ref2 QAnon ref1 security precautions, lack of ref1, ref2, ref3 carbon dioxide ref1, ref2 care homes, deaths in ref1, ref2 cashless digital money systems ref1 censorship ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5

fact-checkers ref1 masks ref1 media ref1, ref2 private messages ref1 social media ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 transgender persons ref1 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3 Wokeness ref1 Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (United States) ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10, ref11, ref12, ref13 centralisation ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 chakras ref1 change agents ref1, ref2, ref3 chemtrails ref1, ref2, ref3 chief medical officers and scientific advisers ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 children see also young people abuse ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10 care, taken into ref1, ref2, ref3 education ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 energy ref1 family courts ref1 hand sanitisers ref1 human sacrifice ref1 lockdowns ref1, ref2, ref3 masks ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 mental health ref1 old people ref1 parents, replacement of ref1, ref2 Psyop (psychological operation), Covid as a ref1, ref2 reframing ref1 smartphone addiction ref1

social distancing and isolation ref1 social media ref1 transgender persons ref1, ref2 United States ref1 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10 Wetiko factor ref1 China ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 anal swab tests ref1 Chinese Revolution ref1, ref2, ref3 digital currency ref1 Global Cult ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9 guaranteed income ref1 Imperial College ref1 Israel ref1 lockdown ref1, ref2 masculinity crisis ref1 masks ref1 media ref1 origins of virus in China ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 pollution causing respiratory diseases ref1 Sabbatians ref1, ref2 Smart Grid ref1, ref2 social credit system ref1 testing ref1, ref2 United States ref1, ref2 vaccines ref1, ref2 Wetiko factor ref1 wet market conspiracy ref1 Wuhan ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 cholesterol ref1, ref2 Christianity ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 criticism ref1 cross, inversion of the ref1

Nag Hammadi texts ref1, ref2, ref3 Roman Catholic Church ref1, ref2 Sabbatians ref1, ref2 Satan ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Wokeness ref1 class ref1, ref2 climate change hoax ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Agenda 21/Agenda 2030 ref1, ref2, ref3 carbon dioxide ref1, ref2 Club of Rome ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 fear ref1 funding ref1 Global Cult ref1 green new deals ref1 green parties ref1 inversion ref1 perception, control of ref1 PICC ref1 reframing ref1 temperature, increases in ref1 United Nations ref1, ref2 Wikipedia ref1 Wokeness ref1, ref2 Clinton, Bill ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 Clinton, Hillary ref1, ref2, ref3 the cloud ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 Club of Rome and climate change hoax ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 cognitive therapy ref1 Cohn, Roy ref1 Common Law ref1 Admiralty Law ref1 arrests ref1, ref2

contractual law, Statute Law as ref1 corporate entities, people as ref1 legalese ref1 sea, law of the ref1 Statute Law ref1 Common Purpose leadership programme

ref1, ref2

ref1, ref2 co-morbidities ref1 communism

computer-generated virus,

as ref1, ref2, ref3 computer models ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 connections ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 consciousness ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Archons ref1, ref2, ref3 expanded ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 experience ref1 heart ref1 infinity ref1, ref2 religion ref1, ref2 self-identity ref1 simulation thesis ref1 vaccines ref1 Wetiko factor ref1, ref2 conspiracy theorists ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 contradictory rules ref1 contrails ref1 Corman-Drosten test ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 countermimicry ref1, ref2, ref3 Covid-19 vaccines see vaccines Covidiots ref1, ref2 Cowan, Tom ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 crimes against humanity ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 Covid-19

ref1 cyberwarfare ref1 cyber-operations

D DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency)

ref1

deaths

care homes ref1 certificates ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 mortality rate ref1 post-mortems/autopsies ref1 recording ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 deceit

pyramid of deceit ref1, ref2 sequence of deceit ref1 decoding ref1, ref2, ref3 dehumanisation ref1, ref2, ref3 Delphi technique ref1 democracy ref1 dependency ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Descartes, René ref1 DNA

numbers ref1 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10 DNR (do not resuscitate) orders ref1 domestic abuse ref1, ref2 downgrading of Covid-19 ref1 Drosten, Christian ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 Duesberg, Peter ref1, ref2

E ref1 Edmunds, John ref1, ref2 education ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 electromagnetic spectrum ref1, ref2 Enders, John ref1 economic abuse

energy

Archons ref1, ref2, ref3 children and young people ref1 consciousness ref1 decoding ref1 frequencies ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 heart ref1 human energy field ref1 source, humans as an energy ref1, ref2 vaccines ref1 viruses ref1 ennoia ref1 Epstein, Jeffrey ref1, ref2 eternal ‘I’ ref1, ref2 ethylene oxide ref1 European Union ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Event ref1 and Bill Gates ref2 exosomes, Covid-19 as natural defence mechanism called ref1 experience ref1, ref2 Extinction Rebellion ref1, ref2

F Facebook

addiction ref1, 448–50 Facebook

Archons ref1 censorship ref1, ref2, ref3 hate speech ref1 monopoly, as ref1 private messages, censorship of ref1 Sabbatians ref1 United States election fraud ref1 vaccines ref1 Wetiko factor ref1 fact-checkers ref1 Fauci, Anthony ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10, ref11, ref12 fear ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 climate change ref1 computer models ref1 conspiracy theories ref1 empty hospitals ref1 Italy ref1, ref2, ref3 lockdowns ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 masks ref1, ref2 media ref1, ref2 medical staff ref1 Psyop (psychological operation), Covid as a ref1 Wetiko factor ref1, ref2 female infertility ref1 Fermi Paradox ref1 Ferguson, Neil ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 fertility, decline in ref1 The Field ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 finance see banking, finance and money five-senses ref1, ref2 Archons ref1, ref2, ref3

censorship ref1 consciousness, expansion of ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 decoding ref1 education ref1, ref2 the Field ref1, ref2 God, personification of ref1 infinity ref1, ref2 media ref1 paranormal ref1 perceptual programming ref1, ref2 Phantom Self ref1 pneuma not nous, using ref1 reincarnation ref1 self-identity ref1 Wetiko factor ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 5G ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 Floyd, George and protests, killing of ref1 flu, re-labelling of ref1, ref2, ref3 food and water, control of ref1, ref2 Freemasons ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 Frei, Rosemary ref1 frequencies

addictions ref1 Archons ref1, ref2, ref3 awareness ref1 chanting and mantras ref1 consciousness ref1 decoding ref1, ref2 education ref1 electromagnetic (EMF) frequencies ref1 energy ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 fear ref1

the Field ref1, ref2 5G ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10 five-senses ref1, ref2 ghosts ref1 Gnostics ref1 hive-minds ref1 human, meaning of ref1 light ref1, ref2 love ref1, ref2 magnetism ref1 perception ref1 reality ref1, ref2, ref3 simulation ref1 terror ref1 vaccines ref1 Wetiko ref1, ref2, ref3 Fuellmich, Reiner ref1, ref2, ref3 furlough/rescue payments ref1

G Gallo, Robert

ref1, ref2, ref3

Gates, Bill

Archons ref1, ref2, ref3 climate change ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Daily Pass tracking system ref1 Epstein ref1 fascism ref1 five senses ref1 GAVI ref1 Great Reset ref1 GSK ref1 Imperial College ref1, ref2 Johns Hopkins University ref1, ref2, ref3

lockdowns ref1, ref2 masks ref1 Nuremberg trial, proposal for ref1, ref2 Rockefellers ref1, ref2 social distancing and isolation ref1 Sun, dimming the ref1 synthetic meat ref1, ref2 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 Wellcome Trust ref1 Wetiko factor ref1, ref2, ref3 WHO ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10 Wokeness ref1 World Economic Forum ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Gates, Melinda ref1, ref2, ref3 GAVI vaccine alliance ref1 genetics, manipulation of ref1, ref2, ref3 Germany ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 see also Nazi Germany Global Cult ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 anti-human, why Global Cult is ref1 Black Lives Ma er (BLM) ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 China ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9 climate change hoax ref1 contradictory rules ref1 Covid-19 ref1, ref2, ref3 fascism ref1 geographical origins ref1 immigration ref1 Internet ref1 mainstream media ref1, ref2 masks ref1, ref2 monarchy ref1 non-human dimension ref1

perception ref1 political parties ref1, ref2 pyramidal hierarchy ref1, ref2, ref3 reframing ref1 Sabbantian-Frankism ref1, ref2 science, manipulation of ref1 spider and the web ref1 transgender persons ref1 vaccines ref1 who controls the Cult ref1 Wokeness ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 globalisation ref1, ref2 Gnostics ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Google ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 government

behavioural scientists and psychologists, advice from ref1, ref2 definition ref1 Joint Biosecurity Centre (JBC) ref1 people, abusive relationship with ref1 Great Reset ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 fascism ref1, ref2, ref3 financial system ref1 Human 2.0 ref1 water and food, control of ref1 green parties ref1 Griesz-Brisson, Margarite ref1 guaranteed income ref1, ref2, ref3

H ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 hand sanitisers ref1 heart ref1, ref2 Hancock, Matt

ref1, ref2, ref3 holographs ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 hospitals, empty ref1 human, meaning of ref1 Human 2.0 ref1 addiction to technology ref1 artificial intelligence (AI) ref1, ref2 elimination of Human 1.0 ref1 fertility, decline in ref1 Great Reset ref1 implantables ref1 money ref1 mRNA ref1 nanotechnology ref1 parents, replacement of ref1, ref2 Smart Grid, connection to ref1, ref2 synthetic biology ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 testosterone levels, decrease in ref1 transgender = transhumanism ref1, ref2, ref3 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 human sacrifice ref1, ref2, ref3 Hunger Games Society ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 Huxley, Aldous ref1, ref2, ref3 hive-minds/groupthink

I ref1, ref2, ref3 Illuminati ref1, ref2 illusory physical reality ref1 immigration ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Imperial College ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 implantables ref1, ref2 identity politics

ref1, ref2 Infinite Awareness ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Internet ref1, ref2 see also social media artificial intelligence (AI) ref1 independent journalism, lack of ref1 Internet of Bodies (IoB) ref1 Internet of Everything (IoE) ref1, ref2 Internet of Things (IoT) ref1, ref2 lockdowns ref1 Psyop (psychological operation), Covid as a ref1 trolls ref1 intersectionality ref1 incomes, destruction of

inversion

Archons ref1, ref2, ref3 climate change hoax ref1 energy ref1 Judaism ref1, ref2, ref3 symbolism ref1 Wetiko factor ref1 Wokeness ref1, ref2, ref3 Islam

Archons ref1 crypto-Jews ref1 Islamic State ref1, ref2 Jinn and Djinn ref1, ref2, ref3 O oman Empire ref1 Wahhabism ref1 isolation see social distancing and isolation Israel

China ref1 Cyber Intelligence Unit Beersheba complex ref1 expansion of illegal se lements ref1

formation ref1 Global Cult ref1 Judaism ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 medical experiments, consent for ref1 Mossad ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Palestine-Israel conflict ref1, ref2, ref3 parents, replacement of ref1 Sabbatians ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 September 11, 2001, terrorist a acks on United States ref1 Silicon Valley ref1 Smart Grid ref1, ref2 United States ref1, ref2 vaccines ref1 Wetiko factor ref1 Italy

fear ref1, ref2, ref3 Lombardy ref1, ref2, ref3 vaccines ref1

J ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 Johnson, Boris ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 Joint Biosecurity Centre (JBC) ref1 Johns Hopkins University

Judaism

anti-Semitism ref1, ref2, ref3 Archons ref1, ref2 crypto-Jews ref1 inversion ref1, ref2, ref3 Israel ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Labour Party ref1 Nazi Germany ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Sabbatians ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5

Silicon Valley ref1 Torah ref1 United States ref1, ref2 Zionists ref1, ref2, ref3

K ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 knowledge ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 Koch’s postulates ref1 Kurzweil, Ray ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 Kaufman, Andrew

Kushner, Jared ref1, ref2

L ref1, ref2 Lanka, Stefan ref1, ref2 Labour Party

Lateral Flow Device (LFD)

ref1

ref1, ref2, ref3 Life Program ref1 lockdowns ref1, ref2, ref3 amplification tampering ref1 Archons ref1 Behavioural Insights Team ref1 Black Lives Ma er (BLM) ref1 care homes, deaths in ref1 children abuse ref1, ref2 mental health ref1 China ref1, ref2 computer models ref1 consequences ref1, ref2 dependency ref1, ref2, ref3 Levy, Paul

domestic abuse ref1 fall in cases ref1 fear ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 guaranteed income ref1 Hunger Games Society ref1, ref2, ref3 interaction, destroying ref1 Internet ref1, ref2 overdoses ref1 perception ref1 police-military state ref1, ref2 protests ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 psychopathic personality ref1, ref2, ref3 reporting/snitching, encouragement of ref1, ref2 testing ref1 vaccines ref1 Wetiko factor ref1 WHO ref1 love ref1, ref2, ref3 Lucifer ref1, ref2, ref3

M ref1, ref2 Magufuli, John ref1, ref2 mainstream media ref1 BBC ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 censorship ref1, ref2 China ref1 climate change hoax ref1 fear ref1, ref2 Global Cult ref1, ref2 independent journalism, lack of ref1 Ofcom ref1, ref2, ref3 Madej, Carrie

perception ref1, ref2 Psyop (psychological operation), Covid as a ref1 Sabbatians ref1, ref2 social disapproval ref1 social distancing and isolation ref1 United States ref1, ref2 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Mao Zedong ref1, ref2, ref3 Marx and Marxism ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 masculinity ref1 masks/face coverings ref1, ref2, ref3 censorship ref1 children ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 China, made in ref1 dehumanisation ref1, ref2, ref3 fear ref1, ref2 flu ref1 health professionals ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 isolation ref1 laughter ref1 mass non-cooperation ref1 microplastics, risk of ref1 mind control ref1 multiple masks ref1 oxygen deficiency ref1, ref2, ref3 police ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 pollution, as cause of plastic ref1 Psyop (psychological operation), Covid as a ref1 reframing ref1, ref2 risk assessments, lack of ref1, ref2 self-respect ref1 surgeons ref1

United States ref1 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Wetiko factor ref1 ‘worms’ ref1 The Matrix movies ref1, ref2, ref3 measles ref1, ref2 media see mainstream media Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Mesopotamia ref1 messaging ref1 military-police state ref1, ref2, ref3 mind control ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 see also MKUltra MKUltra ref1, ref2, ref3 monarchy ref1

see banking, finance and money Montagnier, Luc ref1, ref2, ref3 Mooney, Bel ref1 Morgellons disease ref1, ref2 mortality rate ref1 Mullis, Kary ref1, ref2, ref3 Musk, Elon ref1 money

N ref1, ref2, ref3 nanotechnology ref1, ref2, ref3 narcissism ref1 Nazi Germany ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 near-death experiences ref1, ref2 Neocons ref1, ref2, ref3 Nag Hammadi texts

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) and the Delphi technique ref1 NHS (National Health Service)

amplification cycles ref1 Common Purpose ref1, ref2 mind control ref1 NHS England ref1 saving the NHS ref1, ref2 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 whistle-blowers ref1, ref2, ref3 No-Problem-Reaction-Solution ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 non-human dimension of Global Cult ref1 nous ref1 numbers, reality as ref1 Nuremberg Codes ref1, ref2, ref3 Nuremberg-like tribunal, proposal for ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10, ref11, ref12

O ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10 O’Brien, Cathy ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Ochel, Evita ref1 Ofcom ref1, ref2, ref3 old people ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Oneness ref1, ref2, ref3 Open Society Foundations (Soros) ref1, ref2, ref3 oxygen 406, 528–34 Obama, Barack

P ref1, ref2 Page, Larry ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 paedophilia

ref1, ref2, ref3 pandemic, definition of ref1 Palestine-Israel conflict

pandemic and health crisis scenarios/simulations

ref4 ref1 PCR tests ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 Pearl Harbor attacks, prior knowledge of ref1 Pelosi, Nancy ref1, ref2, ref3 perception ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 climate change hoax ref1 control ref1, ref2, ref3 decoding ref1, ref2 enslavement ref1 externally-delivered perceptions ref1 five senses ref1 human labels ref1 media ref1, ref2 political parties ref1, ref2 Psyop (psychological operation), Covid as a ref1 sale of perception ref1 self-identity ref1, ref2 Wokeness ref1 Phantom Self ref1, ref2, ref3 pharmaceutical industry see Big Pharma phthalates ref1 Plato’s Allegory of the Cave ref1, ref2 pneuma ref1 paranormal

police

Black Lives Ma er (BLM) ref1 brutality ref1 citizen’s arrests ref1, ref2 common law arrests ref1, ref2

ref1, ref2, ref3,

Common Purpose ref1 defunding ref1 lockdowns ref1, ref2 masks ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 police-military state ref1, ref2, ref3 psychopathic personality ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 reframing ref1 United States ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Wokeness ref1 polio ref1 political correctness ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 political parties ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 political puppets ref1 pollution ref1, ref2, ref3 post-mortems/autopsies ref1 Postage Stamp Consensus ref1, ref2 pre-emptive programming ref1 Problem-Reaction-Solution ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 Project for the New American Century ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 psychopathic personality ref1 Archons ref1 heart energy ref1 lockdowns ref1, ref2, ref3 police ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 recruitment ref1, ref2 vaccines ref1 wealth ref1 Wetiko ref1, ref2 Psyop (psychological operation), Covid as a ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Pushbackers ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 pyramid structure ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4

Q QAnon Psyop

ref1, ref2, ref3

R see also Black Lives Ma er (BLM) anti-racism industry ref1 class ref1 critical race theory ref1 culture ref1 intersectionality ref1 reverse racism ref1 white privilege ref1, ref2 white supremacy ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Wokeness ref1, ref2, ref3 radiation ref1, ref2 randomness, illusion of ref1, ref2, ref3 reality ref1, ref2, ref3 reframing ref1, ref2 change agents ref1, ref2 children ref1 climate change ref1 Common Purpose leadership programme ref1, ref2 contradictory rules ref1 enforcers ref1 masks ref1, ref2 NLP and the Delphi technique ref1 police ref1 Wetiko factor ref1 Wokeness ref1, ref2 religion see also particular religions alien invasions ref1 racism

Archons ref1, ref2 consciousness ref1, ref2 control, system of ref1, ref2, ref3 criticism, prohibition on ref1 five senses ref1 good and evil, war between ref1 hidden non-human forces ref1, ref2 Sabbatians ref1 save me syndrome ref1 Wetiko ref1 Wokeness ref1 repetition and mind control ref1, ref2, ref3 reporting/snitching, encouragement of ref1, ref2 Reptilians/Grey entities ref1 rewiring the mind ref1 Rivers, Thomas Milton ref1, ref2 Rockefeller family ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9 Rockefeller Foundation documents ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Roman Empire ref1 Rothschild family ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9 RT-PCR tests ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 Russia

collusion inquiry in US ref1 Russian Revolution ref1, ref2 Sabbatians ref1

S ref1, ref2 anti-Semitism ref1, ref2 banking and finance ref1, ref2, ref3 China ref1, ref2 Israel ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5

Sabbantian-Frankism

Judaism ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Lucifer ref1 media ref1, ref2 Nazis ref1, ref2 QAnon ref1 Rothschilds ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 Russia ref1 Saudi Arabia ref1 Silicon Valley ref1 Sumer ref1 United States ref1, ref2, ref3 Wetiko factor ref1 Wokeness ref1, ref2, ref3 SAGE (Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies)

ref1, ref2, ref3,

ref4 SARS-1

ref1

ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 Satan/Satanism ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 satellites in low-orbit ref1 Saudi Arabia ref1 Save Me Syndrome ref1 scapegoating ref1 Schwab, Klaus ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10, ref11, ref12 science, manipulation of ref1 self-identity ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 self-respect, attacks on ref1 September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on United States ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 77th Brigade of UK military ref1, ref2, ref3 Silicon Valley/tech giants ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 see also SARs-CoV-2

Facebook

Israel ref1 Sabbatians ref1 technocracy ref1 Wetiko factor ref1 Wokeness ref1 ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Smart Grid ref1, ref2, ref3 artificial intelligence (AI) ref1 China ref1, ref2 control centres ref1 the Field ref1 Great Reset ref1 Human 2.0 ref1, ref2 Israel ref1, ref2 vaccines ref1 Wetiko factor ref1 social disapproval ref1 social distancing and isolation ref1, ref2, ref3 abusive relationships ref1, ref2 children ref1 flats and apartments ref1 heart issues ref1 hugs ref1 Internet ref1 masks ref1 media ref1 older people ref1, ref2 one-metre (three feet) rule ref1 rewiring the mind ref1 simulation, universe as a ref1 SPI-B ref1 substance abuse ref1 simulation hypothesis

suicide and self-harm ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 technology ref1 torture, as ref1, ref2 two-metre (six feet) rule ref1 women ref1 social justice ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 social media see also Facebook bans on alternative views ref1 censorship ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 children ref1 emotion ref1 perception ref1 private messages ref1 Twi er ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 Wetiko factor ref1 YouTube ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Soros, George ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 Spain ref1 SPI-B (Scientific Pandemic Insights Group on Behaviours) ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 spider and the web ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Starmer, Keir ref1 Statute Law ref1 Steiner, Rudolf ref1, ref2, ref3 Stockholm syndrome ref1 streptomycin ref1 suicide and self-harm ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Sumer ref1, ref2 Sunstein, Cass ref1, ref2, ref3 swine flu (H1N1) ref1, ref2, ref3 synchronicity ref1 synthetic biology ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 synthetic meat ref1, ref2

T see also artificial intelligence (AI); Internet; social media addiction ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Archons ref1, ref2 the cloud ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 cyber-operations ref1 cyberwarfare ref1 radiation ref1, ref2 social distancing and isolation ref1 technocracy ref1 Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10, ref11, ref12, ref13 telepathy ref1 Tenpenny, Sherri ref1 Tesla, Nikola ref1 testosterone levels, decrease in ref1 testing for Covid-19 ref1, ref2 anal swab tests ref1 cancer ref1 China ref1, ref2, ref3 Corman-Drosten test ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 death certificates ref1, ref2 fraudulent testing ref1 genetic material, amplification of ref1 Lateral Flow Device (LFD) ref1 PCR tests ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3 Thunberg, Greta ref1, ref2, ref3 Totalitarian Tiptoe ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 technology

transgender persons

activism ref1 artificial wombs ref1

censorship ref1 child abuse ref1, ref2 Human 2.0 ref1, ref2, ref3 Wokeness ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 women, deletion of rights and status of ref1, ref2 young persons ref1 travel restrictions ref1 Trudeau, Justin ref1, ref2, ref3 Trump, Donald ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10, ref11 Twitter ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7

U UKColumn

ref1, ref2

United Nations (UN)

ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 see also Agenda

21/Agenda 2030 (UN)

ref1, ref2 American Revolution ref1 borders ref1, ref2 Capitol Hill riot ref1, ref2 children ref1 China ref1, ref2 CIA ref1, ref2 Daily Pass tracking system ref1 demographics by immigration, changes in ref1 Democrats ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 election fraud ref1 far-right domestic terrorists, pushbackers as ref1 Federal Reserve ref1 flu/respiratory diseases statistics ref1 Global Cult ref1, ref2 hand sanitisers, FDA warnings on ref1

United States

immigration, effects of illegal ref1 impeachment ref1 Israel ref1, ref2 Judaism ref1, ref2, ref3 lockdown ref1 masks ref1 mass media ref1, ref2 nursing homes ref1 Pentagon ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 police ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 pushbackers ref1 Republicans ref1, ref2 borders ref1, ref2 Democrats ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Russia, inquiry into collusion with ref1 Sabbatians ref1, ref2, ref3 September 11, 2001, terrorist a acks ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 UFO sightings, release of information on ref1 vaccines ref1 white supremacy ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Woke Democrats ref1, ref2

V ref1, ref2, ref3 adverse reactions ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Africa ref1 anaphylactic shock ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 animals ref1, ref2 anti-vax movement ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 AstraZeneca/Oxford ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 autoimmune diseases, rise in ref1, ref2 Big Pharma ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8

vaccines

bioweapon, as real ref1, ref2 black and ethnic minority communities ref1 blood clots ref1, ref2 Brain Computer Interface (BCI) ref1 care homes, deaths in ref1 censorship ref1, ref2, ref3 chief medical officers and scientific advisers, financial interests of ref1, ref2 children ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10 China ref1, ref2 clinical trials ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 compensation ref1 compulsory vaccinations ref1, ref2, ref3 computer programs ref1 consciousness ref1 cover-ups ref1 creation before Covid ref1 cytokine storm ref1 deaths and illnesses caused by vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 definition ref1 developing countries ref1 digital ta oos ref1 DNA-manipulation ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10 emergency approval ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 female infertility ref1 funding ref1 genetic suicide ref1 Global Cult ref1 heart chakras ref1 hesitancy ref1 Human 2.0 ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 immunity from prosecution ref1, ref2, ref3

implantable technology ref1 Israel ref1 Johnson & Johnson ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 lockdowns ref1 long-term effects ref1 mainstream media ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 masks ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) ref1, ref2 messaging ref1 Moderna ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 mRNA vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9 nanotechnology ref1, ref2 NHS ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 older people ref1, ref2 operating system ref1 passports ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Pfizer/BioNTech ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 polyethylene glycol ref1 pregnant women ref1 psychopathic personality ref1 races, targeting different ref1 reverse transcription ref1 Smart Grid ref1 social distancing ref1 social media ref1 sterility ref1 synthetic material, introduction of ref1 tests ref1, ref2, ref3 travel restrictions ref1 variants ref1, ref2 viruses, existence of ref1 whistle-blowing ref1

WHO ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Wokeness ref1 working, vaccine as ref1 young people ref1 Vallance, Patrick ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9 variants ref1, ref2, ref3 vegans ref1 ventilators ref1, ref2 virology ref1, ref2 virtual reality ref1, ref2, ref3 viruses, existence of ref1 visual reality ref1, ref2 vitamin D ref1, ref2 von Braun, Wernher ref1, ref2

W war-zone hospital myths

ref1

ref1, ref2 wealth ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9 ref10, ref11 wet market conspiracy ref1 Wetiko factor ref1 alcoholism and drug addiction ref1 anti-human, why Global Cult is ref1 Archons ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 artificial intelligence (AI) ref1 Big Pharma ref1, ref2 children ref1 China ref1 consciousness ref1, ref2 education ref1 Facebook ref1 waveforms

fear ref1, ref2 frequency ref1, ref2 Gates ref1, ref2 Global Cult ref1, ref2 heart ref1, ref2 lockdowns ref1 masks ref1 Native American concept ref1 psychopathic personality ref1, ref2 reframing/retraining programmes ref1 religion ref1 Silicon Valley ref1 Smart Grid ref1 smartphone addiction ref1, ref2 social media ref1 war ref1, ref2 WHO ref1 Wokeness ref1, ref2, ref3 Yaldabaoth ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 whistle-blowing ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 white privilege ref1, ref2 white supremacy ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Whitty, Christopher ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10 ‘who benefits’ ref1 Wi-Fi ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Wikipedia ref1, ref2 Wojcicki, Susan ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 Wokeness

Antifa ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 anti-Semitism ref1 billionaire social justice warriors ref1, ref2, ref3

Capitol Hill riot ref1, ref2 censorship ref1 Christianity ref1 climate change hoax ref1, ref2 culture ref1 education, control of ref1 emotion ref1 facts ref1 fascism ref1, ref2, ref3 Global Cult ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 group-think ref1 immigration ref1 indigenous people, solidarity with ref1 inversion ref1, ref2, ref3 le , hijacking the ref1, ref2 Marxism ref1, ref2, ref3 mind control ref1 New Woke ref1 Old Woke ref1 Oneness ref1 perceptual programming ref1 Phantom Self ref1 police ref1 defunding the ref1 reframing ref1 public institutions ref1 Pushbackers ref1, ref2, ref3 racism ref1, ref2, ref3 reframing ref1, ref2 religion, as ref1 Sabbatians ref1, ref2, ref3 Silicon Valley ref1 social justice ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4

transgender ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 United States ref1, ref2 vaccines ref1 Wetiko factor ref1, ref2, ref3 young people ref1, ref2, ref3 ref1, ref2 World Economic Forum (WEF) ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9 World Health Organization (WHO) ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9 AIDs/HIV ref1 amplification cycles ref1 Big Pharma ref1, ref2, ref3 cooperation in health emergencies ref1 creation ref1, ref2 fatality rate ref1 funding ref1, ref2, ref3 Gates ref1 Internet ref1 lockdown ref1 vaccines ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Wetiko factor ref1 world number 1 (masses) ref1, ref2 world number 2 ref1 Wuhan ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 ref8 women, deletion of rights and status of

Y ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 Yeadon, Michael ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 young people see also children addiction to technology ref1 Human 2.0 ref1 vaccines ref1, ref2 Yaldabaoth

Wokeness ref1, ref2, ref3 YouTube ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 WHO 548

Z ref1 Zionism ref1, ref2, ref3 Zuckerberg, Mark ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10, ref11, ref12 Zulus ref1 Zaks, Tal

Before you go … For more detail, background and evidence about the subjects in Perceptions of a Renegade Mind – and so much more – see my others books including And The Truth Shall Set You Free; The Biggest Secret; Children of the Matrix; The David Icke Guide to the Global Conspiracy; Tales from the Time Loop; The Perception Deception; Remember Who You Are; Human Race Get Off Your Knees; Phantom Self; Everything You Need To Know But Have Never Been Told, The Trigger and The Answer. You can subscribe to the fantastic new Ickonic media platform where there are many hundreds of hours of cu ing-edge information in videos, documentaries and series across a whole range of subjects which are added to every week. This includes my 90 minute breakdown of the week’s news every Friday to explain why events are happening and to what end.