Educational psychology [Thirteenth edition] 9781292095301, 129209530X

Table of contents :
Educational Psychology......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Dedication......Page 5
About the Author......Page 6
Preface......Page 7
Brief Contents......Page 15
Contents......Page 17
Special Features......Page 28
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—LEAVING NO STUDENT BEHIND: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 30
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 31
Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology......Page 32
High Expectations for Teachers and Students......Page 33
THE COST OF POOR TEACHING......Page 35
A SUBURBAN FIFTH GRADE......Page 36
MODELS OF GOOD TEACHING......Page 37
Beginning Teachers......Page 40
In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching......Page 41
SKIPPING GRADES......Page 42
OBVIOUS ANSWERS?......Page 43
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES......Page 44
ETHNOGRAPHY......Page 45
QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH......Page 46
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education?......Page 47
TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS......Page 48
Theories for Teaching......Page 49
Supporting Student Learning......Page 50
SUMMARY......Page 52
KEY TERMS......Page 54
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—LEAVING NO STUDENT BEHIND: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 55
PART III: TEACHING AND ASSESSING......Page 0
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—SYMBOLS AND CYMBALS: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 58
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 59
WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF DEVELOPMENT? NATURE VERSUS NURTURE......Page 60
BEWARE OF EITHER/OR......Page 61
THE BRAIN AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT......Page 62
The Developing Brain: Neurons......Page 63
The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex......Page 65
Adolescent Development and the Brain......Page 66
Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching......Page 67
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education......Page 68
INSTRUCTION AND BRAIN DEVELOPMENT......Page 69
THE BRAIN AND LEARNING TO READ......Page 70
Lessons for Teachers: General Principles......Page 71
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT......Page 72
ORGANIZATION......Page 73
INFANCY: THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE......Page 74
EARLY CHILDHOOD TO THE EARLY ELEMENTARY YEARS: THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE......Page 75
LATER ELEMENTARY TO THE MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS: THE CON-CRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE......Page 77
GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child......Page 79
GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations......Page 81
THE TROUBLE WITH STAGES......Page 82
UNDERESTIMATING CHILDREN’S ABILITIES......Page 83
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE......Page 84
The Social Sources of Individual Thinking......Page 85
TECHNICAL TOOLS IN A DIGITAL AGE......Page 86
PRIVATE SPEECH: VYGOTSKY’S AND PIAGET’S VIEWS COMPARED......Page 87
Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory......Page 89
UNDERSTANDING AND BUILDING ON STUDENTS’ THINKING......Page 90
Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?......Page 91
An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind......Page 92
Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle”......Page 93
SUMMARY......Page 94
KEY TERMS......Page 97
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—SYMBOLS AND CYMBALS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 98
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—MEAN GIRLS: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 100
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 101
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS......Page 102
EARLY AND LATER MATURING......Page 103
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAY......Page 104
OBESITY......Page 105
EATING DISORDERS......Page 106
BRONFENBRENNER: THE SOCIAL CONTEXT FOR DEVELOPMENT......Page 108
FAMILY STRUCTURE......Page 109
PARENTING STYLES......Page 110
ATTACHMENT......Page 111
DIVORCE......Page 112
CROWDS......Page 113
POPULARITY......Page 114
CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF REJECTION......Page 115
RELATIONAL AGGRESSION......Page 116
Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support......Page 117
ACADEMIC AND PERSONAL CARING......Page 118
Teachers and Child Abuse......Page 119
Society and Media......Page 120
Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development......Page 121
THE PRESCHOOL YEARS: TRUST, AUTONOMY, AND INITIATIVE......Page 122
ADOLESCENCE: THE SEARCH FOR IDENTITY......Page 123
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry......Page 124
IDENTITY AND TECHNOLOGY......Page 125
BEYOND THE SCHOOL YEARS......Page 126
RACIAL IDENTITY: OUTCOME AND PROCESS......Page 127
THE STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT......Page 128
HOW SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS......Page 129
Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence......Page 130
Self-Esteem......Page 131
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem?......Page 132
KOHLBERG’S THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 133
CRITICISMS OF KOHLBERG’S THEORY......Page 134
MORAL VERSUS CONVENTIONAL DOMAINS......Page 135
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS......Page 136
Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology......Page 137
Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating......Page 138
DEALING WITH CHEATING......Page 139
SUMMARY......Page 140
KEY TERMS......Page 143
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—MEAN GIRLS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 144
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—INCLUDING EVERY STUDENT: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 146
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 147
DISABILITIES AND HANDICAPS......Page 148
POSSIBLE BIASES IN THE APPLICATION OF LABELS......Page 149
INTELLIGENCE: ONE ABILITY OR MANY?......Page 150
WHAT ARE THESE INTELLIGENCES......Page 151
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES GO TO SCHOOL......Page 153
Intelligence as a Process......Page 154
BINET’S DILEMMA......Page 155
THE FLYNN EFFECT: ARE WE GETTING SMARTER?......Page 156
INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT......Page 157
Gender Differences in Intelligence......Page 158
LEARNING AND THINKING STYLES......Page 159
CAUTIONS ABOUT LEARNING STYLES......Page 160
Beyond Either/Or......Page 161
LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT......Page 162
INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM......Page 163
Section 504 Protections......Page 164
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships—Productive Conferences......Page 166
Neuroscience and Learning Challenges......Page 167
STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS......Page 168
Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders......Page 170
ALTERNATIVES/ADDITIONS TO DRUG TREATMENTS......Page 171
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD?......Page 172
Students with Communication Disorders......Page 173
LANGUAGE DISORDERS......Page 174
Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties......Page 175
SUICIDE......Page 176
DRUG ABUSE......Page 177
PREVENTION......Page 178
Students with Intellectual Disabilities......Page 179
CEREBRAL PALSY AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES......Page 180
OTHER SERIOUS HEALTH CONCERNS: ASTHMA, HIV/AIDS, AND DIABETES......Page 181
STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF......Page 182
INTERVENTIONS......Page 183
STUDENTS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED......Page 184
WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF THESE GIFTS?......Page 186
RECOGNIZING GIFTS AND TALENTS......Page 187
ACCELERATION......Page 189
METHODS AND STRATEGIES......Page 190
SUMMARY......Page 191
KEY TERMS......Page 194
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—INCLUDING EVERY STUDENT: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 195
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—CULTURES CLASH IN THE CLASSROOM: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 198
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 199
SOUNDS AND PRONUNCIATION......Page 200
VOCABULARY AND MEANING......Page 201
PRAGMATICS: USING LANGUAGE IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS......Page 202
Emergent Literacy......Page 203
INSIDE-OUT AND OUTSIDE-IN SKILLS......Page 204
Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity......Page 205
GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy......Page 206
Dual-Language Development......Page 207
BENEFITS OF BILINGUALISM......Page 208
LANGUAGE LOSS......Page 209
Signed Languages......Page 210
What Is Involved in Being Bilingual?......Page 211
Contextualized and Academic Language......Page 212
GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning......Page 213
DIALECTS AND PRONUNCIATION......Page 214
TEACHING IMMIGRANT STUDENTS......Page 215
Immigrants and Refugees......Page 216
FOUR STUDENT PROFILES......Page 217
Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds......Page 218
TEACHING STUDENTS WHO ARE ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS......Page 219
BILINGUALISM FOR ALL: TWO-WAY IMMERSION......Page 220
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach Students Who Are ELLs?......Page 221
Sheltered Instruction......Page 223
Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations......Page 225
GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELLs......Page 226
STUDENT-LED CONFERENCES......Page 227
SPECIAL CHALLENGES: STUDENTS WHO ARE ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS WITH DISABILITIES AND SPECIAL GIFTS......Page 228
Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students......Page 229
SUMMARY......Page 231
KEY TERMS......Page 233
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—CULTURES CLASH IN THE CLASSROOM: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 234
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—WHITE GIRLS CLUB: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 236
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 237
American Cultural Diversity......Page 238
Meet Four More Students......Page 239
Cautions: Interpreting Cultural Differences......Page 241
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CLASS DIFFERENCES......Page 242
Poverty and School Achievement......Page 243
PEER INFLUENCES AND RESISTANCE CULTURES......Page 246
TRACKING: POOR TEACHING......Page 247
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Tracking an Effective Strategy?......Page 248
Terms: Ethnicity and Race......Page 249
Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement......Page 250
The Legacy of Discrimination......Page 252
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PREJUDICE......Page 253
CONTINUING DISCRIMINATION......Page 254
WHO IS AFFECTED BY STEREOTYPE THREAT?......Page 255
SHORT-TERM EFFECTS: TEST PERFORMANCE......Page 256
COMBATING STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 257
SEXUAL ORIENTATION......Page 258
Gender Roles......Page 260
Gender Bias in Teaching......Page 261
GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching......Page 262
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy......Page 263
RESILIENT CLASSROOMS......Page 265
SELF-AGENCY STRAND......Page 266
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships......Page 267
CULTURAL VALUES AND LEARNING PREFERENCES......Page 268
SOURCES OF MISUNDERSTANDINGS......Page 269
TEACH YOUR STUDENTS......Page 270
GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching......Page 271
SUMMARY......Page 272
KEY TERMS......Page 274
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—WHITE GIRLS CLUB: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 275
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 278
Neuroscience of Behavioral Learning......Page 280
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems......Page 281
EARLY EXPLANATIONS OF LEARNING: CONTIGUITY AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING......Page 282
GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning......Page 283
Types of Consequences......Page 284
REINFORCEMENT......Page 285
Reinforcement Schedules......Page 286
Antecedents and Behavior Change......Page 288
PROMPTING......Page 289
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER TO APPLY OPERANT CONDITIONING: APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS......Page 290
SELECTING REINFORCERS: THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE......Page 291
GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately......Page 292
SHAPING......Page 293
Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences......Page 294
CONTINGENCY CONTRACTS......Page 295
GROUP CONSEQUENCES......Page 296
Handling Undesirable Behavior......Page 297
RESPONSE COST......Page 298
Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems......Page 299
GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment......Page 300
CONTEMPORARY APPLICATIONS: FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT, POSITIVE BEHAVIOR SUPPORTS, AND SELF-MANAGEMENT......Page 301
Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral Assessments......Page 302
Positive Behavior Supports......Page 303
GOAL SETTING......Page 304
SELF-REINFORCEMENT......Page 305
ENACTIVE AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING......Page 306
Criticisms of Behavioral Methods......Page 307
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?......Page 308
STRATEGIES......Page 309
SUMMARY......Page 310
KEY TERMS......Page 312
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—SICK OF CLASS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 313
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—REMEMBERING THE BASICS: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 316
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 317
The Brain and Cognitive Learning......Page 318
GENERAL AND SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE......Page 319
COGNITIVE VIEWS OF MEMORY......Page 320
PERCEPTION......Page 322
ATTENTION AND MULTITASKING......Page 323
ATTENTION AND TEACHING......Page 324
Working Memory......Page 325
THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP......Page 326
THE EPISODIC BUFFER......Page 327
RETAINING INFORMATION IN WORKING MEMORY......Page 328
LEVELS OF PROCESSING THEORY......Page 329
DEVELOPMENTAL DIFFERENCES......Page 330
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES......Page 331
CONTENTS: DECLARATIVE, PROCEDURAL, AND SELF-REGULATORY KNOWLEDGE......Page 332
TWO ARE BETTER THAN ONE: WORDS AND IMAGES......Page 334
PROTOTYPES, EXEMPLARS, AND THEORY-BASED CATEGORIES......Page 335
SCHEMAS......Page 336
Implicit Memories......Page 337
Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory......Page 338
Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory......Page 339
ELABORATION, ORGANIZATION, IMAGERY, AND CONTEXT......Page 340
IMAGERY......Page 341
Reaching Every Student: Make it Meaningful......Page 343
ROTE MEMORIZATION......Page 344
Development of Procedural Knowledge......Page 345
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What’s Wrong with Memorizing?......Page 346
DOMAIN-SPECIFIC STRATEGIES......Page 347
SUMMARY......Page 348
KEY TERMS......Page 350
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—REMEMBERING THE BASICS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 352
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—UNCRITICAL THINKING: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 354
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 355
Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation......Page 356
METACOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR YOUNGER STUDENTS......Page 357
Being Strategic About Learning......Page 359
SUMMARIES......Page 360
TAKING NOTES......Page 361
Visual Tools for Organizing......Page 362
Reading Strategies......Page 364
Reaching Every Student: Learning Strategies for Struggling Students......Page 365
GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student......Page 366
PROBLEM SOLVING......Page 367
Identifying: Problem Finding......Page 368
UNDERSTANDING THE WORDS......Page 369
TRANSLATION AND SCHEMA TRAINING: DIRECT INSTRUCTION IN SCHEMAS......Page 370
TRANSLATION AND SCHEMA TRAINING: WORKED EXAMPLES......Page 371
THE RESULTS OF PROBLEM REPRESENTATION......Page 372
HEURISTICS......Page 373
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving......Page 374
SOME PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS......Page 375
KNOWING WHAT IS IMPORTANT......Page 376
PLANNING AND MONITORING......Page 377
OK, But So What: Why Does Creativity Matter?......Page 378
What Are the Sources of Creativity?......Page 379
Creativity in the Classroom......Page 380
The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation......Page 381
GUIDELINES: Applying and Encouraging Creativity......Page 382
One Model of Critical Thinking: Paul and Elder......Page 383
Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects......Page 384
Argumentation......Page 385
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?......Page 386
The Many Views of Transfer......Page 387
WHAT IS WORTH LEARNING?......Page 388
STAGES OF TRANSFER FOR STRATEGIES......Page 389
SUMMARY......Page 390
KEY TERMS......Page 392
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—UNCRITICAL THINKING: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 393
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—LEARNING TO COOPERATE: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 396
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 397
Basic Assumptions of the Learning Sciences......Page 398
Embodied Cognition......Page 399
COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM......Page 400
PSYCHOLOGICAL/INDIVIDUAL/COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM......Page 401
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM......Page 402
How Is Knowledge Constructed?......Page 403
Knowledge: Situated or General?......Page 404
COMPLEX LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS AND AUTHENTIC TASKS......Page 405
APPLYING CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVES......Page 406
Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning......Page 407
PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING......Page 408
Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching......Page 410
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching Approaches?......Page 411
Collaboration and Cooperation......Page 413
BEYOND GROUPS TO COOPERATION......Page 414
Tasks for Cooperative Learning......Page 415
Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning......Page 416
GIVING AND RECEIVING EXPLANATIONS......Page 417
ASSIGNING ROLES......Page 418
RECIPROCAL QUESTIONING......Page 419
CONSTRUCTIVE/STRUCTURED CONTROVERSIES......Page 420
Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely......Page 421
Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice......Page 422
SERVICE LEARNING......Page 423
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships—Service Learning......Page 424
Technology and Learning......Page 425
VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS......Page 426
IMMERSIVE VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS......Page 427
Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities for Young Children......Page 428
COMPUTATIONAL THINKING AND CODING......Page 429
GUIDELINES: Using Computers......Page 430
MEDIA/DIGITAL LITERACY......Page 431
SUMMARY......Page 432
KEY TERMS......Page 434
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—LEARNING TO COOPERATE: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 435
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—FAILURE TO SELF-REGULATE: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 438
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 439
Beyond Behaviorism......Page 440
Triarchic Reciprocal Causality......Page 441
MODELING: LEARNING BY OBSERVING OTHERS......Page 442
ATTENTION......Page 443
MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT......Page 444
AROUSING EMOTION......Page 445
SELF-EFFICACY AND AGENCY......Page 446
Sources of Self-Efficacy......Page 447
Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching......Page 448
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Efficacy......Page 449
SELF-REGULATED LEARNING......Page 450
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are High Levels of Teacher Efficacy Beneficial?......Page 451
MOTIVATION......Page 452
Models of Self-Regulated Learning and Agency......Page 453
An Individual Example of Self-Regulated Learning......Page 455
MATH PROBLEM SOLVING......Page 456
Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior Modification......Page 457
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships......Page 458
Emotional Self-Regulation......Page 459
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation......Page 460
TEACHING TOWARD SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-REGULATED LEARNING......Page 461
Control......Page 462
Collaboration......Page 463
BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: THEORIES OF LEARNING......Page 464
SUMMARY......Page 465
KEY TERMS......Page 467
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—FAILURE TO SELF-REGULATE: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 468
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—MOTIVATING STUDENTS WHEN RESOURCES ARE THIN: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 470
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 471
Meeting Some Students......Page 472
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation......Page 473
HUMANISTIC APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION......Page 474
SOCIOCULTURAL CONCEPTIONS OF MOTIVATION......Page 475
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs......Page 476
Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness......Page 477
INFORMATION AND CONTROL......Page 478
THE NEED FOR RELATEDNESS......Page 479
Types of Goals and Goal Orientations......Page 480
FOUR ACHIEVEMENT GOAL ORIENTATIONS IN SCHOOL......Page 481
WAIT—ARE PERFORMANCE GOALS ALWAYS BAD?......Page 482
GOALS IN SOCIAL CONTEXT......Page 483
Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs......Page 484
Beliefs About Ability......Page 485
Beliefs About Causes and Control: Attribution Theory......Page 486
TEACHER ACTIONS AND STUDENT ATTRIBUTIONS......Page 487
SELF-WORTH......Page 488
INTERESTS, CURIOSITY, EMOTIONS, AND ANXIETY......Page 490
CATCHING AND HOLDING INTERESTS......Page 491
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?......Page 492
NEUROSCIENCE AND EMOTION......Page 493
GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity......Page 494
AROUSAL AND ANXIETY......Page 495
HOW DOES ANXIETY INTERFERE WITH ACHIEVEMENT?......Page 496
Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety......Page 497
Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers......Page 498
MOTIVATION TO LEARN IN SCHOOL: ON TARGET......Page 499
AUTHENTIC TASKS......Page 500
RECOGNIZING ACCOMPLISHMENT......Page 501
EVALUATION......Page 502
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER......Page 503
Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation......Page 505
DO I WANT TO DO IT? SEEING THE VALUE OF LEARNING......Page 506
DO I BELONG IN THIS CLASSROOM?......Page 507
SUMMARY......Page 508
KEY TERMS......Page 511
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—MOTIVATING STUDENTS WHEN RESOURCES ARE THIN: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 512
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—BULLIES AND VICTIMS: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 514
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 515
THE WHAT AND WHY OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT......Page 516
The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation......Page 518
MORE TIME FOR LEARNING......Page 519
MANAGEMENT FOR SELF-MANAGEMENT......Page 520
Some Research Results......Page 521
RULES FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL......Page 522
GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines......Page 523
WHO SETS THE RULES AND CONSEQUENCES......Page 524
Planning Spaces for Learning......Page 525
INTEREST AREAS......Page 526
EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS......Page 527
Encouraging Engagement......Page 529
Prevention Is the Best Medicine......Page 530
STUDENT SOCIAL SKILLS AS PREVENTION......Page 531
CREATING COMMUNITIES OF CARE FOR ADOLESCENTS......Page 532
GUIDELINES: Creating Caring Relationships......Page 533
Stopping Problems Quickly......Page 534
GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties......Page 535
VICTIMS......Page 536
BULLYING AND TEASING......Page 538
CYBERBULLYING......Page 539
Special Problems with High School Students......Page 540
GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations......Page 541
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?......Page 542
Message Sent—Message Received......Page 543
Counseling: The Student’s Problem......Page 544
ASSERTIVE DISCIPLINE......Page 545
Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Justice......Page 546
THE 4 RS......Page 547
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships—Classroom Management......Page 548
DIVERSITY: CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE MANAGEMENT......Page 549
SUMMARY......Page 550
KEY TERMS......Page 552
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—BULLIES AND VICTIMS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 554
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—REACHING AND TEACHING EVERY STUDENT: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 556
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 557
WARMTH AND ENTHUSIASM......Page 558
Recent Research on Teaching......Page 559
Research on Planning......Page 561
AN EXAMPLE OF STANDARDS: THE COMMON CORE......Page 562
AN EXAMPLE OF STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS: TECHNOLOGY......Page 563
GRONLUND: START WITH THE GENERAL......Page 564
THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN......Page 565
THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN......Page 566
Planning from a Constructivist Perspective......Page 567
Direct Instruction......Page 568
ADVANCE ORGANIZERS......Page 569
EVALUATING DIRECT INSTRUCTION......Page 570
SEATWORK......Page 571
GUIDELINES: Effective Direct Instruction......Page 572
Questioning, Discussion, and Dialogue......Page 573
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Homework a Valuable Use of Time?......Page 574
FITTING THE QUESTIONS TO THE STUDENTS......Page 575
GROUP DISCUSSION......Page 577
Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design......Page 578
GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions......Page 579
FLEXIBLE GROUPING......Page 581
Adaptive Teaching......Page 582
Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms......Page 583
Technology and Differentiation......Page 585
GUIDELINES: Teachers as Mentors......Page 586
Two Kinds of Expectation Effects......Page 587
Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement?......Page 588
Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations......Page 589
GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations......Page 590
SUMMARY......Page 591
KEY TERMS......Page 593
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—REACHING AND TEACHING EVERY STUDENT: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 594
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—GIVING MEANINGFUL GRADES: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 596
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 597
FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT......Page 598
NORM-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS......Page 599
CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS......Page 600
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL......Page 601
ABSENCE OF BIAS......Page 602
CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT: TESTING......Page 603
Objective Testing......Page 604
CONSTRUCTING ESSAY TESTS......Page 605
EVALUATING ESSAYS......Page 606
CRITICISMS OF TRADITIONAL TESTS......Page 607
Portfolios and Exhibitions......Page 608
EXHIBITIONS......Page 609
SCORING RUBRICS......Page 610
GUIDELINES: Developing a Rubric......Page 611
RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, GENERALIZABILITY......Page 612
JOURNALS......Page 613
INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENTS......Page 614
Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading......Page 615
Effects of Grading on Students......Page 616
Grades and Motivation......Page 617
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children Be Held Back?......Page 618
Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families......Page 619
GUIDELINES: Using Any Grading System......Page 620
MEASUREMENTS OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND STANDARD DEVIATION......Page 621
THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION......Page 622
STANDARD SCORES......Page 623
Interpreting Standardized Test Reports......Page 625
Accountability and High-Stakes Testing......Page 626
MAKING DECISIONS......Page 627
DOCUMENTED PROBLEMS WITH HIGH-STAKES TESTING......Page 628
USING HIGH-STAKES TESTING WELL......Page 629
GUIDELINES: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing......Page 630
VALUE-ADDED MEASURES......Page 631
Lessons for Teachers: Quality Assessment......Page 632
SUMMARY......Page 633
KEY TERMS......Page 635
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—GIVING MEANINGFUL GRADES: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 636
Licensure Appendix......Page 639
Glossary......Page 657
References......Page 667
Name Index......Page 703
Subject Index......Page 713
Blank Page......Page 2