Early Irish Farming: A Study Based Mainly on the Law-Texts of the 7th and 8th Centuries AD [Reprint ed.] 1855001802, 9781855001800

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EARLY IRISH LAW SERIES VOLUME IV

General editor': F ergus Kelly

EARLY IRISH FARMING

Tiiis calf, the symbol of Saint Luke, is from f. 124' of the seventh-century Book of Durrow in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin. It has been reproduced by kind permission of the Board of the College.

EARLY IRISH LAW SERIES VOLUME IV

EARLY IRISH FARMING a study based mainly on the law-texts o f the 7th a nd 8th centuries ad [with minor revisions and corrections]

BY

FERGUS KELLY

S C H O O L O F CELTIC STUDIES D U B LIN IN ST IT U T E FO R ADVANCED STUDIES

2000

© D ublin In stitu te for A dvanced S tudies T his r e p r in t 2000 ISBN 1 85500 180 2 ISSN 0790-4657 First p u b lish e d 1997

All rig h ts reserved. C opyright in th e w hole a n d every p a rt o f this p u b licatio n b elo n g s to th e D ublin In stitu te for A dvanced S tudies (School o f C eltic S tu d ­ ies), a n d it m ay n o t be used, sold, licensed, tra n sfe rre d , co p ied , re n te d o r re p ro d u c e d in w hole o r in p a rt in any m a n n e r o r fo rm o r in o r o n any m e d iu m by any p e rso n o th e r th a n w ith th e p rio r w ritten c o n se n t o f th e publisher.

Printed by Dundalgan Press Ltd, D undalk Co. Louth

EARLY IRISH LAW SERIES ISSN 0790-4657 I

II III

Bechbretha: an Old Irish law-lract on Bee-keeping, ed. Thomas CharlesEdwards and Fergus Kelly ISBN 0 901282 73 1 Uraicecht na Riar: the poetic grades in Early Irish law, ed. Liarn Breatnach ISBN 0 901282 89 8 A guide to Early Irish law, by Fergus Kelly ISBN 0 901282 95 2

for

FRANK M ITCHELL

CONTENTS page

L ist of

figures

xiv

L ist of

plates

xv

P reface A bb rev ia tio n ' s

I ntroduction Physical d e sc rip tio n o f Ire la n d C lim ate T h e h u m a n im p a c t in p reh isto ric tim es A rchaeo lo g ical in fo rm a tio n in th e historical p e rio d T h e ev idence o f th e w ritten sources T erm in o lo g y Illu stratio n s re la tin g to farm in g , etc. M edieval E u ro p e a n fa rm in g A n g lo -N o rm an fa rm in g in Ire la n d M o d e rn fa rm in g

1 L ivestock (i ) : Cattle Types a n d B reeds C attle -m a n a g e m en t T h e d ie t o f cattle T rain in g a n d use o f o x en Bulls S lau g h ter C attle-p ro d u cts C attle prices a n d values

2 L ivestock (ii ) S h eep G oats Pigs

xvi xviii

1 1 2 3 5 6 15 16 19 20 24 27 29 37 42 48 49 51 52 57 67 67 77 79

v iii

CONTENTS

H orses

38

3 L ivestock (in) H ens Geese Ducks Doves Peafowl Bees Dogs Cats O th e r pets a n d captives L ater in tro d u c tio n s

102 102 105 107 107 108 108 1 14 121 124 131

4 O ffences by domestic animals

134 135 140 142 143 145 145 147

G razing-trespass D am age to crops R ooting-trespass D efecation T h eft o f food Flying-trespass O ffences against p erso n s 5 O ffences against domestic animals Killing Injury C ech rad 7 Salchad A rson T h eft U n au th o riz e d use O p e n in g sheds, etc. Illegal d istrain t Bew itching Bestiality O ffences against anim als by o th e r anim als

158 158 102 104 104 105 109 170 170 174 175 170

6 Accidents, diseases, etc.

182 182

A ccidents to livestock

CONTENTS

P red a to rs D iseases a n d defects o f livestock C attle-diseases a n d defects Sheep-diseases a n d defects G oat-diseases Pig-diseases H orse-diseases a n d defects Poultry-diseases Bee-diseases D og-disease Cat-disease T re a tm e n t o f in ju ry a n d disease in livestock

IX

J85

192 194

205 207 208 209 213 214 21 5 215 216

7 C rops (i ): C ereals

219

Types o f cereals C ereal-cultivation C ereal-h arv esu n g C ereal-processing

229 237 240

8

C

rops

( ii)

Pulses V egetables a n d h e rb s F ru it D ye-plants Flax O rn a m e n ta l flow ers

9 H unting and

gathering

H u n tin g o f d e e r H u n tin g o f wild pig H u n tin g o f o th e r la n d m am m als H u n tin g o f m a rin e m am m als F ishing Fow ling G a th e rin g

10 D iet a n d C ooking Types o f diet

219

248 248 250 259 263 269 270 272 272 281 282 282 285 298 301

316 316

CONTENTS

X

F o od-p ro d u ctio n a n d co n su m p tio n C ooking m e th o d s an d utensils Milk a n d m ilk-products G rain-products M eat Vegetables a n d fru it Salt Pepper R estricted diets F ood fo r invalids T h e d ie t o f w om en a n d ch ild re n T aboo foods H u n g e r a n d fam ine Feasting

11 Farm Lay-out F arm h o u se Farm yard G ard en Fields a n d g reen s Walls a n d fences G ates a n d shies Trees a n d w oodland Roads Land-values

12 Land-tenure L an d -ten u re a n d its lim itations Kin-land Royal la n d C hurch -lan d C om m o n lan d W ater B oundary-m arks L and-acquisition Farm-size R ent o f lan d Landless p e o p le

319 322

323 330 330 339 340 342 343 34.3 3'» 1 3,42

354 357 300 301 363 303 308 372 378 379 390 394

398 399

402 403

404 406 408

409 411 421 423 423

CONTENTS

L a n d -te n u re in la te r G aelic Ire la n d O ffen ces again st lan d

xi

428 431

13 Farm labour Slaves S em i-freem en Servants F reem e n W om en C h ild re n Clergy a n d m on astic clients Rest, holy days, festivals, etc.

438 438 440 442 445 448 451 452 455

14 T o o l s .and T e c h n o l o g y C ultivation M ining, excavation, turf-cutting, etc. H arv e stin g a n d pro cessin g o f cereals W ood-cutting F en cin g a n d w all-construction A nim al restrain ts, goads, etc. B u tch erin g , etc. T ra n sp o rt tech n o log y R opes O th e r farm tools

463 465 479 480 485 492 493 496 496 499 500

A p p en d ix A T h e

503

T ext 1 D e f e c t s T ext T ran slatio n Discussion

o f cow s and sh eep

T ext 2 L iv e s t o c k T ext T ran slatio n D iscussion T ext 3 Va l u e

texts

506 506 507 508

n o t t o be d ist r a in e d

521 522 u23 523

o f c a t t l e , s h e e p a n d pig s

533

CON TENTS

x ii

533 531 53:>

Text T ranslation Discussion Text 4 Roads and tracks Text T ranslation D iscussion

537 538 538 539

T ext 5 C a l v e s with Text (H 3. 18) T ranslation T ext (E g erto n 88) Discussion

545 545 '>47 547 548

t o o m others

T ext 6 L a n d -v a l c e s Text T ranslatio n Discussion

552 552 552 552

Text 7 H o r s e - q u a l i t i e s Text T ranslatio n D iscussion

555 555 555 556

A p pend ix B U n i t s of m e a s u r e m e n t (1) L en g th (2) Sea-m easures (3) S quare a n d cubic a re a (4) L iquid capacity (5) D ry capacity (6 ) W eight (7) U nits o f value

560

In d ex 1

I r is h

601

In d ex 2

S c o t t is h G a e l ic

560 569 571 575 581 583 587

in d e x

and

Manx

in d e x

658

xiii

CONTENTS

In d ex 3 ANGLICIZED FORMS OF IRISH AND Scottish G aelic terms

660

In d ex 4 W elsh, B reton and Cornish

662

In d ex 5 Latin

index

index

665

Index 6 G eneral index

674

Bibliography P ublished sources U npublished sources

719 719 751

Addenda and

752

corrigenda

LIST OF FIGURES /Ht#

S heep a n d sh e p h e rd Fem ale goat H orse a n d rid e r Crow ing cock H o u n d a n d h a re M an p u rsu e d by dog D ogfight W olf Eagle C at an d ra t O n io n S kirret H o u n d an d d e e r D eer in trap H u n tin g scene C ooking-spit T rench-an d -b an k ‘Wall o f th re e sto n es’ Bare fence Axe Billhook C h ario t

7I 78 98 193 1 17 1 17 177 lNti 1N S 21 3 252 259 270 289 299 338 373 373 375 486 490 498

LIST OF PLATES C alf Law-text Pig G oose C ran e 'H o u se o f th e m ead circ u it’ R ecord o f la n d tra n sfe r M en with dig g in g tools M en with flails

frontispiece 10 18 106 126 356 410 464 483

Preface I h o p e that this b o o k will app eal to stu d en ts of eatlv Irish law. as well as to social historians, g e o g ra p h e rs, archaeologists, naturalists an d all those with an in terest in th e history of Irish farm ing. T he in te n tio n is to p resen t a g en eral acco u n t of the each Irish farm , based o n th e w ritten sources. Bv far th e m ost d e tailed evi­ d en ce relatin g to farm in g p ractice is provided bv the law-texts ol the seventh an d eig h th cen tu ries AL). C o n seq u en tly the m ain locus o f the b o o k is on th e legal m aterial, in clu d in g later glosses an d com ­ m entaries. However, o th e r w ritten sources m ust also be taken into account. It w ould for ex am p le be inexcusable to discuss th e g rad ed list o f cereals in th e eig h th -cen tu rv law-text Brrtlut D im (.hithi w ith­ o u t refe re n ce to th e sim ilar list in th e tw elfth-century com ic tale Aislinge Meic Con Glinne (pp. 2 1 9-20 below ). T h e p lan o f th e b o o k is straig h tfo rw ard . In th e first six c h a p ters I deal with earlv Irish d o m estic anim als, an d I th e n devote two ch ap ters to th e crops cultivated in fields a n d g ard en s. Bv wav ( if c o n ­ trast, th e n in th c h a p te r exam ines th e ex p lo itatio n o f wild anim als a n d plants. I provide in C h a p te r 10 a g e n e ra l acco u n t o f th e foods co n su m ed by th e earlv Irish, a n d th e n in C h a p te r 11 assem ble the evidence with reg ard to farm lay-out. C h a p te r 12 is c o n c e rn e d with lan d -ten u re, C h a p te r 13 with farm labour, an d C h a p te r 14 with the tools an d technology o f th e earlv Irish farm . A pp en dix A consists o f editions o f seven legal passages on topics c o n n e c te d with farm ing. Finally, the early Irish units o f m ea su re m e n t - vitallv im p o rta n t for the in te rp re ta tio n o f th e textual evidence - are tre a te d in A p p en d ix B. Illustrations o f relevance to early Irish fa rm in g have b e e n re p ro d u c e d p h o to g rap h ically fro m various m anuscripts: acknow ledgem ents are m ad e in th e acco m p anving captions. T h e re are also fre e h a n d draw ings bv mv son S te p h en o f anim als an d h u m a n figures from high crosses at B anagher, Bealin. C astled erm o l an d C lonm acnois, as well as from th e Book of Kells. We have to g e th e r devised illustrations o f an earlv Irish o n io n , skirret, tren ch -an d -b an k , field-wall, fence, axe a n d billhook. It must be stressed th at these are speculative a tte m p ts to re p re se n t the som etim es o b scu re d escrip tio n s o f these item s in th e law-texts.

Preface

XVI i

P erh ap s som e fu tu re re se a rc h e r m ay possess th e co m b in ed textual a n d arc h a e o lo g ica l e x p ertise to im prove o n o u r efforts! I have b e e n w o rk in g o n th e topic o f early Irish farm in g off an d on for n early two decades. D u rin g this p e rio d 1 have been h elp ed by far too m any p e o p le to th a n k individually. I w ould like th e re ­ fo re to ex p ress m y d e e p g ra titu d e to everyone w ho re p lie d to my q u eries, o r w ho h e lp e d m e w ith referen ces, co rrectio n s o r ideas. M anv scholars re a d an d c o m m e n te d u p o n e a rlie r versions o f all or p a rt o f this book, a n d I am ex trem ely g rateful to all o f them for th e ir various co n trib u tio n s. In p a rtic u la r I sh o u ld m e n tio n the d etailed criticism s o f th e final d raft by Liam B reatn ach , T hom as C harlesEdw ards a n d M ick M onk. I am also very m u ch in d e b te d to M ichelle O R io rd an w ho finalised th e w hole w ork for th e p rin ter, an d d ealt m ost skilfullv w ith th e illustrations. T h e p h o to g ra p h on the fro n t cover shows som e o f th e M uckross h e rd o f K erry cattle (see p. 31) at th e B o u rn V in cen t M em orial Park, Killarney, Co. Kerry, an d was taken bv mv wife E lizabeth. T h e back cover is from folio 67r o f the B ook o f Kells, a n d has b een re p ro d u c e d by k in d p erm ission o f the B o ard o f T rin ity C ollege, D ublin. Finallv, trib u te sh o u ld be p a id to the an onym ous au th o rs o f the law-texts w hose k een o bservation o f c o n te m p o ra ry farm in g p ractices e n a b le d th e p re s e n t b o o k to be w ritten. Fergus Kelly

Abbreviations AC. Annrila Connacht: the annals o / Connaiht (ed. H e rm a n . D ublin 1944, repr. 1983) Ann. Cion. I hr a n n a ls o/ ( ilonnuicirrnse. lianslatrrh wnta I.nghsh 1627 by Cnnrll Mngmgliagan (ed. I). M tu p ln . D ublin 1890) ACI, Archiv f i r celtische I exilwgmplue i-iii (ed. Stokes an d M e\er. H alle 1900-1907) AFM A un cila nothin Ida Eircunn: annals of Ihr hi whilom nf /tela ml In llu four masters i-vii (ed. O ’D onovan, D u b lin 1848-51) AI The annals of Inis/ttllen (ed. Mae A nt. D ublin 1951. rept. 19NS) AL Ancient laws o f Ireland i-vi (ed. H an co ck e t al., D ublin 1865-1901) ALC The annals o f Loch Cé i-ii (ed. H ennessy, L o n d o n 1871) ALIYV Ancient laws and institutes of Wales i-ii (ed. O w en. L ondon 1841) AU Annála Uladh: annals o f Ulster i-iv (ed. H ennessy a n d M acCarthy, D ublin 1887-1901) ALT'- The annals o f Ulster i (ed. Mac Airt a n d Mac X iocaill. D ublin 1983) BB Bechbretha (ed. Charles-Edw ards an d Kelly. D ublin 1983) CG Crith Gablach (ed. Binchy, D ublin 1941, repr. 1979) CGH Corpus genealogiarum Hiberniae (ed. M. O 'B rie n . D ublin 1962. repr. 1976) CIH Corpus iuris hibernici i-vi (ed. Binchy, D u b lin 1978) CS Chronicum Scotorum (ed. H ennessy, L o n d o n 1866) DIL (Contributions to a) D ictionan o) tin Irish language (ed. Q uin et al., D ublin 1913-76, repr. 1983) GEIL ,4 guide to early Irish law (Kellv, D ublin 1988. repr. 19911 GMWI. /1 glossary o/ medianud Welsh law (T. Lewis, M an ch ester 1918) GPC Geiriadur Pri/ysgol Cymru: a dictionary of the Welsh language (ed. T h o m as et al. C aerdydd 1950-) IEW Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch i (Pokornv, B ern 1959) IP The Irish penitentials (ed. Bieler, D ublin 1963, repr. 1975) JRSA1 Journal o f the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland (D ublin) LB Leahhar Breac. L ith o g rap h ic re p ro d u c tio n o f tran scrip t by O ’L o ngan, D ublin 1872-76

Abbreviations

XIX

LEIA Lexique étymologique de l ’irlandais ancien (ed. Vendryes, B ach ellery a n d L am b ert, D u b lin a n d Paris, 1959-) LL The Book o f Leinster i—vi (ed. Best et al. D ublin 1954—83) LU Lehm na hl /ilit (ed. Best a n d Bergin. D ublin 1929, repi. 1992) O'Dav. O ’D av o ren ’s G lossary (ed. Stokes, AC L ii 197-504) O ED Oxford English dictionary (O x fo rd 1933) O ’M ulc. O ’M u lco n ry ’s G lossary (ed. Stokes, ACL i 232-324) PRIA Proceedings o f the Royal Irish Academy (D ublin 1836-) RC Revue celtique (Paris 1870-1934) SEIL Studies in early Irish law (ed. Binchy, D ublin 1936) T hes. Thesaurus palaeohibernicus i-ii (ed. Stokes a n d S trachan, C am b rid g e 1901-3, repr. D ublin 1987) TBG 1,1. Tain Bn Ciia/ngi from the Book / Leinster (ed. G. O ’Rahilly, D ub lin 1967, repr. 1984) TBG Ret .I la m Bo Ciiailnge. R ecension I (ed. C. O ’Rahilly, D ublin 1976) T B (. St Du Stnwi icismn of 1din Bii ( uailnge (ed. C. O Rahillv. Dublin 1961, repr. 1978) UM The Book o f In Maine. C ollotype facsim ile (ed. Macalister, D ub lin 1941) \"KG Vetglenhende Giammatik der keltischen Sprachen i-ii (P edersen, G ö ttin g e n 1908-13) YBL lin Yellow Book of Lei an. P h o to -lith o g rap h ic re p ro d u c tio n (ed. A tkinson, D u b lin 1896) ZCP Zeitschrift /ia cellist he Philologie (H alle, T ü b in g e n , 1897-)

Introduction P h y sica l d e s c r ip t io n o f I rela n d

It has o ften b e e n p o in te d o u t th a t Ire la n d is ro u g h ly saucer-shaped, with m ainly flat lan d in th e m id d le a n d m o u n ta in s fo rm in g m uch o f th e p erim e te r. It is difficult for w ater to d ra in away from the cen tre, w hich co n seq u en tly has m any lakes, m arsh es an d bogs. M uch o f the farm -lan d in this a re a is subject to p e rio d ic flo o d ing a n d is th e re ­ fo re too wet for tillage, th o u g h yaluable for sum m er-grazing. This applies, for ex am p le, to th e callows (Irish caladh) along th e River S h a n n o n . D rain ag e is also a p ro b le m oyer large areas o f U lster an d C o n n a c h t w h ere th e re tre a t o f th e last ice-sheet left a landscape o f sm all b lu n t-n o se d hills (d ru m lin s), o ften in te rsp e rsed with lakes.1 Som e o f th e best lan d in Ire la n d is to be fo u n d in th e w ell-drained plains in th e d rie r clim ate o f th e east, a n d these regions feature p ro m in e n tly in e a rh Irish sources. T h e n in th -c e n tu ry a u th o r o f a g eo g ra p h ic a l triad is n o d o u b t th in k in g o f th e ir ag ricu ltu ral im p o r­ tan ce w hen he lists th e th re e plain s o f Ire la n d as M agM idi 'th e plain o f M eath '. M n g L ifi 'th e Liffev p la in ', a n d M ag Line ‘M oylinny (Co. A ntrim ) In spite o f its relatively small a re a Ire la n d is geologically quite varied, with a c o n se q u e n t diversity o f land-types. T he a u th o r o f o n e O ld Irish law-text m akes an in te re stin g classification o f differ­ e n t ty pes o f lan d on th e basis o f ag ricu ltu ral value (p. 394). In th e ir tre a tm e n t o f farm in g m atters o th e r legal a u th o rs take into a cco u n t th e d iffe re n t physical c o n d itio n s w hich may obtain in dif­ fe re n t areas. For ex am p le, th e m ain law-text on farm ing, Brel ha Cnmaithchesa. d istin g u ish es th e type o f field -b o u n d ary w hich would be a p p ro p ria te to th e d e e p soils o f th e e astern plains from that w hich w ould suit th e stony te rra in o f m u ch o f the west an d n o rth (p. 372). T h e law-texts also deal with various aspects o f hill-farm ing 'T h e term tint mini, whit ft has passed into the international néologie al vot ahnlan, undoubtedly contains Irish druimm ‘back, hill’, but the second element is uncertain. See Quin and Freeman, ‘Some Irish topographical term s’, 85-6. 2Meyer, Triads, 4 § 4L Triad no. 52 (Yellow Book of Lecan version) refers also to the C onnacht plain of Mag Cmachan around the royal site of Crúachu (Rathcroghan, Co. Roscommon).

2

Introduction

([). 4 3 ) , a n d even take in to acco u n t th e special p ro b lem s of k e e p i n g rattle in u n u su al locatio n s such as a m a rin e island (rm lirinis m ara):’' C lim ate

Foreign o b servers have often c o m m e n te d on th e m ild b u t wet an d windy clim ate of Irelan d . W riting in th e late twelfth c e n tu ry G iraldus C am brensis rem arks o n tb e difficulty e x p e rie n c e d by Irish farm ers in h arv estin g th e ir g rain-crops o n acco u n t of the unceasing rain, a n d m akes th e som ew hat ex a g g e rated claim th at ‘this co u n try m o re th an any o th e r suffers from storm s of wind an d ra in ’.4 T h e native annalists naturallv re c o rd onlv w e a th er co n d itio n s w hich are e x trem e by Irish stan d ard s, b u t thev p re se n t a sim ilar pictu re o f a clim ate which mav be verv difficult for the grow ing of cereals a n d pulses. For instance, th e Annuls of Inisfallen reco rd th at m u ch o f th e co rn -cro p o f th e vear 1012 was destroved bv heavy r a in .’ T h e sam e an n als re c o rd th at a gale in th e a u tu m n of 1077 greatly d am ag ed th e co rn -cro p .1’ A ccording to the Annals of Connacht te rrib le th u n d e r a n d lig h tn in g in th e s e a r 1328 caused co rn to grow ‘pale an d e m p ty ’ (i.e. g rain less).' In Mav o f 1471 hail-show ers - with hailstones o f two o r th re e in ch es in length - destroyed bean s an d o th e r crops in various p arts of Ire la n d .' D ro u g h t is also occasionallv m e n tio n e d . T h e Annals o/ lister reco rd an alm ost total failure o f b read in 773 caused bv un u su al d ro u g h t a n d h eat o f th e su n ,89 an d th e Annals o f Inisfallen refer to a h o t su m m er in 1129 w hich resu lted in g reat m ortalitv am o n g livestock th ro u g h lack o f w ater.10 T h e w inters w ere usually so m ild that th e re was sufficient grow th o f grass a n d o th e r h erb ag e to su p p o rt cattle w ithout satin g h at. However, o n occasions w hen snow p ersisted for m ore th a n a few days, cattle w ere at risk. For ex am p le, th e Annals of lister reco rd th at nearly all th e cattle o f Irelan d d ie d in th e vear 748 as a result o f 8CIH i 207.3 = AL iv 6.10. The accompanying gloss gives Inis Cathaig (Scattery Island) in the Shannon Estuary as an example of such a location. 40 ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 34 § 2 = Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, 27. 5AI 182 s.a. 1012 §4. 6AI 234 s.a. 1077 § 7. 1AC 262 s.a. 1328 § 3 tornech y lentich anbail. , . curfàsadur arbanna finna fdsa. 8AC 554 s.a. 1471 § 15. 9AU2 226 s.a. 772 (recte 773) § 4. '°AI 292 s.a. 1129 §9.

The hum an impact in prehistoric times

3

snow of u n u su al d e p th .11 Evidently such w eather-conditions were rare: oth erw ise th e saving o f hav w ould surely have b een generally p ractise d by early Irish fa rm e rs (see discussion o n p. 47). A cco rd in g to th e n in th -c e n tu rv w isdom -text Te.cosca Cormaic, the ideal w eath er is 'a tin e frosty winter, a d ry windy spring, a d ry show­ ery sum m er, an d a heavy-dewed fruitful a u tu m n ’.1- ImmacciUam in dá thúarad views th e m ost u n seaso n ab le types o f w eather as bein g ‘a leafy w inter, a gloom y sum m er, an a u tu m n w ithout fruits, a spring w ith o u t flow ers’.13 T h e h u m a n im pa c t in p r e h is t o r ic tim e s

H u m an s first cam e to Ire la n d at least as early as 7000 BC,11 and w ould have fo u n d a co u n try alm ost entirely covered by woods. T h ese M esolithic p e o p le lived bv h u n tin g , fishing a n d g ath ering, an d seem g enerally to have stayed n e a r th e sea-shore o r by the m argin s o f lakes an d rivers. It is believed th at they m ade small clearings in th e w oo d lan d , but did n o t sow crops or keep dom estic a n im als.1'’ N eo lith ic farm ers b ro u g h t a new way o f life to Irelan d a b o u t 4000 BC. In c o n tra st to th e previous in h ab itan ts, th eir im pact o n th e e n v iro n m e n t was co n sid erab le. T h e pollen-records from this p e rio d show a m ajo r d eclin e in th e prim eval w oodland, with increase o f hazel-scrub. T h e re is also a m arked u p surge in grass pollen as well as th a t o f various w eeds o f d istu rb ed g ro u n d .1(1 R ecent a rc h a e o b o tan ic a l studies in d icate th at the m ain cereal cultivated bv these farm ers was e m m e r w heat (see p. 225), but th e re is also ev idence o f e in k o rn an d barley.1' T h e ir dom estic anim als w ere cattle, pigs, sh eep an d possibly g o ats.18 By ab o u t 3000 BC, N eolithic society was sufficiently w ell-organized in the fertile Boyne valley for th e c o n stru c tio n o f massive passage-graves such as those o f K now th, Dowth an d N ew grange. T h e system o f

n AU2 202 s.a. 747 (recte 748) § 3. Meyer, Tecosca Cormaic, 50 § 36. ! ’Stokes, ‘Colloquy’, 46 § 231. ^M itchell, the Irish landscape, 98; fowling the Irish landscape, 78; Cooney and Grogan, Irish prehistory, 7. lsMitchell, The Irish landscape, 101; Reading the Irish landscape, 84—6. 16Herity and Eogan, Ireland in prehistory, 25. 17Monk, ‘Archaeobotanical study of samples from pipeline sites’, 187. l8McCormick, ‘The animal bones’, 182.

4

Introduction

drysion e field-walls c o n stru c te d by N eo lith ic p e o p le at Behy, Co. Mayo, shows a high level o f farm -o rg an isatio n in this re g io n .ly T h e next m ajor event in th e history o f Irish fa n n in g was the arrival o f B ronze-users a b o u t 2300 BC.2" T h e ir axes w ere m o re effective th a n th e stone axes o f th e ir N eolithic predecessors, an d th eir b ro n ze sickles m ad e h arv estin g a m u ch easier o p e ra tio n .-1 G. F. M itchell suggests th a t in th e later stages o f th e B ronze Age - ab o u t 700 BC - th e first sim ple w o o d en plo u g h s w ere used in Ire la n d .-- A rchaeological evidence for th e p e rio d betw een 700 an d 300 BC is particularly scant)'. T h e linguistic evidence suggests th at C eltic-speaking invaders from Britain o r th e C o n tin e n t arrived a ro u n d th e b e g in n in g o f this p e rio d , p e rh a p s in tro d u c in g th e use o f iron to Ireland. However, th e arch aeo lo g ical evidence shows little sign o f a significant ex tern al in tru s io n .2’’ T h e C elticization o f the c o u n try may th e re fo re have b e e n a g rad u al process ra th e r th a n a d ram atic re p la c e m e n t o f o n e cu ltu re by an o th er. T h e p e rio d betw een 300 BC a n d .AD 300 shows som e d im in u tio n in agricu ltu ral activity, possibly associated with w orsening clim atic co n d itio n s.21 In a sam ple at Red Bog, Co. L o u th, p o llen from cereals a n d w eeds o f cultivation d isap p ears a b ru p tly from the pollen-diagram a b o u t 300 BC, a n d th at o f grass d ecreases. H azel rises in value, follow ed by rises in ash, oak a n d elm .2’ T h e evidence from a n u m b e r o f sites indicates a significant revival o f ag ricu ltu re a ro u n d AD 300. T his m arks th e b e g in n in g o f w hat has b een d escrib ed as th e D estru ctio n -p h ase o f th e Irish w o o d lan d s.2'1 L ater Irish trad itio n co n tain s m any referen ces to th e clearin g o f plains in prehistory, a n d may th u s p reserv e folk-m em orv o f these "'Mitchell, The Irish landscape, 140; Reading (he Irish landscape. 100. 124; Caulfield, ‘The neolithic settlement of North C onnaught’. 20Mitchell, The Irish landscape, 145; Reading the Irish landscape, 129; Cooney and Grogan, Irish prehistory, 95. 2,Herity and Eogan, Ireland in prehistory, 174-5, 188 (illustrations of bronze axes and sickles). 2-Mitchell, The Irish landscape, 158; Reading the Irish landscape, 143. 23Cooney and Grogan, Irish prehistory, 174, 186; Champion, ‘The myth o flro n Age invasions in Ireland’; Waddell, The question of the Celtici/ation ol Ireland’; Rafters. ‘The Celtic Iron Age in Ireland: problems of origin’. 24Cooney and Grogan, Irish prehistory, 195. - ’Mitchell, The Irish landscape, 159—60; Reading the Irish landscape, 144—5. See also the conclusions of Weir, ‘A palynological study’, 108. 26Mitchell, The Irish landscape, 166; Reading the Irish landscape, 153; cf. Weir, ‘A palynological study’, 107.

Archaeological information in the historical period,

5

clearan ces.“' M ajor ro ad -co n stru ctio n seem s also to be associated with this p e rio d , a n d it is significant that a co m m o n Irish w ord for ro ad is slige, w hich literally m ean s ‘hacking, c le a rin g ’. A r c h a e o l o g ic a l in f o r m a t io n in t h e h is t o r ic a l p e r io d

U ntil shortly b efo re th e C hristian era archaeology is o u r only source o f in fo rm a tio n o n life in Irelan d . T h ereafter, the evidence o f texts o f various tvpes (see n ex t section) can be used to su p p le m e n t th e fin d in g s o f archaeology. From nut-hulls, fruit-stones, cereal-grains, o r chaff-fragm ents th e archaeologist can draw con clu sio n s a b o u t foods o f p lan t origin. In ch ap ters 7 a n d 8 o f this book, an a tte m p t is m ade to fit in th e archaeological data on ed ib le p lan ts with th e in fo rm a tio n fo u n d in texts o f the early C hristian p erio d . Pollen-analvsis can provide d etailed in fo rm atio n over a lo n g p e rio d o f tim e o n th e types o f plants grow ing in a p a rtic u la r area. T his in fo rm a tio n can in tu rn give us insight in to th e u p e s o f ag ricu ltu re practised nearby. If en o u g h an n u al rings are visible in a piece o f oak, its d ate can be established bv d e n d ro c h ro n o lo g y .“* For exam ple, it can be shown th at the oak used to m ake o n e o f th e door-jam bs for a h ouse excavated at G len a rm . Co. A ntrim , was felled in AD 648.Jy A n u m b e r o f w aterm ills have likewise b een d a te d bv this m e th o d (see p. 485 b elo w ). B eing g enerally to u g h e r than vegetable refuse, anim al-bones survive in g re a te r a b u n d a n c e an d tell us m uch ab o u t the foods o f anim al orig in w hich w ere co n su m ed . A d etailed study o f anim al-b o n es can provide a rem ark ab le a m o u n t o f in fo rm atio n o n stock-raising an d b u tc h e rin g p ra c tic e s.,0 An e x p ert can tell the age at w hich an anim al was killed, a n d how well it was n o u rish ed p rio r to its d eath . A sm ashed fro n tal b o n e o f th e skull shows that - 'E . j. Gwvnn. Metrical Dmchhem has iii 19 8 ,9 - 1(>; XU). 19-20; 880.5-12. A ccording to M iddle Irish tradition i.Macalister, h ’bm (intuitu iii oil 18-19), the only plain

which was never tree covered was Senmag Etta Etair ‘the old plain of (Elta) Etar’, near Clontarf, Co. Dublin. See H o gan , Onomasticon, s.w. Senmag elta edair, Senmag était, Mag elta. -H.\t the Palaeoecologv Centre of Q ueen's University. Belfast, Michael Baillie and David Brown have established a 7000-year chronology based largely on Irish oak remains. See Baillie, ‘Dendrochronology: the prospects for dating throughout Ireland’; Baillie, Tree-ring dating and archaeology. 29Lynn, ‘Deer Park farms’, 14. 30See McCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland'.

6

Introduction

the anim al was killed by a heavy blow on th e fo re h e a d , a n d a h o le in the scapula shows th a t th e carcase was h u n g tip for c u rin g by salt a n d / o r sm oke. In c h a p te rs 1-3, I discuss th e tex tu al evidence for dom estic livestock an d a tte m p t to c o rre la te it w ith th e fin dings o f archaeology. A n o th e r b ra n c h o f archaeology - aerial p h o to g ra p h y - provides in fo rm a tio n o n se ttle m e n t an d field-patterns, w hich is o f p a rtic ­ u lar relevance to c h a p te r 11. In certain lights, earthw orks often show u p m u c h m o re clearly from th e air th a n w h en viewed from the g ro u n d . T h e re m a in s o f earth w o rk s m ay also be d e te c te d bv aerial p h o to g ra p h y as cro p m ark s in cereal-fields at an early stage o f g ro w th .31* T he evidence of the written sources T h e use o f w riting in th e M e d ite rra n e a n re g io n goes back at least as far as 3000 BC b u t th e earliest w ritin g in Irish (th e O g h am in scrip ­ tions) dates from a b o u t th e fifth c e n tu ry AD.3i T h e re a re a few referen ce s to Ire la n d in early G reek a n d L atin sources, b u t these p ro tid e little d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n on th e c o u n try .33 T h e earliest extensive d o c u m e n t re la tin g to Ire la n d is th e Confession o f Saint Patrick, w ritten in L atin a b o u t th e late fifth century. T h o u g h c o n ­ c e rn e d m ainly w ith spiritu al m atters, this tex t also in clu d es a sm all a m o u n t o f in fo rm a tio n on early Irish society, in c lu d in g a b rie f ref­ e re n c e to th e h e rd in g o f livestock (p. 438 below ). M uch m o re detail is p ro v id ed by texts - in b o th O ld Irish a n d L atin - d a tin g m ainly from th e seventh to th e n in th cen tu ries. For o u r p u rp o se s the m ost im p o rta n t o f these are th e O ld Irish law-texts, a n d they form the basis o f this book. In fo rm a tio n o n fa rm in g is also to be fo u n d in annals, sain ts’ Lives, p en iten tials, w isdom -texts, sagas, a n d poetry. Purely linguistic evidence m ay also be o f significance in the discussion o n early Irish farm ing: see p. 15 below.

Law-texts It will be seen th a t a large p ro p o rtio n o f th e fo o tn o tes in this book re fe r to D. A. B inchy’s Corpus Iuris Hibernia ( C IH ), p u b lish e d in D ublin in 1978. T his six-volum e w ork c o n ta in s a tra n sc rip tio n 31Norman and St Joseph, The early development of Irish society, 1-15. ■' ’McManus, A guide to Ogam, 97. 33T. F. O'Rahilly, Early Irish history and mythology, 1-2; Tacitus, Agricola (ed. Peterson and H utton), 24.

The evidence o f the written sources

7

o f m ost o f th e ex tan t legal m aterial in Irish from the native trad i­ tion. A pproxim ately hltv law-texts survive - often in an inco m p lete state - a n d th e re a re also m am sh o rt fragm ents from o th e r lost te x ts .'1 T h e re is solid linguistic evidence that m ost o f the law-texts w ere w ritten in th e seventh o r e ig h th c en tu ries AD.3435 T hey survive, however, in m an u scrip ts ra n g in g in d ate from th e twelfth to the six teen th cen tu ries. Successive copyists have b een responsible for m ain m isreadings, m o d e rn isa tio n s o f spelling, om issions, an d ad d i­ tions. F u rth e rm o re , som e o f th e m an u scrip ts are physically in p o o r c o n d itio n a n d h a rd to read. F or these r e a s o n s - a n d because o f the m ain linguistic difficulties - th e in te rp re ta tio n o f the law-texts is o ften highly p ro b lem atic. T h e O ld Irish law-texts deal with a wide variety o f topics, such as co ntracts, theft, injury, suretyship, m arriag e, kinship, distraint, legal p ro c e d u re , etc. Practically all th e law-texts co ntain som e in fo rm a tio n o n farm in g o r farm -p ro d u ce (see also p. 503). For th e p u rp o se s o f this b o o k th e m ost im p o rta n t law-text is Cnth Gablach. w ritten ab o u t AD 700, w hich deals prim arily with the legal im p licatio n s o f ran k in early Irish society.36 In his discussion o f this topic, th e a u th o r p ro rid e s a d etailed acco u n t o f th e m aterial possessions w hich p erso n s o f d ifferen t ra n k are ex p ected to own. T his gives a fascinating insig h t in to th e land-ow nership, farm -buildings, livestock, tools, an d farm in g practice o f the period. .A nother crucial law-text is Bretha Comaithchesa 'ju d g em en ts o f n e ig h b o u rh o o d ' w hich deals with m any aspects o f farm ing law, in clu d in g th e n otoriously sensitive area o f anim al-trespass (see C h a p te r 4 below ). Gain Aicillne 'th e law o f base clien tsh ip ' details th e an n u a l fo o d -re n t w hich a clien t m u st deliver to his lo rd in re tu rn for a fief o f stock, land o r farm in g e q u ip m en t. T his text gives us a g o o d id ea of th e sort o f foodstuffs - m eat, cheese, g rain , a n d vegetables - w hich th e o rd in a ry clien t-farm er (uithecli) p ro d u c e s fro m his land. T h e in fo rm a tio n w hich th e law-texts provide o n farm ing and o th e r aspects of daily life is of course of a very d ifferen t kind to th at pro v id ed by archaeology. M uch archaeo logical evidence consists o f physical m a tte r w hose identity can be d e te rm in e d with precision. T h e re will always be som e u n c e rta in tie s, b u t in a typical 34See the list at GEIL 266-81. 35E.g. CG Introd. pp. xiii-xvii; BB 12-14; Breatnach, Uraicecht na Riar, 77. 36See Charles-Edwards, ‘Cnth Gablach and the law of status’.

8

Introduction

excavation th e great m ajority o f p lan t a n d anim al rem ain s can be securely identified . In a law-text, by co n trast, o u r in fo rm atio n is at best secon d -h an d , an d we have to fo rm a ju d g e m e n t as to how m uch tru st we are e n title d to place in th e a u th o r s statem ents. In som e cases we have in d e p e n d e n t m ean s o f ch eck in g th em , an d usually find a high d e g re e o f accuracy. I edit in A p p en d ix A below som e h ith e rto u n tra n sla te d legal passages on livestock. O n e deals with defects in cows a n d sh eep (p. 506), a n o th e r with the rearin g o f a calf u n d e r various circu m stan ces by a cow w hich is n o t its m o th e r (p. 545), an d a n o th e r with th e qualities an d defects o f horses (p. 555). T h ese texts display specialized know ledge, an d co u ld only have b een w ritten by lawyers w ho were e ith e r personally e x p e rie n c ed in stock-raising o r else well b riefed bv experts; p erh ap s th e ir know ledge stem m ed fro m discussions with th e ir pro fessional clients. A legal passage w hich displays sim ilar ex p ertise is th e section on dam age to trees in Bretha Comaithchesa, discussed on p. 380. M odern botanists have b een im pressed bv th e scientific m a n n e r in w hich th e a u th o r arran g es twenty-eight trees a n d sh ru b s in to fo u r g ro u p s o f seven in acco rd an ce w ith th e ir eco n o m ic value. M o d ern brew ers have also co n firm e d th e a c c o u n t o f th e p ro c e d u re for m alting barley given in Cáin Aicillne (see p. 246). Am m o d e rn farm er- co u ld likewise co n firm th a t th e d escrip tio n o f field-walls a n d fences in Bretha Comaithchesa is realistic, (see p. 372). an d w ould recognise th e six land-ty pes d istin g u ish ed in th e law-text Cis Urfodla tire? (see p. 394). But in som e cases th e in fo rm a tio n w hich th e law-texts provide is n o t so easy to reco n cile w ith w hat we know from o th e r sources. P art o f th e p ro b lem stem s from th e fact that th e a u th o rs o f th e lawtexts are o ften o f necessity g en eralizin g a b o u t law a n d society, a n d in d o in g so may d isto rt som e details. Crith Cablack is particularly o p e n to this criticism . For ex am p le, in his discussion o f th e w ealth w hich is e x p ected to be possessed bv p erso n s o f various ranks, the a u th o r states th at an óraire has seven cows, seven pigs a n d seven sheep. T h e g rad e above him has ten cows, ten pigs a n d ten sheep, an d above him again th e mruigfer has twenty cows, twenty pigs a n d twenty sheep. '' Obviously, real life is never as n eat a n d tidy as this, ’'It is implicit that the grade below the mruigjer - here railed the bóairr febsa - has twelve cows, twelve pigs, and twelve sheep, but the text only refers to cows (CIH ii 563.9; iii 779.28-9 = CG 6.157-8).

The evidence o f the written sources

9

a n d we can assum e th a t th e a u th o r does not expect us to take him literally. T h e arch aeo lo g ical evidence in fact consistently indicates th at cattle w ere m o re n u m e ro u s o n th e average early Irish farm th a n pigs o r sheep: see p. 27 below. It is also im p o rta n t to b e a r in m in d that th e a u th o r o f a law-text is trying to deal with a p a rtic u la r topic in acco rd an ce with established legal p rinciples. In d o in g so. he may som etim es lay dow n rules w hich seem difficult o r even im possible to enforce. T his applies, for instance, to som e o f th e co m p licated ru les relatin g to bee-trespass (p. 145) o r th e u n a u th o riz e d use o f h orses (p. 169). But such m ate­ rial o u g h t n o t to be dism issed as b ein g o f purely academ ic in terest a n d w ith o u t relevance to real life. It re p re se n ts th e efforts - m ore o r less successful - o f a legal system trying to co p e with the huge varietv o f d isp u tes w hich can arise in a fa rm in g com m unity. In A p p en d ix 1 o f A guide to early Irish late (GEIL) I provide a list o f law-texts with in fo rm a tio n on translations w here such exist. For m ost texts, th e re a d e r is still d e p e n d e n t on th e five-volume Ancient Laws of Ireland (.4L), w hich was p u b lish ed betw een 1865 a n d 1901. U nfortu n atelv . these tran slatio n s are often in accurate, especially in volum es i-ii. T h e g reat scholar R u d o lf T h u rn ey sen published c o rre c te d tran slatio n s (in G erm an ) o f som e o f these texts, and also ed ite d a n d tran slated o th e r law-texts w hich h a d b een om itted in .4L. T h e jo u rn a ls Erin, Celtica, Zeitschrift fü r celtische Philologie, a n d Peritia c o n ta in English tran slatio n s o f a n u m b e r o f law-texts by D. A. Binchv a n d o th e r sch o lars.iM For th e p u rp o ses o f the present book, th e m ost im p o rta n t o f these is th e m edical law-text Rretha Crólige, p u b lish e d by B inchy in Ériu 12 (1938) 1-77. T h e ultim ate in te n tio n is for th e Early Irish Law Series to provide reliable tran slatio n s o f all surviving O ld Irish law-texts. Bechbretha (1983) a n d Vrai recht na Híar (1987) have already b een published, a n d Bretha Comaithchesa, Bretha Netned Toisech, th e Heptads, an d Cáin Adom náin a re in p re p a ra tio n . 38

38See GEIL 287-95 (Bibliography).

10

Introduction

Plate 1 Part ot t. 66° of the fourteenth-century manuscript Kawlinson B 487 in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, which has been reproduced by kind permission of the Trustees. The Old Irish text (in large minuscule) is from the main law-text on fanning Hrelha Comaithchesa, ‘judgem ents of neighbourhood’, which was written in about the eighth century. This passage deals with land which has been neglected, and the responsibilities of the owner’s kinsmen. The material in small minuscule consists of Middle Irish glosses and commentary: see discussion opposite. The text is reproduced at CIH i 75.24-29, and the glosses and com m entary are reproduced at CIH i 75.30-76.16. There is a translation at AL iv 129.

The evidence o f the written sources

11

Legal glosses and commentary Plate 1 c ontains a r e p r o d u c tio n o f p a r t o f the m ain law-text o n h u n tin g . Brctha ('.omiiitliclie.su. T h e manuscript was copied about the f o u rte e n th centurv, but the O ld Irish text (in large m inuscule) was originally c o m p o se d in the eighth century. T he in te rlin e a r material in small m inuscule consists o f explanatory glosses, d a tin g from about the twelfth century. T he material at the b o tto m ol the p.tge is c o m m e n ta ry from approxim ately the same p e rio d its the glosses. Most law-texts are a c c om pa nied by glosses a n d c o m m e n ta ry (sometimes very extensive) dating from fo u r or five h u n d r e d r ears after the original date o f composition. However, o n e m anuscript contains glosses a n d c o m m e n ta ry which are dateable to the n in th century, at most two h u n d r e d years later titan th e original texts.3904 T h e very bulk o f the surviving glosses a n d c o m m e n ta ry is intim idating. Nonetheless, this material is o f im m ense value, and is frequently r e fe rre d to in this book. For o u r purposes, the most im p o r ta n t type o f gloss is the simple explanation o f a word or ph ra se in the text. Wit ere the text is straightforward, the gloss is of limited significance. But if the text is defective o r obscure, the gloss can be vert helpful in elucidating the m eaning. Legal glossators are not of course to be r e g a rd e d as infallible,10 but - unlike m o d e r n editors - thev com e from the same u n b ro k e n le a rn e d tradition as the a u th o rs o f the O ld Irish texts, a n d had access to m u c h legal m aterial now lost.41342 Legal c o m m e n ta r y takes various forms. Som etim es the c o m m e n ­ tator merely provides a para p h ra se o f the O ld Irish te x t.IJ But m o r e often the c o m m e n ta to r e xpa nds on the c o n te n t of (he text. T h u s the law-text on accidents Brctha Etgid simply states the g e n ­ eral legal princ iple: 'm a ting is an im m unity for bulls a n d ra m s’. 1 T h e accom panying c o m m e n ta ry - r u n n in g to almost seven h u n ­ d r e d words - gives exam ples of the sort of circumstances in which

39 CIH iii 877.4-924.31. See Binchy, ‘A text on the forms of distraint’, 72. 40For example, a glossator at CIH i 71.4-5 = AL iv 94.4 explains airlirn n-atbil as being animal-trespass caused by the heat of the sun. But it is much more likely that aibel here refers to sexual heat: see p. 137. 41For a discussion of the value o f the glosses and commentary of one law-text, see BB 14-24. 42E.g. CIH ii 448.10-26 = BB 169-70 Appendix 1 (b). 43C /// i 276.3 = AL iii 230.Z bid tarb y reithe darmna.

12

Introduction

m e n o r animals m ight be killed or injured by a bull o r ram d u r in g the m ating season, a n d discusses the o w n e r’s liability, if any. Legal c o m m e n ta ry is of particular interest when the original text is missing o r fragmentary. For exam ple, it seems that the law-text Findsruth Fithail dealt with the habilite of a h e rd sm a n w hen an animal u n d e r his charge is killed o r stolen. Only the o p e n in g words of the O ld Irish text survive, stating inconclusively 'any animal which dies violently . 14 This fra gm e nt is followed by c o m m e n ta ry which I take to be based on the rest of the O ld Irish text, now lost. T h e circum stances are discussed in which the h e rd sm a n may be e x o n e ra te d from blam e in the uvent of animals u n d e r his charge being drow ned, taken bv wolves, stolen, etc. (see p. 182). Later c o m m e n ta ry thus som etim es fills out the gaps in the O ld Irish texts. But th e re are difficulties with regard to the dating of such material. In general, the later glosses a n d c o m m e n ta rie s seem to reflect the c o n te n t of the O ld Irish texts quite closely, and provide little evidence o f legal o r social cha n g e betw een the main period o f text-writing (seventh—eighth centuries) a n d the m ain p e rio d o f the glosses a n d c o m m e n ta rie s (tw e lfth -fo u rte en th centuries). Nonetheless, th e re are indications o f c h a n g e in some areas; for exam ple, the glosses a n d c o m m e n ta r y te n d to e x te n d royal powers beyond the limits set in the O ld Irish law-texts (see p. 408). In relation to farm ing practice, there are also a few hints o f change. C o m m e n ta ry on co-operative plo u g h in g (comar) refers to the substitution o f a horse for an o x . 10 This may reflect the increased use o f horses for p lo u g h in g in post-N orm an Ireland (see p. 95). A n o th e r c o m m e n ta ry m e n tio n s a sh e a f o f c o rn (p u n n a n n ),41’ whereas the available evidence suggests that in earlv Irish harvesting practice c o rn was cut just below the ear, and probably n o t b o u n d in sheaves (see p. 288). It is clear from such cases that the evidence o f later glosses a n d c o m m e n ta rie s must be used with caution in relation to the p e rio d o f the O ld Irish law-texts. O n the o th e r h a n d , it would be w rong to dismiss it as totally irrelevant for the early period. In this book I have indicated as far as possible w h e th e r my source on a particular topic is an O ld Irish law-text o r a later gloss o r com m entary. 64* 44 Gift vi 2139.17 nach mil atbaill guin. k CIH vi 2178.23-4. 46 C/tf i 287.39 = AL iii 284.7.

The evidence o f the m itten sources

13

Annals 1 he earlier annals contain legendary material relating to Ireland, as well ,ts events from G reek a n d Rom an history. Inform ation of relevance to Irish farm ing is to he found in entries from the sixth c e n tu rv onwards. T hese deal mainlv with g o o d a n d bad hat vests, cattle-plagues, a n d multiple or m onstrous births by livestock. T he most informative annals on such m atters are the Annals of l is ter (up to AD lo S S ) .1 the Annals of Inis/allen (up to 1321 a n d irregularly to 1450), a n d th e A nnals o f Connacht (1224 to 1544). T h e Annals of Clonnun noise (up to 1408) survive only in an English translation m a d e in 1627 by Conell M ageoghagan.

Saints’ Lives T h e r e are n u m e r o u s saints' l ives in Irish and in Latin a m o n g o u r sources, ra nging in date from the seventh-century Vila Sancti Pat neu bv Muirclnt maccu M a c h th e n i18 to the sixteenth-century Betha Cnlaim C.hille bv M aghnas O D o m lm a ill.19 For o u r purposes the chief value of the saints' Lives is in the fre q u e n t description of fa rm in g practices, often to illustrate a miracle.

Ecclesiastical legislation T he annals frequently record the p rom ulga tion o f ecclesiastical law (ta in ). Such laws were p ro m u lg a te d by a p r o m in e n t ecclesi­ astic or b\ a king, o r in some cases bv an ecclesiastic a n d a king together. " For o u r purposes the most im p o rta n t is Cáin Domnaig 'th e law o f Sunday', which attem pts to regulate Sunday observance (p. 455). A lost text which would un d o u b te d ly have been very valu­ able is ( .ii i a Dar I the law o f Dar F, which is known to have dealt with offences against cattle (p. 28) ,51

Penitentials, etc. In the early Irish C h u n h it was custom ary for a sinner to expiate 1iis offence bv fasting a n d o th e r austerities. Consequently, p e n ­ itential texts often provide detailed inform ation on the types of food norm ally eaten by the early Irish. Texts such as the Canons •'T he dating tor much of tin* earlier pat t of the .t mints of l '/sin is one seat behind the true date: see Gearóid Mac Niocaill’s Foreword to AU2 p. xi. 48Bieler, Patridan texts, 62-123. 4 will strike a c hord with today’s stock-breeder, w ho has to devote a great deal o f effort a n d resources to the tr e a tm e n t a n d p revention o f disease. As in m o d e r n times, sudden outbreaks ot inter lions disease, pat licularh in cattle, h a d devastating c o n sequences o n early Irish farm ing c o m m u n iu e s. T h e m o d e r n cereal-grower will recognise his predecessor s problem s with weeds in his cornfields (p. 2nd) and mildew o n his c o rn (p. 237). \ \ h e n we tut n to the h u m a n aspects o f earlv Irish farm ing life, we also find m a m m o d e r n parallels. ( )f particular c ontem porare inter­ est is the degt ee of control whielt a wife was entitled to exercise over the r u n n in g of the faint. A ccoiding to the eighth-centurv law-text ( ant l./ih/imna. if she has m ade a signific ant propertv-coniribution to the m arriage, she is entitled to make certain beneficial contracts o n h e r own initiative, such as th e r e n t o f land or the a r r a n g e m e n t of t ci-( iperath e ploughing with k in s m e n .I01' F.ven a wif e o f lower sta­ tus who has b to u g h t in no propertc is still legally entitled to defer foolish contracts which h e r h u sb a n d may have m a d e in relation to food, clothing, cattle a n d sh e e p (p. 400). A grown-up son is similarh e ntitle d to a n n u l Ins father's foolish routine t, especially when it could dim inish the value o f his own in h e rita n c e (p. 400). T h e O ld Irish law-texts also deal with the awkwaid position of the landless m a n w ho has m a r r ie d into a farm, the cliamhain isteach o f M odern Irish (p. 416). A n o th e r question which is still m u c h debated, espe­ cially in Ulster, is th e e x te n t to which a fa r m e r is morally entitled to la bon i on a Sundae. T h e ninth-c e n tu rv text ('.dm Dnmn/iig pi ohihits th e carrying o u t o f a wide ra n g e o f fa rm in g a n d dom estic activities on 4 ) sutnmari/es the Much li\ Zeuner, ‘ Tilt' colour of the wild cattle of Lascaux’ (Man 53 ( 1953) 68-9). 22Caesar, The Gallic war (ed. Edwards), 6.28. 23Clutton-Brock, Domesticated mammals, 66; Gautier, La domestication. 145. 24Van Wijngaarden-Bakker, ‘The animal remains from Newgrange (1)’, 333. 25Clutton-Brock, Domesticated mammals, 22; Méniel, Chasse et élevage, 12-13. ~f'it was formerly held that litis l\|>c (Ihn longi/nms or Bin lirai lisirws) was too small to have originated from the massive Bos /mmigemii.s, and must therefore derive from another wild species. See, however, Clutton-Brock, Domesticated mammals, 65. ‘-’'Reproduced in Gautier, La dantes/initio». 110. Ci. Clutton-Brock, Domesticated mammals, 27, fig. 2.1. 2t,Columella, De rerustica (ed. Forster and Heffner), 6.1.1-2.

Types and Breeds

31

were generally similar in si/e a n d build to m o d e r n Kerry rattle. ”1 T h e law-text (.din .{inline states that a fully-grown cow suitable to be given as rent to a lord should have a girth o f twenty fists, i.e. eighty inches.'" J o h n O 'L o a n points out that this is slightly larger than typical girths re c o r d e d for m o d e r n Kerry cows.31 It is implicit in a n u m b e r o f legal references that th e cattle of this p e rio d were often bla c k .’- For exam ple, the eighth-century law-text Brelh/i \em ed lotsech speaks of milch cows ‘as black as a b la c k b ird ’."3 However, as we have seen above, th e ancestral a urochs exhibited colour-variation between black a n d reddish. It is noteworthy too that in spite o f selection against red in the m o d e r n Kerry breed, calves o f this colour are occasionally b o r n .31 O ld a n d Middle Irish sources refer to cattle o f various shades o th e r than black, such as crim son-red {Jlann),3-' flame-red (derc) ,31' a n d brow n (donn).s " Saint Cíarán, a b b o t o f Clonmacnois, is re p u te d to have owned a w onderful dun-coloured cow {in Odor Chimrim) which yielded twelve m easures o f milk at every milking - o n e for each of the twelve apostles o f Ireland.3'3 T h e hide o f this cow (Seiche na hUidre Cíaráin) was fa m e d as a relic,39 a n d it was claim ed that anybody who died on it was assured o f eternal life y\ith C h rist.1" In this expectation, the Annals o f Inisfallen record th e d e a th of Tadg macc C onchobuir, king o f C onn a c h ta , in AD 900 'alter having r e n o u n c e d the yvorld on the hide o f G íarán’s9

S9By kind permission of the Office of Public Works, the front cover o f this book shows some of the Muckross herd o f Kerry cattle at the Bourn Vincent Memorial Park, Killarney, Co. Kerry. The photograph was taken by Elizabeth Kelly. 30CIH ii 483.12; v 1784.32 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen RechtT, 355 § 13 fiche dorn a timcomac. For a discussion of the length of the darn ‘fist’, see p. 564. S10 ’Loan, ‘Livestock in the Brehon laws’, 70; O ’Loan, ‘A history of early Irish farm­ ing (3)’, 171. He gives 76 inches for a Kerry cow, 84 inches for a Dairy Shorthorn cow, and 88 inches for a Hereford cow. Varro, Rerum rusticarum (ed. H ooper and Ash), 2.5.8, states that the best colour for catde is black, next red, then dun and finally white; he regards white cattle as the most delicate, and black as the hardiest. 33CIH vi 2216.7-8; cf. CIH iv 1299.10. 34Curran, Kerry and Dexter cattle, 21-3. 35 CIH iii 885.37. 367BCRec. 157.1866. 37 TBC Rec. I 124.4133. 38Stokes, Félire, 202.33-5 (commentary). 39Stokes, Félire, 204.3 (commentary). 40Stokes, Lismore Lives, 123.4117-18; Plummer, Vitae i 205 § xv.

32

Livestock (i): Cattle

Dun ( low'." A ccording to a later tradition the h ide of this cow was used in the making of Leabhm net hi id lire the Book of th e Dun Cow', o n e of the most im p o rta n t surviving Irish manuscripts. T h e r e are also som e references to cows o f m o r e th a n o n e colour. A Middle Irish tale speaks of a hornless b rin d le d c ow ( mricl n'ahach) , l:! a n d a topographical poem refers to a b rin d le d bull darb riabarli) . 14 In later tradition the last th re e days of Matc h, generallv cold a n d wet, are called Uteihn no seanrinbhai 'th e davs of the old brin d le d cow’. 1’ Later sources also speak of a white-backed cow (dntim fbinnn) with a red, grev or black hoch: cows of this type - called d rim m o n s - are still distinguished in Co. Kerry.446 54*21 15*9487 W hite cattle seem to have h a d a rarity value, a n d were n o d o u b t especially favoured because of the association of white with virtue a n d puritv. Such cattle are m e n tio n e d quite frequentlv in o u r sources,1' sometimes with special reference to o u tsta n d in g milk-vields.lfi At least th re e islands beat the n a m e Inis Ihi Fimir ‘the island o f th e white cow' (anglicized Inisbofin 1. 1‘ a n d in later Irish the Milkv Wav was called Bnthar no Bn Finne the ro a d of the white cow’. ’" A difficult legal c o m m e n ta ry distinguishes cattle with various am o u n ts o f white in their coats, including p u r e white (Jinn), w hite-rum ped ( loisinn). and w hite-backed( r I ( ftunisse). 4

41 AI 140 s.a. 900. 42LU 89.2780; cf. Keating, Foras feasa i 78.z. 4,Bergin, ‘A story of Flann mac Lonáin', 47 § 7. « E J . Gwvnn. Metrical Dindsherchas iv 70.25. 45De Bhaldraithe, Cin Lae Amhtaoibh, 4.105-8. See also Dinneen, Fortóir. s.v. riabhach. 4eCurran, Kerry and Dexter cattle, 5-6. 47E.g. Bergin, ‘A story of Flann mac Lonáin’, 47 § 7; Dillon, Sergtige Con Culainn, 9.246; CIH ii 352.26, 353.3 = AL i 64.1, 15. 48Mac Niocaill, 'Register of St. Saviour’s Chantry’, 205; Plummer, Vitae i 235 § ii. 49Hogan, Onomasticon, s.w. Inis bófinde. "D inneen, FoclAir s.v. bnthar. 51 CIH iii 885.34—9. The form loisinn seems to be a com pound of los ‘tail, e n d ’ + finn ‘white’: see DIL L 212.6. O ne can compare loisinnán, lit. ‘the white-tipped one’, which is applied to the fox because of the white tip to its tail. In relation to a cow’s body, los might refer to the rump, the tail, or the tail-tip. Finnisse is otherwise unattested, but seems also to be a compound of finn. The other adjectives applied to cattle in this commentary Arc flann ‘crimson-red’, muillech ‘(?) ’ and laulach, for which Plummer suggests ‘having broad foreheads’ (DIL s.v. 2 tulach).

Types and Breeds

33

Earlv Irish gospel-books contain m a m representations o f the call (usually w inged) which is the symbol o f Saint L u k e /’- T hese illus­ trations are generally too stylized to giye m uch inform ation o n what c o n te m p o ra in calces actually looked like. O n e of the most realistic is the sturdy calf o n f. 124' o f the seventh-century Book o f Durrow, w hich is r e p r o d u c e d as the frontispiece o f the p re s e n t book.

White red-eared cattle In general, the early Irish textual evidence does not justify ou r classifying cattle in separate b re e d s in the m o d e r n sense. An intriguing e xception is the white red-eared cow (bó find tiuderg) which is vert often m e n tio n e d as a distinct breed. For example, a law-text refers to th e p a y m e n t o f seven white cows with red ears (totalling two cumals in v alue)5 53 2 as p a r t o f the fine for satirizing C e r n o d o n . a legendary king of Ulster. ’1* Such cattle are particularly p r o m in e n t in tales with magical or mythological elements: in the Book o f Leinster version o f la in Bó Cúailnge the fury M u ltig a in attacks Cut C hula inn in the guise of a yyhite re d -e a red heifer,33 a n d in o th e r texts these cattle are associated with th e O th e rw o rld .56857 T hey also a p p e a r in saints’ Lives. A ccording to the n inth-century Bethu Brigte, Saint Brigit spent h e r early years at th e h ouse o f a d ru id , whose slave h e r m o th e r was. W hen the time cam e to wean the infant Brigit, she vomited up all food yvhich was given to her. T h e d r u id becam e anxious about the child a n d assigned to h e r a white red-eared cow to sustain her; she was c u re d as a r e s u lt.” A ccording to Vita Saudi AIM , Saint Ailbe miraculously supplied the holy M odanus with two white red-eared o x e n for p lo u g h in g .3” Because o f th e obviously fabulous n a tu re o f most o f these references, it m ig h t be assumed th a t white red-eared cattle never existed in leal life, particularly as there is a similar literary 52E.g. Book of Armagh ff. 32v, 69v; Book of Durrow ff. 2r, 124', Book of Kells ff. 27v,

1‘29'. 20 T . 200'. 53This valuation agrees approximately with the common equation of one cumal to three milch cows: see Appendix B, p. 592. 54C1H vi 2114.3 = Dillon, ‘Stories from the law-tracts’, 45 § iv; CIH iii 1134.18 = E. y. Gwynn, ‘Privileges’, 46.26-7. ib TBC IX 54.1993. 56E.g. Meid, Táin BóFraích 1.5—6. 57Ó hAodha, Bethu Brigte, 2 § 5. 58Heist, Vitae 127 § 40. Cf. Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 48 § 585. For further references see Lucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 240-5.

34

Livestock (i): Cattle

reference to white red-eared h o r s e s .1'1 However, white red-eared cattle are also m e n tio n e d in Welsh law-texts, which generally contain little mythology. T h e th irte e n th -c en tu ry Llyfr /ilcgyivryd states that the fine for an offence against the h o n o u r o f the lord of Dinefwr must he paid in white red-cat ed cattle (gu’cirthn gwyayoH clusigochyoti) ,WI Also from the th irte e n th century, Llyjt Iorwerlh states that the fine for a similar offence against the king o f Aberfffaw should include a white bull with red ears.1,1 F u rth e rm o re , as O sb o rn Bergin poin te d out, an old British b re e d of white red-eared cattle has be e n preserved at Ghillingham in N o rth u m b e rla n d , as well as in o th e r locations in B rita in .'“ So the Irish ref erences may after all be based on reality, pet haps originating from the Laies o f travellers who h a d seen such cattle in Britain. It is o f course possible that the b re e d was at some stage p re se n t in Ire la nd also.

Shaggy or long-haired cattle Cattle left o u t o f doors in winter grow a thick coat to im prove heat insulation. This norm ally falls off in spring, as Triad 105 observes: ‘three living things which shed d e a d things: a d e e r sh e d d in g its antlers, a tree sh e d d in g its leaves, cattle sh e d d in g th e ir w inter coat (lit. their stinking h a ir ) '.h! However, in the case of certain bre e d s which live in cool climates, this thick coat is re ta ine d th ro u g h o u t the year. For exam ple, the Gallo wav o f s o u th e rn Scotland, a h o r n ­ less black or d u n-c oloure d breed, has a de nse mossv u n d e r c o a t with an o u te r covering o f long h u e hair which is never shed. T h e H ig h ­ land or Kyloe o f th e western H ighlands a n d Islands o f Scotland is e q u ip p e d with even better insulation. This m agnificently h o r n e d b re e d has a p e r m a n e n t long shaggy coat which varies greatly in colour, a n d may be red, yellow, d u n , cream , black o r b rindle d. M. L. Ryder suggests that the hairiness o f such bre e d s mat result from deliberate selection.64 ’ ’/ / V 1137.33460 = Windisch, ‘Tochmarc Farbe’, 462.10-11. O ne can compare the reference to white red-eared dogs in the medieval Welsh tale Puryll Pendeuic Dyuet (ed. R. L. Thomson, 1.20-21). “ Williams and Powell, Llyfr Blegywryd, 4.2-3 = AU\V, Dimetian Code, I ii § 6. (il Wiliam, Llyfr Iorwerlh, 2 § 3.10 (see note on p. 105) = ALTW, Venedotian Code, I ii § 3. “ Bergin, ‘White red-eared cows’. m Mcyit. Trtatls, 14 § 105 (translation slighth em ended). Cl. Meter, Saum Ctinmiii. 21 §242. 64Ryder, ‘Livestock’, 383.

Types and Breeds

35

T h e earlv Irish sources d o n o t distinguish long-haired varieties of cattle, a n d o n e law-text appears to regard hairiness as a defect. A description of the perfect cow includes the stipulation that it should not he shaggy ( J i m h a d ) Possibly, however, this does not refer to genetic hairiness but ra th e r to the fact that the re te ntion of a shaggy coat in s u m m e r may be a sign th a t a cow is in p o o r c ondition.

Horned and hornless cattle In all bovines, a small p ro p o rtio n never grows horns. By b re e d ­ ing from hornless individuals m an has developed various hornless (‘p o lle d ’) breeds, such as the A b erdeen Angus, the Galloway, the Red Poll, a n d the Irish Moiled (Ir. móel ‘bald, h o rn le ss’).1’*’ It has som etim es been claim ed that the Irish Moiled was in tro d u c e d to this c o u n try bv Norse settlers.1’' However, there are references to hornless cattle in pre-Norse texts.I,,s a n d hornless bovine skulls are quite c o m m o n o n early Christian sites.69 T h e main advantage of hornlessness is that there is less da n g e r o f injury to o th e r cattle o r to farm workers.'" For exam ple, o n e lawtext ref ers to a mnel marhae, 'a hornless o n e o f the cattle-enclosure’, in a context which implies that such an animal c a n n o t injure o th e r cattle in a c o n fin e d s p a c e .'1 H ornless cattle are also less likely to d a m a g e fences a n d o th e r field-boundaries. However, the absence o f h o r n s has the disadvantage that the animal is less well e q u ip p e d to d e f e n d itself, especially against predators. F u rth e rm o re , there is the m in o r c onvenience that a distinctive notch may be cut in the h o r n to indicate o w n e rsh ip .'“ T h e re also seems to have be e n a general p re fe re n ce a m o n g the early Irish for the a p p e a ra n c e o f a h o r n e d bovine, a n d in the sagas th e re is adm iration for the bull with a fine pair o f horns. A ccording to Tain Bn Cúaihige, for exam ple, e5CIH ii 674.39 = Appendix A, text 1 § 1 (9). The translation ‘shaggy’ is uncertain: see discussion on p. 509. "hThere is a herd l Irish Moiled ai Toxteth Park near Liverpool. For a brief discus­ sion of moiled (moiley, muley, etc.) cattle, see Curran, Kerry and Dexter cattle, 7-10; O Sé, The history of native Irish cattle, 7. 67Wilson, ‘The Scandinavian origin of the hornless cattle of the British Isles’. 68E.g. TBC Rec. I 57.1866. ^M cCorm ick ( ‘Stock-rearing in early ( iln istian Ireland’, 156) notes that 7 per cent of the bovine skulls at Moynagh crannóg are hornless. 70See p. 179 for a discussion of goring by cattle. 71CIH vi 2133.17-18. 72T here is a reference at CIH iv 1253.1—5 to the cutting of notches in the horns or ears of livestock for this purpose.

36

Livestock (i): Cattle

o n e ol the prize possessions of Aili 11, king of ( .onnacht, was his hull Findbennarh ‘the w hite-horned o n e . It was jealousy on a c c o u n t of this bull which drove his wife M edb to ask Duirc m ac Fiachnai to sell h e r the Brown Bull of (aiailnge (Dornt (M ating1): his refusal sparked off the military cam paign described in Tant Bn C iiatbtg. T h e law-text Bretha Kemed Déidenuch specifies that a p oet is entitled to a bennán bó h o r n e d cow' for the type of p o e m known as a laid.1 ' A respect for h o r n e d cattle is also indicated by the later proverb Bionn adharca fada or na buaibh that lent 'cattle across the sea h ase long h o r n s ' . ' 1 However, Triad 85 makes the point that a cow may have fine h o rn s but h e r value d e p e n d s on h e r p r o d u c tio n o f milk: ‘three uglinesses which h ide fairness: a h o r n e d cow w ithout milk, a fine-looking but slow horse, a h a n d s o m e person without p ro p e rty ’. ' ’ A ccording to a gloss in C o n nati (,lowary. a cow with short h o r n s is called a ho clnvcc, but this te rm is otherw ise u n k n o w n .7 76 *3 7 For the e c onom ic im p o rta n c e o f horns, see p. 56 below.

Breeding of large cattle Large cattle re quire m o re food, a n d are som etim es difficult to handle. However, they provide large carcases, a n d max be r e g a rd e d as status symbols bv their owners. Finbar M cCorm ick has observed tha t the cattle-bones on roval sites te n d to be larger than average, a n d suggests the practice o f competitive cattle-breeding a m o n g the early Irish aristocracy." In view o f the stress on the size of cattle which we sometimes find in the earlv literature, this seems very plausible.78 73CIH iii 1120.34 = E. J. Gxvynn, ‘Privileges’, 27.6; CIH v 1605.8 = AL v 62.18-19. O ’Davoren ( CIH iv 1474.32 = O ’Dav. 233 § 226) explains bennán as laog bó ‘a cow’s calf, but this contradicts the preceding statement in Bretha Nemed Déidenach: bó i lögh laoidhe. ‘a cow as payment for a laid’ ( CIH iii 1120.31 = E. J. Gxvynn, ‘Privileges’, 27.4). Compare the use of bennán in the meaning ‘andered one, stag’ at Muiphy, Early Irish lyrics, 122 (poem 46) § 1. 7,*Cf. T. F. O ’Rahilly, A miscellany of Irish proverbs, 33 § 117. '■’Meyer, Tnatl\ 10S 85 (translation em ended). The manuscripts have variant lead­ ings (bó) bindech, binnech, beinnech, bennach, which I take to be from benn ‘h o rn ’. Meyer, however, reads bindech, which he takes to be a derivatix'e of bind ‘sweet’, and translates ‘sweet-lowing’. 76Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 21 § 242 bo crocc .i. adarca gairdi juirri ‘i.e. short horns on her’. 77McCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland’, 184; McCormick, ‘Dairying and beef production in early Christian Ireland’, 264. 78E.g. TBC LL 36.1323-6.

Cattle-management

37

C a t tle -m a n a g em en t

Cows and Calves In m o d e rn cattle h u sb a n d ry it is n o rm a l fo r a cow to have h e r first call at th re e r ears old, o r even younger. Similarly, in m edieval Welsh law-texts it is e x p ected that a cow be b ro u g h t to the bull at 214 an d have h e r first calf at th re e , w hen she is called a cynflith, lit. ‘first m ilk In each Ireland, o n th e o th e r h a n d , th e w ritten evidence indicates th at th e n o rm al practice was for a cow to he bulled at 314 a n d th e n to p ro d u c e h e r first calf at four. C o m m en tary on cattle r aines (evidently based on a lost O ld Irish law-text) states that a cow is w orth 20 scru p les w hen she hears h e r first calf, an d she is th en fo u r re a rs o ld '.'" T h e slow m a tu rin g o f early Irish cattle may be partly d u e to p o o r w in ter feed in g (see p. 46 below '). T h e law-texts devote a g o o d deal o f a tte n tio n to the behaviour of a cow tow ards h e r calf. In a list o f th e faults w hich d etract from the value of a cow. o n e text in clu d es failure to love h e r calf, an d inca­ pacity to provide e n o u g h m ilk to feed it. ' 1 A n o th e r text deals with th e legal p ro b lem s w hich mar arise if cows b elo n g in g to different ow ners re a r th e ir calves in close proxim ity to o n e a n o th e r.79*82 If a core ad o p ts [/(»-ling) th e calf o f a n o th e r cow, th e calf rem ains the p ro p e rty o f th e o w n er o f th e cow w hich b o re it. If a calf is b o rn d ead an d a n o th e r calf is given to th e m other, this calf is co u n ted as b e lo n g in g to its n a tu ra l m o th e r because it is n o t d o n e for the sake o f th e calf b u t for th e sake o f th e cow's m ilk'. Similarly, if som ebody places his cow o n a n o th e r's calf w ithout its o w n e r’s perm ission, he does not acq u ire anv share in the o w nership o f this calf. Bui if the calf-ow ner agrees to the a rra n g e m e n t, they divide betw een them th e value o f th e calf. T h e law-texts take in to acco u n t the protective instincts o f a cow tow ards h e r call. H e p ta d 7 states th at th e ow ner o f a cow which has newly calved (nuidtech) is not liable for any injury which she

79Williams and Powell, LlyfrRlegytoryd, 88.8-12 = AI.TW, Dimetian Code, II xxvi § 12. Varro, Rerum rusticarum (ed. H ooperand Ash), 2.5.13, states that a heifer should not be im pregnated before she is two years old so that she may calve at three, and that it is all the better if she does not calve until four. Cf. Virgil, Georgies (ed. Fairclough), 3.60-1; Columella, De re rustica (ed. Forster and Heffner), 6.21.2. m CIH iii 845.32-3 = Appendix A, text 3 § 4. S1C/H ii 674.39-41 = Appendix A, text 1 § 1 (8), (17). 82CIH iii 967.35-968.15; iv 1267.17-31 = Appendix A, text 5.

38

Livestock (i) : Cattle

may inflict on anyone who com es n e a r the calf.*' A ccording to the accom panying com m entary, this im m unity lasts for a p e rio d o f three days. T h e law-text on accidents, lirelha l.tgjd, indicates a similar period by stating that the cow is not held to be liable as long as it is giving colostrum (beestings) (;/«>).’'* Because of the cow s uncertain te m p e r - and also for the sake of the welfare of the calf - it is illegal to distrain a cow w hich has newly calved.80 A Middle Irish verse preserved in c o m m e n ta r y on At nine C.holuimb CJiille advices the stockm an to cat e for his calv es a n d their m o th e rs (glinnig do lóegu 7 glinnig a mailhre). It he does so, the cows will provide a lasting supply o f milk ( búanblicht) ,8fj

Milking In the history o f the dom estication of livestock o n e o f the most rem arkable achievem ents has b e e n to p e rsu a d e such a large ani­ mal as a cow to s u r r e n d e r to a h u m a n m a n ip u la to r most o r all of the milk which n a tu re has provided for h e r calf. This has be e n effected by the selective b re e d in g o f docile animals which will sub­ mit to milking, w h e th e r bv h a n d or, in r e c e n t times, bv m achine. In addition, various m e th o d s have b e e n used to stimulate the instinc­ tive milk-yielding response from the cow. For exam ple, a frieze from about 2500 BC at Al-'Ubaid in M esopotam ia (Iraq) shows two cows being milked with their calves tied in front o f them .''' T h e idea is obviously that the presence o f the calves causes the cows to yield their milk - no d o u b t e n o u g h is left in the u d d e r to feed the calves after the milker has taken his quota. Early Irish sources like­ wise stress the necessity for the calf to be present at the milking. T h e saints’ Lives are particularly rich in a ccounts of the m iracu­ lous restoration o r substitution o f a missing calf for the p u r p o s e of getting a cow to provide milk.88 A Latin Life o f Saint C a in n e c h (Canice) describes how a wolf ate a calf o f two cows (vitulus vac­ carum duarum ).89 T h e ow ner bewailed the loss o f the calf to Saint m ClH i 9.35 = AI. V 152.2-3. For a discussion of the etymology o f the term, see llilA N-24 s.v. nuitllech. Its relationship with the once-attested Welsh iiomtlligi of the same meaning is uncertain. g4CIHi 275.12 = At, iii 228.7. WC /// iii 897.11 = Appendix A, text 2 § 1 (1). 86Stokes, ‘The Bodleian Amra’, 252 § 54. 87I,ucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 50. 88Many examples are given by Lucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 45-51. 89Heist, Vitae, 197-8 § 59. This is the macc dá bó ‘child o f two cows' o f an Old Irish law-text: see CIH iii 967.35; iv 1267.17 = Appendix A, text 5.

Cattle-management

39

Caiiiiiech, w ho told him to r e tu r n to his rows a n d clap his hands. W hen he did so, the wolf r e tu r n e d a n d put its head into the calf-tie (vinculum vituli). Miraculously, the cows treated the wolf as their call a n d licked it as they were being milked. T h e wolf c o n tin u e d to r e tu r n at m o r n in g a n d evening milking-times for this pupose until th e e n d o f the season. In his Cattle in ancient Ireland Lucas cites descriptions in sixteenth- to n in e te e n th -c en tu ry sources o f a practice which is n o t to my knowledge m e n tio n e d in early Irish texts.’'10 This is the m aking of a d u m m y from the skin o f a calf which has died or be e n slaughtered. T h e cow recognizes the smell of h e r own calf, a n d will not \ ielcl any milk unless she is able to lick the stuffed skin. Lucas also gives references to the custom o f blowing into the vagina of a cow whose milk-flow has failed. H e suggests that both practices are of great antiquity in Ireland, a n d may even have been in tr o d u c e d bv the first cattle-keeping pe ople in Neolithic times.991 0 392 A n o th e r m e th o d o f stimulating a cow’s milk-flow is bv singing o r playing music d u rin g the milking.'1-’ O u r sources contain references to music increasing cows' milk-yield, th o u g h it must be a d m itte d that tliev occur in literary contexts a n d therefore c a n n o t be taken as firm evidence o f actual practice. According to the n in th -c e n tu ry tale Longes mac nVislenn the singing o f the sons of L'isliu was so m elodious that it increased the milk-vield of cows a n d o th e r animals by two thirds.99 A n o th e r tale attributes th e same ra te o f increase to the cows, sh e e p a n d o th e r milking anim als which h e a r the flute o f Mac D íchóem e.94 In natural conditions, a calf is constantly with its m o th e r and takes milk at f r e q u e n t intervals. T h e farmer, however, restricts access after a few weeks, so that the calf can only be suckled at the twice-dailv milking. O u r sources make frequent reference to the im p o rta n c e of keeping c a k e s away from their mothers. For exam ple, o n e law-text refers to the offence o f leaving a way o pen 90Lucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 51-5. 91 Lucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 58. For a more detailed discussion of both practices, see Amoroso and Jewell ‘The exploitation of the milk-ejection reflex by primitive peoples'. 92Amoroso and Jewell, ‘The exploitation of the milk-ejection reflex by primitive peoples’, 132, 135-6. 93Hull, Longes mac nUislenn 45.102-4 § 8 no-mbligtis da trian blechta d'immarcraid ûadaib. 94Thurneysen, ‘Die Flöte von Mac Dichoeme’, 118 § 10.

40

Livestock (i): Cattle

between som ebody else’s cows a n d calves,11 or b r e a k in g a fence so as to allow the calves to get to the cows. T h e saints Lives c o n ta in m any references to the use of ch ild re n as h e rd s to keep the calves away from the cows.'17 At night, the calves are h o u se d separately in a calf-pen (lias láeg) ,9 98 *695 * If a f a rm e r allows an old e r calf (gamain) c o n tin u e d access to its m other, the milk-yield will obviously be r e duc e d. F u r th e r m o r e , the calf is liable to develop an aggressive a n d un ru ly te m p e r a m e n t. A n in th -c e n tu ry tetrad states ‘th e re are four w ho are n o t a m e n a b le to r e s tr a in to r discipline: a priest's servant, a miller's h o u n d , a widow s son, a n d a str ip p e r ’s calf (gamain gamnaige) . " As is g e n e ra l in farm ing c om m unitie s th r o u g h o u t the world, o u r sources indicate that cows were m ilked early in the m o r n in g , a n d again in the e v e n in g .100 T h e litctarv references imply that m ilking was norm ally c a rrie d o u t by w om en, b u t it is clear fr o m som e legal references that the m ilker (bligiv) m ig h t also be m ale (see p. 451). In sum m er, cows were som etim es m ilked awav from the farm at a te m p o ra ry milking-place (dirge). At o th e r times m ilking seems usually to have taken place in a m ilking-enclosure lim its) in the farmyard. Cows were re stra in e d at m ilking bv a spancel (búarach) .1011 02 T h e stream o f milk was directed into a w ooden pail (ihrb): for this re a so n a m ilch cow is som etim es called a bó derba.w ~ If the milking was ca rrie d o u t at a distance from the dwelling-house, it could be tra nsfe rre d to a larger vessel stra p p e d to the back. *" ' Legal re fe re n ce s suggest that milking pails were o f a sta n d a rd h e ig h t of

95 CIH ii 402.10 = AL i 232.5-6 fäcbäil ôbêle iter bú y laega. 96 CIU ii 385.22-3 = AL i 168.5 aurb[a) ria laegaib do buaib. "L ucas, Caille in ancienl Ireland, 15—16. 98See p. 364 below. "M eyer, Triads, 30 § 234. As in Modem Irish, gamnach ‘stripper’ refers to a cow which has not come into calf in a particular year, and is still accompanied by the calf of the previous year. 100E.g. Plummer, Vitae i 235 § ii. 101For the various methods o f restraining animals, see p. 493ff. 102E.g. CIH V 1762.32 = AL ii 162.8 bó deiba cona deirb ‘milch cow with its milkingpail’. This corresponds to the bó bainne ‘milch cow’ later in the same comm entary (CIH V1766.12-13 = AL ii 176.16-17). 101A. O. and M. O. Anderson, Adnm/uiit l./fi oj Coinmbu. 360 (new pagination: 11 (i) = f. 65b, refers to a milking-vessel carried on the back. Its lid was fastened with a peg (Latin gergenna).

Cattle-ma nage men I

41

about twelve inc h e s.1" 1 T h e r e is little prec ise inform ation on milkvields. However, in a discussion on the p r o p e r characteristics of a cow. o n e law-text states that a cow is expected to yield a m easure of twelve inches ( we\ar da nrdlach dir) Iront h e r three teats; the milk from the fourth teat is for the calf.1"-’ Presumahlv, this refers to the yield at e ach o f the two daily milkings. For cattle, the natural sequenc e is for lactation to begin about Mav with the birth of the calves.1"1' It c ontinue s th ro u g h o u t the summer, a n d th e n dries off with th e a p p ro a c h o f winter. T h e fa rm e r can, however, exte n d his milking season bv ensuring that a couple of his cows are kept from the- bull at the usual time for m ating (late sum ­ m er) , a n d are b ulled in th e a u tu m n instead. A few calves will thus be b o rn Liter than the rest, a n d so the milking season is extended. If a milking cow fails to c om e into calf - o r is deliberately k e p t from th e bull — she may c o n tin u e to give milk for a whole year, provided tha t she is adequately fed a n d looked after. N in th -c e n tu ry legal c o m m e n ta ry refers to a cow with c onstant milk i bn hithhln lit ) ever\ m o n th for a v e a r .1"' Latet com m entaries likewise c o n ta in a n u m b e r o f references to winter-milk ( lacht g r i m n d \ ( h i e c o m m e n ta to r rem arks - p erhaps in surprise - th.it his sont ce ( presum able an O ld Irish law-text now lost) does n o t refer to th e value o f milk in winter a n d spring, b u t only in su m m e r a n d a u t u m n .1 109 8017654 For a discussion of the im p o rta n c e of milk and milk-products in th e early Irish diet, see p. 323.

104Cf. CIH V 1766.13 = AL ii 176.17; CIH iii 920.28. 105 CIH ii 675.6-7 = Appendix A, text 1 § 5 (1). A wooden bucket found at Ballinderry is approximately 12 inches in height (Ilencken, ‘Ballinderry craunóg no. L, 141). 106Legal commentary uses the phrase lulgachus Beltaine ‘May calving’ (e.g. CIH iii 999.30 = McLeod, Early Irish contract law, 295 [1]). 107 CIH iii 894.9-10; cf. CIH i 161.24-5; Bergin, ‘Astory ofFlann mac Lonáin’, 46.18. 108E.g. CIH ii 533.14; v 1815.7 = AL iii 46.13. 109CIH ii 716.6-8.

42

Livestock (i): Cattle T h e d ie t o f c a ttle

Cattle are herbivorous, and in natural c o nditions c o n su m e grasses a n d a wide variety of o th e r herbs. They also eat the leaves oi most tree-species: th e ir particular partiality to the leaves o f the elm is reflected in the description o f this tree as 'frie n d of cattle (carae cethrae) a n d ‘sustenance o f cattle’ (lúth retinaeJ.1 11" A re fe re n c e in the e ighth-century tale Fled Bn nenn shows that h e a th e r (fm ech ) a n d furze (foigdech) were r e g a rd e d as inferior fe e d in g for c a ttle .111 T h e Irish g e o g r a p h e r Dicuill, writing in the early n i nt h century, quotes Iulius Solinus to the effect that Ire la n d ‘is so rich in pastures as to e n d a n g e r the cattle unless they are now a n d then rem oved from their feeding g r o u n d s '.11' Thi s seem s to be a wav o f e x plaining the d iso rd e r o f grass tetany, c o m m o n in m o d e r n times a m o n g cattle in tro d u c e d too quickly to lush spring pastures. O therw ise, o u r sources provide us with little detailed in fo rm a tio n on the subject o f grass (Jér). In som e texts, the te rm airthend is used a ppa re ntly with the m e a n in g o f some particularlv \a lu e d type o f grass.113 T h u rn e y se n suggests that it may be T im o th y grass (Phleum pratense) , 114 but it is m o r e likelv to be the same w ord as M o d e rn Irish fiorthann (also feorainn, iarthainn, faortham t, fiothran, etc. ) ‘c re e p in g bent-grass, Agrostis stolonifera' , w hich is com m only anglicized florin. A nin th -c e n tu ry a u th o r argues against over-stocking on grassland in the following triad: 'th r e e fewnesses which are b e tte r than plent)’: a fewness o f fine words, a fewness of cows in grass, a fewness o f friends a r o u n d a le ’.110 Middle Irish topographical p oem s lay particular e m p h a sis on the p re se n c e o f clover (seminar) in the fertile plains o f Ireland, 1l0See McManus, 'Irish letter-names', 136.2 (L) and 140.13-22 (glosses to L ). There is disagreement among glossators as to whether luis refers to elm, pine or rowan. Cattle’s taste for elm-leaves is noted by Mitchell, Heading the Irish landscape, 88, and by Rackham, The history of the countryside, 2-13. Cato, Deagii cultura ted. H ooper and Ash), 6.3, likewise refers to the feeding of elm-leaves to cattle and sheep. Aristotle, Historia animalium (ed. Thom pson), 8.7, includes elm-leaves among the foods used to fatten cattle. 111 LU 248.8123 - Windisch, ‘Das Fest des Bricriu’, 256.29 § 9. Foigdeach is explained by the word ailenn ‘furze, gorse’ in a gloss on this text at H 3. 18 f. 607b 12 (quoted DIL s.v. 2 foigdech). 112Tierney, Dicuili liber de mensura orbis terrae, 96 § 21. DIL s.v. airlhend (b). 114Thurneysen, Review of Togail na Tebe (ed. Calder), 421. He refutes Calder’s identification with ‘oats’. See De Bhaldraithe, ‘Irish names’, xlix, s.v. irthenn. 115Meyer, Triads, 12 § 93.

The diet o f cattle

43

an d it is likely that its value as a Idod loi cattle was reco g n ized .11,1 In m aritim e areas seaw eed m ust have b een useful for feeding cattle a n d p ro v id in g th e m with salt an d o th e r n u trien ts. In the Canones Wallin, w hich are probably o f B reton origin, 7 th ere is a re fe re n c e to th e feed in g of seaw eed (algo maris) to cattle as a su bstitu te for grass.1|s A passage in Cannae's Glossary speaks of a h ag cu ttin g jemmain bolgarh ‘b la d d e re d seaw eed’, a term w hich p resum ably in clu d es b la d d e r wrack {Funis vesiculosus), k n o tte d wrack (- \sro/)h\llum nodosum) a n d o th e r w racks.11,1 T h e text provides n o in fo rm a tio n on th e p u rp o se for w hich she cut the seaw eed, b u t it m at have b e e n for cattle fodder. T h e úairtnech (p. 5 2 3 1 m at possibly be a cow w hich is deliberately fed salty h e rb a g e so as to increase its thirst, a n d h e n c e its milk-yield.

Summer-grazing W hen th e m ain sp rin g grow th h a d b een co n su m ed at the farm , it seem s to have b een a fre q u e n t practice for cattle a n d o th e r live­ stock to be d riven o ff to th e hills o r o th e r ro u g h lan d w here thev co u ld graze d u rin g th e sum m er. T h e su m m erin g o f cattle in this m a n n e r is attested a m o n g m any peop les th ro u g h o u t the world. It is still p ractised in Sw itzerland, Norway, Spain, etc. an d is in harm o n y with th e a n im al's n a tu ra l ten d en cy to m ig rate seasonally in search o f fresh pastu re. In his Cattle in ancient Ireland, Lucas provides a su m m ary o f w hat English a n d Irish sources from the sixteenth to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu rie s have to say ab o u t this p ractice, w hich was know n as ‘b o o ley in g ’, fro m Irish búaile ‘cattle-en closure’.120 E arlier sources provide less detail, but it is n o n eth eless im plicit in m any texts that cattle w ere com m only su m m ered in the care o f ,16E.J. Gwynn, Metrical Dindshenchas iii 236.16; iv 148.32; 306.27. 117For discussion of the date and provenance of the ‘Canones Wallici', see Fleuriot, ‘Un fragment en Latin de très anciennes lois bretonnes armoricaines du vie siècle’; Dumville, 'On the dating of the early Breton lawcodes’. ■ IP 158 § 61. Le Duc, ‘Notes sur les anciennes lois bretonnes (Canones Wallici)', 106, is doubtful about this passage, in part because he claims that the feeding of seaweed to a rum inant will cause it to vomit. However, the consumption of sea­ weed by cattle is well attested in Ireland and Scotland, e.g. O liFochaidh, Seanchas iascaireachta’, 38; M. Martin, A description of the Western Islands, 139; Fraser Dar­ ling, Saturai Instars in the fl/ghlarids and Islands, 159. For seaweed-eating sheep, see Fenton, The Northern Isles, 466. 11‘'Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 92.18—19, 93.8 § 1059 s.v. prull. 120Lucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 58-67; Aalen, ‘A note on transhumance in the Wicklow m ountains’; Aalen, ‘Transhumance in the Wicklow mountains’.

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Livestock (i): Cattle

voting p eo p le o r professional h o i(Ismen o n hills o r o ilie r u n in h ab ilecl lands awav from tin* la rm . 1 1 O n e law-text states that a hint; is en titled to req uisition drv ta ttle in th e w ilderness (sestsl/tbrnr i ndithrnb) for his arm y w hen it is re tu rn in g (tom a cam paign; how ­ ever, he must su b se q u e n th re sto ie th e ir e q u iv a le n t. 1"" A n o th e r law-text refers to th e g en eral e n title m e n t of ta ttle to g ra /e freeh on m o u n ta in (d iu d ),]~ ' an d legal glosses m ake a re g u lar distinc tion betw een the h o m e farm (sentis or senhmle) an d th e su m m er m ilkingplace (ciirjre).'-1 L iterary sources likewise co n tain m ain lefe re n ce s to the su m m erin g ol cattle on hill past ut e. Foi exam ple, th e m vthological tale Tochmurc Elaine tells of th e p resen ce of 1-indium , the cow herd of Tara, 'in Slíab Fúait in th e m idst of a wildei n ess'.1-’ 1and a hagio g rap h ical an e c d o te d escribes th e visit of Saint Mat-1 Ruain o fT alla g h t to a su m m er m ilking-place (dirge) in a clearing in Shall M airgge (Slievem argie, C.o. L ao is).1-’1' T h e sum m er-pasture m ight be a co n sid erab le distan ce from th e h o m e farm : in a Life o f Saint C óem g en it seem s to be re g a rd e d as perfectly c red ib le th.it a rich fa rm e r from Mide (M eath) sh o u ld b rin g his ta ttle to a vallet n ear G lenn d á L ocha (G len d alo u g h , Go. Wicklow) o n a grazing circuit ( ar cuairt bhuailltechuis) .121*4127 C attle a n d o th e r livestock w ould obviously be e x p o sed to m any d an g ers in th e hills, a n d b o th law-texts a n d saints' Lit es lat special stress on attacks by wolves (p. 18(1). T h e re was also th e risk of falling 121See p. 438 for a discussion of the task of herding livestock. 122 CIH ii 570.1-5 = CG 22.561-5. m CIHi 291.1 =AL iii 296.11. 124E.g. CIH ii 370.12-14, 16 = AL i 132.12-14, 15. For further non-legal ref­ erences to this distinction, see Lucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 65. Compare the Welsh distinction between the winter-dwelling (hendref, lit. 'old habitation') and the summer-house (hafoty, hafdy). 12;>Bergin and Best, ‘Tochmarc i.Udne , 188 § 20. The name Sliab Fúait was applied to the mountainous area o f the Fews, Co. Armagh (Hogan, Onomasticon, s.v. Sliab filait). '-’•'Best, 'Story nl'Mael Ruain'. 34 - 1,1. v 1246.36948. I.mil Mini Huant hrmlmhta je,hlas dm airge .1. lefifian i Shill Mairgge ' Mad Rúain ol fallaght once wen! to his summer milking-place, i.e. a clearing in Slievemargie’; cf. Thes. ii 328.5 äirgech airslébe ‘milk­ maid of a mountainside'. For other instances of hill-grazing, see Best, 'Amairgen son of Ecet Salach’, 34 § 5 = LL ii 436.13603—4; L. Gwynn, ‘De Síl Chonairi Móir', 133.11-12. 127Plummer, Bethada i 157 § iv (8); trans, ii 153. The province o f Mide extended further south than the m odern Cos. Meath and Westmeath, but nonetheless was always a long way from Glendalough: see Smyth, Celtic Leinster, 144-8. Cattle are still driven distances of thirty miles for summer-grazing in Extremadura, Spain.

The diet o f cattle

45

from a clitf (p. 183). d ro w n in g in a q u ak in g bog o r m arsh (p. 182), o r b ein g driven o ff by thieves o r b rig an d s (p. 165). A n o th e r d a n g e r was th e pit-fall (cuithech) excavated to trap deer: o n e legal c o m m en ­ tata- specifies that a tra p p e r m ust give public w arning o f anv trap w hich he h a sse t o n m o u n ta in ( shah i o r u n d iv id ed land (d im n n ).l2H To e n a b le th e cow herd to keep track o f th e cattle as they grazed, som e o r all of th em h a d a bell (dor) a ro u n d th e ir n ecks.1-9 At night, thev w ere co n fin e d in a p e n ( humic), n e a r to which the cow herd slept in a h o u se o r h u t.1 It is clear from o u r texts th at a herd-dog was regu larly in a tte n d a n c e .131 It is likelv th at som e farm ers h a d e n o u g h lan d n e a r th e ir hom es to sustain th e ir cattle th ro u g h o u t th e year, an d w ould th erefo re not n eed to expose th em to th e d an g ers o f grazing o n hills o r o th e r ro u g h la n d in sum m er. Such cattle m ight be g razed on d am p pas­ ture (d ú m n o r calad), i.e. land lay stream s o r lakes w hich w ould be flo o d ed o r w ater-logged in w inter. G razing m ight also be available on a sum m er-drv lake o r tu rlo u g h (turluch).Li- A referen ce in Fled Bricrenn suggests th at th e m ost highlv prized b e e f was th a t o f cattle w hich h a d n ev er su m m e re d o n hill o r m o o rlan d . T h e m e n u in an especiallv lu x u rio u s feast in clu d es a fatten ed cow (bó thúir) which h ad nev er g razed o n h e a th e r o r furze (fráech no foigdech) but only on lush g re e n grass a n d c o rn (luigférglasfeóir y arbar)}m

Winter-grazing W ith th e ap p ro a c h of winter, a m ajor p re o c c u p a tio n in farm s o f all tvpes w ould be th e provision of g razing for cattle. T he law-texts o ften refer to a categ o rv of lan d called ethatn ndignin ‘preserved g rassla n d '. 111 T his ap p e a rs to have consisted o f enclosed fields of 128CIH i 285.11-14 = AL iii 272.5-8. See p. 278 below. 129CHI ii 375.27 = AL i 126.3. 130The cowherd Findlám and his wife are represented as living in a house (tech) in the midst of a wilderness (Bergin and Best, 1Tochmarc Elaine', 188 § 20). lslThe same tale refers to a kennel (cró) in the herdsm an’s house. See also p. 119 below. i32For turloch (tur ‘dry’ + loch ‘lake’) see Quin and Freeman, ‘Some Irish topographical term s’, 154. 133LU 248.8122-4 = Windisch, ‘Das Fest des Bricriu’, 256.28-30 § 9: see discussion by Knott, ‘Bó thúir'. For foigdech, see p. 42 above. 134E.g. CIH i 70.4 = AL iv90.17. This text (Bretha Comaithchesa) makes a distinction between cattle-trespass on etham ndiguin and the less serious offence of trespass on athlumpaire (CIH i 66.36 = AL iv 78.7) or athbnmnad (CIH i 70.4 = AL iv 90.18). The terms athtumpnire and athbrondnd seem to be synonvmous, and may refer to grassland which had been grazed down before the trespass took place.

46

Livestock (i): Cattle

grass, grazed dow n in th e spring, a n d th e n allow ed to grow d u rin g th e sum m er. If m ost o r all o f th e cattle w ere k ep t on hill, m o o rla n d o r w oo d lan d p astu re d u rin g th e sum m er, th e farm co td d have a good store o f fresh grass fo r th e m o n th e ir r e t u r n .13 ’ C attle w ould also be allow ed to graze th e stubble o f th e various cereal-crops after they h ad b e e n harv ested . T h e arch aeo lo g ical an d linguistic evidence in d icates th at co rn was generallv cut fairly high up the stalk (see p. 238). so th e re w ould have b e e n a g o o d deal o f edible m a tte r left fo r cattle an d o th e r livestock o n co rn lan d . It is clear from legal sources th a t th e b ra n c h e s o f two ev erg reen w oody plants, holly (Ilex aquifolium) a n d ivy (Hedera helix), w ere som etim es cu t fo r w inter fodder. A gloss o n th e text o n distrain t refers to ‘a h o o k o r sickle for cu ttin g ivy o r holly ’.136 In a series o f glossed extracts from a lost law-text, th e re is also a re fe re n ce to holly an d ivy as n o u rish m e n t for c a ttle .13' E vidence o f th e feed in g o f holly-branches to cattle is fo u n d in la te r sources. C o u n t J o h n d e Perilhos, a pilgrim to S aint P atrick ’s P u rg a to ry at th e e n d o f the fo u rte e n th century, says th a t ‘th e beasts eat only grass in stead o f oats, a n d th e leaves o f th e holly, w hich thev roast a little on acco u n t o f th e prickles w hich are in th e leaves’.138 In Co. K errv the rela­ tively spine-free u p p e r b ra n c h e s o f h o llv w ere regularly fed to cattle a g en e ra tio n ag o .139

Absence of hay-making In m edieval E u ro p e th e cu ttin g an d d ry in g o f grass to feed cattle d u rin g th e w inter m o n th s was clearly sta n d a rd p ractice in m ost te m p e ra te regions. H ay-m aking was sufficiently’ im p o rta n t for th e e m p e ro r C h arlem ag n e to o rd a in in th e late e ig h th c e n tu rv th a t the n am e o f July be c h a n g e d to Heuvimanoth ‘h av -m o n th -.140 1:15Legal glosses implv that the beginning of November (.Samain) was the usual time for the return of the cattle to the hom e farm (CIH ii 370.16 = AL i 132.15; CIH ii 373.29-30 = AL i 138.34-5). See Plummer, ‘Some passages in the Brehon laws. IV’, 116-17 §42. 136CIH ii 374.12—13; v 1684.30 = AL i 140.8—9 bac no corrän buana edinn no cuilind. 13 CIH ii 657.13 Asa [m]tmar bunn biota in at denn y int eidind ‘from which longliving cattle have been feci(?) i.e. holly and ivy’. Cato. De agti cultura (ed. Hooper and Ash), 54.2, refers to the use of ivy-leaves as a substitute for hav in the diet of cattle. 138Mahaffy, ‘Two early tours in Ireland’, 8. 139Kelly, ‘The Old Irish tree-list’, 110 (1 owe this information to Oliver Mooney of the Forestry and Wildlife Service); Rackham, The history of the countryside, 120. U0L. White, Medieval technology, 562.

The diet o f cattle

47

In Irela n d , o n th e o th e r h a n d , it seem s th a t th e re was hardly any hay-m aking b efo re th e co m in g o f th e N o rm a n s.141 T h e E nglish h isto ria n Bede, w riting in th e e ig h th century, rem arks th a t becau se o f th e m ildness of th e Irish clim ate no o n e cuts hay for w in ter u s e ,11" Sim ilar o b serv atio n s w ere m ade by G iraldus C am brensis in th e tw elfth c e n tu ry .144 N egative evidence from native so urces su p p o rts these statem ents. T h e O ld Irish law-texts, w hich provide ex trao rd in arily d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n on farm ing ro u tin e , c o n ta in n o re fe re n c e to hay-m aking, a n d no term for 'h ay ' has b e e n id en tified in th e lan g u ag e o f this p e rio d .144 T h ere is also n o arch aeo lo g ical evidence from p re-N o rm an Ireland o f th e sta n d a rd im p le m e n ts o f m owing: th e scythe, the hay-rake, the pitch fo rk , a n d th e m o w er’s anvil. In non-legal sources o f early Irish o rig in th e only m e n tio n o f hay w hich I have fo u n d is in the sev en th -cen tu ry P en iten tial o f C u m m ean in Latin, b u t h ere hay (f oenum ) is for use as b e d d in g ra th e r th a n cattle fo d d e r.145' It is clear fro m th e ad o p tio n o f various new types o f grain (p. 222) a n d th e sp read of th e water-m ill (p. 482) th a t th e re was no g en eral resistance to ag ricu ltu ral inno v atio n in Irelan d in th e early C hris­ tian p e rio d . It is p ro b ab le, th e re fo re , th at B ede's e x p lan atio n is co rre c t, a n d th at th e g e n e ra l m ildness o f Irish w inters allowed suffi­ cie n t grow th in th e grass to k eep th e cattle alive.141’ In ad d itio n , the w etness o f th e average Irish su m m er m ust always have discouraged hav-m aking. It is clear from th e annals, however, th at on the rare occasions w hen snow covered th e g ro u n d for any length o f tim e th e Irish system o f w inter-grazing b ro k e dow n. T h e Annals of Ulster reco rd th a t in th e vear 748 th e re was ‘snow o f u n u su al d e p th so th at nearly all th e cattle of th e w hole o f Irelan d p e rish e d ’ .117 This re p o rt mav be ex ag g erated , b u t th ere is n o d o u b t th at it reco rd s a ■41 For post-Norman haymaking, see Lucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 37. 14"Colgrave and Mvnors, Bede's ecclesiastical history of the English people, 18 (hk. 1, ch. 1

).

11'O'M eara, Giraldus: Topography, 33 $ 26 - Dimoc k, Giraldi Topogmphiu, 07.1. I44The later language has no special word for ‘hay’: the ordinary word for 'grass' is used, e.g. ag baint an fliär ‘cutting the hay’. In Gaelic-speaking areas of eastern Scotland, saidhe (a borrowing of English hay) is used. 145IP 112.30. I4eRackham, The history of the countryside, 334—5, notes that the Domesday Book of 1086 records a particularly low proportion of meadow in Devon and Cornwall, and suggests that this can be explained by the extensive pasture and long growing season in the south-west. 147AU2 202 s.a. 747 (recte 748) § 3.

48

Livestock (i): Cattle

large-scale disaster. Sim ilar associations o f snow with th e d e a th of livestock are re c o rd e d in th e an n als o n n u m e ro u s occasio n s.148 T r a in in g a n d u se o f o x e n

Most castrated m ale bovines w ould be slau g h tered in th eir Hrst o r second year. However, a farm er w ould occasionallv select o n e on the basis of its stren g th a n d docility, a n d train it as a d ra u g h t ox, probably startin g in its th ird year.119 T h e ox was th e tra c to r o f the early Irish farm , a n d p u lled th e p lo u g h (arathar) a n d th e heavy farm -cart ( carr). T rain ed oxen w ere highlv prized: in a n in th cen tu ry gloss o n Bechbretha they are classed alo n g with m ilch cows as ‘nob le d ig n itaries o f livestock’.Ir>0 A cco rd in g to T riad 76. the th ree best h a n d s in th e w orld are th e h a n d o f a good carp en ter, the h a n d o f a good sm ith, an d th e h o o f o f a g o o d ox (doni degdaini) .1:>1 Legal c o m m e n ta ry re c o rd s a tra d itio n that Saint Patrick left a special blessing o n o x e n .1'1“ T h e law-texts stress th a t th e h ig h value assigned to th e ox onlv applies if it is p ro p erly train ed . Such an anim al is com m only re fe rred to as a dam riatae ‘tra in e d o x ' o r dam each mama ‘an ox of every y oke’.1’3 An ox w hich will n o t subm it to b ein g yoked to a plough o r cart is obviously o f value only as a so u rce o f m eat and h ide, a n d H e p ta d 37 advises against accep tin g such an ox as a p le d g e .1”4 B ecause o f its crucial rôle o n th e farm , an ox can n o t be d istrain ed for its o w n e r’s o ffences w hile u n d e r the yoke for p lo u g h in g o r fo r tra n s p o rt.155 W hen fully grow n, an ox is co nsiderably larg er th a n a m ilch cow. T his is illu strated by an O ld Irish legal passage on trees, w hich m akes it clear th at ta n n in g an o x h id e (damseiche) req u ires ,48See Lucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 33. 11 ’According to medieval Welsh law, an ox is first put to the plough in its third vrai (Williams and Powell, l.ly/r Blegwryd 89.8-11 - A U IL Dimetian Code. 11 xxvii S; 4). 150CIH iii 924.24 = BB 86 § 52e (B). '''M eyer, hinds, 10Jj76. Meyer reads dont degvnm(i) ‘the hand ot a skilled woman' with the Book of Lecan version. However, all the other versions have dam daim or darn de(a)gdaim. The glossed version in H 1. 15 (Trinity College Dublin MS no. 1289) has dont daimh ,i. im agtreabhadh (he hoof of an ox. i.e. a foot ploughing' 162 CIH ii 707.33-4. 153A trained ox is called a dam airceas at CIH vi 1946.29; cf. CIH ii 391.8 = AL i 184.13-14 (wrong word-division) im damn ttadbel mnhesa 'about oxen which are not trained’. 1MCIII i 35.22 = AL v 250.5. l55C //i iii 897.14-15 = Appendix A, text 2 § 1 (12).

Bulls

49

a g o o d d eal m o re oak-bark th a n ta n n in g a cow hide (bóseirhe) ,15H A ccord in g to th e text o n comingaire ‘joint h e rd in g ’, an ox req u ire s as m u ch grazing as a m ilch cow an d a two-year-old heifer c o m b in e d .1" A difficult passage in the sam e text refers to an ox w hich is pow erful e n o u g h to d e fe n d th e o th e r cattle o f the h e rd against wolves. Such an ox is called a dam conchaid ‘a wolf-fighting o x '.1”' Legal c o m m e n ta ry likewise refers to th e ox as d e fen d in g th e cows. 1’'1 In a p erso n al co m m u n ic a tio n , C edric V aughan o f the N ational Librare o f Wales in fo rm s m e th a t a flock o f sheep is often d e fe n d e d bv castrated m ales (w ethers) ra th e r th a n by rams. A cco rd in g to Crith Gablack, th e h ig h est g ra d e o f bóaire is e x p ecte d to have six oxen, w hich w ould e n ab le him to do all his p lo u g h in g from his own reso u rces.1,10 Lower dow n the social scale, th e boa he ftbsa has two o x e n 11’1 a n d th e ócaire has only o n e o x .11’2 Both w ould th e re fo re b a re norm ally p lo u g h e d in co-operation with o th e r farm ers (see p. 445). T h e te rm dam is som etim es used, particu larly in non-legal sources, o f a castrated m ale reared solely fo r co n su m p tio n : see p. 52 below. B ulls

T h e law-texts give evidence o f w idespread o w nership o f bulls, even bv those o f relatively low rank. T h e a u th o r o f Crith Gablach expects the lowest g ra d e o f ad u lt freem an , th e araire, to keep a bull even th o u g h he has only seven cows.11,1 H e expects th e highest grad e o f betaire to own twenty cows, six o x en an d two bulls. 11,4 T h e re are also refe re n ce s in th e law-texts to th e loan o f hulls from o n e farm er 1567890*34

156 CIH i 202.20; ii 582.7 = AL iv 148.19-20; cf. CIH vi 2184.3-4. 157 CIH i 192.15-16: ii 576.35-6 = AL iv 100.18. 158C /// i 192.18-19; ii 577.6-7 = AL iv lOO.z. The meaning of dam conchaid (‘der Wölfe bekämpfende Ochse’) was first identified by Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht III , 341. 159CIH vi 1978.29 diihne (-dilhnid) na tm ‘it defends the cows’. Liam Breatnach points out to me that this passage derives from Wasserschieben, Die irische Kanonensammlung, 99, bk. 29 ch. 4, where the corresponding Latin text has defendit vaccas. 160 CIH ii 564.5; iii 780.12 = CO 8.194-5. 161This is implicit in the statement ( CIH ii 563.9; iii 779.29 = CG 6.158) that a person of this grade owns half a ploughing outfit (leih n-arathair). if-CIH iii 778.27 •= CO 6.134. 163 CIH iii 778.24 = CG 4.90. 164 CIH ii 564.5; iii 780.12 = CG 8.194.

50

Livestock (i): Cattle

to a n o t h e r - n o d o u b t th e object o f such tran sactio n s w ould often have b e e n th e avoidance o f in -b re e d in g .16:1 Naturally, th e law-texts stress th e necessity for a b u ll’s p resen ce at the tim e w hen th e cows are in heat. In Cáin Domnaig ‘the law o f S un­ day’, brin g in g a bull to a cow (tarb do boin) is classed as work w hich is o f lawful necessity, an d is th e re fo re p e rm itte d o n a S unday.1'* Like­ wise, Di Chetharsluhl Alhgabálae states th at it is illegal for a bull to be d istrain ed w hile a cow is in h e a t.1'1' A cco rd in g to later co m m e n ta ry o n this text, if a bull is seized u n d e r such circum stances, th e ow ner is en title d to c o m p en satio n (aithgein) for th e calf an d m ilk w hich w ould have re su lte d if th e b u ll h a d b e e n p re s e n t.165*168 T h e re is evidence th a t in som e cases a stud-fee is pavable to a bullowner. Cáin Lánam na refers to th e tran sactio n o f sil cethrae do liiaig, w hich may m ean ‘to pay fo r th e seed o f c a ttle '.169170A passage q u o te d in legal co m m e n ta ry suggests th a t th e bull-o w n er’s fee is o n e q u a r­ ter o f th e value o f th e calf.1'0 In o th e r circum stances, however, it seem s th a t n o such p ay m en t is du e. F or ex am p le, a text d escribes an ag reem e n t o f jo in t h e r d in g ’ (comingaire), in w hich cattle b e lo n g ­ ing to two o r m o re farm ers graze to g eth er. T h e a u th o r rem ark s th at the bull in such a h e rd serves n o t only his own cows b u t also those o f th e o th e r farm ers, b u t m akes n o m e n tio n o f anv fee for this service.1' 1 A legal gloss likewise refers to a g e n e ra l p rin c ip le th at a calf belongs to its m o th e r n o t to its father, a n d c o m p ares the case o f a slave w ho im p reg n ates a free w om an b u t acq u ires no rig h ts in resp ect o f his c h ild .172 T h e im p o rta n c e o f b re e d in g fro m a bull o f g o o d stock ( ciné!) is reco g n ise d .1' 1 A ccording to o n e law-text, th e q u alities o f an ani­ m al d e p e n d o n n u rtu re (imchoimét), p astu rag e (scor) a n d h ered ity

165CIH iv 1518.37 = O ’Dav. 428 § 1310; CIH v 1578.33-6. lti6Hull, ‘Gain Domnaig' , 162.15. lf" CIH iv 1458.7 = AL ii 44.6; cf. CIH iii 897.16 = Appendix A, text 2 § 1 (14). lt>sCIH iv 1458.7-9 = AI. ii 44.7-9. In addition, a fine of five sets must be paid for illegal distraint. 169The MS has sit cethra do luad (CIH ii 506.16 = SEIL 19.5-6 § 5). I owe this interpretaion to Donnchadh Ó (lorrain. For other suggestions, see SEIL 23 (5). 170CIH vi 2075.37-8. 171 CIH i 192.17-18; ii 577.5-6 = AL iv 100.x-y. m CIH ii 547.7-9. 1' T h e term cinéI is used in connection with a bull in commentary at CIH vi 2075.38.

Slaughter

51

(úadadbar cineda). T h e acco m p an y in g c o m m e n ta ry states that this applies to stallions, bulls a n d ra m s.171 For in ju ry in flicted by1 bulls, especially at tim es o f bulling, see p. 150. Sl a u g h t e r

T h e life o f m ost bovines is e n d e d by a h u m a n slaughterer, an d o u r sources refer to th e use o f a special sp ear o r an axe for this task (see p. 496). Crfth Gablach states that a k in g ’s m an servant (fergniae) sh o u ld be able to kill an ox w ith o n e blow .175 T h e arch aeo lo g ical evidence shows th a t cattle m ig h t be sla u g h te re d a t any tim e o f year, m ainly b etw een seven an d tw enty-four m o n th s o f a g e .1' 1’ T h e law-texts also provide evidence o f all-year-round slaughter. T h u s th e h ig h est g rad e o f bóaire is ex p ecte d to have a sack o f salt in his h o u se at every season for use w hen cattle are b ein g cut u p .1" In later tim es in Irelan d , it seem s to have b e e n re g u la r to slau g h ter m ale calves at a few days o ld ,178 b u t th e arch aeo lo g ical a n d literary evidence does n o t in dicate th at this was a w id esp read p ractice in th e early C hristian period. O nly I 1/-; p e r cen t o f th e cattle-bones at M ovnagh cra n n ó g , Co. M eath, are from anim als u n d e r th e age o f six m o n th s, w hereas nearly 14 p e r cen t are from b etw een six a n d twelve m o n th s.179 O n e can c o m p are th e well-known passage in th e e ig h th -cen tu ry tale Longes mac n l ’hlenn 'th e exile o f th e sons o f U isliu’ w hich describes how D e ird riu 's fo ste rfa th e r was sk in n in g a calf b efo re cooking it for h e r.180 T h e calf is d escrib ed as a lóegfothlai ‘calf o f w ithdraw al’, i.e. a w eaned calf. T h e calf's b lo o d stain ed th e snow, so the slau g h ter is likely to have taken place in winter. O n e could guess that the a u th o r h a d in m in d th e sla u g h te r in early w inter o f a calf whose m o th e r h a d recen tly sto p p e d m ilking. A p o em a ttrib u te d to C íarán clearly p refers sla u g h te r at a m u ch later stage, an d advises 1' 1CIt! vi 2076.8-10 . . . üadnhhnr rinndha .i. adbar nneicb or rbineslar .i. rullaig 7 lairbh y reithedha. For Had- see Thurneysen, Grammar, 524 § 847. m CIH ii 569.38 = CG 22.556-7. 176McCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland’, 87. m CIH ii 564.1-3; iii 780.8-10 = CG 8.188-191. 1'sExamples from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries are given by I.ucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 224-6. 179McCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland’, 87, table 3.7. 180Hull, Longes mac nUislenn, 45.90-1 § 7.

52

Livestock (i): Cattle

th at a calf sh o u ld n o t be killed until it has re a c h e d th e age o f an o x .1* 1 T h e sla u g h te r of cattle o r o th e r d o m estic anim als is well attested th ro u g h o u t the w orld as p a rt of religious o r fu n eral cerem o n ies, a n d was widely practised a m o n g th e C elts of G a u l.1* 7 T h e re are som e possible referen ces to cran e-slau g h ter (rorrgni riecht) for m agi­ cal p u rp o se s,1*' b u t ritual cattle-slaughter is rarely m en tio n e d . O n e instance is in th e acco u n t of th e fu n eral cerem o n y of a king in the m ythological O ld Irish tale Tochmarc Claire. His fu n eral m o u n d {feet) is dug, lam e n ta tio n (gubae) is raised for him , a n d his cattle are slau g h te re d .1* 1 In Irish m aterial of biblical origin th e re are of course m any referen ces to Jew ish prac tices of an im al-sacrifice.1* ’ For exam ple, legal co m m e n ta ry includes audbart i recht sacrifice accordin g to I Mosaic] law’ as o n e o f th e fo u r uses o f cows. 1w' C a t t l e -p r o d u c t s

Milk T h o u g h sh eep an d goats w ere also m ilked o n earlv Irish farm s, it is clear from th e w ritten sources th a t cows p re s id e d bs far th e largest p ro p o rtio n o f m ilk for h u m a n c o n su m p tio n . Legal com m entaiscom pares th e relative s7alue o f th e m ilk-sield of a fulls-grosvn cosv ( bó mór), a goat an d a sh eep d u rin g th e m ilking-season, i.e. sum ­ m er a n d a u tu m n . T h e milk-vield o f th e coss is svorth 6 scruples (equivalent to 18 p e n c e ), th at o f th e goat is w o rth 1V3 p en ce, and th at o f th e sh eep is w orth only h a lf o r o n e th ird o f a p e n n s .1* 7 For a discussion o f th e im p o rta n c e o f m ilk a n d m ilk-products in the early Irish d iet, see p. 323.

1*1Ù Riain, Corpus genealogiarum sanctorum Hthermae, 1St' 1 at horta lacgría n-nes daim. 18~M énicl, Les .sacrifices d'animaux chez les (imitais. M éniel. Chasse et élevage, 101-41.

183See p. 128. 1M4Berlin and Best, ' Tochmarc Elaine', 1t»ti 4? 4 - U ’ .820.107:18-9: cl'. Best Adventures of Art’, 160 § 13. See also the discussion on the name Bóguine on p. 158 below. ls5See DIL s.v. idbart. vi 1978.25-7 am hudhairl a recht, l iant Breatnach points out to m e that this passage derives front W asserschieben, Die tnsche Kanonensammlung, 99, bk. 29 ch. 4. 187CIH i 306.28-9, 307.3-11; ii 716.6-10.

Cattle-products

53

Beef Seventy-five p e r cen t o f th e cattle-hones fo u n d at M oynagh crannóg, Co. M eath, are from anim als u n d e r th re e years o f a g e .ISS It can he assum ed that m ost o f th e re m a in in g twentv-five p er cen t com e Iront cows w hich w ere slau g h tered because o f infertility, d an g er­ ous te m p e ra m e n t, serious injury, o r old age. If possible, such cows w ould be fa tte n e d u p b efo re slaughter: legal co m m en tary refers to a fat cow (bo mct/i)."-' w hich is e q u a te d with a cow for slau g h ter (bó marta) . 19" O x en w hich w ere too old o r otherw ise un su itab le for w ork w ould also be slau g h tered to provide b e e f an d hides. Bull-flesh is very red a n d strong-flavoured, a n d generally fo u n d distasteful bv th e h u m a n palate. T h e w isdom -text Tecosca Connate reg ard s it as actually h arm fu l, an d in clu d es it a m o n g the things w hich are w orst fo r th e body.18190191192

Marrow T h e m a n n e r in w hich m ost cattle-bones o n early C hristan sites have b e e n b ro k e n shows th a t th e m arrow (smir) was ex tracted for c o n s u m p tio n .19' T h e sagas o f th e U lster cycle also refer to a m arrow -m ash (smirchomairt o r smirammair), ap p arently used as a p o u ltice o r b ath to cu re th e w ounds o f w arrio rs.195 It is u n certain w h e th e r this m arrow -m ash is a literary invention, o r was actually u sed as a fo rm o f m edical tre a tm e n t.

Blood Lucas devotes a c h a p te r o f his Cattle in ancient Ireland to the custom o f draw ing blo o d from living c a ttle .191 T his practice is extensively d o c u m e n te d from Ire la n d o f th e sixteenth to n in e te e n th ce n tu rie s, a n d was m ainly fo r th e p u rp o se o f su p p le m e n tin g p e o p le 's d iet d u rin g tim es o f scarcity. H e also provides evidence o f a b elief that th e b le e d in g o f cattle - like that o f h u m a n s - h ad a beneficial effect o n th e ir health . In som e areas, 188McCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland’, 87, table 3.7. He notes that there is a similar distribution at other sites o f this period. 189 C1H i 229.37 = AL v 444.29. 190CÍH i 229.28 = AL v 444.18. 191 Merer. Lemsca (.urnmic, 3b $ 21. Foi I he i itual consumption of bull-flesh, sec p. 28 above. 192Hencken, ‘Ballinderry crannóg no. T, 231-2. ,93E.g. TBC Rec. I 100.3299-3300; TBC LL 105.3780-5; cf. Meid, Táin Bó Fraich, 9.225-7. '" f u r a s , Cattle in andent Ireland, 200-22.

54

Livestock (i): Cattle

the b leed in g o f cattle clearly had a ritual significance a n d th e b lood was n o t co n su m ed . T his practice was trad itionally carried o u t on Mayday {Lá Bea 11ernte) , a n d was evidently felt to provide m agical p ro te c tio n fo r th e cattle. T h e re are a few literary referen ces to th e b le e d in g o f cattle for food in earlier Irish sources. F or exam p le, a fra g m en tarv Eaiiv M odern Irish recen sio n o f la in Bó Cúailnge refers to th e provi­ sion o f g o re an d b lo o d (crû 7 fa il) to th e m en of Irelan d by th e cattle o f C onaille M u irth e m n e .19 ’ A n o th e r text descr ibes how the M u n sterm en drew b lo o d from th e ir c a ttle .1%

Hides It is clear from th e w ritten sources that th e h id e (gemen o r seiche) o f a bovine served m any pu rp o ses. * It was used as a surface on w hich food co u ld be p la c e d ,lys a bed-co v erin g , 1'19 a covet ing for th e inside o f a ch ario t (Jorgemen) ,2rai a n d a surface on w hich ears o f co rn could be flailed .-’01 T h e skins o f voting o r fetal calv es w ere particularly valued as a source o f vellum for m anuscripts.-"- Oakbark (see p. 382) su p p lied th e ta n n in used to m ake le a th e r ( lethar) from bovine hides. T h e le a th e r item s m ost freq u en tlv m e n tio n e d in o u r sources are sh o es,-"1 b u t th e re are also re fe ren ces to le a th e r belts,204 bags,205 h alters,20" dog-m uzzles,207 etc. O n acco u n t o f its size an d thickness, th e bovine h id e is m o re suited th an th a t o f o th e r livestock for covering boats o f w ood o r ,95Thurneysen, ‘Táin Bó Cúailghni nach H.2.17’, 544. For a full discussion of the literary references, see C. O'Rahilly, ‘The bleeding of living cattle'. 196Sjoestedt, 'Forbuis Drama Damhghaire' , 52 § 53. i97It is included in a list of domestic utensils in CIH ii 472.4 = AL v 406.17. For the uses of sheepskin and goatskin, see p. 72 and p. 79 respectively. ,98E.g. Jackson, Aislinge, 19.583 = Meyer, Aislinge, 47.11. l99E.g. CIH ii 567.23 = CG 16.403. 2ü0E.g. TBC Rec. 1 22.718. 291 E.g. CIH i 283.23 = AL iii 264.14. 202Bischoff, Latin palaeography, 9; K. Ryan, ‘Holes and flaws’, 245. 2H:,E.g. CIH i 202.20; ii 582.7: vi 2184.3-4 - AI. iv 148.19-20: Jackson. Aislinge. 4.1012 = Meyer, Aislinge 9.21-2 Ai chuarán . . . do dondlelhar ‘two shoes . . . o f brown leather’. The word cúarán lit. ‘curved one’ can be applied to shoes o f both tanned or untanned cowhide. It was borrowed into Welsh in the form cuaran (see GPC s.v. curan, marair, GMW’l. 82 s.v. kuariw). For a summarv of the archaeological evidence, see Edwards, The archaeology of early medieval Ireland, 79-80. 204E.g. Jackson, Aislinge 34.1067 = Meyer, Aislinge, 89.9. 205E.g. Meyer, ‘Zwiegespräch zwischen Gúaire und Marbán’, 455 § 6. 206CIH iii 972.7 coirtegh adastair ‘tanning a halter’. 207CIH i\ 1389.13.

Cattle-products

55

w attle. T h e te n th -c e n tu ry Navigatio Sau d i BrenAani describes the m a n u fa c tu re by S aint B re n d a n a n d his m o n k s o f a lig h t w ooden boat. T h ey covered it w ith bovine h id es (coriis bouinis) w hich h ad b e e n ta n n e d in oak-bark, a n d sm e a re d all the jo in ts o f the hides on the o u tsid e w ith b u tte r (ex butyro).-0* O th e r texts provide evidence o f th e use o f hide-covered boats o f various sizes. T h us th e re are ref­ e re n c e s to a b o a t m a d e w ith a single h id e (curach óenseichi) ,2 08209 an d to a la rg e r b o a t w ith th re e h id es ( náu trechodlide) ,210 W riting in th e late tw elfth century, G iraldus C am brensis refers to th e e x p o rt o f th e h id es o f wild an d d o m estic anim als from Ire la n d .-11 Legal c o m m e n ta ry from a b o u t th e sam e p erio d discusses salvage rig h ts re la tin g to furs, hides, a n d o th e r carg o es.212

Tallow T h e bovine carcase yields larg e q u an tities o f tallow. T h e m ain use o f this substance in th e early Irish econom y was evidently in the p ro d u c d o n o f candles. A cco rd in g to Crith Gablach, a can d e la b ru m is o n e o f th e n o rm a l fittings in th e h o u se o f a p ro sp ero u s farm er, a n d it sh o u ld always have a fresh c an d le in it (caindelfor caindelbrai cen meth) ,213 T h e law-text o n base clien tsh ip , Cáin Aicillne, d escribes the cor­ re c t d im e n sio n s a n d m a n u fa c tu re o f th e th re e h an d fu ls o f candles w hich a c lie n t m u st give to his lo rd as p a rt o f his an n u al r e n t.214215 Each can d le is m a d e by d ip p in g a strip p e d ru sh (sim in) in the tal­ low (geir) a n d g rease (úsca) o f a sla u g h te re d b e a st.213 T h e le n g th o f the c a n d le m u st be 8 fists (i.e. 2'A fe e t), an d th e ru sh fro m w hich it is m ad e m u st be the thickness o f o n e g rain a t its base. A grain (gráinne) is n o rm a lly o n e th ird o f an in c h (ordlach). For litu rg ical p u rp o ses, candles m ad e o f beeswax w ere used: see p. 114. 208Selmer, Navigatio Sancti Brendani, 10—11 ch. 4. 209Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 21 § 229 on nm öenseichcd; Mulchrone, Belhu Phátraic, 132.2633 hi curuch öensdchi. 210Van Hamel, Immrama, 28.94 = Stokes, 'The voyage of Máel Diiin, ( 1) ’, 458.Z dogni . . . nói Irechodlidi; Van Hamel, Immrama, 100.168 = Stokes, ‘The voyage of the Htii C orra’, 38 § 33 curach trechodlaide. 21 •O ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 35 § 2 = Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, 28.18-19. 212 CIHvi 2155.20. 213 CIH ii 563.24-5; iii 780.3-4 = CG 7.181; cf. CIH ii 376.10 = AL i 126.5. 214C /// ii 483.16-19 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht T, 355 § 13. 215See DIL s.v. ilhamae; Russell, ‘The sounds o f a silence’, 18.

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Bones and horns T h e law-text Bretha Nemed Toiurh c o n tain s a re fe re n ce - probably h u m o ro u s o r sarcastic - to th e c o m b m a k e r’s ability to ch an t a spell over a d u n g h ill so that all the an tlers a n d b o n es a n d h o rn s com e to the to p .-"' T his passage m akes it clear that these w ere th e m ain raw m aterials used by th e c o in b m ak er (drm aire) .J1 ' T h e a rc h a e o ­ logical finds in earlv C hristian sites in Ire la n d co m m only in clu d e b o n e com bs, as well as b o n e pins, n eedles, spindle-w horls. etc.Jls D ecorated bovine b o n es have also b e e n f o u n d / 1" As we have seen above (p. 30) th e an cestral wild ox ( Bos primigenius) h a d long h o rn s. However, d u rin g the process o f do m esticatio n a s h o rt-h o rn e d tvpe evolved in E u ro p e an d w estern Asia. T his type is called Bos longijrons (o r Bos brnchyrnm) r 1" a n d because o f its p a rtic u la r association with Celtic sites on the C o n tin e n t as well in Britain an d Irelan d , it is so m etim es describ ed as th e ‘Celtic S h o r th o r n ’.-“1 O n acco u n t of the generally small size o f th e h o rn s o f earlv Irish cattle, th e re was evidently a trad e in im p o rte d wild ox h o rn s from th e C o n tin e n t.’-J A gloss on a legal h e p ta d refers to fo reig n valuables, in c lu d in g ox h o rn s {m in i búabaill) r 1, T h e Welsh law-texts likewise re fe r to th e use o f ox h o rn s to provide d rin king-goblets for kin g s.--1 A ccording to Ju liu s Caesar, th e large h o rn s o f th e wild ox (unis) w ere m uch sought after by the G erm an i, who tra p p e d these anim als in pits in the

2KCIII vi 2220.5-7 = Meyer, Triads, 16 § 117. For a general discussion, see DunLevv, ‘Early Irish combs’. 217An Iron Age weaver’s comb of horn is illustrated at Raftery, La Tène in Ireland, 237. 218E.g. Hencken, ‘Ballinderry crannóg no. 1’. 163-5; Hencken, ‘Lagore crannóg’, 184—97; cl. Mytum, The origins of early Christian Ireland, 242-5. 219IIencken, ‘Lagore crannóg’, 181-3. -201he designation Bos longi/rims refers to the long frontal hone ol this tvpe. It is also called Bos brachyceros short-horned ox’. See Clutton-Brock, Domesticated mammals, 65. 221E.g. Cunliffe, Iran Age communities in Britain, 379; Ryder, ‘Livestock’, 383. 222It is im portant to distinguish the extinct wild ox (Bos primigenius, German Aurochs) from the still surviving European bison (Bison bonasus, German Wisent). The horns of the latter are considerably smaller. 223CIH i 26.39 = AL V220.23; CIH iv 1507.34 = O ’Dav. 380 § 1051. Emanuel, The Latin texts of the Welsh laws, 127.31—4. For a detailed discussion, see Mac Cana, Tr. buaball, W. bual “drinking h o rn ”’.

Cattle prices and values

57

H ercyn ian w ood. The h o rn s wore e d g ed with silver, an d used as d rin k in g cups a t th e ir b a n q u e ts.225

Dung Legal c o m m e n ta to rs stress th e value o f th e d u n g o f cattle as a fertilizer: see p. 229. I have fo u n d no earlv referen ces to the use o f d u n g as b u ild in g m aterial o r fu e l.226 C attle prices and values N o e c o n o m ic system can g u a ra n te e absolute stability in cattle-prices. A series o f harsh w inters o r an o u tb reak o f bovine disease o r o f w ar m ar cause th e d e a th o f large n u m b e rs o f cattle w ith a c o n s e q u e n t increase in th e p rice w hich can be asked by sellers of th e surviving cattle. T h e loss o f th e cereal harvest may likewise inflate th e p rice o f cattle because o f p e o p le ’s increased d e p e n d e n c e o n m ilk-products a n d m eat. Converselv. excessive n u m b e rs o f cattle mav d ep ress prices. T his could h a p p e n if th e h u m a n p o p u la tio n w ere severely d ep leted by plague, o r if a series o f g o o d harvests caused an a b u n d a n c e o f grain. Success in cattle-raid in g m ight have th e sam e effect. T h e Annals of Connacht re c o rd that in th e re a r 1536 O D om lm aill am assed so m ain cattle in his cam paign against O C o n c h o b h a ir an d O D u bhda th at o n e o r even two bullocks for slau g h ter could be b o u g h t for a single g ro a t (bonn) in his c a m p .227289 In spite o f such inevitable flu ctu atio n , th e a u th o rs o f the law-texts work on th e assu m p tio n that cattle have a co n stan t value. To do o th ­ erw ise w ould obviouslv entail practical difficulties for judges, as the fixed pav m en ts for m ain services an d of fences are given in term s o f cattle. If each such par m e n t h ad to be adjusted in line with c u rren t m arket r allies, th e w hole svstem w ould b eco m e chaotic. T h e re is, however, som e flexibility in th e system in that certain paym ents can be m ad e in e ith e r cattle o r silver,22* o r in a c o m b in atio n of these • 99Q two curren cies. 225Caesar, The, Gallic war (ed. Edwards), 6.28; cf. Isidore, Etymologiarum (ed. Lindsay), 12.1.34. 226In later Irish cow-dung dried for fuel is called bóithreán: see Dinneen, Foclóir s.v.; R. B. Breatnach, Seana-chainl na nDéise II, 52; O Cuív, Cnósach, 42. 227AC 694 s.a. 1536 § 18. 228E.g. CIH vi 2307.10-11 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Déin Chécht', 26 § 7. 229E.g. CIH vi 2312.33 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Dan Chécht', 40 § 30. See p. 588 below for payment consisting of one third cattle, one third horses, and one third silver.

Livestock (i): Cattle

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T h e cu rren cy system d escrib ed in th e law-texts deals m ainly in cows a n d young cattle, th o u g h th e re are occasional referen ces to fines payable in o x e n .2,0 T h e basic u n it of value is the m ilch cow, for w hich th e O ld Irish term s are laulgarh o r ho mlicht (often simply bó). T h e m ilch cow is tak en to be equ iv alen t in value to o n e o u n c e ( ungae) o f silver. By m o d e rn stan d ard s, this seem s a very low value to assign to a cow. However, th e equivalence o f an o u n c e o f silver to a m ilch cow is clearly stated in b o th th e O ld Irish law-texts a n d in later legal co m m entary. F or exam ple, th e e ig h th -cen tu rv law-text Bretha im Fuillemu Cell refers to th e p u rch ase of a cow for an o u n ce [of silver].231 A sim ilar e q u a tio n is attested in a non-legal source. An o u n c e [o f silver] is given as equivalent to o n e an d a th ird o f the value o f a m ilch cow in an e n try for th e year 1106 in th e Annals of Ulster,232 T h e relatio n sh ip o f th e m ilch cow to o th e r form s o f cu rren cv is fairly consistent in th e law-texts. T h e largest u n it o f value in the system is th e cunial, a term w hich basicallv m eans 'fem ale slave' (see p. 591) an d is often equivalent to th re e m ilch cows. A n o th e r vers co m m o n u n it o f cu rren cy is th e set, originallv a sta n d ard object o f value. It is generally fixed at h a lf th e value o f a m ilch cow. In th e re m a in d e r o f this section I discuss th e value o f m ale an d fem ale cattle at various stages o f th e ir lives. T h e m ain source is a section o f co m m e n ta ry o n an im al values, w hich is clearlv based on a lost O ld Irish law-text.2” T h e d e g re e o f d etail in this c o m m e n ­ tary (an d in o th e r sources) testifies to th e crucial im p o rta n c e o f cattle in th e early Irish eco n o m ic svstem. T h e u n it o f value used in this co m m e n ta ry is th e scru p le (screpul) o f silver, w hich is o n e tw enty-fourth o f an o u n c e o f silver. It is im p o rta n t to distinguish b etw een th e th e value (log) o f a bovine o r o th e r dom estic an im al a n d its dire, i.e. the fine paid for illegally killing it. T h e la tte r is norm ally a b o u t fifteen o r twentv tim es greater, see p. 76 (sh eep ) a n d p. 87 (pigs).

Young calf

(lóeg)

It is clear th at a m ilch cow is norm ally a c c o m p a n ied by h e r calf w hen she is given in a p ay m en t o r o th e r tran sactio n . F or ex am ple, an illegal injury to a p e rs o n ’s shin entails a fine o f th re e sets, w hich 230E.g. CIH iv 1263.16-17. 231 C/H ii 467.11-12 = AI. V 392.1-2. 232A t/2 544 s.a. 1106 § 4. The figure given at GEIL 116112 should be corrected. 233 CIH iii 845.22-846.14 = Appendix A, text 3.

Cattle prices and values

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in clu d es a m ilch cow w ith a calf (laulgach co lóeg) ,2! 1 Similarly, a passage o n clien tsh ip states th at th e best fief w hich a lo rd can give his clien t is a m ilch cow w ith h e r calf.2,5 T h e value o f the calf in such circu m stan ces is clearlv in c lu d e d in th at o f th e m ilch cow. However, in cases such as th e theft o r illegal killing o f a calf b e lo n g in g to som ebody else, it is obviously necessary in law for a sep arate value to be assigned to a calf. A ccording to th e legal c o m m e n ta ry o n anim al-values, a calf o f e ith e r sex has a value o f 2 scruples from th e tim e o f its b irth in th e sprin g (errach) u n til the follow ing N o v em b er (Sam ain). T h e m ain O ld Irish text o n base clientship, Cain Aicillne, distin­ guishes fo u r categ o ries o f castrated m ale bovines w hich may be in c lu d e d in th e fo o d -ren t w hich a clien t gives to his lo rd .23425236 T he sm allest is a m ale calf w orth a bush el o f g rain (aglóige méich) ,237 T h e calf is only accep tab le if it has a m in im u m g irth o f eig h t fists (p ro b ­ able 32 in c h e s ). a n d is sufficiently p lu m p th a t its h a u n c h e s cover its kidnevs, ex cep t for th e space o f th re e fin g ers.238 It is ex p ected to have grazed on grass with th e m ilch cows, a n d its castration w ound m ust have h e a le d (slrín ó chull). It m ust n o t have d ied o f sickness o r disease, b u t have b een slau g h tered by its owner. It is suitable for co o k in g in su m m er.239

Older calf (g a m a in ) A cco rd in g to th e c o m m e n ta ry o n anim al-values, a fem ale calf is w orth 3 scru p les from its first N ovem ber i.e. after w eaning, until th e follow ing May (Beltaine) w hen it is appro x im ately o n e year old. T h e value o f a m ale calf, however, rem ain s at 2 scruples. T his is in line with th e g e n e ra l p rin cip le th a t a m ale bovine has only two th ird s th e value o f a fem ale from th e tim e o f its w eaning until its m atu rity (forbart) i.e. u n til it is fully tra in e d as an o x .240 234 CIH vi 2315.38-9 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Déin Chécht', 46 § 36. 235 CIH iii 920.6. 236For a discussion of the relationship between lord and client, see p. 448. 23' CIH ii 480.21-3; v 1782.39 - Thurneysen, 'Aus deni irischen Recht I’, 347 S 8. In the law-texts, the bushel of grain seems to have been worth between 1 and 2 scruples; see Appendix B, p. 588. 2:«xhe 32-inch girth is a little smaller than that of modern I lereford or Aberdeen Angus calves of three months (K. Ryan, 'Holes and flaws', 252). For a discussion of the dorn ‘fist’ as a measure, see Appendix B, p. 564. 239CIH ii 483.28 = Thurneysen, 'Aus dem irischen Recht F, 355 S 13 «g litige mridi forfulucht a samrad. 240 CIH iii 846.9-10 = Appendix A, text 3 § 11.

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Livestock (i): Cattle

T h e term g/tmam is not used in this co m m en tary . However, a dis­ tinction betw een a voting calf (loeg) a n d an o ld e r calf (gamain) is w ell-attested in the law -texts.-11 T h o u g h th e re is som e local varia­ tion, this distinction is generally m a in ta in e d in M o d ern Irish and Scottish G aelic. For exam ple, in th e G aelic of S outh L ist a laogh becom es a gamhain at th e b e g in n in g of N o vem ber (.Sa i r t h a m ) A cow w hose call is allow ed to stav with h e r bey o n d th e n o rm a l tim e o f w eaning is d escrib ed as a gam nark 's trip p e r', a term w hich m eans literally ‘o n e acco m p a n ied by a gamain (see p. 40 above). In Cain Airillne, th e second sm allest categ o ry of m ale bovine is given as an aglóigedá miach ‘m ale calf w orth two b ushels of g rain H It m ust have a m in im u m g irth o f te n fists (probably 40 in c h e st, an d have grazed with m ilch cows since th e b e g in n in g of th e sum m er. I suggest th a t this is a calf at th e gamain stage.

Yearling bullock (d a r ta id )2 A ccording to th e c o m m e n ta is o n anim al-values, a m ale bovine attains the value o f 2% scruples in Mav. T his goes up to 4 scruples in Novem ber, w hen it is aged l'/j sears. T his co m m en tai s d o es not give a n am e to th e m ale bovine at this stage, b u t it is likels th at the term dartaid covers th e p e rio d o f a castrated m ale's life betw een its first a n d seco n d birthdays. T h e dartaid is th e sm allest unit used in fines o r paym ents svhicli are expressed in te rm s o f cattle. For exam ple, a p erso n svlio pulls a h a n d fu l o f th a tc h from a n o th e r's ro o f m ust pay him a dartaid.21' In a gloss o n Cain Airillne th e dartaid is e q u ate d w ith th e aglóige tri miach ‘bullock w o rth th re e b u s h e ls '.'11’ T his bullock m ust have a m in im u m g irth o f twelve fists (pro b ab le 48 in ch es), an d have g razed with m ilch cows from the b eg in n in g o f su m m er u n til shown to th e lord (b efore slau g h ter) in th e w in te r.'*'241*6 241E.g. CIH iii 893.29-30 = Appendix A, text 4 § 1 (5). 242McDonald, Gaelic wards and expressions, 85 s.v. crodh. 243CIH ii 482.1-4; v 1784.11 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht l ’, 351 § 9. 2 " ln general, the textual evidence indii ates that the dm hud is male. For example, the ‘ox-ogham’ (damogam) in Auiaiiepl mi aides arranges male bovines in the order (1) tarb, (2) dam, (3) colpthach firenn, (4) dartaid (Calder, Auraicept, 294.5750-8). The Yellow Book of Lecan version of Cmrnac’s Glossary refers to a dartaid boinenn ‘female dartaid' (Merer, Sanas Commit. 19 $ 209). but this is probable a scribal erroi for dairt. One can compare the same gloss at CIH iii 922.21 which has dairt baininn ‘female dairt'. For a discussion of the etymology of dartaid, see below. 245CIH ii 564.19; iii 780.25 = CG 8.214. 246 CIH ii 485.14 = AL ii 258.17. 247CIH ii 482.21-4 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht I’, 353 § 10.

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A difficulty with th e id en tificatio n o f dm laid as a yearling bullock is th e fact th a t legal glossators an d c o m m e n ta to rs often take it to have a value of only 2 scruples - th e sam e as a new -born c a ll.'1*

Yearling heifer

( d a ir t ) 249

T h e c o m m e n ta ry on anim al-values assigns a value o f 4 scruples to th e h e ife r from May, w hen she is appro x im ately o n e year old. This goes tip to 6 scru p les in N ovem ber. It is likelv that th e term dairt - very c o m m o n as a u n it o f value in th e law-texts - generally refers to a h e ife r o f b etw een o n e a n d two years.250 As in th e case of dartaid dicussed above, th ere are difficulties with this id en tificatio n . From a re fe re n ce in th e law-text Bretha Dein Chéchl it w ould seem that th e a u th o r took th e dairt to be w orth one th ird o f a m ilch cow, i.e. 8 scru p les.-'’1 O n th e o th e r h an d , later glossators a n d c o m m e n ta to rs usually take the dairt to be w orth only 4 scru p le s.252

248E.g. CIH i 203.21 = AL iv 150.22; CIH i 203.30-1 = AL iv 152.12. Scholars have had great difficulty in deciding whether the dartaid and dairt should be regarded as calves in their first year, or as yearlings. For example, in the glossary to CG, Binchy took dartaid to be a male calf in its first year, dairt to be a female calf in its first year, and colpthach ( colpclach) to be a yearling calf. In his edition of Bretha Déin Chécht, on the other hand, he took dartaid and dairt to be male and female yearlings respectively, and colpthach to be a two-year-old heifer (Binchy, 'Bretha Déin Chécht’, 19). The evidence of Modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic is not helpful, as the words dar­ taid and dairt seem to have become confused. For example, in his Foclóir Dinneen translates dairt as ‘heifer, young cow, young bullock’. In his Faclair, Dwelly translates both dairt and dartaidh as ‘heifer’. In both dictionaries, dartán (dartach) is explained as a two-year-old bull. So far as I have been able to find, neither dartaidh nor dairt is recorded from speech in any Irish or Scottish Gaelic dialect-survey. 249The etymology of dairt is also a problem. It looks like a passive formation from the root dar- ‘bulls’ (VGK ii 504 § 701), but a yearling heifer is obviously too young to be bulled. Similarly, dartaid seems to contain the agent suffix -id, so one might expect it to mean ‘one which bulls’. However, the male yearling is too young for bulling, and is generally castrated. The explanation may be that these terms were originally applied to older bovines, but were at some stage transferred to yearlings. Dartaid is attested as both a male and a female personal name, e.g. Knott, Togail Bruidne Da Derga, 22.729; 45.1495; OIL s.v. Dartaid. -’’"Commentary at CIH vi 2105.29-34 refers to a call (hirg) becoming a daiil at the end of the same year (i cinn na bliadna-sin badèn), i.e. when it is one year old. - 11CIH vi 2309.27—9 - Binchy. ‘Bretha Dé/n Chécht', 32 10. file glossator is cleatlv surprised bv this figure, and suggests that dairt here stands for a colpthach worth eight scruples. 252E.g. CIH i 68.2 = AL iv 82.22; CIH ii 463.32 = AL v 380.19. At CIH v 1778.29 = AL ii 220.19-20 it has a value of only 3 scruples.

62

Two-year-old bullock

Livestock (i): Cattle ( colpthach firen n )

A ccording to th e c o m m e n ta ry o n anim al-values, th e value o f a m ale bovine goes u p to 5 ‘/3 scruples in May, w hen it is a p p ro x im a te d two years old. It retain s this value until th e follow ing May. I w ould identify this stage with th e colpthach firenn 'm a le colpthach' o f the O ld Irish law-texts. T h e a u th o r o f Cáin Aicillne explicitly eq u ates th e colpthach firenn with th e bullock w orth fo u r b ushels ( ag lóige .iiii. mfach) w hich is slau g h tered as p a rt o f a c lie n t’s ren t to his lo rd ."33 Its g irth m ust be 14 fists (probably 56 inches) a n d it m ust have recovered from its castration w hile a dartaid ,2 53254* Its h a u n c h e s m ust cover its kidneys, a n d it m ust n o t have d ie d o f disease. It m ust have g razed with m ilch cows u n til show n to th e lord.

Two-year-old heifer ( colpth ach ) T h e co m m e n ta ry on anim al-values gives 8 scru p les as th e value o f a heifer from May, w hen she is a p p ro x im a te d two vears old, u n til th e follow ing May. I suggest th at this is th e colpthach, reg u ­ larly given in th e law-texts as a u n it o f value b etw een th e dairt and th e samaisc. In th e glosses th e colpthach is g enerally taken to be w orth 8 scruples i.e. o n e th ird o f a m ilch cow.256 T h e glossators also refer occasionally to a colpthach (later spelling colpach) w orth 6 scruples.25. T his is presum ably to be iden tified with th e colpthach firenn ‘m ale colpthach' discussed above. In th e O ld Irish law-texts th e u n q u a lifie d te rm colpthach seem s alwavs to refer to a two-year-old heifer. In M o d e rn Irish dialects, colpach ( colpa, colan) generally refers to a year-old heifer, b u t is also well attested o f a two-year-old.238

253 CIH ii 482.34-6 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht F, 354 § 11. 2mCIH ii 482.35 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht F, 354 $ 11 donna statt ina dartadas ‘it has come safely through [its castration] while a dartaid'. "’5E.g. CIH vi 2308.32-3 - Binchy, 'Bretha Déin Chécht', 30 Sj 13: cf. CIH vi 2104.33. 265E.g. CIH i 70.28 = AL iv 92.14-15; O H ii 470.18 = Ai, v 402.16; CIH v 1778.19 = AL ii 220.5. 2r,7E.g. CIH I 203.11 - AL iv 148.9; CIH v 1778.29 = AI. ii 220.20. -»«Wagner, Linguistic Atlas ii-iii, questionnaire nos. 19-20. e.g. points 7, 12, 17, 22, 29, 37, 51; O Cuiv, Cnasarh, 195 s.v. samhaisg. The Scots form colpindach, colpnoch, etc. was applied to ‘ane young beast o r kow, of the age o f an o r twa yeires (Skene)’ (Craigie et al., A dictionary of the older Scottish tongue s.v. colpindach).

Cattle prices and values

63

Three-year-old male bovine T h e c o m m e n ta ry on anim al-values does n o t specify a nam e o r value for th e three-year-old m ale, presum ably because the m ajority o f m ales w ould already have b e e n slau g h tered at this stage. T hose still alive w ould m ostly be stro n g castrated m ales suitable for tra in in g as o x en , as well as an occasional young bull (tairlnne) for b re e d in g pu rp o ses. A n o th e r section o f this c o m m e n ta ry states th a t castrated m ales c o n tin u e to have tw o-thirds th e value o f a fem ale o f th e sam e age u n til thee have re a c h e d full d ev elo p m en t (ro kind a fo r bar la) ,259260

Three-year-old dry heifer (sa m a isc) A cco rd in g to th e c o m m e n ta ry on anim al-values, a h eifer at the age o f th re e beco m es a samaisc, a te rm w hich m eans ‘sum m er-dry’ (satn -i- sesc). She has n o t yet b een b ro u g h t to th e bull, an d is rated as having a value o f 12 scru p les.2WI T his agrees with h e r n o rm al value in th e law-texts. For exam ple, in an O ld Irish passage o n th eft a samaisc is e q u a te d with h a lf an o u n c e [o f silver], i.e. h a lf the value o f a fully grow n m ilch cow (24 sc ru p le s) .261 A sim ilar eq u atio n is fo u n d in th e Annals n f Ulster for th e year 1106, w here the ag ndára (b u llin g h e ife r) is given h a lf th e value o f a m ilch cow.262 From non-legal sources it is clear that th e term samaisc may be used o f an o ld e r h eifer w hich w ould be e x p ected to have com e into calf b u t has n o t vet d o n e so. T his usage is illustrated in a passage in the saga Longes mac nUislenn.IU’' T his saga describes the tragic ca re e r o f th e b eau tifu l D eird riu , w ho was re a re d in secret to be the wife o f th e old king C o n ch o b ar. O n e day, however, she was attracted bv the song o f th e young w arrio r N oisiu m ac U islenn, a n d slipped o u t to see him . To c o m p lim e n t her, h e re m a rk e d ‘fair is the heifer (samaisc) w hich goes past u s’. A d o p tin g his m etap h o r, she replied: dlegtair samaisci morn bale na bit tairb ‘heifers are b o u n d to be big w here th e re are n o bulls'. H e th e n p o in te d o u t th at she h ad the bull o f th e w hole p rovince (i.e. king C o n c h o b a r), b u t she plead ed 259 CIH iii 846.9-11 = Appendix A, text 3 § 11. 260 CIH iii 845.30-1 = Appendix A, text 3 § 4 Samaisc ö sin co rodairter y da strepui .x. uirre. 261 CIH vi 1975.4. Cf. CIH ii 512.11 = AL ii 380.8 agh lethlöige bö ‘a heifer half the value of a cow'. 262A t/2 544 s.a. 1106 §4. 26:'H uI1, Langes mac ntislenn. 46.109-24 9: Tymor/ko, Animal imagery in Lninges Mac nUislenn', 149-51.

Livestock (i): Cattle

64

lhat she w ould p re fe r a young bull ( Umhin) like N oisiu. a n d obliged him to elope with her. As a result b o th m et violent a n d untim ely deaths. T h e use m ade o f th e term samaisr bv th e a u th o r of this tale is sig­ nificant, as it im plies th at a h eifer can still be d escrib ed as a samatu even if she is old e n o u g h to have h ad a calf. In D e ird riu ’s m e ta p h o r the inf ertility o f th e samaisr is simply d u e to th e fact th at she has n o t yet been b ro u g h t to a bull. In th e m o d e rn lan g u ag e samhrmr has a sim ilarly b ro a d m ean in g ; for exam p le a samhaisc is d efin ed as "a beast of th re e o r m aybe fo u r years w hich has n o t vet h o rn a calf T '1 In B reton th e te rm hanvesk - th e exact co g n ate o f samaisr - is used o f a cow o f any age w hich passes a t e a r w ithout calving.-”’1 So far as I have b een able to find out, Irish samhaisr is n ev er used in this way o f a cow of proven fertility w hich has failed to calve in a p a rticu lar year. In th e law-texts such a cow w ould be sintplv d escrib ed as hó sesr ‘dry cow1, probably also w orth h a lf a m ilch cow (for a discussion o f th e values o f d ry cows, see b elo w ).

In-calf heifer

(b ó inlóeg)

In the scheute set o u t in th e c o m m e n ta ry on anim al-values, the term samaisr is ap p lied only from w hen th e h eifer is th re e years old u n til she is im p re g n a te d by a bull. H e r value th e n increases to 16 scruples i.e. two th ird s o f th e value o f a fully-grown m ilch cow.-''1’ T his agrees with th e O ld Irish law-texts w hich regulat iv give th e bó inlóeg a value in te rm e d ia te betw een a samaisr a n d a m ilch cow.-6. T h e a u th o r o f this co m m e n ta ry is h e re d ealin g with the value of a heifer ex p ectin g h e r first calf. E u g en e O 'C .urrv h eld th at th e term bó inlóeg applies only to this category.2,uS It seem s m ore likelv, how ­ ever, th at in th e law-texts bó inlóeg refers to an in-calf cotv of anv age. H e r value w ould be less th a n that o f a m ilch cow, b ecause o f the ch an ce th a t she may a b o rt o r th at h e r calf m at die at birth .

Milch cow ( laulgach , bó

m licht, bó mór)

T h e co m m en tary o n anim al-values gives th e four-vear-old cow a value o f 20 scruples on th e b irth o f h e r first calf. T his increases to 22 scruples on th e b irth o f h e r second calf. She reach es h e r m axim um 26,Ó Dubhda, ‘Foclóir agus téarmaí feirmeoirechta’, 29. 265Hemon, Geriadur s.w. hanvesk, hanveskenn. 268 C7H iii 845.31-2 = Appendix A, text 3 § 4; cf. CIH vi 1978.20-1. -fi'E.g. CIH vi 2308.31-2 - Binc hy, 'Bretha Déni Chéihl'. 30 $ 13; CIH iii 1098.31-3; CIH iii 1119.29-30 = E.J. Gwynn, ‘Privileges’, 25.19-21; cf. CIH vi 2104.32-3. 268Quoted AL v 49 n. and DIL s.v. indláeg.

Cattle prices and values

65

value o f 24 scru p les at th e age o f six with th e b irth o f h e r th ird calf. L ater legal c o m m e n ta ry co n tain s m any referen ces to the bó threlóeg, w hich O 'C u rry took to m ean a three-calf cow’, i.e. a six-year-old m ilch cow in h e r full m aturity.269 A ccording to m edieval Welsh law, a cow is in h e r prim e from h er seco n d to h e r fifth calf, after w hich h e r value d eclin es.270 T he O ld Irish law-texts provide n o specific in fo rm a tio n on the values assigned to cows w hich have passed th e ir p rim e. However, accord­ ing to later c o m m e n ta rv a cow's value is divided in to three: a third (i.e. 8 scruples) for h e r flesh, a th ird fo r h e r m ilk a n d calf, an d a th ird for h e r p o te n tia l (sailtinche).’' 1 In th e case o f an aging cow, th e value o f h e r p o te n tia l w ould naturally d ecline. O n this comm e n ta rv 's assessm ent, a cow n o lo n g e r capable o f p ro d u cin g a calf w ould only b e w orth 8 scru p les fo r h e r flesh .2' 2

Dry cow ( bó

sesc)

.After b e in g b u lled in Julv o r A ugust, it w ould be n o rm al for m ilch cow s to be d rie d o ff b efo re winter. Most o f these cows w ould p ro ­ duce calves th e follow ing spring. Each year, however, it w ould be e x p ecte d th at som e o f th em w oidd fail to conceive, an d th erefo re miss a se a r's m ilk-p ro d u ctio n . Such a cow is te rm e d a bó sesc ‘dry cow ', a n d h e r value is re d u c e d d u rin g h e r p e rio d o f infertility. From o n e law-text it seem s th at a dry cow has only h a lf th e value o f a m ilch cow, i.e. 12 sc ru p le s.273

Older male bovines It is clear from Connor's Glossary that an ox w hich pulls the p lo u g h ( dam timchill arathair) can attain the sam e value as a m ilch cow, i.e. 24 sc ru p le s.274 B ut acco rd in g to th e co m m en tary on anim al-values, it takes an ox eight years to t each this value, w hereas a m ilch cow does so after six years, p ro v id ed th at she has b o rn e 269Q uoted AL v 49 n. Binchy, however, suggests in ‘Varia. Ill’, 231-2, that trelueg means ‘having had a calf, after calving’. A bó threlóeg would thus refer to any cow with a calf, in contrast to a bó inlóeg ‘in-calf cow’. But the three-calf trelóeg seems to fit in well with the commentary’s view that a cow reaches her maximum value on the birth of her third calf (CIH iii 845.34—5 = Appendix A, text 3 § 6). -'"Williams and Powell. I.ly/r lilegywryt 89.30—1 - .l/./VV, Dimrtian 8Cf. CIH iv 1208.8 pinginn argach n-orc ‘a penny for every piglet’. lo9Lúrcc is from lú + orcc ‘small piglet’, as at CIH iii 1109.22 lulaig no luuan no luorc ‘a small calf or a small lamb or a small piglet’, and CIH iii 924.25 = BB 86 § 53e luain 7 luoirc 7 luluigh 7 mendain ‘small lambs and small piglets and small calves and kids’. 160The term banb(h) survives in Hiberno-English as bonav, bannoo, bonhnm, etc. It is cognate with Welsh banw ‘piglet’. 161According to commentary at CIH iii 816.36, a dál (= deiting?) is worth a scruple. See Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht IV’, 208. 162Contrast the commentary at CIH iii 816.38, which gives the trechem (trichem) ‘three-year-old sow’ a value o f only 2 scruples. 163 CIH iv 1208.9. The sow is valued at 9 pence = 3 scruples. 1!" (.Hi vi 2215.29—30 = L. Breatnach, Uraicecht na Hiar, 29.33-7. 165See L. Breatnach, Uraicecht na Riar, 32 (note to 11. 32-44); 184 (table 9). 166CIH vi 2230.19-20. 167The length of the dorn is probably four inches, see p. 564. 168CIH ii 483.35-6 = Thurnevscn, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht T, 356.11. ,S9Commentary at CIH i 191.15-17; v 1856.38-40 distinguishes three categories of pig: mucc mór ‘full-grown pig’, cat ‘young sow’, banb ‘piglet’.

88

Livestock (ii)

(céistorr).1 This is fifteen times the value assigned to it in the same text. In addition, the culprit would have to give restitution (at/hgem), e ither bv replacing the pig or by paving its com m ercial value. H orses T h e dom estication of the wild hot se Í lù/iut s fn us) was accom plished much later than that o f the font animals already discussed. It is probable that horses were hist b rought u n d e r h u m a n control as a food source in the plains o f w hat is now th e U kra ine a r o u n d 4000 BC. 1' 1 At an early stage in the dom estication of the hoise. its potential as a m eans o f rapid transput t was realised: abnoi mal wear on the prem olars o f some of the U krainian horse-skulls indi­ cates the use o f bit a n d bridle. T h e archaeological evidence for the dom esticated horse (Equus caballus) in Ireland goes back to about 2000 BC, but its bones are never found in a b u n d a tu e . 1' J ( ii a i m ó g s (lake-dwellings) have proved the richest source of anim al-bones in excavations from the earlv Christian period: it can be assum ed that the vast majority of these b ones are f rom animals which were eaten by the occupants o f the crannógs. H orse-bones are f o u n d on all such sites, but in fairlv low percentages. For exam ple, of the 7278 fragments o f animal-bones f o u n d in the Movnagh c ranting from a b o u t AD 800, only 85 (i.e. 1.2 p e r cent) b e lo n g to the h o r s e .1' ’ T h e religious taboo on the eating o f horseflesh (see p. 8.52) m a\ be partly responsible for the low p ro p o r tio n o f horse-bones. T h e evidence o f the O ld Irish law-texts fits in with the findings o f archaeology. T h u s the text o n status, Crith Gablach, lists the approxim ate n u m b e rs o f livestock (excluding voting animals) which would be ex p e c te d on the farms o f various grades o f freeman. The' most prosperous tvpe of hoain is said to own twenty cows, two bulls and six oxen, but onlv two horses - o n e for riding

m CIH vi 2228.3. l71Cfutton-Brock, Horse power, 55: Gautier, La domestication, 150-i. 172Van Wijngaarden-Bakker, ‘The animal remains from Newgrange (1)’, 346; CIutton-Brock, Horse power, 58. The existence in the early Christian period o f feral horses in Ireland is suggested by a literary reference to a fiadgraig ‘herd of wild horses’ (Ó Cathasaigh, Heroic biography, 121.73). l7SMcCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland’, 5 (table 1.1).

Horses

89

a n d o n e for farm w ork. 1' 1 T h r o u g h o u t the written sources, the horse is associated in particular with m en of high rank, and m uch stress is laid on their possession ot o rn a te riding eq u ip m e n t. T he lowest g ra d e ol lord is exp e c te d to own a riding horse (ech sliusUi) with a silver bridle t srinn argguit'm as well as font o th e r horses with u n o r n a m e n t e d bridles.1' ’ A h ig h e r g ra d e ol lord has a bridle of silver and a bridle ol g o ld .1' 1’ Because of their high value, such bridles a re ofte n given as ple dge s. 177 O u r sources c o n c e n tra te to a large e x te n t on the rôle o f the horse in racing a n d warfare. Horse-racing was d e a t h a regular e n te r ta in m e n t for kings (see p. 99 below), a n d th e re are many references to the warrioi s chariot ( carpal ) pulled bv two horses.1'8 T h e sagas contain n u m e r o u s descriptions of such horses, mostlv c o u c h e d in flowerv rhetorical language. T h e most famed horses o f Irish literarv tradition were I.ialli Mac/iar ‘the Grey o f M achae’ and D ii/i StMglMin the Black o f Saigliu'. They were twins o f ab o u t the same age as the h e ro ( at C hulainn, a n d grew up along with h im .1'q Driven bv the t h a rio te e r I/te g . they pulled Cti G hulainn's chariot. In Aided Chon Culainn, the tale o f the d e a th o f Cú C hulainn, we are told how both horses were injured d u rin g the fatal attack on th e ir master. After Cii G hulainn's death, Dub Saijrlenn rode away with I.deg, but I.fall/ Machae staved bv the body for three days and th re e nights, allowing no o n e to a pproach. Finally, I.ialli Machae ju m p e d into a lake a n d d r o w n e d .180 T h e horse also has a spec ial place in the legal system, in that a m an w ho lavs claim to land net npied bv a n o th e r must formally e n te r this la n d a c c o m p a n ie d by a fixed n u m b e r o f h orses.181

Types and breeds Two m a in types o f horse are distinguished in o u r sources. As we have seen, th e a u th o r o f Crilh Gablach expects a fa rm e r of !74C/f/ ii 564.6; iii 780.13 = CG 8.196. The text at this point actually mentions only the ech sliasta ‘horse of thigh’ i.e. riding horse. However, the lower grade of bóaire has both a riding horse and a work-horse, CIH ii 563.9; iii 779.29 = CG 6.158. 175C//7 ii 566.25-6; iii 782.31-2 = CG 14.346 co nglassrianaib lit. ‘with grey bridles’. 176CIH ii 567.25; iii 783.32-3 = CG 16.407. 177E.g. CIH ii 475.4 = AI. v 414.24-5. 178See Greene, ‘The chariot as described in Irish literature’, 63. l79Van Hamel, Compert Chon Culainn, 4 § 3; LU 321.10587-90. 180Van Hamel, Compert Chon Culainn, 117 § 46. 181See p. 432. For a more detailed discussion of legal entry (tellach),see CEIL 186-8.

90

Livestock (ii)

Imaire rank to own a work-ponv (capall /oguama) a n d a horse for riding (ech i min rim me) .18~ Some six centuries later, the Annals o/ C o n n a c h t'' make a similar distinction betw een the work-pony (capall) and the m o re prestigious horse lot tid in g (er/?).IM T he early Irish work-ponv was small a n d sturclv. similat in build to the m o d e r n C o n n e m a r a pony. 11,1 In archaeological writings such ponies are often described as being of ‘Celtic Ivpe because of their particular association with the early Celtic-speaking peoples of the c o n tin e n t.1M| In O ld Irish s o n n e s , th e re are a n u m b e r o f references which suggest that im p o rte d sto< k was used to im prove the speed a n d si/e of the eailv Irish horse, fo t exam ple, the law-texts assign especial value to the h o tse from overseas (ech allmuir) J r Britain is of ten given as the source of this type of horse, which is consequently te r m e d a h hutnaih British h o rse ’ .182134*67188* It seems likely tha t such horses derive from stock brought to Britain d u rin g the p e rio d of Roman occupation. Juliet Clutton-Brock points out that b ones of the large R om an militat e horse - ultimately, it is thought, o f Scythian origin - have b e e n fo u n d in archaeological excavations all over the R om an world, including Britain.18'1 O n e m ight expect it to be m o re e c o n o m ic to im port stallions ra th e r than m ares to improve the quality of Irish horses in the early Christian period. However. Irish m ates at this 182 C1H ii 563.9: iii 779.29 = CG 6.158 183AC 276 s.a. 1336 §8. 184It should be stressed, however, that ech is also used as a generic term to include all kinds of horses. It is cognate with the words for ‘horse’ in many Indo-European languages, e.g. Latin equus, Sanskrit asva-, etc. In one law-text (CIH ii 422.35; iv 1455.24; vi 1958.41 = AL i 268.20) a distinction is made between ech and marc (cog­ nate with Welsh march ‘horse’). In legal glosses, ech is taken to refer to the male, and marc to the female (CIH ii 422.36; iii 1079.42-3; v 1722.32 = AL i 304,y). But else­ where marc is used as a non-specific poetic term for ‘horse’: see P. Kelly, ‘Dialekte im Altirischen?’. Its derivative marcach is well-attested in the meaning ‘rider’, and is not confined to poetic language. Another word for ‘horse’, used mainly in poetry and glossaries, is pell or Jell. IH’Hencken, ‘Ballinderry crannóg no. T, 233. 186Clutton-Brock, Domesticated mammals, 86. The Latin word for work-horse caballus (which ultimately gave Italian caballo, French cheval, etc.) is almost certainly a bor­ rowing from Celtic, and cognate with Irish capall, Welsh cefjyl. See l£IA C-33 s.v. capall. 187E.g. CIH vi 2312.31 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Dan Chichi, 40 § 30; CIH iii 897.18 = Appendix A, text 2 § 1 (18). 188E.g. CIH iv 1484.30 = O ’Dav. 277 § 501; Jackson, Aislinge, 43.1328 = Meyer, Aislinge, 111.14; AC/2 466 s.a. 1029 § 6. 18‘*Clutton-Brock, Domesticated mammals, 88.

Horses

91

p e rio d may have be e n too small to bear the larger foals of foreign stallions. Certainly, the im p o rta tio n o f foreign mares is indicated by the use of the te rm gaillit, a derivative o f gall ‘Gaulish, foreign’, to refer to a good quality m a r e .1 Ml Glossators take such mares to be o f British o rig in .1'" a n d in o n e glossary a male foal from a gaillit is te r m e d a gaillire,1901192 In o u r sources, the small Irish wotk-ponv is often called the germ ».1"' It is regularly identified as a pack-animal. For exam ple, in a ver­ sion of Comprit Mongdin. a gerrán has a pack-saddle (srathar) on its back brin g in g c o rn a n d flour from a mill,19495167 a n d in an e n try in O'MuIrtmry's G lossary it is e q uated with the pack-horse (su m a ) which carries loads of w h e a t.1'1’ T he te rm gerrán passed into the English of Ireland in post-N orm an times in the form garran, a n d is f re q u e n t in official d o c u m e n ts, travellers' records, e tc .1"1' In Scotland the word is now applied to the G a n on, the m a in la n d type o f H ighland pony (as distinct from th e lighter W estern Isles pony). C olour In a discussion on the value o f domestic animals a n d o th e r goods, the law-text Brrtha Sem edDéidenarh states that they should be judged for th e ir size, shape, colour a n d sp e e d .1'1' T h e most prestigious 190E.g. CIH iii 918.10 (giallit of the MS must be emended to gaillit); CIH iv 1507.34— 6 = O ’Dav. 380 § 1051. The fem. suffix -il is also found in birit ‘sow’, cf. Thurneysen, ‘Altirisch cariait'. 191 E.g. CIH i 26.39 = AL v 220.22. 192C /// iv 1507.36 = O ’Dav. 308 § 1051. For the suffix -(a)ire, see Thurneysen, Grammar, 172 § 269. I93Gerrán may simply be a derivative of the adjective gerr ‘short, low-sized’; cf. Welsh gerran ‘dw arf. There is also a possibility that gerrán means ‘that which has been castrated’ (from gerraid ‘cuts, castrates’), and was originally applied to geldings; cf. meile ‘gelding’, perhaps from *mel- ‘to crush’ (I£IA M-29). For the agent-suffix -fin, see Kelly, ‘An Old-Irish text on court-procedure’, 103 § 7(h). Like other agentsuffixes, -an can be used with a passive sense; cf. crochaire (a) ‘hangm an’, (b) ‘one who is hanged’. 194Meyer, The Voyage of Bran i (Appendix) 68.1 gerrán ban maircech j sensratharfair ‘a white galled work-pony with an old pack-saddle on it’. Cf. O ’Grady, Silva Gadelica i 234.8-10 (trans, ii 265-6) = LU 95.2938-40. I950 ’M u 1c . 273 § 856 Suma .i. gerran. The word suma(d) is from Late Latin suma, sauma ‘load, pack, beast of burden’: see I.IJ A S-204 s.v. suma. 196E.g. Hardiman, Ancient Irish deeds, 51. See OED s.v. garron. 197 CIH iii 1131.6 = E.J. Gwynn, ‘Privileges’, 41.32-3 Mesir eocha ar a mid sgéo crotha, dathaibh sgêo rethaibh ‘may you judge horses by their size and shape, by their colours and runnings’.

92

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colour for a horse seems to have heen white, a n d the poetic term ,See nil. s.w. 1 rinene, 3 rinene. 155CIH iv 1520.42 = O ’Dav. 438 § 1365. 156CIH iv 1501.16-17 = O ’Dav. 351 §915. 157CIH iv 1510.9 = O ’Dav. 391 § 1109. 158AI 262 s.a. 1105 § 7. Camels were also sent to Ireland by the king o f England in AD 1472 (AC 560 s.a. 1472 § 13, which provides quite a detailed account of these animals). 159Lynn, ‘Navan fort’, 16. 16,1CIH i 73.19-20 = AL iv 114.10-12. 161 CIH i 74.15-25 = AL iv 120.1-14; CIH i 98.31-5; vi 2187.14-17.

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pets with stones from his sling.11’- Manx saints are also re c o rd e d as having p e ts.1’” Saint Mo I.ing h a d a n u m b e r o f animals which he kept in h o n o u r of their Creator, a n d fed from his own hand. His pet fox onc e stole and ate a hen b e longing to his fellow monks, hut th r o u g h a miracle the bird was restored to life.11’ 1 In his Life of Saint ttrigit. Cogitostis gives an account of a fox who b e longe d to a king, a n d was able to p e r f o r m tricks.161’ T h e usual te rm for a pet in O ld Irish is pet(t) a, which may be the ultim ate origin of the Fuglish word pd. T he w ord Irrite!! (dielte!) is also l o m m o n h used o f a pet animal o r a h o u se h o ld favourite (particularly a c h ild ) .1(,h C o rr

A part from cats and dogs, the pet most frequentlv m e n tio n e d in o u r sources is th e corr, w hich is often identified with th e h e ro n ( A i dm i inora ). s t i l l a c o m m o n bird of fixers a n d lakes. A complicat­ ing factor i s the occasional application of the xvord corr to a n o th e r large bird, the c rane ( Grits gnts) .lh' For exam ple, the Latin Life o f Saint A bbau explains the Irish lake-name Loch na Corr as stagnant gruum , i.e. ‘th e lake o f th e c ra n e s ’.168 T h e crane is now a rare pas­ sage m igrant in the British Isles, but was formerly quite com m o n as a b r e e d in g bird. In a c h a p te r entitled De grue, ejus natura ‘on the crane a n d its n a tu re ' in his Topographs oj Ireland Giraldus Gam­ biensis refers to its a b u n d a n c e in this c o u n t r x . A manuscript written about 1200 illustrates this c h a p te r of the Topography with a fine draw ing o f a crane: this is re p r o d u c e d on p. 126.1,11

m TBC Rec. I 29.920-5. 163See Plummer, Vitae i Introd. p. cxlvi for further details. l64Plummer, Vitae ii 201 § xxiii. !65Connolly and Picard, ‘Cogitosus: Life of Saint Brigit’, 19 § 20. |M7 ;//. V vv. fhetlrl. Iinhll: (. L Cutrxvxn Williams. 'Welsh iln th fll, Intliyll: liisli rhrttrl.

Ireiteir. 167To this day the heron is called a ‘crane’ in parts of Britain and Ireland. 1B8Plummer, Vitae i 27 § xliii. ,w O ’.Meant, Girnlihn Ivfmgiapliy. 4(1 $ 1 0 - Dimock. ( aintdi Toptigiap/nre 10.1-3.

170For a discussion of this manuscript, see Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, pp. xx-xxi; Scott and Martin, Expugnatio hihernica, p. xxxv.

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Plate 4. This crane (grus) is from the bottom margin of f. 8' of the British Libran MS Royal 13 B VIII. This manuscript, written about AD 1200, contains an illustrated version of Giraldus Cambrensis’s Topography of Ireland. The artist has portrayed vert clearly the characteristic black and white neck-stripes of the crane. The absence o f a crest and the drooping feathers over the tail also distinguish it from the heron. The bottom of the page has been evened off with loss o f the crane’s right claw. This illustration has been reproduced by kind permission of the Trustees of the British Library.

Other pets and. captives

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T h e h e r o n a n d the e rane are similar in appe a ra n ce , th o u g h vert different in behaviour. 1 he h e ro n feeds on fish, rodents, insects, etc. w hereas the diet of th e crane is mainlv vegetarian. T he bones of b o th birds h a t e be e n fo u n d in excavations from the earlv Chris­ tian p e r io d .1,1 T here are m a m references to the pet con■in legal m aterial, b u t it is difficult to be sure which bird is in te n d e d . In m o d e r n times, th e re is a b u n d a n t inform ation on the dom estication o f b o th birds. T h e h e r o n is a difficult pet; it is strongly territo­ rial a n d tends to attack o th e r dom esticated birds, as well as dogs, cats and children. F.ven w hen taken as an egg, it is h a rd to get it to b o n d with a h u m a n . Bv contrast, the crane is easilv b o n d e d with a h u m a n . 1, ' In some societies the flesh o f the crane was particularh relished: paintings inside ancient Egyptian tom bs show cranes being fattened up bv force-feeding.1' 1 However, Giraldus (iambi ensis notes an a b h o r r e n c e o f crane-flesh a m o n g the Irish.1 In the laws of the sixth-centurv Franks, there is a reference to the d om esticated c r a n e .1,1' a n d evidence that this bird was used in the training of hawks.1" In earlv Christian Ireland, however, hawking does n o t seem to have b e e n practised: see p. 303. T h e pet bei on or crane {peta cuirre) is included a m o n g the pets listed in Brcth/i Comaithchesa}'* and in a n o th e r law-text it is stated that a tine ( fine) o f five sets must be paid for killing this pet. This is the same sum as must be paid for a kitten, puppy, cock or g oose.1,!l A latei c o m m e n ta to r on this text expresses surprise at the high value assigned h e re to the con. on account of the general legal p rin ­ ciple that a wild animal which has been tam ed is only entitled to a6715432

I71E.g. C rane: Hencken, ‘Ballinderry crannóg no. 2’, 73; ‘Lagore crannóg’, 229. H eron : ‘Ballinderry crannóg no. 1’, 234; ‘Ballinderry crannóg no. 2’, 73; ‘Lagore crannóg', 229. l72For this information 1 am grateful to an expert on the behaviour of the heron, James B. Fox of Athy, Co. Kildare. 173Note, however, that the crane may also be a pest of crops, as it forms large flocks when migrating and wintering: see p. 236. l74Varro, Rerum rusticarum (ed. H ooper and Ash), 3.2.14, refers also to the rearing of cranes for the table. l75Scott and Martin, Expugnatio hibernica, 96.30-1 (bk. 1, ch. 33). 176Rivers, Laws of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks, 50. ,77Ibid. 186. 173 ClEl i 73.19; 196.13 = AL iv 114.10. >79 CIH iii 1043.1; Cf. CIH i 238.26-7 = AL v 472.29-31.

128

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half line (Iclliditc) ,|K" He explains awav the discrepance In assum­ ing that the- bird had e ither been originallv taken Iront the wild as an egg, o r that both its parents were themselves tam e ( m /letiiclit). T h e b re e d in g of this bird in captivitr is also suggested by a c om m cnttttor's reference to to n ro liaimsir gnitttraid 'a c ra n e up to the time o f activity’. 1* 1 H ere gnion/td tnav ic ie r to the bird s sexual maturitv. A nothe r p roblem c o n n e c te d with the word tor) is its a p p a re n t cont])ound rorrgnine ‘sorcerer, magician . Just as sctiguine m eans ‘deer-killer, h u n te r ' (see p. 27.2) a n d hógttntr m eans 'cow-killer (see p. 158), o n e w ould e x p e c t corrguine to m e a n ‘crane-killer’ o r ‘heron-killer’. T h e slaughter of the bird could thus have be e n p a r t o f some ritual, ju s t as a cock is killed in vo o d o o cults. O n the o th e r h a n d , a description o f th e ritual o f th e sorc e re r in O ’D avoren's Glossars refers to his delivering a satire o r malediction ‘standing on o n e leg. with o n e arm o u ts tr e tc h e d (r ). a n d with o n e eve shut .1*"’ H ere he would seem to be imitating the stance of the h e ro n , p erhaps with the implication that his satire has destructive pow er like th e be a k o f a h e r o n . In a review,183 Brian O Cuiv discusses brieflv an article bv A nne Ross on the Gaulish go d F.sux who is som etim es de pic te d with crane-like b ird s.1' 1 H e suggests that the druidical practice o f rorrgiiinecht mac be c o n n e c te d with the crane-cult for which Ross has collected evidenc e a m o n g the Celtic peoples, b o th co n tin e n ta l a n d insular. A quo ta tio n in (VDavaren's Glossars from a lost law-text states that there is no penaltv for taking a corr or a séig (hawk) on a n o th e r 's la n d .18■’ T h e glossator seems to assume that these hit els are h u n te d or tra p p e d because thev are re g a rd e d as a nuisance ra th e r than for purposes o f dom estication. T h u s he refers to the1fact that the- hawk carries off voting pigs a n d liens (s e e p . 189 below). H e re corr could apple equallv to the h e ro n or to the crane; the fo rm e r could be regarded as a nuisance because o f its d e p re d a tio n s on fish, w hereas the latter could inflict dam age on cro p s.181' A n o th e r un stet ions ref­ erence to the corr is found in a series o f legal q u o ta tio n s on tra p p in g ]mCJH iii 1043.1-5: v 1873.25-36. 181CIH ii 709.37. 182 CIH iv 1480.12-13 = O ’Dav. 257 § 383. Cf. L. Breatnach, Uraicecht na Riar, 140. 1830 Cuiv, ‘Review of Études celtiques, vol. IX, fascicule 2 ’, 337. I84R oss, ‘E sus et les trois “g ru es” ’.

185C//7 iv 1526.1-2 = O ’Dav. 460 S 1480. l8BSee p. 236.

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a n d o th e r topics.187 This q u o ta tio n reads aurrhur la mirr, which seem s to m e a n ‘a cast (of a spear) at a h e r o n o r c r a n e ’.188

Senén The o th e r bird included in the Bertha Goniaithchesa list is the senén ( sinni). which seems to m ean 'old b ir d '. 1811 Its identitv is difficult to establish, a n d the te rm max in fact have been applied to a n u m ­ ber ot different species. In () Davorcn \ Glossars it is e q u a te d with a word m e a n in g 'e a g le '.I I have fo u n d n o references to the caging o f smaller birds.

Wild mammals liretha ( JMifi/llirhesa lists onlv th re e pet m am m als taken h o rn the wild: the fox, th e wolf a n d the d e e r .197 T h e later c o m m e n ta to r on this text provides a m uch m o re com prehensive list.1 a n d inge­ niously fits in the offences which the\ would be likelc to com m it with those o f o rd in a rv dom estic a nim als.1 19 T h e wild pig is thus re g a rd e d as likelv to com m it the same sort of offences - such as rooting u p th e g r o u n d - as th e dom estic pig. If it does so on a n e ig h b o u r ’s land, the usual fines for pig-trespass apply. T h e c o m m e n ta to r equates the offences o f the th re e largest wild carnivores - the wolf ( Cants lupus. Irish n't allaid). the fox ( Vulpes vulpes, Irish sinnach), a n d the otte r {.Lutra lutra. Irish dubrátr'"*) - with those o f the dom estic clog. T h e offences o f the te d squiirel (Sciurus vulgaris. Irish tara) a n d o f the stoat-'"1 (Mustela ermiuea. Irish ess) are e q u a te d with those o f the dom estic cat. T h e position o f the pine m a rte n (Martes martes. Irish togciir"" ) is u n c e rta in , e ither th ro u g h scribal confusion, o r because the lawyers f o u n d it difficult to decide w h e th e r it should be classed with the cat o r the dog. In o n e version it is listed with the clog (cf. the n a m e cranuclui 'tre e dog' also applied to this a n im a l),70 1 but in a n o th e r version it is placed

ls4See DIL s.v. 1 tethra. 195C ///vi 2216.34. 196 CIH V 1873.25 isin cäöigh. m CJH i 73.19-20; 197.1-2 = AL iv 114.10-12. ' '“T here are versions at CIH i 74.15-18 = AL iv 120.1-5; CIH i 98.31-5: CIH vi 2187.14-17. In the latter case the comm entator is dealing with the sale of wild animals rather than their offences; however, the basic list is the same. " ‘'Compare the commentai t on die oiteni es ot a wild animal (luui) whit h lias been tamed (CIH iv 1152.6-15; v 1642.21-30). ‘m Dobrán = doburchú, lit. ‘water-dog’. In the Rawlinson B 487 version o f this list (CIH i 71.15 = At. iv 120.1) the scribe has omitted the initial do- of dobrán. This entry under bran ‘raven’ in Dll. B 157.51 should therefore be transferred to dobrdn. 201The weasel (Mustela nivalis) is not native to Ireland. 202This is a diminutive of the older term togmall Legal commentary at CIH v 1585.28-30 gives the fox (sinnach) and pine marten (toghdn) as examples o f captive wild animals which are not eaten. 203See DIL C 509.55-6.

Later introductions

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along with the cat.“" 1 In the third version it is listed both with the cat and th e d o g .20*1 T h e only native Irish ru m in a n t, the re d d e e r ( Cervus elaphus, Irish agalluiil) is logically placed along with a n o th e r r u m in a n t, the dom estic bovine, a n d the b a d g e r {.Meles meles. Irish brocc) a n d wild pig (Sus scrofa, Irish mucc allaid) are fitted in with the domestic pig. Rather surprisingly, die h are [Lepus timidus. Irish mil maige) is classed in o n e version with the dom estic h e n .20(5 La ter introductions As we have seen in the In tro d u c tio n , m ost o f the written info rm a tio n on early Irish farm ing comes from the law-texts of the seventh a n d e ighth centuries. T hese texts were copied, explained a n d e x p a n d e d b\ later jurists, w orking mainly between the twelfth a n d th e sixteenth centuries. In general, these later scribes stuck closely to the original texts, a n d ignored farm ing innovations b ro u g h t in b\ the Anglo-N ormans. For exam ple, it is practically certain that the A nglo-N orm ans in tro d u c e d rabbits (see p. 133 below), which are m e n tio n e d as early as c.1185.207 Yet th e re are no references to rabbits in the post-N orm an legal material in the Irish language.

Ass T h e domestic ass or d onkev (Equus asinus) originated in the semidesert o f n o rth Africa, a n d was probably dom esticated in Egypt by about 3300 BC.-’"N It is frequently m e n tio n e d in the O ld and New Testaments, a n d must therefore have be e n well known to the Irish in religious contexts. For exam ple, the te nth-century p o e m Sallair na Rann refers to Christ's en try into Jerusalem on an ass (assent).21,11 A lth o u g h th e ass was o f e n o r m o u s im p o rta n c e as a beast of b u r d e n on Irish farms of the e ig h te e n th a n d n in e te e n th centuries, 2(14CIHvi 2187.16-17. 205 CIH i 98.32-4. 2n6CIH vi 2187.17. Paul Russell suggests to me that the com m entitor may be think­ ing of the ‘form ’ - comparable to a h e n ’s n est-w h ich a hare makes in the open for its young. 207Curtis, Ormond deeds i 4 § 7. 208Clutton-Brock, Domesticated mammals, 91; Gautier, La domestication. 155. 209Stokes, Saltair na Rann 113.7688. As(s)an is a borrowing from Latin asinus. In later Irish this word is replaced by as(s)al, from the Latin diminutive assellus. See lJilA A-93 s.v. asan.

132

livestock (Ui)

it hardly features at all in the eat lift records of this country. 1 hei e is no m ention of it in the law-texts, n o r in th e ir associated flosses or com m entary. In o n e O ld Irish version o f Cain Domnaig, it is stated that a person should not ride on a horse or ass f imnm fut cih nó assan) on Sundays.210 However, this p o rtio n o f text may owe m ore to O ld Testam ent tradition than t o u r n e n t Irish prat tice.21121*4 In a n o th e r O ld Irish version, th e re is no m e n tio n of riding on ;m ass; possible the redactor om itted it its being it relevant in an Irish c o n te x t.-12 To mv knowledge, the earliest explicit reference to a n ass on Irish soil is in a n a n e c d o te in a legal m anuscript, which records that a cardinal cam e from Rom e to instruct certain ecclesiastics, by n a m e L a A n n o te , l a Ceillclnn of (.ell Mot. L a S lu [a 1isti of Ctiil Ó Sluttish and L'a (llé sâ in .-1 ' rites, howesei. stole the cardinal s horses, mules and tisses (rich 7 mini 7 nsnnc). As a result the Pope sold the tribute a n d dues of Ireland - which had formerly1g one to him - to the English. This incident is alleged to have taken place in the reign of D om nall Mot l a Briain. king of Munster, w ho d ied in 1194.

Mule A m ule is the offspring of a jackass (a male Equus asinus) and a m are (a female Equus caballus). It has the advantage of being larger a n d stronger than an ass, a n d having gre a te r stam ina and e n d u ra n c e than a h o r s e .211 Mules are frequently d e p ic te d in M esopotam ian art o f the hrst m ille n n iu m BE. a n d are know n to have be e n o f great im p o rta n c e in the R om an economy, b e in g used for riding, ploughing, carrying baggage a n d drawing carts. As in the case o f th e ass, th e re is little m e n tio n o f the m u le in early Irish sources (see previous section). It seems to have be e n an animal which was generally unfamiliar, so a n in th -c e n tu rv glossator

2I0O ’Keeffe, ‘Cáin Domnaig’, 202 § 17. 21’Schmitz, Die. Bussbücher und. die Bussdisciplin der Kirche i 786 § 9 (Poenitentiale Laurentianum) . . . ci non mittut in opera non servum, non ancillam, non bovem, non asinum ‘and let him not put to work his man-servant nor his maidservant nor his ox nor his ass’. Cf. Exodus 20:17 (tenth commandment). 212Hull, 'Cáin Domnaig', 160 § 1. In most respects the activities forbidden in § 1 of this text agree closely with those of O ’Keeffe, ‘Cain Domnaig', 200-2 § 17. ~] ‘(.111 vi 1950.18-26: translated In Bet gin. 'What brought the Saxons to Ireland’. 2I4Clutton-Brock, Domesticated mammals, 95.

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on P risd a n defines the Latin word mulio ‘m ule -ke e pe r’ in terms of the familiar h o r s e .215 1 he offspring of a stallion and a female ass is known as a 'hinny (usually ‘j e n n e t ’ in Ireland). It is o f m u c h less use to m a n th a n a m u le a n d does n o t seem to be m e n tio n e d in early Irish sources. Rabbit T h e dom estic ra b b it ( Oryctolagus cuniculus) is o f so u th e rn E u ro p e a n origin and was probably in tro d u c e d to Ireland by the A nglo-N orm ans in the late twelfth ce n tu ry .-’111 Rabbits were kept tor tood in specially c onstructed rabbit-warrens,21, which are ofte n m e n tio n e d in th e records o f medieval Ire la n d .218 For exam ple, the Rental of the M anor o f I.isronagh. 1333, refers to the rabbit-warrens (nm icularia) on this estate which are valued at ten shillings. They are expected to p r o tid e an ann u a l crop of tw entt-four rabbits, worth o n e penny e a c h .2111 Similarly, a deed of 141ti records a transfer o f lands by Alice A rcher a n d h e r son Simon MacC.arrowyll (M ac Crnrbhciill) to Richard O ’H edyane (Ó hKidniin). a rc h b ish o p of Cashel.22" This includes a rabbit-warren in the te n e m e n t o f Rathsax in the c a n n e d o f Elvoffogvrthe (Kile V i Fhógartaigh). Fish T h e A nnals o f Clonmacnoise describe the theft in 1061 o f two salm on kept in the kings ffountaine or fish p o n d ’ at K incora,221 a n d legal c o m m e n ta r y c ontains a n u m b e r o f references to fishweirs (p. 2X7). So far as we know, the c onstruction of special p o n d s for in tro d u c e d fish such as pike, perch, carp. etc. belongs exclusively to the post-N orm an p e rio d in Ire la n d .222

2laThes. ii 8 7 .2 6 - 7 m ulio .i. custos mulorum .i. echaire ‘i.e. k e e p e r o f m u le s i.e. h o rs e k e e p e r ’. I n t h e n e x t g lo ss h e g a e lic iz e s L a tin mulus as múl. T h e m u le is a lso m e n t i o n e d in P lu m m e r, Bethada i 7 6 § xliv (1 4 2 ); tr a n s , ii 74. coinin ‘r a b b i t ’ is a b o r r o w in g f ro m M id d le E n g lis h cunin, conyng, ( la te r cony). coinigéar is a b o r r o w in g f ro m M id d le E n g lis h conynger ‘r a b b it- w a r r e n ’. T h is w o r d is c o m m o n in p la c e n a m e s (Jo y ce, Irish names of places i 4 8 1 ). 2t8C u r tis , Ormond deeds i 3 4 § 74; 201 § 5 0 4 . 216I r is h

21 " I ris h

219C u r tis , ‘R e n ta l o f t h e m a n o r o f L is r o n a g h , 1 3 3 3 ’, 4 5 , 50.

Ormond deeds iii 14 § 2 2 . C f. 18 § 28; 4 7 § 6 6 (2 ). Cion. 178 s.a. 1 0 6 1 . S e e p . 291 b elo w ,

220C u r tis ,

221Ann.

222F o r m e d ie v a l E n g lis h f is h p o n d s a n d t h e i r fish , se e R a c k h a m , The history of the countryside, 3 6 6 . C f. M itc h e ll, The Irish landscape, 184; Reading the Irish landscape, 174.

4 Offences by domestic animals T h e re have doubtless been disputes about injtu v or d a m a g e p e r p e ­ trated by animals ever since people first le a rn e d how to dom esticate th e m .1*3 Most full-grown domestic animals are capable of causing injury to o th e r animals or to hum ans. Fu rth e rtn o t e. most d o m e s ­ tic animals are herbivores, and therefore pose a c onstant threat to crops. Already in the earliest surviving law-codes, we find legisla­ tion dealing with such problems. T h e C ode of King H a m m u ra b i of Babylon (who reigned about 2000 BC) considers the case of an ox which has shown signs of" aggressiveness but has not h a d its h o r n s blu n te d bv its owner; if it subsequently gores a fre e m a n to d e a th the ow'ner must pay half a minu of silver.- This code also la\s down penalties for the theft o f cattle, sheep, asses or pigs. ’ a n d deals with the case o f a s h e p h e rd who allows his she e p to graze on voting corn belonging to a n o th e r .4 T he Book o f Exodus deals with the killing o f a m a n or w om an by an ox u n d e r various circum stances (21:28-32). the accidental killing o f an ox or ass in a pit (22:33—1). the killing o f o n e ox bv a n o th e r (21:35—6 ), the theft o f livestock (22:1—1). d a m a g e to a field o r vineyard bv livestock (22:5). a n d o th e r issues involving livestock (22:9-13). Early Irish law on the theft o f livestock clearly derives from Exodus 22:1, a n d it is likelv that Exodus 21:35—(I is the m odel for a passage in the text on joint-grazing which deals with the killing o f o n e bullock by a n o th e r.5 T h e offences o f livestock described in the Old-Irish law-texts range from trifling nuisance - such as defecation on a n e ig h b o u r's land by a do g or cat - to attacks resulting in loss o f h u m a n life. W hen dealing with d a m a g e or injury bv livestock, the law-texts make a basic distinction betw een an ‘anim al-offence’ (w/trhin) a n d a ‘h u m a n o ffe n c e ’ (duinechin). In the fo r m e r case, th e r e is no malice o r negligence on the part o f the owner, a n d consequently 1F o r a g e n e r a l d is c u s s io n o n o f fe n c e s by t h in g s o r a n im a ls , s e e M a c C o r m a c k , ‘O n tilin g -lia b ility ( Sachhaftung) in e a rly la w '. -J o h n s , The 3Ib id . 3 § 8 .

oldest code of laws in the world, 5 2 8 2 5 1 .

4 Ib id . 15 § 57.

bCIH i 1 9 2 .2 4 -3 3 = AT iv 1 0 2 .7 -1 9 .

Grazi ng-trespass

135

the Hue is smaller. For exam ple, il a horse which has never before b e haved aggressively biles a passer-bv without provocation, the ow ner s liabilitv is merelv for an 'animal-offence'. Bnt if the horse is know n to he a biter (cch ilaiatirh) the o w n e r’s guilt is greater, because he should b a re taken steps to prevent such an accident. His liability is the re fore for a ‘h u m a n offe n c e’ .6 In certain circum stances no liabilitv at all is attached to injury or even d e a th caused bv livestock. This applies in the case of illegal or ne gligent behaviour on the part o f the victim. For exam ple, if a p e rso n is stung while ro b b in g a bee-line, he has no redress against the ow ne r ol the bees. T h e r e is likewise no liabilitv if he is stung while carelessly w atching th e bee-hives a t swarming tim e .78* G

r a z in g -t r e s p a s s

Most of the law-text on n e ig h b o u rh o o d , Bretha Comaithchesa, deals with grazing-trespass. It is a com posite text, a n d consequently show s som e variation in the way in which such offences are treated, a n d in th e legal term inology employed. In anticipation o f possible gra/ing-trespass bv his livestock, each f a rm e r must lodge a fore-pledge (tairgille) with his im m ediate n e ig h b o u rs.s In the event of trespass, the fore-pledge guarantees pavm ent o f the a p p ro p ria te fine.'1 In some cases the fore-pledge itself is forfeit as pavment for the trespass. 10 T h e text stresses the lan d o w n e r's obligation to m aintain properlv constructed fences a r o u n d his la n d .11 M uch a tte n tio n is devoted to th e circumstances o f the grazing-trespass a n d the a m o u n t o f da m a ge done. Bretha Comaithchesa makes the obvious point that there is regrowth o f grass in s u m m e r b u t n o t in w inter.12 Consequently the 6M e y e r, Triads, 2 2 § 168. T h e v ic e o f b i tin g is c o m m o n e s t a m o n g sta llio n s : se e W est, Black's veterinary dictionary, 5 9 1 .

1CIH ii 4 4 9 .4 - 6 = BB 6 6 § 27. 8 CIH ii 4 1 2 .1 - 3 = AI. i 2 6 0 .9 - 1 1 . 9 CIH i 6 4 .2 8 = AL iv 7 0 .2 ; CIH ii 4 4 4 .1 2

= BB 5 0 § 1 (se e d is c u s s io n a t BB 90,

1 1 3 - 1 5 ). 10CIH i 1 9 7 .2 =

AL iv 1 1 4 .1 2 . 11 CIH i 7 3 .7 - 1 8 = AL iv 112. l~CIH i 6 9 .3 2 - 3 = AL iv 9 0 .1 - 2 . C o m m e n ta r y ( CIH ii 6 8 4 .1 4 -1 5 ; v 1 5 7 9 .3 3 -4 ;

1 8 6 5 .3 2 - 4 1 ) s ta te s t h a t i f t h e v ic tim o f g ra z in g -tre s p a s s d o e s n o t ta k e le g a l a c tio n b e f o r e t h e g ra s s h a s g r o w n a g a in , h e h a s n o e n t i t l e m e n t to r e s titu tio n (aithgein), b u t o n ly to a p e n a lty - fin e

(smacht).

136

Offences by domestic animals

lines for winter-trespass (gam/narlil ) are heav ier than those for summer-trespass (sainjua/ht)} ' \ \ inter-tiespass is d e e m e d to apply d u rin g the th re e m o n th s o f winter (gniuned) a n d the first two m o n th s o f spring (enrich). Sum m er-tiespass applies d u r in g tHe last m o n th ol spring, the th re e m o n th s of s u m m e r (\ainiad), a n d the th re e m o n th s o f a u tu m n (fogm /tr).1' It is d e a r that 1st April was regarded for legal purposes as being the date at which grass-growth was fully u n d e r wav, and 1st N ovem ber the date at which it c e ased.Ia T h e quality o f the land which has b e e n grazed is also taken into account. T h u s the line (unarht) w hen livestoc k trespass on preserved pasture (etham ndiguin) is twice as m uch as when thev trespass on aftergrass (atlibnniiiri/l) o r m o o rla n d inronn.^'1 Anothci factor which is taken into consideration is the h o u r at which the offence is com m itted. If th e re is grazing-trespass h\ night, it entails a full penalty (ógcaithig) ' T h e text explains that this is because cattle should be locked u p in a n enclosure (búaile) a t n i g h t .18 Similarly, pigs should spend the night in a stv (/w /t. she e p should be in a pen (lias), a n d horses should eitliet be propel lv tied up. 01 else housed in a stable (nine). A ccording to Bretha Xnnrd I'niudi. a farm er whose cattle are guilty of King-down trespass ( /m l must h a n d over a bushel o f w heat a n d a m ilch cow for e a c h p e r io d of twenty-four ho u rs in which the trespass c o n tin u e s .19314*7

i3CIH i 7 0 .3 - 6 = AL iv 9 0 .1 6 - 2 0 . A c c o r d in g to Bretha Comaithchesa c o m m e n ta r y a t CIH ii 5 7 6 .1 0 - 1 1 , e ig h t b u s h e ls o f g r a in a r e p a id f o r w in te r-tre s p a s s , a n d f o u r b u s h e ls f o r s u m m e r-tre s p a s s . In b o t h c a s e s a h e if e r (a g ) is t h e f in e (dire) f o r t h e g rass. 14 ('III i 6 9 .1 9 - 2 9 = AL iv 8 8 .1 8 - 2 6 . S u m m e r w as r e g a r d e d a s c o m p r is in g t h e m o n th s o f May, J u n e a n d Ju ly . T h u s in t h e la te s e v e n th c e n t u r y A d o m n á n to o k 1 5 th J u n e to b e th e m id d le o f S u m m e r (A. O . a n d M . O . A n d e r s o n , Adomnán’s Life of Columba, 3 2 8 - 3 0 (n e w p a g in a tio n : 9 6 - 8 ) = ff. 5 4 b —5 5 a ) . T h e s u m m e r s o ls tic e w as a c tu a lly o n 18 th —19 th J u n e a t th is d a te . 1 'B y t h e s u n (i.e . l e n g th o f d ay ) 1st A p ril in t h e s e v e n th c e n t u r y c o r r e s p o n d s to a b o u t 4 th A p ril in t h e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y ; 1st N o v e m b e r lik e w ise c o r r e s p o n d s to a b o u t 4 th N o v e m b e r. F o r a b r i e f d is c u s s io n o f t h e m e c h a n is m , s e e p . 4 6 0 ( f o o tn o te ) . CIH i 7 0 .3 - 5 = AL iv 9 0 .1 6 -1 9 . 17 CIH i 7 2 .4 = AL iv 9 6 .2 1 . T h e r e a d in g ocaichach o f t h e M S sh o w s c o a le s c e n c e o f th e l e n ite d g a n d c ( T h u r n e y s e n , Grammar, 8 7 § 137).

‘’ (■Ill i 7 2 .1 0 -1 1 = AL iv 9 6 .2 3 —4. By d a y th e y s h o u l d b e u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f a (búachaill); cf. CIH vi 2 1 3 4 .4 -5 . 1 1( H l vi 222S .S 10. Bn Iha Cnmnittuhemi d e t i n e s /eh a s 'e \ c i \ h i n g a n d r e m a i n i n g ’. CIH i 6 6 .3 7 - 8 = AL iv 7 8 .8 -9 .

co w h erd

Grazing-trespass

137

T h e distance which the trespassing livestock have travelled lias a h e a rin g on the severin 1 the penaltv. 11 thev hau- onlv crossed one o r two holdings, or a road, or a shallow streamy it is re g a rd e d as a lesser form ol gta/ing-tiespass (ta n see).-" But a m ore serious view is taken if the\ have crossed th re e or lo u r holdings. In this case the trespass is classed a s rannul - which literallv m eans 'great r u n n i n g ’ - a n d entails a full penaltv. T h e text holds that to allow cattle to stray so far from their own fields betrays c o m plete n eglect.21 As every livestock f a rm e r knows, some individuals in his h e rd are pat ticularh likeh to break out - in M odern Irish a cow of this disposition is d e c rib e d as a bó bhradach. T h e O ld Irish law-texts similat 1\ recognise that a single individual mav act as ringleader a n d initiate a general break-out. This mav be of special legal significance in cases where livestock belonging to m ore than one ow ner are grazing together, lirctliii C.omailluhrs/i elect ibes a bovine of this n a tu re as a fonrgul r a id e r ’. If this animal causes the rest o f th e h e r d (a t) to trespass, it is h e ld responsible for h a lf the fine payable to th e la ndow ne r.22 T h e same text deals with the case of a pet piglet (unpheta) which is guiltv of leaping-tiespass I n n lm ) into a cornfield four times in o n e (lav. T h e o th e r pigs in the h e r d d ie t) have o n h trespassed once. In this situation half the Habilite devolves on the pet piglet and the o th e r half on the rest of th e h e r d .23 In certain circumstances, n o liability is attached to grazingtrespass. For instance, if cattle c o m m it leaping-trespass w hen p u r s u e d by m e n o r dogs, n o penalty (smacht) is d u e from their ow ner.21 T h e te is likewise no penaltv if thee trespass when in heat ( flibel)2 ' or in anv situation of panic or emergenc e'. According to a glossator, cat tie frightened be' th u n d e r or lightning would I.til into

2,1 CIIJ i 7 5 .1 5 - 1 7 =

AL iv 1 2 6 .5 - 7

Tamer s e e m s g e n e r a lly to b e u s e d f o r tre s p a s s Mi 94. ogmtharh insin, ar is ôg a follugud ‘th a t is fu ll

o v e r u n f e n c e d la n d : s e e d is c u s s io n a t 21 CIH i 7 7 .3 8 - 9 = AL iv 1 3 6 .1 9 -2 0

p e n a lty , b e c a u s e its n e g le c t is c o m p l e t e ’. 22CIH i 7 3 .1 -2 ; 1 9 5 .1 0 -1 9 = A L iv 1 0 8 .1 3 -1 4 . 23 CIH i 7 2 .1 4 - 3 0 =

AL iv 1 0 8 .8 -1 2 .

24 C / / / i 7 1 .1 - 2 = AL iv 9 2 .2 5 - 7 . 25 A g lo s s a to r (CIH i 7 1 .5 = AL iv 9 4 .4 ) s u g g e s ts t h a t th is r e fe rs to t h e h e a t o f th e s u n , b u t oihfU t) ( atbel( I) ) is w e ll-a tte s te d in t h e s e n s e o f s e x u a l e x c ite m e n t in a n im a ls . It a ls o is u s e d o f t h e f re n z y o f c a ttle t o r m e n t e d b y g a d flie s : s e e T. F. O ’R ahilly, ‘Ir. aobh, aoibheall, e t c . ’. S e e p . 2 0 3 f o r a d is c u s s io n o n w a rb le -flie s (g a d flie s ) in c a ttle .

138

Offences by domestic animals

(his category.“*7 T h e r e is also no penalty for am' form of trespass by a bovine which has lost its senses, o r which r e tu rn s to its familiar surro u n d in g s (presum ably aftei having been moved to a n o th e i place) .“7 A tradition is re c o rd e d in a gloss and c o m m e n ta r y on H e p ta d 43 that livestock which are found trespassing on a king s land (mrittg rig) on the day of his inauguration b e c o m e his property'. 4 his mav have b e e n a w idespread royal prerogative, a lthough the r e fe re n ce is only to the e ntitle m e nt of the king o f Cashel to a m livestock fo u n d in Fiad Mugain in File (Elv O ’Carroll) on the dav of'his in a u g u r a ­ tion. It is also claim ed that livestock f o u n d on the ro a d of Adamat (Rót Adamair) in Ui Chonaill C a b ra are forfeit to the abbot of Lismore on the day h e takes office.“7“

Aircsiu If a fa rm e r observes his own livestock o n his n e ig h b o u r s land but does n o th in g ab o u t it, he is guilty o f the offence of aircsiu 'look­ ing o n ’ .29 Because th e re is malice o r negligence o n his part, this offence is treated m o re seriously th a n most o th e r form s of trespass, a n d is classed as a ‘h u m a n o ffe n c e ’ (p. 134). It consequently entails a heavier fine, described as a ‘h u m a n penalty' ( duinerhaithig). Án 7 tán A fine o f five séts is to be paid for án 7 tán ‘driving to a n d f r o ’. 1 This is the offence o f driving cattle across a n e ig h b o u r's land with­ o u t permission. T h e law requires that cattle should onlv be driven across a n e ig h b o u r ’s land with his prior consent. “ To m inimise the risk o f da m a ge to his land, the o p e ra tio n must he c a rrie d out

(J II i 7 1 .6 = AL iv 9 1 .6 ; cf. CIH ii 5 7 5 .3 5 ; 6 7 8 .4 ‘le a p in g - tre s p a s s b e f o r e t h u n d e r o r h e a t ’.

airlim rin torainn no aibaill

27CIH i 4 1 .2

= A L v 2 6 8 .1 8 . WCIH i 4 0 .2 -9 ; v 1 8 4 4 .3 3 -4 0 = AL v 2 6 6 .1 - 7 ; CIH iii 9 0 8 .1 5 - 2 2 . F ia d M u g a in (a lso T i r M u g a in ( M u m a in ) ) h a s b e e n id e n tif ie d w ith F i th m o o n e , n e a r T h u r le s , C o . T ip p e r a r y ( H o g a n , Onomasticon s.w . fiadh mughaine, fid mogain, tir mughain).

29CIH i 2 3 5 .2 9 = AL v 4 6 4 .7 -8 ; cf. CIH iii 9 1 3 .5 - 6 : 30CIH ii 5 8 0 .2 4 - 5 = AI. iv 1 4 6 .1 6 -1 7 . 31 CIH i 2 0 5 .1 5 = 158.72.

CIH vi 2 2 2 8 .7 .

AL iv 15 6 .2 0 ; cf. CIH ii 5 7 1 .8 = B in ch y , ‘A n a r c h a ic le g a l p o e m ’,

' “T h e n e i g h b o u r c a n n o t r e f u s e t h e c a ttle - o w n e r ’s r e q u e s t if t h e l a n d h a s n o o t h e r a c ce ss. B u t a c c o r d in g to c o m m e n ta r y a t CIH v 1 8 5 8 .2 9 - 3 6 = AL iv 1 5 8 .1 4 - 2 2 a fe e m u s t b e p a id .

Grazi ng-trespass

139

by six m e n - th re e rep resen tativ es o f th e landow ner, a n d th re e o f th e cattle-ow ner.33 If a cattle-ow ner p u ts his cattle in to th e en clo su re ( búaile) o f a n o th e r farm er, h e m u st pay o n e set. T h e a u th o r o f th e text co n ced es th a t his act d o es n o m o re h a rm th an g o o d - the glossator is n o d o u b t c o rre c t in ex p lain in g th a t th e value o f the grass c o n su m e d by th e cattle is n o g re a te r th a n th e value o f the d u n g w hich tliev leave b e h in d in th e en clo su re. N onetheless, the cattle-ow ner m ust pav a h u e because o f th e stated legal principle th a t ‘n o th in g d o n e w ith o u t perm issio n is g o o d ’ .34*3689 If so m e o n e drives th e cattle o f his n e ig h b o u r in to his (i.e. the n e ig h b o u r’s) p astu re, h e m u st pay a fine o f th re e sets. T his is the sam e fin e as h e w ould pay if h e w ere to drive his own cattle into th e n e ig h b o u r's p astu re. If so m eo n e breaks o p e n a fence so as to allow cattle (his o r a n o th e r ’s) in to grassland, he m ust pay a fine o f five sets. F u rth e r p en alties tnav also be d u e for th e actual dam age to th e fence: see p. 378. As with o th e r fo rm s o f trespass, th e ru le s are relax ed in cases o f em ergency, d escrib ed as a ‘driving o f necessity’ (án acne). For exam ple, n o fin e is d u e fo r driving a cow in h e a t to a bull across a n e ig h b o u r’s la n d .3'

Fothlae 7 tothlae T h ese offen ces a re m e n tio n e d to g e th e r in a n u m b e r o f law-texts.3h B oth term s are c o m p o u n d s o f th e verb tlenaid ‘steals’, w hich suggests th at these trespasses are c a rrie d out in a secretive o r u n d e rh a n d m an n er. T h e only d e ta ile d d escrip tions are fo u n d in O ld Irish c o m m e n ta rv on Bretha Comaithchesa. w In th e case o f fothlae. th e c o m m e n ta to r envisages a party o f guests arriving at a p e rso n 's h o u se an d u n yoking th e ir h o rses on his n e ig h b o u r’s land. 33 CIH i 205.11 = AL iv 156.18-19. 34 CIH i 236.13-14 = AL v 466.1-3. 33 c m i 236.21-2 = AL v 466.4-5. 3 6 CIH ii 385.22 = AL i 168.4 (airba omitted). The figure of five sets is supplied by a glossator, CIH i 386.7-8 = AL i 174.11. See Binchy, ‘Au archaic legal poem ’, 157.31. 31 CIH i 205.15-16 = AL iv 156.20-21. 3 8 E.g. CIH ii 571.8 = Binchy, ‘An archaic legal poem ’, 158.71; CIH ii 675.5 = Appendix A, text 1 § 4 (2). 3 9 CIH i 194.7-14; ii 578.10-18 = AL iv 106.20-108.3. There is a a corrected transla­ tion at Binchy, 'An archaic legal poem ’, 164. He expresses doubt as to whether the com m entator’s examples of fothlae and tothlae reflect the true distinction between these terms, but makes no further suggestions.

140

Offences by domestic animals

II the host, noticing liis quests' l>i idles, jails to ensuit- th at thev have unyoked then lioises on liis own land, lit* is tçiii11\ oi Jothlac. a n d m ust pay fo r th e d am ag e d o n e by th e horses. In a n o th e r passage, /ollilae is listed as an o lle n ic liable loi a h u m an penaltv ( duinechaithig) .40 In the case of lot Itlac th e host plavs a m ore at live tô le in th e h orses' trespass. A ccording to th e c o m m en tato r, he m akes a reniai k such as 'this is Hue land to unyoke in ', and th u s enc m irages his guests to unvoke th e ir horses on a n eig h b o m s land. lie m ust th e ie fo ie pa\ for any d am age w hich they do. T he above exam ples illustrate th e o lle n c e s of jnlhlae an d tollilrir in relatio n to horses, b u t we can assum e th a t o th e r livestock co u ld also be guilty o f this fo rm o f trespass.41 D amage to crops T h e d estru c tio n o f a cro p by trespassing livestock co u ld cause severe h ard sh ip in the affected h o u seh o ld . Predictable, the m ain em phasis in legal m aterial is on c o rn [ilh t. with special m en tio n o f you n g co rn (fochenn) 42 a n d c o rn in a rick ( dais) ,43 In spite o f the seriousness o f such offences, legal c o m m e n ta ry enjoins that dom estic anim als fo u n d in co rn o r o th e r crops m ust not be killed. Instead, they sh o u ld be seized an d th e ir ow ner sh ould pav a fine ap p ro p ria te to th e a m o u n t o f d am ag e d o n e .44* H ens are id en tified as a p a rtic u la r m e n a c e to c o rn .43 C o m m e n ­ tary on Bretha Comaithchesa lists th e th re e h en -o flen ces o u tsid e a yard as ‘d e p re d a tio n s o n drying-kilns, b a rn s a n d co rn-ricks’ .4647 A n other version refers also to th e ir d e p re d a tio n s in co rn field s an d m ills.1. T h e line is fixed at o n e bushel (miitcli) of g rain for

40CIH ii 580.25 = AL iv 146.17. 4’The law-text Di Astud Chirt y Dligid refers to the man who secretly introduces (do­ llen) his cattle onto a neighbour’s pasture (CIH i 236.27-8 = At, v 466.6-7). For this he must pay a fine of three séts with restoration o f equivalent grass. This is probably a case of tothlae ( to-tlen), though at ÜIL D ii, 383.38 it is listed under di-tlen. ,2 E.g. CIH ii 385.9 = AL i 166.28; CIH i 266.43 = AL iii 186.2-3. 43 CIH ii 384.21 = AL i 166.28. 44 CIH ii 698.31-2. 1 ’E.g. Wasserschieben, Die irische Kanonensammlung, 215, bk. 53 ch. 9. 4&CIH i 73.23-4 (omitted AL) a in cercfogla a sechtarlis .i. fogal re hdthaib y [sjablaib J daisib arbhu. 47CIH i 74.9-11 = AL iv 118.21-3; cf. CIH i 98.28-9.

Damage to crops

141

each h e n , u p to seven h e n s .4849 A cock, however, is only liable fo r a fine o f h a lf a bushel. If h e n s have b een guilty o f habitual trespass (bithbinche) o n a n e ig h b o u r’s lan d , th e law req u ires th a t each of th em sh o u ld w ear a h o o d (cochall) to restrain them . If th eir o w ner fails to com ply w ith this re q u ire m e n t, h e is liable to pay a heavier 'h u m a n pen alty ' (duinechaithig) ,4il D am age d o n e by o th e r dom estic fowl o r bv p e t birds (such as h e ro n s o r ravens) is assessed at th e sam e ra te as th a t o f h e n s .50 H orses, too, are re p re se n te d as a th re a t to grow ing c o rn .'’1 an d Bretha Nemed Toisech refers to the d e stru c tio n o f a rick o f c o rn by h o rse s.52534 O th e r cro p s may also be d am ag ed by dom estic anim als. Again, h en s seem to have b e e n a m ajo r nuisan ce. C o m m en tary on Bretha Comaithchesa gives th e th re e hen-offences in a n o th e r’s enclosure (lis) as swallowing b ees,’’5 an d d estroying m a d d e r an d o n io n s’.51 It seem s likelv th at th e d am age to these crops is caused m ainly by th e ir scratch in g at th e roots. F o r o ffences by h e n s in an enclosure o r g a rd e n ( lubgort) th e ow n er m u st pay a h a lf scru p le o f silver.5556 D am age bv sh eep to a c ro p o fw o a d (glaisen) is m e n tio n e d in the O ld Irish tale Scéla Eogain y Cor mai c.:>h As a you n g m an C orm ac mac A irt was a p p ro a c h in g th e gates o f T ara for th e first tim e, w hen he saw th e stew ard o f th e king Mac Con telling a w om an so m ething w hich cau sed h e r to w eep. O n e n q u irin g w hat was w rong, h e was told th a t th e w o m a n ’s sh eep h a d b ro k e n in to th e q u e e n ’s woadg a rd e n (glaisengort ) an d h a d eaten th e leaves o ff th e plants. Mac C on h a d passed ju d g e m e n t th at th e w o m an ’s sh eep be forfeit for

48 CIH i 74.12-13 = AL iv 118.25-6. This passage implies that the maximum payable for hen-trespass i sechtarlis was seven bushels, even if more than seven hens were involved. 49CIH i 73.26-9 = AL iv 116.21-5. 50 CIH i 73.30-31 = AL iv 116.26-7. 51 Meyer, ‘Conall Core and the Corco Luigde’, 60.2; Hull, ‘Conall Core and the Corco Luigde’, 899. 52CIH vi 2216.38. 5 3 See p. 180 below. 54 CIH i 73.22-3 = AL iv 116.18-19 a tri cercfogla a lis: maethslucud bech y lot roidh y cainninne; cf. CIH iii 802.21. For a discussion of these crops, see Chapter 8 . Another version ( CIH i 74.9) refers more generally to hen-offences ‘against bees and plant(s) and corn-ricks’ (fri beochu y lus y cruacha). 5 8 CIH i 73.25 = AL iv 116.20-21. 560 Cathasaigh, Heroic biography, 122.85—97; O Daly, Cath Maige Mucrama 70 §§ 17-18, cf. 58 §§ 63-4.

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th eir offence, an d this was th e cause o f h e r distress. C o rm ac im m e­ diately p o in ted out to th e stew ard th at th e ju d g e m e n t sh o u ld have been ‘o n e sh earin g for a n o th e r ’ i.e. th e w om an sh o u ld only have to forfeit th e shearings o f h e r sheep in re c o m p e n se for th e ir sh earin g o f the w oad-plants. W hen Mac C on was told o f this ju d g e m e n t he realised that he h a d b een guilty o f injustice, a n d h a n d e d over the kingship o f T ara to C orm ac. This tale is obviously ap o cry p h al, b u t it serves to illustrate two c o n ­ trasting views o n how the law sh o u ld deal with o ffen ces by dom estic anim als. T h e p rin cip le that an an im al be forfeit to its victim is cited in a n u m b e r o f texts. F or exam ple, th e law-text on b e e k e e p in g Bechbretha refers to the g en eral p rin cip le th a t an anim al is forfeit for its o ffence (p. 156), a n d a story in Connor's Glossary illustrates this p rin cip le in relatio n to d am ag e to a k n ife-h an dle bv a p e t dog (p. 149). Bretha Nemed Toisech likewise states th at every type o f an i­ m al is forfeit for its first o ffence (p. 154). However, th e a u th o r o f Scéla Eogain j Cormaic clearly felt th a t a fine was a m ore a p p ro p ria te p u n ish m e n t th a n fo rfe itu re o f th e o ffe n d in g anim als in a case o f grazing-trespass. For th e p ay m en t o f fines in fleeces o f wool, see p. 75 above. R ooting -trespass T h e au th o rs o f th e law-texts take in to a c co u n t th e fact th a t th e various types o f livestock em ploy d iffe re n t m e th o d s o f grazing, a n d co n seq u en tly d am ag e grassland to varving degrees. C attle, for exam ple, have a bony p a d instead o f to p te e th , a n d th e re fo re ca n n o t cro p grass as low as horses, w hich - as o n e legal q u o ta tio n points o u t - 'graze to th e s o il'.’' O u r so urces are in a g re e m e n t th a t the m ost d estructive grazing is th e ro o tin g o f pigs, as thev ‘dig dow n to th e gravel (subsoil) V’5*8 Pig-trespass o f this tvpe is th e re fo re specially p enalized. A ccording to Bretha Comaithchesa, if pigs ro o t u p a n e ig h b o u r’s lan d , th e ir ow n er m ust p ro tid e alternative land for th e n e ig h b o u r’s use u n til th e sward has grow n again o n th e d am ag ed land. Presum ably h e m ust also fill in th e

5' C1H iii 788.11 grilit rich ca /mir. The same observation is made in TBC II . 13.444. Another tale likewise contrasts the grazing of horses and cows (M. E. Byrne, ‘A im Menman Uraird Maic Coisse\ 59.10-13). CIH vi 788.11 claidhit muca co grian.

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holes m ad e bv his pigs, th o u g h this is not specified in the te x t.59 An in g e n io u s test is used to d ecid e w hen this land is ready for re-use. Two h o rses a re yoked to g e th e r (i córait), a n d are loosed o n to th e h eld . If n o e a rth ad h e re s to th e ir teeth as they graze, the la n d is d e c la re d to have reco v ered from th e ro o ting-trespass.60 In a d d itio n to th e above, co m m e n ta ry o n Bretha Comaithchesa specifies h u e s w hich m ust be p aid by th e pig-owner. For every fully grow n pig (muc mór) w hich has trespassed, h e m ust pay a bushel o f grain, fo r every voting sow (cm ) he m ust pay h alf a bushel, an d fo r evert pig let ( banb) h e m ust pay fo u r scoops ( máim) o f grain; in a n o th e r version these fines are h alv ed .61 In cases w here pigs are sim ply guilty o f grazing-trespass (gleth) r a th e r th a n rooting-trespass (fochlaid) th e ir ow ner pays the same fines as for o th e r livestock.62 A n o th e r law-text m akes the co rrect observ atio n th a t sows d o n o t ro o t u p th e g ro u n d at th e tim e o f farrow in g ( ré duith).63 H e p ta d 45 co n sid ers th e case o f a dom estic anim al w hich gives b irth w hile u e sp a ssin g o n a n o th e r ’s land. No fine is payable for any d am ag e o r soiling o f th e g ro u n d at th e b ir th .64 O ld-Irish c o m m e n ta ry o n Bretha Comaithchesa includes digging u n d e r a h o u se (fobach n-aitrnbe) a m o n g th e offences which dogs are liable to co m m it.6’ D efecation T h e d u n g o f grazing anim als is g enerally re g a rd ed as beneficial

because o f its use as a fertilizer.66 T he only reference which I 5 9 Commentary at CIH i 69.1— 3 = AL iv 86.19—21 refers to holes made by trespass­ ing livestock (cethra). The owner of these animals must fill up the holes with the same type of soil, which he must press and stamp down (a sonnad y a sálad). There is a similar passage at CIH i 291.1-5 = AL iii 296.11-18, which is discussed under ‘defecation’ below. 60 CIH i 72.1-4; 191.8-10 = AL iv 96.17-20; cf. CIH ii 576.18-19. 6 1 CIH i 191.15-19 = ALiv 98.19-24. Commentary at CIH i 191.3-5 = AL iv 98.1316 refers to a procedure alleged to be ’in the old judgem ents’ but which seems quite impractical. This is that the owner of the rooting pigs should fill up each hole alternately with corn and butter. 62CIH i 72.1 = A L iv 96.16-17. 6 3 CIH iii 897.26 = Appendix A, text 2 § 3. MC7//i41.20 = ALv268.21 fourt cethra ac touth. The glossator takes/ourt (otherwise unattested) to refer to the afterbirth. 6 5 CIH i 197.9-10, ii 579.2 = AL iv 122.5. Cf. CIH iv 1501.25-6 = O ’Dav. 352 § 919. 6 6 CIH i 236.13-14 = AL v 466.1-3.

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have n o te d w here d efecatio n bv all dom estic anim als is treated as an o ffence is w hen this occurs o n paved to a d s - presum ably n e a r dw ellings. Legal co m m e n ta rv c o u n ts fo u ling a street a n d pavem ents' (salchad smite j chlachán) as o n e form of th e g en eral offence o ffodraime ’d am ag e to crops, fences a n d ro a d s'.1’“ A n o th e r co m m e n ta ry deals with th e special case o f cattle w hich have b een grazed w ith o u t p erm ission on th e hill (di/id) w here a public g ath erin g is to take place, a n d have cut u p an d soiled the g ro u n d . As well as paying hues, th e ir o w ner m ust press dow n ( sonnad) an d stam p (scilad) th e g ro u n d , a n d cover over th e affected area with fine clay o f th e sam e tvpe. O n th e dav o f th e m eetin g , he m ust provide rugs for th e kings to sit on , a n d ru sh es for those o f lesser ra n k .6768 Bretha Comaithchesa takes a severe line tow ards dog-ow ners w ho allow th e ir dogs to d efecate on o th e r p e o p le 's land. T h e dog-ow ner is re q u ire d to rem ove th e faeces a n d to rep lace th e c o n ta m in a te d soil. H e m ust th e n give th e land-ow ner th e sam e q u an tities o f b u t­ ter, curds a n d d o u g h .69 C o m m e n ta rv o n this text specifies that all soil w hich is affected even by th e sten ch o f th e faeces m ust be rem o v ed .70 C at-excrem ent is p articularly vile, so it is n o t su rp risin g to find that th e offences o f d o m estic anim als listed in Bretha Semed Toisech in clu d e th e fouling o f floor-strew ings o f ru sh es bv a kitten

(caitine).7172 As we have seen above, legal c o m m e n ta rv pavs special a tte n tio n to th e d am age d o n e by h e n s to c o rn an d o th e r crops. H en s mav also be a n u isan ce in a n e ig h b o u r’s dw elling-house: th e th re e hen-offences inside a h o u se are given as ‘theft, p o llu tio n , and sq u irtin g ’/ - O f these, theft (Joxal) clearly refers to th e taking o f food by th e h e n w ithin th e ho u se. P o llu tio n ( corbad) p resum able includes d rin k in g liquids from a c o n ta in e r a n d scratch in g o r pecking at foodstuffs, th ereb y m aking th em u n fit for h u m a n COT iii 802.20-22. COT i 291.1-5; v 16-17.10-14 = AL iii 296.11-18. 6 9 COT i 74.26-30; 197.6-17 = AL iv 120.15-22. Commentary at COT i 197.10-11; ii 579.2-3 - AI. iv 122.6-7 advises a slightly different procedure: the faeces is removed and replaced by a sod which is covered by cow-dung (bóchor) for a month. ,0COT i 98.21-6. It seems that if the dog-owner {Jet tmnaid) witnesses the offence, but does nothing about it, he is liable for a human penalty' (duinechaithig). 71 COT vi 2216.37-8. Liam Breatnach points out that one should read da ro corba sretha nais ‘in the event that it pollutes strewings of rushes ( nóes)’. 7 2 COT i 73.21-2 = AL iv 116.17-18. 67 68

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c o n su m p tio n .'3 S q u irtin g (dórtad) m ust refer to d efecation by the h e n w ithin th e house. '4 F or any o f these offences th e ow ner o f the h e n s m u st pay th re e loaves o f b r e a d .73747576 T heft o f fo o d

T h e m ain dom estic an im al likelv to steal food from a n e ig h b o u r’s h o u se is th e cat. In re la tio n to such offences, th e law-text Bretha Etgid lays dow n th e g e n e ra l p rin cip le th at ‘th e kitchen is an im m u­ nity fo r cats' (blai catt m ile) T h e accom panying co m m en tary explains th at th e ow ner o f th e cat is n o t liable if food has b een care­ lessly left in th e k itch en w ith o u t p ro p e r supervision. O n the o th e r h a n d , if th e cat takes food from a secure place o f storage (daingen tige) o r a vessel ( lestar), th e ow ner m ust rep lace th e food w hich has b een eaten o r d am ag ed . If th e cat has b een previously guilty o f the sam e offen ce, a fin e m u st also be paid. F lying-trespass T h e O ld-Irish law-texts devote an e x tra o rd in a ry a m o u n t o f atte n ­ tion to th e legal p ro b lem s associated with trespass by the flying anim als o f th e farm , p articu larly h o n eybees. O n e law-text states th at th e th re e m ost difficult trespasses are those o f bees, horses and p ig s." It d escribes a m e th o d o f identifying th e trespassing bees, b u t u n fo rtu n a te ly th e text is difficult to u n d e rsta n d . Possibly, flour was sprin k led o n th e bees as they trespassed so that a witness could reco g n ise th e m w h en they r e tu rn e d to th e ir hives.78 T h e basic p ro b le m fo r th e early Irish lawyers in th e case o f bees was how to fit th e ir fo rag in g in to th e g e n e ra l fram ew ork o f the law o f anim al-trespass. Bees forage for n e c ta r an d pollen w ithin a rad iu s o f a b o u t a m ile from th e ir hives, an d are th e re fo re alm ost cer­ tain to trespass o n lan d w hich d o es n o t b elo n g to th e beekeeper. In all o th e r legal systems - so far as I am aware - bee-trespass is ignored, ex cept in cases o f sw arm ing o r w here th e re is d a n g e r to p eo p le or 73O ne can compare Irish Canons I § 17 (IP 162) which sets a severe penance for drinking what has been contaminated by a hen, cock or other birds. 74For this use of dórtad see DIL D ii, 367.14. 7 5 CIH i 73.25 = AL tv 116.20. 7 6 CIH i 290.32; v 1647.1 = AL iii 296.1. 7 7 CIH iii 898.20 = Binchy, ‘A text on the forms o f distraint’, 80 § 11 = BB 189(c). Cf. CIH ii 573.25. 78See discussion at BB 190.

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livestock. T h e early Irish lawyers, however, viewed th e m a tte r dif­ ferently, an d felt that th e ow ners o f th e lands o n w hich the bees foraged m ust be c o m p en sated . T h e a u th o r o f th e m ain law-text on beekeep in g , Berhbretha, invokes th e p rin cip le th at no o n e sh o u ld su p p o rt a gratuity for a n o th e r in Irish law'.'9 T his a p p ro a c h is ech o ed in later co m m e n ta ry w hich alleges th at bees take away ‘taste a n d p ro d u c e ’ by forag in g on a n e ig h b o u r’s land.*" T his seem s to he only h a lf true: if a b e e k e e p e r ow ned m any hives his bees could red u ce th e q u an tity but n o t th e quality o f his n e ig h b o u r's honey. T h e solution p ro p o se d in Berhbretha to th e p ro b le m o f bee-trespass is com plex, b u t it has th e advantage o f sp re a d in g th e asset o f b e e ­ keeping th ro u g h o u t th e com m unity. A fter a three-vear p e rio d o f grace th e b e e k e e p e r is re q u ire d to give a swarm o f b ees to his im m e­ diate neig h b o u rs, startin g with th e o n e w hose lan d is n e a re st.* 1 A fter a few years all his n e ig h b o u rs will th e re fo re he b ee k e e p ers them selves, a n d th e trespasses of th e ir bees sh o u ld cancel out.*" T h e re are d ifferen ces o f o p in io n in th e law-texts as to th e co rrect term ino lo g y to be used in relatio n to bee-trespass. In Berhbretha th e trespass o f a bee is classed as tairsre, a w ord used in o th e r texts to describe th e less serious form s o f cattle-trespass.*3 But in a pas­ sage on th e trespass-penalties o f flying anim als, bees are re g a rd e d as b ein g guilty o f airlim ie a p in g -tre sp a ss’ because thev c a n n o t be restrain e d by fen ces.84 T h e sam e passage also ref ers briefly to th e o ffences o f geese, h en s an d p e t h ero n s. In th e case o f airlim bv a h e n , th e ow ner m ust pay a fine (smacht) consisting o f a twelve-inch tu h full o f g rain . H e m ust also e n su re th at its wings are c lip p ed a n d spancels p u t o n its legs.85 T h e sam e topic is also to u c h e d o n in a legal p o em o n landlaw, w hich refers to ‘flying-trespass o f birds, o f h ens, o f h e ro n s, if they are p e ts’ .86 79CIH ii 445.3 = BB 54 § 10. C/Hiii 788.11. 81CIH ii 447.5-6 = BB 62 § 19. 8a However, at CIH ii 450.24 = BB 74 § 38 it is implied that one beekeeper might in certain unspecified circumstances demand fines for trespass from another beekeeper. ^CIH ii 444.14 =BB 50 § 3. m CJH i 196.20, ii 578.26 - BB 186(b). For further discussion on the terminology relating to bee-offences, see BB 187. k CIH ii 578.34-6 = AL iv 118.27-30. HbCIH ii 571.9 = Binchv, ‘An archaic legal poem'. 158.76. The MS has aurlimm en cerrcc corr mad belli petlai. Following Thurneysen's suggestion (‘Aus dem irischen 80

Offences against persons

147

F ig . 6. T h is illu s t r a t io n in th e b ottom m a r g in of p. 281 of th,e fourteentH -cen tur-g B ook of B a llp m o te (M S no. 5 36 = 23 P 12) in th e Librar-y of th e R o y a l I r is h A cad em y shouis a n ak e d m a n p u rsu e d by a la r g e dog. It h a s been rep ro d u ced by k in d p e rm is s io n of th e C o u n c il of th e R o y a l I r is h A c ad e m y . O ffe n c e s a g a in s t p e r so n s

T h e la rg e r dom estic anim als a re s tro n g e r a n d heavier th an m en, a n d are th e re fo re capab le o f in flictin g severe injuries, w hich may be fatal. S m aller dom estic anim als can also cause in jury by tooth, h oof, h o rn , beak , claw, talo n o r sting. O n early Irish farm s, it is likely th a t m ost in ju ries by dom estic ani­ m als w ere in flicted on th e fa rm e r o r o n a m e m b e r o f his im m ed iate family. In such cases th e re w ould be n o n e e d for th e law to becom e involved. But if th e victim w ere a n eig h b o u r, guest, passer-by o r em ploy ee, h e - o r his kin in th e even t o f his d e a th - m ig h t have a legal claim against th e ow ner. T h e law-texts devote m uch a tten tio n to th e c ircu m stan ces o f th e in ju ry o r d eath . If it can b e d e m o n ­ stra te d th a t th e victim was wholly to b lam e, th e ow ner is free from liability. Injury by dogs T h e law-texts deal m o re freq u en tly with attacks on peo p le by dogs th a n bv any o th e r dom estic anim al. T his is n o t surprising: as we have seen in C h a p te r 3, th e g u ard -d o g (árchil) was specially b red fo r its b u lk a n d ferocity. A ttacks by dogs also fe a tu re in o th e r early Irish sources. For ex am p le, CÚ C h u la in n ’s n arrow escape from a g u ard -d o g is o n e o f th e best-know n ep isodes in the sagas (see p. 115). A n o th e r dog-attack - possibly based o n an actual in cid en t - is d esc rib e d in th e g en ealo g ies o f th e saints.8' A priest o f T ír Dá Recht IV’, 204), Binchy takes from cerrc to pettai to be a gloss and omits these words in his edition (‘An archaic legal p oem ’, 165). But I believe that they should be retained in spite o f the lack o f connective alliteration: for some discussion on the rules of alliteration in Old Irish, see Kelly, ‘A poem in praise o f Columb Cille’, 5; Kelly, ‘Tiughraind Bhécáin', 70. K76 Riain, Corpus genealogiarum sanctorum Hiberniae, 111 § 668.

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Glas n am ed Sem plán w ent with his a tte n d a n ts o n an e rra n d to the house o f D iarm ait o f Lecc na S innach. T hey fo u n d D iarm ait clear­ ing the e n tran ce-p ath to his h o u se with a shovel. D iarm ait s dog attacked th e party a n d hit S em plán, w ho th e n stru ck th e dog. D iar­ m ait retaliated by h ittin g Sem plán with his shovel, th ereb y sm ashing the service-set ( meivistir) o f C olum ba, w hich was on the priest s back. T h e case w ent for a rb itra tio n to R uidén, king of L i D róna, an d D iarm ait h ad to pay a fine o f seven rum als to the C o lu m b an com m unity. To re d u c e th e in cid en ce o f attacks on legitim ate visitors, th e lawtexts specify various form s o f w arn in g o r restrain t. T h e fra g m e n ta rt text on dog-law, Conslechtae, states th at a d o g w hich is know n to be aggressive ( cmfoilmnech) sh o u ld have a bell (doc) o r rattle (crothal) ro u n d its n eck .hK T h e o w n er’s oblig atio n to k eep th e do g c h ain ed u p o r o n a leash d u rin g th e day is also stressed.'v ' A ccording to legal co m m en tary on Conslechtae, a g u ard -d o g sh o u ld be tied to the n in th stake (cleth) from th e doorw ay so th a t it c a n n o t bite p eo p le in the m iddle o f th e h o u se o r o u t in th e pathw ay/ " 1 A nyone who is foolish e n o u g h to g et w ithin th e ra n g e o f a leash ed guard-dog has no claim against th e ow ner/ 11 T h e o w ner o f a h erd -d o g ( canis pecorum) is im m u n e from liability for anv in ju ry w hich it mav inflict w ithin th e cow -enclosure (in bovello) o r in th e fields w here th e cattle are. But h e is liable for any in ju ry w hich mav be in flicted o u ts id e /1-’ A guard-dog may only be loosed o n its o w n er's property from the tim e th e cows com e in to th e m ilking-place (indes) u n til su n ­ rise. Any injury w hich it inflicts betw een these tim es is free from liability.93 From a b rie f q u o ta tio n in a legal glossary it w ould also seem th at a daytim e attack is free from liability if th e re is no tearin g o f the p e rs o n ’s skin o r c lo th in g .94 An inju ry inflicted d u rin g a fight betyveen two dogs (congal) is generally free from liability.® O n e law-text goes so far as to sav that S SSCIH i 111.22; iv 1483.13-15 = O ’Dav. 271 §471. fi9 Wasserschleben, Die irische Kanonensammlung. 215, bk. 5 3 ch. 5 . CIH iv 1389.2(5-7 = AL îii 412.19—20; CIH iii 807.11—12. The comm entator pre­ sumably envisages a circular house of wattling woven around vertical stakes- see p. 363. 91 CIH vi 2216.33. 9 2 Wasserschleben, Die irische Kanonensammlung, 214, bk. 5 3 ch. 5 . 93 CIH iv 1395.19-20; cf. CIH i 313.36-42; v 1550.31-2. 94 CIH iv 1513.9-10 = O Dav. 404 § 1179. 9bCIII i 268.12 = AL iii 192.9.

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even if it is a k in g w ho attem p ts to sep arate fig h tin g dogs, h e has no claim a g a in st th e o w ners if h e is in ju re d .96 T h e severit)' w ith w hich th e law re g a rd s an attack by a do g may d e p e n d o n w h e th e r its aggressive n a tu re was previously know n to th e ow ner. A cco rd ing to legal co m m entary, if it is a ‘dog o f first o ffe n c e ’ ( cú chétchintach), th e ow ner is only resp o n sible for m edical care (othras) o r re c o m p e n se (aithgein): n o fu rth e r fines are d u e .97 O th e r law-texts tre a t a d o g ’s first offence q u ite differently, an d invoke th e p rin c ip le th a t it beco m es th e p ro p e rty o f its victim .98*10 H e can th e n d e c id e w h e th e r to kill th e o ffen d in g an im al o r keep it him self. T h e sam e p rin c ip le u n d e rlie s a le g e n d ary legal case q u o te d in Cormac’s G l o s s a r y C airp re Músc coveted a p e t dog (oirce) w hich b e lo n g e d to his relauves in B ritain. H e devised a trick to se c u re it: h e ru b b e d fat a n d b e e f lard on th e o rn a m e n ta l h a n d le o f his knife, a n d left it in fro n t o f th e d o g a t n ight. O n th e follow ing m o rn in g , h e fo u n d th a t th e dog h ad th o ro u g h ly gnaw ed th e h a n d le , so h e p re te n d e d to be greatly e n rag ed . His hosts o ffe re d to pay co m p e n sa d o n , b u t h e d e m a n d e d th a t the dog itself be given as re c o m p e n se for th e dam age. H e a rg u e d th a t it was a p rin c ip le o f B ridsh law th a t every guilty o n e is fo rfeit for its o ffen ce ( each bibdu ina chinaid) .10° His view prevailed, an d he b ro u g h t th e d o g b ack w ith h im to Irelan d . If a p e rso n is in ju re d by a dog, h e m u st give public notice (airfócrae o r apad) o f th e o ffence. A ccording to a law-text on distraint, h e is re q u ire d to p lace a p la n k o f w ood across th e d o g ’s feed in g -tro u g h w ith n o d e e th a t it is n o t to be fe d .101 Presum ably, if the ow ner has already a d m itte d his liability - o r a t least given a p led g e to indicate

96 CIH iv 1395.24-5. 9 7 CIH vi 2151.31 (other legal commentary refers to circumstances in which full fines are to be paid even for a first bite ( CIH i 312.35—42 = AL iii 414.24—416.5)). Othras involves taking responsibility for the nursing of the injured person, paying all medical fees, providing a substitute to do his or her normal work, and compensating for any perm anent disability. For a general account o f the law relating to illegal injury, see GEIL 129-32. 98CIH ii 449.11-19 = BE 6 6 § 29 (especially glossf); cf. Meyer, Triads, 22 § 169; IP 174 § 2 = GEIL 354 (5) § 2. "M eyer, Sanas Cormaic, 75-6 § 883. 100In fact this seems rather to be a principle o f Irish than o f British law: I have found no trace of it in relation to animal-offences in medieval Welsh law. See further discussion on p. 142 above. 1 0 1 CIH iii 897.37-9 = Binchy, 'A text on the forms o f distraint’, 78 § 4.

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his willingness to subm it to a rb itra tio n - this fo rm ality is u n n e c e s­ sary. If th e ow ner ignores th e n o tice a n d c o n tin u e s to feed the dog, his guilt is thereby in creased a n d he m ust pay th e fine fo r a ‘h u m a n o ffe n c e ’ (duinerhin) ra th e r th a n for an ‘anim al offence (ropchin) ,102* An offence co m m itted bv a d o g straying d u rin g th e dav is also classed as a ‘h u m a n o ffe n c e ’. T h e e x p la n a tio n given for this ru le is th at it should be e ith e r tied u p or o n a leash at this tim e .1" ' How­ ever, legal c o m m en tary o n Conslechtae takes a less severe view o f the straying o f a bitch in h e a t (a i sodaig). N o n eth eless, h e r ow ner is req u ired to w arn his fo u r im m ed iate n e ig h b o u rs of h e r sta te .1" 1 In som e cases, a p e rso n o th e r th a n th e o w n er m ay be h eld liable for th e d o g ’s offences. T his app lies if so m eo n e is guilty o f inciting ( muilliud o r inmuilliud) a n o th e r ’s d o g against p e o p le o r livestock.105 It may also apply in th e case o f a w an d erin g do g ( rli seichill) 1061078 w hich leaves its ow ner an d attach es itself to a n o th e r h o u seh o ld . If th e h o u se h o ld e r feeds it fo r six davs, h e becom es liable for its offences ra th e r th a n th e o rig in al owner. To avoid responsibility for ‘last sig h tin g ’ (tigradus), he m ust drive o ff the dog th re e tim es, an d give pub lic n o tice (escaire) o f its p re s e n c e .1"' T his category o f d o g is p e rh a p s to be id en tified with th e taidchú foindil ‘w an d erin g thieving d o g ’, m e n tio n e d in Bechbretha.1(lf' T h e text em phasizes th a t it sh o u ld n o t be h a rb o u re d bv anvbodv, no m atter how high-ranking. Injury by cattle As o n e w ould expect, th e law-texts d evote m o re a tte n tio n to injuries caused by m ale th a n bv fem ale bovines. T h e d an g e ro u s te m p e ra m e n t o f the bull (tarb) is stressed, a n d it is m ad e clear that in som e circum stances a p erso n in ju re d bv a bull has no legal redress against th e owner. T h e text o n accidents, Bretha Étgid, gives I0 2 C /// vi 2195.8-9 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht III’, 329 § 20. In a triad at U H vi 2099.21 it is implied that any offence bv a dog is treated as a human offence’, but this is an oversimplification. The same claim is made with regard to the offences of a chained dog (ai Araig) in Meyer, Triads, 22 § 168. 10:167// ii 572.25-7. 1 0 4 CIH i 285.16-17 = AL iii 272.12-13; cf. CIH i 112.29. 1 0 5 CIH i 334.25; iv 1177.9; 1391.1 = AL iii 518.20. 1 0 6 Cf. CIH i 312.17 cú faeindil ‘wandering dog’. 107 CIH iii 857.4-17; 971.17-29. 108 CIH " 451.24 = BB 74 §39; CIH i 55.2 = AI. v 318.14 (H eptad63). The glossators, on the other hand, take this to be a metaphorical phrase referring to a human thief.

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it as a g e n e ra l legal p rin cip le th at a bull is im m u n e from liability w hile th e cows are in h e a t.109 T h e ow ner also has no responsibility for any in ju ry caused by his bull w hen it is o u t o n loan, provided h e has w arn ed th e b o rro w e r o f its in n a te viciousness (bithbinche). If th e bull has b e e n b o rro w ed w ith o u t th e o w n er’s perm ission, th e b o rro w e r is liable for any in ju ry inflicted o n a th ird party.110 In o th e r law-texts it is im p lied th a t a fierce bull should be u n d e r restrain t at tim es w hen it m ig h t pose a th re a t to n eig h b o u rs or passers-bv. T h u s Bretha Xemed Toisech refers to a bull w hich is tied u p ( cuimrechtach) .111 An o x (dam) is gen erally m o re docile th a n a bull, b u t can som etim es be d an g ero u s. F rom th e law-texts it w ould ap p e a r th at m ost injuries caused by o x en to o k place o n th e ploughing-field. As p lo u g h in g regularly involved co -o p eratio n by up to fo u r n e ig h b o u rs (see p. 445), it is easy to im agine how com plex legal d isputes could arise. An ox b e lo n g in g to n e ig h b o u r X m ight provoke an ox b e lo n g in g to n e ig h b o u r Y, w hich m ig h t injure n e ig h b o u r Z. To avoid litig atio n in such cases, th e law-text on acciden ts m akes a g e n e ra l ru le th a t no o n e is h eld acco u n tab le for in ju ries caused by ‘ox-rag e’ (damgal) d u rin g p lo u g h in g .112* O xen are sim ilarly e x e m p t w hen they are b e in g cau g h t for yoking,1ls o r w hen p u llin g a c a rt o n a jo u rn e y (immitecht) ,114 Fem ale bovines are gen erally placid, a n d th e re fo re pose little d a n g e r to n eig h b o u rs o r passers-by. However, a cow w hich has ju s t calved ( nuidlech) is liable to be n erv o u s an d u n p red ictab le. For this reaso n , th e law-text o n accidents, Bretha Etgid, states th at if a newly-calved cow in ju res som ebody, no liability is in c u rre d by the

1 0 9 CIH i 276.3 = A I iii 230.Z (quoted in part at CIH iv 1494.7 = O ’Dav. 318 § 741) bid tarb 7 rathe darmna ‘heat is the immunity of bulls and rams’. This is the only attestation of the term darmna ‘heat (in cows or ewes)'. The glossator equates it with dáir of the same meaning. 110 C IH v 1578.33-4. 111 CIH ü 2216.33-4. n 2 CIH i 284.1-4 = AL iii 266.13-14. It is similarly implied at CIH vi 2306.15 = Binchy, 'Bretha Déin Chéc,ht', 24 § 4 that no one is held responsible if a person is injured when oxen in a plough-team stumble (Jitil arat[h]air oc [c]uidlga). See discussion in Binchy’s notes. u s C IH i 10.17 = A L v 152.3-4. 114 CIH i 284.3 = AL iii 266.17.

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ow ner.113 T his only applies w hen h e r calf is tied u p in a pen (lias) o r en clo su re (airbe); u n d e r such circu m stan ces th e cow w ould naturally b e particu larly d istressed .115116 A m ong low -ranking farm ers, m ost in ju ries caused by a newly-calved cow w ould be inflicted o n th e o w ner o r a m e m b e r o f his family an d co u ld not th e re fo re give rise to litigation. Legal co m m en tary shows th at in th e case o f m o re afflu en t farm ers such injuries w ould be likely to be suffered bv em ployees, particularly the cow herd (tmachaill) a n d m ilk er (bligre). It is em p h asized that they have n o legal e n title m e n t to c o m p e n sa tio n for am injuries by a newly-calved cow, e x c e p t in th e case o f a cow o f in n a te viciousness {bó bithbinche) ,117 It is well know n th at a previously d ocile cow mav go m ad for no a p p a re n t reason. As th e ow ner co u ld n o t be ex p e c ted to an ticip ate such an o c c u rre n ce , H ep tad 7 absolves h im from responsibiltv for injuries w hich m ig h t be caused at th e im m ed iate o u tb re a k o f the m adness.118* Glosses a n d com m en tary m ake it clear, however, that he m ust a tte m p t to slau g h ter th e m ad cow, 118 a n d m ust also w arn his fo u r n e a re st n eig h b o u rs as soon as p o ssib le.12012

Injury by horses In early Irish sources we find m any re fe re n ce s to in ju ries caused directly o r indirectly by horses. T h e re are n u m e ro u s reco rd s in the annals o f d e a th o r in ju ry resu ltin g from a fall (escar) fro m a h o rse .111 It is d e a r from H e p ta d 7 th a t if som ebody is throw n from a b o rro w ed h o rse, th e ow ner is g enerally n o t h e ld to b e legally responsible. T h e acco m panying co m m e n ta ry does how ever stress th at the ow ner m ust give a yvarning if th e h o rse is know n to be in the h ab it o f b u ck in g (prepad) o r shying (scáth) .122 As in th e case o f o th e r m ale anim als, a stallion (echcullach o r cub lach eich) is m o re likely to be vicious th a n a m are. A stallion is 1 1 5 CIH i 275.12-13 = AL iii 228.7-8. The same rule is given in H eptad 7 ( CHI i 9.35; iii 1046.33; v 1886.15 = AL v 152.2—3); the accompanying gloss fixes three days as the period in which a cow is regarded as a nuidUch ( nuithlech, nuthlech MSS). CIH i 275.13 = AL iii 228.7-8 acht hid ô lias no airbe adriastar a laegh. Another version (not printed in CIH) in RIA MS 670 (D v 2) f. 19b 15 has do lias. 1 17 CIH i 10.5-10 = AL v 152.12-24. 1 1 8 C/H i 10.17 = ALv 152.3. , 1 9 C7H i 10.20-21 = A L \ 154.10. 1 2 0 CIH i 285.16-17 = AL iii 272.12-13. 121 See DIL s.v. 1 escar. 1 2 2 CIH i 10.24 = AL v 154.25-6.

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g enerally free from liability for o ffences c o m m itted while the m ares are in h e a t.123 If th e o w n er o f a h o rse is aware th a t it is a b iter (■daintech) , he m ust take special steps to en su re that it is k ep t u n d e r restrain t. If h e fails to d o so, a n d th e h o rse bites som eone, the in ju ry is classed as a ‘h u m a n o ffe n c e ’ (duinechin) ,124 In ju ries in v o k in g h orses are p articularly likely to h a p p e n on ro ads o r w here m any p e o p le o r vehicles are crow ded together. T h e law-text on accid en ts m akes th e g en eral ru le th at ‘an assembly is an e x e m p tio n for h o rse s’.1251267 A ccording to th e accom panying co m m en tary , this m ean s th a t a horse-ow ner is n o t norm ally liable fo r in ju ries in flicted by his h o rse at a fair, n o r is h e en title d to co m p e n sa tio n if his h o rse is itself in ju red . E xceptions to this g en e ra l p rin c ip le o c c u r w here th e h o rse is know n to possess a vicious te m p e ra m e n t ( bithbinche): if th e ow ner lends such a horse to a n o th e r h e m ay b e w holly o r p artly liable fo r its offences at a fair.12" H e is also liable if his h o rse causes an in jury th ro u g h shving ( bedg), leap in g ( redg), a kick ( lú a ), an awkward ju m p (sáebléim), a twist w hile u n d e r [th e rid e r ’s] h a n d (cor fo láim), b u ck in g (prep) o r p u ttin g its h e a d in th e fork o f a tree (cenn i ngabal).1- 1 If th e b o rro w er dam ages th e horse th ro u g h ro u ghness (borblachas) o r th ro u g h stre tc h in g it beyond its stren g th (rige tar tracht), h e m u st pay a fin e to th e ow ner.128 A ccidents involving ch ario ts are sim ilarly im m u n e from liability w hen thev o c c u r at a fair.129 To re d u c e th e risk o f chariot-accidents on th e roads, th e law-text on this topic specifies th at a high road (slige) sh o u ld be w ide e n o u g h fo r two chario ts to pass. A secondclass ro a d (rout) sh o u ld be able to acco m m o d ate a ch ario t and two h o rs e m e n .130 T h e law-texts also refer to th e p ro b lem o f p er­ sons b e in g in ju re d by stones o r clods o f e a rth throw n up by h o rses’ hoofs. In g en eral, th e rid e r is n o t held responsible. T hus H ep tad 8

1 2 3 CIH iîî 1046.34-5 = AL v 152.5-6 (glossed at 154.28-30) ; cf. CIH ii 376.18 = AL i 126.6-7. 1 2 4 Meyer, Triads, 22 § 168; cf. CIH iv 1494.41-2 = O ’Dav. 321 § 758. 1 2 5 CIH i 265.41 = AL iii 180.6 bid ech aenach. Cf. Kelly, Andacht Morainn, 10.71 § 28. 126CIH i 266.28-267.1 = AL iii 184.4-186.5. 1 2 7 CIH i 266.6-8; iii 934.34-7 = AL iii 180.16-20. 1 2 8 CIH i 266.4-6; iii 934.29-31 = AL iii 180.12-15. 1 2 9 CIH i 283.28 = AL iii 264.22. 1 3 0 CIH iii 893.23-5 = Appendix A, text 4 § 1 (l)-(2 ).

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includes ‘a re b o u n d in g from th e hoofs of h o rses a m o n g th e seven reb o u n d in g s w hich may cause injury, b u t d o n o t entail liability.111

Injury by pigs Pigs - particularly boars an d sows with you n g - may be very aggressive tow ards h u m an s, an d have ex trem ely sh arp teeth . Cain Adomnáin speaks o f w om en b ein g killed by p ig s,11' an d in Bethu Phátraic we find a re fe re n ce to th e eatin g o f a ch ild by pigs.111 In response to th e e n treaties o f th e ch ild 's p aren ts, Patrick o rd e re d th at his b o n es be collected, an d th ro u g h p ray er resto red him to life. T h e law-text Bretha Memed Toisech d escribes two cases in w hich a child is attacked by pigs. In th e first o f these, the tro u b le was started by a h u n tin g d og ( mílchú), a p p a re iltly b elo n g in g to a bov n am ed B éim nech, g reat-g ran d so n o f C o n la e .111 T h e d o g attack ed a h e rd o f pigs, w hich tu rn e d o n it a n d gave chase. T h e dog escaped from them , b u t they th e n attack ed B éim nech, a n d tore him with th e ir te e th from sole to fo reh ead , inflicting fiftv w ounds. A case for co m p en satio n a n d sick-m am tenance was su b m itted to C oirpre Lifechair, w ho ju d g e d th a t th e pigs be forfeit - a co m m o n penalty for a first o ffence by a d o m estic anim al (see p. 142).14’ But w hen C o irp re ’s father. King C orm ac m ac Airt, h e a rd o f this ju d g e m e n t, he o v e rtu rn e d it. H e ru le d th a t it was n o t th e pigs b u t the d o g w hich was responsible in law fo r th e bov's injuries. (In the second case d escrib ed in this text, pigs killed a calf a n d a child: see p. 180 below.) O th e r law-texts also discuss various circu m stan ces in w hich injurv inflicted by pigs is free from liability1. O n e text states th at pigs are totally e x e m p t if they in ju re so m eo n e w hile b e in g d riven from th e ir digging ( clas), o r w hile b ein g m oved from th e ir tro u g h (omar), o r w hen d istu rb ed a t an accu sto m ed feeding-place in a w ood, o r after 132

131CIH i 11.18 = AL V 156.15 alhsceinm a cruaib [e]ach. Cf. CIH i 283.9 = AL iii 262.21 bid rob caebad ‘throwing up clods is the immunity of animals'. At AL v 157.21 a cruaib is translated ‘from horses' shoes', but there is no evidence of horseshoes in Ireland at this period: see p. 94 above. 1 3 2 Meyer, Cáin Adamndin, 28 § 42. 1 3 3 Mulchrone, Bethu Phdlraic, 119.2319-120.2333. (AH vi 2217.,3-23. A Utter version at ( A ll vi 2113.6—15 is edited bv Dillon, ‘Stories from the law-tracts’, 44 § ii (trans. 52-3 § ii). CIH vi 2217.12 diubrwtn each cethra 'na .c.cinadh ‘all livestock are taken away for their first offence’.

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b e in g w o u n d e d o u t in th e fields.130 Similarly, th e law-text on acci­ d e n ts gives it as a g e n e ra l ru le th a t ‘th e feed in g -tro u g h o r th e sty is th e e x e m p tio n o f pigs’.13' H e p ta d 7 lists two tvpes o f situ atio n in w hich th ere is no liabil­ ity fo r in ju ry bv pigs. O n e is th e case o f ‘b lo o d sh ed by pigs being seized in a sty’: this im plies th at if a p e rso n - for w hatever reason - catch es o r m a n h a n d le s pigs in th e ir sty, th e o w ner is n o t liable fo r am in ju ries w hich may re su lt. 136*138 T h e o th e r case co n cern s a sow with voting: h e r ow ner is ex em p t fo r h e r offen ces.139 A reference in a n o th e r law-text suggests th at a b o a r ( muccullach) 140 is im m une fro m liability d u rin g th e m atin g seaso n .141

Injury by sheep S h eep seld o m cause in ju ry to h u m an s, a lth o u g h ram s can be aggressive, p articu larly w h en th e ewes are in heat. A ccording to th e law-text on accidents, th e ow n er o f a ram is free from liability for any in ju ries w hich it may inflict d u rin g th e p e rio d o f m atin g .142 But if a ram o f know n fierceness ( reithe lond) causes injury at o th e r tim es, its o w n er m u st pay as fo r a ‘h u m a n o ffe n c e ’ (duinechin) ,14314

Injury by bees As we have seen in C h a p te r 3, h o n ey b ees have a rem arkably high profile in earlv Irish law. partly because o f th e legal p roblem s con­ n e c te d with bee-trespass. T h e m ain tex t o n bee-law, Bechbretha, also devotes m u ch a tte n tio n to th e legal co n seq u en ces o f stings from b e e s .111 136 CIH

iv 1268.11-13. Versions are also found in later commentary at CIH i 10.28-9; 1828.16-19 = AL v 154.21-4. I take oc suiguid feada rognathaith- of CIH iv 1268.12— 13 to be for oc suidiu jedo rognáthaigetar 'at a situation (feeding-place?) in a wood which they frequent’. The later version at CIH v 1828.19 has simply agithe mesa na caille ‘eating the mast of the wood’. 137CIH iii 943.30 = AL iii 242.13 bid oircêlno chrô; cf. CIH i 278.24. The unpublished version in RIA MS 670 (D v 2) f. 22a 21 has bled mucc orcël y crö. 1 3 8 CIH i 10.17— 18 = AL v 152.4 fuil muc oca ngabäil a mi. 1 3 9 CIH i 10.18 = At. v 152.4. The text has Juil muc a fair, which the glossator explains as oc breith muc ‘giving birth to pigs’. I take/dir to refer to the nest in which the sow gives birth to her piglets, and where they spend the first weeks of their life; see p. 80. 1 4 0 Cf. CIH iii 897.21 = Appendix A, text 2 § 1 (25) cullaig (sic leg.) muc. 141 CIH ii 376.20 = AL i 126.7. The glossator has i n-aimsir láith ‘in the time of mating’. l i2CIH i 276.3 = AL iii 230.25; cf. CIH iii 1046.35 = AL v 154.29. 1 4 3 Meyer, Triads, 22 § 168. 144 CIH ii 449.4-32 = BB 66-72 §§ 27-35. V

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If a p erson is stu n g w hile ro b b in g o r m oving th e bee-hives, o r even w hile looking over th e hives at sw arm ing tim e, th e b e e k e e p er is not liable. But if a bee stings a n e ig h b o u r o r passer-by w ho is n o t in te rfe rin g with th e bees in any wav, th e b e e k e e p e r m ust provide him with a m eal o f honey. T h e victim m ust, however, swear an o ath that he did n o t kill th e bee w hich stung him . T his is because of the g en eral p rin cip le in earlv Irish law th at th e life o f an anim al is forfeit for its o ffe n c e .14’ C onsequently, if the victim has killed the o ffe n d in g bee, h e is felt to have already b e e n re q u ite d for tb e sting. A n in th -c e n tu ry glossator o n Rerhbretha raises th e p o in t th at a h o n ey b ee norm ally dies anvwav after stinging a h u m a n .111' T his is because its sting beco m es im b e d d e d in th e skin an d it ru p tu re s its ab d o m e n in trying to withdraw. T h e glossator takes th e view that the victim is still e n title d to receive hotter' from th e b e e k e e p e r because h e has n o t d elib erately caused th e d e a th o f th e bee. .After a g en eral acco u n t o f th e law relatin g to bee-stings, the a u th o r o f Bechbretha moves on to deal w ith th e case o f C ongal C áech, king o f T ara, allegedly b lin d e d in o n e eye by bees. A ccording to early Irish custom , this m e a n t th a t h e h a d to abdicate, as a b lem ish ed m an co u ld n o t re m a in in th e k in g sh ip .1*' C ongal, we are told, sued th e b eek eep er, an d th e ju d g e m e n t was th at lots be cast o n all th e hives in th e apiarv. T h e hive on w hich the lot fell becam e his property. T h e a u th o r o f Bechbretha points o u t th a t in such a case, all th e b ees o f this hive a re fo rfeit fo r th e offence o f a single b e e .148 In spite o f b e in g d o c u m e n te d in a n early c o n te m p o ra ry law-text,118 th e story of C ongal C áech c o n tain s som e d u b io u s features. T h o u g h he was u n d o u b te d ly a king o f th e C ru itlm i, th ere is no early evidence o u tsid e Bechbretha th at h e ever actually held th e kingship o f T a ra.1 T h e claim th at his eve was b lin d e d bv a bee-sting is also suspect: th e h u m a n eye-closing reflex is so fast14567

CIH ii 449.13 = BB 6 6 § 29. 146CIH iii 924.5-6 = BB 6 6 § 29e. 1 4 7 GEIL 19. t,8CIJj ii 449.28 = BB 70 ii 34. For the application of the same principle to cases where one animal kills another, see p. 176 below. 1 wCongal is known to have died at the battle of Mag Rath in AD 637 ( BB 123), and Bechbretha can be dated on linguistic grounds to the seventh century, possibly as earlv as AD 650 (BB 13). 15()See discussion at BB 126-31. 145

Offences against persons

157

th at a b e e 's sting w ould be unlikely to p e n e tra te to the c o rn e a .151 It is possible, th e re fo re , th a t th e lead in g case o f C ongal’s bee-sting is fictitious. Bechbretha does n o t d eal w ith cases in w hich a perso n dies as a resu lt o f a sting in flicted by so m eo n e else’s b e e s.152153 In late r com ­ m entary. however, it is stated th at th e b e e k e e p er m ust pay a fine o f two hives. T h e ru le is given in th e fo rm u la ‘o n e hive for blinding, two hives fo r killin g ’ (ceis isin cáechad, dá chis isin rnarbad).1,?'

151See discussion at BB 121-22. 152Death from a bee-sting is treated in medieval Welsh law: see BB 198 § 6 . 1 5 3 CIH i 316.37 = AL iii 432.14.

5 Offences against domestic animals T h e legal c o n c e p t o f cruelty to anim als is n o t reco g n ised in earlv Irish law. C onsequently, all th e o ffences listed helow (except bes­ tiality) relate only to livestock b elo n g in g to oth ers. For exam ple, th e offence o f ‘excessive fe tte rin g o n h o rses' ( sthrhuimrech for echu) m ight o ccu r w hile a p erso n re stra in e d a b o rro w ed h o rse w hich was b ein g tro u b le so m e.1 It co u ld n o t apply to his ow n horse. K il l in g

T h e re are m any situations in w hich a p erso n illegallv causes the d eath o f a dom estic anim al b e lo n g in g to som ebodv else. It may simply be for food: legal co m m e n ta ry d escribes the case w here an anim al is stolen a n d th e n eaten . T h e fin d in g o f its entrails, bones a n d g o re n e a r a su sp ect’s h o u se can be used as evidence against h im .2 O n th e o th e r h a n d , m alice m ay lie b e h in d th e killing o f an anim al: legal c o m m en tary refers also to th e case ol a wife w ho deliberately starves a h o u se h o ld dog to d e a th . Large-scale slau g h ter o f cattle was a tactic widely used in early Irish w arfare, with the in te n tio n o f hu m iliatin g an enem y p e o p le a n d d am ag in g th eir econom y. 1 T h e e p ith e t Bóguine 'cow -killer' was a tta c h e d to the sixth-century king É nnae, son o f C onall G ulb an. from w hom the C enél m B ó g u in e w ere d e s c e n d e d .P o s s ib ly , E n n ae B óguine was fam ous - o r n o to rio u s - fo r th e n u m b e r o f his e n e m ie s’ cattle w hich h e h a d slaughtered.*’ 1 CIH i 239.36 = AL v 476.23. -CIH n 692.17-18. 3CIH i 149.10-11. This short commentary is attached to the words denugudh con ‘hastening(?) [the death] of a dog’. It is likely that these two words belong to an Old Irish text on legal disputes within marriage (usually leading to divorce). At the beginning of this section (CIH i 144.5), there is a quotation from the main text on the law of marriage, Cain IAnamna, but the rest of the material in this section seems to be independent of that text. 4 E.g. AU2 574 § 6 s.a. 1128. r’cat 163. 6 Cf. Stokes, The prose tales in the Rennes Dindsenchas, (2)’, 153 § 142. On the other hand, it is possible that bóguine refers to the sacrificial slaughter of cattle (see p. 52). Meyer (‘Zur keltischen Wortkunde. VIT, 629) draws attention to the Greek cognate ßoutpovoc; ‘ox-killer, priest’. A further possibility is that bóguine means ‘one who slaughters cattle [for guests] ’, i.e. a generous host.

Killing

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T h e d e a th o f livestock may result from carelessness o r ro u g h treat­ m e n t ra th e r th a n from an in te n tio n to kill: a fa rm e r may find his n e ig h b o u r’s anim als on his lan d a n d drive th e m o ff in a m a n n e r w hich causes th e ir d e a th o r serious injury. H e p tad 5 lists seven such illegal drivings a n d specifies that fines m ust be paid by the p erso n resp o n sib le, w ho may o f course counter-claim for the dam ­ age d o n e to his cro p s o r grassland. T h e seven drivings are: ‘driving th em in to th e sea. driving th e m in to a m ire, driving them into a m arsh, driving th em in to a place w here wolves are co n g regated, driving th e m w ith spite o r carelessness th ro u g h w hich an anim al dies, startlin g th e m with an g ry fierceness th ro u g h w hich bones are b ro k en , driving th em in to a cow -house in fected with th e disease o f stag g ers(?) o r cattle-plague (unless they have com e o u t o f it) ’.7 X on-legal sources p ro tid e instances o f fatal in ju ry as a result o f care­ less driving o f trespassing livestock. For exam ple, th e Life o f Saint C olm án m ac L ú ach áin re c o u n ts th e tale o f a leg en d ary bull n am ed G rogin, w hich h a d th e u n u su al h a b it o f m atin g with m ares as readilv as with cows. O n e day this bull strayed in to a co rn field belo n g in g to a m an n a m e d Mac C oisem naig, w ho chased it o u t a n d in d o ing so bro k e o n e o f its legs, th ereb y causing its d eath . In recom pense, Mac C oisem naig was re q u ire d to h a n d over th e field in w hich the acc id e n t h a d o c c u rre d to th e ow n er o f th e bull. Me in tu rn gave it 'to G od a n d to C o lm á n ' a n d it was th e re a fte r know n as G ro g in ’s field ( Gortin Grogin) ,x A sim ilar tale describes th e fatal im paling o f a valuable h o rse as it was b ein g driven from a n e ig h b o u r’s c o rn fie ld .9 H e p ta d 5 also refers to th e legal c o n c e p t o f ‘last sig h tin g ’ (tigradus) in relatio n to th e illegal driving o f livestock. T his m eans th at alth o u g h a fa rm e r w ho drove his n e ig h b o u r’s cattle into th e sea m ay n o t have actually w itnessed th e ir drow ning, h e is n o n eth e le ss legally resp o n sib le for it as h e saw th em in a situation o f p o te n tia l danger. Livestock m ay die as a resu lt o f passive negligence. For exam ple, if a m an leaves a fen cin g stake in a d a n g e ro u s position, h e is resp o n ­ sible if a n e ig h b o u r’s anim al dies th ro u g h b eco m in g im paled u p o n it.10 N aturally, h e is n o t responsible in th e unlikely event o f an 1

1 CIH i 6.23-6 = AL v 138.10-15. Meyer, Betha Colmáin, 38-40 § 41. 9 Meyer, ‘König Guaire’, 2.6-9; O ’Grady, Silva Gadelica i 401.23— 4 (trans, ii 437). '°CÍH iii 907.31-2; cf. CIH i 201.3 = AL iv 140.26; CIH vi 2099.22. 8

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anim al b ein g spiked by a slake in a p ro p erly -co n stru cted fe n c e ." Sim ilar provisions apply if a d o m estic anim al dies as a result o f n e g ­ ligence on co m m o n land. If a m an digs a deer-pit (cnithech) and neglects to notify th e king a n d p eo p le of th e area, h e m ust pav a fine if any livestock fall in to it.1' Earlv Irish law places a responsibility on an uninvolved passer-bv to in te rv e n e an d re p o rt if he sees dom estic anim als in tro u b le. If he fails to d o so, he b ecom es guilty o f th e o ffence o f aircsiu "looking on" (see p. 138 above). A ccording to co m m e n ta rv o n a sh o rt q u o tatio n from an O ld Irish law-text, this applies if he sees anv anim al n e a r a pit o r wolves o r a th ie f.11*13 T h e c o n c e p t o f ‘last sig hting' (tigiadus) applies h e re also, so th e passer-bv still com m its an offence even if he does n o t actually witness th e d e a th o r theft o f th e anim al. In certain circum stances, a p erso n is free to d eliberatelv kill a dom estic anim al b elo n g in g to an o th er. H e m at, for exam ple, kill his n e ig h b o u r’s cat if h e finds it in his la rd e r (daingen tige) o r in a food-vessel ( lestar) .14 A stray d o g m at likewise be killed if it becom es a d a n g e r o r a nuisance. A cco rd in g to co m m en tare based on the lost law-text o n dogs, Conslechtae, it is p erm issible to kill a straying bitch in h e a t (n't sodaig) if it is im possible to keep h e r c o n fin e d .15* T h e re are also circum stances in w hich th e re is n o penaltv if a p er­ son accidentally causes th e d e a th o f a n o th e r ’s anim al. For exam ple, if a dog-ow ner allows a n o th e r p erso n to take his d og d eer-h u n tin g , h e has n o claim if it is killed d u rin g th e h u n t.11’ T h e sam e applies if a perso n em ploys a m essen g er to ca rrv o u t som e business for him , a n d en tru sts him with his h o rse for this p u rp o se. T h e m es­ sen g er is n o t h e ld respo n sib le if th e h orse is killed o r in ju re d on th e jo u rn e y .17

11 (J it i 289.22 - AL iii 290.10; cf. CIH iv 1329.9 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht V’, 390. 12c m í 321.20-35 = AL iii 452.25-454.5; CIH i 285.13-14 = AL iii 272.8. 130 7 / ii 708.24; iii 787.39; iv 1182.35. Compare also commentary on the text on distraint at CIH v 1738.39-1740.6 = AL ii 56.19-60.17. 14 0 7 / i 290.32-4 = AL iii 296.1-6.

15 0 7 / i 112.38-9.

U,CIH i 20.3 = A Lv 190.18-19. The accompanying commentary gives some excep­ tions to this general rule, concentrating on the nature of the agreem ent between the borrower and the dog-owner. 1 7 C /// i 19.29-20.3 = ALv 190.17-18.

Killing

161

T h e p aym ents d u e for th e illegal killing o f livestock vary accord­ in g to th e value o f th e anim al a n d th e circum stances o f th e offence. W h ere th e re are n o m itigating factors, th e cu lp rit m ust pay restitu­ tion ( aithgein) as well as a penalty-fine (dire). R estitution consists o f th e n o rm a l value o f th e anim al, o r its re p la c e m en t by a n o th e r an im al o f th e sam e type a n d quality. T h e penalty-fine, o n the o th e r h a n d , is m u c h g re a te r th a n th e a n im a l’s com m ercial value. T he two types o f p ay m en t are clearly illustrated in a sh o rt law-text on dogs e n title d De canibus sinodus sapientium. H ere it is laid down th at a p e rso n w ho illegally kills a d o g w hich g u ard s th e house m ust pay ten cows, a n d p ro tid e a sub stitu te o f th e sam e b reed . In the case o f a do g w hich g u ard s th e livestock, h e m ust pay five cows a n d provide a substitute. In th e la tte r case th e re may be ad d itio n al restitution: h e m ust co m p e n sa te for any livestock e a te n by wild anim als until th e e n d o f th e y ear.18 In som e cases, a p e rso n w ho kills o r causes th e d e a th o f an ani­ m al n e e d only pav restitu tio n . T h e reaso n in g b e h in d such cases is illu strated in th e c o m m e n ta ry o n th e use o f som ebody else’s dog fo r h u n tin g .1'1 B ecause o f th e g en eral p rin cip le th at such a loan is at th e o w n er's risk, th e b o rro w e r is n o t o b lig ed to pay a penaltyfine (dire) for th e d o g 's d eath . O n th e o th e r h a n d , if the b o rro w er has n o t k e p t to th e term s o f th e h u n tin g ag reem en t, h e is to som e d eg ree culpable. T h u s if he ag reed to h u n t only deer, an d caused th e d o g 's d e a th bv h u n tin g o th e r anim als, he is liable for restitution (aithgein). If h e did this w ith o u t b ein g specifically fo rb id d en , he is liable fo r h a lf re stitu tio n (lethaithgein). T h e penaitv-fine for a dom estic anim al seem s generally to be fif­ te e n o r tw enty tim es its n o rm a l com m ercial value: see p. 76 (sheep) a n d p. 87 (pigs). In th e case o f a dog, th e penalty-fine may be linked to its ow n er's ran k . A legal q u o ta tio n in O'Davoren’s Glossary states th a t th e penalty-fine for a h u n tin g d og b elo n g in g to o n e o f the h ig h e r g rad es o f lo rd is o n e seventh o f his h o n o u r-p rice (eneclann) if it is killed th ro u g h in a d v e rte n c e (anfút) .L'° As the h o n o u r-p rice o f th e h ig h e r g rad es o f lord ran g es from fifteen to thirty sets, the fine is th e re fo re two o r th re e sets. It w ould obviously be g re a te r if th e killing w ere d elib erate. Legal c o m m e n ta ry gives a g en eral rule th a t th e penalty-fine for killing a lap d o g (mesdin) is o n e th ird o f its WIP 174 §§ 3-4 = GEIL 354 (5) §§ 3-4. 1 9 C1H i 20.5-12 =ALv 194.20-29. 2 0 CIH iv 1516.12-14 = O Dav. 417 § 1248.

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ow ner's h o n o u r-p rice in th e case of d e lib e ra te killing, a n d o n e sixth in th e case o f in a d v e rte n c e .21 I njury

To inflict serious in ju ry on a n o th e r's anim al is often ta n ta m o u n t to killing it. T h u s an ox with a b ro k en leg is o f n o use for p lo u g h ­ ing o r haulage, a n d fit only to he s la u g h te re d .2223*56 In such cases it seem s likely that th e cu lp rit m ust pay th e full penalty-fine an d restitu tio n for th e a n im a l.2'1 But if th e inju ry is less serious, the fines are co rresp o n d in g ly lighter. So, if a dog is su bjected to shav­ ing ( berrad), cu ttin g o ff o f its ears ( máelad),21 o r o th e r m u tilatio n (gerrad), th e culprit m ust pav h a lf th e fine for killing it Ílethfiach báns) f :’ Ju st as cattle w ere som etim es sla u g h te re d with th e in te n ­ tion o f h u m iliatin g th e ir ow ners (see previous sectio n ), non-fatal injury o r abuse m ig h t also serve this p u rp o se. F or exam ple, a Life o f Saint F in n ch u a describes how livestock b e lo n g in g to his co m m u ­ nity w ere m u tilated (gerrtar a n-indile) a n d his sh e p h e rd s b e a te n by local peo p le w ho o b jected to his fa rm in g in th e ir a re a .20 A purely symbolic assault o n an an im al serves to ch allen g e a w arrio r in the tale Aided Cheitt maic Mágach. C onall C e rn a c h p u lled tufts o u t o f th e m an e o f th e horses o f C ett m ac M ágach, leaving a wisp in fro n t o f his c h a rio t.2. C o m m en tary o n béoathchummae cethrae ( ‘living in ju ry to livestock’) co n tain s a very d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f th e fines par able for various injuries to anim als.2K Som e o f th e d istin ctio ns draw n are so GOT i 113.23-4; cf. CIH iv 1512.10-11 = O ’Dav. 400 § 1153. 22Note the emphasis in legal commentary on leg-injury to livestock, e.g. CIH v 1723.34, 1724.16 = AL ii 4.5, 29, etc. 23The main law-text on distraint refers to athcuma do con lomnai mutilating your leashed dog’ (CIH ii 402.9 = AL i 232.3-4). According to the glossator, penalty-fine (eneclann) and restitution (aithgein) are due for this offence. •*1 have no other examples of máelaid in the meaning ‘cuts off the ears’. The adjective máel has a wide variety of applications, including ‘bald, shaved, hornless (of cattle), headless (of a corpse)’. 2 5 COT iv 1268.18. 2 6 Stokes, IJsmore Lives, 87.2899. Mevei, Deoth-tales, 36 )) 3. t.ett was at first disposed to see this as a triendlv gesture, hut his charioteer convinced him that it was an insult. A Welsh example of the mutilation of horses as an insult is to be found at D. S. Thomson, Branwen uerch Lyr 3.73-7. 2 8 CIH i 304.27-307.11; iv 1204.19-1209.15; v 1624.14-1628.42 = AL iii 356.19-380.24. 21

Injury

165

fine th a t it is difficult to im agine th em b ein g ap p lied in practice. N o n eth eless, this co m m e n ta ry is valuable as a g en eral guide to late r legal th eo ry o n this topic. As o n e c o m m e n ta to r points o ut, th e law re la tin g to anim al in ju ry is based o n th at o f h u m an injury.-'' C o n seq u en tly we find th at th re e categories o f blow against an anim al are distinguished: a w hite [i.e. bloodless] blow (bdnbéim), a lum p-blow (cnocbéim), an d blood-letting (fuiliugud). T h ese d istin ctio n s broadly follow those o f th e O ld Irish law-text on h u m a n injury, Bretha Déin Chécht?0 T h e paym ents specified in this co m m e n ta ry fo r th e illegal injury o f an an im al are g enerally fractio n s o f th e penalty-fine {dire) due for killing it. For exam p le, if a p erso n inflicts a lum p-blow on an anim al h e m ust pay o n e tw enty-fourth o f its dtre,il a n d if h e inflicts a w hite blow h e m ust pav o n e forty-eighth.2930132 T his c o m m en tary takes a m uch less serious view o f th e shaving (giunad) o f a n o th e r p e rso n ’s anim al th a n does th e law-text q u o te d above. If th e anim al is shaved bare, th e cu lp rit m ust pav o n e tw enty-fourth o f its dire,333 4b u t if it is only partially shaved h e is liable fo r o n e forty-eighth. 31 Naturally, a h u m a n p arallel c a n n o t be fo u n d fo r all anim al injuries. In th e case o f a cow m ilk -p ro d u ctio n is o f p a ra m o u n t im p o rta n c e , so an in ju ry to th e u d d e r is re g a rd e d as particularly serious. T h e g e n e ra l p rin cip le is ex pressed in th e p h rase bó ar úth ‘a cow fo r an u d d e r ’.3536 A p e rso n w ho causes th e d estru ctio n o f th e w hole u d d e r m u st th e re fo re give a n o th e r cow to th e owner. T h e re a re also substantial fines fo r d am ag e to a te a t {sine) o r m ilk-duct (sreb) . ifi A n o th e r c o m m e n ta ry deals with the offence o f stealing m ilk from a n o th e r p e rs o n ’s cow, a n d refers to the d a n g e r o f d am a g in g th e u d d e r in th e p ro cess.37 W hen a p e rso n is illegally in ju re d , early Irish law norm ally re q u ire s th at th e cu lp rit o rganizes his rem oval from h o m e for

CIH iv 1204.30; v 1624.23-4 = AL iii 358.1-2. C /// vi 2311.17-21 = Binchy, 'Bretha Dän Chécht', 36 § 24. 31 CIH i 305.17 = AL iii 360.16. 3 2 C//f i 305.22-3 (supplying .xl.) = AL iii 360.25-6. . 3 3 CIH i 305.17 = AL iii 360.16-17. For a discussion of such offences against persons, see commentary at CIH i 303.36-304.15 = AL iii 352.9—354.11. 34CIH i 305.23 = AL iii 360.25-7. 3 5 CIH v 1626.37; 1636.9 = AL iii 364.12. 36CIH iv 1206.14-38 = AL iii 364.13-366.7. 3 7 CIH i 144.30-33. 29

30

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Offences against domestic animals

n u rsin g (othras) u n til he is c u r e d .w The c u lp rit m ust e n su re th at th e in ju re d p erso n is p rovided with suitable fo o d an d acco m m o d atio n , an d pays all m edical expenses. It seem s th at this system was e x te n d e d to illegally in ju re d anim als. However, o n e legal frag m en t states th a t it does n o t apply in th e case o f a h e rd d o g ( conlmachaiU) .'w T h e glossator puts forw ard th e plausible ex p lan atio n th a t the d og m ig h t le a rn to tru st those w ho looked after it, an d su bsequently allow th e m to steal its o w n er’s livestock. C onsequently, th e dog m ust be tre a te d in its own h o m e at the c u lp rit’s expense. For a g en eral discussion o f th e tre a tm e n t o f in ju red livestock, see pp. (216-18). C echrad

7

Sa l c h a d

Legal c o m m en tary refers to th e o ffence o f cechrad ‘driving a n o th e r p e rso n ’s anim als in to a m arsh ( cechair) ' a n d salchad ‘causing th em to beco m e dirty (salach) ’. If th e in te n tio n is to b rin g a b o u t the d eath o f th e anim als, th e cu lp rit m ust pay a fine o f five sets. even if n o in ju ry has resu lted from his a c tio n .4n Arso n

T h e offence o f arso n (forloscud) o ften affected livestock. T h e law-text o n arso n Bretha Forloiscthe has n o t survived, b u t it is clear from q u o ta tio n s a n d from c o m m e n ta ry based on this text th at it dealt b o th w ith th e b u rn in g o f th e p en s a n d en closures o f dom estic an im als,41 a n d with th e b u rn in g o f the anim als them selves.4' A ccording to o n e q u o ta tio n , th e th ree things w hich Saint P atrick fo rb ad e m ost strenuously w ere th e killing o f tra in e d o xen, offences against m ilch cows a n d a rs o n .1' In a poetical version o f this triad, th e th ird o ffen ce is given as th e b u rn in g o f anim al-en clo su res.44 It is clear from th e an n als th at m u ch arson 88See GEIL 130-3; Binchy, ‘Sick-maintenance in Irish law’. æ ClH iv 1242.18 = Binchy, ‘Sick-maintenance in Irish law’, 87 § 6 . 4 0 CIH iv 1181.22, 26; cf. CIH iii 827.9: iv 1327.18. 41 C1H i 103.10; vi 1945.38. 4 2 CIH vi 1946.41: 1947.1. 4 8 CIH vi 1946.28-30. 4 4 E.J. Gwynn, Metrical Dindshemhas iv 156.136. Gwvnn discusses the difficulties of this line in his note on p. 417. He gives the reading loscud lés fás ‘burning emptv byres’, following Bergin's suggestion that les. leis, lios of the MSS should be read as gen. plur. lés, an early spelling (unexpected in a Middle Irish poem) o f lias. He

Theft

165

- like th e killing o r stealing o f cattle - took place d u rin g w arfare, a n d th e re fo re en ta ile d special legal difficulties. T h e invocation o f P atrick 's n a m e d e m o n stra te s th e C h u rc h ’s desire to p u t an e n d to th ese tra d itio n a l practices: see fu rth e r discussion u n d e r ‘th e ft’ below. In cases w h ere th e culprit can be b ro u g h t to justice, arson is tre a te d like o th e r crim es o f violence: as a c o m m e n ta to r observes, ‘a fire b ra n d is like a n a k ed w e a p o n ’ (amal arm nocht int aithinne) .*45 T h e arsonist m ust th e re fo re pay th e full penalty-fine (dire) for any livestock w hose d eath h e has c au sed .46 It is fu rth e r specified (in w hat is p robably a q u o ta tio n from th e original law-text) th at he m ust pav th e dire o f an a d u lt cowr o r sheep for any calf o r lam b w hich is b u rn t. T heft

Earlv Irish law relatin g to th e th eft o f livestock is particularly com plex. As with o th e r serious crim es, it is an offence against a p e rso n 's h o n o u r to steal his property7, o r p ro p e rty b elo n g in g to a n o th e r w hich h a p p e n s to be on his land. A th ie f m ust th erefo re pav the la n d o w n e r’s h o n o u r-p ric e .4' T h e frag m en tary law-text on theft. Bretha irn Gata, gives som e exam ples o f how this system w o rk ed .4” For ex am p le, if an article b elo n g in g to a c o m m o n er is stolen from th e h o u se o f a king, th e th ie f m ust pay the full h o n o u r-p ric e o f th e k in g .49 Two th ird s o f this sum go to th e king, a n d o n e th ird to th e co m m o n er. In ad d itio n , th e co m m o n er receives re stitu tio n (aithgein) o f th e stolen a rtic le .50 Bretha irn Gata provides details on th e rates o f restitution d u e for th e th e ft o f various anim als. If a sh eep has b e e n stolen, th e th ief comments that the burning of empty byres seems pointless. However, it is probable that the poet is merely following the distinction made in the law-text between two offences: burning the enclosures and burning the animals. If the enclosures are burnt when empty, the fine is only one sét; e.g. CIH vi 1945.38 ,s. i loscud lias laogh l caorach l foil muc ‘a set for burning enclosures of calves or o f sheep or sties of pigs’. Cf. CIH i 103.9-10. 4 5 CIH vi 1947.9-10. 4 6 CIH vi 1947.1. 47For a discussion of honour-price ( log n-enech or eneclann), see GEIL 8-9. 4SCIH ii 477.31-479.22 = Hull, 'Bretha im Gatta , 215-23. O ther unedited material on theft at CIH vi 1974,11-1980.39 may come from the missing part of this text. 49The honour-price of the petty king (rí túaithe) is seven cumals, often equivalent to twenty-one milch cows (see p. 592). 5 0 CIH ii 478.26-9 = Hull, ‘Bretha im Gatta', 220-21. See also discussion at BB 163-4.

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m ust give back fo u r sh eep to th e owner. If h e has stolen a cow o r ox, h e m ust give hack five cows o r five o xen. If lie has stolen a horse, pig, o r in an im ate object ( marbdil) he m ust m ake d o u b le restitu tio n . T hese rates are taken in p a rt from C an o n Law, b ased ultim ately on Exodus 22:1.5152 T h e d isp ro p o rtio n ately low value assigned to h o rses in Bretha im Gala seem s o u t o f line with th e special esteem fo r th em w hich is fo u n d th ro u g h o u t early Irish literatu re. As we h a te seen in C h ap ­ te r 2, th e h o rse was associated particu larly with kings an d lords, an d horse-racing was clearly a very im p o rta n t e n te rta in m e n t. It is n o t surprising, th erefo re, th at later c o m m e n ta ry gives a h ig h e r rate o f co m p en satio n for horse-theft: th e cu lp rit m ust resto re fo u r horses for a single h o rse, w h eth er it be d rau g h t-h o rse, pack-horse o r rid in g -h o rse.32 Presum ably th e ad d itio n al h o rses m ust be o f the sam e type a n d quality' as th e stolen horse. T h is is im plicit in the g en eral legal p rin cip le o n re stitu tio n w hich states th at ‘everything m ust be p aid fo r by w hat is a p p ro p ria te fo r it’.5354*67 C o n d e m n a tio n o f th e h o rse-th ief (echthdid) is voiced in a n u m ­ b e r o f texts. T h e w isdom -text Tecosca Cormaic gives th e ‘o ath o f a h o rse -th ie f as an ex am p le o f th e worst tvpe o f o a th .34 .A nother w isdom -text, Audacht Morainn, advises th a t a king ‘sh o u ld n o t sell his h o n o u r o r soul for th e h orses o f a h o r s e - th ie f .33 A ccording to a legal glossator, th e clien t o f a lord has th re e public d u ties o f attack (fnbae) : h u n tin g dow n pirates, horse-thieves, a n d wolves.31’ H orse-theft m ight be c a rrie d o u t o n a large scale. A difficult O ld Irish legal passage deals w ith th e theft o f a h e rd (graig) o f twelve horses b elo n g in g to a n u m b e r o f ow ners.3' If o n e o f th e ow ners is o f h ig h e r ran k th a n th e o th ers, he gets re stitu tio n (aithgeni) as well as p aym ent of his h o n o u r-p rice (dire). T h e ow ner n ex t in ran k 5ISee discussion by Hull, 'Bretha im Gatta’, 218; Ó Corráin, Breatnach, and Breen, The laws of the Irish’, 413-15; Charles-Edwards, ‘The construction of the Hibernensis, v (forthcoming). 52 CIH i 106.19 = Hull, 'Bretha im Gatta’, 224. iv 1479.8 - O Dav. 251 § 346 dorenar gach rtiiil ilia cuinnfi fadeisin. Cf. (Illt i 261.34—5; iii 1079.3; vi 1980.27-8 (the principle is expanded upon in the passage which follows at CIH vi 1980.29-39). 5 4 Meyer, Tecosca Cormaic, 44 § 27.15. 5 :,Thurneysen, ‘Morands Fürstenspiegel', 8 6 § 43 (trans. 105 S 43); Kelly, Audacht Morainn, 6 8 § 43 (Recensions A, L, N). The reference to the soul (anam) implies that dealing in stolen horses may affect the king's chance of entering Heaven. 5 6 CIH ii 487.2; v 1788.8-9 = AL ii 270.4-5. 57CIH i 32.12-16; ii 582.23-7 = A L s 242.9-14.

Theft

167

gets d o u b le re stitu tio n , w hereas th e o th e r ow ners only get sim ple restitu tio n , i.e. th e re tu rn o f th e ir own horses o r substitutes o f the sam e value. As we have seen in C h a p te r 1 (p. 28), th e large-scale th eft o f cat­ tle is re fe rre d to freq u en tly in early Irish w ritings, especially in sagas a n d a n n a ls.38 T h e C h u rch was strongly o p p o sed to cattle-raiding partly n o d o u b t becau se o f its own extensive farm in g interests. T he p e n ite n tia l text Canones Adom nani states th a t ‘cattle seized in a raid are n o t to be tak en bv C hristians w h e th e r in tra d e o r as gifts: for w hat C hrist rejects, how shall th e soldier o f C hrist receive?’.5859 A lost can o n law-text Cáin Dar Í th e law o f D ar Í ’ seem s to have d ealt m ainly with cattle-raiding, as its c o n te n ts are sum m arized in a gloss o n C o lm á n 's H ym n bv th e w ords cen bú do gait 'n o t to steal cows’.60 T his text is also called Cáin Bóslechtae ‘th e law o f cow -sections’61 o r sim ply Bóslechtae ‘cow -sections’.62 It is by th e la tte r title th a t its p ro ­ m u lg atio n in .AD 810 is re c o rd e d in th e Annals of Inisfallenf3 A q u o ta tio n from th e law-text Bretha Forloiscthe (see p. 164) accred­ its S aint P atrick with having m ost strenuously fo rb id d en offences ag ainst m ilch cows (glossed ‘i.e. stealing th e m ’).6465 M ost cattle-raids w ere c a rrie d o u t across political b o u n d aries, a n d th e re fo re n o t readily a m en ab le to n o rm a l legal processes, even u n d e r clerical pressu re. However, early Irish law does provide a fram ew ork by w hich ju stic e co u ld be d o n e in such cases. T his is by m ean s o f th e cairde ‘treaty betw een k in g d o m s’,63 w hich allowed for th e p ro se c u tio n o f m u rd e re rs, thieves, arsonists, rapists, and satirists across a te rrito ria l b o u n d a ry .66 Cáin Bóslechtae seem s to have b e e n p ro m u lg a te d with extensive cattle-raiding in m ind. This is im p lie d in th e sh o rt text Rith na Ccinann ‘th e e x te n t o f the laws’, w hich states th a t Cáin Bóslechtae is ap p lied in cases involving up 5 8 Lucas, Cattle in ancient Ireland, 125-99. 59IP 178 § 15. However, legal commentary at CIH v 1642.33 is less scrupulous: a lord is entitled to receive from his base client (dáerchéilr) one third of what he gets in a raid or plundering expedition ( trian a chota cráche 7 ruathair). w Thes. ii 306s . 6 1 CIH i 254.22; iii 823.1; iv 1413.25; v 1539n; vi 1972k. 6 2 CIH iv 1367.4 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht V’, 388. See GEIL 275-6. 6 8 A / 122 s.a. 810. See Ó Riain, ‘A misunderstood annal: a hitherto unnoticed cáin'. 6 4 CIH vi 1946.28-30 fogailfri bü blichta .i. i ngait. 65See GEIL 279. 6 6 CIH iii 791.5-6.

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to a h u n d re d w arriors. Each of th em m ust pay 3/4 rumals fo r an offence against c a ttle .67 T h e law-texts are also c o n c e rn e d with cattle-th eft on a sm aller scale w ithin a com m unity. O n e text refers to th e m ark in g o f th e ears o r h o rn s o f livestock; p resum ably this p ractice w ould have b een partly to discourage local thieves.1,6 T h e discovery o f stolen cattleafter a p e rio d o f tim e has elap sed brin g s special legal pro b lem s, w hich are tre a te d in a c o m m e n ta ry o n th e ft.1,4 For ex am p le, if a heifer is stolen as a two-year-old ( colpthach) o r a three-year-old (samaisc), an d th e th ie f is n o t sued u n til she is a full-grown cow (bó mór), h e m ust provide restitu tio n (aithgein) a p p ro p ria te to a fullgrow n cow, b u t a penalty-fine (dire) a p p ro p ria te to a heifer. T h e sam e logic is ap p lied to th e case o f a cow w hich is stolen in h e r prim e, b u t w hose rightful o w nership is n o t established u n til she is old, b lin d o r lam e. T h e th ie f m ust pav a penaltv-fm e a p p ro p ria te to a healthy cow, b u t restitu tio n a p p ro p ria te to a defective cow. T h e law-text o n b e ek eep in g , Bechbretha, co n tain s a section on th e th eft o f bee-hives. ,0 T h e p rin cip les a p p lie d in this text differ m arkedly from those o f Bretha un Gata. T h e re is n o m e n tio n o f the restitutio n (aithgein) o f bee-hives as in th e case o f o th e r dom estic anim als. Instead, th e cu lp rit is re q u ire d to pav a penalty-fine (dire) w hich varies acco rd in g to th e lo catio n o f th e hives. If the hives are stolen from a co u rtv ard (les) o r g a rd e n (lubgort), the fine is th e sam e as fo r h o u se h o ld goods. T his a m o u n ts to th e full h o n o u r-p rice o f th e b e e k e e p e r. ' 1 If th e hives are stolen from a field n e a r th e h o u se (faithche), th e fine is th e sam e as fo r large anim als, such as m ilch cows o r tra in e d o x en. A ccording to later co m m en tato rs, this am o u n ts to h a lf the b e e k e e p e r's h o n o u r-p ric e .7" If th e hives are stolen fro m o u tsid e this area (sechtar faithrhi), th e fine is th e sam e as for sm all livestock. A ccording to later co m m en tato rs, this am o u n ts to o n e seventh o f the b e e k e e p e r’s h o n o u r-p rice. It is clear, th e refo re, th at the location of th e hives in relatio n to th e ir o w n er's h o u se is o f great significance w hen assessing th e fine payable by a thief. 07CIH V Î587.4 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht V’, 383. 6 8 CIH iv 1253.1-2. 69CIH i 173.1-15; cf. CIH ii 715.32-41. 70CIH ii 455.31-456.29 = BB 84-88 §§ 50-54. 71 See discussion of this difficult passage at BB 161-3. 7iCIH ii 456.2-3 = BB 171 (h); CIH iv 1287.27-8 = BB 178 (k).

Unauthorized use

169

G lossators a n d c o m m e n ta to rs seem su rp rised by th e absence o f referen ce s to restitu tio n in Bechbretha s tre a tm e n t o f bee-theft. A six teen th -c e n tu ry glossator suggests th at for th e th eft o f hives from a field n e a r th e ho u se, th e c u lp rit sh o u ld pay h alf the b e e k e e p e r’s h o n o u r-p ric e , a n d also re sto re fo u r hives. '3 H ere he follows the ‘fo u r fo r o n e ' ra te o f restitu tio n laid dow n for sh eep-theft in Bretha im Gata. O th e r glossators take th e sam e view.74 U n a u t h o r iz e d use

To b o rro w som ebody else’s p ro p e rty w ith o u t p erm ission is obviouslv a lesser o ffence th a n theft, an d in certain circum stances may n o t be an o ffence at all. T h u s T riad 163 states th at u n au th o rized use (foim rim m ) does n o t entail a fine (dire) if c a rried o u t in fear or to w arn o f d a n g e r /'’ A gloss o n this triad suggests th a t a h o rse can legally b e ta k e n in th ese s itu a tio n s /'’ N orm ally, however, th e u n a u th o riz e d u se o f a h orse, b oat, cart, ch ario t, p o t o r vessel is illeg al." An O ld Irish co m m en tary on Di Chetharslicht Athgabálae deals with th e u n a u th o riz e d use o f horses b e lo n g in g to p erso n s ra n g in g in ra n k from king to bóaire (p ro sp er­ ous farm er) . 'h T h e cu lp rit m ust pay a fine o f o n e cow for th e m ere act o f m o u n tin g (forlaim) an d a n o th e r cow for alighting ( tairlim).79 T h ese fines are a p p lie d irrespective o f th e ran k o f the horse-ow ner. However, if th e cu lp rit rides o ff with th e horse, th e co m m e n ta to r specifies th at h e m ust pay ad d itio n al fines based on the o w n er’s ran k an d on th e distan ce travelled.3" So if he borrow s a bóaire's O H ii 456.15-16 = BB 8 6 § 52d (III). E.g. CIH ii 456.22 = BB 8 6 § 53d (IV). See also commentary at C1H iii 959.25-7 = BB 184 (c). 7 5 Meyer, Triads, 22 § 163. 7 6 Meyer, Triads, 40 § 163. 7 7 CIH ii 384.15-16 = AL i 166.21-3; CIH ii 401.16-17 = AL i 230.z. Cf. CIH iii 915.16, which refers to the unauthorized taking of a neighbour’s livestock (cethra) for the purpose of legal entry into a holding of land. Here, cethra presumably refers to the horses required by law for making a formal claim to land: see p. 432. 78CIH iii 894.35-41. 7yThe law-text Bretha Nemed Déidenarh also refers to the offence of mounting a dig­ nitary’s horse, and advises niforlais ‘do not m ount [it] ’, 2 sing. pres. subj. of fording (CIH iii 1121.13 = E. J. Gwynn, ‘Privileges’, 27.27; CIH iv 1512.30 = O ’Dav. 402 § 1167). 80A later comm entator views the unauthorized use of the horse of a king, bishop, poet or learned man as a much more serious offence than the unauthorized use of a horse belonging to a person of lower rank ( CIH ii 709.40-710.4). In the latter case, 73 74

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Offences against domestic animals

horse, he m ust pav an ex tra yearling h eifer for every crossroads (bélot), an d a two-year-old h eifer for each a rea o f ro u g h g ro u n d (Arobél). If he crosses th e b o u n d a ry of a n o th e r te rrito ry h e m ust pay a fu rth e r cow. In th e case o f a k ing's horse, th e fines are m uch greater: five sets for every crossroads, h a lf a cumal fo r each area o f ro u g h g ro u n d , a n d a cumal for crossing a b o u n d a ry .8 It m ust be ad m itte d th a t these ad d itio n al fines seem very difficult to assess, a n d may have h a d little relevance in practical law. O p e n in g s h e d s , e t c .

A n o th e r illegal act o f g reat d estructive p o te n tia l is to o p e n a fa rm e r’s shed, p en , o r en clo su re, th ereb y allow ing livestock to escap e.*8182* T h e cu lp rit m ust provide re stitu tio n ( aithgein) for antanim als w hich are lost. A sim ilar o ffence is to leave an o p e n in g so th a t a fa rm e r’s calves can gain access to th e cows.88 T h e cu lp rit m ust p ro tid e restitu tio n o f the shortfall in th e milk-vield. T his a m o u n t m ust be sw orn bt the w om an who has m ilked th e cows at th e p rê tio n s m ilking-tim e (etrud). If h e fails to m ake restitu tio n , h e m ust pay th e h o n o u r-p rice (eneclann) o f th e cattle-ow ner.8485* I lle g a l d ist r a in t

T h e practice o f d istrain t (athgabdl) was c e n tra l to th e e n fo rc e m en t o f law in early Irish society, a n d is d escrib ed in detail in Di Chetharslicht Athgabalae a n d associated m a te ria l.80 If a p erso n has a fine (finchfoimrime) need oniv be paid if the horse is ridden awa\ for some distance (tarnain imaire ‘over nine ridges’). 8 1 The sense demands the emendation of bo to cumal at CIH iii 894.37, as Binchy suggests, t his would fit in proportionately with the tines given for riding off with the horse of an aire tuiseo ‘lord of precedence’ and an aire déso ‘lord o f vassalry’. 8 2 C ///vi 2191.12-21. 99CIH ii 402.10; iii 895.12 = AL i 232.5-6. 94CIH iii 895.12-14. 85This text is found at CIH ii 352.25-422.36: iv 1438.36-1465.27: v 1723.11-1755.16 ~ A!/i 64—304; ii 2-118.6. Another Old Irish text follows the glosses and commentary on Ui Chetharslicht AthgnbAlae in the legal manuscript H 3. 18. It is printed at CIH iii 896.9-901.13, but has never been fully edited and translated. CIH iii 897.29-898.31 is edited and translated by Binchy, 'A text on the forms of distraint', 78—81. CIH iii 896.19-41 is translated by L. Breatnach, ‘Lawyers in early Ireland’, 11-12. CIH iii 897.10-29 is edited and translated by me in Appendix A (text 2) of the present book. For a general account ol the topic, see Binchv, ‘Distraint in Irish law’. There is a shorter treatm ent in GEIL 177-86.

Illegal distraint

171

a claim against a n o th e r, h e m ust first give form al notice o f his in te n tio n to d istrain his livestock. T h e re is th e n a p erio d o f a few day's delay, th e len g th o f w hich varies acco rd in g to the n a tu re o f th e offence. If th e d e fe n d a n t d oes n o t pay th e a p p ro p ria te fine or give a p led g e to in d icate his w illingness to su b m it to arb itratio n , the p la in tiff can th e n e n te r his lan d an d rem ove livestock to the value o f th e a m o u n t due. T h e livestock d istra in e d are norm ally cattle. O n e text explains th at ho rses a n d sh eep are gen erally avoided because o f th e ir vulnér­ abilité w h en b e in g driven, a n d because o f th e d a n g e r o f th e ir being attack ed bv wolves o r stolen by thieves.86 Pigs are likewise reg ard ed as u n su ita b le becau se o f th e ir h ab it o f digging u p th e g ro u n d .87 But if th e d e fe n d a n t d oes n o t have cattle, th e p lain tiff has no alternative b u t to d istrain o th e r an im als.88 In n o rm a l circum stances, th e p lain tiff brings th e d istrain ed an i­ m als to a private p o u n d (/bn« ) , 89 e ith e r on his own o r on a third parts 's land. T hey rem ain th e re for a fu rth e r p e rio d o f delay. If the d e fe n d a n t fails to m ee t his legal o bligations to th e p lain tiff by the e n d o f this p e rio d , th e progressive fo rfe itu re o f his livestock begins. O n th e first day, livestock to th e value o f five séts are forfeit. O n each su b se q u e n t dav livestock to th e value o f th re e sets are forfeit until n o n e rem ain . T h e re are m any restrictio n s o n th e p ractice o f distraint, an d if the p la in tiff fails to observe these h e h im self b ecom es guilty o f the offence o f illegal d istra in t (indliged n-athgabálae). T his norm ally entails a fine o f five sets, b u t it may be re d u c e d in cases o f igno­ ran ce, in ad v erten ce, carelessness o r difficulty.90 T h ese restrictions are m ainly d esig n ed to p ro te c t th e interests o f th e d e fe n d a n t, and to cause as little d isru p tio n as possible to th e n o rm al farm ing ro u ­ tine. H e n c e it is fo rb id d e n to distrain any anim al classed as nemed

86 CIH iii 897.22-3 = Appendix A, text 2 § 2. 87CIH iii 897.24-6 = Appendix A, text 2 § 3. m CIH iii 897.22-6 = Appendix A, text 2 §§ 2-3. " T h e pound is also sometimes term ed comann, e.g. CIH iii 897.33 = Binchy, ‘A text on the forms of distraint', 78 § 2; CIH iv 1455.25 - AL i 268.21. In glosses and commentary mainder is generally used, e.g. CIH v 1723.16, 34 - AL ii 2.9, 4.6. There are Old Irish instances of mainder in quotations from Antéchtae Breth ( CIH vi 2211.26 = L. Breatnach, ‘The first third o f Bretha Nemed Toûech,’ 10 § 5) and from Bretha Nemed Dédenach ( CIH ii 725.11 = L. Breatnach, ‘The first third of Bretha Nemed Toísech’, 30). 90 CIH iv 1459.22-33 = AL ii 48.11-54.13.

172

Offences against domestic animals

i.e. ‘im m u n e, p riv ile g e d .91* T h ese are m ostly anim als at a crucial stage o f th e ir rep ro d u ctiv e cycle, such as a cow ju st a fter calving, a hull while th e cows are in heat, a ewe in season o r a hoar, ram o r stal­ lion at m ating tim e. If th e p lain tiff d istrains at such tim es he m ust co m pen sate for any loss w hich his action has caused. A cco rd in g to com m entary, if he d istrains a hull at m atin g tim e he m ust n o t only pay the fine o f five sets, hut also co m p e n sa te for anv c o n se q u e n t loss o f calves a n d m ilk-yield.9O th e r anim als are ex clu d ed in th e interests o f th e d e fe n d a n t s superiors. It is th e re fo re n o t p erm issible to d istrain a cow d u e as re n t for a lo rd o r C h u rch . '3 Im m u n e livestock can som etim es he d istrain ed for th e ir own offences. For instan ce, it is norm allv illegal to distrain o x en d u rin g th e p lo u g h in g seaso n . 1495 However, if th e oxen them selves have c o m m itted an o ffen ce - such as g o rin g o r grazing-trespass - it is p e rm itte d to distrain th em , even at such a crucial tim e.9n O n th e o th e r h a n d , it is specified th at a ch am p io n horse (ech blinda) c a n n o t he d istra in e d in th e racing season, even for its own offen ces.96 T h e sam e applies to pigs b e in g fa tte n e d on m ast.97 It is illegal for a p o e t to distrain any tvpe o f anim al: he is ex p ected to p u rsu e a claim by m ean s o f satire.98 Som e anim als are clearly re g a rd e d as particu larly awkward to m ove to a p o u n d . T h e p lain tiff m ust th e re fo re carrv o u t c ertain form al acts as a su b stitute for o rd in a ry d istrain t. In th e case o f oxen, h e m ust rem ove th e ir tackle (amlach) a n d give public notice (apad) that they sh o u ld d o n o p lo u g h in g . If th e d e fe n d a n t defies this p ro h ib itio n , he is guilty o f a 'h u m a n offence" (duinechin1 b rin g in g a heavy fin e .99 91Heptad 41 (CIH i 38.19-21 = AL v 260.1-4) lists seven nemid chelhrae ‘immune livestock’. A list of twenty-five categories of animal described as nemid alhgabdlae ‘those immune from distraint’ is found at ClIt iii 897.10-21 = Appendix A, text 2 § 1. The term deorad ‘beyond legal process, privileged’ is used interchangeably with nemed in this text (CIH iii 897.16 = § 1 (14); 897.21 = § 1 (25)). Vi CfH i 181.25-6. 9 3 CIH i 38.21 = AL v 260.3 bo äss flatha no eclasa. 94 CIH iii 897.15 = Appendix A, text 2 § 1 (12). 95 CIH iii 898.17-18 = Binchy, ‘A text on the forms of distraint’, 80 § 10. 96CIH iii 897.16-17 = Appendix A, text 2 § 1 (15). 9 7 CIH iii 897.27-9 = Appendix A, text 2 § 3. 9 8 CIH si 2226.33. 9 9 CIH iii 898.17-18 = Binchy, ‘A text on the forms of distraint’, 80 § 10 (and his note at p. 85). Similar procedures are laid down for the distraint o f dogs (see p. 149 above).

Illegal distraint

173

In th e case o f n o rm a l d istrain t, th e law-texts devote a great deal o f a tte n tio n to th e m a n n e r in w hich th e livestock are b ro u g h t to th e p o u n d a n d th e c o n d itio n s in w hich they are kept th ere. Firstly, th e p la in tiff m u st ca rry o u t d ie d istra in t early in the m o rn in g . If the cattle have b e e n b ro u g h t to the m ilking-place (indes) before he arrives, h e c a n n o t d istrain th e m o n th a t day.100 It is also stressed th a t th e d istra in e d anim als m u st n o t be d riven too fast:101 if any are in ju re d d o u b le restitu tio n m u st be given.102 F or th e ir own safety, d istra in e d livestock sh o u ld n o t b e driven to a cave, o r in to th e w ilderness o r a w ood, o r in secret o r in th e d a rk .1 ! T h ey sh o u ld n o t b e b ro u g h t o n to th e lan d o f lawless per­ sons, su ch as a th ie f o r satirist, o r to an em pty h o u se .104 Anim als o f d iffe re n t types m u st n o t b e k e p t to g eth er, a n d stallions (eich) a n d m ares ( main ) m ust be h o u sed separately.100 W hen d istrained livestock escape from th e ir p o u n d a n d suffer d e a th o r injury, th e p erso n w ho d istrains th e m obviously bears th e m ajor responsibility if it results from his carelessness. H e is guilty o f w hat the co m m en ­ ta to r describ es as ‘n eg lectfu l custody’ (faill choiméta) .106 B ut th e m ain law-text o n d istrain t, Di Chetharilicht Athgabálae, also applies th e p rin c ip le o f ‘cu lp ab le o n lo o k in g ’ ( aircsiu) in such cases. C onse­ quently. if a th ird party sees th e d istrain ed livestock in a d an g ero u s situatio n , a n d leaves th e m th e re w ithout re p o rtin g it, he too is guilty o f an offen ce, d e fin e d as b ad leaving’ (mífáeháil) . H e m ust pay o n e th ird re stitu tio n o f any livestock lo st.10' In ce rta in ex c e p tio n a l circu m stan ces th e d e fe n d a n t can obtain a p o stp o n e m e n t ( taurbaid) o f th e d istra in t o f his livestock. T his applies in d om estic crises such as sickness, c h ild b irth , d eath , mov­ in g h o u se , o r th e arrival o f g u ests.108 To d istrain in d efiance o f a p o stp o n e m e n t is classed as an illegal d istra in t. 109 m CIH iii 897.1-3. 101 Commentary distinguishes luathimáin ‘fast driving’ (e.g. CIH v 1724.16 = AL ii 4.29) from certimáin ‘proper driving’ (e.g. CIH V 1724.1 = AL ii 4.10). 102C7/7 v 1742.1 = A L n 68.11 (read -briathar). m CIH iii 900.12-13. 104CIH i 40.20-3 = AL v 266.19-23. 1 0 6 CIH ii 422.14-35; iv 1455.24-5 = AL i 268.17-22. 100CIH v 1724.17 = AL ii 4.30-31. 1 0 7 CIH v 1738.39 = AL ii 56.19. The following commentary provides a detailed application of this general principle. m GEIL 183-4. 1 0 9 CIH i 37.34-5 = AL v 256.31.

174

Offences against domestic animals B ewitching

In Irish folklore of th e n in e te e n th a n d earlv tw entieth c en tu ries we find m am referen ces to sic kness in c attle c aused by sorcery, the ‘evil eve',110 o r the fairies. 111 In earlv Irish sources th e re is evidence that the bew itching o f livestock was c o u n te d as a legal offence. O n e law-text refers to the crim e of Inline do gtega, w hich literallv m eans 'a n attack on o n e ’s h o rs e s '.11J T h e glossators take- this to in clu d e such physical assaults as b eatin g th em with a stick, scaring th em with a rag, o r causing injury th ro u g h sorcery ( rorrguinecht ) - a fine o f five sets is d u e for such o ffen ces. 11 ’ A n o th e r legal re fe re n ce to the bew itching o f livestock occurs in a passage o n d row ning. H ere a glossator suggests that an anim al mav have b een d ro w n ed as a resu lt o f w itchcraft (geinntlecht) ,114 T h e law-text o n clientship, Cain Ainllne, also refers to the d eath o f livestock th ro u g h su p e rn a tu ra l agenev in a passage w hich details th e size an d co n d itio n o f a bullock (ag) w hich a client gives as re n t to his lo rd .115 T h e a u th o r stipulates that th e an im al m ust have b een properly slau g h tered bv its ow ner, a n d n o t have d ied as a result o f m agical p estilence (leidtn fithnaisi) o r disease (galar).lu ‘ feidm fithnaisi is ex p lain ed in O'Davoren’s Glossary as ‘a sh o rt disease' (galar gairet), b u t it is clear from o th e r attestatio n s o f th e w ord fithnaise that the su p e rn a tu ra l is usually involved.11. It is p ro b a b le th at the ‘d e stru c tio n s’ ( milliuda) in c lu d e d a m o n g th e afflictions o f cattle in Immacallam in dá thúarad w ere re g a rd e d as b ein g th e result o f sorcery.118 In later m edical m an u scrip ts th e re are m ain referen ces llnIn legal commentary, the ‘evil eye’ is called drochrusc (CIH i 144.34), drochsüit (CIH ii 673.3), or beim sata (CIH iii 955.1). l n E.g. Logan, Making the cure 163-4; Ó hEochaidh, ‘Seanchas na caorach’, 142-3. i n CIH ii 383.5; v 1689.13 (fub- MS) = AL i 162.22. " 'F o r corrguinecht, see p. 128 above. Fubae is also used o f casting malign spells (pisóca) in other contexts, e.g. CIH ii 387.31-2 = AL i 176.3. See also DIL s.v. fuba (b). u i CIH v 1546.24-5. Binchy emends gleinntlecht of the MS. m CIH ii 480.23 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht I', 347; CIH iv 1503.1 = O ’Dav. 358 § 946. U6ltm ust be admitted, however, that the glossator at CIH ii 481.2 = AI, ii 238.ydoes not interpret the text in this way. He refers to bristi ‘fractures’ and galair (= galar) nairni disease of the kidney’: see DIL A 420.4—34. 1 17For example, it is recorded in the Chronicum Scotorum ( CS 230 s.a. 985) that there was a magic colic ( treagad fithnaisi) in the east of Ireland caused by demons. " HStokes, ‘Colloquy’, 46 § 233. See DIL s.v. milliud (c); cf. Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 73 s 858.

Bestiality

175

to th e b ew itch in g o f cattle ( mille ba), w hich m ay b e caused by an elf-shot {urchar milite) .119 T h e m ost o b scu re offence relatin g to th e bew itching o f anim als is d escrib ed in the law-text o n d istrain t as ni finir da choin, w hich m eans literally 'a b a d m orsel to a d o g '.120 From d ie accom panying gloss it does n o t a p p e a r to re fe r to th e d e lib e ra te p o iso n ing o f a dog, but ra th e r to try in g o u t o n it a c h a rm in te n d e d to bew itch a person. T h e cu lp rit is only re q u ire d to pay h a lf th e d o g ’s penalty-fine {dire) as h e was m erely ‘trying o u t th e spell to see if it was m agic’121 with no in te n tio n to kill. B est ia lit y

Sexual relatio n s b etw een anim als a n d h u m a n s featu re occasionally in early Irish lite ra tu re . F or exam p le, T riad 236 re co u n ts th e story o f th e Beast o f L eittir D alláin, w hich was o n e o f the w onders o f G len n D alláin .122*1245 It h a d a h u m a n h ead , b u t th e rest o f its body was in th e sh ap e o f a b lack sm ith ’s bellows. It was th e resu lt o f a u n io n b etw een a w ater-horse (ech uisci) a n d a d a u g h te r o f th e local priest. In his Topographs o f Ireland G iraldus C am brensis includes m any sim ilar tales. In som e cases such acts m ay have h ad ritual sig n ifican ce.12' f have fo u n d n o re fe re n ce s to bestiality in th e O ld-Irish law-texts o r in later legal glosses an d co m m entary. In p e n ite n tia l literature, however, such p ractices a re regu larly p ro scrib ed . T h e p en an ces seem relatively light; for exam ple, th e Penitential o f Cum mean states th a t a cleric w ho sins with an anim al m ust d o o n e y ear’s p e n a n c e .1'24 In o th e r p e n ite n tia ls th e p e n a n c e is for th re e y ears1“ ’ o r for two an d a h a lf y ears.126

119RIA MSS 461 (24 B 2), pp. 172, 181; 462 (2 4 M 3 4 ),p . 191; 465 (23 N 20), pp. 40, 61. For these MSS, see p. 218 below. 1 2 0 CIH ii 387.32; v 1692.35 = AL i 176.4. 121 CIH ii 388.13-14; v 1692.35-6 = AL i 180.30 froma uptha dus inbud amainsi. 1 2 2 Meyer, Triads, 30§ 236. GlennDallàinisGlencar, Co. Sligo (Hogan, Onomasticon). 12sSee p. 353. 124/P 114 § 6 . 1 2 5 TP 100 § 10; cf. 264 §24. 126IP 68 § 7.

176

Offences against domestic animals O ffences against animals by other animals

A farm e r's anim als may break in lo his n e ig h b o u r s land, a n d cause dam age not only to grass o r crops, bui also to livestock f o r exam ­ ple, his bull mas attack a n d kill o r in ju re his n e ig h b o u rs bull, o r his d o g may w orry his n e ig h b o u r's sheep. 1 he O ld Irish law-texts devote a g o o d deal o f a tte n tio n to such offences, particularly by cattle an d dogs. It is clear from o u r sources th a t th e p ractice o f jo in t-h e rd in g (comi)tgaire) was a m ajor factor in th e in cid en ce of offences b\ livestock against o th e r livestock. W ith an im als b e lo n g in g to d ifferen t ow ners h e rd e d to g e th e r u n d e r th e co n tro l of a single h erd sm an , it is easy to im ag in e how an attack by an anim al b elo n g in g to fa rm e r A on an anim al b elo n g in g to fa n n e r B could lead to a legal dispute. In cases w here th e cu lp rit can be id en tified , th e g en eral ru le is that its ow ner m ust give c o m p e n satio n ( aithgein) to th e ow ner o f the victim. T his co m p e n sa tio n tvpicallv consists of an anim al o f th e sam e quality as th e v ictim .12' But if th e cu lp rit c a n n o t be identified , out legal sources presen t two alternatives. Bechbretha d escribes th e case o f a d e a d anim al (mart) b ein g fo u n d am o n g pigs o r cattle o r dogs. T h e re is no witness to swear that o n e p a rtic u la r anim al was responsible; c o n ­ sequently guilt falls on th e w hole h e rd o r p a c k .123 O n e alternative is fo r th e ow ners o f all th e suspect anim als to c o n trib u te to the co m ­ p en satio n - this seem s to be th e solution p ro p o se d bv th e a u th o r o f Bechbretha}- ' A n o th e r o p tio n , p ro p o se d bv an earlv Bechbretha glossator, is to fix guilt o n o n e anim al bv casting lots: th e ow ner o f this anim al th e n beco m es liable to pay th e full fin e .127*19130

Attacks by dogs T h e h u n tin g instincts of th e d o m estic d o g are easily aro used, and can lead to attacks o n livestock. T h u s a law-text in clu d es ‘attack­ ing livestock’ (aurbach retinae) a m o n g th e fo u r o ffences o f d o g s.131

127CIH iii 788.12-14. ,WCIH ii 449.28-32 = BB 70-2 §§ 34-5. 129CIH ii 449.31 = BB 72 § 35. 1311CJH iii 924.7-9 = BB 70 § 34eB. Cf. CIH i 318.35-6 = AL iii 440.13-16: CIH v 1724.38-41. 131 CIH ii 579.2. The other three are: duinechaithchi ‘hum an offences’ (i.e. dogoffem es ( aused 1 >\ human malice or carelessness). /iibadi n-aitreibe digging under a house’, and conlón i Hr ‘dog-excrement on [another’s] land’.

Offences against animals by other animals

177

N aturally, th e dog-ow ner is n o t liable it it can be shown th at the dog acted in re ta lia tio n .132

F ig . 7 . T h is i n i t i a l on p. 11 of th e fo u rte e n th .-c e n tu ry B ook of B a lly m o te (M S n o . 536 = 23 P 12) in th e L ib r a ry of th e R o y a l I r is h A c ad e m y sh ow s a dog-fight. B o th dogs a re c o llare d . It h as been rep ro d u ced by k in d p e rm is s io n of th e C o u n c il of th e R o y a l I r is h A c a d e m y .

Even w ell-train ed dogs m ay savage livestock. Conslechtae refers to th e killin g o f a d o m estic an im al by a dog, w hile b ein g u rged on by its ow ner, w ho d id n o t how ever in te n d th a t th e anim al be h a r m e d . 1,1 T h e c o m m e n ta to r explains: ‘driving off [trespassing livestock J w ith o u t killing was tau g h t to the dog, but driving off with killing was w hat th e d og d id '. 1 ’4 Such attacks may also be due to a m istake by th e dog-ow ner. C o m m e n ta ry o n th e in citin g o f dogs ( m uilliud con) deals w ith th e case o f th e dog-ow ner w ho sets his d o g on a n o th e r ’s livestock in stead o f his o w n .13” H e has m erely to p ro tid e re stitu tio n ( aithgein) for any d am ag e d o n e. R T he sam e ap plies if a n e ig h b o u r’s h e rd a p p ro a c h e s th e h e rd w hich a dog is g u a rd in g , a n d it bites o n e o f th e n e ig h b o u r's anim als to death: this is classed as a "carcase o f p ro p e r je a lo u sy ’ {mart éta igthéchtai)}^ 132*567 132CIH vi 2195.15-16 = Thurneysen, 'Aus dem irischen Recht III’, 331 § 22: cf. CIH 1551.2-3 (excerpt from Conslechtae). 133 CIH V 1577.28 mart con gabala dia muilller lit. ‘a dead animal of a dog of seizure when it (the dog) is incited’. Cf. CIH v 1550.38—9. lM CIH v 1577.28-1578.3. The owner’s liability depends on the circumstances of the attack. l35CIH i 334.25: iv 1177.9 = AL iii 518.20. The terms muilliud and inmuilliud are clearly synonymous, cf. CIH'n 1391.1. 136CIH iv 1177.22 = AL iii 518.25-6. 137CIH v 1550.41.

V

178

Offences against domestic animals

C o m m e n ta ry on a sh o rt q u o ta tio n from an O ld Irish tex t discusses the legal co m p licatio n s w hich arise w hen a d o m estic dog ( cm chennaid) a n d a w olf (fdel allaid, mac tire) to g e th e r kill a young s h e e p .1’8 A n o th e r c o m m e n ta ry deals w ith th e case o f the herd -d o g w hich is in the h ab it o f sn a p p in g ( minaigecht) at poultry, lam bs a n d o th e r sm all anim als or pets w hich m ig h t be in a farm yard. Such a d og sh o u ld have a le a th e r m uzzle ( sm blaing) over its m o u th .138139 Dogs are liable to kill o r in ju re each o th e r in a dog-fight ( congal), w hich m ay be an o rg an ized e n te rta in m e n t o r an accid en tal en c o u n te r. In g e n e ra l, n o liability attach es to th e dog-ow ner for the d e a th or in ju ry o f th e o th e r dog. H en ce, th e law-text o n accidents Bretha Étgid states the p rin c ip le th at ‘a dog-fight is an im m u n ity for d o g s’.140 In the acco m p an y in g com m entary, however, various circu m stan ces are o u tlin e d in w hich th e law recognizes som e d e g re e o f liability on th e p a rt o f o n e o r b o th ow ners o r on those w ho in c ite d th e dogs to fight.

Attacks by cattle T h e law-texts a n d la te r c o m m e n ta ry devote special a tte n tio n to the killing or in ju ry o f o th e r anim als by bulls. As we have seen above (p. 150), a bull-ow ner is g en erally free from liability if his bull attacks a p e rso n w hile th e cows are in heat. H e is likewise fully o r partially ex e m p t if his bull kills o r in ju res o th e r livestock at these tim es.141 C o m m e n ta ry deals w ith th e various circu m stan ces o f such in c id e n ts,142 som etim es giving re g u la tio n s w hich conflict in po in ts o f d e ta il.143 Fights b etw een bulls a re also m e n tio n e d in te x t144145a n d c o m m e n ta ry .14:5 Fines in th e case o f th e d e a th o f o n e o f the bulls are less severe d u rin g th e m a tin g season. For e x am p le, if C/H ii 662.15-25; iv 1390.14-23. CIH i 313.1—3; iv 1389.11-14 = AL iii 416.8-10. The translation o f minaigecht is uncertain, see DIL s.w. minach and minaigecht. 140 CIH i 268.12 = AL iii 192.9. 141 Cf. IP (‘Welsh Canons’) 142 § 35. 1 4 2 CIH i 10.30-7; iii 1047.1-5; v 1828.20-9; 1886.33-7 = AL v 156.1-10; CIH i 276.9-14 = AL iii 232.10-18. 143For example, at CIH i 10.32-3 = AL v 156.4-5 it is stated that a bull is exempt (slán) for any damage inflicted on a neighbour’s cowin heat; b u tin the next line we are told that half-restitution ( lethaithgein) may be due. 1 am also uncertain as to what is m eant by the bull's ‘own cattle’ (acelhra (or indite) budéin) in these commentaries. As injury to these cattle may entail a fine, I am assuming that although they are in the same herd as the bull, they may belong to a different farmer. 1 4 4 C ///v 1551.3. 1 4 5 CIH i 276.15-31 = AL iii 232.19-234.18. 138 139

Offences against animals by other animals

179

o n e hull kills a n o th e r in an u n p ro v o k ed attack w hen the cows are in heat, its ow n er m ust pav half-fine ( lethfiarh): but it th e attack takes place w h e n th e cows are n o t in h eat, th e full fine ( lánfíach) m ust be p a id .146 Fights b etw een ram s a re tre a te d likewise.147 O th e r cattle are m u c h less aggressive th a n bulls, b u t may occasionally develop th e h a b it o f g o rin g o th e r anim als. T he Cominga ire-text deals w ith cases o f g o rin g in a h e rd w here cattle b e lo n g in g to d iffe re n t ow ners are k e p t to g e th e r.148 If a bovine (ag) was know n previously to b e a g o re r (guinid), its ow ner is speciallv p e n a liz e d .11" W here a n o th e r anim al has been killed, the ow n er o f th e g o re r m u st give a su b stitute to th e ow ner o f th e dead anim al, w ho also takes th e carcase. B ut in cases w here o n e bovine kills a n o th e r w ith o u t h aving previously show n a te n d en cy to gore, th e c u lp rit m ay itself be slau g h tered , a n d th e carcases o f the two anim als div id ed equallv betw een th e o w ners.141 W here the cu lprit c a n n o t be id en tified , it seem s th a t lots are cast on th e w hole h erd : th e anim al o n w hich th e lo t falls - a n d co n seq u en tly its ow ner - is th e n h e ld to be re sp o n sib le. 101 T h e above re g u la tio n s d o n o t seem to apply to o xen. A ccording to th e law-text o n accidents. Bretha Etgid, o n e o f th e ex em p tio n s o f o x e n is ‘m u tu a l a tta c k ’ (imoirgnechas) ,152

Attacks by horses M ost o f o u r legal in fo rm a tio n o n th e subject o f horse-attacks com es from th e b rie f statem en t in Bretha Etgid th at ‘a horse-fight is th e e x e m p tio n o f h o rse s’ ( blai ech echthres). T h e accom panying c o m m e n ta ry explains th a t n o liability is a tta c h e d to th e ow ner o f a h o rse w hich dam ag es a n o th e r h orse in a fig h t.1’ 1 In co m m en tary o n H e p ta d 7, we are told th a t th e ow n er o f a stallion ( cullach) is

ueiCIH i 276.17-19 = AL iii 232.22-5. ,47The comm entator generally uses the term mil ‘animal’ so as to include both bulls and rams, e.g. CIH i 276.20 = AL iii 234.1. >4SCIH i 192.23-33, ii 577.13-24 = AL iv 102.6-19 (partially retranslated BB 134). l«C f. Wasserschieben, Die irische Kanonensammlung, 214-15, bk. 53 ch. 7. 150CIH i 192.24-5, ii 577.15-16, iv 1268.8-10 = AL iv 102.7-9. Cf. IP 142 § 34; 156 § 3 9 , though here the solution is not to kill the gorer but to make it and its victim the jo in t property of both owners. 1 5 1 CIH ii 449.28-32 = BB 70-72 §§ 34-5 (see discussion in notes to § 35). 152 CIH i 284.3 = AL iii 266.13. The term imoirgnechas ( irmirgnechus MS) is otherwise unattested; see DIL s.w. oirgnech; 1 imm-oirg. 153 CIH i 290.24-6; v 1646.29-33 = AL iii 294.15-19.

180

Offences against domestic animals

not liable for any injury w hich it may inflic t o n a m are at m ating tim e.154

Attacks by pigs O u r in fo rm atio n on pig-attacks seem s co n trad icto ry . Bretha i.tgid classes fights betw een pigs as an e x e m p tio n ( blai) for w hich n e ith e r ow ner w ould be liable in th e case of d eath o r in jury.1 ” O n the o th e r h an d . Bechbretha treats th e killing of a pig (o r o th e r anim al) in a jointly-ow ned h e rd as an o ffence fo r w hich re trib u tio n m ust be paid by th e pig-ow ner.156 Bretha Nemed Toisech describes a case b ro u g h t b efo re the leg en d ary ju d g e Senchae w hich involved th e killing bv pigs o f b o th a child an d a calf.1 A h e rd o f pigs b elo n g in g to a rich U lster lan d o w n er n a m e d M ugnae killed an d ate th e son o f M aine. At the tim e the pigs were n o t u n d e r th e su pervision o f a sw ineherd. M aine locked the guilty pigs in to a shed to in itiate th e legal p ro c e d u re o f d istrain t ( athgahál) .15,4 However, a calf b elo n g in g to M ugnae h ad previously b een p u t in to th e sam e shed, a n d it was also e a te n bv th e pigs. M aine w ent to th e ju d g e S en ch ae c o m p lain in g o f th e loss o f his son, a n d M ugnae p u t in a counter-claim for th e loss o f his calf. S enchae was u n c e rta in a b o u t th e case, an d co n su lted King C on ch o b ar. w ho fixed dam ages in favour o f M aine for th e loss o f his son. a n d against him for causing th e d e a th o f M u g n a e ’s calf. B ecause th e pigs were n o t b ein g supervised, M ugnae h a d to pav th e full fine for ho m icid e in co n n e c tio n with th e bov's d e a th , ra th e r th a n m erely fo rfeitin g the pigs.

Attacks by hens M o dern b eek eep ers w hom I have co n su lted are invariably surprised by th e claim in legal co m m e n ta ry th at soft swallowing o f b ees' ( mdethslucud bech) is o n e o f th e th re e h en -offences in the farm y ard .1511 H ens m ight occasionally eat dying bees from the

, 5 4 C/f/ i 10.30 = AL V 156.1. The word cullach can mean both ‘stallion’ and ‘boar’. 1 5 5 CIH i 290.24-5 = AL iii 294.15. 1 5 6 CIH ii 449.29 = BB 70 § 34. ™CIH vi 2217.24-35. A later version at CIH vi 2113.16-25 is edited by Dillon, ‘Stories from the law-tracts', 44-5 § iii (trans. 53 § iii). hlSFor distraint, see p. 170. 159CIH i 73.22 = AL iv 116.10.

Offences against animals by other animals

181

g ro u n d in fro n t o f a hive, b u t they are n o t generally reg ard ed as a th re a t to b ees in flight o r to th e ir larvae w ithin th e ir hive.160 A n o th e r c o m m e n ta ry deals in d etail with attacks by bees on o th e r anim als a n d bv o th e r anim als o n bees, but m akes n o m en tio n o f th e ir b e in g e a te n by h e n s .161*

Attacks by cats In o n e version o f th e co m m e n ta ry o n Bretha Etgid, it is stated that n o liability is a tta c h e d to th e o w ner o f a cat w hich inflicts injury (fogal) o n pets (esrechta) 16J d u rin g th e night, but th at th ere is lia­ bility if th e o ffen ce takes place d u rin g th e day.166 T h e im plication is th a t th e o n u s is o n th e ow n er to e n su re th a t v u lnerable pets are safelv locked in d u rin g th e night, an d p e rh a p s also th at the cat m ust be allow ed fre e d o m to carry o u t its n o c tu rn a l m o u se-hunting duties (see p. 243). In a m o re g en eral ap p licatio n , th e sam e p rin cip le is to be fo u n d in th e section o n cats (De pilaribus) in Irish can o n law: 'T h e Hibernemes sav: if a cat has c o m m itted som e o ffence by night, let n o t th e ow n er pay; if it o ffends by day, let h im pay ’.164

160The only comparable case known to Dr Eva Crane (author of The archaeology o] beekeeping) is of the Denizli chickens, trained to eat wasps which prey on honeybees in western Anatolian apiaries. 1 6 1 CIH i 317.19-318.29 = AL iii 434.18-440.5. ,52In legal material, the term esrecht generally refers to pet animals or toys. l65Cm V 1647.6-7. 1 6 4 Wasserschleben, Die irische Kanonensammlung; 215, bk. 53 ch. 8 .

6

Accidents, diseases, etc. A c c id e n t s t o liv esto c k

As we have seen in C h a p te r 5, th e re a re som e circu m stan ces in w hich a p erso n may he liable for the acc id en tal d e ath o r injure of a n o th e r ’s cattle, e.g. b\ digging a deer-pit on co m m o n lan d w ithout p ro p e r w arn in g o r bv leaving a spiked fencing-post in a d a n g e ro u s position. But th e re are also referen ces in th e law-texts and o th e r sources to accid en ts involving livestock for w hich n o perso n can be­ h e ld responsible. D row ning It is clear from o u r sources th a t th e two m ain n a tu ra l hazards fo r livestock w ere wolves (see n e x t section) a n d water. T h e texts refer occasionally to th e accid en tal d ro w n in g o f livestock in o p e n w ater (bddud i n-uisriu) ,' b u t d éco te m o re a tte n tio n to th e d an g ers o f m arshes o r m ires w here an an im al c a n n o t swim to safety. In O'Davoren S Glossary a distinction is m ad e betw een a m arsh ( a-f the Irish Language lists diem as separate diseases, th o u g h w ithout p ro p o sin g any id en tificatio n s.21'1 M cLeod likewise distinguishes two diseases, suggesting that aife is tetan u s (lockjaw), a n d that seralach is an ailm ent affecting the hock (sez'r).211 T e tn a is ( m e r e c h d u in )

T etan u s o r lockjaw is a gen erally fatal disease o f horses. It is caused by th e b acteriu m Clostridium tetani, th e spores of w hich are infectious for hum ans. T his disease is m e n tio n e d in o n e version of th e co m m en tai v on th e law-text on accidents, Bretha Etgid. T h e c o m m e n ta to r discusses the com plex form s o f Habilite in th e case w h ere a perso n borrow s som ebody else's horse to b rin g to a fair. A m ong o th e r liabilities, the ow ner o f th e horse m ust pav for habilite with re g a rd to te ta n u s .212*214 A glossator o n this passage explains tetnais as merechduin, w hich seem s to be a c o m p o u n d o f mer ‘m ad, w ild' an d ech 'h o r s e '.21 ' T his term presum ably refers to th e violent svm ptom s o f th e disease, caused be o verreactio n o f th e reflex a n d m o to r stim uli. D eath is ultim atelv bv asphyxiation. G a la r n a p la c o d i

An en try in th e Annals o f Inisfallen reco rd s th at in th e vear 1259 th ere was a w idespread co u g h (cossachgtagh cotkrmi) on p eo p le a n d horses, w hich was called galar na placodi,211 T h e second elem en t may be ploaiid ‘stopper, b u n g ', re fe rrin g to th e suffocating n a tu re McLeod, Early Irish contract law, 321. 2080 Cuiv, ‘Fragments of two mediæval treatises’, 52 § 20. 'm CIH iii 1000.27. 2 1 0 D//. S.w. 1 aife, seralach. 2 1 1 McLeod, Early Irish contract law, 315, 324. 2 1 2 CIH i 266.3; iii 935.40— 1 - AI. ni 180.11 ic a cinaid isin tetnais fair. ~ 12 ( .711 iii 1078.21— 4. See OIL s.v. merechduin. 214/t/3 5 8 s.a. 1259 §3. 207

Poultry-diseases

213

o f th e c o u g h .21 ' Possibly, this was an ep id em ic o f strangles (see p. 211), as h u m a n in fectio n by Streptococcus equi has b een re c o rd e d .2111

Defects T h e seco n d h a lf o f a sh o rt legal passage e d ite d in A ppendix A o f this b o o k lists various defects o f h o rse s.21526217 P oultry -diseases

O nly o n e version o f th e legal c o m m e n ta ry o n anim al diseases refers to in h e r e n t diseases (galair bunaid) o f dom estic fowl.218 T h e tex t h as donaib huilib énaib ‘o f all b ird s ’, b u t as h e n s w ere u n d o u b te d ly th e m ost im p o rta n t ty pe o f p o u ltry on the early Irish farm (p. 102), it can b e assum ed th a t th e a u th o r was th in k in g prim arily o f hen-diseases. I follow B inchy’s p u n c tu a tio n o f th e te x t,219 a n d take it th a t two types o f disease are d istin g u ish ed h ere: confad a n d idu. Confad (synonym ous w ith conach) n o rm ally m ean s ‘rab ies’, w hich is p rim ar­ ily a disease o f dogs, b u t can be tra n sm itte d to any w arm -blooded a n im a l.220 Living in th e farm yard, h e n s a n d o th e r p o u ltry w ould be particu larly liable to be b itten by a h o u se h o ld do g w hich had c o n tra c te d rabies (for fu rth e r discussion o f this disease, see p. 215 b elo w ). A lternatively, confad may h e re refer to som e o th e r disease o f p o u ltry w hich affec ts th e n erv o u s system, such as en cep h alitis in p h e a sa n ts.221 Idu ‘p ain , co lic’, b ein g a g en eral te rm for serions dis­ ease, co u ld re fe r to m any o f the p o u ltry diseases distinguished by m o d e rn v e te rin a ry science. T h e only an n alistic re fe re n ce to w idespread m ortality am ong birds is in th e Annals o f Inisfallen, w here it is re c o rd e d th a t in th e year 917 th e re was a g re a t cow -m ortality o n livestock and 2 1 5 Dinneen, Foclóir, s.v. plocnid. I am grateful to Seán Ua Súilleabháin for drawing my attention to this word. 2 1 6 West, Black’ s veterinary dictionary, 520-1. n l ClH iv 1235.22-7 = Appendix A, text 7 § 2. n s CIH iii 1000.31-2. 2I9McLeod (Early Irish contract law, 299 [f]) takes confuidh with the preceding conuibh, reading conach do conuibh confuidh. However, his translation 'for mad dogs, conach [rabies]’ seems tautological. I suggest that do huilib énaib has been omitted by the scribe after conf- at CIH vi 2048.28. 220For rabies in poultry, see Bisseru, Rabies, 325, 2211 am indebted for this suggestion to Pat McCarthy of the Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, New South Wales.

214

Accidents, diseases, etc.

birds (btHtr for cethrnib y riuiib) T his m oitalitv affet led wild birds, as th e a n n alist states th a t th e so u n d o f b lack b ird {Ion) o r so n g th ru sh (smólach) was scarcely to be h e a rd in th a t year.

B fe -diseases T h e Annals of l Istn refer to th e oct u n e n t e ol a b ee-11101 tality ( huhdibod) in 951.221 Again in 99.'’). th e sam e an n als re c o rd a g ieat m ortality o f p eo p le, cattle, a n d b e e s.22322425 In Ire la n d th e h o n ey b ee is n e a r - o r possibly even b eyond - the lim it o f its n atu ral ran g e (see p. 109 above) a n d th e ie fo re suffers severely in cool o r w et sum m ers. T h e bee-m o rtalities m e n tio n e d in th e ann als niav have b een m ain h the result of starvation caused 1>\ bad weather, th o u g h parasitic o r o th e r infectio n s m at also bat e c 011trib u ted . It has b een calcu lated that betw een 1909 a n d 1917 Britain lost approxim ately 90 p e r cen t o f its bees, with sim ilar m o rtalities in Ireland. T his loss hits generallv b een a ttrib u te d to th e spread am o n g bee-stocks o f th e parasitic m ite Acampis wondi, w hich en ters the resp irato ry system o f voting bees an d feeds th e re bv p iercin g the tracheal wall a n d sucking th e b ee's blood. However, the research es o f th e bee-ex p ert Dr L. Bailey notv suggest th a t starvation ra th e r th an parasitic infection was th e m ajor cause of d e ath d u rin g this p e rio d .--'’ T h e Irish re c o rd from 999 w ould te n d to su p p o rt his view, as th e cattle-m ortalities in th e sam e vear suggest bad w eath er conditions; for a discussion o f th e re la tio n sh ip betw een w eath er a n d epidem ics, see pp . 194-5 above. In his Topography, G iraldus G am biensis states th at Irelan d has honeybees, b u t claim s th a t th e ir swarm s w ould be m u ch m ore p lentiful if tliev w ere not frig h te n e d of f bv th e b itte r an d poisonous yew with w hich th e w oods ab o u n d . Yew b ra n c h e s are o f course poiso n o u s if e a te n bv cattle a n d o th e r livestock, but the idea that bees are affected in anv wav bv this tree is erro n e o u s. It seem s th at G iraldus has based his claim o n a m isapplication o f a line in V irgil’s Eclogues.226 AJ 14G s.a. 917. 223AU2 396 s.a. 950 (recte 951) § 6 . 2 2 4 At/ 2 424 s.a. 992 (recte 993) § 7. 2 2 5 C. Butler, The world of the honeybee, 20-21. --r'() Meara, (iimltlns: Ih/ingm/ihv. 35 £ 2 (and note) - Dimock, (limldi To/tngraphim, 28 dist. I, cap. vi. The reference is Virgil, ■ Eclogues (ed. Fairclough), 9.30. 222

Cat-disease

215

D o g - disease c C o n a c h (C o n fa d )

By fa r th e m ost te rrib le disease o f dogs is rabies, know n in Irish as conach o r confad (also confaid) ,22728 In th e legal co m m en tary on anim al-diseases it is listed as affecting cattle, pigs a n d p o u ltry as well as riogs.--S In dogs, th e initial sym ptom s inclu d e lassitude, uneasi­ ness, a n d a desire to lick am th in g cold. A fter a few days th e furious phase o f th e disease sets in, a n d th e dog will th e n attack with intense fury any living th in g w hich it en c o u n te rs. T h e rabies virus is in th e d o g ’s saliva a n d can b e tra n sm itte d by even a m in o r bite. Any w arm -blooded an im al can be in fected with rabies; in m an it is called H y d ro p h o b ia because d re a d o f w ater is o n e o f th e sym ptom s o f the disease. It is g enerally fatal in all anim als. A n o th e r legal c o m m e n ta ry states th at th e ow n er o f a rab id dog ( cm clwnjmd) m ust p u t out a public w arn in g (escaire). But his responsi­ bility’ d o es n o t e n d h ere; h e m u st e n su re th a t th e do g is killed, its body b u r n t a n d th e ashes throw n in to a stre a m .229* T hese p recau ­ tions suggest aw areness o f th e fact th a t th e rabies virus can survive for som e tim e in th e d e a d body o f th e in fected a n im al.2 5,1 In m od­ e rn tim es, a case has b e e n re c o rd e d o f a m an w ho c o n tracted rabies a fter sk in n in g a cow w hich h a d d ie d fro m th e d isease.231 T h e w ords conach a n d confad a re also u sed in a m o re g en eral sense o f any v io len t fu ry o r m a d n e ss.232 C at- disease

T h e re a re n o re fe re n ce s to diseases o f cats in th e legal co m m en ­ tary on anim al-diseases. However, a n o th e r co m m e n tary on sickness in livestock ( cethrae) states th a t a sick o r in ju re d cat can legally be

227Both words contain the element cú (con-) ‘dog’, IJEJA C-187, C-192 s.w. conach, confa(i) d. 2 2 8 CIH ii 696,13: iii 1000.30-31, 41; vi 2048.27-8, 2049.38. Conach is also listed among the diseases of livestock in Plummer, ‘Betha Farannáin , 6.5. 229CIH i 285.21-2. 2 S0 However, in a paper delivered at the School of Celtic Studies Tionól in November 1994, Máirtín Ó Briain demonstrated that the motif of burning the body of a person or animal and throwing the ashes into water is quite common in Irish literature, e.g. Van Hamel, Immrama 35.312-16 = LU 60.1721-5; Ni Shéaghdha, Agallamh na Seanórach i 8.12-13. 2 3 1 Baer, The natural history of rabies i 9. 232 d u s vv_ conach, confad.

216

Accidents, diseases, etc.

reg ard e d as fully recovered w hen il starts to catch m ice as well as it did b e fo re .233* T reatment of injury and disease in livestock In stock-raising co m m u n ities iti|in \ o r disease is c o m m o n h tre a te d In' th e anim al s owner. However, from th e earliest tim es it m ust have been a p p a re n t that certain individuals h a d a p articu lar flair for healing anim als. In recen t Irish folk tra d itio n , for exam ple, th ere tire m ain reco rd s of p a rtic u la r "anim al-doctors w ho cu red with the aid of h erbs, touc h, o r in can tatio n s. In e a rlie r Irish sources the curin g of anim als is som etim es effected bv articles associated with saints. T h e tw elfth-century Life of Saint ( iolm án m ac I.úacháin records a trad itio n that th e g a p p e d bell of Saint Mo ( lutta ( Hennin Mo Chuta) could cure b o th h u m an s an d livestock of m am ailm ents and diseases." ’ 1 T h e sick p erso n o r anim al h ad to d rin k w ater from the bell, w hich was th e n struck th re e times." ' ' In his English tran s­ lation o f th e Annals o f Clonmacnoise - c o m p le te d in 1627 - C onell M ageoghagan gives a firsth an d acco u n t of a sim ilar p ractice ap plied to a gospel-book. H e re c o u n ts how he him self h a d seen th e custo­ dian of th e Book of Durrow, w hom he d escribes as an ’ig n o ran t man", infuse th at book in w ater w hich he th e n gave to sick cattle. T h e cattle w ere m iraculously resto red to h ealth an d the book itself suffered n o ill effects. C onell believed that th e Book o f D urrow was o n e o f th re e h u n d re d gospel-books tran scrib ed bv Saint C olum ba, a n d attrib u tes its p ro p e rtie s to th e pow er o f th e sa in t.236* O ld Irish ch arm s for th e re lie f o f h u m a n ailm en ts survive from the eigh th c en tu ry ,23, but th e re are no earlv reco rd s in Irish sources o f charm s for cu rin g anim als. However, an O ld Irish c h a rm for expelling w orm s from a m an o r beast survives in a slightly garb led form in an Anglo-Saxon leech-book. Part of it reads: gono mil.

233 CtH Vi 2098.30-31. " ’’Meyer, Bethn Colmáin, 26 § 27. The author of this text is unsure whether the bell is associated with Mo Chuta or his disciple Motura. ‘ It seems better to take dinnech to mean 'healing draught’ rather than ‘washing’ as suggested by Meyer. See DU. s.v. 2 dinech. " ,G/lnn. Cion. 96 s.a. 590. The Book of Durrow has been dated to around the middle of the seventh century (Luce, et ah, Codex Durmachensis ii 65), whereas Columba died in 597. ™Thes. ii 248-9.

Treatment of injury and disease in livestock

217

orgo mil, marbu mil ‘I w o u n d th e w orm , I strike th e w orm , I kill the w o rm '. - ’s In O ld Irish lists o f professions th e re is n o specific m e n tio n o f th e an im al d o c to r o r v e terin ary su rg eo n . However, later Irish legal c o m m e n ta ry co n tain s a few referen ces to th e fees a n d duties o f th e anim al-d o cto r ( liaig).238239 A c o m m e n ta ry o n non-fatal in jury to livestock (bcoathchummac rethme) credits th e god o f h ealing Dian C éch t w ith establishing th e p rin c ip le th a t th e p erso n w ho cures a w o u n d e d an im al is e n title d to o n e q u a rte r o f th e price o f the w ound (i.e o f th e sum d u e fo r th e w o u n d if in flicted illegally) ,240 A m o re co m p lex system fo r assessing v eterin ary fees is given in a n o th e r c o m m e n ta ry .24124 H e re we are to ld th a t th e anim al-doctor is e n title d to w hichever is less: o n e q u a rte r o f th e p rice o f th e w ound o r o n e q u a rte r o f th e replacem ent-value (aithgein) o f th e anim al. T his c o m m e n ta ry refers also to th e necessity fo r a form al ru lin g (derosc) b e fo re it is legally established th a t th e convalescence (othms) o f an illegally in ju re d an im al has b een co m p leted. In the law o f h u m a n in ju r y - f r o m w hich th e law o f anim al in ju ry has clearly b een a d a p te d - this ru lin g seem s to b ase b een m ade by a physician.212 It is likely, th e re fo re , th a t an anim al d o c to r was re q u ire d to m ake the fo rm al ru lin g w ith re g a rd to an a n im a l’s recovery. Legal com m en ­ tary fu r th e r specifies how it can be a scertain ed th a t sick o r in ju red anim als o f various types are fully recovered. In th e case o f a dog, fo r ex am p le, we a re to ld th a t if it chews a b o n e as well as it did b efo re its illness, it is to b e re g a rd e d as cu red . A h o rse is h e ld to have reco v ered if it ru n s as well after b ein g tak en fro m th e w ater as it d id b e fo re h a n d .24324 A pig is h e ld to be c u re d if it roots u p the g ro u n d as well as form erly a n d a c a t’s recovery is gauged by the re sto ra tio n o f its m o use-catching ability. If th e anim als ca n n o t do th ese things, n o fo rm al ru lin g o f recovery can be p ro n o u n c e d ." 14 2 3 8 Thurneysen, ‘Ir. marbu “Ich töte” ’, 106. For further discussion see Meroney, ‘Irish in Old English charm s’, 177-8, and Bonser, The medical background of Anglo-Saxon England, 245—6. 239The term liaig applies primarily to the physician who treats human disease and injury, but may also be used of the animal-doctor, e.g. CIH i 170.15; v 1626.4; vi 2174.33. 2 4 0 CIH v 1626.3-8 = AL iii 362.1-4. 2 4 1 C //f vi 2174.30-33. 242For discussion, see GEIL 131, and Binchy, ‘Bretha Déin ChéchT, 16-18. 2 4 3 1 do not understand this reference. 244CIH vi 2098.27-32.

218

Accidents, diseases, etc.

T h e ten th -cen tu rv tale Orguin Denna Rite refers to the accidental b reakin g of th e leg of a chicken (néne d u r ) . 1 h e in jury is treated by th e ap p licatio n o f a b a n d a g e (cuimrech).24a T h e re is evidence that th e p ost-N orm an m edical fam ilies were also involved in v eterin arv practice. For exam ple, an O I.ongáin m edical m an u scrip t p rescribes herb al rem ed ies a n d ch arm s for ail­ m ents o f livestock such as grey w ater Uéithuisir) in s h e e p ,-11' the bew itching o f cattle ( mille lui), b leed in g from th e teats of cows while bein g m ilked, council in cattle, e tc ."1' A c o lo p h o n on p. 122 of this m an u sc rip t reco rd s th at it d erived from an original which was in the possession o f the physician Eóin O C allannám in the r e a r 1692. T h e family o f O C allannáin (C allanan, C allinan ) w ere phvsicians to Mac C árth aig h (M acC arthy) o f west Cork. O n e fra g m e n t o f a treatise o n h o rses (see p. 209 above) was in te rp o la te d in a m an u scrip t w ritten in 1469 bv D o n n c h a d h O g Ó h lc e a d h a .-1* T h e family o f O h íc e a d h a (O ’Hickev. Hickev ) w ere physicians to O B riain (O 'B rien ) o f T h o m o n d . • A n o th e r frag m en t is fo u n d in a m edical m an u scrip t w ritten betw een 1516 an d 1527 by An G iolla Glas O Caisicle. H e was a m e m b e r o f the im p o rta n t m edical family O C aiside (O ’Cassiclv) of F erm an ag h . In his book o n Irish folk m ed icin e, Patrick L ogan reco rd s a re c e n t trad itio n in th e F erm a n a g h a rea c o n c e rn in g th e use o f ’Cassidy's ra g ’ to cure livestock. A p iece o f cloth from th e h o u se o f am perso n n am ed Cassidy was p u t in to water, w hich was th en given to the sick an im al to d rin k .2 4526*249

Greene, lingol Remain and other stories, 18.316. 246See p. 206 above. -*'RIA MS 461 (24 B 2), pp. 172-81. With slight variation the same ailments are listed in the Ó Longáin RIA MSS 462 (24 M 34), pp. 191-4, and 465 (23 N 20), pp. 40-61. For conach in cattle see p. 199 above. ' ,K0 Cuiv, ‘Fragments of Irish medieval treatises’, 113-14. 2 4 9 Logan, Making the cure, 170— 1. 245

7 Crops (i): Cereals T ypes o f cerea ls

T h o u g h cereals do n o t featu re in o u r sources as p ro m in en tly as live­ stock. th e re is n o n e th e le ss a g o o d deal o f in fo rm atio n relating to th e types o f cereals grow n, th e ways in w hich they w ere processed, a n d th e form s in w hich they w ere co n su m ed . C ereals w ere suffi­ ciently im p o rta n t in th e early Irish eco n o m y fo r a b u shel ( miach) o f g rain to b e u sed as a fo rm o f curren cy.1 T h e re are also refer­ en ces in th e an n als show ing th a t th e d e stru c tio n o f cereal-crops, w h e th e r bv b ad w eath er o r h u m a n agency, co u ld b rin g ab o u t severe fo o d -sh o rtag e o r even fam in e (see p. 2 ). An im p o rta n t list o f seven cereal-grains is given in the eig h th -c e n tu ry law-text Bretha Déin Chécht.2 T hey are placed in th e follow ing o rd e r: crnithnecht (bread-w heat), secal (rye), suillech (sp elt w heat?), ibdach (two-row barley?), rúadán (em m er w heat?), éomae (six-row barley), a n d corcae (co m m on oat). This o rd e r is based on th e relative p restige o f each type o f grain, which is c o rre la te d w ith a p a rtic u la r g rad e in h u m a n society. T h u s a w heat-grain is e q u a te d with th e ran k o f su p e rio r king, bishop or c h ie f p o e t, w hereas at th e b o tto m o f th e scale th e oat-grain is e q u a te d w ith th e c o m m o n e r o f bóaire ra n k .3 O th e r texts ag ree in atta c h in g m o re value to bread-w heat th a n to o th e r cereals. For exam ple, in a Life o f S aint F in nian we are told th at on weekdays th e saint h ad a piece o f barley-bread a n d a d rin k o f water, b u t o n Sundays a n d holy days h e ate a piece o f w heaten 'See Appendix B, p. 588. 2CIH vi 2305.6-13 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Déin Chécht’, 22 § 2. I have normalized the spelling. 'T he glossator gives two reasons why the grain of bread-wheat is at the top of the list: ara loiget 7 ara uaisle ‘because of its small size and its dignity’. In his edition, Binchy tentatively accepts the glossator’s view that the list is arranged on the basis of the relative size of each grain (‘Bretha Déin Chécht’, 49). He quotes m odern mea­ surements of a grain of wheat (0.25 in.), rye (0.29 in.), barley (0.33 in.) and oats (0.50 in.). But, as he remarks, this leaves us with the problem of fitting in the grains of suillech, ibdach, and rúadán between 0.29 in. and 0.33 in. For this reason, it seems to me likely that the author o f the text was thinking primarily of the relative value and prestige of each grain.

220

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broad with a m orsel ol boiled salm on, an d d ra n k a m p ol m ead or ale. 1 Similarly, legal eo m m en lai v on fosterage states that th e child o f a lord is en titled to p o rrid g e m ad e with bat le\ m eal, whet c a s the child ol a king is en titled to pot ridge m ad e with w heatineal. ' In a n o th e r legal c o m m e n ta ry th e value o f a b u sh e l o f w heat is given as a scru p le,1' that ol a bushel ol Itarier as tw< >p en t e ( i.e. two th irds o f a scru p le ), a n d th a t o f a b u sh el o f oats as o n e p e n n y .' T h e m ain p ro b lem in th e Brdha Dein Chet lit list is the identity ol suillech, ibdach, a n d rúadán: see discussion o n pp . 222-3. T h e re is also a list o f eig h t cereals in th e satirical tale Aislinge Meic Con Glinne, w hich d ates from th e early tw elfth cen tu ry : serai serbán, mádán, rtiadán, rrititlinedil, éttntae, ftdbadi, an d tuitae.' No signifi­ cance seem s to be a ttach ed to th e o rd e r in w hich ih e\ are p la te d . O f these, serbán ‘th e b itte r o n e ’ a n d máelán ‘th e b ald o r awnless o n e ’ do not a p p e a r in th e Brdha Dein C.hédit list, fidbadi m ust be a later spelling o f ibdach. Cruithnecht (Bread-w heat) B read-w heat ( Triticum aestivum, subspecies vulgare) is o n e o f th e w o rld ’s m ost im p o rta n t food-plants. It is believed to have origi­ nated som e tim e betw een 3000 an d 3000 BC in the Iran Iraq area. U nlike o th e r cereals, it has n o wild c o u n te rp a rt in n a tu re .4*69 It is a hybridi/ation-and-fusion p ro d u ct, c o n ta in in g two sets ol c h ro m o ­ som es p re se n t in e m m e r a n d d u ru m w heats, a n d a th ird set fo u n d in a wild grass Aegiln/n squarrosa. It thus o rig in a te d as a W eed ’ of em m er o r d u ru m w heatfields, w hich proved to h a \e outstandingly valuable characteristics. T h e ra th e r cool d a m p clim ate o f Ire la n d is n o t favourable to th e cultivation o f bread-w heat. C onsequently, a lth o u g h clearly the most prized cereal, it was less frequently grown th an others. In re c e n t discussions o n p lan t-rem ain s in early C h ristian sites

Stokes, Lismore lives. 81.2734-7. :'CIH V 1759.41-1760.2 = AL ii 150.2-5. 6This equation is also given in the Old Irish law-text Bretha Nemed Toisech (CIH vi 2230.20). 1CIH iii 806.1-3. Similar values are given for these three cereals in commentary on Vraicechl Beer ( CIH v 1609.40-1610.5 = ALx 82.18-z). “Jackson, Aislinge 38.1183-4 = Meyer, Aislinge, 99.4-5. ’Ucko and Dimbleby, The domestication and exploitation of plants and animals, 60; Zohary and Hopf, Domestication of plants, 47-53. 4

Types o f cereals

221

in Ire la n d , M ick M onk has n o te d th a t th e re are relatively few instances o f w h eat from this p e rio d .10 T h e c o m m o n O ld Irish te rm for w heat, cruithnecht, is a native w o rd o f u n c e rta in etym ology.11 A less fre q u e n t te rm is tuirenn, also o f o b scu re o rig in .12 F or w heat-beer - said to be ‘from the ju ices o f tuirenn - see p. 334. Secal (Rve) Rye (Secale cereale) has a m o re n o rth e rly ra n g e th a n o th e r cereals, a n d can grow in p o o re r soil. A rchaeological evidence o f rye is rare in th e N eo lith ic a n d B ronze Age settlem en ts in th e N ear East. T he earliest d e fin ite evidence th a t it was grow n as a cro p in its own rig h t - a n d n o t m erely as a to le ra te d w eed a m o n g o th e r cereals - is from ab< >ut 3000 BC in A natolia. Bv a ro u n d 1500 BC, it was bein g grown in several sites in C zechoslovakia.13 Rye is th e m ost w inter-hardy cereal, an d th e re fo re is particularly suitable fo r autum n-sow ing. T h a t it was regularly autum n-sow n in Ire la n d in th e tw elfth c e n tu ry is suggested by a referen ce in Aislinge Meic Con Glinne to ‘a wild d e e r cro p p in g a field o f w inter-rye (gemsecol) in th e m o n th o f J u n e ’.1415 T h e p o sitio n o f rye n e x t to bread-w heat in th e BrethnDéni C.hécht list is of p a rtic u lar interest, as it in d icates th a t this c ro p was o f co n sid erab le im p o rtan ce in th e early Irish econom y. T his is c o n firm e d by th e archaeological evidence: Mick M onk p o in ts o u t th at rye has b een fo u n d q u ite widely on early C hristian sites in Irelan d , th o u g h fo rm in g only a small p ercen tag e (4.34 p e r cen t) o f th e total cereal sam ple o f th e tw enty-three sites in v estig ated .10 T h e only w o rd atte ste d fo r rye in O ld Irish is secal, a borrow ­ in g fro m post-Classical L atin secale. T his d oes n o t o f course prove th a t rye was in tro d u c e d to Ire la n d from R om an Britain. In fact, th e re is ev idence o f rye from a B ronze Age site at C arrow m ore,

l0 Monk, ‘The archaeobotanical evidence for field crop plants’, 318-21; Monk, ‘Evidence from macroscopic plant remains', 33. 11LEIA C-254—5 s.v. cruithnecht. 1 2 LEIA T-l 74 s.v. 1 tuirenn. 13Zohary and Hopf, Domestication ofplants, 64-73. I4Jackson, Aislinge, 33.1013-14 = Meyer, Aislinge, 85.4. 1 5 Monk, ‘The archaeobotanical evidence for field crop plants', 318 (table 25.2); Monk, ‘Evidence from macroscopic plant remains’, 33-4.

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C o . Sligo, so its p resen ce long p red ates R om an in flu en ce in n o rth ­ west E u ro p e ."' However, it is q u ite likely th at new strains of rye cam e to Irelan d with C hristianity, an d that th e Latin w ord e n te re d the language at this stag e.161789201* In this co n n e c tio n it is w orth n o tin g that th e re is a fairly high p ro p o rtio n of 1.atin loan-w ords in the ( )ld Irish vocabulary c o n n e c te d with c ro p s,ls w hereas th e vocabulary co n n ecte d with livestock is practically devoid of Latin loans. T his indicates that th e in tro d u c tio n of new strains an d tech n iq u es was m o re a fe a tu re o f arab le th a n o f pasto ral farm ing.

Suillech (Spelt w heat?) T he identity o f th e th ird cereal in th e Bretha Dein (Met ht list is u n certa in . In th e accom panying gloss it is e q u a te d with bat lev I«»ttfle) .'9 T h e sam e id en tificatio n is m ade in () Dtivoreu s (,lnsscu\.~ w here it is describ ed as éonia cethardmimuech ‘four-ridged buries . T his is presum ably four-row barles: see discussion on p. 22b below. A n o th e r suggestion, which seem s m o re likely, is th at o f C earoid Mac Niocaill, who holds that suillech is a borro w in g from Latin siligo. a type o f w inter-w heat."1 Siligo is d istin g u ish ed from triticum (breadw heat) in In su lar L atin sources."" G iraldus C am b ten sis reco rd s the story o f a field o f siligo w hich was m iraculously tu rn e d into triticum th ro u g h th e in te rv e n tio n o f th e b ish o p o f Cork." T his shows th a t siligo was re g a rd e d as in fe rio r to triticum. In an Irish context, th erefo re, suillech m ay re fe r to o n e o r o th e r o f th e less prized (but h a rd ie r) w heats, such as em itter ( Triticum turgidum, sub­ species dicoccum) , spelt ( Triticum aestivum, subspecies spelt a I o r rivet 1 6 Monk, ‘Evidence from macroscopic plant remains’, 32. Monk points out that rye here may possibly have been a weed in another cereal-crop. 17Middle Irish commentary on Félire Oengusso attributes the introduction of wheat and rye to saints Fínán and Déclán respectively (Stokes, Félire, 112). However, such claims are common in Irish learned tradition, and are of little significance. l8O ther examples are pis ‘pea’ (I.at. /«sum), sab ‘bean’ (Lat./afoz), connaît‘stubble’ (Lat. cannula), suit ‘flail’ (Lat. fustis), saball ‘b arn ’ (Lat. stabulum), som ‘oven (of grain-drying kiln)’ (Lat. furnus), muilenn ‘mill’ (Lat. molina), collar ‘coulter’ (Lat. culter). l9CIFf vi 2305.23 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Dan Chéchl’, 22 § 27. 2 0 C m iv 1525.34-5 = O ’Dav. 459 § 1475. 21 He is quoted by Binchy, 'Bretha Déin Chécht', 48. The main difficulty of this suggestion is that siligo should give Old Irish *silech. -'"E.g. Emanuel, The Latin texts of the Welsh laws, 157 in tritico vel in siligine. 2 S0 ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 89 § 78 = Diinock, Giraldi Topogrephia, 1311-2. Giraldus’s account gives two alternative miracles, but the point o f the story is unaffected.

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w heat (Triticum turgidum, subspecies turgidum). Of" these, R egina S exton believes that spelt is th e m ost likelv identification as this w heat c o n tain s a high p ro p o rtio n o f g lu ten -fo rm in g proteins, and co n seq u en tly p ro d u ces a light fin e-tex tu red lo af o f good flavour.24 Isidore refers to th e special use o f siligo in b read -m aking.25 Col­ u m ella likewise praises th e a p p e a ra n c e o f b read m ade with siligo, b u t rem ark s o n its lack o f w eig h t.26 Ibdach (Two-row barley?) T h e glossato r takes ibdach, th e fo u rth cereal o n th e list, to be a type o f barley.2 H e observes th a t ‘a d rin k is d ru n k fro m its ju ic e ’, i.e. b e e r (see p. 332). H e iden tifies this cereal as éorna na n-én ‘barley o f th e b ird s ’ o r maothéorna na n-innsi ‘su ccu len t barley o f th e islan d s’.28 T h e la tte r ex p lan atio n seem s to be based on th e in te rp re ta tio n o f ibdach as m e a n in g ‘H e b rid e a n ’.2930 M uch o f th e H e b rid e s consists o f hilly o r boggy te rra in unsuitable fo r cultivation. However, th e coastal plains o r machairs can be b ro u g h t to a fair level o f fertility; in d e e d , th e island o f T iree in th e In n e r H e b rid e s was fam ed fo r its cereal-p ro d u ctio n in the n in e te e n th century, b e in g know n as Eilean iosal an eörna ‘low island of barlev'. 1,1 It is th e re fo re quite possible that ibdach refers to som e type o f barley associated with th e H ebrides. If this is so, th e p ro b le m th e n is to establish w hat th e distinction is betw een ibdach ( = fidbarh) a n d éornae in th e fíretha Déin Chécht and A id mge Meic Con CAmne lists. I follow R egina S e x to n ’s suggestion that ibdach refers to two-row barley (Hordeum vulgare, subspecies

Sexton, 'Cereals and cereal foodstuffs in early historic Ireland’, 8-9. Isidore, Etymologiarum (ed. Lindsay), 17.3.7. 2 6 Columella, De re rustica (ed. Ash), 2.6.2; 2.9.13. 27It appears in the Aislinge Meic Con Glinne list in the form fidbach, with inorganic f and transposition of b and d. 2 8 CIH vi 2305.27-8 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Déin Chécht', 22 § 2n . The same gloss is found at CIH iv 1514.29-30 = O ’Dav. 410 § 1213. Here midbach has been erroneously sub­ stituted for ibdach, but the correct reading - though with transposition of b and d - has been added at the end of the gloss. There is a slight possibility that we should take na nen to be gen. plur. of ian ‘drinking-vessel’ - a reference to the use of barley for brewing. For variation between forms with e- and ia- in legal glosses and com­ mentary, compare nom. plur. eana (CIH ii 467.18 = AL v 392.12) and tana ( CIH vi 2329.21 = A L \ 94.9). 29See discussion by Binchy, ‘Bretha Déin Chécht', 49—50. 3 0 Dwelly, Faclair s.v. eörna; cf. Fraser Darling, Natural history in the Highlands and Islands, 15. 24

25

224

Crops (i): Cereals

distichum) an d that ranine low er'dow n in th e list refers to six-row barlev ( Hordeum vulgate, subspecies hrxristii h u m ). 1 Both two-row and six-row bailee are know n to have b een in cultivation in the N ear Kast ab o u t 7500 B( i, an d tlies tire d istin g u ish ed by th e R om an a u th o r C olum ella, who w rote on (arm in g in th e first c e n tu ry B (.. 1’ H e refers to two-row bai ler as distichum o r ( dilalinnii '( iala tia n ’, and com m en ts on its ex tra o rd in a ry w eight a n d w hiteness, a n d on its suitability as food for th e h o u se h o ld w hen m ixed with w heat. H e regards six-row barlev (whic h h e calls hexen! it hum I its a w holesom e food for anim als, a n d useful fo r h u m a n s in tim es o f scarcity. In excavations o f earls C hristian sites in Irelan d , bailer is the d o m ­ in a n t cereal: m o re sam ples a re o f th e six-row th a n th e two-row type.313234 In later Irish, a d istin ctio n is som etim es m ad e betw een eorna bheag ‘small b arley’ i.e. two-row barley, a n d eorna mhór ‘great barley’ i.e. four-row (= six-row) barley.3536 In a passage o n cereals, the n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry w riter A odh Mac D o m h n aill states that eorna bheag has special m edicinal p ro p erties, and is used particularly in th e m a n u fa c tu re o f b e e r a n d spirits. Eorna mhór is coarser, h a rd ie r a n d less tro u b le to grow, a n d is suitable for bread-m aking.31’ In S cotland an d n o rth e rn E ngland, four-row (six-row) barley is called h ere, bear-barlev o r bigg: see discussion on p. 226 below. Rúadán (E m m er wheat?) T h e fifth Bretha L)éin Chech! cereal is also in c lu d e d in th e Aislingc Meic Con Glinne list. R úadán m ean s ‘th e re d o n e ’, so it m u st refer to a cereal with a red d ish tinge in its g rains o r stalk. T h e glossator explains it as cruithnecht nitui ‘red b read -w h eat’, a n d 1 believe that

Sexton, ‘Cereals and cereal foodstuffs in early historic Ireland’, 9-11. 32Zohary and Hopf, Domestication of plants, 62-4. 3 3 Columella, Dererustica (ed. Ash), 2.9.14-16. 3 4 Monk, 'The archaeobotanical evidence for field crop plants’, 317; Monk, ’Evidence front macroscopic plant remains’, 33. E.g. De Bhaldraithe, Ctn ijie Amklaoibh, 1.26. For a discussion on four-and six-row barley, see p. 226 below. 3 6 Beckett, Fealsúnacht Aodha Mhic Dhomhnaill, 206-9 §§ 105-6. 31

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225

h e is c o rre c t in identifying it as som e sort o f w h eat.*7 O n e can com ­ p are th e L atin w heat-nam e robus, w hich m eans ‘re d d ish ’.*” E m m er seem s a likely c an d id ate, as Mick M onk tells m e that its stalk can have a re d co lo u r.39 R egina S exton p o in ts o u t also th a t em m er flo u r is u n su itab le fo r bread -m ak in g as it p ro d u ces a ra th e r heavy loat: this w ould acco u n t for its position below th e o th e r w heats in th e Bretha Déin Chécht list.40 In his ed itio n o f Aislinge Meic Con Glinne, M eyer took rúadán to refer to buckw heat (Eagopyrum esculentum) However, this foodp lan t was n o t in tro d u c e d in to E u ro p e until th e th irte e n th century, so it co u ld n o t be p re se n t in e ith e r o f o u r lists. It has never b een a re g u la r c ro p in B ritain o r Irelan d . Éornae (Six-row barley) Éornae is th e g e n e ric n a m e fo r barley (Hordeum) in Irish. In excavations o f th e early C hristian p e rio d in Ire la n d , b o th two-row bailee (Houieum vulgare, subspecies distichum) an d six-row barley (Hordeum -vulgare, subspecies hexastichum) are well rep resen ted , th o u g h th e la tte r is m o re fre q u e n t.42 It has b e e n suggested on p. 223 that in th e Bretha Déin Chécht an d Aislinge Meic Con Glinne grain-lists ihdach (Jidbach) refers to th e m o re p rized two-row barley, w hile éornae refers to th e h a rd ie r b u t co arser six-row barley.43 I have re fe rre d above (p. 224) to th e d istin ctio n in later Irish betw een eorna hheag ‘small b arley ’ i.e. two-row barley, a n d eorna mhór ‘g re a t b arley ’ i.e. four-row (= six-row) barley. M ick M onk points 5 7 CIH vi 2305.31 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Déin Chécht', 22 § 214. A similar gloss is found at CIH iv 1521.7 = O ’Dav. 439 § 1369. For the further identification of rúadán with máelchruithnecht ‘bald wheat’, see discussion under máelán on p. 228 below. 3 s Columella, De re rustica (ed. Ash), 2.6.1. 3 9 According to Columella (De re rustica (ed. Ash), 2.6.3), one type of emmer (far) is reddish (rutilum). Alexander Falileyev informs me that wheat-names containing an elem ent meaning ‘red ’ occur in several Iranian languages, e.g. Tadjik surxak ‘a type of wheat’, from surx ‘red’. Cf. Loth, ‘Les noms et les variétés du from ent’, 196-7. 4 0 Sexton, ‘Cereals and cereal foodstuffs in early historic Ireland’, 13. She does, however, point out some difficulties with this identification. 4 1 Meyer, Aislinge, 98.5. In the glossary to his edition, Jackson follows suit. 4 2 Monk, ‘The archaeobotanical evidence for field crop plants’, 317; Monk, ‘Evidence from macroscopic plant remains’, 33. 43It must be stressed, however, that in other contexts éornae may refer to two-row barley. For example, éornae is used in the law-text Cain Aicillne (CIH ii 480.26 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht I’, 348.4) of barley grown in best-quality land to make malt fit to be given as part o f a client’s food-rent to his lord. This is likely to be the superior two-row barley.

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o u t to m e that b o th six-row an d four-row barley h a \e in fact six rows of g rains along the ear. In th e four-row type, the rows are a rra n g e d densely, so only fo u r rows are visible. In th e lax-eared sixrow type, on th e o th e r h a n d , all six tows can be seen. In his gloss on the cereal-nam e suillerh ( see p. 222 above ). ( ) D avoren m akes an identification with eontrt relhnrdruimueth, lit. fo n t-ridged bai lee . 11 T his is presum ably a te rm for four-row bat lee. th o u g h it seem s m ore likely that suillerh is actually a w heat. In the- dialects of S cotland an d n o rth e rn E ngland, th e re are m any reco rd s of a distine tion betw een the tevo-row type an d th e four- o r six-row type. Four- o r six-row bai ­ lee' is called h ere, bear-barley o r b ig g. 1’ an d is still cultivated to som e extent in O rk n e y .11’ In Welsh, th e tevo-row type is called hanld ihywiog ‘fine b arlev’ w hereas th e four- o r six-row tepe is called hniil/l garw ‘ro u g h barley ’.4' A refe re n ce in th e O ld Irish tale Fieri Brit renn suggests th at bai lee mav som etim es have been used as a horse-feed. T h e th re e h ero es Conall, L óegaire an d CÚ C h u lain n evere asked to ch o o se th e tepe o f food w hich was to be given to th e ir horses. C onall an d I.óegaire chose ‘grass o f two e’e a rs’ (airthend dd bliadan), i.e. grass evhich had n o t b een g razed for two years. ( at C h u lain n . on the o th e r h an d , chose barley-grain.4q Corcae (C o m m o n oat) It is p ro b ab le that th e oat o rig in a te d as a eveed o f w heat a n d b a i­ lee1, an d evas th en taken in to cultivation because of its stiitablitv for th e m oist cool clim ates of th e te m p e ra te latitudes. Two tepes o f oats (Avena sativa a n d A. strigosa) have b e e n cultivated in c en tral E urope since ab o u t th e b e g in n in g of th e first m illen n iu m B C .’" Both types are fo u n d a m o n g the p lan t rem ain s on carle C hristian sites in Irelan d . ’* .After bai lee', th e m ost fre q u e n t cereal on these sites is co m m o n oat. T he a u th o r of Brel ha Dein Chccht classes th e oat as th e least valued cereal. A sim ilar assessm ent is fo u n d in legal c o m m e n ta ry w here a C /tt iv 1525.34-5 = O'Dav. 459 § 1475. 4jCraigie et al„ A dictionary of the older Scottish tongue s.v. here OED s.w. bear, bigg. 4 6 Fenton, The Northern Isles, 335. 4 7 GPC s.w. haidd, heiddyd. 48For a discussion of the identity of airthend, see p. 42. 4 9 i í / 267.8833-5 = Windisch, Das Fest des Bricriu’, 285.15-17 § 63. r,(l l'cko and Dimbleby, The domestication and exploitation of plants and animals, 166; Zohary and Hopf, Domestication ojplants, 77—8. For Avena strigosa, see under ‘serbán’. 51 Monk, Evidence from macroscopic plant remains’, 33. 44

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b u sh e l o f b arley is given twice th e value o f a b u sh el o f oats.52 Ais­ linge Meic ( ’.on Glinnc likewise co n tain s co n te m p tu o u s referen ces to o aten b re a d . ’ ’ A q u o ta tio n in th e Irish grammatical tracts refers to a m ix tu re o f oats a n d barley ( coirceórna, i.e. corca + eórna).54 In Welsh this m ix tu re is know n as si/nys, '' an d in English the term d red g e (di adg e ) is a p p lie d to a m ix tu re o f grains, especially oats an d barley, w hich have b e e n sown to g e th e r.56 Serbán (Pilcorn?) Serbán ‘th e so u r o n e ’ is in c lu d e d in th e Aislinge Meic Con Glinne list, b u t n o t in Bretha Déin Chéchtf7 G lossators take it to b e a fo rm o f oats. " a suggestion w hich p ro m p te d M eyer to identify it with the wild oat (Arena fatua). Vl However, I find this identification difficult to accept. T h e g rain s o f th e wild o a t are small a n d w ould hardly be w o rth co llectin g e x cep t in fam in e co n d itio n s. I suspect th a t th e early Irish fa rm e r - like his m o d e rn c o u n te rp a rt - reg ard ed wild oats as a p e rsiste n t n u isan ce w hich to o k u p valuable space in his fields. Its status as a p est is illu strated in th e satirical verse w hich refers to ‘a sack in w hich th e re a re wild o ats’ (píanán i mbt corca fá sa ig ) w ith th e im p licatio n th a t its c o n te n ts are w orthless.60 A n o th e r text reg ard s serhein (h e re spelled serbainn) as a crop which can actually b e m illed: this w'ould h ardly apply to th e wild o a t.61 Possibly, serbán in o u r list refers to b ristle-p o inted oat (Avena strigosa) w hich is still som etim es grow n o n lan d too p o o r for Aveua sativa, a n d is p o p u larly called p ilco rn , black oat, o r grey o a t.62 In M o d e rn Irish th e n am es coirce dubh ‘black o a t’ an d coirce bocht

CIH V 1610.1-2 = AI. V 82.24. ’’'Jackson, Aislinge, 7.185—6; 35.1074 = Meyer, Aislinge, 17.5-6; 89.16. 5 4 Bergin, ‘Irish grammatical tracts: I Introductory’, 23 § 94. 53I am indebted to Nicholas Jacobs for this information. 56OED s .v . dredge. 3 7 01d Irish serb ‘sour, bitter’. 5 8 CIH ii 620.1 and CIH iii 1077.5-7. In both glossaries the spelling is given as serpan with p for lenited b, whereas the Aislinge has seruan with u for lenited b (Jackson, Aislinge, 38.1183 = Meyer, Aislinge, 99.4). 5 9 Meyer, Aislinge, 98.5 =Jackson, Aislinge, 194 (Glossary). ®°Thurneysen, ‘Mittelirische Verslehren’, 105 § 210 = Meroney, ‘Studies in early Irish satire', 202 § 14. 61 See Greene, Fingal Rónáin and other stories, 48.886 and note. 6 2 Cf. Fenton, The Northern Isles, 335.

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‘p o o r oat have b een re c o rd e d .'” an d in Welsh it is crirch llwyd ‘grey o a t’, blewgeirch ‘hairy oat . o r ceirrh roliog ‘prickly oat . ’* Máelán As in th e case o f serbáui, this cereal is in c lu d e d in th e Aisliuge Meii Con Clinne list, but not in Bretha Déin C.hécht. T h e w ord máelán is a derivative o f máel ‘b are, b a ld ', w hich suggests that it was ap p lied to an awnless cereal, i.e. o n e in w hich th e re is n o lo n g still spike or ‘b e a rd ’ above th e grain. W heats such as Triticum aestivum an d Triticum turgidum have awnless varieties, so it is possible th at mdeUin refers to a type o f w heat. It is th e re fo re te m p tin g to identify mdeUin with máelchruithnecht 'b a ld (awnless) w heat . w hich is m e n tio n e d in two legal glosses.65 However, th ere are difficulties in b o th cases. In a gloss on Bretha Déin C.hécht, th e cereal rúadán is e q u a te d w ith mdelchruithnechl b u t the difficulty h e re is that th e Aisliuge Meic Con Cdinne list dis­ tinguishes rúadán a n d máelán as sep arate cereals. T his glossator's exp lan atio n th e re fo re argues against th e id en tificatio n o f mríelán with mdelchruithnechl. T h e o th e r re fe re n ce to ‘b ald w heat' in a legal gloss is equally inconclusive. A gloss on H e p ta d 29 refers to ‘land from w hich c o rn grows w ithout labour, i.e. lan d from w hich onlv bald w heat grow s’.6' I find this gloss difficult to u n d e rsta n d : the im plication o f th e second p a rt seem s to Ire th at th e lan d is so fertile th at it is only suitable for th e m ost prized type o f cereal, i.e. awnless w heat. M eyer put forw ard a q u ite d iffe re n t e x p la n a tio n for mdeUin. sug­ gesting that it is h ere, a tvpe o f barley (see p. 226 ab o v e).6S But he provides n o evidence to su p p o rt this suggestion, a n d th e re is the difficulty that all barley is aw ned, a n d so can hardly be mrirl ‘b a ld ’. MdeUin muilche is m e n tio n e d as a w eed of corn-fields in legal co m m en tary an d in an O ld Irish gloss o n Priscian. 1 arg u e below (p. 234) th a t this is th e wild o a t (Avena fa tu a ) . nJ°yce, A social history ii 342. This practice was forbidden by statute in 1634; see

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awav, leaving th e grains. T his m e th o d is particularly suitable for sinall-scale cereal-grow ing, a n d Inis th e advantage that the grains are p ard ally d rie d by th e flam es.161

Drying B ecause o f th e d a m p clim ate, Irish grain usually n eed s artificial di ving ( tirad) b e fo re it can b e stored. T h e drying-kiln is co n seq u en tly o f g re a t im p o rta n c e in th e early Irish econom y, a n d is fre q u e n tly m e n tio n e d in o u r sources. A ccording to Críth Gablach a fa rm e r o f bóaire ra n k is e x p e c te d to own a drying-kiln.162 Low er dow n th e social scale, th e ócaire m erely has a share in a d rv ing-k iln.163 In spite o f th e m any re fe re n ce s to it, o u r sources provide us with little in fo rm a tio n o n th e s tru c tu re o r o p e ra tio n o f a drying-kiln .164 A n in th -c e n tu ry tex t o n th e recip ro cal services o f th e kings o f C ashel refers to a kiln o f th irty feet (in d iam eter?), w hich seems rem ark ab le la rg e .1'” However. Mick M onk suggests to m e th at the a u th o r m ay b e th in k in g o f a stru c tu re w hich co n tains a n u m b e r o f sep a ra te kilns. A cco rd in g to a legal glossator, th e stone wall o f a kiln is know n as th e caisel.166 F rom a re fe re n ce in O ’M ulconry’s Glossary it seem s th a t th e g rain is p laced o n a w ickerw ork tray (cliath) w hich slots in to th e wall.167 Presum ably, a n u m b e r o f such trays co u ld be fitted o n e above th e other. T h e o p e ra to r lights a fire at th e base o f th e kiln, a n d m ust m ake sure th a t th e fire dries b u t d oes n o t b u rn th e grain. T h e a u th o r o f T riad 140 p o u rs sco rn o n th e in c o m p e te n t o p e ra to r by including ‘kiln-drying w ith sc o rc h in g ’ (tirad co n-aurgorad) a m o n g th e th ree black h u sb an d ries. B u rn t ears of co rn ( dins a loscl/ii) are inc hided

161 For a brief discussion of loisrreán. see Ó Danachair, ‘The flail and other thresh­ ing methods’, 6 - 8 . Mick Monk remarks (pers. comm.) that this technique is still practised in Turkey, and has been studied by Gordon Hillman. 1 6 2 CIH ii 563.7; iii 779.27 = CG 6.156. 163U H iii 778.28 = CG 4.96. 164See discussion by Monk, ‘Post-Roman drying kilns’. Elizabeth O ’Brien has excavated a sixth-century drying-kiln at Ballyman, Co. Dublin (pers. comm.). 16 S0 ’Keeffe, 'Dál Caladbuig', 19 § 2. 166CIH i 242.36 = A L v 488.13. 1 R7 0 ’MuIc. 270 § 806 Láem dono ainm don clrith bis fon arbar oca tirad ‘IAem is the name of the tray which is under the corn while it is drying’. There is a similar gloss at CIH iii 1074.39-40. 1 6 SMeyer, Triads, 18 § 140.

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along with red b lack b erries an d g reen n u ts a m o n g th e u n a p p e tiz ­ ing food favoured by th e ro u g h a n d m isshapen A m argein son of E cet S alach.lfi9 A fter the grain has b een d ried , th e ashes are scrap ed away from the base an d sides of th e kiln. I hese kiln-scrapings (jubaih u ni lui) may co n tain grains which have fallen th ro u g h th e trays, a n d are consequently sought after by h u n g ry peo p le. A ccording to o n e lawtext, it is not reg a rd e d as an o ffence for a p erso n to forage a m o n g kiln-scrapings b elo n g in g to a n o th e r.1'"

Winnowing T he next stage is w innow ing, i.e. the sep aratio n of the g rain from the ch a ff ( cciith). This is effected by throw ing th e m ix tu re o f grain an d ch aff in to th e air w hen th e re is a light wind. T h e husks, awns, an d bristles w hich m ake u p th e ch a ff are blown to o n e side, leas ing the grains b e h in d on the rid d le (criathar dthn).1' 1 A ccording to Bretha Comaithchesn, th e grain w hich is to be paid for anim al-trespass m ust be check ed for h a rd n e ss ( rruas) a n d b aren ess (lom datu). T his m eans that it m ust have b een p ro p erly d rie d in a kiln, an d p ro p erly w innow ed so th a t only th e b a re g ra in re m a in s.172 C h aff is generallv h e ld to be w orthless an d Ht only to be b u rn t u p .1' 1 T h e re is som e evidence, however, o f it b ein g sto red for use as a firelighter. T h e earlv tw elfth-centurv tale Aislinge Mcir Cun Clin ne refers to m aterial for a cooking-fire consisting o f two sparks in a wisp o f o at-chaff (sopp silchátha corna) a n d two sods o f wet tu rf.1, * Admittedly, th e passage is satirical, b u t the re fe re n ce to ch aff as a firelig h ter m ay reflect actual p ractice.

Storage T h e d rie d c o rn (tarne) m u st be sto red in a d ry place safe fro m dom estic anim als. For this p u rp o se th e p ro sp e ro u s fa rm e r ( bonne) lh9 Best, ‘Amairgen son of Ecet Salach’, 33 § 1. This hardly refers to the custom of separating the grain from the stalk by burning (loiscreán). The point of the passage seems to be that Amargein consumes only damaged or unripe food. 1 7 0 CIH i 242.19 = AL V486.14. 1' 1 Crialhar älho glosses Latin cribrum areale ‘riddle of the threshing-floor’ at Thes. ii 235.7. 1 7 2 CIH i 71.7 = AT iv 94.7-8. The glossator explains . . . 7 hi lom ,i. an colg ‘. . . and it is bare, i.e. without awn’. l7 3 E.g. O ’Keeffe, ‘A poem on the day of judgem ent’, 31 § 24; cf. CIH iii 1028.36-6 = Thurneysen, Cóic Conara Fuigill, 29 § 12. m Jackson, Aislinge, 6.159 = Meyer, Aislinge, 15.2.

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h;is a b a in (sabal!) n e a r his h o u s e ,1' ’ w hereas the less p rosperous fa rm e r (ócaire) m erely has a sh are in a b a r n .176 In his Life of Columba, A d o m n án d escribes how th e saint blessed two heaps o f g ra in in th e b a rn a t Io n a .1' ' T h e a re a a ro u n d the b a rn is p a tro lle d by th e cat: th e fra g m e n ­ tary law-text o n cats, Catslechtae. stresses th e im p o rta n c e o f th e cat in k e e p in g m ice away fro m th e b a rn , th e F ig . 10. T h is illu s t r a t io n fro m f. ^ 8 r of m ill, a n d th e drving- th e eighth-Centura) B ook of K e lls in the k iln .1'8 T h e h o u se L ib r a ry of T r in ity C o lleg e, D ub lin , show s m ouse ( M us musculus, a c at w ith aohat ap p ears to be a r a t. Irish lurk ) is classed in an O ld Irish law-text as a significant destroyer o f fo o d ,1 a n d G irald u s C am brensis - w riting in th e late twelfth c e n tu ry - refers to th e m o u se as a p a rtic u la r p e st in Ire la n d .180 T h e re is u n c e rta in ty a b o u t th e significance at this p e rio d o f an even m o re serious p e st o f grain-stores: th e rat. It was widely assum ed u n til recen tly th at th e black rat (Rattus ratius), originally fro m so u th e rn Asia, d id n o t reach B ritain o r Ire la n d u n til about th e tw elfth c e n tu ry . 181 However, in a p u b licatio n o f 1979, Jam es R ackham id e n tifie d rat-b o n es fro m a late R om an site in Y ork,182 a n d in 19M4 fu rth e r rat-bones w ere id en tified from a third -cen tu ry

n °CIH ii 563.7; iii 779.27 = CG 6.156. Though saball is a borrowing from Latin stabulum ‘stable’, it has acquired the meaning ’b arn ’ in Old Irish. In the later language the norm al word is scioból, a borrowing from Latin *scoparium ‘barn’ via Welsh ( y)sgubor ( LEIA S-44 s.v. sciból). The Old Irish com pound itech (ithtech) lit. ‘corn-house’ is used in the Milan Glosses to explain Latin horreum ‘barn’ (Thes. i 332.27-8). 176CIH iii 778.28 = CG 4.96. 1 7 7 A. O and M. O Anderson, Adomnan ’s Life of Columba, 520 (new pagination: 220) = f. 126a. ' 7S CÍH V 1550.17; cf. CIH iv 1481.21 = O ’Dav. 263 § 422. 179CIH vi 2004.14; 2196.27 (trans. Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht III’, 342 § 321); cf. Plummer, Vitae ii 11 § xxi. 1 8 0 O ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 49 § 20 = Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, 61.22— 4. 181 On the other hand, MacArthur, ‘The identification of pestilences', 170, argued for the earlier presence of the rat. I8 2 J. Rackham, ‘Rattus rattus, the introduction of the black rat into Britain’.

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site in L o n d o n .183 T h e only o c c u rre n c e o f th e ra t in an early C hristian site in Irelan d is at k a th m u lla n , Co. D ow n.1' 1 T h e re is also the evidence o f th e Book of Kells, w ritten in th e eig h th c en tu ry at som e m o n astery in Ire la n d o r S cotland (possibly Io n a ). O n folio 48' a scribe has draw n a cat with a large ro d e n t w hich seem s very rat-like. It is certainly q u ite d iffe re n t from th e fo u r m ice illu strated o n folio 34v. T h e Irish w ord Inch seem s originally to have b een ap p lied to rats as well as m ice, so th e plug lochad re c o rd e d by the Chronicum Scotorum in th e vear 1013 m at have b een a p lague o f ra ts.1' ' It affected th e L ein sterm en a n d N orse settlers, a n d so p resum able o rig in ated from ships arriving at p o rts o n th e east coast. T h e distinctio n betw een hielt ‘m o u se' (som etim es luth brate small m o u se’) a n d luch frangcach ‘F re n c h m o u se ’ (i.e. ‘r a t’) only em erges in post-N orm an sources, a n d p ro b ab ly in d icates a dram atic increase in th e rat p o p u la tio n after the N o rm an invasion. For sh o rt-term use, a m easu re o f grain is k ept in the living-house. A ccording to legal co m m entary, a bóaire keeps in his h o u se a bushel o f co rn for food ( miach arba bid), a b u sh el o f m alt (miarh mracha). an d a b ushel o f salt.181’ A sim ilar m easu re is b ro u g h t bv a client to his lo rd as p a rt o f his a n n u a l fo od-rent. T h e law-text on base clientship, Cain Aicillne, refers to a "bushel of h a rd (i.e. ripe an d dry) w heat fo r fo o d ’.I8/ T h e w ritten evidence suggests that a tightly woven w icker basket was a co m m o n c o n ta in e r for th e tra n sp o rt o r te m p o ra ry storage of grain. For exam ple, an O ld Irish story ab o u t S aint Máel Riiain o f Tallaght refers to ‘a basket (errs) o r two baskets full of niait a n d o f co rn for fo o d '. 18*188 Aislinge Meic Con Glitme likewise refers to a basket (cltab) o f c o r n . 189 d r a in m ight also be tra n sp o rte d in a bag (bole). p erh ap s o f leather. An episo d e in th e Life of Saint C'.íarán describes 18 SArmitage, et al., ‘New evidence of the black rat’. l8 4 Lynn, ‘The excavation of Rathmullan’, 154; McCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland’. 252. 1 8 5 CS 256 s.a. 1013. In footnote 2 Hennessy wrongly rejects Wilde’s interpretation of plag lochad as ‘a plague of rats (or mice) ’ and translates ‘a plague of putrefaction’. ]86CIH iii 1058.3-4 = AL v 90.15-16; cf. C1H iii 888.6-7. m CIH ii 483.16 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht T, 355 § 13 miach cruithnechta cruaid inbid. 188LL v 1247.36984—5 cess nô dä chess lána do braich 7 do arbur biid. A misprint in LL has been repeated in DIL C 147.39; the correct reference is to line 36984, not 39984. 189 Jackson, Aislinge, 28.867 = Meyer, Aislinge 73.18.

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how a b ag o f oats {bole corcai) w hich th e saint was carrry in g to a mill was m iraculously c h a n g e d in to w heat, a m u ch m ore valuable cereal.""'

Grinding G rain m u st be g ro u n d in to m eal {men) b efo re it can be used to m ak e b re a d o r p o rrid g e . T h e use o f th e ro tary q u e rn {bráo, late r bro) for this p u rp o se goes back m any th o u san d s o f years.190191 In th e O ld Irish law-texts th e task o f g rin d in g ( mleth) is associated particu larly w ith th e fem ale slave: see p. 439. In th e early C h ristian p e rio d , th e in tro d u c tio n o f th e horizontal w ater-m ill e n a b le d large q u a n titie s o f grain to be g ro u n d quickly, th o u g h th e use o f th e h a n d -q u e rn c o n tin u e d . It is clear from both arch aeo lo g ical a n d w ritten evidence th at mills w ere already quite c o m m o n in Ire la n d by th e seventh o r eig h th cen tu ries AD. A ccord­ ing to Crilh Gablach, farm ers o f ócaire a n d bóaire ran k are exp ected to ow n a sh are in a m ill.192 T h e h ig h e r g rad e o f bóaire - called a mruigfer in th is te x t - m ay have his own m ill.193 T h e existence o f a special law-text o n m illing a n d m ill-races, probably d atin g from th e m id d le o f th e seventh century, also u n d e rlin e s the im p o rtan ce o f th e water-m ill. It is e n title d Coibnes Uisci Thairidne ‘kinship o f c o n d u c te d w ater’ .194 F o r a discussion o f th e w ritten evidence o n th e technology o f co rn -g rin d in g , see p. 482 below.

Malting It is clear from o u r sources th a t m ost b e e r (cuirm) was brew ed fro m barley: see p. 334. T h e m altin g process brings the value o f barlev u p to th a t o f w heat. T h u s th e law-text Bretha Nemed Totserh assigns th e sam e value to a b u sh el o f m alt as it does to a bushel o f w h eat.195

Stokes, Lismore Lives, 124.4163-5; cf. Plummer, Bethada i 26 § viii (bolcc corca). Note the cognates in other Indo-European languages, e.g. Welsh breuan, Old English ewearn, Sanskrit gravan, Lithuanian girnos, etc. (IJilA B-92 s.v. 1 bró), 192CIH iii 778.28; 779.27= CG 4.96; 6.155. 193 C1H iii 780.11; 781.2 = CG 8.192; 9.238. 194CIH ii 457.11—462.18 = Binchy, ‘Coibnes Uisci Thairidne', 64—76. 1 9 SC ///v i 2230.19-20, 190 191

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A q iiaiililv o i''m alt ( mrairli) is in clu d ed in th e a n n u a l food-rent which a base client m ust give to his lord. T h e law-text on base(lien tsh ip , Cain A i rill ne, gives an acco u n t of how this m alt should he p rep a re d . In g en eral, it follows the sam e p ro c e d u re s as those practised by th e m o d e rn brew er. 1 11 T h e m ain p ro b lem is in id e n ti­ fying th e tim escale w hich th e a u th o r h ad in m in d . T h e text refers to mrairli In coirthiges 'm alt of th re e fo rtn ig h ts 1 but no in te rp re ta ­ tion of his figures brings us to a p e rio d as long as this, f u rth ei m ore, acco rd in g to m o d e rn m altsters, th e process g enerally takes onlv twelve to fifteen days. It is p robably best, th e re fo re, to follow the glossator in taking th e p e rio d to be fifteen class. '" T his req u ires th at we in te rp re t th e w ord lá to m ean ‘a twelve-bout p e rio d (of das o r n ig h t) ’. T h e process o f m alting is in itiated by soaking th e grain for twentsfo u r hours. It th e n d rain s for a day an d a halt ( tri hi), after w hich it is covered for fo u r a n d a half class (nomad) r"" T h e text p ro ­ vides no in fo rm a tio n o n th e n a tu re of th e covering, but the gloss suggests that corn-straw may be u sed .J(,! It is th e n ex p o sed for a fur­ th e r th re e days. A fter this, it is raised in to little h eaps (inti fótaib) an d kep t in this state for five dass. It is th e n su bjected to raking (cirad) an d is left in ridges (ina imairib). T h e w hole process has taken fifteen days: it is now ready fo r kiln-drying ( tirad). W hen d ry th e m alt is b ro u g h t to th e lord. It is not accep tab le as food-rent u n til it has b een su bjected to a test (/until) on th re e

l‘j6Mraich (later braich) is cognate with Welsh brag of the same meaning. See LFJA M- 6 6 s.v. mraich. l97See Binchy ‘Brewing in eighth-century Ireland'; O ’Loan, 'A history of early Irish farming (3)’, 180-2. 1 9 8 CIH ii 481.9; v 1783.7 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht I’, 348. 199 CIH ii 481.20 tri ätictv, v 1783.7 tri cöicte = AL ii 240.23. In his edition of Cáin Aicillne, Thurneysen raised the possibility o f emending cóicthiges to cóicthe (‘Aus dem irischen Recht l ’, 3481), but this would conflict with the readings of both manuscripts. See his further discussion on p. 350, and also the remarks bv Binchy in Brewing in eighth-century Ireland’, 5. 200 CIH ii 481.10 - Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht T, 348.7. Nómad sometimes means ‘nine 24-hour days’, but here seems to refer to half this time; see DIL N 63.14-29. 21,1 CIH ii 481.23 = AL ii 240.28 cid luige no arbar lit. ‘whether straw or co rn ’, 1 am unclear as to the distinction between tuige and arbar here; possibly tuige (tugae) retains its earlier meaning of any form of covering: see p. 240.

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occasio n s.-0' It is first tested on delivery to th e lo rd ’s house, p ro b ­ ably - as Binchy suggests - by his b rew er (scóaire). A ccording to a gloss, th e tester m akes sure th a t it has th e c o rre c t smell a n d checks th e consistency o f a g rain u n d e r his to o th .-03 T h e m alt is th e n g ro u n d in th e lo rd 's mill, an d tested again. T his test is effected by m aking a small cake ( toirtin ) from it, an d tasting this for flavour and w holesom eness. Binchv suggests th at only e n o u g h m alt is g ro u n d to m ak e a sam p le cake. H e believes th a t th e rest o f th e m alt is p u t to fe rm e n t w ith o u t b e in g g ro u n d . However, it seem s to m e th a t th e m ost straig h tfo rw ard read in g o f th e text im plies th at all the m alt is g ro u n d b e fo re fe rm e n ta tio n , as is th e practice in m o d e rn brew ing. T h e re is also evidence o f g rin d in g b efo re ferm en tatio n in o th e r texts. T h e eig h th -c e n tu ry tale Fled Bricrenn refers to a tench u te m ill g rin d in g very h a rd m a lt,-03 a n d a M iddle Irish fragm ent on Saint Brigit m e n tio n s a bag o f m eal ( menbolg), h a lf o f which is m eal fo r b e e r ( min chorma) ,20d T h e th ird test is c a rrie d o u t o n th e w o rt ( braichles) befo re it is begins to fe rm e n t. If a c lie n t’s m alt passes all th re e tests, h e is n o t h eld resp o n sib le if faults develop su bsequently in the brew ing 'M ill process." F or brew ing, see p. 333.203456

202CIH ii 481.26; v 1783.28; 1784.1 = T h urneysen, 'Aus dem irischen R echt I’, 348.10.

203 CIH ii 481.31 = AL ii 2 42.17-18. 204LU 2 6 3 .8 6 9 9 -8 7 0 0 = W indisch, ‘Das Fest d es Bricriu', 2 7 9 .2 2 -3 § 52. T h e Middle Irish version o f Táin Bó Cúailnge in the B ook o f Leinster ( TBC LL 91.3306) also refers to m alt b ein g grou n d in a mill. 2050 hA odha, Bethu Brigte, A p p en d ix, 19.70. 206CIH ii 4 8 1 .2 8 -9 = T hurneysen, ‘Aus d em irischen Recht I’, 348.12-14.

8

Crops (ii) P u lses

A fter th e Gramineae (grass fam ily), th e Papilionaceae (pea fam ily) 1*3 are the m ost im p o rta n t source of plant food for h itm ans. T h e seeds o f m any species are i ich in p ro te in , a n d k eep well w hen dried; th e re is also th e ad d e d adyantage th at th e ro o ts h at e nitrogen-fixing n o d u les w hich e n h a n c e th e fertility o f th e soil. T h e archaeological evidence indicates th at the cultivation of pulses in th e N ear East goes back to ab o u t 7000 BO." T h e m ain type grow n was Lens culinaris ‘le n til’, d eriv ed fro m th e wild Lens orientalist O th e r im p o rta n t pulses in th e N ear East at an earh p erio d w ere th e b ro a d b ean (Vicia /aha), th e g a rd en pea (Pisum sativum) an d th e ch ick p ea (Cicer arietinum ). All fo u r w ere also cultivated bv th e R om ans, b u t only th e b ro ad bean a n d g a rd e n pea h a d sufficient to le ra n c e o f cold to be in tro ­ d u ced successfully to early Irish g ard en s. It is significant th at the n in th -c e n tu ry Irish glossator o n Priscian clearly did n o t know the co rrect m e a n in g o f L atin lens 'le n til', an d e x p la in e d it inaccurately as ‘a kin d o f c o r n ’.45 Pis (Pea) As we have seen in th e previous c h a p te r (p. 2 1 b ). th e a u th o r o f the law-text Bretha Déin Chécht arra n g e s seven cereals in o rd e r o f value. T h e eig h th place in his list is assigned to pis, w hich is th e g a rd e n pea (Pisum sativum ):' It is p ro b a b le th at peas w ere generally allow ed to rip e n like cereals, a n d th e n kiln-dried p rio r to storage. Seib (Bean) T h e b ro ad bean (Vicia /aha) is placed at th e b o tto m o f the Bret ha Déin Chécht list. As in th e case of th e g a rd e n pea, it was probably m o re o ften kiln-dried a n d sto red th a n e a te n fresh. 1This family was form erly called Isguminosae-. h en ce plants in this family are often referred to as ‘leg u m es’. Pulses are the seed s o f Papilionaceae. “Zohary and H opf, Domestication of plants, 228 -9 . 3 Ibid. 8 8 -9 . 4 Thes. ii 101.22. 5 LEIA P-9 s.v. pis.

Pulses

249

T h e history of the Irish w ords for 'b e a n ' is particularly interesting, as it provides evidence as to how this cro p d ev eloped in Ireland. N o native w o rd fo r ‘b e a n ’ is attested in th e language, b u t this does n o t necessarily prove th a t b ean s w ere u n k n o w n in Ire la n d before C h ristian tim es. A rchaeologists have id en tified in pre-R om an sites in B ritain a n d d ie c o n tin e n t a sm all prim itive type o f bean , w hich has b ee n te rm e d th e ‘Celtic b e a n ’ .6 It is q u ite likely th a t it was also grow n m Irelan d at this p erio d , th o u g h n o traces have b een found. It seem s th a t in R o m an tim es th e Celtic b ean was su p ersed ed in B ritain by a la rg e r type, closer in size a n d shap e to th e m o d e rn b ro a d b e a n . 7 T h e L atin w o rd faba ‘b e a n ’ was b o rro w ed into the B ritton ic language, ultim ately giving Welsh ffa, C o rnish fa v , B reton T his b ean was also in tro d u c e d to Irelan d , n o d o u b t along with th e m an y o th e r h o rtic u ltu ra l a n d ag ricu ltu ral innovations associ­ ated with m onasticism . In Irelan d th e w ord faba took the fo rm seib, with th e re g u la r c h a n g e o f L atin i n i t i a l / t o Irish s.9 A b o u t th e te n th c e n tu ry th e Irish wro rd seib was alm ost com pletely o u sted by pónair, a b o rro w in g fro m O ld N orse baunir ‘b e a n s’.1'' T his re p la c e m e n t was c a rrie d o u t th ro u g h th e w hole G aelic-speaking area, with th e result that M o d ern Irish has pónaire, Scottish G aelic has ponair, an d M anx has poanrey. T h e ex p lan atio n may b e th a t th e N orse colonists in tro d u c e d an im proved type o f b ean , o r th a t b ean s w ere an especially im p o rta n t cro p in th eir econom y. T h e N o rse m e n c o n tro lle d g o o d agricultural land a ro u n d th e east-coast tow ns o f Ire la n d fo r a n u m b e r o f c e n tu rie s .11 It is not surprising, th e re fo re , th at th e ir farm in g activities have left traces in th e Irish language. As well as pónair, we have n o te d at p. 238 th a t th e Irish w ord p u n n a n n ‘s h e a f is pr obably o f N orse origin. A n o th e r N orse h o rtic u ltu ra l term , garör ‘g arth , enclosure, f'Faba celtica nana (Bois, Les plantes alimentaires, 100); cf. Cunliffe, Iron Age communities in Britain, 373. 'T h e bean o f R om an tim es is n o n eth eless small en o u g h to be classed as Viciafaba var. minor rather than var. major (Zohary and H op f, Domestication of plants, 106). M onk, ‘Charred seed and plant rem ain s’, 98, refers to the Vida faba fou n d in a late th irteen th -cen tu ry site at Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny, as a small ‘celtic’ bean. 8 VKG i 192. 9T h e -a- to -e- vow el-change probably reflects Brittonic influence: see T hurneysen, Grammar, 571 § 921. 10Marstrander, Bidrag, 59, 96, 117. 11 Edwards, Archaeology of early medieval Ireland, 189; Bradley, ‘T h e interpretation o f Scandinavian settlem en t in Ireland’, 5 3 -6 5 .

250

Crops (ii)

g a rd e n ', was borro w ed into Irish (gantlet. later gtirmidhe) and Scottish G aelic (g àradh)}2 V egetables

a n d herbs

It is clear from the O ld Irish law-texts th at a p ro sp e ro u s farm often had an enclo sed g ard en ( htbgorl) n e a r th e fa rm h o u se .1 ’ In O ld Irish we d o not find a distinction betw een 'v eg etable an d ‘h e rb : the term tub (hub) includes plants eaten as p a rt of the n o rm al rliet, as well as p lan ts u sed fo r m ed icin al o r flavouring purposes. T h e re is special em phasis in o u r sources on th e grow ing of plants with m edicinal p ro p erties. T h e m edical law-text lirdhti Croligr speaks o f 'th e great service given ht' g a rd e n plants in n u rsin g ', an d m en tio n s in p articu lar cainnenn a n d im us.]> T h e sam e text m akes th e claim that th e p rim ary p u rp o se o f g a rd en s was the care o f the sick.I:’ A n o th er m edical law-text, Brel ha Déin Clin hi. refers to ‘th re e foreign h e rb s' (In lubai gall) used in th e tre a tm e n t o f a king’s facial injury: see p. 257 below .1'“ A ccording to a glossator o f legal a n d o th e r m aterial, a physician’s bag ( Ihirhur) co n tain s various small c o m p a rtm e n ts so th at his m ed icin al h erb s are not m ixed u p .1‘ It seem s from o u r sources th a t p lant-cultivation was associated particularly with th e m o nasteries. T h e g a rd e n e r (lubgoi loir) is listed am ong th e seven officers o f th e c h u rc h ,ls an d A d o m n án refers to a holy m an n a m e d I.aisrán m ocu M oie w ho seem s to have b een a g a rd e n e r (hortulanus) at th e m o n astery o f Io n a .11' T h e re is no m e n ­ tion o f a g a rd e n e r am o n g th e servants n orm ally em ployed b\ a king o r lord. IS 167*

ISMarstrander, Bidrag, 78, 94. Vocabulary co n n ected with farm ing was also bor­ rowed in the op p o site d irection. T h e Irish term for a su m m er m ilking-place dirge occurs in m any place-nam es o f N orse origin in n orth ern E ngland : see Reaney, The origin of English place-names, 186-7. 13See p. 368. 14 C,/// vi 2 2 9 9 .3 8 -4 0 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Crólige', 3 8 -4 0 § 49. i5 C//7 vi 2 2 9 3 .2 5 -6 = Binchy, 'Bretha Crólige', 22 § 27. 16C /// vi 2307.21 = Binchy, 'Bretha Déin Chécht', 26 § 9. 17CIH ii 6 16.35-6; iii 1075.3-6. ]sCIH vi 2213.32. IJA. O and M. O A nderson, Adomnan’s Life of Columba, 242 (new pagination: 42) = ff. 23b-24a.

Vegetables and herbs

251

Cainnenn (O nion?) By fa r th e m o st p ro m in e n t vegetable in o u r sources is cainnenn (also cainenn). I believe it to be o n io n (Allium cepa), b u t o th e r scholars have som etim es id en tified it with garlic (Allium sativum) o r w ith leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum ). T h e issue can n o t be resolved by co m p ariso n w ith o th e r Celtic languages, because th e W elsh c o g n a te cennin m ean s ‘le e k ’, w hereas th e B reton cog­ n ate kignen m ean s 'g arlic'. It m ight th e re fo re be a rg u ed that Irish cainnenn is a g e n e ric te rm w hich in clu d es o n io n , leek a n d garlic. But the legal referen ces in p a rtic u la r suggest th at cainnenn had a m o re precise m ean in g . T his is u n d e rlin e d by th e fre q u e n t prefix­ ing of th e adjective fir 'tr u e ' to cainnenn.'0 Binchy suggests that this refers to th e fresh n ess o f th e v eg etab le,2 021*234b u t it seem s m o re likely th a t th e in te n tio n is to stress th a t it m u st be a cultivated o n io n o f a reco g n iz e d type a n d th a t n o wild species o f Allium (see p. 308) can b e su b stitu ted . T h e w o rd cainnenn d ro p p e d o u t o f g en eral use in th e Early M o d e rn Irish p erio d , a n d was rep la c ed by uinneman ( uinuiitu ), m ost p ro b ab le a b o rro w in g from N o rm a n F rench oignun ‘ o n io n ’ .22 It is clear fro m referen ces in th e tex t o n status, Crith Gablach, th at cainnenn was a re g u la r ele m e n t in the early Irish d ie t.21 Bretha Crólige, w hich deals w ith illegal injury, stresses a high-ranking invalid’s e n title m e n t to this vegetable, unless th e physician forbids it o n m edical g ro u n d s .21 T h e m ost d etailed description o f cainnenn is in a n o th e r tex t o n status, Uraicecht Becc, w hich specifies th e fo o d w hich a clien t m ust provide fo r the an n u al visit o f his lo rd . T h e a m o u n t d e p e n d s o n th e ra n k o f th e lord. T he low est-ranking lo rd is e n title d to fo u r loaves o f b re a d for each m e m b e r o f his visiting party o f fo u r m en. T h e bread m ust be acco m p a n ied by a relish (a n n la n n ) o r c o n d im e n t (tarsunn), w hich 20ln law-texts, the co m p o u n d firchainnenn is attested at CIH ii 6 4 4 .6 -7 = AL v 4 0 .1 1 12; CIH vi 2298.15 = Binchy, 'Bretha Crólige', 36 § 45; CIH ii 563.16; iii 779.36 = CG 7.168. ft also occurs In non -legal m aterial, e.g. Jackson, Aislinge 34.1069 = Meyer, Aislinge, 89.11 ; Murphy, Early Irish lyrics, 30 § 10. 21 CG (Glossary) 53 s.v.fir-. --R isk, ‘French loan-words in Irish, ( 2 ) ’, 91. N orm an French oignun (Mod.Fr. oignon) g o es back to Latin unio ‘(single) o n io n ’. V endryes ( LEIA U-20) proposed that Irish uinniún cam e from Latin unio by way o f Welsh urynwyn. 23 0 7 / iii 778.13 = CG 3.74; CIH ii 563.4; iii 779.23 = CG 6.150; CIH ii 563.16; iii 7 7 9 .3 6 = CG 7.168. 24C /// vi 2298.14—15 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Crólige’, 36 § 45.

252

Crof/s (ii)

may consist l cainnenn, honcv, fish. 6Jackson, Aislinge, 39.1199 = Meyer, Aislinge 99.27 mian na sacart .1 braisech bélaide. 37A pplebaum , ‘R om an Britain’, 120, 212, 220. 58E.g. Atkinson, Passions and homilies, 55.519. 59Jackson, Aislinge, 38.1195 = Meyer, Aislinge, 99.20 briscén mbanrígna .i. cerrbacán. Meyer takes briscén to refer to a m ash, cf. brise ‘brittle, fragile’. Jackson, on the o th e r hand, takes it to refer to the wild plant tansy (Chrysanthemum vulgare)-, see his discussion in the notes. 6 0 1FAA C-75 s.v. ccrr, B-2 s.v. bacc.

Vegetables and herbs

257

glow in g at an ang le from th e base o f th e stem: see illustration on p. 256. I h e Scottish G aelic fo rm ceavacan has th e sam e m e a n in g .1,1 T h e histo ry o f this vegetable is obscu re, b u t it is know n to have been p o p u la r in B ritain an d th e C o n tin e n t from th e late M iddle Ages u n til th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry .10 It is possible th at it is to be id en ti­ fied with siser, a vegetable w hich Pliny reco rd s as b ein g a favourite o f th e E m p e ro r T ib eriu s.63 Foltchép (Chives) This relative o f th e o n io n (Allium schoenoprasum) is com m only grow n in m o d e rn herb -g ard en s. T h e new grow th is regularly cut to provide a g a rn ish for a wide variety o f dishes. It seem s to have been used in a sim ilar wav in earlv C hristian Ireland. T h e eighth-century saga Ned Biicrenn co n tain s a re fe re n ce to th e cu ttin g o f chives down to th e g ro u n d w ith a sh arp b la d e .64 T h e n a m e foltchép is a c o m p o u n d o f fo lt ‘h a ir’ a n d cép (from Latin cepa ‘o n io n ’), a n d refers to its bushy m o d e o f grow th. A n inthc e n tu ry Life o f S aint P atrick claim s a m iraculous origin fo r this p la n t.'1’ W hile Patrick was in O c h ta r C uillend, th e p re g n a n t wife o f Aillill m ac C ath b ath sudd en ly developed a craving for a plant w hich sh e h a d seen in a vision. She to ld P atrick th a t if she d id n o t eat this p lan t, she o r h e r u n b o rn baby —o r b o th o f th em —w ould die. P atrick asked h e r to d escrib e th e p lan t, an d she said th a t it was like ru sh e s (lúachair). P atrick th e n blessed som e rushes, w hich im m ed iately tu rn e d in to chives. T h e w om an ate a n d was cured, a n d afterw ard s gave b irth to a son. P atrick th e n a n n o u n c e d that any w om an w ho ate o f this p la n t w ould be cu red . ‘Three foreign herbs’ T h e e ig h th -c e n tu ry m edical law-text Bretha Déin Chécht refers to th re e foreign h erb s ( h i lubai gall) w hich m ust be sought if a king is w o u n d e d in th e face. If th e p erso n resp o n sib le fo r the w ou n d in g el D in n een , Foclóir, Dwelly Faclair. It m ust be adm itted, however, that both D in n een a n d Dwelly also record the translation ‘wild carrot’ for this word. A n other term for skirret in Scottish G aelic is cromag, lit. ‘the b en t o n e ’. See also Stokes, 'Materia medica’. 2 3 2 114. S2Bois, Les plantes alimentaires 240-1; Sherm an and B ow en, The green gardening and cooking guide, 83—4. 63Pliny, Natural History (ed. H . R ackham ), 19.27.90; cf. C olum ella, De re rustica (ed. Forster and H effn er), 11.3.35. 64LU 2 6 1 .8 6 1 9 -2 0 = W indisch, ‘Das Fest des Bricriu’, 2 7 7 .2 -3 S 46 . . . amal bentair

foltchîb fri lártalman co n-altain àith. 65M tilchrone, Bethu Phâtraic, 120.2345-121.2355.

258

Crops (ii)

Tails to provide these herbs, he m ust pay an a d d itio n al fine of o n e a n d a h a lf o u n ces o f silver.6667* T h e identity o f these h erb s is u n c e rta in . 1 he a u th o r of the text lists th em as smij, hntgnil, an d mrrtlunn. H e c laim s th at smij is for healing th e w ound, lungciit is for tre a tin g th e c o lo u r of the w ound, a n d arretluim is for th e skin. However, m n ilu n n is elsew here ex p lain ed as th e m in eral o rp im e n t.1" F u rth e rm o re , in his article ‘Irish letter-nam es an d th e ir k e n n in g s'. D am ian M cM anus points o u t that sm ij is w ell-attested with th e m e a n in g sulphur.'"" He draws a tte n tio n to c o m m e n ta ry o n Uraicecht Becc in w hich th e th ree foreign h e rb s' are tre a te d as d istinct from sutif. hutgnit and arcetluim.69701* It seem s, th e re fo re , th a t th e a u th o r o f Bretha Déin Checkt has con fu sed h erb al an d m in eral rem edies. O r possible the term lub, th o u g h norm ally m e a n in g h e rb ', mav be used h e te in a w ider sense to in clu d e m inerals used for m edicinal p u rp o se s.'" Other m edicinal herbs A part from th e th re e m ysterious ‘foreign h e rb s' discussed above. I h a te fo u n d no referen ces in O ld o r M iddle Irish sources to the cultivation o f specific h erb s for use in m ed icin e. Similarly, th e re are m any referen ces to the use o f h erb s in th e m aking o f poisons an d love-potions, b u t n o evidence o f th e ir b ein g specially cultivated for these purposes. Legal c o m m e n ta ry d escribes th e cu ttin g o f th re e types o f h e rb , ap p a re n tly as a d efen ce against th e ‘evil eve". 11 T hese are the royal h e rb (rights) for kings a n d th o se o f roval rank, the bull-herb (tarblus) for lords, an d th e p leb eian h e rb ( uithechlus) for com m o n ers. B ut I know o f n o clues as to th e ir identity. In the later m edical m aterial - m ainlv front th e fo u rte e n th to six­ tee n th cen tu ries - th e re is a massive body o f in fo rm a tio n o n the use o f p lan ts (wild a n d cultivated) in m ed icin e.'^

C /// vi 2307.21-4 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Déin Chécht', 26 § 9. Stokes, ‘Materia medica’, 225. r>8 McManus, ‘Irish letter-names’, 159-60. r>9 CIH V 1610.9-10 - AL v 84.9— 10 diri uigi circi, a tan do luibib gall y sraiff y luingit y airgetlaim ‘the payment for a hen's egg: its fill of foreign herbs and sulphur and [?] and orpim ent’. Binchy (CIH v 1610d) suggests omitting the first 7 o r em ending it 66 67

to

. 1.

70See OIL L 237.80-6. 71 CIH i 145.5-9. , 3 F..g. Wulff, Rosa AngUca; Carney, Regimen na sláinte i-iii; O ’Grady, Catalogue, 171-285.

Fruit

259

Chenopodium P re-N o rm an sites in Ire la n d o fte n co n tain a b u n d a n t traces o f fath e n (C.henopodium album). ' Seeds o ccu r in faecal m aterial, an d so m u st have b e e n o f significance in th e h u m a n d ie t.7374 I have n o t b een able to identify any te rm for Chenopodium in O ld Irish texts. F r u it

A pple T h e w ild ap p le (M alus sylvestris) is a co m m o n native tree, w hich bears h e a w crops o f small so u r apples. It has no d o u b t been used as a food-source since m a n 's first arrival in this country: see p. 306. In O ld Irish th e tre e is te rm e d aball,75 a n d its fru it is an uball.7& T h e early history o f th e cultivation o f th e ap p le is obscure. Zohary a n d H op! p o in t o u t th at strains o f Malus sylvestris with unusually large o r sweet fru it co u ld have b e e n taken in to cultivation anyw here in the te m p e ra te areas o f E u ro p e an d o f w estern an d cen tral Asia.7' It is p ro b a b le th a t this was d o n e m any tim es in d ifferen t areas, so it is pointless to look for a c e n tre o f diffusion. As cultivated varieties do n o t b re e d tru e from seed, th e m a in te n a n c e o f a particularly palat­ able strain is d e p e n d e n t o n grafting, a te c h n iq u e w hich was well know n to th e G reeks a n d R o m an s.7879 It is cle a r fro m O ld Irish texts th a t already in th e early C hris­ tian p e rio d th e re was a g enerally reco g n ised d istinction betw een the so u r wild ap p le a n d the sw eeter cultivated types. For exam ple, the n in th -c e n tu ry Bethu Brigte refers to an a b u n d a n t crop o f sweet apples (ubla cumrte) in a c h u rc h y a rd .'9 An e ig h th -cen tu ry law-text

7 3 Monk, ‘Evidence from macroscopic remains’, 34; Geraghty, Viking Dublin: botanical evidencefrom Fishamble Street, 29, 37. 7 4 Mitchell, Archaeology and environment in early Dublin, 23. The seeds of various species of knotgrass, especially meld (Polygonum aviculare), also occur. 7 ;,L£M A- 6 s . v . aball. Another rare term for ‘apple-tree’ is oblann: see 1Æ.1A 0-5 s.v. 7 6 Another word for ‘apple’ is forcán, e.g. CIH iv 1506.20 = O ’Dav. 374 § 1015; Meyer, Hibernica minora. 47.23. 77Zohary and Hopf, Domestication ofplants, 166. 7 8 Virgil, Georgies (ed. Fairclough), 2.69-82; Columella, De re rustica (ed. Forster and H effner), 5.11.1-12; K. D. White, Agricultural implements of the Roman world, 248, 257-8. Medieval Welsh law assigns a separate value to a fruit-tree graft (ymp, imp), e.g. Wiliam, Llyfr lorwerth, 90 § 138.11 = ALIW, Venodotian Code, III xx §§ 9—10. 790 hAodha, Bethu Brigte, 12.377 § 32. Cf. A. O and M. O Anderson, Adomnan's Life of Columba, 326 (new pagination: 96) = f. 54a.

260

Crops (ii)

refers to a wild ap p le (Jintlubail): this im plies th e ex istence o f cul­ tivated a p p le s.80 A later legal passage states that th e penalty (dire) for the d e stru c tio n o f an ap p le-tree b elo n g in g to a hig h -ran k in g person ( nemed) is twenty sets. If it b elongs to a co m m o n er, how ­ ever, th e fine is only five sets. In e ith e r case, th e cu lp rit m ust also restore a tree of the sam e variety (n a n ti romrhenóH).M T his passage ap p aren tly recognises th e existence o f d ifferen t sa tieties of a p p le .8J It is im possible to sav w h e th e r th e cultivated sweet ap ple of early C hristian Ire la n d derived solelv front native wild stock o r w h eth er seeds o r grafts were in tro d u c e d front B ritain o r th e C o n tin e n t. In his Glossary C orm ac m ac C u ilen n áin refers to th e Italian town of Abella (now Avella) as a source o f apple-seeds (sil n-abnll) '' ' But this en try is based o n a passage in Isid o re's Etymologies, a n d can ­ n o t be taken as evidence o f a M e d ite rra n e an e le m e n t in th e earlv Irish cultivated a p p le .81 C o rtn ac's m ain c o n c e rn is to m ake an etym ological co n n e c tio n betw een th e w ords a hall a n d Abella. A pples featu re very p ro m in e n tlv in th e sagas, a n d th e re are m anv referen ces to apples with various m agic p ro p erties. A pples w ere clearly a valued foodstuff, as they p rovided vitam ins d u rin g th e w in­ ter w hen few o th e r fruits o r vegetables were available. For ex am ple, a m onastic ru le o f n in th -c e n tu rv orig in states th at a p e n ite n t could eat apples with his ratio n o f b read . If th e ap p les w ere small, he could have u p to five o r six, b u t if thev w ere big h e could onlv have th re e or four. T h e value a tta c h e d to th e ap p le is also d e m o n ­ strated by a legal passage w hich fixes the verv h e a w fine o f two ounces o f silver for stealing even o n e ap p le from an a p p le -tre e .80 T h e Irish term for o rc h a rd is aballgort, literallv 'ap p le-field ', w hich occurs as an e le m e n t in a n u m b e r o f p lace-nam es.8, A te rs e in the early tw elfth-century Aislinge Meir Con Glimie gives a d escrip tio n o f an o rc h a rd in flower: "an arrav o f trulv-fi ag ran t apple-trees, a

m CIH i 238.31 = ALv 474.1. 81 ClHs 1537.21. 82I suggest that comchen[e]óil here means 'of the same variety’ rather than 'o f the same species’. 8 3 Meyer, Sanas Commie, 111 § 1272 (cf. 10 § 94); LL iv 781.23338. 8 4 Isidore, Etymologiarum (ed. Lindsay), 17.7.24. 8 5 E.J. Gwynn, The rule of Tallaght, 2-4 § 2. 8 6 GUI in 1107.5. 8 7 Hogan, Onomasticon, s.v. Aballgort. It is generally anglicized Oulart (Joyce, Irish names ofplaces i 516-17).

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w ood w ith its p in k -tip p ed b lo o m ’.hS OUavoren 's Glossary contains a possible re fe re n c e to cider: o n e o f th e ex p lan atio n s o f the obscure w ord nenadmim takes it to be 'th e delicate ju ic e o f wild ap p les’ (sugh caol na n-uballfiad) ,8 889901

Plum T h e b la c k th o rn (Prunus spinosa, O ld Irish draigen) is native to Irelan d , a n d is p laced in th e th ird class o f trees in th e O ld Irish tree-list. It bears small so u r sloes, w hich can only have b een o f use as a so u rce o f flavour, o r as an em erg en cy fo o d in tim es o f hunger. It has b e e n suggested bv som e a u th o ritie s that the g ard en plum (Prunus domestica) is a cross b etw een th e b la c k th o rn a n d th e wild ch errv -p lu m (Prunus cerasifera) o f s o u th e rn E u ro p e and n eig h b o u r­ ing re g io n s.'*1 However, Z o h ary an d H o p f have a rg u ed against this th e o ry an d h o ld th at th e b la c k th o rn is unlikely to have m ade any c o n trib u tio n to th e an cestry o f th e g a rd e n p lu m .92* In th e ir view, th e g a rd e n p lu m was evolved from th e cherry -p lu m by h u m a n selec­ tion o f sw eeter varieties, an d th e ir m a in te n a n c e bv g raftin g .92 T he g raftin g o f p lu m s was already p ractised in R o m an times. T h e O ld Irish sources prov id e evidence o f th e cultivation o f the g a rd e n p lu m . T h u s a n in th -c e n tu ry legal co m m en tary refers to draigen cumra ‘sweet b la c k th o rn ’, w hich I take to be som e form o f cultivated p lu m -tre e .94 F ro m th e sam e p erio d , Bethu Brigte co n tain s two re fe re n ce s to ârni cumrœ ‘sweet sloes’ i.e. p lu m s.9596 In M iddle Irish legal c o m m e n ta ry from ab o u t th e twelfth century, a distin ctio n is m a d e b etw een th e p lu m (dim e cumra) a n d the sloe (dim e f i a d a i n ) T h e re is som e archaeo lo g ical evidence of cultivated plum s in D ublin at this perio d . A stru c tu re (probably a fruit-loft) at H igh Street - w hich has b een d a te d to ab o u t AD 1200 - was fo u n d to c o n ta in th e w ell-preserved rem ain s o f various fruit, 8 8 Jackson, Aislinge, 15.473-4 = Meyer, Aislinge, 39.1-2 ecor d ’ablaibfirchumra, fid cona hláth barrchorccra. 8 9 CHI iv 1518.17-18 = O ’Dav. 426 § 1299. For a suggested emendation, see DIL s.v. nenadmin. 90See p. 380. 9 1 E.g. Singer et al., A history of technology i 357. 9 2 Zohary and Hopf, Domestication of plants, 169-71. "W ithin the last couple of centuries, there has in addition been much hybridization with Japanese and American species of plum (ibid. 169). 9 4 CIH ii 582.20 = A L \\ 150.11. See discussion at Kelly, ‘The Old Irish tree-list’, 117. 95Ó hAodha, Bethu Brigte, 12 §§ 32, 33. 9 6 CIHv 1874.15.

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includin g tlu* plum Prunus dmiirsliraC' An early e lev en th -cen tu ry pit at Fislram ble Street co n ta in e d stones ol a bullace-type plum Prunus insititia, alo n g with shell-fragm ents of w alnuts (Juglans regia) ; th e la tte r w ere certainly im p o rte d , an d it is possible that the plum s w ere likewise p art o f a c o n sig n m en t of exotic f r u it.Is Other cultivated fruit T h e re is little evidence in O ld Irish sources for th e cultivation of fruit o th e r th an th e app le an d th e plum . T h e wild p e a r (Pyrus mm munis) is n o t native to Irelan d , an d its cultivated form s do not seem to have b e e n in tro d u c e d until after th e N o rm an invasion. T h e Irish word fo r 'p e a r', pêne, is a b o rro w in g from N o rm an French o r M iddle E n g lis h ." T h e clim ate o f Britain an d Irelan d is g enerally n o t suitable for the o u td o o r cultivation of th e grape-vine (Vilis vinifera). Even in the w arm er parts of s o u th e rn E n g lan d th e su m m er is o ften n o t hot en o u g h to rip e n grap es properly. However, because o f th e great prestige o f wine a n d its im p o rta n c e in C hristian ritual, it is p ro b a ­ ble that th e re has b een som e vine-grow ing in B ritain since R om an limes. An elev en th -cen tu rv .Anglo-Saxon text in cludes p la n tin g a vineyard a m o n g th e tasks w hich sh o u ld be u n d e rta k e n in sp rin g In an estate m a n a g e r (gerefa).wo M odern e x p e rie n c e in Irelan d has shown th at hards varieties o f grap e can rip e n o u td o o rs in g o o d sum m ers, p articularly in the south o f th e co u n try .101 It is th e re fo re q u ite possible th at m onks successfully in tro d u c e d vines to Ire la n d o n a small scale along with the m any o th e r ag ricu ltu ral innovations of th e eativ C hristian period. However, th e claim bv B ede in th e e ig h th c e n tu ry that Ireland h a d ‘n o lack of vines' m ust be greatly e x a g g e ra te d .1"-’ G iraldus C am brensis - w ho h a d firsth an d a c q u a in tan ce w ith th e co u n try in th e late tw elfth c e n tu ry - takes th e c o n tra ry view, a n d

Mitchell, Archaeology and environment in early Dublin, 27. Ceraghty, Viking Dublin: botanical evidence, 30-1, 70. "R isk, ‘French loan-words in Irish (2)’, 85. 1 0 0 Liebermann, Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen i 451 ri2] wingeard settan. 101 Michael O ’Callaghan makes wine commercially from his own vineyard at Longueville House Hotel, Mallow, Co. Cork. '""Colgrave and Mynors. Rede's ecclesiastical history of the English people, 20 (bk 1 ch 1,7 98

1).

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rem ark s o n th e ir a b se n c e .1'1’ F or an acco u n t of th e im p o rtatio n o f w ine fro m F ran ce, see p. 319. T h e Irish w o rd fo r th e cu ld v ated c h e rry is sinn, a borrow ing from M iddle English c/tor/c.101 T his suggests that the cultivation o f this fru it b elo n g s m ainly to th e p o st-N orm an era. However, stones w hich have b een id en tified as b e lo n g in g to th e in tro d u c e d Prunus cerasus h a \e b e e n fo u n d in an elev en th -cen tu ry pit at W inetavern S treet, D ub lin , so it seem s th a t som e cultivation o f th e ch e rry p re c e d e d th e N o rm a n invasion.10314105 D ye-pla n ts

Legal c o m m e n ta ry o n fosterage lays dow n strict regulations c o n c e rn in g th e colours w hich m ay be w orn by various ran k s.106107 T h e sons o f c o m m o n e rs m ay only w ear clo th in g w hich is d u n -c o lo u re d ( lachtnae), yellow ( buide), black (dub) o r w hite (find). T h e sons o f lo rd s m ay w ear clo th in g w hich is red (derg), grev (fins) o r brow n (dann), an d th e sons o f kings may w ear p u rp le (corcra) o r b lu e (gorm). Obviously such reg u latio n s could never have b een universally obeyed to th e letter. N onetheless, they m ust reflect a g en eral tru th th a t th e h ig h e r ranks w ore m o re colourful clo th in g th a n those o f low er rank. T h e association o f p u rp le with kingship is widely d issem in ated in M e d ite rra n e an civilizations, a n d th e R om an e m p e ro r w ore ‘Tyrian p u r p le ’ o b ta in e d from shellfish o f th e g e n e ra M urex a n d Purpura. T h e re is ev idence th a t th e early Irish also o b tain ed p u rp le from sh ellfish ,10/ b u t m ost o f th e ir dyes w ere u n d o u b te d ly o f vegetable origin. Manv native Irish plants yield effective dyes. F or exam p le, b rack en (Pteridium aquilinum) gives a yellow-green colour, lady’s b edstraw ( Galium verum) dyes grey, a n d ju n ip e r (Juniperus communis) dyes brow n. O n e o f th e best-know n native dve-plants is th e lichen Parmelia saxatilis, w hich gives a very fine

O ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 35 § 2 = Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, 28.5. 104DIL s.w. Sirin, seirine. See p. 308 below for a discussion of possible references to the wild cherry (Prunus avium). 1 0 5 Mitchell, Archaeology and environment in early Dublin, 27. 106CIH V 1759.12-15 = AL ii 146.10-13. 107See Edwards, The archaeology of early medieval Ireland, 82-3; Mahon, ‘Traditional dyestuffs in Ireland’, 116-17; McCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland’. 207-8. 103

264

Crops (iï)

brow nish red c o lo u r.1'1" Its Irish a n d Scottish G aelic n am e notai (earlier crottball) has passed in to English as ‘c ro ttle ’. O th e r dve-plants are in tro d u c e d species. Po r exam ple, saffron (Crocus sativus) probably o rig in a te d in Asia M inor, a n d has long b een cultivated in m any p arts of E u ro p e for use as a dye. cosm etic, spice an d m e d ic in e .1"'1 T h e w ord mich (from Latin crocus) is w ell-attested in Irish, a n d form s an adjective nvchdac ‘saffro n -co lo u red ’. T h o u g h saffron gives an orange-vellow co lo u r (as in th e trad itio n al Irish saffron kilt), crock is som etim es used of red d ish hues, ex te n d in g even to b lo o d -re d .110 A n o th e r in tro d u c e d p lan t w hose uses in clu d e dyeing is th e o n io n (Allhim cepa), w hich also gives a yellow colour. In a passage in Cain Aciomnciin, th e w ord sep seem s to re fe r to a p la n t used in d v ein g .111 In his e d itio n M eyer to o k it to b e for seib ‘b e a n ’, b u t th e re is no o th e r evidence o f th e b ean b e in g u sed as a dve-plam . Possible, th erefo re , sep is h e re a variant o f cép, from Latin cepa 'o n io n ', cl. foltchép ‘chives’ (p. 257 above) .112 Two in tro d u c e d plants w ere grow n exclusively for th e ir dveing properties: w oad a n d m adder. Glaisen (Woad) W oad (Isatis tinctona) is a b ien n ial p lan t native to the A egean area a n d south-west Asia, w hich vields a rich lasting blu e dve.11 ' It has lo n g h a d a p articu lar association with th e Celtic peoples: for exam ple, Pliny states th at in G aul th e re is a plant called glastum, with w hich the wives a n d daughters-in-law o f th e B ritons stain th e ir b o d ies.111 T h e w ord glastum m ean s ‘w o ad ’, an d is co g n ate with

,l,8So does the closely related Parmelia omphalodes. It is probable that the dye-plant m entioned in the Old Irish Glosses on St. Mark ( Thes. i 492.28-9) is a lichen. l09Zohary and Hopf, Domestication of plants, 189-90. 110See Dll. s.w. crock, cróchdar, IT'.IA C-242 s.v. crock. I do not understand the Old Irish gloss at Thes. ii 361.8 where Latin croceus ‘saffron-coloured’ is explained ,i. glas no tinctura. The adj. glas does not seem to he used elsewhere to mean yellow or orange-yellow. 111 Meyer, Cáin Adamnáin, 32 § 52. " ‘ Latin c- is normally retained in Old Irish loanwords, e.g. cell (Latin cella), cert (Latin certus). However, Middle Irish silic is attested as avariant (or scribal error) of alte ‘haircloth’ (Latin cilicium). " sZohary and Hopf, Domestication of plants, 191-2. ll 4 Pliny, Natural History (ed. W. H. S. Jones), 22.2.2.

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Irish glas ‘grey, g re e n , b lu e ’, o f w hich O ld Irish glaisen ‘w oad’ is a derivative.113 T h e re are m any re fe re n ce s in O ld Irish sources to w oad, a n d it is clear th a t it was a widely-grown c ro p .116 Its p restige is reflected in th e e ig h th -c e n tu ry tale Scéla Eogain y Cormaic, w here the q u e e n o f T ara is re p re s e n te d as ow ning a private w oad-garden (glaisengort) ,n T h e re is possible ev idence o f a later decline in its im p o rta n c e : a L atin Life o f Saint B oecius (Buite) refers to w oad as h a tin g b e e n cultivated fo r dyeing by th e p e o p le o f long ag o .118 T h e a u th o r seem s to be im plying th a t it w ould be an unfam iliar p la n t to his read ers. O n th e o th e r h a n d , legal c o m m en tary from a b o u t th e tw elfth c e n tu ry treats w oad-grow ing as an o rd in ary c o n te m p o ra ry activity. T h e re is co n sid erab le variation in th e m e th o d s used to dye with w oad-leaves.119 Som e in fo rm a tio n o n th e processes em ployed by th e early Irish can b e o b ta in e d from th e eig h th -cen tu ry law-text Cáin Lánam na, a section o f w hich deals w ith th e division o f a m ar­ rie d c o u p le ’s p ro p e rty in th e event o f th e ir divorce.120 F u rth e r details a re p ro v id ed by its associated glosses a n d c o m m en tary .121 A cco rd in g to th e text, th e wife gets only a th ird o f th e w oad w hich is in c o n ta in e rs (a cruib) . 122 However, she gets h a lf o f any w oad w hich ha-- b e e n d rie d ( coitethe). C o m m en tary gives a m ore d etailed a c c o u n t o f th e p re p a ra tio n o f th e dye, th o u g h th e re is som e m in o r variatio n b etw een th e d iffe re n t versions. T h e first stage is the h ar­ vesting o f th e w oad (tw ain na glaisine). If th e m arriag e p ro p erty is divided ju s t a fte r th e w oad-harvest, th e wife gets a n in th o f the c ro p .123 N e x t com es th e p u lp in g ( m inugud) o f th e woad-leaves in 1 ’ ’Thurneysen, Grammar, 96 § 155(e). n 6 E.g. CIH ii 675.21 = Mac Niocaill, ‘Tir cumaile’, 82.4; CIH ii 510.13 = SEIL 36 § 15; CIH ii 657.22. 1,70 Daly, Cath Maige Mitcrama, 70 § 17; Ó Cathasaigh, Heroic biography, 122.92-3. n 8 Plummer, Vitae i 95 Í) xxvii Quondam enim herbam ortensem antiqui habebant, nomine glassen, ex cuius succo tincturam pannorum suorum faáebant ‘For the ancients had a certain garden herb, called glassen, from whose juice they made a dye for their clothes'. 1 1 9 Hurry, The woad plant and its dye, 22— 50. 12,1 CIH ii 510.16-17 = SEIL 36 § 15. 121 CIH ii 510.21 (read ina dath urlam) = Al. ii 372.22-4; CIH ii 510.23-5 = AL ii 374.1-3; cf. CIH i 176.36-42 = AL ii 418.10-18; CIH v 1807.15-18; vi 2105.18-19. 122For examples of cráo (cró) in the meaning ‘container’, see Greene, ‘Cm, crû and similar words’, 4—5. 1 2 3 C///V 1807.15-16 = ALii 374.1-2; CIH vi 2105.18; cf. CIH i 176.36 = AL ii 418.10. 1

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th e fii st c o n ta in e r (crtchrn) ,vl' If the* p ro p e rty is divided th e n , th e wife gets a sixth of the p u lp .1- ’ O n e version of th e c o m m en tary refers to the leaves b ein g m ade in to cakes (m tuirlúub do démimh de) at this stag e.1' 1’ A sim ilar process is dest ribed in n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry accounts o f E nglish w o a d -p ro d u c tio n .12415*127*130 T h e next stage is th e first di ving ( céLholud) a fte r w hich th e wife is e n titled to a th ird s h a re .1“” T h e woad is th e n w etted an d fe rm e n te d in a second c o n ta in e r {no I d t u i i s r ) In n in e te e n th -c e n tu rv Eng­ lan d this process, called 'c o u c h in g ', is said to have taken ab o u t n in e w eeks.1/10 T h e final stage is th e second d rsin g , after w hich the dyestuff is ready for use. T h e c o m m e n ta is rep eats th e text s assertion that th e wife is en titled to half th e d rie d w o ad .1 11 T h e grad u al increase in th e p ro p o rtio n d u e to th e wife indicates th at she is responsible for all stages in th e p re p a ra tio n o f th e w oad af ter harvesting. T h e actual dveing process is explicitlv stated to be a w o m an ’s task (p. 449), a n d involves steep in g th e cloth for a short while in a tu b c o n ta in in g th e dyestuff.1323 T h o u g h th e Irish w ord fo r w oad, gl/iisen, is a derivative o f the adjective glas 'grey, g re e n , b lu e ’, o u r sources generallv describe the co lo u r which is o b ta in e d as gtirvt, w hich refers to a m o re lim ­ ited ran g e o f th e sp ectru m , a p p ro x im a tin g to English 'b lu e '. For exam ple, in a M iddle Irish li f e o f Saint C íarán it is claim ed o f w oad blessed by th e saint: 'w oad as g o o d as th at was n ever m ade befo re o r after, for even if all th e clo th in g o f th e C.enél F iachrach w ere p u t into its dyestuff ( iarcain), it w ould m ake it b lue (g e rw l'.1” In the list q u o te d above o f colo u rs a p p ro p ria te to bos s o f various ranks, it is staled th at th e clo th in g o f th e sons o f kings sh o u ld be p u rp le (rai­ era) o r blue (gorm). T his b lue is p resum ablv th e co lo u r o b ta in e d

124 CIH V 1807.16-17 = AL ii 374.2-3. 125 CIH ii 510.24 = AL ii 374.2. m d H i 176.37 = AL ii 418.11. l2 7 Hurry, The woad plant and its dye, 24. m a i l ii 510.24-5 = AL ii 374.3. 1 2 9 CIH ii 510.21 = AL ii 372.24; CIH i 176.38 = AL ii 418.13; cf. CIH v 1807.17. 1 3 0 Hurry, The woad plant and its dye, 26. 131 CIH ii 510.25 = AL ii 374.3; CIH v 1807.17-18. 132The term iarcain, of unknown etymology, seems to be used of the actual dyeing solution. Cf. CIH iv 1518.13 - O ’Dav. 425 § 1295 fasta iarcœ in datha .i. corcair nó glaisin ‘the fastening of the solution of the dye i.e. purple or woad'. l3 3 Stokes, Lismore Lives, 121.4079-81.

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fro m w o a d .154 T h e adjective glas is, however, u sed to describe the c o lo u r of w oad ta tto o e d in to th e h u m a n skin. A gloss on the eighthcentury l.aldron of poesy refers to th e p oet A m a rg e n ’s blue tatto o ed s h a n k .1’” O n e o f th e re m a rk a b le p ro p e rtie s o f w oad is th a t th e p u lp ed leaves can b e re-used to dye clo th a stro n g p in k co lo u r after the b lu e dye-stuff h as b e e n sq u eezed o u t.13415136137 T his co uld explain the glossing of Latin sandyx 'v erm ilio n ' by glasen in th e nin th -cen tu ry Saint Gall glosses on P riscian .13, T h e Dictionary o f the Irish language m ay th e re fo re n o t be c o rre c t in taking this to be an ex tension o f th e m e a n in g o f glasen to ‘dye (in g e n e ra l) ’:138 it is possible th at th e glossator knew o f w o ad ’s capacity to dye p in k .139 R o i d (M adder)

T h e re a re som e re fe re n ce s to th e cultivation o f roid, w hich I believe to b e th e dye-plant m a d d e r (Rubia tinctorum), native to south-w est Asia.140* T h e law-text o n land-types states th a t land w hich is to b e categ o rised as ‘b est a ra b le ’ m ust be suitable for flax, w oad a n d m a d d e r (roid), as well as fo r c o rn , vegetables a n d g ra z in g .111 Similarly, legal co m m e n ta ry speaks o f dam age by livestock to m a d d e r a n d o n io n (loit wide 7 cainde),142 an d a legal gloss gives m ad d er, o n io n a n d apple-trees as exam ples o f cultivated p la n ts.143 F rom th ese a n d o th e r re fe re n ce s it seem s th a t this p lan t m ust have b e e n fairly widely grow n in Ire la n d .144 So far, however, th e only 1 3 4 A strong blue is also obtained from the indigo plant (Indigofera tinctoria), which originated in India. However, large-scale importation o f indigo to Britain and Ireland did not start until the nineteenth century. 1 3 5 L! Breatnach, ‘Caldron of poesy’, 62 § l 8 . . . ica lá in colpa glas iarna crechadh. See Meyer, ‘Tätowierung bei den Iren’. 136I have tried this, and it actually works. 137 Thes. ii 125.22. 138DIL s.v. glasen (b). 139The Old Cornish cognate glesin (equated with Old English wäd ‘woad’) is similarly glossed by sandyx (sandix) (Graves, The Old Cornish Vocabulary, 283 § 654). 140Zohary and Hopf, Domestication of plants, 192-3. 1 4 1 CIH ii 675.21 = Mac Niocaill, ‘ Tir cumaile’, 82.4. He suggests emending roid of the MS to rú, but the form roid is well-attested in a num ber of texts: see p. 268 below. 142 CIH iii 802.21; cf. CIH i 73.22 = Ah iv 116.10. u i CIH ii 424.6 do roidh Ido choindindldo ablaibh. There is a different version of this gloss at CIH i 245.35 = A h v 500.24; cf. CIH v 1876.6 = Ah v 500.29-30. 1 4 4 E.g. Meyer, Cáin Adamnáin, 32 § 52 roid (roig MS) 7 glaisine 7 sep ‘madder and woad and onion(?)’; CIH iv 1501.7 = O ’Dav. 350 § 90.9 roidh y cainnenn y arbhar

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early C hristian siu- which lias produc ed traces of madden is B oho, Co. F crm a n a g in ' 11 T h e cultivation of m addei is well-doc u m e n ic d Iront Britain; for exam ple, an eleventh-c ciiturv A nglo-Saxon text advises th e estate m anaget (gnr/a) to p lant m ad dei. and to sow flax-seed (linseed) a n d w oad-seed.145146 A brilliant red ehe is o b ta in e d from th e roots of m ad d ei. Legal co m m en tary on th e division of p ro p e rtv aftei a d h o rc e procides som e in fo rm atio n on th e p re p a ra tio n of this e h e .1" T h e divorced wife is e n titled to a n in th of th e m a d d e r aftei it has b een h arvested (búaiu). W hen it has b een g a th e re d in to sheaves ttrilh n n . she is e n titled to a sixth, an d w hen it has b een g a th e re d into b u n d les (.scriplin) she is en titled to a th ird . She is d u e half w hen it has been g ro u n d into a p ow der ( miu) o r has b een m ade u p as a chest tiff i each for use (doth urlamh). An o b scure q u o ta tio n in O 'Daruti ti \ (dnsseny seem s to distinguish betw een a i eddish brow n ch e ( d1 T h e re is less em phasis o n th e sp o rtin g aspect o f this fo rm o f h u n tin g , an d the m ain m o tiv atio n seem s to have b e e n to p ro c u re m e a t.64656 W ild pigs w ere co iim u m h p u rsu e d with dogs,61’ but they m ight also be caught in a tra p (airches) ,67 o r sh o t w ith an arrow .68 In literary texts th e h u n tin g o f th e wild pig, especially th e b o ar ( tore all-aid), is associated particu larly w ith tales o f th e Fiana and th e ir le a d e r F inn (F io n n ). O n e o f th e best-know n episodes is the d e a th o f D iarm aid O D u ib h n e , disem bow elled by a wild b o a r at B ean n G u lb an (B en b u lb en , Co. Sligo) .69 F inn also features in a tra d itio n c o n c e rn in g a fam ous b o a r w hich h e h a d h u n te d o n m any occasions, b u t was finally killed by a p e a sa n t w orking at a dryingkiln. F inn felt th e ig no m in y keenly, a n d u tte re d a verse, preserved in T riad 236:70 It is n o t well th a t we fed o u r h o u n d s, it is n o t well th a t we ro d e o u r horses, since a little p e a sa n t fro m a kiln has killed th e b o a r o f D ru im m L e ith e . ' 1 T h e a b u n d a n c e o f wild swine in Ire la n d is m e n tio n e d by Giraldus C am brensis in th e twelfth c e n tu ry ,72 b u t th e archaeological evidence in d icates th a t thev did not survit** lo n g after th e N orm an 64According to Van Wijngaarden-Backer, ‘.Animal remains at Newgrange’, 337, it is very difficult to tell from the evidence of the bones whether such pigs were feral forms of the domestic pig (Sus domesticus) or pure wild boar (Sus scrofa). 6 5 E.g. Gwynn and Purton, ‘The monastery of Tallaght’, 146 § 51. 6 6 Plummer, Bethada i 128 § xiii (26) trans, it 124; i 165-6 § xxi (40) trans, ii 160-1. 6 7 Calder, Auraicept, 10.113. 6 8 Radner, Fragmentary annals. 50 s.a. 702. 69Ni Shéaghdha, Tóruigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne, 88.1557—9. 7 0 Mever, Triads, 30 § 236. 71 There is also a reference to Druimm Leithe (Drumlea, Co. Tyrone) at Meyer, Triads, 6 § 51. 7 2 0 ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 47 § 18 = Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, 57.12-13,

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invasion. ' 1 T h e ir ex tin ctio n was presum ably caused by a co m b in a­ tion oi over-hunting an d th e d estru c tio n oi th e oak-w oods on which they largely d e p e n d e d fo r food. H u n t in g o f o t h e r la nd m am m als

A n in th -ceiitu rv legal gloss in clu d es b ad g ers as well as d e e r and wild pigs am o n g th e th re e gam e-anim als (Jiadmtla). ' 1 I h e b ad g er (Meles meles, O ld Irish hrorr)~:' was ap p a re n tly h u n te d for food, as a poem in th e Horn ma co n tain s a re fe re n ce to sail! bruin a Bene salted badger-m eat (or badger-fat) fro m B é rre ’ 76 T h e O ld Irish tale Tám BáFmírh co n tain s a d escrip tio n of a great h u n t org an ised at CiTiaclui (R atlicro g h an , Co. R oscom m on ) bv the le g en d ä re king a n d q u e e n of C o n n a c h t. Ailill a n d M edb.' ' As well as d e e r a n d wild boar, th e h o u n d s p u rsu e d h a re ( Lepus timidus. O ld Irish mil niaige78). fox (Vulpes vulpes. O ld Irish shmarli), a n d o tte r (Lutra lutra, O ld Irish dnburchiV''). Presum ably, the last two were generally h u n te d for th e ir pelts a n d becau se they w ere re g a rd e d as p re d a to rs.80 As we have seen above (p. 186), legal c o m m e n ta ry classes th e h u n tin g o f th e w olf as a public duty becau se o f its d e p re d a tio n s on livestock. H u n t in g o f m a r in e m am m als

It is clear from b o th w ritten a n d arch aeo lo g ical evidence that m arin e m am m als w ere v alu ed as a so u rce o f food. B ones o f various species o f seal (Irish rott)8 have b een fo u n d in a b u n d a n c e Edwards, The archaeology of early medieval Ireland, 65. CIH iii 916.40-41 Fiad cacha fedha .i. ut diximus, fiadhmila .i. bruic, huis, muca aldli ‘the hunting of every wood i.e. as we have said, game-animals i.e. badgers, deer, wild pigs’. ,:'The Welsh cognate is broch. English brock ‘badger’ is probably a loan from Primitive Welsh * brocc (Jackson, Language and history in early Britain, 567 § 146). 7 6 LL V 1277.37943 = Stokes, ‘The Bórama', 46 § 29. Cf. Thurneysen, ‘Tochmarc Ailbe , 276 § 7. 7 7 Meid, Táin BóFraich 3.53-8. lHLit. ‘the animal of the plain’. The other term for hare, ginfliiadh lit. ‘short game’, is not attested until the Mod.lr. period. ' ’Lit. ‘water-dog’, cf. Welsh dyfrgi of the same meaning and etymology. S0Medieval Welsh law assigns values to the pelts of both the fox and the otter (Wiliam, Llyfr Iorwerth, 90 § 137.13 = ALIW, Venedotian Code, III xix §§ 8-9). 8 ’The most frequent seals in Irish waters are the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and the common seal (Phoca vitulina). 73

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H un tin g o f marine mammals

283

in m aritim e sites fro m th e early C h ristian p e rio d .82 A d o m n á n ’s Life o f Columba refers to th e e n title m e n t o f th e m o nastery o f Iona to take seal-pups from a certain small island n e a r Mull. T hey were n o d o u b t v alued fo r th e ir flesh, as well as th e ir hides a n d o il.83 A dults w ere h u n te d w ith a seal-spear (róngáe) .84 Irish rosualt (also rossal, rosmáel, rasmóel, etc.) is a borrow ing from O ld N o rse hrosshualr ‘w alru s’ .85* In an ad d itio n a l item in th e Yellow B ook o f L ecan version o f Cormac's Glossary, it is d escrib ed as a type o f seal.80 T h e w alrus ( Odobenus rosmarus) is n o t now classified as a seal, b u t is p laced bv zoologists in th e sam e sub -o rd er Pinnipedia. It is at p re s e n t c o n fin e d to A rctic waters, b u t was fo rm erly also fo u n d in n o rth e r n S cotland, especially in th e S h etlan d Islands. It features in early Irish m ythology - p reserv ed in a gloss o n a p o em in praise o f C o lu m b a - as a sea-beast w hose vom iting affected the w ellbeing o f th e s u rro u n d in g lan d , sea, a n d air.87 A m a rin e m am m al w hich also a ttra c te d th e a tte n tio n o f h u n te rs was th e p o rp o ise (Phocoena phocoena), w hich is co m m o n a ro u n d th e Irish coast — p articu larly in su m m er — a n d m ay travel far up rivers. In Irish it is called mure mara ‘pig o f th e sea’, presum ably o n a c c o u n t o f its b lu b b e ry b u t ed ib le flesh .88 In th e year 828 the Annals of I ’lstn re c o rd a great slau g h ter o f porp o ises on the coast o f A rd C ia n n a c h ta (in th e p re se n t Co. L o u th ), w hich was carried o u t by N o rse m e n .89 A section o f legal c o m m e n ta ry o n th e duties and

E.g. O ’Kelly, ‘Church Island’, 133 (report by G. Roche). SA. O. and M. O. Anderson, Adomnan’s Life of Columba, 294 (new pagination: 74) = f. 42a. T here is a reference to a sealskin container at Thes. ii 347.33. 8 4 Stokes, Lismore Lives, 49.1641. 8 3 Marstrander, Bidrag, 107. 8 8 Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 100§ 1125 Rasmoel .i. mn. 8 7 Stokes, ‘The Bodleian Amra’, 256 § 60 = LU 29.831-8; cf. E. J. Gwynn, Metrical Dindshenchas iii 428.25-36; Stokes, ‘The prose tales in the Rennes Dindsenchas (1)’, 476 § 76. S8This term was also applied to the dolphin (Delphinus delphis). In the Old Irish glosses on Priscian, Latin delphinus is glossed mucc mora (Thes. ii 137.17—18). The dolphin is less likely to frequent rivers and estuaries than the porpoise, and so would have been more difficult to hunt. The term socc sáil, also meaning ‘pig of the sea’ is applied to the cuttlefish (loligo) at Thes. ii 101.34. m AU~ 284 s.a. 827 (recte 828) § 3 Mucär mär di muccaibh mora, lit. ‘a great pigslaughter of the pigs of the sea’. There may also be a reference to the consumption of porpoise-flesh in LL v 1277.37940 = Stokes, ‘The Borama, 46 § 29 stáec thuirc na tuinne ‘a steak of the boar of the sea’. 82 8

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en titlem e n ts of a m arilim P king refers also lo catches of salm on, seals, a n d p o rp o ises.90 Tliei e is n o evident e that th e rarlv Irish h u n te d whales. 1lowever. stran d ed whales w ere viewed with en th u siasm b\ those w ho lived n ear the coast. T h e . 1minis nj ( ’.onnai lit re< o rd that in th e year 12 fh a whale ( mil w in)'" was stra n d e d at (a d In a in ( iaii In e D ro n n n a ( iliabh (Co. Sligo). Its arrival ‘b ro u g h t g reat relief an d joy to th e w hole te rrito ry ’.92 T his en trv reflects th e p rin cip le ex p ressed in Irish law that evervbodv in th e com m unity h a d a claim on a stra n d e d whale. T h e re w ere, however, certain p ro c e d u re s to lie g o n e th ro u g h , and it seem s that th e re was n o a u to m atic g en eral e n title m e n t ta share. T he h ead o f th e kin ( riige /me) w hich ow ned th e ad jacen t land was obliged to go th e local king (ri tiiaithe) an d fast against him so as to claim the w hale on behalf of th e com m unity. T h e king could th en form allv assign th e whale to th e p eo p le, o r else he could distrain it fo r his own u se.9 ’ T h e king's e n title m e n t to a stra n d e d w hale is perh ap s linked with th e idea th at such windfalls are a d irect result o f his virtues as a ruler. T his is expressed in o n e version of Audiit lit Moraimi in th e follow ing term s: it is th ro u g h th e justice of th e ru le r th at m anv creatu res a n d m ain anim als from th e d e e p a n d great seas are cast u p o n lawful sh o re s’.91 T h e co n su m p tio n o f th e flesh o f a stra n d e d w hale o r o th e r an i­ m al d id n o t ru n c o u n te r to th e C h u rc h ’s b a n o n carrio n -eatin g , unless d eco m p o sitio n h a d set in. A cco rd in g to th e Canones Adomnani, ‘m arin e anim als cast u p o n th e shores, th e n a tu re o f w hose d eath we d o n o t know, are to he tak en for fo o d in g o o d faith, unless they are d e c o m p o se d ’.95 As well as w hale-m eat ( earnae w d in m i), o th e r p arts of th e whale w ere used. T h e law-text o n d istra in t refers to th e sh arin g o u t o f w halebone, w hich is called ‘w h ale’s evelash’ because o f ils sim ilar

""cm i 178. 1 1-12. '"T he whale is called mil mar (mármíl) ‘great animal’ or bled (bledmil) ‘monstrous animal’. Different species are not distinguished. iKAC 8 6 s.a. 1246 g 2. ’’( III iii 888.10—14 - AI. i 128.20—24 (mistranslated: no gaibaid a nathgabäil means ‘or he (the king) takes fit] in distraint'); cf. C.1H v 1682.7-10. li Kelly, Andacht Morainn, 61 § 22 (version in L 1 and N).

f,r7/’ 176 g 1. %E.g. CIII vi 2292.28 = Binchy, ' Bretha Crólige’, 20 § 25.

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a p p e a ra n c e to h u m a n eyelashes.97 W h aleb o n e o r b aleen consists oi h o rn t plates w hich take th e place of th e teeth of the tippet jaw in w hales of th e su b -o rd er Myslicrli. T h ese plates act as filters for the small p la n c to n ic organism s o n w hich th e w hales live. In th e m o u th o f a b lu e w hale (Balaenoptera musculus) th e re a re u p to eig h t h u n ­ d re d such plates. Being b o th stro n g a n d flexible, w halebone has m any uses. T h e glossator o n this text refers to its use fo r m aking th e backs o f rid d les a n d th e breastw ork o f sad d les.98 In a n o th e r gloss o n th e sam e tex t we are to ld th a t w h aleb o n e should be dis­ trib u te d fo r h o o p -m ak in g in areas w here th e re is no w ood.99 This im plies th a t w h aleb o n e was u se d fo r som e o f th e sam e purp o ses as hazel o r willow rods. T h e su b -o rd er Odontoceti (to o th e d w hales) in clu d es whales ra n g ­ in g in size fro m e ig h te e n m etres in len g th to ab o u t five m etres. Som e o f th ese w hales have large te e th w hich w ere valued by the early Irish. F or exam ple, H e p ta d 37 in clu d es a ‘b eau tifu l to o th ’ a m o n g th e seven valuables which c a n n o t be given in pledge by the h e a d o f a kin -g ro u p o n b e h a lf o f its m e m b e rs.100 It is clear from a n in th -c e n tu ry gloss o n this h e p ta d th a t th e re fe re n ce is to a w hale’s to o th (détt m û máir) . 10 F u rth e r discussion o n w h ale’s te e th is fo u n d in ODavoren ’s Glossary. H e re it is claim ed th a t th e fia ca ilainsi is one o f th e th re e b ack te e th o f th e w hale, b u t th e co n te x t is u n c le a r.102103 F ish in g

M an\ texts em phasize th e im p o rta n c e o ffish in th e early Irish eco n ­ omy, a n d draw ings o f fish d e c o ra te m an u scrip ts such as the Book o f Kells (ff. 70v, 71r, 179v, 250v), th e B ook o f A rm agh (f. 33v), and Rawlinson B 5 0 2 (f. 30' ) . 1 0 i T h e O ld Irish wisdom -texts reg ard high 9 7 CIH ii 371.30 = AL i 124.7 fabra mil môir; cf. CIH i 35.21 - AI.v 250.4 abrat bleidmil. The Old Irish form of the first element is abrae ‘eyelash’, which later acquired a prosthetic / . 9 8 CIH ii 371.31 = AL i 134.29-30 re dënam cül crialhar y clär sadall. For the use of saddles among the early Irish, see p. 97. 9 9 CIH ii 371.31-3 = AL i 134.30-31 do dénam circall de, in baile ind bifid. 1 0 0 CIH i 35.21 = AL v 250.3-4 fiacail gnari. 101 CIH iii 906.2 Fiacail gnoe .i. détt mil mdir; cf. CIH i 35.28 = AL v 250.14 .i. fiacail in mil mdir. m iCIH iv 1502.26-7 = O ’Dav. 356 § 938. The lemma Fiacail ainsi is probably from some lost law-text, but the glossator’s explanation casts little light on its meaning. I do not understand the form ainsi. 103The fish was one of the symbols of Christ: see Meehan, The Booh of Kells, 50.

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lish-vields as a sign of a just king. Andacht M otainn stales th at 'it is th ro u g h th e justice of the ru le r that a b u n d a n c e of fish swim in stream s . 101 Similarly, in Cccnscn ('.ottnait we are told that th e justice o f the ru le r brin g s fish in to estu a rie s.105 No law-text on fishing tig h ts has survived, but th e re are refer­ ences in o th e r law-texts w hich suggest that this topic was d ealt with in con sid erab le d etail, possible as p art of th e lost text M iuihirtha 'sea-jud g em en ts’, 1,1,1 From th e surviving m aterial, it seem s th at the lawyers devoted special a tte n tio n to th e legal p ro b lem s associated with estu arin e weirs. T h e law-texts on d istrain t an d on m ill-races refer to cdin inbit 'th e law of th e e stu a rv -.1"' which is taken b\ an O ld Irish glossator to reg u late the use of public w eirs.1" ' Latet legal co m m e n ta ry provides us with exam ples of the sort of p ro b ­ lem s w hich arose. O n e passage discusses th e theft of fish from a weir, while a n o th e r deals with th e w eir-ow ner w ho hits built his weir too far o u t in to th e river: see u n d e r ‘fishing m e th o d s’ below'. Presum ably, m ost fishing was c a rrie d out bv local farm ers who h a d rig h ts to fish at p a rtic u la r places. T h e law-text on status. Uraicerht Beer, does how ever m e n tio n the p rofessional fish erm an (iasraire). H e is a p erso n o f low ran k , with an h o n o u r-p rice o f only o n e y earling heifer. A king o r lord w ould be ex p e c te d to em ploy o n e o r m o re fish erm en : tliev are in c lu d ed a m o n g the p e rso n n e l o f a king's h o u se h o ld in Suidigud Tige M /deltuardau " a n d in Lânellach tige rig j ruirech.111 It is clear from th e law-texts th at th e re was not a universal public right to fish. A ccording to Di A.studDligid ~ Chirt. a law -abiding free­ m an {recht) is only p e rm itte d a single swift d ip o f a fishing-net in a stream . 11-1 T h e sam e text states th at such a p erso n is e n title d to 'a salm on o f th e place" (é ditte),u ' i.e. a single salm on front n e a r his Kelly, Audaeht Morainn, 7 § 20. Meyer, Tecosca Cormaic, 2 § 1.23. l06See CEIL 276-7 and p. 296 below. 1 0 7 CIll ii 369.9 = AL i 122.16; CIH ii 460.9-10 = Binchy, ‘Coibnes Uisri Thairidne', 6 8 104 105

§9. i0 8 C//7 iii 888.16—17 im cain n-inbir .i. im coraid coilrinn. 109 CIH V 1616.26 = AL v 106.18. 110L I i 116.3663 (col. 2). 11’O Daly, ‘Lânellach tigi r i c h 83 § 16. 112CIH i 241.20-2 = AI. v 482.24; CIH iv 1504.19-21 = O ’Dav. 365 § 975 luathfobairt cacha srotha. 1 13 CIH i 241.20, 31-2 = AL v 484.8-9 hœ dite .i. in bradän bis isin dit, isinn inadh; slän a cenguin .i. äbed dit ‘a salmon of the place i.e. the salmon which is in the place, in

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h o u s e .111*16 T h ese reg u latio n s may have b een in te n d e d partly as conse rra tio n m easures, but th e ir m ain im plication is that the fishing o f som e stream s is privately ow ned. In o th e r places, however, fishing is evidently free to all m em b ers o f th e com m unity. An O ld Irish gloss on t orus lin 're g u la tio n o f n ets' refers to a public fishing-place fo r th e túalh.llD Fishing m ethods Fish have b e e n cau g h t bv h u m a n s since th e S tone Age, an d m any te c h n iq u e s have b e e n em ployed: spearing, gaffing, strokehauling, tickling, n e ttin g , h o o k in g with ro d a n d line, p o iso n ing, e tc .111’ T he O ld Irish sources devote m ost a tte n tio n to th e catch in g o f fish in weirs e re c te d in rivers o r estuaries. A w eir m ay be m ad e entirely o f stones, o r entirely o f stakes an d w attling, o r w ith a c o m b in a tio n o f these m aterials.117 T h e two O ld Irish te rm s fo r ‘w eir’ re fle c t b o th m e th o d s o f co n stru ctio n . T he c o m m o n e st te rm is come, w hose basic m e a n in g is simply ‘stone w all’ .118 T h e o th e r te rm is aire, w hich m eans ‘woven fen ce’.119 G lossators take b o th term s to b e synonym ous.120 In later sources, p articu larly in legal c o m m e n ta r)’, th e w ord sód is also w ell-attested in th e m e a n in g ‘w eir’.121 N o t all weirs are d esig n ed simply to catch fish: legal c o m m e n ta ry refers also to weirs c o n stru cted to d ire c t th e m ain c u r r e n t o f a stream tow ards th e b an k to drive a w ater-m ill.122 Fishweirs a n d w ater-m ills m ay b e associated the spot; killing one is free i.e. whatever place it may be’. For another interpretation of áitt here, see Mac Airt, ‘lexicographical notes’, 265. 1 l4See discussion of this passage by E. MacNeill, Celtic Ireland, 167. 1 15GJH iii 888.15 Irn côrus lin .i. pisdum .i. dit coitcend bis don tuailh i n-uisce ‘about regulation of nets i.e. of fish i.e. a common place which is for the community in water’. I16For example, there is a reference at Carey, 'Scél Tuáin meic Chairilt, 102.65-6, to netting and spearing. 1I7See Went, ’Irish fishing weirs’. 118It is common in placenames: see Hogan, Onomaslicon, s.v. cora. I1 9 E.g. C1H ii 394.34-5 = AL i 202.1 airefrisruth ‘a weir against a stream’. AtVeisvb.n. of ar-fen ‘fences in front’: cf. imbe ‘fence (of field)’, vb.n. of imm-fen ‘fences around’ ( IF. IA A-42; VKG ii 517 § 719 je-n-). For a discussion of recent discoveries of the remains of early fishweirs, see A. O ’Sullivan, ‘Intertidal survey on the Fergus estu­ ary and the Shannon estuary’; ‘Harvesting the waters: fishweirs in early Ireland’; ‘Intertidal archaeological survey', 153-5. 1 2 0 E.g. O ’Mulc. 238 § 101 aire .i. cora êisc. 1 2 1 E.g. CIH ii 395.20 = AL i 206.1. See LEIA S-161 s.v. 2 sod. Ó Murchadha, 'Sódh i logainmneacha’, 130-1, notes an early instance of sód in the placename Sódh Macáin. 1 2 2 CIH iii 972.24-5 = Appendix A, text 6 § 1.

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structures: a M iddle Irish saint s I.ile speaks of a mill on the ii\e t Dee (probable in th e p resen t d o . W estm eath) a n d its fishweir. W eirs are obviously most elfective in catch in g m ig rato ry fish such as salm on an d eels. T h e strategies oi w eir-builders vary: in som e weirs, th e in te n tio n is to force th e fish in to a c h a n n e l so th a t they can be m ore readilv cau g h t with spears, hooks o r nets. In a m ore com plex a rra n g e m e n t, w ickerw ork baskets a te set in gaps in the weir: fish which swim in are unlikely to get o u t a n d can easih be­ taken by th e fish erm en . T h e Irish te rm fo r such a basket is ces. T h e Annals oj Connacht reco rd a slau g h ter in th e \e a t 1225 ol tinpeo p le o f d til d e a rn a d h a bv A odh mac d a th a il ( h ro b h d h e irg and a b an d o f N orm ans. M ain1of those fleeing w ere d ro w n ed at D ttbh d o n g a (Ballvcong, d o . M avo). a n d the baskets o f th e weil were lull o f d row n ed c h ild re n .124 Legal difficulties have long b een associated with weirs. In his account o f th e d>alwav Fishery. .Ar th u r W ent details th e various attem pts to legislate for fishing at th e weirs o n th e C o rrib , an d points o u t that th e legal history o f these weirs goes back at least to th e year 1283.125 S ources in Irish provide n o in fo rm a tio n on specific weirs, but give a g en eral acco u n t o f th e legal pro b lem s w hich w ere co n sid e re d likely to arise. Weirs may be ow ned bv individuals: o n e O ld Irish legal f ragm ent refers to th e fish-weir o f a lo rd (airc ri.se J l a t h a ) j1, A later gloss refers also to ow nership bv a kin-group (Jine)}~‘ A particularly dif­ ficult p ro b lem is the legal relatio n sh ip o f a w eir-ow ner with o th e r weir-owners u p stream o r d o w nstream . It is clear that a ttem p ts w ere m ade in Irish law to p rev en t anv o n e w eir-ow ner from gettin g an excessive share o f th e fish. T h e p rin cip le is q u o te d in O'Davoren'.s Glossary, presum ably from an O ld Irish law-text, that it is not p ro p e r to erec t a w eir over m o re th a n o n e th ird o f th e w ater.128 L ater co m m en tary provides m o re d etail, a n d states that a lan d o w n er w ho owns bo th sides o f a river may c o n stru c t a weir e x te n d in g from o n e 23

2 3 Meyer, Betha Colmáin, 62.13 § 59 Muilenn Dée 7 a canid nsc laiss. m AC 12 s.a. 1225 is amlaid dogebthea na cairr cona cessachaib 7 a llán intib do lenbaib arna mbáduih. Cf. AFM iii 226 s.a. 1225. 1 2 5 Went, ‘The Galway fishery', 192. 1 2 6 O H iii 1018.6, vi 2163.6; CIH iv 1468.8 = O'Dav. 206 § 60. ‘ ■ 7 CIH ii 369.15 = AI. i 130.4 in cora coitcend na fine. 1 2 8 CIH iv 1468.9 = O ’Dav. 206 § 60 Ni téchta n ibes [ mó| nô Irian inn uisce do aire .i. do

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b a n k to a d istan ce o f o n e th ird o f th e b re a d th o f th e river. A lter­ natively, he m at c o n stru c t a w eir from b o th banks, each ex ten d in g to o n e sixth. A lan d o w n er who owns only o n e b a n k mav co n stru ct a single w eir ex te n d in g to o n e sixth. If these lim its are exceeded, th e excess fish m ust be given to th e weir-owners u p stream o r dow n­ stream . d e p e n d in g o n w hich way th e fish are m ig ratin g .129 We are n o t to ld how th e excess is to be calculated, b u t presum ably th e o ffe n d in g w eir-ow ner's catch is c o m p a re d with that o f o th e r weir-owners. A n o th e r p ro b le m especially associated w ith weirs is th a t the tra p p e d fish m ay easily b e tak en by p erso n s o th e r th a n the weir-owner. Legal c o m m e n ta ry lays dow n th e heavy fine o f five sets fo r stealing fish from a w eir. 130 T h e th e ft o f fish from a w eir featu res in an o b scu re tale re la tin g to F inn m ac C um aill w hich is p re se rv e d in a law-text. A fter b e h e a d in g L om na, C o irp re a n d his m en w en t o ff w ith his severed h e a d to a w eir w hich was full o f fish. T hey to o k som e o f th e fish a n d co o k ed th em , b u t d id n o t give an y th in g to th e h e a d . T h e h e a d th e n co m p lain ed: ‘a speckled w hite-bellied salm on w hich issues from spawn u n d e r th e seas . . . you have m a d e a division w hich is n o t ju st, o C o irp re ’.131 C oirpre a n d his m e n w ere afterw ards killed by F inn in v engeance fo r the b e h e a d in g o f L om na. O th e r texts re fe r to th e catch in g o f fish in a n e t (Un), by a netsm an (linaige). Such n e ts w ere presum ably m a d e o f lin en th read , tied m m eshes. For ex am p le, th e Life o f Saint Mo Ling refers to a m iraculously heavy catch in w hich th e re was a salm on at every th ird m esh in th e n e t.132 We know th a t th e activities o f n etsm en were in som e circu m stan ces co n tro lle d by law, as th e law-text o n d istraint refers to ‘th e reg u la tio n o f n e ts ’ (corns lin) .133 T his is tre a te d as a sep arate legal topic from 'th e law of th e e stu a ry ’ ( (din ittbir), but no 1 2 9 CIH if 395.18-21; v 1699.11-14 = At, i 204.27-206.2; CIH iii 1018.6-10; vi 2163.6-9. l30CIHi 261.13; iii 928.12-13 = AL iii 148.19-21; CIH W 1189.36; CIH v 1874.20. 131 CIH vi 2116.20-21 = Dillon, ‘Stories from the law-tracts’, 49.5-7 § ix One brecc brondfind bnichtas di magurfo muiribh . . . rorannais mind nach cert a corbri. Orcc seems here to have the meaning ‘salmon’; however, salmon spawn in rivers, not in the sea; see p. 291 below. Another version of this episode is found in Cormac’s Glossary (Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 8 6 - 8 § 1018). E. J. Gwynn, (‘Notes’, 190) translates bruchlas di magur as ‘which is bursting with spawn’. 1 3 2 Stokes, ‘The birth and life o f St. Moling’, 272 § 23 co tarla bratdn each très moccuil isin lin-, cf. Radner, Fragmentary annals, 4 s.a. 595. 135CIH ii 369.9 = AL i 122.15.

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fu rth e r details are given. A ccording to Hermit A im liln. the e arn in g s from net-casting (tiullnn liiiiliuii) arc entirely im m u n e from claim (midies) in Irish law.1*1 T his obviously applies onlv to net-casting which is not in b reach of anus tin o r o th e r fishing regulations. Som e in fo rm atio n on net-fishing is provided by th e O ld Irish canon law-text li/uslil Ísu ( T h e Kpistle of Jesus ). I his text deals with th e g en eral reg u latio n s on Sundav o b serv an ce in the w estern C hurch . However, as in th e case of (.din Domnrtig ('T h e Law of S undav ’). th e rules have b een a d a p te d to hi ear1\ Irish co n d itio n s. T his is exem plified in the tre a tm e n t o f th e o ffence of -fishing betw een th e two lim its o f Sundav. i.e. from vesper-tim e on Saturday to tierce on Monday. If nets are p u t in to th e watet d u rin g this tim e, each m an involved m ust pay a fine of O n e o u n ce of silver.1 " In ad d itio n , th e nets m ust be b u rn t o r s u rre n d e re d to th e stervards o f the hrw (do rechtairib iui edna). Likewise, th e coracle (cliah), h id e (seiche) 1Sb an d clo th in g ( timthachl 1’' of th e fish erm en m ust also be b u rn t. It is clear from this passage that net-fishing was ty pically carried o u t by a n u m b e r o f m en o p e ra tin g from a coracle m ade of w ickerw ork covered yvith a h id e o r h id e s.1 T h e fish e rm a n 's h id e is also m e n tio n e d in th e co n tex t o f fishing at a rveir. T riad 230 refers to a seiche corad ‘rveir h id e ', apparently m e a n in g th e type o f b o a t u sed to take in fish a t a rveir.139 As well as weir-fishing an d net-fishing, o u r so urces also refer to fishing by line a n d h o o k (dubchi). T his m e th o d is associated par­ ticularly yvith trout-fishing: see p. 293 below. lit th e n in th -c e n tu rv St. Gall Glosses, th e Irish te rm for th e th re e -p o in ted fish-spear or trid en t is given as geie gona rise 'a sp ear for killing fis h '.11" A rvellpreserv ed iron fish-spear o f this ty pe was fo u n d in a c ra n n b g o f the early C hristian p e rio d at Strokestow n, Co. R o sc o m m o n .141 n4CIH ii 592.11 =Thurneysen, Bürgschaft, 8 § 13 = Stacey, ‘Berrad Airechta' , 212 § 13. 0 ’Keeffe, ‘Cain Domnaig’, 208 § 29. It is stated at § 33 that one third of such fines goes to God (i.e. for charity), one third to lords and churches, and one third to the enforcers of the law of Sunday and the guarantors of Sunday. 136The YBL version uses the word codai, with the same meaning as seiche. 137Timthach is normally used to mean ‘clothing’, but here it may include all the accoutrements, as well as clothing, used by the fishermen. 138For boat-construction, see p. 499. l3 9 Meyer, Triads, 28 § 230. u " I h n . il 91.17. 141It is described by Went, ‘The pursuit of salmon in Ireland’, 199, with an illustration on plate xxxv, opposite p. 244. 136

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Salmon-fishing T h e re a re m any m o re re fe re n ce s in o u r sources to th e salm on {Salmo salar) th a n to any o th e r fish .142 Its prestige as a fo o d is m em orab ly ex p ressed in a n in th -c e n tu ry triad w hich lists the th ree d eath s w hich are b e tte r th a n life as 'th e d e a th o f a salm on, the death o f a fat p ig a n d th e d e a th o f a ro b b e r’.143 T h e salm on, d efin ed in o n e tex t as ‘th e crafty o n e o f th e w a te r’,144145 is also p ro m in e n t in m ythological m aterial. For exam ple, th e h e ro Finn acq u ired his su p e rn a tu ra l w isdom by licking his finger o n w hich w ere traces o f the coo k ed flesh o f th e 'salm o n o f kno w led g e".1!n An en try in the Annals of Clonmanwise suggests th at the salm on h ad royal associa­ tions. T h u s it is re c o rd e d that in th e year 1061 Áed Ua C o n ch o b air of C o n n a c h t d estroyed th e fort at K incora (C en n C orad) w hich had b een th e seat of Brian B óram a, an d ate th e two salm on which were in th e k in g ’s fish p o n d th e r e .146 T h e im p licatio n is th a t this was a serious affro n t to B rian's d escen d an ts. A legal p o em also associates salm on with kings: a king m ust give a salm on to his ju d g e ( medam) o u t o f every a b u n d a n t catch. In a d d itio n , th e ju d g e is e n titled to th e h ea d s o f all th e k in g ’s sa lm o n .147 N o t surprisingly, o u r texts devote a g o o d d eal o f a tte n tio n to the ex tra o rd in a ry life-cvcle an d m ig rato ry p a tte rn s o f the salm on, m any details o f w hich are still n o t com pletely u n d e rsto o d by zoologists. T h e salm on begins life as an egg laid in gravel in a fast-flowing river. .After a b o u t eighty o r n inety days it develops in to an alevin, still with volk sac attach ed . W hen this sac has b een ab so rb ed - usually after ab o u t th re e weeks - it is called salm on fry, a n d on reach in g finger len g th , p arr. A fter a year o r two, th e p a rr tu rn s silver an d is called a sm olt; it th e n starts its d escen t to th e sea. A t sea, it travels far o u t im o th e A tlantic w here it feeds an d m akes rap id grow th. A fter a year o r m o re at sea, it re tu rn s for spaw ning, alm ost always to its natal river. T h e tim e o f its re tu rn t aries in d ifferen t rivers, an d may also d e p e n d o n th e re b ein g sufficient volum e o f w ater to allow it to leap u p rapid s o r w aterfalls. At th e spaw ning beds th e m ale ejects milt 142See Went, ‘The pursuit o f salmon in Ireland’. l 4 3 Meyer, Triads, 12 § 92 Tribáis alaferr bethaid: bás iach, bás muicce méithe, básfoglada. 1 4 4 McManus, ‘Irish letter-names’, 146 E: B2 4 clesach uisce .1 acme. 1 4 5 Meyer, ‘Macgnimarlha Find’, 201 § 18. For other examples, see DIL E 144.38-46. 1 4 6 Aren. Cion. 178 s.a. 1061. 147CIH iv 1268.20-22. The text has ceand each eo where one would expect ceand each iach ‘the head of every salmon’.

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which fertilizes th e eggs released by th e fem ale. A lter spaw ning, salm on of b o th sexes are called kelts, a n d d ro p dow nstream in a w eakened slate. At this stage m ost d ie of disease o r fall victim to pred ato rs. Som e, however, reach th e sea a n d th e re regain sufficient co n d itio n to re tu rn after o n e o r m o re years for a second spaw ning. T h e re a re even reco rd s o f salm on spaw ning th re e o r fo u r times. It is u n c e rta in how m uch was know n a b o u t th e salm o n 's life-cycle by the a u th o rs o f o u r texts. W hoever co m p o sed the tale of the b e h ead in g o f L ottm a (q u o te d on p. 2S9 above) seem s to have believed that salm on are spaw ned at sea ra th e r th an in rivers. T his is p erh ap s not su rp risin g as th e voting stages of a salm on in the river are very d iffe re n t in a p p e a ra n c e from th e re tu rn in g fish aftei o n e o r m o re years at sea. A sim ilar id ea that tro u t are spaw ned at sea may be reflected in th e storv o f th e m e rm a id A m bia (d a u g h te r o f C ain son o f A dam a n d Eve) w hich is p re se rv e d in a legal m an u sc rip t.118 W hile she was asleep u n d e r the sea. a tro u t ejected its m ilt ( iuchair) in to h e r m o u th , so that she b ecam e p re g n a n t w ith twenty-two offspring. A b elief th at salm on w ere spaw ned at sea mav have giv en l ise to the te rm éo rétsnáma ‘salm on o f first sw im m ing'. It is clear from two referen ces th at salm on w ere h e ld to be m ost suitable for eat­ ing at this stage. For exam p le, th e late O ld Irish tale Seria Cano meic Gartnáin co n tain s a fanciful acco u n t o f fishing fro m King Gartn á n ’s island o f Inis m occu C h é in . 1ty T h e re w ere fiftv fishing-nets, with ro p es from th e m to th e windows of th e k itchen. T h e re was a bell on th e e n d o f each ro p e in fro n t o f th e stew ard, a n d four m en for h au lin g in th e ‘salm on o f first sw im m ing'. Legal com ­ m en tary o n Uraicecht Becc likewise refers to ‘h a lf a salm on o f first sw im m ing' ( lethéo cétsnáma) a m o n g th e possible foodstuffs w hich a clien t provides for his lo rd .1481915015 M ichael O 'B rie n m ust be co rrect in taking éo eétsmrina to refer to w hat is now te rm e d a 'first-ru n (o r fresh-run ) sa lm o n ', i.e. a salm on re tu rn in g u p riv er from th e sea.1’1 It is at this stage th at salm on are m ost prized for culin ary p u rposes. 1 he sam e l vaicccht Becc co m ­ m en tary refers also to éo colgnuma, p resu m ab le a n o th e r stage in the C1H ii 682.10-15. Binchy, Scéla Cano, 1.9-13. 150CIH ii 644.12; v 1599.39; vi 2266.38 = A L \ 40.23-4 (mistranslated). The MSS have letheo celnama(dh). 1 5 1 M. O ’Brien, ‘Scéla C a n o M. O ’Brien, ‘Eo cétnama. 148

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salm on s d ev elo p m en t. T h e Dictionary oj the Irish language suggests th at colgnam is for colgsndm, a c o m p o u n d o f colg ‘sword, sting, bris­ tle, awn, fu ry ’ a n d snám ‘sw im m ing’.152 It is clear fro m th e Uraicecht Becc citatio n th a t a salm on at th e éo cétsnáma stage is w orth two at the co rolgilama stage. It is likely th e re fo re that th e latter is a spawn­ ing salm on w hen th e flesh takes o n an insipid o r m uddy flavour. T h e colg m av re fe r to th e -'k y p e ’, a vertical p ro je c tio n o f cartilagen eo u s tissue w hich p rojects from th e tip o f th e lower jaw o f the m ale salm o n . 33 Bethu Phátraic refers to th e g enerally seasonal n a tu re o f salm on -h sh in g . It reco rd s a leg e n d th a t S aint Patrick o rd e re d som e fish e rm e n to cast th e ir nets in to th e Sligo (G aravogue) River. T hey w ere d o u b tfu l, p o in tin g o u t to h im th a t salm on w ere never ca u g h t at th a t place in w inter. N onetheless, they threw o u t th eir n ets a n d w ere rew ard ed w ith a catch o f large salm on, w hich they gave to P atrick. H e th e n blessed th e river, so th a t fish are cau g h t in it all y ear r o u n d .154 T h e im p o rta n c e o f th e salm on in early Irish society is reflected in th e n u m b e r o f n am es w hich are ap p lied to this fish. In O ld Irish the usual w ord for salm on is éo, w hich is co g n ate with Welsh eog, GalloLatin esox o f th e sam e m ean in g . T h e v arian t é is also well attested in the early la n g u a g e .1” From the late O ld Irish period, th e w ord bratán largely displaced éo, w hich was how ever re ta in ed into Classi­ cal M o d e rn Irish as a p oetical term , o ften used figuratively o f a h ero o r king. T h e re p la c e m e n t o f éo bv bralán o c c u rre d th ro u g h o u t the G aelic area, so th a t M o d ern Irish a n d Scottish Gaelic have bradán a n d M anx has braddan. T h e etym ology o f th e w ord bratán is u n c e rta in . T h e re is som e evidence th at it originally re fe rre d to a you n g salm on: thus a youth­ ful w arrio r may b e d escrib ed co n tem p tu o u sly as a ‘small salm o n ’ 'r’2DIL C 325.79. ;,:11 owe this sugggestion to Patrick Timpson of the School o f Science, Regional Technical College, Sligo, to whom I am grateful for many general comments on the section on fishing in this chapter. I5 4 Mulchrone, Bethu Phátraic 87.1638—40 benedixit jluminem conid h iSliccech gamnach uisci nHéirend, argaibther iasc indi hi ccach ràithi ‘he blessed the river so that the Sligo (Garavogue) River is the gamnach (‘stripper’) of the waters of Ireland, for fish are caught in it at every season’. A gamnach is a cow still giving milk to a yearling calf (see p. 40), and is thus comparable to the Garavogue. This river is famous as one of the earliest in Ireland, with fresh-run salmon entering as early as November. l5 5 Thurneysen, Grammar, 203 § 319 (c). 1

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{brattin he< ) v'u O n the o th e r h a n d , T. F. O 'Rahillv a rg u ed tliat its basic m ean in g is 'd ie stab b in g o n e . re fe rrin g to the way in which die fem ale p re p a re s a b ed in th e grave! for spaw n in g .1 " But this use of th e root brat- is otherw ise u n a tte ste d in Irish: it norm ally m eans 'to rot), p lu n d e r'. Possible, th e re fo re , brntrin was used originally of the salm on sm olt, w hich is particularly voracious as it m akes its wav dow nstream to th e sea.15617158 Many o th e r term s are used for salm on in O ld Irish, paiticularlv in verse. O f these maigre is likely to have originally m e a n t ‘egg-bearing fem ale . b ein g a derivative from magai 'spaw n. fry’.159 In som e instances, maigre re ta in s an association with spaw ning. T h e p o et M áelm uire O l.e n n á in c o m p ares h u m an sexuality unfavourably with th e b re e d in g of th e p ro g e m of the salm on (stt in maigri) w hich grows fro m b e a u tifu l spawn ((has a hiuchra ála in d ).W) But in o th e r attestatio n s mange is used simplv as a svnonym o f co.11*'1 A n o th e r co m m o n synonym is rintr. th e origin o f w hich has n o t b e e n ex p lain ed . A ra re r p o etic te rm fo r salm on is orcc, w hich o ccu rs in th e story o f th e b e h e a d in g o f L o m n a * It is co g n ate w ith w ords for various tvpes o f fish in o th e r In d o -E u ro p ean languages, in clu d in g Latin perca ‘p e rc h ’ .163 A n o th e r O ld Irish te rm fo r salm on, ere, w hich is attested only in glossaries, is from th e sam e root. T h e w ord mugita. o • o f u n c e rta in origin, is also e x p lain ed as m e a n in g salm o n ' in the legal phrase ni blaisi mugna muna firfolta feisear 'm av von not taste salm on unless you know th e tru e q u alificatio n s'. 1" 1 T his m ight be a refere n ce to a qualified jud g e's e n title m e n t to receive a salm on from th e king. Finally, it sh o u ld he p o in te d out that because o f its special p ro m i­ nen ce, w ords for salm on are som etim es su b stitu ted for th e g eneral TBC Rec. I 61.1992. T. F. O ’Rahilly, ‘Creach. Gad. Brad. Slad.', 170. [58Alternatively, the -án suffix may have a passive force, so that bratán might mean ‘that which is robbed or plundered’. It is suggested in LEIA B-80 that this could be a reference to the salmon as the prev most sought after by fishermen. 1 5 9 LEIA M-9 s.v. magar, E.J. Gwynn, ‘Notes’, 190-1. 160ACL iii 238 § 3 = McKenna, Aithdinghluim dána i 302, poem 80 § 3. Cf. Thurneysen, 'Mittelirische Verslehren', 69 g 12 a iuchra maigri. 1S1 Plummer, Bethada i 321 § x (22); trans, ii 312. WiCIH vi 2116.20-21 = Dillon, 'Stories from the law-tracts’, 49.5-7 § ix. 163LEIA 0-28 s.v. 2 ore. m CIH iv 1245.24-5; CIH iv 1517.10 = O ’Dav. 421 § 1266. 156

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te rm iasc ‘fish ’. A clear ex am p le is fo u n d in th e version o f th e m ir­ acle of th e fe e d in g o f th e five th o u sa n d in th e ten th -cen tu ry poem Saltail' tin Rann. T h e Latin V ulgate speaks only o f ‘two fish' (pisces) b u t th e Irish p o e t assum es th a t they are sa lm o n .165 T h e Annals of Ulster c o n ta in a n e n try for th e y ear 917 w hich I believe to show the sam e su b stitu tio n . D ue to snow a n d ex trem e cold a n d u n w o n ted ice in th a t year, th e c h ie f lakes a n d rivers o f Ire la n d w ere passable, i.e. fro zen over. B ecause o f th ese w eath er co n d itio n s, th e re was death o f livestock a n d b ird s a n d fish (ár di chethraib 7 énaib 7 éicnih) .166 It seem s to m ak e b e tte r sense h e re to take éicne to re fer to all types o f fish w hich d ie d u n d e r th e ice ra th e r th a n ju s t th e salm o n .167 Trout-fishing Two fo rm s o f th e tro u t ( Salmo trutta) a re native to Ireland: th e sea tro u t a n d th e brow n tro u t. T h e fo rm e r m igrates fro m the sea to spaw n in gravel o n a river-bed. In th e case o f th e latter, however, m ig ratio n is re stric te d to m ovem ents u p stre a m o r fro m a lake into a stream . T h e Irish n am e brecc ‘speckled o n e ’ refers to th e spotted sides ch aracteristic o f b o th fo rm s o f trout. J u d g in g fro m th e w ritten sources, it seem s th a t weir-fishing was a re g u la r m e th o d o f catch in g salm on. T h e catch ing o f tro u t, on th e o th e r h a n d , is associated w ith line a n d h o o k (dubán).168 For ex am p le, a Life o f S ain t M áedóc o f F erns refers to brecc dubáin ‘a tro u t c a u g h t by h o o k ’.169 Eel-fishing U nlike salm on a n d tro u t, th e eel (Anguilla anguilla, Irish escong) spawns a t sea. T h e eggs are laid in th e Sargasso sea in the west­ e rn A tlantic, a n d th e larvae th e n d rift eastw ards fo r a b o u t th ree vears. O n re a c h in g th e c o n tin e n ta l shelf, th e larvae m etam o rp h o se in to elvers, w hich m ig rate to fresh water, m a tu rin g at eig h t to fif­ te e n years. At this stage th e m a tu re eels (silver eels) re tu rn to the Sargasso sea fo r spaw ning. l 6 5 Stokes, Saltair na Rann, 112.7624 dá oenbralän ‘two single salmon’. In the next verse they are simply described as na dá iasc ‘the two fish’. Cf. Carney, The poems oj Blathmac, etc. 12 § 33 Bendachais dá Mich ‘he blessed two salmon’. 166AU2 366 s.a. 916 (recte 917) § 1. 167For other examples, see DIL E 74.3-7. 168This word looks like a derivative of dub ‘black’, but no etymology has been put forward. Ifi9 Plummer, Bethada i 244 § lxviii (194), trans, ii 237.

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Silver eels mav be caught in large n u m b e rs in weirs d u rin g th eir m igration bac k to th e sea. The m ain ru n occurs in late a u tu m n d u rin g high floods an d m oonless nights. In his a c c o u n t of the G al­ way fishery, A rth u r W ent has shown that th e re w ere eel-weirs on the C o rrib already in th e year 128S, an d probable- e a rlie r.1'" 1 he eels were caught in a h o o d -sh ap ed net {rothall, a n g lic i/ed roghill). Other form s o f freshwater fishing It is clear from O ld an d M iddle Irish sources that salm on, tro u t an d eels w ere re g a rd e d as th e m ost im p o rta n t freshw ater fish. In his Topography o f Ireland. G iraldus G am bi ensis likewise stresses the great ab u n d a n c e of these fish in Irish rivers a n d lakes. H e notes too the absence o f fish such as pike (Esox hirin',) an d p erch (Penn flu via tilis), w hich have subseq u en tly b e e n in tro d u c e d .1 H e also has an in terestin g passage on o th e r freshw ater fish, whit It has b een discussed in detail by A rth u r W en t.1' ’ O n e of th ese fish is d escrib ed as b ein g larg er a n d m o re ro u n d th a n th e tro u t, with firm w hite flesh, p leasing to th e ta ste .1' 1 W ent suggests that this is the pollan ( Coregonus albula), a bottom -living fish of la rg er lakes such as Loughs N eagh, E rn e, Ree an d D erg. T h e n am e is presum ably Irish pollan, a derivative o f poll ‘h ole, poo l, d e p th ’.1 Sea-fishing T h e re are a few referen ces to sea-fishing from boats in O ld Irish so u rces,1' (1 an d b o n es from sea-fish such as cod ( Genius morhua) an d Italian wrasse (I.abnis bergxlta) have b e e n fo u n d in excavations at early C h risd an sites.177 B ut in g en eral, th e w ritten a n d arc h a e o ­ logical evidence indicates a society w hich c o n c e n tra te d on the- rich harvest o f freshw ater fish ra th e r th a n o n th e fish o f th e sea. T h e lost law-text Muirbretha ‘sea-ju d g em en ts' mav hat e dealt with som e aspects of sea-fishing. However, th e th re e short q u o tatio n s 170*4 Went, ‘The Galway fishery’, 197-200. Cochall is a borrowing from Latin cucullus ‘hood’ ( 1JJ A C-138). The term cochait eisg ‘hooded fishing-net’ is used in C1H iv 1530.31-2 = O ’Dav. 481 § 1592 (see v. 11.). 1 '-O ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography 37-8 § 5 - Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, 32. l7 :lWent, ‘Giraldus Cambrensis’ notes on Irish fish’. 1 7 4 0 ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 38 § 6 = Dimock, Giraldi Topogtaphia, 33— 4. ' 7 01:1) s.v. pollan: cl. Beckett, Fealsúnacht Aodha Mhic Dhomhnaill, 188— 9. 17 tlE.g. O ’Keeffe, ‘Cáin Domnaig', 204-6 § 24. Cf. Stokes, Lismore Lives, 49.1640 murgha ‘sea-spear, harpoon’; in this story the prey is a seal. ' “ E.g. O ’Kelly, ‘Church Island’, 133 (report by G. Roche). See McCormick, Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland’, 188 and table 6.5. 170 111

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w hich have b e e n p re se rv e d (with la te r co m m en tary) from this text deal only with ow n ersh ip of flotsam , jetsam an d goods cat t ied off by a stream o r se a -c u rren t.178 N o m e n tio n is m ade o f sea-fishing rig h ts in this m aterial. B ut we can sp eculate th a t th e existence o f a rig h t to take flotsam w hich is ‘b ey o n d n in e waves [from the shore] ’ suggests th at th e re was an equal right to take fish at this d istan ce.1 O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e local k in g m ay have b e e n e n title d to a share o f th e catch (see p. 408). It is w ell know n th a t th e Irish le a rn t a g re a t d eal ab o u t sea-faring from th e N o rsem en , a n d this is reflected in the m any b o atin g term s w hich have co m e in to th e Irish lan g u ag e fro m O ld N o rse.180 This in flu en c e seem s also to have e x te n d e d to sea-fishing tech n iq u es, as we find O ld N orse ding fishing-line" borro w ed into Irish as dont bn (dotgha, drugha).m Similarly, th e Irish w ords fo r cod (trosc) an d ling ( langa I are from O ld N orse porshr a n d langa respectively. T he origin of the w ord siatán 'h errin g " is m o re problem atical. It is likelv to b e a b o rro w in g fro m O ld English ra th e r th a n O ld N orse, as in m e a n in g it is close to O ld E nglish scead ‘sh a d ’ (Alosa alosa, Alosa fallax ). larget relatives o f th e h e r r in g .1X2 H erring-fishing was clearly practised by th e in h a b ita n ts - p ro b ab ly m ainly N orse-Irish in race - o f th e e a ste rn a n d n o r th e r n p o rts in th e early th irte e n th century. T h e A nnals o f Loch Cé re c o rd th a t in th e year 1217 all th e h errin g fish erm en I w ita n a ig )18 ’ o f Irelan d from W aterford to D erry went to th e Isle o f M an to fish. T hey c o m m itted acts o f violence there, a n d w ere co n seq u en tly p u t to d eath . C ollecting shell-fish Shell-fish fo rm e d an im p o rta n t p a rt o f th e d ie t o f M esolithic h u n te r-g a th e re rs .18118234 W ith th e estab lish m en t o f ag riculture, the im p o rta n c e of such foodstuffs d im in ish ed , b u t they c o n tin u e d to su p p le m e n t th e d ie t o f th o se living n e a r th e sea, particularly in 178 C1H i 314.17-316.8 = AL iii 422.1-430.4. See GEIL 276-7. l79CIH i 314.17 = AL iii 422.1-2 darnäe tondaib, cf. CIH i 178.20-1. 1 S0 Greene, ‘The influence of Scandinavian on Irish’, 79. 181 Marstrander, Bidrag 93; DIL s.v. dwuba. 182See LEIA S-36. Welsh has the same word for 'herring', ysgadan, which may likewise be a borrowing from Old English scead. The Modern English dialectal form scad, possibly of Norse origin (OED s.v.), refers mainly to the horse mackerel ( Trachurus Irachurus). 183ALC i 256 s.a. 1217. The manuscript has scathánaigh. 1 8 4 Mitchell, The Irish landscape, 103-4; Reading the Irish landscape, 84.

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lim es of fam ine 01 scarciiv.18’ A m ong th e activities fo rb id d en on a Sunday in an O ld Irish c a n o n law-text was cnúasach mara 'sea-picking', w hich d o ubtless in clu d ed h u n tin g for shell-fish, crabs, shrim ps, ed ib le seaw eed, e tc .186 Because o f th e low status of suc h food, th e re is little m en tio n of it in th e literatu re. A q u o ta tio n in th e Irish grammatical tracts refers to h u n tin g for periw inkles ( Littonna littorra. Irish fdrchrni) ,1'' In ;m additio n al item in th e Yellow Book of Lecan version of (.annat s Glossary, th e w ord giritan is id en tified as having th e sam e m ean in g as fáechan,188 A n o th e r shell-fish used for food is th e co m m o n lim pet ( Patella vulgata). Its Irish n am e bairnech is a derivative of baireun 'ro c k ', a n d refers to th e h a b ita t o f this sp ecies.18q F o w l in g

B ird-bones are q u ite co m m o n in excavations from th e early C hris­ tian p e rio d in Irelan d . G enerallv, b o n es from wild bird s are m ore n u m ero u s th an those o f in tro d u c e d species. In I.agore cran n ó g . for instance, ab o u t 19 p e r cen t o f th e bird -b o n es (m e asu red in bulk) is from dom estic fowl, an d th e rest is front wild b ird s.1'"1 T h e re is also scu lp tu ral evidence o f th e h u n tin g o f birds. T h e cracked p anel re p ro d u c e d below from th e n in th -c e n tu rv S outh Cross at C astlederm ot, Co. K ildare, is likelv to re p re se n t a h u n tin g sc e n e .1'11 Early Irish literatu re co n tain s m ain re fe re n ce s to gam e-birds, in clu d in g w oodcock (Scolopax nisticola. Irish n rh a rid '1’ snipe (Gallinago gallinago, Irish ndesctt)d1' wild d uck (Anas platyrliynclws etc., Irish lachu).]'u a n d re d g ro u se (I.agopus scotinis. Irish cm , McCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland', 189. l8 6 0 ’Keeffe, ‘Cáin üomnaig', 206 § 24. 1 8 7 Bergin, ‘Irish grammatical tracts: II Declension’, 50.270 § 6 selgarfáechnaib. l88M e \ e r , Sanas (Unman. 6 2 § 780; cl. hill m e n . /'n, Inn s,\, gtaratlan: D w e l h . / n r tan s.v. gioradan. 189IJsIA B-9 s.v. bairenn. Bairnech is cognate with Welsh brenigen, Breton brenniken of the same meaning. l9 0 Hencken, ‘Lagore crannóg', 229; McCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Ireland’, 188 and table 6.4. 1 9 1 Harbison, High Crosses i 39 (discussion); i 376-7 (dating); ii fig. 107 (photograph). l9 2 E.g. O ’Keeffe, Buile Suibne, 40.1124; 55.1548. , 9 3 E.g. Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 85 § 986. l94Many kinds of wild duck are found in Ireland, of which the commonest is the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). 18

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F ig . 15. W h a t is probabl-y a re p r e s e n ta tio n of a h u n tin g scene on a n in th -c e n tu rp h igh cro ss a t C a stle d e rm o t, C o. K ild a re . Turn h u n ts m e n p u r s u e a h oar (to p le f t) , a n u n id e n tifie d a n im a l (m id d le le f t) , a h a r e (m id d le r ig h t ) an d a deer (bo tto m r ig h t ) . T h e a n im a l fa c in g th e s p e a r -c a r r y in g h u n te r on th e bottom le ft is probably) h is dog. O n th e top r ig h t is a r e p r e s e n ta tio n of a la r g e b ird , po3siblp a sruan or goose.

froich, m a le cailech froich). A cco rd in g to G iraldus C am brensis, g ro u se (L atin grutae) w ere few a n d r a th e r sm all in Ire la n d .195 In th e O ld Irish sagas, various w arrio rs a re p o rtray ed as h u n tin g th e gris. a b ird n o ta b le for its w hite p lu m ag e an d generally taken to b e a sw an.196 It is th o u g h t th a t th e m u te swan ( Cygnus olor) is a po st-N o rm an in tro d u c tio n , so it seem s m ost likely th a t géis is to be id e n tifie d w ith th e w h o o p e r swan (Cygnus cyguis). A n o th er O ld Irish te rm fo r swan is ela,19/ w hich seem s also to be used o f th e w h o o p e r swan, as a Life o f S ain t C olm án refers to these birds sin g in g to his m o n k s as they c o n stru c te d a causeway.198 V arious species o f wild goose w in ter o n Irish coasts, an d m ust have b e e n a useful so u rce o f m eat to those living nearby. O ld a n d M iddle Irish texts distin g u ish th e g ig a n n a n d the cnuth (later radium) ,199

' " O ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, AX § 10 = Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, 47.5. E.g. TBC Rec. I 24.781. The phrase gilithir géis ‘as white as a gas’ is well attested: see DIL s.v. 1 géis. 1 9 7 E.g. Thes ii 47.19 cygnis ,i. elaib. I98pium m er, Bethada i 172 § iii (15); trans, ii 166 dothiccdis eladha gacha trâlha do chantain duil doibh ‘swans used to come every hour to sing to them ’. '" F o r example, the two terms are distinguished in the YBL version of Cormac's Glos­ sary (Meyer, Sanas Connais, 29 § 334; 60 § 709), and in the King and Hermit dialogue (Murphy, Early Irish lyrics, 16 (poem 8 ) § 25). 196

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O n d u 1basis of m odi rn usugc. 11 11it* loi moi is gcncrtillv itlt*ntifit*cl with the baritui le goose ( liianta Irumjisis) ~ 1 an d till' lallt'i with the b ren t goose (llianlu h m iid a ). I lie shellfish l.rfms anatijeui ‘goose b arn acle ' not niallv lives attach ed to boats an d driftw ood: it bears a certain resem blance to th e b arn ai le goose, and in m ain languages goes bv th e sam e n a i n e .'1’ It was w ideh h e ld in m edieval tim es that goose barnacles w ere th e voting of b arn a c le geese. In his Jo/ioguif/h) aj In-land G iraldus Gam bi ensis rep eats this theory, a n d reniai ks that in som e parts o f Irelan d bishops an d religious m en ate b arn acle geese d u rin g tim es of fasting on th e gt m in d s that tliev were not classified as flesh m eat.20201203 In O ld a n d M iddle Irish texts, the word géd is attested onlv in relatio n to the d o m estii goose (see p. Idol, but it is likelv th at - as in th e later language - géd /iadrtin ‘wild g< » >se was ap p lied to th e grev-lag goose (Ansn ause/ > an d o th e r grev geese. G iraldus co m m en ts o n th e ab sen ce o f p a rtrid g e s a n d p h easan ts.204* H e is d o u b tless c o rre c t a b o u t th e p h e a sa n t (Phasianus colchicus), w hich is a post-N o rm an in tro d u c tio n , b u t the p artrid g e (Perdix perdix) may be n ative.21” H e states also that the quail (Coturnix coturnix) is p le n tifu l.206207 H is ac c o u n t o f an ab u n d a n c e o f wild peacocks (Latin fmvoncs) in th e w oods has been taken as a re fe re n ce to th e capercaillie ( Tetrao urogalltis)r" T h e m ale o f this large g rouse - alm ost as big as a turkev - has a glossv blue-green b reast som ew hat sim ilar to th a t o f a peacock. T h e fem ale is considerably sm aller. T his b ird is know n to have b e e n co m m o n in th e w oods of Irelan d an d S cotland u n til h u n tin g and loss of habitat b ro u g h t ab o u t its ex tin ctio n in b o th co u n tries in

200Dictionaries and word-lists of Modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic sometimes give conflicting translations. For example, Dwelly (Faclair) translates both giodhran and cathan as 'barnacle goose’. The Irish surname O Cadhain is likewise sometimes anglicized Barnacle. 2 0 1 E.g. Dinneen, Foclóir s.v. giúghrann. The Welsh cognate gwyran is also well attested in the same meaning ( CPC s.v. guyran; VKG i 101-2). 202For example, Scottish Gaelic giodhran means both ‘barnacle’ and 'barnacle goose’ (Dwelly, Faclair s.v.). 2 0 3 O ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 41-2 § 1 1 = Dimock, Giratdi Topographia, 47-8. 2 0 4 O ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 47 § 17 = Dimock, Giraidi Topographia, 56.15-16. 205yan Wijngaarden-Bakker, ‘The animal remains from Newgrange (1)’, 359. 20f>o’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 41 § 10 = Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, 47.11. 2 0 7 O ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 41 § 10 = Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, 47.4.

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th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry .208 In S cotlan d it b o re th e e x trao rd in ary n am e capull coille ‘h o rse o f th e w o o d ’, possibly o n a cco u n t o f the c lo p p in g noises m ad e by th e m ales at th e ir display. T his was b o rro w e d in to Scots as capercaillie, capercailye, etc., the earliest attestatio n b e in g in 1530.209 G era rd M u rp h \ m ust be co rre c t in taking Irish cailech feda 'cock of th e w o o d ’ to re fe r to th e cap ercaillie.210 T h e only o th e r w oodland gro u se native to th ese islands is th e black g rouse (Lyrurus tetrix), b u t it is believed th a t it n ev er e x te n d e d its ra n g e to Ire la n d .211 T he id en tificatio n of caileth feda w ith th e capercaillie is also su p p o rted by a s h o rt O ld Irish passage a ttrib u te d to F lan n F in a.212 In answ er to th e q u e stio n ‘W ho a re th e p ro u d e s t you have m et?’, th e reply is given: ‘th e m e n o f M uskerry a n d cocks o f th e w o o d ’ (Múscraige 7 coiligh fedha). T his suits th e c h a ra c te r o f th e cock capercaillie, w ho d e fe n d s his te rrito ry with ex cep tio n al b oldness, an d will attack h u m a n b ein g s as well as o th e r birds. G ro u p s o f capercaillie cocks also en g ag e in a co m p licated ritu al p rio r to m atin g , in w hich each o n e d i s p k n s form alized aggressive p o stu re s.“1' In av erse preserved in c o m m e n ta ry to th e Amrae Choluimb Chille, th e c e leb rated lover D iarm ait re c o m m e n d s to th e b eau tifu l G ráin n e the flesh o f the cailech feda, tak en w ith a d ro p o f m e a d .214*

Trapping T h e legal aspects o f b ird -tra p p in g a re d ealt w ith in the law-text Bret ha Forma ‘ju d g e m e n ts of tra p p in g ’, which is also re fe rred to as Bretha Sen Forma ju d g e m e n ts re la tin g to n ets fo r tra p p in g ’ and Sénbretha ‘n e t-ju d g e m e n ts’.213 T his tex t has n o t survived, b u t is pro b ab ly th e so u rce o f two q u o ta tio n s in O ’D avoren’s Glossary,216 A sh o rt c o m m e n ta ry o n tra p p in g b ird s o n a n o th e r p e rs o n ’s

208Ussher and Warren, Birds of Ireland, 230. It was successfully reintroduced to Scot­ land from Sweden in 1837 (Fraser Darling, Natural history in the Highlands and Islands, 75-6). 2U 9 Craigie, et al., A dictionary of the older Scottish longue s.v. capercailye. 210See G. Murphy, Duanaire Finn iii, glossary, 240 s.v. coileach feadha; Fox and Kelly, ‘Capercaillie in Ireland’. 211Ussher and Warren, Birds of Ireland, 230-1. 2 1 2 Meyer, Tecosca Cormaic, Preface vi-vii. 213Fraser Darling, Natural history in the Highlands and Islands, 132. 2 1 4 Stokes, ‘The Bodleian Amra’, 264 § 73. 2!5For references, see GEIL 276 § 52. sie d H iv 1502.15; 1526.1-2 = O ’Dav. 355 § 932; 460 § 1480.

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pro p erty is also based o n this te x t.-1' I he c o m m en tai \ bus down d etailed regulations on th e division of a b ird s flesh an d feathers betw een th e tra p p e r an d th e landow ner. 1 he p ro p o rtio n d e p e n d s on w h e th e r th e tra p p e r has secu red perm ission o r not, an d on w h e th e r th e lan d o w n er is a king, lord, c o m m o n e r o r the C hurch. T h e h ig h e r th e rank, th e low er th e p ro p o rtio n re ta in e d by the trap p er. In th e case of tra p p in g on c h u rc h lan d w ithout perm ission, the tra p p e r must d o forty nights p e n a n c e , as well as su rre n d e rin g two th ird s of th e b ird s flesh an d all its feathers, b u t if he has secu red perm issio n , h e only s u rre n d e rs o n e th ird of the flesh a n d two th ird s o f th e feathers. It is clear fro m th e seco n d q u o ta tio n p re se rv e d in O'Davoren’s Glossary th at th e re is n o penalty for tra p p in g a very small bird ( mntn ta )p * o r two birds h eld to be n u isan ce, i.e. a h e ro n ( con )_1 1 o r a hawk {sag). See u n d e r ‘h aw king’ below.

Hunting with missiles T h e re are som e referen ces in th e sagas to th e h u n tin g of bird s with missiles, usually stones released from a sling ( taihnI." " For exam ple, Ctt C h u lain n is re p re se n te d as having stu n n e d twenty wild swans bv this m e t h o d . I n a n o th e r saga. C ano m ac C a rtn á in unsuccessfully a tte m p te d to hit swans a n d wild d u ck :-" in this case it is n o t clear w hat so rt o f missile was u sed - it may have b e e n a spear. In a series o f glossed q u o ta tio n s o n various legal topics, we find the p h rase cuurhur la cuirr, w hich may m ean ‘a shot after a h e ro n (o r c ra n e ) ’.223

Hawking T h e use o f tra in e d haw’ks a n d o th e r ra p to rs to catch gam e-birds was probably in tro d u c e d to E n g lan d from F ran ce d u rin g th e n in th century. A fter th e N o rm an invasion, haw king b ecam e increasingly p o p u la r am o n g th e aristocracies ot E n g lan d . S cotland, an d Wales.2178*03 C/Hvi 2108.24-9. 218Minuta (also minnlnn) is used of any small bird, but particularly tits (Paridae). 217

21!,See p. 125. 2 2 0 Knott, Togail Bruidne Da Derga, 4.132; Dillon, Serglige Con Culainn, 3.64. Another word for sling is táball: see Bauersfeld, 'Die Kriegsalterümer’, 305-8, for a discussion of possible differences between a tailm and a lábalL 2 2 1 TBC Rec. 1 24.V85-7. 2 2 2 Binchy, Scéla Cano, 6.150-7.171. 223 CIH iii 786.15-16. See p. 125 above for a discussion of the meanings of corr.

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T his is re fle c ted in th e laws o f these cou n tries; for exam ple, th irte e n th -c e n tu ry W elsh law-texts c o n ta in provisions aim ed at p ro te c tin g haw ks,-“ * a n d devote m uch a tte n tio n to the rights and d u ties o f th e royal falco n er.225 T h e re is n o clear evidence o f haw king in O ld Irish texts, an d it m ust he significant th at th e h ero es o f th e eighth- an d nin th -cen tu ry sagas are generally p o rtray ed as hav ing h o u n d s b u t not hawks. It is only la te r that th e h u n tin g hawk m akes its defin ite ap p earan ce in Irish lite ra tu re , as fo r ex am p le in th e tw elfth-century Life o f Saint C o lm án m ac L ú ach áin w here th e re is a re fe re n ce to two h u n tin g hawks (da seabac seiger2'’) b elo n g in g to a king.22' Early Irish law clearh re g a rd e d th e hawk as verm in to be e x te rm in a te d ra th e r than an asset to be p ro te c te d . Anybody is legally en titled to trap a hawk {säg) - even o n a n o th e r p e rs o n ’s la n d w ith o u t perm ission. A glos­ sator explains th a t this is becau se o f th e haw k’s d ep re d a tio n s on y o u n g pigs a n d h e n s .228 See p. 189 above. W riting in th e late tw elfth century, G iraldus C am brensis rem arks o n th e a b u n d a n c e o f hawks a n d falcons in Ire la n d ,229 and th e re a re m any re fe re n ce s to th e use o f ra p to rs fo r haw king in po st-N o rm an d o c u m e n ts. F or exam p le, th e fo u rteen th -cen tu ry Red Book o f O rm o n d m e n tio n s th e sparrow haw k (speruanus), the goshaw k (ostorus), a n d th e osprey (m il« ) . 230 A fifteenth-century m edical m a n u sc rip t in Irish co n tain s a draw ing o f two m en (w earing crow ns), o n e o f w hom has a hawk o n his arm . Nearby, th e re is a d o g a n d a tre e w ith th re e birds in it.231

2 2 ’Williams and Powell, Llyfr Blegywryd, 114.10 = ALIW, Dimetian Code, II viii § 37. 225Williams and Powell, Llyfr Blegyutryd, 13.21—14.31 = ALIW, Dimetian Code, I xiii §§ 1-15; Wiliam, Llyfr Iorwerth, 7-8 § 9 = ALIW, Venedotian Code, I x §§ 1-18. For the legal situation in medieval Scotland, see Gilbert, Hunting, 68-72. 226The word seboc seems to be an early borrowing from Old English heafoc ‘hawk’, perhaps via Welsh, LEIA S-59—60. 2 2 7 Meyer, Betha Colmáin, 44.6-7 § 45. The translation offidchúach as ‘falcon’ at Meid, Tâin BóFraích, 13.329, is uncertain. 228CIH iv 1526.1-2 = O ’Dav. 460 § 1480. 2 2 9 0 ’Meara, Giraldus: Topography, 38 § 8 = Dimock, Giraldi Topographia, 34.16. 2 3 0 N. B. White, The Red Book of Ormond, 183— 4 (Appendix to Index). 2 3 1 King’s Inns MS 17 f. l v (De Brún, Catalogue of Irish manuscripts in King’s Inns Library, 45-9).

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H un tin g and gathering G athering

As in th e rase of h u n tin g an d fowling, th e re are legal restrictio n s on gath erin g . N orm ally, it is an o ffen ce to g a th e r wild fru it o r h erb s o n a n o th e r p e rs o n ’s lan d . It is stated in an O ld Irish law-text th a t a fine - w hich later glossators take to be five sets - must be p aid foi taking wild garlic, seaw eed o r wild apples if they are privately o w n ed .232 A cco rd in g to a tw elfth-century co m m e n ta to r o n this text, a d iffe re n t fine (éraic bairr ‘paym ent o f tree -to p ’) is d u e if th e fru it is p icked from th e trees ra th e r th an from th e g ro u n d .233 It seem s likely th a t this w ould be a heavier fine, th o u g h this is not m ade clear in th e c o m m en tai v. In certain circum stances, private ow n ersh ip m u st give way to u rg e n t need. For exam ple, am law-abiding p erso n iie /h t) is en title d to g a th e r m ed icin al h erb s re q u ire d by an invalid, w h erever they mav grow .231 Similarly, a h u n g ry p e rso n tna\ take a h an d fu l of hazel-nuts from a privately-ow ned w o o d.233 O n co m m o n lan d a law-abiding p erso n usually has u n re stric te d rights o f g ath erin g . T h e re is a g en eral e n title m e n t to 'th e pickings o f any w ood' (rmia.s each feda) proxicled - as a glossator po in ts out it is n o t a prixate w o o d .2 A sim ilar e n title m e n t to g a th e r wild garlic on co m m o n lan d is also m e n tio n e d .2 " But exen on co m m o n land, th ere is evidence that private oxvnership could be established - p e r­ haps only tem porarily - on a crp. T h e law-text on d istraint refers to ‘an a p p ro p ria te d tree w hich is in th e w ilderness' 2 s Acc o rd in g to o n e o f th e glosses on this passage, th e tree max liaxe b een a p p ro ­ p riated becau se o f its fine fru it.239 T h e re is a h in t in a gloss on a n o th e r text that th e a p p ro p ria tio n o f wild ap p les max liax e b een th e prerogative o f a king o r lo r d .240 T h e evidence in die law-texts with re g a rd to the ow nership o f sea­ w eed is sim ilarly am biguous, an d is m ad e exen m ore difficult to in te rp re t becau se o f th e various uses to xvhich seaxveeds are put: ( lit i 238.31 = A L v 474.1 trim feam fiadubull dia rotêchtaidter. C ///v 1874.9-10. - 3 4 C /// i 242.17-18 = AI. v 486.12-13 losa bro\lh}chdin cacha muige ‘herbs for [an invalid’s] broth from every plain'. 2 2 ('.Il! ii 571.2-3 = Binchy, ‘An archaic legal poem ’, 157.45— 8. 2 3 6 077 i 241.22 = AL v 482.26. -3/ C1H i 241.20 - AI. v 482.23 crim allda .i. amd hi techtugud. 2 3 8 CIH ii 395.23 - AL i 202.2— 3 irn crand ngabäla bis i ndithrib. 239CIH iii 892.7 is crand co mines cain. I find the other glosses difficult to understand m CIH i 238.34-239.1 = AL v 474.16-17. 233

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h u m a n food, anim al fodder, a n d soil fertilizer. In practice it seems likely th a t - as today - local custom g o v ern ed th e use o f seaweed, with d iffe re n t co n v e n d o n s fo r seaw eed cast u p o n th e stran d , sea­ w eed grow ing o n rocks expo sed .it low tide, an d seaweed in d e e p e r w ater.-’ 11 T h e re is a g e n e ra l e n title m e n t to th e seaw eed o f every stran d {Jem cacha trachta) a n d th e dulse o f every ro ck (duilix cacha emerge) ,241242 th o u g h a glossator adds th e caveat in b o th cases th a t this does n o t apply if th e re is private ow nership. A re fe re n ce in a law-text o n landvalue also suggests that seaw eed could be privately ow ned. T hus the p re se n c e o f a ‘p ro d u ctiv e ro c k ’ adds th re e cows to th e value o f the ad ja c e n t la n d -h o ld in g .243 L ater c o m m e n ta ry places a low er value o n access to seaw eed, stating th a t it is a ‘cow’ for a productive rock fro m w hich dulse o r [o th e r] seaw eed is c u t’.244 O u r sources devote a g o o d deal o f a tte n tio n to th e g ath erin g o f n u ts a n d wild fruit, g enerally re fe rre d to collectively as mess. A cco rd in g to th e wisdom -texts, a g o o d c ro p on th e trees is o n e o f th e signs o f a ju s t ru ler. H en ce, th e seventh-century Audacht M orainn states ‘it is th ro u g h th e ju stic e o f th e ru le r th at a b u n d a n c e s o f g re a t tree-fru it o f th e g reat w ood are ta ste d ’.245* Conversely, a r u le r ’s injustice is believed to cause failure o f tre e -fru it." 111 T h e an n als regularly re c o rd years in w hich th e tree-fruit was p articu larly a b u n d a n t, som etim es d istin g u ish in g th e nut-crop ( cnómess) fo r h u m a n co n su m p tio n fro m th e aco rn -cro p (daurmess) fo r pig s.247 T h u s th e Annals o f Ulster re c o rd th a t in th e year 835 th e re was such a heavy c ro p o f n u ts an d aco rn s th a t th e stream s w ere d a m m e d u p a n d ceased to flow.248 In an e n try in the

241 For law-cases involving the cu ttin g or gatherin g o f seaw eed in n in eteen th - and tw entieth-century Ireland, see O sborough, ‘Rom an law in Ireland’, 260-4. 242 CIH i 2 4 1 .2 5 -6 = AL v 4 8 2.30-484.1. 243CIH ii 676.9 - Mac N iocaill, ‘Tírcumaile', 82.36. 244 CIH iii 97 2 .2 7 = A pp en d ix A, text 6 § 3. 245Kelly, Audacht Morainn, 6 § 17 Is Ire fir flalhemon ad- manna mármeso rnárfedo -mlasetar. Cf. Meyer, Tecosca Cormaic, 2 § 1.22 mess for crannaib ‘fruit on trees’. 246CIH i 219.18 = AL iv 52.8 millead measa ‘destruction o f tree-fruit’. 247S ee p. 83. 2WAU 2 294 s.a. 835 (recte 836) § 8 Mes mör Her cnômes y daurmes 7 ro iadh glasa cor ansat di riulh. Cf. AU 2 504 s.a. 1066 § 3 Cnomhes mûri nErinn uile ut rebellat fluminibus ‘a great nut-crop in all Ireland so that it h in d ered the rivers’.

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Annals J Inisjallen, a three-fold d istin ctio n is m ade betw een the acorn-cro p (mess), th e n u t-cro p a n d th e ap p le -c ro p .21,1 Nuts A goo d deal o f th e co u n try sid e tit out pci iod was covered with scrub m ade u p largely of hazel (Con/its avellana. Itish m il). T he nutritio u s an d p alatable nut (nui. nii>) of this tree can be kept for up to a t ear, a n d m ust th e re fo re h a te b een a parti« nituit valuable w inter-food. It is clear th a t th e re was a tra d e in hazel-nuts: th e Annals o f l islet re c o rd that in the te a r 1007 n u ts were so a b u n d a n t that a s e s e d a t i r could be b o u g h t for a p e n n t ( janginn) f '' T his t ear was know n as the ‘t e a r o f th e w hite n u ts' ( hliadain tin t no /inn ). A n o th e r type o f n u t m e n tio n e d in th e law-texts is th e cnó gnáe ‘beautiful n u t', w hich is listed a m o n g th e ta lu a b le s which can be given as p led g es.2’’2 T his is possible a referenc e to the n u ts o f var­ ious tropical plants (especially I n lad a gigas) which a ie b ro u g h t to the coasts o f Ite la n d from th e West Indies bv th e N o rth Atlantic drift. Such n u ts are o f course in ed ib le, b u t have trad itio n ally been prized as ch arm s because o f th e ir attractive a p p e a ra n ce . A legal co m m en tato r, probably w riting in th e twelfth century, puts forw ard the ex p lan atio n th a t these are n u ts which grow o n a tree ‘in the east­ e rn w o rld ’.253 T h e e a ste rn w orld (in domun toir) is a c o m m o n te rm in Irish lite ra tu re for far-off p arts o f th e w orld - viewed o f co urse with a p re-C olum bus perspective. Wild fruit T h e wild fruit m ost frequ en tly m e n tio n e d in out sources is the wild app le (fiadulm ll). B ecause o f its fruit, th e wild ap p le-tree (Malus sylvestris, Irish (Jiad) aball) is in c lu d e d a m o n g th e seven nobles o f th e w o o d ’, i.e. th e seven m o st valuable tre e s.254 A legal co m m e n ta to r classifies co m m o n fruits in to two categories: nim m ‘sw eet’, an d fiadain ‘wild, sour, b itte r ’. H e d istinguishes th e cultivated o r sweet ap p le ( nltall n im m ) Iront th e wild ap p le (iihall fia d a in ), an d th e cultivated p lu m (dim e cumra) fro m th e sloe (dim e fiadain) ,255 2!9 T h e im p o rta n c e o f th e b ilb e rry ( Vaccinium myrtillus) is clear b o th fro m arch aeo lo g ical a n d w ritten evidence. Seeds from this fru it (Irish fraochóg, fráechán, anglicized fraughan, etc.) are fairly c o m m o n in th e excavations o f Viking a n d A nglo-N orm an D u b lin .260 S ources in th e Irish lan g u ag e tre a t th e b ilb erry as a valuable crop: a M iddle Irish tex t o n th e e n title m en ts o f kings refers to fmechmess Brig Léith ‘th e b ilb e rry h arv est o f B ri L e ith ’.261 A n o th e r m e m b e r o f th e H e a th family (Ericaceae) with edible b e rrie s is th e c ra n b e rry ( Vaccinium oxycoccos). It grows on bogs, a n d co n seq u en tly th e Irish n am es fo r its berry, rrumann a n d mónóg, are derivatives o f móin ‘b o g ’. T h e n in th -c e n tu ry King a n d H erm it d ialo g u e lists th ese two b e rrie s to g e th e r: m&nainn derca, derma froich ‘re d c ra n b e rries, b ilb e rrie s’.262 256Cóer (later caor) has the general m ean in g ‘berry’, but h ere is likely to refer to ed ib le berries o f inferior flavour, particularly the rowanberry. 2 'H am lin , ‘T h e archaeology o f the Irish church in the eigh th cen tu ry’, 297. -'^M itchell, Archaeology and environment in early Dublin, 27. 259E.g. Murphy, Early Irish lyrics, 14 (p oem 8) § 22; O ’K eeffe, Buile Suibne, 12.334. For records ou tsid e Ireland, see Zohary and H opf, Domestication ofplants, 195-6. 260M itchell, Archaeology and environment in early Dublin, 25, 27. 261 D illon , ‘T aboos o f the kings o f Ireland’, 8 § 1. For the n am e o f this hill (near A rdagh, Co. L o n g fo rd ), see H ogan, Onomasticon, s.v. Brí léith; E. J. Gwynn, Metrical Dindshenchas v 183 (In d ex). 262Murphy, Early Irish lyrics, 14 § 20. Cf. D illon, Storiesfrom theAcallam, 5.145 mónainn máetha ‘ten d er cranberries'.

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Stones of (lie wild e h e r n (Primus avium) have b een fo u n d in a n u m b e r o f excavations, m ost a b u n d a n tly in th e Late B ro n /e Age stratum at B allin d errv c ra n nóg no. 2.JI" In m \ discussion of th e O ld Irish tree-list, I tentativelv suggest that th e tre e n a m e d idath. w hich is in clu d ed in th e second class of trees, is to be id en tified with the w iId ch erry ."01 1 also suggest that th e n n n n /n, w hich is in clu d ed a m o n g the th ird class, is the ju n ip e r (Juniperus communis) A verse in th e King an d H erm it d ialo g u e may co n tain referen ces to th e fruit o f b o th these trees: niera ihair, idaith, Jn "berries of vew. c lie n t (.'I. ju n ip e r (? ) ’ .266 Wild herbs and roots It is likelv th at a wide ran g e of wild h erb s an d ro o ts w ere eaten in o u r p erio d , particularly in tim es of fam ine, a n d b\ landless p eo p le a t th e m argins o f society. O u r sources c o n c e n tra te o n two wild plants o f eco n o m ic im p o rtan ce: wild garlic an d w atercress. In the saints’ Lives, th e re are som e re fe re n ce s to o th e r p lants, such as nettle an d sorrel, w hose c o n su m p tio n is o ften associated with poverty. T h e re is also in fo rm a tio n o n ed ib le p lan ts in o th e r sources, particularly in n a tu re p o e try an d F enian tales. For exam ple, the n in th -cen tu ry King an d H erm it d ialo g u e idealizes th e life o f a h e rm it in th e w oods a n d pictu res him subsisting on various b erries, h erb s a n d roots. B ut such m aterial m u st b e u sed wdth caution, as th e p o e t’s view o f n a tu re is a ro m a n tic o n e , a n d may n o t always b e based o n reality.26' Criwi268 (W ild garlic) W ild garlic (Allium ursinum) is a fre q u e n t p la n t o f w oods a n d d am p shady places; its usual h a b ita t is re fle c ted in th e fairly co m m o n p lacen am e CremchaiU "garlic w o o d '.'" ' In o u r p erio d ■" 11 ru ck en . ‘B allin d errycran n og n o. 2 ’, 21: cf. H en ck en , ‘Ballinderry cran n óg no.

r , 121. 2l>1Kelly, ‘T h e O ld Irish tree-list’, 115. 21'51bid . 119. -l!0Murphy, Early Irish lyrics, 12 § 15. T h e MS has coera iob- caora fir with no fidhuiit in the margin; 1 discuss M urphy’s and my em en d ation s in Kelly, ‘T h e O ld Irish tree-list’, 1 15. -''’'For a general discussion o f this poetical g en re, see Ó Corráin, ‘Early Irish nature poetry?’. i68Crim ( crem, craum) is cogn ate with m edieval W elsh rraf, O ld B reton cram o f the sam e m ean ing, ! .EIA C-229 s.v. crem, 269H ogan , Onomaslicon, s.v. CremchaiU, N. W illiams, Diolaim luihheanna, 47.

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it was evidently re g a rd e d as p articu larly im p o rta n t, as it is specifically m e n tio n e d in th e law-text Di Astud Chirt y D ligidP 0 As in la te r dm es, wild garlic m ay have b e e n p rized fo r its m edicinal p ro p ertie s. A c lie n t is o b lig ed to pro v id e an a n n u a l crimfeis, ‘garlic feast’, fo r his lo rd .- ' 1 If he fails to d o so, h e m u st pay his lo rd a fine o f th ree sets. J u d g in g fro m la te r glosses, it seem s th a t this feast consisted o f garlic w ith ch eese a n d m ilk, an d th at it took place before Easter (ar cháiscc) .270*272 It is im p licit in a n o th e r legal c o m m en tary th a t the garlic feast is a ra th e r low-kev affair, as th e lord is acco m p an ied by only th re e re ta in e rs .273*2756 Biror1 4 (W atercress) W atercress (Ronppa nasturtium-aquaticum) features in ascetic diets - see p. 344 - a n d is m e n tio n e d w ith special freq u en c y in th e tw elth-century p o e try a ttrib u te d to S u ib n e G eilt. H e addresses this p la n t in th e following term s: a bhiorair, a barrghlasáin do bhrú thobair luin ‘o w atercress, o g re e n -to p p e d o n e fro m th e e d g e o f th e b la c k b ird ’s w ell'.27'’ In a n o th e r p o e m h e alludes to th e fact th a t w atercress co ntinues to grow o n in th e w inter: sásadh biorair bairrghlais búain, deogh uisge fliú a ir a glais ghlain ‘a m eal o f g re e n -to p p e d lo nglasting w atercress, a d rin k o f cold w ater fro m a p u re stre a m ’.27

270cm i 238.31 = AL V 474.1; C1H i 241.20 = AI. v 482.23. - 7I CIH V 1910.24-6; cf. CIH ii 498.25 = AL ii 326.7. See a b rief discussion by Carey, ‘S eq u en ce and cau sation ’, 72. 212CIH iii 918.38. 273CIH iv 1269.1-2. 27*Biror (later hilar) is cogn ate with W elsh berwr, Breton beler o f the sam e m eaning, LEIA B-52. 275O K e e ffe , Buile Suibne, 35.982—3. 276Ibid. 6 4 .1 8 1 3 -1 4 .

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F o c h l o c h t (B rooklim e)

Manx1texts ic ie r to fix him hi (also jut hint III )." w hich is som etim es id entified with th e co m m o n ed ib le w ater-plant b ro o k lim e ( Yet-nnica herrahunga) ."’7M T his identificatio n is su p p o rte d In the- re le re n c e in Huile Suihne to Jotliliidit /anu /uda long p ro stra te lo tb lo c b t . A less satisfactory identification"*" is with lesset w atei-parsnip t /in u la erecta = Sium cu rtu m ), w hich is irecjnent in east-c e n ti al Irelan d , a n d occasional elsew h ere." *1 1lowever, th e re ap p eal to be no i ec o rd s of this plant b ein g eaten , an d it is re p o rte d as b e in g a skin-in itant." F u rth e rm o re , its m o d e of grow th is not p ro strate, as in d ieated in the Bui le Sui hue referen ce q u o te d alx >ve. ( »real w ater-pai snip ( Smm lat­ ifolium) is also an unlikely id en tificatio n as it is said to be poisonous, a n d to have caused th e d e a th o f c a ttle .2 728*01283284* Fochlocht was o f sufficient im p o rta n c e as a fo o d stu ff to featu re in a proverbial expression q u o te d in th e law-text B otha \ernnl Foisech.">81 T h e co n tex t refers to th e relatio n sh ip of a k in -m em b er with a prom iscu o u s w om an, as a result ( w hich a child of d< m btiul p atern ity may gain e n try in to th e kin-g ro u p . Such a ch ild is d escrib ed m e tap h o ricalh as âth i fat hint ht. T his m e ta p h o r seem s to refer to a poiso n o u s p lan t g a th e re d alo n g with ed ib le plants. I believe that nth refers h e re to w ater-diopw ort [Oenantlu ). a g en u s which grows in sim ilar situations to b ro o k lim e ."* 1 W ater-dropw orts are poiso n o u s - especially h em lo ck water-di opw ort ( Oenanthe 277T h e etym ology is unknow n. T h e Scottish G aelic form is fotachdan, ex p la in ed by Dwelly, Faclair, as ‘water-salad, water-parsnip (Slum augustifolium) 278E.g. N. W illiams, Diolaim luibheanna, 100. Its edibility is discussed - w ithout m uch enthusiasm - by Mabey, Foodfor free, 133-4. ""'■O’Keeffe, Buile Suibne 12.331. It is clear from this passage that fothlochi is a fresh­ water plant, and cannot be the seaw eed laver ( Poiphyra umbilicalis), as su ggested by C ecile O ’R ahillyat TBC Rec. I 258 (n ote to 11. 1 1 7 1 -4 ). 280 See DIL s.v. fochlocht. 281 Webb, An Irish flora, 71. 282M itchell and Rook, Botanical dermatology. 707. 283Forsyth, British poisonous plants, 43. 284 CIH vi 2230.3. Cf. CIH vi 2116.4 = D illon, ‘Stories from the law-tracts’. 48. 283Glossators explain dth (áith) as áthaba ( áithaba), e.g. CIH vi 2116.8; iv 1139.12. Cf. Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 7 § 63 (where there is a referen ce to th e deadly nature o f the plant); 87.21 § 1018. T h e secon d elem en t o f áthaba is probably the gen . sing, o f ab ‘stream ’. In the later language, it m aybe p reced ed by t- or dr, e.g. D in n een , Fodóir, s.v. dáthabha, tálhabha (see Marstrander, ‘Review o f Lexique: A (ed. V en d ryes)’, 225 s.v. álhaba). T h e word has b een equated with deadly n igh tsh ade (Atropa bella-donna), and h elleb ore (Helleborus foetidus, Helleborus viridis) as w ell as water-dropwort: see Beckett, Fealsúnacht Aodha Mhic Dhomhnaill, 269. N. W illiam s takes it to refer h ere to

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crocata) - so if a p la n t b ecam e m ix ed u p in a b asket o f brooklim e, th e resu lt m ig h t be fatal. H en c e th e proverbial expression ‘w ater-d ro p w o rt in b ro o k lim e ’. O ther wild plants T h e sain ts’ Lives c o n ta in a n u m b e r o f referen ces to th e co nsum p­ tion o f n e td e ( Urtica dioica, Irish nenaid, nenntóc) a n d sorrel (Rumex acetosa, Irish sam ad). F or exam ple, it is claim ed in a M iddle Irish File ol Saint C ó em g en that he lived fo r seven vearsw ith no food but n e td e a n d s o rre l.286 In a n o th e r Life o f this saint, h e is said to have h a d m iracu lo u s access to a supply o f wild garlic, so rrel an d o th e r ed ib le h e rb s th ro u g h o u t th e year.287 H e re th e w ord used for sorrel is selgán,288* 1 he tw elfth-centurv tale Buile Suibne1*'1 gives a list o f edible plants, w hich in clu d es w ood-sorrel ( Oxalis acetosella, Irish simsán, simsóg). B ecause it has th re e leaves, th e te rm semar (semróc) was som etim es ap p lied t,KRack ham, The history of the countryside, 65-7. 2 0 9 CIFl ii 676.8 = Mac Niocaill, ' Tír cumaile', 82.35.

Roads

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cattle-p o n d {geleslar) o r to a n o th e r piece o f lan d o r to a highway, a two-year-old h e ife r is a d d e d to th e value. A n o th e r law-text d istinguishes five categories o f ro a d .210 They are - in d e sc e n d in g o rd e r o f im p o rta n c e - highway (slige), road (root) , ' 11 b yroad (láinraite). cu rv ed ro ad ( tógraite), an d cow-track (bótlm r). T h e highw ay is th e w idest o f these roads: it m ust be co n ­ stru c te d so th at two chario ts (each draw n by two horses) can pass. At th e o th e r e n d o f th e scale, th e cow-track m ust fit two cows, o n e sideways a n d o n e lengthw ays. T h e a u th o r o f th e text points o u t that if th e track is n a rro w e r th a n this, a cow’s calf a n d yearling can n o t fit besid e her. a n d so may be c ru sh e d by th e cow w hich is following. O u r sources stress th e political as well as th e eco n o m ic signifi­ cance o f th e road-svstem . M ajor roads are regularly associated with kings. A law-text lavs dow n th e g en eral p rin cip le ‘to every king his r o a d ',212 an d legal c o m m e n ta ry gives th e th re e ‘lan d s’ o f a king as 'a ro a d , u n s h a re d lan d , a n d th e sea’.213 T h e c o n stru ctio n an d m a in te n a n c e o f ro ad s is often m e n tio n e d as a public duty. T h e sev en th -cen tu ry Life o f Saint Brigil by C ogitosus describes how a king issued an edict to th e various p eo p les {túathá) u n d e r his co n tro l th at thev sh o u ld c o n stru c t a firm wide ro ad - partly over boggy ter­ rain - with a fo u n d a tio n o f b ran ch es, rocks an d e a rth . It was to be capable o f b e a rin g th e w eight o f chariots, m o u n te d horses, wagonwheels, a n d ru sh in g p e o p le .214* A text o n th e law o f n e ig h b o u rh o o d specifies th at local clien t farm ers are responsible for clearing the roads at th e tim e o f w inter-visiting (cóe) by lords, a n d at the tim e o f an assem bly (óenach)r >:‘ A ccording to the text on roads, this clearin g consists o f digging o u t th e ditches o n e ith e r side, filling in p o th o les, a n d cu ttin g away b u sh e s.216 R oadside fences m ust also be m ain tain e d : p resum ably each fa rm e r is respo n sib le for the fence 2 1 0 C1H iii 893.22-30 = Appendix A, te x t4 § 1. Cormac ’s Glossary of c.900 gives seven categories (Meyer, Sanas Cnrmair, 96 tj 1082): set, rout, rnmat, slige, lámrotae, túagrotae, and bóthar. In this list rámat is classed as a type of road or way, but elsewhere it is used of the clearing in front of a king’s fort. For discussion of the meanings o f rámal, see Appendix A, p. 543. 2 1 1 Rout may be used as a general term for any sort o f road or track, or - as here - for a secondary road. 2 1 2 C //i i 293.8 = AL iii 304.25 each rig a rarnul. 21 2 CIH ii 455.27-30 = BB 171, Appendix 1 (g); cf. C1H v 1549.36-7 mac for rot, righ a dire ‘a child on the road, the fine [for his death] belongs to the king’. 214Connolly and Picard, ‘Cogitosus: Life o f Saint Brigit’, 23 § 30. 2 k CIH i 201.40-202.1; ii 580.7-9 = AL iv 144.23-5. 2 1 6 CIH iii 893.32-3 = Appendix A, text 4 § 2.

392

Farm Lay-out

ab u ttin g on his own property. F ailure to ca rry o u t these d u ties incurs a fine, stated in th e legal glosses to be hve sets.21' R eferen ce is also m ad e to private ro ad s n o t u n d e r the c o n tro l o f the king. T h u s th e text on road s acco u n ts for the c u rv ed ro ad ( tógraite) in th e follow ing term s: ‘a well-off m an h ires aw ay (conar) tow ards a w ood(?) o r m o u n ta in ’. T h o se w ho use this ro u te m ust pay a toll o f o n e an im al every seco n d year.21* In such cases, the duty o f m a in te n a n c e may p e rh ap s fall o n th e clients o f the ow ner o f the ro ad , a n d th e fine fo r failure to ca rry (rut this work w ould be paid to him . T rad itio n relatin g to various im p o rta n t ro ad s has b een p reserv ed in m any texts. F or exam ple, th e Triads o f Ireland lists th re e m ajor highways21728219201 an d th e Metrical Dindshenchas lists five.22" T h e great highway (Slige M ár) is re p u te d to h at e follow ed th e line o f eskers (Eiscir Riata) across th e cen tral plain from D ublin to Gal wav.22' Causeways T h e extensive bogs o f c e n tra l a n d w estern Ire la n d w ere a serious im p e d im e n t to tra n sp o rt a n d co m m u n icatio n . It was th erefo re o ften necessarv to c o n stru c t a causewav (tóchar) across such te rra in .222 A n u m b e r o f th ese have b e e n excavated byarchaeologists. F or exam ple, a causewav o f a b o u t o n e k ilo m etre in len g th was fo u n d d u rin g tu rf-cu ttin g at C orlea, Co. L o n gford, a n d has b ee n d a te d to a b o u t 150 BC. It was m ad e o f logs o f oak laid on to p o f bru sh w o o d , a n d w ould have b e e n capab le o f su p p o rtin g w heeled vehicles.223 T h e O ld Irish m ythological tale Tochmarc Etaine co n tain s an ac c o u n t o f th e c o n stru c tio n o f a causeway over th e Bog o f Lam raige, w hich h a d rep u ted ly n ev er b e e n crossed before. In 2 1 7 C'///i 239.15 (andgloss) = A/.v474.12; CIH ii 368.31 = AL i 122.14; CIH ii 381.30 = AL i 156.27-8; CIH ii 401.13-14 (and gloss11) = AL i 230.23. 2 1 8 C//7 iii 893.27-8 = Appendix A, text 4 § 1 (4). 2 1 9 Meyer, Triads, 6 § 49. 2 2 0 E. |. Gwynn, Metrical Dindshenchas iii 278.41; cf. Vendryes, Airne Fingein, 9.121-11.137. 2 2 1 E. J. Gwynn, Metrical Dindshenchas iii 282.89-92. For a general discussion, see O Lochlainn, ‘Roadways in ancient Ireland'. The geological term esker (from Irish eiscir) refers to the winding gravel ridges left by the retreat of the ice cap: see Quin and Freeman, ‘Some Irish topographical term s’, 85-7. 222The element tóchar is common in placenames; see Hogan, Onomasticon, s.v. tóchar. See also Lucas, ‘Toghers or causeways’; Raftery, Trackways through time. 2 2 3 Mitchell, Reading the Irish landscape, 148.

Roads

393

this case th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e causeway consisted o f tree-trunks a n d b ra n c h e s, over w hich layers o f clay, gravel a n d stones were p la c e d .-' 1 A ccording to c o m m e n ta ry o n th e law-text on status. Vrai recht Beer, th e ability- to c o n stru c t a causeway adds two cows to th e h o n o u r-p ric e o f a m aster w rig h t.224225 B ridges In n o rm a l c o n d itio n s it is possible for vehicles a n d ped estrian s to cross m anv rivers at a fo rd (dth) w here th e riverbed is firm a n d the w ater shallow. T h e crossing can be m ad e easier by b u ild in g up the riv erb ed w ith stones, planks o r h u rd les. T h u s th e fo rd at D ublin was called Ath Cliath 'th e fo rd o f th e h u rd le s ’ from early tim es. T his was doubtless becau se h u rd le s w ere placed horizontally on the riverbed to p ro rid e a co n v e n ie n t p a th fo r th o se crossing.226278 A brid g e ( droichet ) req u ires fairly sophisticated technology' if it is to span a river o f anv w idth. Recently, oak tim bers from a massive brid g e sp a n n in g th e S h a n n o n have b een discovered at C lonm acnois, a n d have b een d a te d by d en d ro ch ro n o lo g y ’ to c.800.22' T he seventh -cen tu rv law-text o n w aterm ills speaks o f ‘the regulations relatin g to a b rid g e ’ (cáin droichit)229 a n d o f ‘th e ditch w hich is a ro u n d a b rid g e ’ (clad bis im droichet) r 29 From approxim ately the sam e p e rio d , th e layv-text o n d istra in t refers to ‘th e co n stru ctio n (lit. raising) o f a b rid g e ’ ( ocbáil droichit ) ,230 A cco rd in g to c o m m e n ta ry o n Uraicecht Becc, ability to b u ild a brid g e adds two coyvs to th e h o n o u r-p ric e o f a m aster w right.231

224Bergin and Best, 1 Tochmarc Étaíne’, 178 §§ 7-8. 2 2 5 CIH V 1613.2 = A L \ 94.11-12. 2 2 6 Mitchell, Archaeology and environment in early Dublin, 15. 2 2 7 Moore, ‘Ireland’s oldest bridge’. 2 2 8 CIH ii 460.10 = Binchy, ‘ Coibnes Uisd Thairidne', 6 8 § 9. 2 2 9 CIH ii 461.30 = Binchy, ‘Coibnes Uisd Thairidne’, 70 § 13. In the notes to §§ 9 and 13 Binchy (quoting Thurneysen, Bürgschaft, 84) points out that in such contexts droichet could equally refer to a trackway of planks over marshy ground. At CIH iii 920.42, the term droichet is used of the causeway leading to a house; cf. Jackson, Aislinge, 35.1097 and note. 2 3 0 CIH ii 371.23 = AI. i 124.7. 2 3 1 CIHv 1613.6 = A L v 94.16.

394

Farm Lay-out L and-values

T h e w orth o f a given area o f land obviously varies in a c co rd an ce with th e quality o f th e soil, road-access, water-supply, a n d o th e r fac­ tors. T h e assessm ent of its value b eco m es o f legal significance in cases w here it is to be sold o r re n te d , o r divided a m o n g heirs. A law-text, p robably w ritten in th e eig h th century, d istinguishes six categories o f la n d .23" T h re e o f these are classed as etham arable , a n d th re e as ainetham ‘n o n -a ra b le ’.232233 T h e text gives th e value in cows o f a cumal a rea o f each type o f land. U n fo rtu n ately, th e ex ten t o f a cumal is unknow n: see discussion in A p p en d ix B, p. 574. In d escen d in g o rd e r o f value, th e six categ o ries o f lan d are: 1.

Best arable lan d {etharn remihi ethamnaib). T his is d e fin e d as level la n d w hich is g o o d fo r c o rn , m ilk, flax, w oad, honey, m adder, an d fru it.234235 It sh o u ld n o t re q u ire m a n u rin g (tuar) o r clearance (slige), a n d sh o u ld be free o f gláma, a te rm w hich seem s to in clu d e various th o rn y o r prickly weeds. T h e w eed-free state o f th e lan d may be tested by loosing a h o rse in to it. If bram b les {(iris), th o rn s (draigen), b u rd o c k (gleslige) o r thistles ( omthann)233 stick to th e h o rs e ’s m a n e o r coat, the la n d ca n n o t be classed as best arable. A cumal o f this type o f lan d is w orth tw enty-four m ilch cows. 2. Hilly arab le (etharn taulchach). T h e seco n d g rad e o f lan d is d efin e d as bein g ‘g o o d for every p la n t a n d for every c ro p '. T h e re is access to water, a n d th e re a re ash-trees o n every seco n d piece o f g ro u n d .236 T his d esc rip tio n w ould suit fertile hilly farm la n d such as th a t o f so u th T ip p e ra ry o r east Wicklow. T h e ash-tree is 2 3 2 C /// ii 675.18-676.16. Mac Niocaill has edited this text along with a later commentary on the same topic {('AH iii 843.3-21) in Erin 22 ( 1971 ) 81-6. Another short section of commentary {CIH iii 972.24—9 - Appendix A, text 6 ) also belongs with these texts. 233Etharn is from ith ‘corn’ + agent-suffix -am, i.e. ‘corn-producer’. 234The text has cumrad, which is probably to be taken as a scribal variant o f cumrae ‘sweet, non-bitter, pleasant-flavoured, fragrant’, used substantively. This adjective often describes fruit such as apples and plums, and seems to be used of anv sweet fruit at CIH vi 2299.39 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Crólige', 40 § 49. Cumrae can also refer to vegetables such as onions and celery, so it is possible that the author of our text intended to convey that land classified as best arable should be capable of growing fruit-trees and vegetables, as well as the crops he has already named. 235The MS has omatv. for the emendation, see Mac Niocaill, 'Tir cumailE, 84(\ “3 ,>C7// ii 675.25 = Mac Niocaill, ‘7Yr cnmaile . 82.8—9 is fuinnside each la maigin and ‘every second place is ashy’.

Land-values

395

well know n as an in d ic a to r o f a limey soil a n d h e n c e a reasonable level o f fertility. A cumal o f this type o f la n d is w o rth twenty m ilch cows. 3. A rable lan d re q u irin g la b o u r (etham frichnam a). T his is defin ed as 'la n d clearab le bv axe (tir inbéla) in w hich every p lan t flour­ ishes'. T h e fact th a t th e a u th o r d istinguishes this type o f land as a se p a ra te c a teg o ry suggests th a t th e re was still a consider­ able a m o u n t o f w oo d ed la n d w ith g o o d agricultural p o ten tial in eig h th -c e n tu ry Irelan d . A cumal o f this type o f la n d is w o rth sixteen m ilch cows. 4.

R ough lan d (ainm in). T h e m ost valuable non-arable lan d is d escrib ed as 'h a r d lan d , ferny plain an d u n tille d p la in ’ ( cotattir, rathenmag y ógmag) r ‘" T his d efin itio n suggests flatfish land, w hich is e ith e r stony o r covered w ith b ra c k e n o r ru sh es, b u t n o n e th e le ss provides som e grazing. It is likely th a t dam p p astu re (lénae o r M a in ) b elongs in this category. A cumal o f this typte o f la n d is w o rth sixteen d ry cows, i.e. h a lf th e value o f a ra b le la n d re q u irin g labour.

5. Very ro u g h la n d f antrenn). Lower on th e scale o fvalue is antrenn, w hich is given th e d e sc rip tio n ‘h e a th e ry m o u n ta in a n d furze th e r e ’ (slink patch y allenn i suidiu). T his clearly refers to m o u n ­ tain p astu re, suitable particularly for sheep. A cumal o f this land is w o rth twelve d ry cows. O u r te x t d o es n o t in c lu d e w o o d ed uncultivable lan d in its clas­ sification. T his may be because such land w ould generally be re g a rd e d as co m m o n o r waste, an d w ould th e re fo re rarely com e u p fo r sale o r r e n t.2 37238 See th e discussion o n th e ow nership o f m o u n ta in , m o o rla n d a n d w o o d lan d o n p. 406. 6. Shallow lan d (andom ain). T h e least valuable o f th e six types is said to b e la n d w hich is andomain ‘shallow ’, i.e. with no d ep th o f soil. T h e a u th o r o f o u r tex t describes it as ‘black lan d an d b o g ’ (duibthir y main). A sim ilarly low value is assigned to such lan d in H e p ta d 37, w hich in clu d es shallow lan d (tir n-andomain) 237The adjective óg ‘whole, untouched’ may be used in the sense o f ‘untilled’: see DILO 110.17-18and note by Mac Niocaill, ‘Tir cumaile’, 849. 238O n the other hand, the eighth-century Additamenta to T írechán’s material on Patrick in the Book of Armagh records that Cummen and Brethán bought the prop­ erty of Ó chter Achid ‘including wood, plain and riverside pasture’ (iterfid y mag y lënu) (Bieler, Patrician texts, 174.7). For further details of this transaction, see p. 420 below.

396

Farm L ayout

am o n g th e seven least p ro fitab le pled g es w hich th e h e a d o f a king ro u p can give o n b e h a lf of his kin. 11 In glossaries, this term is ap plied to o th e r types o f w etland as well as bog. F or exam ple, O ’D avoren identifies it with m arsh ( ruinrch), m ire (sencenn), o r bog ( m ó in )}w A cumal o f this type o f lan d is w orth eig h t d ry cows. As such land is clearly u n su itab le for grazing, its value m ust derive from o th e r factors. Probably th e m ost significant o f these was the p ro d u c tio n o f tu r f (peat) fo r fuel.

T u rf eclipsed w ood as a fuel in later tim es, b u t in th e seventha n d eig h th -cen tu ry law-texts, referen ces to tu rf-cu ttin g are few and am biguous. T h e clearest o f these is in th e text o n m ill-races: h e re th e ditch o f a turf-bog (dad fótbatg mono) is in c lu d ed a m o n g the seven d itch es w hich are e x em p t from habilite in th e case o f a ccid en ­ tal dro w n in g .“41 It seem s safe to assum e th at th e a u th o r is th in k in g o f a ditch m ad e d u rin g th e cu ttin g o f tu r f fo r use as fuel. O th e r ref­ eren ces in O ld Irish law-texts are m ore d o u b tfu l. For exam ple, o n e text includes tochar puirt in a list o f offences o n a n o th e r p e rs o n ’s property. T h e glossator takes it to be a re fe re n ce to illegal turfcutting, for w hich a fine o f five sets is d u e .24“ But he mav be w rong: in a n o th e r law-text th e glossator takes a sim ilar p h rase to refer to jetsam cast u p o n th e se a sh o re.241 T his ap p e a rs to be a q u o tatio n from th e lost law-text Muirbretha ‘sea-ju d g em en ts', so th e m ean in g ‘je ts a m ’ w ould suit th e c o n te x t w ell.244

2,9 CIH i 35.22-3 = AL v 250.6 (glossed curraigh j seisccend). 240 CIH iv 1471.28-9 = O ’Dav. 220 § 140. Cf. CIH ii 621.15 Andomuin .i____ main 7 lothrach ‘shallow [land] i.e .. . . bog and marsh'. 2,1 CIH ii 461.29—30 = Binchy, ‘Coibnes Visa Thairidne’, 70 § 13. He reads fót[b]aig, following the glossator. 2*2CIH i 239.10-11 = AL v 474.6. One can compare CIH ii 370.4 = AL i 122.20 im chorus puirt i n-aimsmub tochuir. where die glossator makes a similar connection with turf-cutting. In both cases, however, the text may actually refer to the ownership of jetsam: see next note. 243 CIH i 315.4 = AL iii 424.13 Diles tochur do fir puirt ‘what is cast up belongs to the owner of the shore’. The word port (Latin portus) can mean ‘place, locality, abode, bank, mound, shore, harbour’. Port monad is used for ‘turf-bank' in a Middle Irish gloss at CIH ii 370.6 = AL i 132.4. In later Irish the derivative portach is used with the same meaning, and also in the more general sense o f ‘bog’. In Scottish Gaelic, ‘turf-bank’ is bac môna, where bar is from Old Norse bakki. 244For discussion on Muirbretha, see GEIL 276-7 § 53.

Land-values

397

T h e first explicit m e n tio n in Irish o f tu r f as fuel is in th e early tw elfth-centurv tale Aislinge Meic ('on ( ’d in n e r 1' H ere the m iserable hospitality ol th e m o n astery o f C ork is said to in clu d e two sparks o f fire in th e m id d le o f a wisp o f oat-chaff a n d nvo sods o f wet tu rf ( A/i fót do ur-monaid). Post-N orm an sources - b o th in Irish an d English - c o n ta in m any re fe re n ce s to d ie b u rn in g o f turf. F or a discussion o f tu rf-cu ttin g im p lem en ts, see p. 479. W etland w hich co uld n o t be d ra in e d for turf-cutting m ight be o f use as a source o f reed s fo r th atch in g , basket-m aking, etc. (see p. 385). A fter d istin g u ish in g th e above six land-types, th e a u th o r o f the law-text o n land-values goes o n to list o th e r factors w hich increase th e value o f a p iece o f la n d .245246 Five sets are a d d e d if th ere is a mill-site, a m in e fo r c o p p e r o r iro n o re, a p e rm a n e n t cattle-pond (gelestar) o r access to a n estuary. Twice this sum is ad d e d if th ere is a g re a t w o o d ( ru u d ) w ith a d itch o r sto n e wall.247248 Presum ably, this m ean s th a t th e w ood is a d ja c e n t to th e property, a n d sepa­ ra te d bv an effective barrier. T h e ow ner o f th e p ro p erty would have co n v e n ie n t access fo r w ood-cutting, food-gathering, grazing, etc. T h e value o f a coastal p ro p e rty is in creased by th re e cows if th ere is access to a ‘p ro d u ctiv e ro c k ’. T h e la te r c o m m e n ta to r is doubtless c o rre c t in tak in g this to re fe r to a rock fro m w hich dulse o r o th e r seaw eed m ay be c o llected .21'' T h re e cows are also ad d e d if th ere is a stream at th e side o r h e a d la n d o f th e property, with undivided la n d ( dirann ) bevond. T h e sam e applies if th e p ro p erty is b o u n d e d by m o u n ta in (roilbe). As we have seen o n p. 390 above, a ro a d o r cattle-track may also a d d to th e value o f th e p ro p e rty in c e rta in circum stances.

245Jackson, Aislinge, 6.159—60 = Meyer, Aislinge, 15.3. 246 CIH ii 676.1-15 = Mac Niocaill, ‘Tir cumaile’, 82.27-83.4. Commentary based on this passage, with some variations, is found at CIH iii 843.11-15 = Mac Niocaill, ‘Tir cumaile’, 83.16-20, and at CIH iii 972.24-9 = Appendix A, text 6. 247For a discussion of the boundary earthworks of English woods, see O. Rackham, Trees and woodland, 114-16. 248 CIH iii 972.27-8 = Appendix A, text 6 § 3. For edible seaweeds, see p. 313 above.

12 Land-tenure L and conies u n d e r th e co n tro l of individuals, fam ilies o r larg er gro u p s in a variety o f wars. It mav be b o u g h t o r in h e rite d o r acq u ired as a dowry, o r it may be re n te d for a g re a te r o r lesser period. In som e circum stances, such as in th e a fte rm a th o f war o r fam ine o r in u n d e rp o p u la te d areas, it mav be possible to take over u n o c c u p ie d lan d w ithout in c u rrin g o p p o sitio n . L and is m ore often taken by force o f arm s; this is som etim es know n in Irish as tir claidib ‘sw ord-land’ 1 o r orbbae claidib 'sw o rd -in h e rita n c e '.' W orld history a b o u n d s with reco rd s o f th e violent a p p ro p ria tio n o f land: often th e invaders are them selves fleeing fro m o th e r aggressors o r from som e n a tu ra l disaster. Early Irish lite ra tu re preserves various tra d itio n s o f large-scale preh isto ric p o p u la tio n m ov em en t ( tochumlud) a n d expulsion (indarbe). F or exam p le, a ten th -c e n tu ry tale-list in clu d es titles such as Tochomlod Múscraige de M aig Bregoin ‘th e m ig ratio n o f the M úscraige from Mag n iB re g o in ’. Tochomlod na nDése ó Themraig ‘the m ig ratio n o f th e Dési from T ara', ' a n d Tochomlod Dad Riatai i nAIbain ‘th e m ig ratio n o f th e Dál Riatai to S c o tla n d ' . 1 T h e m igratio n to S cotland is an u n d o u b te d h istorical fact. However, as Francis J o h n Byrne m akes clear in his article T ribes a n d tribalism in early Ire la n d ’, tb e o th e r m ig ratio n s a re probable m ere fictions, com posed to exp lain th e p resen ce o f p eo p les o f th e sam e n am e in d ifferen t p arts o f th e c o u n try /’ A nd even w h ere th e re are g e n u in e historical reco rd s o f th e d isp lacem en t o f o n e dvnastv bv a n o th er, Byrne p o in ts o u t that ‘such m ovem ents h ard ly involved w holesale m igration b u t m erely th e u n se ttlin g o f a few roval fam ilies. T hey b elo n g to dynastic politics ra th e r th a n to p u re tribalism . T h e basic p o p u latio n re m a in e d u n d istu rb e d , m erely e x ch a n g in g o n e set o f overlords for an o th er, a n d even th e n o b le fam ilies o f the displaced dynasty' usually left som e b ra n c h e s clin g ing to rem n an ts

'E.g. LL vi 1455.44008 = CGH 151; Stokes, 'CóirAnmann', 324 § 76. 2E.g. LL iii 601.18471. 3See Meyer, ‘T he expulsion of the Déssi’; Meyer, ‘Tucait indarba na nDéssï. 4Mac Cana, Learned tales, 49, 60. 5Byrne, ‘Tribes and tribalism’, 142-3.

Land-tenure and its limitations

399

o f p ro p e rty in th e scenes o f th e ir ea rlie r suprem acy . . ,’.6 In th e an n als, re c o rd s o f p o p u la tio n m o v em en t are few an d unin fo rm ativ e. O n e th a t is likelv to be historically accu rate is the flig h t o f th e fam ine-stricken p e o p le o f U lster ( Ulaid) in 1047. A cco rd in g to th e Annals of Tigernach a n d th e Chronicum Scotorum, these refu g ees m ig rated to L einster (Laigin ) 7*ap p aren tly because o f th e ir k ing's alliance with the king o f Leinster, D iarm ait mac M ail-na-m B o.' T h e re is. however, n o evidence th at they w ere given la n d in L einster, a n d m ost o f th em may have ultim ately re tu rn e d to th e ir ow n te rrito ry .9 T h e sam e an n als re c o rd m o v em en t o f p o p u la tio n in th e o p p o site d ire c tio n - also caused by fam ine - in th e year 1116. H u n g e r was so severe in th e p rovince o f L einster th at it was alm ost em p tie d , an d th e p eo p le scattered th ro u g h o u t Ire la n d .10 M ost o f o u r in fo rm a tio n o n early Irish lan d -ten u re com es from the law-texts o f th e seventh a n d eig h th centu ries. T hus th e law-text on status, Crith Gablach - d a te d to a b o u t AD 700 —gives details o f th e a m o u n t o f lan d w hich is typically ow ned by co m m o n ers o f th e ra n k o f bóaire, ócaire, e tc .11 T h e re is, however, n o m eans o f assessing ap p ro x im atelv w hat p ro p o rtio n o f th e p o p u latio n were lan d o w n in g c o m m o n ers, w hat p ro p o rtio n w ere servile ten an ts on o th e r p e o p le ’s la n d (see p. 441), a n d w hat p ro p o rtio n were lords (see p. 448). Legal m aterial is also u n h e lp fu l with reg ard to varia­ tions in th e p ractice o f la n d -te n u re in d ifferen t p arts o f the country: th e au th o rs o f th e law-texts p re se n t a p ic tu re o f uniform ity which can hard ly have existed in reality. L a n d -t e n u r e

a n d it s l im i t a t io n s

T h e law-texts re fe r to d iffe re n t types o f lan d -ten u re, an d provide us with a g o o d d eal o f in fo rm a tio n on factors which limit an individ­ u a l’s co n tro l over his o r h e r land. A d istin ctio n is m ade betw een a p e rs o n ’s in h e rite d sh are o f kin-land (ß n tiu ), an d lan d w hich he 6Ibid. 143. For suggestions on the movement o f certain families in Leinster AD 300—550, see Smyth, Celtic Leinster, 145 (plate V). 7Stokes, ‘Annals ofTigernach (2)’, 387; CS 276 s.a. 1045. Cf. AI 176 s.a. 1005 § 2 for a similar exodus by the Ulaid. “Berne, ‘Tribes and tribalism’, 141. 9For population movement in post-Norman Ireland, see p. 427 below. 10Stokes, ‘Annals ofTigernach (3) 37; CS 318 s.a. 1112. Cf. AU2 558 s.a. 1116 § 5. "S e e discussion on farm size on p. 421.

400

Land-tenure

has acq u ired personally. As o n e w ould ex p ect, a lan d o w n er has g re a te r freed o m to dispose o f p erso n al land th an kin-land, but the kin-group is n o n eth eless e n title d to a p ro p o rtio n of p erso n al land if it is sold o r b e q u e a th e d (see p. 402 below ). If a lan d o w n er is a c lie n t (céile), his c o n tro l over his la n d is fu rth e r d im in ish ed , as he c a n n o t sell it against th e wishes of his p rim ary lord (jlaith cétgíallnae) .li T h e sam e restriction applies if he is a m onastic c lie n t.1 ' Early Irish law also recognizes the n eed to provide ad u lt d e p e n d a n ts with p ro te c tio n against irresp o n sib le decisions o n the p art of th e landow ner, a n d th e law-texts provide in fo rm atio n o n th e en title m e n t of wives o r sons to veto o r d e fe r contracts w hich m ig h t affect th e ir ec o n o m ic w ellbeing. F or exam ple, an ad u lt son can legally p rev en t his fa th e r from disposing o f lan d o n w hich his survival d e p e n d s .11 Likewise, a p rin cip al wife who has b ro u g h t th e sam e a m o u n t o f p ro p e rty into a m arriag e as h e r h u sb a n d can a n n u l a c o n tra c t bv him (ap art from certain arra n g e m e n ts essential for th e w ellbeing o f the h o u se h o ld ). T h e re is th e re fo re no q u estio n o f his selling o ff lan d against h e r wishes. A p rin cip al wife w ho has b ro u g h t n o p ro p e rty in to the m arriag e is e n title d to 'd is tu rb ' (i.e. d efer) h e r h u sb a n d 's foolish c o n trac ts. " 1 A wife o f low er status w ho has b ro u g h t in no p ro p erty is e n title d only to d e fe r foolish co n tracts re la tin g to food, clothing, cattle a n d sheep, i.e. m atters c o n c e rn in g th e dav-to-dav ru n n in g o f the house an d fa rm .1. She has evidently n o legal sav in th e sale o r purch ase o f land. A lan d o w n e r’s c o n tro l o f his la n d may b e subject to certain rights enjoyed by his n eig h b o u rs. A n e ig h b o u r mav have a right o f way across his lan d if th e re is n o o th e r access. T h e law-text Bretha Comailhchesa describes how th e passage ( /min he) o f cattle bv right o f way sh o u ld be o rg an ized . T h e cattle-ow ner m ust provide th re e m en to e n su re th a t n o d am ag e is d o n e by th e cattle, a n d the lan d o w n er m ust likewise provide th re e m en to h elp with the

!2C /// iii 750.32-3. For primary, secondary and tertiary lordship, see p. 320 (footnote). " C 1 H ii 591.3. 14CHI i 227.7-10 = AL V 436.22-7. 15a n ii 506.1 = SEIL 19 § 5. 16a n ii 512.29-31 = SEIL 46 § 22. See Thurneysen’s discussion at SEIL 46-9. " C W ii 512.22-4 = SEIL 45 § 21.

Land-tenure and its limitations

401

o p e ra tio n .19 Cannae's Glossars deals specifically witfi a n e ig h b o u r’s access to a cattle-p o n d ( g e le sta r ) across a n o th e r p e rso n ’s land. A cow -track ( b ó th a r ) may b e c o n stru c te d fo r this p u rp o se, a n d a fen ce ( im b e ) e re c te d a ro u n d th e p o n d so th a t th e cattle do n o t graze th e la n d .19 Sim ilar in te rfe re n c e with a n e ig h b o u r’s land is p e rm itte d if it is necessary to dig a m ill-race fo r a mill, th o u g h a p p ro p ria te co m p e n sa tio n m u st be p a id .20 L an d o w n ersh ip by a w om an is subject to special lim itations. Such a w om an is g enerally a 'fem ale h e ir ’ ( banchomarbae) w ho has in h e r­ ited a sh are o f la n d becau se th e re w ere n o m ale heirs. By virtue o f h e r possession o f land, she enjoys th e usual lan d o w n er’s e n title­ m en ts to buy, sell, h ire labour, etc. However, she has less freed o m to b e q u e a th lan d to h e r c h ild re n th a n a m ale landow ner: see u n d e r p. 415 below. Royal la n d a n d c h u rch -lan d d iffer fro m o th e r types o f lan d in th a t they co m e u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f individuals by virtue o f office. A k in g ’s c o n tro l over royal la n d is absolute w hile h e is in office. C h u rch -lan d , o n th e o th e r h a n d , is c o n tro lle d by an a b b o t o r m o nastic su p e rio r ( airchinnerh) w hose decisions m ust be approved by th e m o n k s.21 F or exam ple, o n e law-text states th a t an a b b o t’s c o n tra c t can be a n n u lle d by his m onks w ithin te n days. T h e abbot, likewise, can a n n u l a m o n k ’s c o n tra c t w ithin five days.22 A n o th er law-text describ es th e sale o f lan d against th e wishes o f the m onks ( tir do reic seek manc.hu) as ‘a fist a ro u n d a su n -beam ’ - i.e. an absurdity .29 T h e k in-group w hich originally gave a m onastic site to th e C hurch retains certain privileges: see u n d e r ‘c h u rc h -la n d ’ on p. 404 below.

WCIH i 205.1-16 = AL iv 156.17-21; cf. C1H iii 1125.18-19 = E. J. Gwynn, ‘Privileges’, 33.21-2 (with discussion in the notes on p. 225). 19Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 54—5 § 674. 20CIH ii 460.32-5 = Binchy, ‘Coibnes Uisä Thairidne , 68-70 § 10. 21See Hughes, The Church in early Irish society, 126, for the administration of church property by abbots, and ibid. 124, for its administration by bishops. 22CIH iv 1348.27-30 = McLeod, Early Irish contract law, 124 § 1. 2iCIH iii 750.32-3; iv 1375.31-2 is dorn imgae ngreine.

402

Land-tenure K in -la nd

It is clear from th e law-texts o f th e seventh an d e ig h th c en tu ries th at m uch o f th e fa rm la n d - p e rh a p s m ost o f it - was classified as kin-land (fin tiu ) at this period.-M P lacen am e evidence co n firm s the later im p o rta n c e o f this type o f lan d o w n ersh ip . Many th o u san d s o f town lands b e a r the n am e of th e family w hich at o n e tim e h eld the land, e.g. Bails UÍ Dhubhda (Ballvdowd, Co. M ayo). Bails Mir Aodhagáin (B allym acegan, Co. T ip p erary ). Kin-land is divided a m o n g kin-m em bers, w ho in g en eral farm as individuals. However, each k in -m em b er is legallv o bliged to m ain ­ tain the integrity o f his share of this land. O n e law-text stresses th at h e may n o t sell it o r otherw ise alien ate it, o r dispose o f it secretlv o r e n c u m b e r it with liabilities o r unfav o u rab le contracts.-^ .A nother law-text affirm s th at a kin -m em b er is n o t free to sell his share o f th e kin-land w ith o u t the perm issio n o f o th e r m em b ers o f th e k in .J" T h e re are th u s severe lim itations o n th e m ajo r d ecisions w hich a kin-m em b er can m ake with re g a rd to th e use o r disposal o f his h o ld ­ ing. T h e re are even restrictions in th e case o f ex tra lan d w hich h e has acq u ired th ro u g h his own successful fa rm in g o r the profits o f a profession. If such la n d is sold o r b e q u e a th e d , a p ro p o rtio n - varying betw een o n e th ird a n d two th ird s - m ust go to th e k in .-' T h e o th e r side o f th e coin is th e legal o b lig atio n on th e kin to take over responsibility fo r a k in -m em b er w ho has got in to tro u ­ ble. K insm en are e x p ected to h elp an d su p p o rt o n e a n o th e r,-h an d may be re q u ire d to pay a fine o r d e b t in c u rre d bv a relativ e.--1 If a kin-m em ber beco m es an ab sen tee (esert) a n d n eglects to fence his h o ld in g , a n e a r k insm an (Jme chomocus) m av be d istra in e d to do the jo b in ste a d . 111 B ut if a k in -m em b er exploits o r ch eats his kin. he ru n s th e risk o f being ex p elled from th e g ro u p a n d th ereb v loses his legal rig h ts in society.31 "4F«r a general discussion on kin-land, see ( .luirles-F.dwards, Early Irish and Welsh kinship, 61-73, 415—30. 25CIH ii 489.16-18 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht I’, 370 § 33. I follow him in interpreting nadi ’mfuich cintaib na coraib as ‘who does not damage it (the kin-land) with liabilities or [unfavourable] contracts’. 26 CIH i 247.24 = AL v 510.7-9. Cf. CIH ii 591.3-4 21 CIH ii 533.17-20 = AL iii 48.15-19. For details, see GEIL 100. -SCIH ii 489.8-9 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht l ’. 370 § 32. 29CIH ii 411.22-3 = AL i 260.1-3. 30 CIH i 75.24-7 = AL iv 128.3-7. 31 GEIL 13.

Royal land F o r th e division o f kin-land ‘lan d -a c q u isitio n ’ o n pp . 411-15

am ong

403 heirs,

see

under

R oyal la nd

T h e law-texts norm ally reco g n ise th re e g rad es o f king in early Irish society: th e pettv king (rí túaithe) w ho ru le d a single kingdom (tiiath). th e overking w ho ru le d th re e o r fo u r kingdom s, a n d the provincial king w ho was overlo rd o f a w hole p rovince.3- It can be assum ed th a t th e vast m ajority o f those w ho atta in ed kingship in o u r p e rio d cam e from royal o r n o b le kin-groups with extensive land-ho ld in g s. A typical king w ould thus own co nsiderable lands as a c o n se q u e n c e o f his m e m b e rsh ip o f his own kin-group. In a d d itio n , certain lands in each k in g d o m w ere set aside specifi­ cally fo r th e use o f th e king d u rin g his reign. Such lan d is described in the law-texts as mruig tig 'k in g ’s la n d ’.3 233345 As an exam ple, a legal glossator refers to T fr M ugain i n-Elib, w hich is ‘k in g ’s la n d ’ for the king o f C ash el.31 T h e accom panying co m m e n ta ry reco rd s a tra­ ditio n th a t a m cattle fo u n d o n ‘k in g ’s la n d ' d u rin g the day o f his in a u g u ra tio n are fo rfeit to th e king (see p. 138). Legal glossators em phasize th e k in g ’s duty o f h o ld in g th e re g u la r assembly (óenach) o n 'k in g ’s lan d .3:1 N on-legal sources re fe r also to land allotted to th e k in g ’s h e ir (ferann rigdamna) ,36 O th e r lands in th e k in g d o m w ere ap p aren tly d istrib u ted am ong m em b e rs o f th e k in g ’s h o u se h o ld . I have b e e n u n ab le to find any re fe re n ce s to this p ra c tic e in th e O ld Irish law-texts, b u t it is clear fro m later sources th a t certain professionals o b tain ed lan d in re tu rn fo r th e ir services to a king. F or exam ple, in an address to his p a tro n A odh M ág L’idhir, th e six teen th -cen tu ry p o et E ochaidh Ó h E ó g h u sa asks to be given a farm in an a re a safe from the raids

32CEIL 17-18. For more detailed discussion, see L. Breatnach, ‘The first third of Brelha Nemed Toísech', 36-7. S3E.g. CIH i 4.4 = ALv 128.15; CIH i 39.32 -A L v 264.14; CIH i 54.12 = ALv 314.14. Cf. CIH ii 691.33 ferann taisigechta. For such land in the later medieval period, see Simms, From kings to warlords, 129-30. 34 CIH i 40.2-6 = AL v 264.25-266.3. 35 CIH i 4.10-11 = AL v 128.26-7; CIH i 54.18 = A L v 316.20-21. 36Stokes, ‘The adventure of St. Columba’s clerics’, 132 § 1femnn rigdamnachta; LU 101.3138 ferann rigdomna; AI 308 s.a. 1176 § 7 fearann tänisteachta.

404

Land-tenure

o f the O ’Neills an d th e O ’D o n n ells.17 In his ‘I.awes o f Ire la n d e ’. w Sir John Davies writes r.1610 that 'th e c h ie f lo rd [equivalent to O ld Irish rt\ h ad ce rte n lan d es in d e m e sn e w hich w ere called his loughty o r m ensali landes w herein h ee placed his p rincipali officers, nam ely his b reh o n s, his m arshall, his cu p b earer, his phisicion, his su rg eo n , his chron icler, his rim er, a n d o th ers, w hich offices an d possessions w ere h e re d ita ry a n d p ecu liar to certen septs an d fam ilies’.39 C h u r c h -la nd

T h e C h u rch ow ned o r co n tro lle d a g reat deal o( lan d an d it is likely th a t a n u m b e r o f agricu ltu ral in n o v atio n s sp read from C h u rch farm s. It has b e e n show n in C h a p te r 7 (p. 222) th at m any term s relatin g to crop-cultivation are b o rro w in gs from Latin, an d so are likely to have originally h a d C h u rc h associations. T h e im pact o f th e C h u rc h o n th e earlv Irish lan d scap e can be d e m o n stra te d by th e n u m b e r o f place-nam es w hich re c o rd the existence o f ch u rch -b u ild in g s. 1(1 In m any cases such buildings fo rm ed th e n u cleu s o f a C h u rch lan d -h o ld in g , d escrib ed in legal an d annalistic sources as a termonn. T h e details o f how th e C h u rc h cam e to acq u ire so m u ch land are n o t reco rd ed . However, th e law-texts a n d th e sem i-legendarv Liv es o f the saints provide us with som e idea o f th e processes w hich gave rise to th e C h u rc h ’s extensive holdings. T h e sev en th-centurv Lives o f Patrick in th e Book o f A rm agh re c o rd various trad itio n s o f gifts o f lan d m ad e to th e C h u rch in th e fifth centurv. For exam ple, a king is said to have g ra n te d in p e rp e tu itv to th e m onks o f b ish o p Assicus e n o u g h grazing for a h u n d re d cows with calves as well as for twenty o x e n . 11 T his w ould clearlv have b e e n a substantial acreage. A n o th e r en try reco rd s th e gift bv th e L i F iach rach o f p art o f the plain betw een th e rivers G leór a n d F e rn e to P atrick for ever.

•^Bergin, Irish bardic poetry, 136-8, poem 33. See also P. A. Breatnach, ‘The chiefs poet’, 59-66. 38Morgan, ‘I.awes of Irelande’, 311. Lmighty is Irish lucht tighe ‘household’: see Simms, From kings to warlords, 176. i!lSee also McF.rlean. ' The Irish townland system of landscape organisation', 329. 40The elements mainister, cell, eclas, tempall, demnach, daurthach, and airecal are common in place-names: see Hogan, Onomasticon. 41Bieler, Patriáan texts, 140.23-5.

Church-land

405

to g e th e r w ith th e serfs w orking o n th at la n d .4' It is also reco rd ed th a t B inén, a p riest an d a n c h o rite , was given an in h e rita n c e from his m o th e r ’s kin. O n this lan d h e fo u n d e d a ch u rch , in w hich P atrick h im se lf is r e p u te d to have c e le b ra ted th e first Mass.4243 T h e giving o f la n d to th e C h u rc h was obviously felt to be a m eri­ to rio u s act w hich b e n e fite d th e soul o f th e do n o r. T h e law-text Di A stud Chili ~ Dligid refers to 'la n d w hich is given to th e C h u rch for th e sake o f o n e 's so u l'.44 But a n o th e r law-text, Corns Bésgnai, is care­ ful to stress th a t a p e rso n c a n n o t b e q u e a th la n d to the C h u rch if he sh o u ld th ereb v cause u n d u e eco n o m ic loss to his relatives. H ence, he is n o t e n title d to b e q u e a th la n d w ith o u t th e p erm ission o f his kin-gro u p , unless it is lan d w hich h e has h im self p u rc h a se d .4146 If an o ld o r sicklv lan d o w n er ca n n o t find a relative o r o th e r person to look after him . he m at’ m ake an a rra n g e m e n t to b eq u e a th p a rt o f his la n d to th e C h u rc h in re tu rn fo r m a in te n a n c e .4t’ It is clear from th e law-text Bretha Seined Toisech th at this m a in te n a n ce is norm ally c a rrie d o u t by a m on astic c lie n t (manach). T h e C h u rch does n o t take possession o f its sh are o f th e la n d u n til th e ow ner dies.47 Even w hen kin-land has legally b een tra n sfe rre d to the C hurch, th e kin -g ro u p re ta in s c e rta in rig h ts in re la tio n to C h urch ap p o in tm e n ts. For exam ple, c o m m e n ta ry o n Corns Bésgnai deals with a p p o in tm e n ts to th e post o f a b b o t.4849 Priority is given to the m ost su itab le m e m b e r o f th e k in-group o f th e p a tro n saint o f th e ch u rc h (fine érluma). Failing this, th e post goes to the m ost suitable m e m b e r o f th e k in-group w hich originally ow ned the land (fine grin).™ In cases w here th e kin-group o f th e p a tro n saint has

42Bieler, Patrician texts, 170.26-8. It is not certain that Ferne is a river, but this seems to suit the context best. 43Bieler. Patrician texts, 172.4-10. 44CIH i 224.19 = A L \ 428.4. For a discussion on donations to the Church for the sake of the soul in the writings of Hieronymus and Augustine, and their influence on early Irish law, see Bruck, Kirchenväter und soziales Erbrecht, 76-104, 163-95. 45CIH ii 534.20-21 = AL iii 52.8-10; cf. CIH ii 532.28-30 = AL iii 44.14-17. See discussion by Mac Niocaill, ‘Christian influences on early Irish law’, 153-4. 46CIH ii 535.1-2 = AL iii 52.29-31. 47 CIH vi 2213.3-7 = L. Breatnach, ‘The first third of Bretha Nemed Toisech', 16 § 21. 48 CIH V 1820.8-30; cf. CIH vi 1929.6-14. See discussion by Etchingham, ‘The implications of paruchia', 153—60. 49Cf. CGH 24 Cenël Nath-I i mMaigib Ailbe ö Chill Ëogain, is leo grian na cille ‘the race of Nath-i in the plains of Ailbe from the church of Éogan, theirs is the land of the church'.

406

Land-tenure

also supp lied th e land (fine érliuna 7 grin inutile) th e re is obviously no conflict o f interests. C o m m o n la nd

Much o f Irelan d is m o u n ta in o u s o r boggy, a n d co n seq u en tly of lim ited use for farm ing. Such land is not w orth cultivating, but may provide ro u g h grazing, w ood, tu rf, h erbs, b erries, etc. In the p resen t day, most o f it is classed as co m m o n ag e; however, this does not m ean that everyone is e n title d to graze livestock, h u n t, shoot, fish, m in e, ex tract gravel, o r cu t tu r f o n it. T h e re are norm ally restrictions o n all these activities. As it is p articularly difficult to legislate for the use o f co m m o n land, d isp u tes can easily arise. It is obvious that th e a u th o rs o f th e O ld Irish law-texts fo u n d sim ilar difficulties in d efin in g p e o p le 's rig h ts on co m m on land, and th e re are d ifferen t em p h ases in d ifferen t texts. T h e g en eral assum ption seem s to be th a t ow n ersh ip o f m o u n ta in o r o th e r ro u g h lan d is vested in th e tiiath. C onsequently, each freem an o f the túath is e n title d to a share in its use. O n e law-text in clu d es ‘th e undivided lan d above all' (dirami lias räch) a m o n g the eq u al e n title ­ m ents o f every law -abiding fre e m a n ( r e c h t T h e accom panying gloss defines it as ‘th e co m m o n m ountain" (in sliab roitchenn). O th e r texts sim ilarly im ply th at th e re are co m m o n rights on such lands. O ld Irish co m m e n ta ry to Bretha Comaithchesa p o in ts o u t that certain offences ( caithchi) against la n d d o n o t apply in a great w ood ( ruud), m o u n ta in (roilbe) o r co m m o n ag e (Joarh túaithe) because stich land is un d iv id ed (d ira n n ):A Similarly, th e law-text Bretha Ktgid gives it as a g e n e ra l ru le th at cattle are free to graze on m o u n ta in (d in d ):'1 A n o th e r law-text, Bretha Semed Dcidenach. d eclares the p rin cip le that every lan d o w n er is e n title d to a sh are in und iv id ed plain, m o u n ta in o r w ater a n d m ust have access th e re to . I take this to m ean that the lan d o w n er is e n title d to a share in th e use o f such und iv id ed la n d .53 r,fl CIH i 241.28 = AL v 484.4-5. 51 a i l i 198.4-6 (a n[d]irind)\ ii 579.6-8 (a ndirainn) = At. iv 124.26-7. S2C /// i 291.1-5 = Ah iii 296.11-18. The glossator allows for the possibility that mountain may sometimes be privately owned. m U H iii 1125.16-17 = E. J. Gwynn, ‘Privileges’, 33.19-21. Gwynn, on the other hand, suggests in his note on this passage (Ériu 13, 225) that a landowner with an inadequate holding may actually appropriate undivided land. Bui there seems to be no evidence of such a principle in other texts.

Common land

407

In a te n th -c e n tu ry source, Immacallam in dá thúarad, we also find evidence of th e ex istence o f co m m o n land. T h e sage F erch ertn e p ro p h e sie s various disasters w hich will befall th e country: these in clu d e o v e rp o p u la tio n an d th e ex ten sio n o f privately ow ned land in to m o u n ta in (roilbe).5i T h e im plication is clearly th a t it is an offen ce against th e co m m u n ity fo r individuals to en cro ach u p o n such land. In a n o th e r prophecy-text, th e p ro h ib itio n o f access to turf a n d w ood (cmsad mcma is feda) is in c lu d e d am o n g the signs o f b a d tim es.00 B ut th e law-texts also reco g n ise private rig h ts o n co m m o n land. F or ex am p le, th e tex t o n d istra in t refers to ‘an a p p ro p ria te d tree w hich is in th e w ild ern ess’.54556 T his is clearly a tree o n unow ned lan d w hich has th ro u g h som e ag re e d p ro c e d u re b een desig n ated as private property. In th e gloss it is d escrib ed as a m arked tree ( crann crosta), so it seem s th a t a m e m b e r o f th e co m m u nity was en tid ed to lav claim to a tree for felling o r fruit-picking by m arking it with a cross ( cros). N o d o u b t th e re w ere lim itatio n s to this en titlem en t, particu larly in less w ooded p arts o f th e country, b u t no details have survived in th e texts. T h e com plexity o f th e law w ith re g a rd to co m m o n lan d is also illu strated bv a passage in Bechbretha w hich deals with the finding o f a stray sw arm o f b ees in g re a t w ood (ruud), und iv id ed lan d (dirann) o r inaccessible c o u n try (écmacht).57 A ccording to this text, th e fin d e r b eco m es th e sole ow ner o f th e bees. However, even th o u g h th e a u th o r evidently reg ard s such land as ownerless, parties o th e r th a n th e fin d e r also have a stake in th e honey. T h u s b o th th e fin d e r’s c h u rc h an d th e h e a d of his kin-group are e n title d to o n e n in th o f th e honey. O ld Irish co m m en tary adds the fu rth e r stip u latio n that the fin d e r’s lord (Jlaith) is likewise en title d to a s h a re .58 T h e e x te n t o f an Irish k in g ’s rig h ts o n co m m o n lan d is difficult to ju d g e . T h e law-texts o f th e seventh a n d e ig h th cen tu ries d o not assign anv specific privileges o n co m m o n land to e ith e r local kings 54Stokes, ‘Colloquy’, 44 § 227 brogfaiter cricha i rroilln ‘boundaries will be extended into the great mountain'. 55ACL iii 240 § 6. A legal gloss at C1H ii 370.5 = AL i 132.2 refers to ‘common bog’ ( möin coitcend). 5flCIH ii 395.23 = AL i 202.2-3 im crand ngabàla bis i ndithrib. 57 CIH ii 455.1-4 = BB 84 § 49. &sCfH iii 924.23 = BB 84 § 49‘ (B). See discussion in Notes.

408

Land-tenure

o r overkings. In later Irish legal m aterial, however, we find evidence o f som e d e g re e o f royal c o n tro l over such areas. In legal c o m m e n ­ tary - probably at least as early as th e elev en th c e n tu ry - th e th re e 'la n d s’ (bruigi) o f a king are given as a ro ad (rót), u n d iv id ed land (d h a n n ), a n d th e sea ( m uir). By v irtue o f his office, th e king is e n titled to a share o f any valuables fo u n d in these places. 1 W ater

Legal disputes may arise in co n n e c tio n with th e o w nership of water, w h eth er in a well, a stream , a lake, an estu ary o r th e sea. T h e p ro b ­ lem may relate to th e actual w ater itself - fo r d rin k in g bv livestock o r peop le - o r it may be ab o u t th e ow n ersh ip o f fish cau g h t in the water. As we have seen above (p. 287), th e re is evidence in early Irish legal m aterial o f public fishing places, as well as private rights over stream s an d estuaries. T h e re are also referen ces to th e right o f a farm e r to c o n stru ct a p a th across a n e ig h b o u r's lan d so that his cattle can reach w ater (p. 401). Legal c o m m e n ta ry deals fu rth e r with th e situation o f a fa rm e r w ho owns lan d o n e ith e r side of a com m only ow ned stretch o f w ater ( usee c o i t c h e n n ) H e is e n titled to access across th e w ater - p resu m ab le bv b rid g e, ford o r causeway. As we have seen in th e previous section, th e sea is classified in legal co m m en tarv as o n e o f th e th re e lan d s' o f a king. T his gives him certain privileges in relatio n to shipw recks o ff his territory. For exam ple, co m m e n ta ry o n Aluirbretha 'sea-ju d g em en ts' states th at a local king (rí túaithe) is e n title d to o n e th ird o f th e carg o o f a ship b o u n d for a n o th e r te rrito rv w hich is driven bv th e w ind o n to his shore. Fractions o f this th ird go to th e provincial king ( ri ai i fid ) an d to th e king o f Ire la n d (n Lirenn ) L ] It is im plicit in a n o th e r legal co m m e n ta ry th at a king receives a substantial rev en u e from the ships a n d b o ats w hich use th e h a rb o u rs (caillte) o f his te rri­ tory. O f this inco m e, seven annals, m ust be p aid to his c h u rc h .1’’ T h e re seem s also an assum ption th a t th e king is e n title d to a share o f salm on, seals a n d porp o ises c a u g h t in th e sea.63 59CIH ii 455.27 = SB 171 (g); CIH iii 959.22-4 = BB 184 (b). m CIH i 98.41. 61 CIH i 315.5-11 = AL iii 424.16-25. Cf. O ’Keeffe, ‘Dál Caladtmig, 20 § 9 dlegait Masaaigr Irian rath Ilian hail Ihr ilia cutrend land In Hr iiF.imw mill rand rig Trnnarh (he Múscraige are entitled to a third of everything which is cast up by a wave on the land of Ireland, except for the share of the king of Tara’. WCIH i 177.34-9. 63« t f i 178.11-12.

Boundary-marks

409

B ou nd a r y -marks

So fa r as we know, m aps o r diagram s show ing th e e x te n t o f lan d -h o ld in g s did n o t exist in p re-N o rm an Irelan d. B oundaries h a d th e re fo re to b e publicized in th e com m unity a n d related to easily id en tifiab le landm arks. An O ld Irish c o m m en tary to Bretha Comaithchesa lists twelve types o f la n d m a rk (bid) w hich may serve to m ark a b o u n d a ry .'’* T hey in c lu d e a rock (ailbld), a ditch (cladbid), a tre e (fidbla), w ater ( linnbld), a n d a ro a d o r lan e (bld rame). Trees are particu larly useful for this p u rp o se :1’'’ th e co m m en tary refers to a v e n e ra te d tre e (bilefeda) o r a g re a t o ak (rail) o r a m o u n d with a tre e o n it (dumae crainn) o r even th e stu m p o f a large tree (bun n-omnai). Rivers a n d stream s are also obviously co n v en ien t as p e rm a n e n t in d icato rs o f a b o u n d ary , an d it is n otew orthy th a t in an eig h th -c e n tu ry re c o rd o f a lan d -tran sactio n (see n e x t section), th e b o u n d a ry o f th e h o ld in g is m ainly d e lin e a te d by stream s.6 46566 A b o u n d a ry may be m ark ed by a naturally o c c u rrin g rock o r b o u l­ der, b u t this c o m m e n ta ry also refers to stones p laced by h u m a n agency, such as a g ravestone (ail lechta) .67 In o th e r legal sources th e re a re m any re fe re n ce s to sta n d in g stones, som etim es incised with og h am , which serve b o th to m ark th e h o ld in g ’s b o u n d a ry and th e grav e-m o u n d (Jert) o f th e lan d o w n er.68 For exam ple, an early legal p o e m refers to stan d in g stones (gaill) which fasten title to la n d ,66 a n d a legal co m m e n ta ry states th a t th e o gham in a standing sto n e (galldn) gives th e force o f possession to th e rightful heir. 11

64 CIH ii 581.11-42 = AL iv 142.8-144.17. The etymology of the term bid (also blai) is uncertain: see LEIA R 55 s.v. 4 blá, blai. 65As in medieval England: see Rackham, The history of the countryside,, 230. 66Bieler, Patrician texts, 172.11-22; cf. CIH ii 581.36 = ATiv 144.10. 67 CIH ii 581.17 = AT iv 142.17. 68For discussion see Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh kinship, 261-2; Charles-Edwards, ‘Boundaries in Irish law'; McManus, A guide to Ogam, 163-5. 69CIH ii 570.37 = Binchy, ‘An archaic legal poem ’, 157.17-18. m CIH vi 2143.39-40. Cf. CIH v 1566.6-7 int oghom isih gollán . . . amalfiadain hé ‘the ogham in the standing stone . . . is like a witness [of ownership] '.

410

Land-tenure

Plate 6. This shows part of f. 17b of the ninth-century Book of Armagh in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin, and has been reproduced by kind permission of the Board of the College. It is the earliest record of a land-transfer which survives in our sources.

Land-acquisition

411

L a n d -a c q u is it io n

W hen o w n ersh ip o f la n d changes, it is obviously o f p a rticu lar im p o r­ tan ce th a t this fact sh o u ld be re c o rd e d . O u r sources refer to the rô le o f th e senchae ‘h isto rian , cu sto d ian of local tra d itio n ’ in m em ­ orizing in fo rm a tio n o n la n d o w n e rsh ip . ' 1 W ritten evidence is also m e n tio n e d in this c o n n e c tio n , particularly with re g ard to churchlan d . O n e te x t in clu d es a w ritten d o c u m e n t (scnbend) am o n g the th re e th in g s w hich secure title to c h u rch -lan d ( tic n-ecalsa),7' and a n o th e r text lists w ritten evidence am o n g th e ten ‘im m ovable rocks’ w hich co n firm ow n ersh ip o f la n d .7 1*7374*6 C h arte rs re c o rd in g th e details o f land-transactions have survived from earlv m edieval Wales a n d Brittany, a n d have proved a rich source o f in fo rm a tio n o n th e social history o f these c o u n trie s. /4 By contrast, c h a rte rs d o n o t o c c u r a m o n g th e surviving d o cu m en ts o f the O ld Irish p erio d . T h e n e a re st w hich we possess are records o f land-transfers to th e C h u rch in th e e ig h th -cen tu ry Additamenta in th e Book o f A rm a g h .''1 I re p ro d u c e on page 410 the m ost d etailed o f these. T h e tex t first describ es how P atrick cam e to the territorv o f th e C alrige (Calrv, Co. Sligo) an d b aptized Macc C áirthin a n d C aích án . It th e n states th a t they gave to Patrick an d to God the fifth p art o f C a íc h á n ’s estate, with th e perm ission o f the local k in g .'f‘ T h e b o u n d a rie s o f this fifth are th e n carefully reco rd ed , a n d in clu d e such lan d m ark s as th e G reat O akw ood (Daire Mo'r), th e Slope o f th e N ine T rees ( Urht Not nOmne) a n d the Stream o f C onaclid ( Gluts C o n a c o l t o ) As th e Additamenta were w ritten about th re e c e n tu rie s after P atrick ’s tim e, this passage is obviously not to b e taken as a g e n u in e re c o rd o f a fifth-century land-transfer. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e a m o u n t o f detail suggests th at the original 71 CIH iv 1376.2 = AL v 368.2-3; CIH iii 747.3-4; 748.13, 37; 749.8. See also DIL s.w. senchae, senchaid. 12 CIH iii 917.8. n CIH iii 747.5; cf. CIH vi 2199.9 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht III’, 361 §46. 74See W. Davies, An Early Welsh microcosm: studies in the Llandaff charters: W. Davies, The Llandaff charters', W. Davies, ‘The Latin charter tradition in western Britain, Brittany and Ireland in the early medieval period’. 7r,Bieler, Patrician texts, 172.11-26. 76Note the implication that the king could have blocked the transaction. See discussion by Doherty, ‘Some aspects of hagiography’, 309-13. 77None of the place-names in this passage has been identified. This list of bound­ ary landmarks can be compared with the ‘peram bulations’ of Anglo-Saxon charters (Rackham, The history of the countryside, 9).

412

Land-tenure

a u th o r was d rsc rib in g a place o f whit h he h ad firsth an d know ledge. T h e co n n e c tio n with P atrick mav th u s be fictitious, but the actual b o u n d a rie s o f this ecclesiastical h o ld in g are likely to be g e n u in e . It is possible that this an d o th e r reco rd s in th e Book of A rm agh w ere copied from ea rlie r d o c u m e n ts with th e in te n tio n of em p h asizin g the Patrician co n n e c tio n of various m o n asteries, th u s p lacing th em w ithin th e o rb it o f A rm a g h .1' L and-tran sactio n s o f th e elev en th a n d tw elfth c e n tu rie s w ere copied in to blank pages of th e eig h th -cen tu m Book o f Kells.' 1 For exam ple, o n e sh o rt text - Kells Chat ter III - re c o rd s the p u rch ase o f land in ab o u t th e year 1092 bv th e priest of C e n an n as (Kells) an d his kinsm en. T h e b o u n d a rie s are given in d etail an d a list o f sureties a p p e n d e d . T h e seventh-centum Book of D urrow also co n tain s a late elev en th -cen tu ry re c o rd of a g ra n t o f lan d given bv the m onastic com m unity o f G lenn L issen (= Killeshin) to that o f D airm aig (D u rro w ).*0 This practice o f re c o rd in g lan d -tran sactio n s in m anuscripts is m e n tio n e d in legal c o m m e n ta ry on proofs of land-ow nership, w ritten in a b o u t th e twelfth c e n tu ry .81 The c o m m e n ta to r distinguishes th e senlebar ‘old m a n u sc rip t', madebar ‘copy’, a n d fiarduille ‘cu rv ed le a f , i.e. scroll.

Male inheritance T h e assu m p tio n in th e law-texts a n d o th e r sources is th a t th e typical lan d o w n er is in possession by in h e rita n c e . T h e re are how ever m any gaps in o u r know ledge o f how lan d -in h eritan ce w orked in early Irish society. T his is partly because two crucial law-texts o n th e subject, Corns Fine ‘th e re g u latio n o f th e kin -g ro u p ’8“ an d Macrslechtae 'so n -sectio n s',8’ survive only in fragm ents. T h e n o rm a l p ro c e d u re seem s to have b e e n for an in h e rita n c e o f lan d {orbae) to be divided a m o n g th e o w n er’s sons o n his d eath . However, g enealogical tra d itio n provides evidence o f the possible division o f la n d by a fa th e r d u rin g his own lifetim e. For 7sl)ohertv, ‘Some aspects of hagiography’, 304. ,9Mac Niocaill, Notitiae as LeabharCheanannais: MacNiocaill, ‘The Irish “charters’” ; Herbert, ‘Charter material from Kells’. 80Best, ‘An early monastic grant in the Book of Durrow'. 81 CIH vi 2143.32-7. For post-Norman land-charters in Irish, see Hardiman, Ancient Irish deeds and writings. 82 CIH ii 728.17-746.16. 83 CIH i 107.9-110.13; iv 1296.17-1301.16; v 1546.26-1550.14.

Land-acquisition

413

ex am p le, C a th á e r of th e l.aigin is said to have given land to each of his sons, ex cep t for Fiachu w ho was too voting. C ath áer asked his o th e r sons th a t they sh o u ld each k eep Fiachu fo r a m o n th u n til h e was o ld e n o u g h to receive an in h e rita n c e. T h e division was d e a t h m ad e d u rin g C ath áer's lifetim e, as the story goes on to tell how F iach u w ept in his fa th e r’s p resen ce on ac c o u n t o f th e a rra n g e m e n t.*''4 L and mav also be divided u p in the o w n er’s lifetim e if h e is an im becile, senile o r physically in c ap ab le .85 N o t all sons a re eligible for a share in th e ir fa th e r’s land. \lacc\lechtae excludes sons w ho fall in to th e category o f ‘sons o f d a rk n e ss’.86 A son m ay b e ex clu d ed becau se o f d o u b t as to his paternity, such as a son conceived in th e bush es ( macc m uini) or the son o f a p ro stitu te. A p ro claim ed o r outlaw ed son (macc fierai) is also e x clu d ed , as is an im p io u s son ( macc ingor) w ho fails to look a fte r an aged fath er.8. O n e w ho has slain a kinsm an likewise forfeits his sh are o f an in h e rita n c e .88 T h e division o f an in h e rita n c e a m o n g th e heirs (comarbai) is m ade bv th e youngest. T h e eldest gets th e first choice, th e second eldest th e seco n d choice, a n d so o n .84 T h e y o u n g est gets th e last choice: it is th e re fo re in his in terests to divide th e in h e rita n c e as fairly as possible. A cco rd in g to O ld Irish co m m e n ta ry o n Bretha Comaithchesa, the eld est son gets th e farm -builclings (tige), th e yard (lis), and th e area a ro u n d th e vard (airlise) in ad d itio n to his share o f la n d .90 If a m a n p re d e c e ase s his fa th e r b efo re th e division o f th e in h e ri­ tance, his sons g e t th e sh are w hich w ould have b e e n h is.91 W here th e re a re n o eligible sons, th e in h e rita n c e m ust go to som e o th e r relative o r relatives. If th e re are d a u g h te rs, it may go to o n e o r m ore o f them : see p. 415 below. m CGH 70-1 = LL vi 1353.40440-1354.40453. Cf. Dillon, Leborna Cert, 164. 85 CIH iv 1276.19-23 = Smith, ‘Advice to Doidin’, 68. Cf. Meyer, Triads, 26 § 205. 88 CIH iv 1296.36-9; cf. CIH i 232.6-7 = A L \ 452.15-16. For further discussion on excluded sons, see GEIL 102-3. 87 CIH ii 534.26 = AL iii 52.17. m CIHiv 1301.17-20. 89 CIH iv 1289.11 rannaid ósar ? dogoa sinser ‘the youngest divides and the eldest chooses’. However, in an eighth-century poem (O Daly, ‘A poem on the Airgialla’, 180 § 6), it is the eldest who makes the division ‘in accordance with Irish law’ (iar Fénechas). Thomas Charles-Edwards suggests that the eldest might be responsible for the division when he is also a political leader. See p. 430 below for references to the division o f land by the ceann fine in post-Norman Ireland. 90 CIH ii 575.14. 91 CIH ii 739.17-18; V 1547.13-17.

414

Land-tenure

If a w hole family dies o u t, th e legal situation is com plex: how is th e p ro p erty to he d istrib u ted a m o n g th e w ider circle of rela­ tives who m ight have a claim on it? No d etailed acco u n t o f the p ro ced u re s has survived, a n d it is som etim es im possible to re c o n ­ cile th e evidence in various texts - th e re may have b e e n variation in practice. N o netheless, th e u n d erlv in g p rin c ip le is clear: a kins­ m a n ’s e n title m e n t to a share in th e lan d is based on the n earn ess o f his relatio n sh ip with th e extinct family. F or ex am p le, acco rd ­ ing to th e late recen sio n o f Con Con am bugill. if th e re is ex tin ctio n o f a gelfine (th e d esc e n d a n ts o n th e m ale line o f a g ra n d fa th e r), th ree q u a rte rs o f th e in h e rita n c e ( dibad) are d istrib u te d a m o n g the next circle o f kinship, i.e. th e derbfme (th e d e sc e n d a n ts on th e m ale line o f a g rea t-g ra n d fa th e r). T h e re m a in in g q u a rte r is divided in th e p ro p o rtio n o f th re e to o n e a m o n g th e iarfine (th e d escen d an ts on th e m ale line o f a g reat-g reat-g ran d fath er) an d the indfinr (the d escen d an ts on th e m ale line o f a g reat-g reat-g reat-g ran d fath er ).'IJ It is obvious that in such cases, m in u te p o rtio n s o f land m ight be d istrib u te d a m o n g very larg e n u m b e rs o f relatives. T h e sam e text describes a five-vear p ro c e d u re for dividing in h e r­ ited la n d .9'5 T his seem s to be d e sig n ed for cases w here th e heirs have in h e rite d eq u al shares o f a reaso n ab le large h o ld in g , an d do n o t have a d etailed know ledge o f th e qualité o f th e la n d .9* In the first year, th e share o f each h e ir is tem p o rarilv m ark ed o u t bv a plough: this is d escrib ed as t h e ‘ox-division’ (d a m n um ). In the sec­ o n d year, th e shares are ex ch an g ed . In th e th ird t ear, the shares at e m easured . In th e fo u rth year, house-posts are established in each sh are.9:> Finally, in th e fifth year, lots are cast to d ecid e th e p o rtio n o f lan d w hich goes to each h e ir.96 A n o tab le featu re o f th e early Irish svstem o f la n d -in h e rita n ce is a k in sm a n ’s e n title m e n t to a re-sharing o f th e kin-land in c ertain 92C//7 iii 1034.37-1035.5 = Thurneysen, Cóic Conara Fugill, 44 § 70. See also discussion by Baumgarten, ‘Kindred metaphors’. 93 CIH iii 1034.3-11 = Thurneysen, Cóic Conara Fugill, 42 §§ 64-5. Cf. Cl11 ii 740.12-18. 94CIH ii 740.12-13 Ferann dibaid. . . nochan aithnidh doibé ‘inherited land . . . which is not known to them (the heirs)’. 95This hardly means that each heir is required to erect a perm anent dwellinghouse. The intention seems rather to be symbolic: the erection of any sort of structure demonstrates a claim to ownership. 9601d Irish commentary on Bretha Comaithchesa describes the same procedure in relation to the straightforward division of an inheritance among sons, CIH ii 575.4-12.

La nd-acqu isi tion

415

circum stances. T h e details are not a lto g e th e r clear from the texts, b u t it seem s th at it o n e b ra n c h o f a kin is p articularly prolific, its m em b e rs may d e m a n d a re-sharing at th e ex p en se o f a less prolific b ra n c h with excess land. T h e in te n tio n is to secure if possible a viable la n d -h o ld in g fo r all k in sm e n .97 O u r so urces also re fe r to an e x tra sh are o f lan d , called th e cumal senorlxu th e carnal o f th e old in h e rita n c e ’.989* A ccording to an O ld Irish legal gloss, this is lan d valued at o n e cumal w hich goes to the h e a d o f a kin-group. In re tu rn , h e takes o n liahilitv for th e crim es o r deb ts o f th e kin-group, a n d provides hospitality for a visiting king o r b is h o p ." A later gloss gives his sh are as o n e seventh o f th e in h e rita b le la n d (ttr ndibaid) .10°

Female inheritance Som e law-texts a re very d o g m atic in re la tio n to a w o m an ’s lack o f legal rights, an d stress th e ex ten t o f h e r co n tractu al incapacity.101 O th e r texts give p ro m in e n c e to circum stances in w hich a w o m an ’s rights a re sim ilar to those o f a m a n .102 B ecause o f these differ­ e n t em phases, it is p articularlv difficult to generalize ab o u t fem ale in h e rita n c e in o u r p erio d . Xorm allv. a d a u g h te r can only in h erit m ovable p ro p erty .103 How­ ever, if she has n o b ro th ers, she may take over p art o r all o f th e land as a fem ale h e ir (banchomarbae) ,10405 b u t she c a n n o t in h e rit m ore lan d th an th e w orth o f fo u rte e n aunals .1'13 Som e legal restrictions o n a w om an a re o f necessity relax ed in th e case o f a fem ale heir: she obviouslv co u ld n o t m an ag e h e r farm w ith o u t the right to m ake purchases, sales an d o th e r essential contracts. If she m arries a la n d ­ less m an , h e d o es n o t acq u ire c o n tro l over h e r property. In such 97The evidence is discussed by Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh kinship, 64-70. 98 CIH i 215.34 = SEIL 141. 99 CIH iii 912.2-3 = SEIL 141 (v) H 1. For more detailed discussion of the cumal senorbai, see Plummer, ‘Notes on some passages in the Brehon laws IV’, 113-14; Thurneysen, Irisches Recht, 80; Dillon, SEIL 141-2; Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh kinship, 513. m CIH i 216.9-10 = SEIL 141 (v)a. 101E.g. CIH ii 443.29-444.6 = Thurneysen, Irisches Recht, 35 § 38. I02E.g. CIH vi 2295.2-4, 2295.39-2296.2 = Binchy, ‘Brelha Crólige’, 26 § 33; 28 § 35. 103 CIH ii 736.28-9; iv 1154.30-31; vi 2039.39-40 = SEIL 133 § 6; 168 § 23. 104For a fuller discussion o f the rights of the female heir, see SEIL 129-79 and Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh kinship, 82-7. If there is a num ber of daughters and no sons, it is likely that the land is divided between them. l05CIH i 217.21 = SEIL 155 (xv). A bóaire is expected to own land worth fourteen cumals: see p. 421 below.

416

Land-tenure

a case, acco rd in g to th e law-text on m arriag e, (Â in IÂnam nn, the m an goes in to th e position ol th e w om an a n d the w om an goes into th e position o f th e m a n ’.106 T h e re are special restrictio n s on a fem ale h e ir's right to b e q u e a th land to h e r h u sb a n d o r sons. N orm ally, it reverts on h er d e a th to h e r own kin-group. But il h e r h u sb a n d is an alien - such as a B riton, w ho w ould have n o land in th e túath - she is e n title d to pass on an in h erita n c e to h e r s o n .1"' A ccording to an O ld Irish glossator, this consists o f lan d w orth seven ruinais, i.e. th e property-qualification o f an ócaire, th e lowest g rad e of ad u lt fre e m a n .1"’' T h e re is also evidence th a t if a fem ale h e ir has n o son, she mav b e q u e a th land to h e r d a u g h te r o r d a u g h te rs.1119108* T h e re was obviouslv stro n g pressu re o n a fem ale h e ir to m arry a cousin on h e r fa th e r's side: this w ould en su re th a t all th e la n d stayed w ithin th e k in -g ro u p .1 It is likely th a t th e o p p o rtu n itie s for an early Irish w om an to acquire p erso n al land w ere lim ited. In legal theory, however, th e re seem s to be n o reason whv an e x cep tio n al w om an should n o t acq u ire p erso n al lan d from p rofessional e a rn in g s o r from the profits o f successfully farm in g h e r sh are o f kin -lan d .111 In such cases, she can b e q u e a th h e r p e rso n a l la n d in the sam e wav as a m ale landow ner. O n e te x t refers to th e division o f lan d - apparen tly p erso n al land - betw een a w o m an 's son(s) a n d h e r kin-group after h e r d e a th .112 Legal c o m m e n ta ry also refers to possession by a w om an o f ‘in h e rita n c e o f h a n d a n d th ig h ' (orbae cruib 7 sliasta): this is ap p aren tlv lan d w hich a p a re n t has acq u ired th ro u g h his o r h e r own e x e rtio n s a n d w hich mav be given to a 106 CIU ii 515.23-4 = SEIL 57 § 29. 107CIH ii 431.30-31 = AL iv 284.19-21. See also the section on ‘adoption’ below. 108CIH iii 917.30-31. 109CIH i 215.15-32 = SEIL 135-6 § 9 (and glosses, cf. CIH iii 911.21-3). Cf„ also, CIH ii 378.18 = AL i 146.y Atkgabâil aile do ingin im comorbus a mdthar ‘distraint o f two days for a daughter about the inheritance of her m other’. ii0CIH i 216.35-217.10 = SEIL 150 (xii) = Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh kinship. 518.25-38. Ci. (.Ill iii 912.26-8. See O Corráin. ‘Marriage in earlv Ireland’, 11—12: O Corráin, ‘Women and law in early Ireland', 52-6. 11‘For a brief discussion of the legal position of exceptionally gifted or qualified women - such as a female physician, a female wright, or a holy woman - see GEIL

'll. 112CIH i 217.11—20 - SLIL 151—4 = Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh kinship, 518.29-34 (and discussion on p. 83). The Old Irish gloss (CIH iii 913.3-4) has is iama ec.aib randlair iter macu 7 a braithri ‘after h er death, it is divided between sons and her kinsmen’.

Land-acquisition

417

son o r d a u g h te r.11' A passage in th e e ig h th -cen tu ry Additamenta in th e Book o f A rm agh describes a com plicated land-transaction w hereby a n u n u sed th e valuables w hich she w ould have b ro u g h t in to h e r m a rria g e to buv h a lf an estate. T his h a lf is d escribed as b ein g fullv h e r p ro p e rty (ogdiks). T h e passage th us recognizes a w om an 's e n title m e n t to acq u ire p erso n al lan d as a p ate rn a l gift. " 4 T h e law-texts p reserv e som e tra d itio n s w hich suggest th a t it was possible fo r a w om an to b e a larg e landow ner. For instance, th e leg e n d a rv D tianach o f th e U laid is d escrib ed as a banchoairt 'fem ale la n d o w n e r’, an d is said to have possessed seven h u n d re d cow s.11’ A n o th e r leg en d arv fem ale lan d o w n er m e n tio n e d in legal m aterial is M edb o f th e U laid. She is re p re se n te d as b ein g a fem ale h o sp italler (banbriugu) , i.e. a p erso n who acquires special status bv p ro v id in g hospitality to allco m ers.1lb Legal problem s c o n n e c te d with th e division o f h e r p ro p e rty a m o n g h e r th ree sons after h e r d eath are discussed in two fragm ents o f co m m en tary .117 T h e re is n o m e n tio n o f any o f h e r p ro p e rty rev ertin g to h e r fa th e r’s kin-group. A d o p tio n T h e e n title m e n t o f an aging o r infirm lan d o w n er to a d o p t an h eir is h e d g e d in w ith restrictions. T h e a d o p tio n (Jóesam) m ust be a legal c o n tra c t b o u n d bv sureties from th e a d o p te r’s kin, an d a u th o ­ rized by th e h e a d o f th e k in .118 T h e a d o p te d son d o es n o t gain au to m atic rights to a full sh are o f th e kin-land, b u t only to w hat is stip u la te d in th e c o n tra c t.119 In d e e d , an O ld Irish legal comm e n ta rv stresses th at he is n o t e n title d to any lan d at all unless the k in-gro u p has actually failed in its duty o f carin g for the kin-m em ber

11 ' SF.II. 152.

114Bieler, Patrician texts, 174.3-14. This passage seems tp be a contemporary account of an actual transaction: see discussion on p. 420. uhCIH vi 2117.36 = Dillon, ‘Stories from the law-tracts’, 51 § xiv. n6Cf. Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 87 § 1018 batir banbrugaid son ‘they were female hos­ pitallers’. For a brief discussion of the rôle of the briugu ‘hospitaller’, see p. 422 below. U1CIH i 106.39-107.3: v 1546.11-24. !18C /// ii 459.12-14 = Binchy, ‘Coibnes Uisci Thairidne', 66 § 6. n 9CIH ii 431.14 = AL iv 284.17-18. Cf. Wasserschieben, Die . irische Kanonensammlung, 116—17 bk. 32, chs. 21-2.

418

Land-tenure

who is in n e e d o f m a in te n a n c e (i.wire). In a case of unjustified a d o p ­ tion, an a d o p te d son is only e n title d to p aym ent for his work (log fr ic h n a m a )} w

It seem s to have b een a reco g n ized p ro c e d u re fo r a sistet s son to be a d o p te d so as to u n d e rta k e th e duty of m a in te n a n c e. In re tu rn , he is en titled to th e ‘in h e rita n c e l a sister's so n ' (orbae n ia d T 1" 1 As a result o f this a rra n g e m e n t, th e sister's son is often re fe rre d to as th e gormac (M o d ern Irish gar mb fir). w hich literally m eans the ‘dutiful so n '. A ccording to an O ld Irish gloss, an a d o p te d sister s son can only in h e rit land w orth seven rum als, i.e. th e m in im u m property-qualification o f an ócaire Marriage P roperty - in c lu d in g lan d - mav c h an g e h a n d s as p art o f a m ar­ riage a g re e m e n t.I2S T h e bulk o f th e brid e-p rice ( coibrhe) seem s to have go n e to th e b rid e ’s fa th e r;1" 1 however, th e re is also evidence th at a p ro p o rtio n is kept by th e b rid e h e rse lf.1-’ ’ If h e r fa th e r is n o t alive at th e tim e o f h e r m arriag e, th e h e a d o f h e r kin gets half th e bride-price if it is h e r first m arriag e, a th ird if it is h e r second m arriag e a n d a q u a rte r if it is h e r th ird m a rria g e .1JI' If a m arriag e breaks u p th ro u g h th e fault o f th e wife, th e b rid e-p rice m ust be given back. B ut if th e h u sb a n d is to blam e, it is re ta in e d .1“ O u r sources co n tain ntanv referen ces to th e acquisition o f a b rid e in re tu rn fo r livestock an d p recio u s m etal. In th e eig h th -cen tu rv tale Táin BÓ Fraich, King Ailill d e m a n d s sixty h o rses with g o ld en bridle-bits an d twelve cows with w hite re d -eared calves as bride-price ( tindserae) for his d a u g h te r F in d ab air.1"8 T h e re is also evidence in both legal an d literary texts th at land m ig h t be given fo r this pu rp o se. F or exam ple, a law-text refers to land given as a brideprice ( coibrhe mrui), a n d a gen ealo g ical text reco rd s a p ro p h ecy 120*46789 120CIH V 1546.5-9. 121 CIH ii 431.30-31 = AL iv 284.y orba niad .i. fearand gonnhric. m CIH iii 917.30-31. 12:1For a general discussion, see Ó Corráin, ‘Marriage in early Ireland’; Ó Corráin, ‘Women and law in early Ireland’, 46-50. 124( III i 294.40 = AL iii 314.5 each aithair a cetcoibche ‘to every father his [daughter’s] first bride-price. ubCIH i 222.7-8 = AL iv 60.10-12. 126 CIH i 222.28-223.2 = AL iv 62.9-11. 127GEIL 73-5. I28Meid, Táin BóFraich, 7.162-5. 129 CIH i 247.21. = AL v 510.5-6.

Land-acquisition

419

c o n c e rn in g a b rid e-p rice (find seme) of land w hich w ould be given to th e Déssi fo r E ith n e L a th a c h . d a u g h te r o f C rim th a n n .130 A saint's Life describes how King D onm all o f T ara gave land w orth eighty cows as b rid e-p rice ( tochrae) for th e d a u g h te r o f th e king o f the Ui Failgi. She evidently ac q u ire d c o n tro l over this land, as she was able to pass it o n to Saint C o lm án m ac L úach áin a n d his successors for ever.101132 T h e m ain law-text o n m arriag e, Cáin Lánamna, distinguishes th re e ta pes o f p ro p e rty a rra n g e m e n t in a m arriage. In a 'm arriag e o f a w om an on m a n -c o n trib u tio n ' (lánam nus mná fo r ferthinchur) , th e w om an has b ro u g h t in little o r n o th in g .133* In a ‘m arriag e o f a m a n o n w o m a n -c o n trib u tio n ’ (lánam nus fir fo r bantmehur) ,133 a landless m a n has m a rrie d a p ro p e rtie d w om an: see p. 416 above. In th e case o f a 'm a rria g e o f jo in t c o n trib u tio n ’ (lánamnus comthinchuir). b o th p arties have c o n trib u te d land, livestock and e q u ip m e n t.135136 Presum ably, in this type o f m arriag e, th e w ife’s fa th e r has received a brid e-p rice (som e o f it goin g to th e brid e), a n d m ay also have given p ro p e rty to th e co u p le fro m his own perso n al resources. It seem s unlikely th at his kin-group w ould in n o rm a l circu m stan ces p e rm it h im to tran sfer p a rt o f his share o f kin-land to his d a u g h te r a n d son-in-law.

Purchase In th e law-text Crith Gablach it is assum ed th a t if a successful fa rm e r o f boa ire ran k accu m u lates m o re livestock th an his h o lding can su p p o rt, h e will try to buy fu rth e r lan d by selling th e excess an im als.1 A n o th e r law-text, Córus Besgriai, refers to the purchase o f la n d th ro u g h th e pro fits o f a p rofession (dan ).156 Legal c o m m e n ta ry lists th e p rofessions w hich are likely to b rin g in sufficient p ro fit for lan d -p u rch ase as p o etry (filulecht), learn in g (léigm n), craftsm an sh ip in wood o r stone (sairsecht), sm ithcraft (goibnecht), m etalw ork ( cerdacht), a n d law (brethemnas).*37 A 130CG7/ 345; Stokes, CóirAnmann, 362 §§ 169-70. 131Meyer, Betha Colmáin, 90-2 § 89. 132 C1H ii 512.22 = SEIL 45 § 21. 133 CIH ii 515.23 = SEIL 57 § 29. lMCIH ii 505.35 = SEIL 18 § 5. Note that a legal passage on the propertyqualifications of various ranks differentiates the cattle (crodh) owned by an ócaire from those of his wife {CIH iii 1058.7-8). 135 CIH ii 565.2-3; iii 781.10-11 = CG 10.250-1. 136CIH ii 533.19-20 = AL iii 48.18-19. 137CIH ii 533.33 = AL iii 50.6-7; CIH ii 738.6.

420

Land-tenure

M iddle Irish p o em describes how th e m etalw o rker G oscen was given as a rew ard lo r his labours a h o ld in g of lan d well supplied with w ood, w ater a n d b o g .138 T h e p u rc h a se r o f a h o ld in g of land may also acq u ire th e serfs who work th e re . T h u s th e eig h th -c e n tu ry Additamenta in th e Book o f A rm agh refers to th e p u rch ase o f th e estate o f O c h te r A chid by B rethán an d C u m m e n .1®1 T h e acco u n t o f th e tran sactio n m en tio n s C olm án o f th e B ritons, th e ab b o t o f Slane w ho d ied in .AD 751, so it is likely to be a c o n te m p o ra ry a n d accu rate re c o rd .1111 T h e site was evidently for religious use, as G u m m en is d escrib ed as a n u n . No in fo rm a tio n is given a b o u t B rethán: he may have b een a cleric o r a relative o f G um m en. T h e text reco rd s th a t h a lf th e estate belongs to G um m en ‘in b u ild in g a n d in m a n ’ ( i ndoim i nduiniu). It seem s th a t she p u rc h a se d h e r h a lf with th e goods w hich she w ould have b ro u g h t in to h e r m arriag e, i.e. h e r tinól. 141 T his was a p p aren tlv n o t q u ite e n o u g h , so she m ad e a m an tle w hich was sold to E ládach son o f M áelodor for a brow n h orse, w hich was in tu rn sold to G olm án o f th e B ritons for a cumal o f silver. T his carnal w ent as an a d d itio n al p ay m en t (forlóg) fo r th e p u rc h a se o f O c h te r A chid. Exchange For reaso n s o f co n v en ien ce, a fa rm e r m ig h t d ecid e to give som e o f his h o ld in g in e x ch an g e for a p iece o f lan d b e lo n g in g to an o th er. Obviously, he w'ould n e e d to be q u ite sure th at he was gettin g a g o o d barg ain . T riad 72 in clu d es e x ch an g in g for bad lan d (cóemchlód fr i drochferann) a m o n g th e th re e u n fo rtu n a te things o f h usbandry, w hile T riad 73 in clu d es e x c h an g in g fo r g o o d lan d (cóemchlód fri dagferann) a m o n g th e th re e fo rtu n a te th in g s.111’ As we have seen in th e section o n m ale in h e rita n c e (p. 414). the exch an g e o f p o rtio n s o f lan d was p a rt o f th e p ro c e d u re in the division o f an in h e rita n c e a m o n g a w ider circle o f th e kin.

,58E. J. Gwynn, Metrical Dindshenchas iv 318. 139Bieler, Patrician texts, 174.3-14. 140A i/2 206 s.a. 750 (recte 751) § 6 Mors Colmän na mBretan m. Faeläin abbatis Slaine. 141 For this term, see SEIL 127. 142Meyer, Triads, 8 §§ 72-3.

Farm-size

421

Farm -size

T h e re are n o c o n te m p o ra ry reco rd s w hich give the acreage o f for ex am p le - an individual fa rm e r o f bóaire rank. A rchaeological evidence can p ro tid e d etailed in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e dim ensions o f b u ildin g s a n d en clo su res on a p a rtic u la r site, b u t is o f less assistance w hen it com es to th e q u estio n o f how m u ch land was ow ned by the p e o p le w ho lived th e re . T h e law-text on status, Crith Gablach, p ro tid e s g en eral in fo rm a­ tion on th e a m o u n t o f lan d ow ned by d iffe re n t categories o f person, using th e carnal as th e u n it o f v alue. 143 A ccording to Crith Gablach, th e lowest g ra d e o f ad u lt freem an , the ócaire, is e x p ected to own lan d w o rth seven cumals (tir .uii. cumal ).144 Above him , a bôaire is e x p ecte d to have fo u rte e n cum ah o f la n d .114 T his a m o u n t seem s to have h e e n re g a rd e d as a sta n d a rd co m fo rtab le farm in g u n it in both legal a n d non-legal so u rces.146 As we have seen above, a fem ale heir ( banchomarbae) c a n n o t in h e rit m o re th a n this n o m atter how m uch lan d h e r fa th e r possessed .111.*VT h e m ost p ro sp e ro u s g rad e o f bóaire (th e mruigfer) has tw enty-one cum ah o f la n d .148 Crith Gablach does n o t discuss th e a m o u n t o f la n d ow ned by the various g rades o f lord, ra n g in g from th e aire déso ‘lo rd o f vassalry’ to th e aire forgill ‘lo rd o f su p e rio r testim o n y ’. T his is n o d o u b t because th e ir status in society d e p e n d s prim arily on th e ir posses­ sion o f clients ( céili), to w hom they give fiefs o f livestock, lan d or e q u ip m e n t in re tu rn fo r food-rent, la b o u r a n d o th e r services. T he focus o f in te re st is th e re fo re o n th e n u m b e r o f th e ir clients ra th e r th a n th e e x te n t o f th e ir lands. N o n eth eless, it can be assum ed th a t earlv Irish lords generally h a d larg er farm s th an co m m oners o f ócaire o r bóaire ran k . A cco rd in g to c o m m e n tary o n Uraicecht Becc, a lo rd is e x p e c te d to have tw enty-eight cum ah o f land, i.e. 143Presumably, a person’s share of kin-land and any personal land which he may own are counted together. Perhaps rented land may also be included. 144CIH iii 778.25 = CG 4.91. Binchy’s emendation of the text here is confirmed by CIH iii 784.22. For a discussion of the cumal as a unit of value, see Appendix B, p. 574. 145CIH ii 563.6; iii 779.26 = CG 6.153. 146E.g. CGH 207.40 each ra n-orbba bóhairech ‘every other bôaire's inheritance’. 147 CIH i 217.21 = SEIL 155 (xv). 148CIH ii 563.18; iii 779.37 = CG 7.172. Commentary on Uraicecht Becc allots twentyeight cumah to the highest category of bôaire tuiseo ‘bôaire of precedence’ (CIH V 1611.38; vi 2276.24-5 = AL v 90.10). He is presumably a commoner who has obtained the property-qualifications of a lord; see GEIL 28.

Land-tenure

422

d o u b le th e a m o u n t fa rm e d by an o rd in a ry bóaire.149* 7 T h e sam e 2 15 co m m en tary states that even th e highest g rad e o f lord, th e aire forgill, has only o n e p lo u g h te a m . 1 H e has th u s n o g re a te r p lo u g h ­ ing capacity th an the m ost p ro sp e ro u s c o m m o n e r of born re ra n k .1 11 T his suggests that a lo r d ’s su p e rio r socio-econom ic position is n o t d e p e n d e n t o n a significantly larg er ce re a l-p ro d u c tio n th an th at of a com m o n er. T h e ex tra land at his disposal seem s th e re fo re to be devoted to stock-rearing: th e surplus stock is d istrib u te d to his clients, w ho in re tu rn supply him with a re g u la r fo o d -ren t (p. 320). A ccord in g to Uraicecht Brer, a h o sp italler ( b riu g u ) has twice the land o f a lord (flaith) ,1d2 an d th e acco n tp an v in g c o m m e n ta ry to the text e n u m e ra te s this as fifty-six aim ais o f la n d .1 11 Som e glossators on this text seem re lu c ta n t to accept th at th e btiugn. a no n -n o b le, could have so m u ch la n d .1’4 However, this figure fits in with what we know o f th e rôle o f th e briugu in early Irish society.1” H e is a rich lan d o w n er o f n o n -n o b le b irth w ho acq u ires ex tra status bv providing hospitality. U nlike a lo rd , he does n o t receive food-rent from clients. H e th e re fo re n eed s a g reat deal o f lan d to p ro d u c e en o u g h fo o d to satisfy large n u m b e rs o f guests. A section o f legal c o m m e n ta ry c o n ta in s an in te re stin g observation o n th e p ro p o rtio n of a low -ranking fa rm e r's land used for d ifferen t p u rp o se s.1’’1’ O f th e seven annals ow ned bv the average ora ire, o n e annal is p lo u g h e d fo r c e reals.1 ” a n d a n o th e r provides aftergrass (athlompaire) fo r w inter. T h re e annals are grazed by various types o f livestock, w hich are specified in the co m m en tary as seven cows, th re e d ry cattle, ten sheep, five pigs.

to,

149 c m ii 645. 20, 34; 646.24 = A L v44.14, 29; 46.16-17; 48.26; cf. CIH iii 1057.19, 27; CIH V1562.31, 36; 1563.5, 11-12. The figure of forty-nine cumah at CIH ii 685.27 is a mistake for twenty-eight cumah; cf. CIH v 1563.11-12. 190 CIH ii 646.27 = AL v 48.27. Crith Gablach likewise allots only one ploughteam to the aire tuiseo (CIH ii 567.27; iii 783.34 = CG 16.409). 1,1 According to Crith Gablach, the most prosperous boain - the mruigfn - has a lull ploughteam (CIH ii 563.25; iii 780.4 = CG 7.181). 152CIH ii 653.35 = AL v 76.1-2. m CIH ii 654.15 = AL v 78.1. !54Compare the glosses at CIH ii 653.35; v 1608.11; vi 2273.36; 2324.19, where scribal insertions and alterations suggest uncertainty. Note also that in another commentary (CIH v 1564.7), the briugu has only twenty-eight cumals o f land. 155See GEIL 36-8. ' (.{H iii 1058.10—12. T his commentary introduces a further distinction, irrelevant in the present discussion, between tirones with six, seven, and eight cumah of land. 157The commentary mentions only barley (éornae). Cf. CIH v 1543.22, 26.

L a n d le ss people

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two horses, th re e h e n s a n d a co ck.158 N o in fo rm atio n is given a b o u t th e use o f th e re m a in in g two annals o f land; som e o f it may have b e e n w o o d la n d (p. 389). R ent of land If a fa rm e r does n o t have e n o u g h lan d for his n eeds h e may m ake an a g re e m e n t to re n t la n d (fochraic Ihire) from a n o th e r farm er. In a m arriag e in to w hich b o th h u sb a n d a n d wife have c o n trib u te d p ro p ­ erty ( lanam m is comthinchuir) , this is o n e o f th e ag reem en ts w hich e ith e r p a rtn e r can m ake w ith o u t th e co n sen t o f th e o th e r.lo9 T he sam e provision is m ad e in th e case o f a grow n-up son whose fath er still co n tro ls th e farm . Even against his fa th e r’s wishes, h e may ren t lan d if th e re is n o t e n o u g h ro o m fo r him to farm along with his fa th e r.11’" A cco rd in g to legal co m m entary, if a fa rm e r ren ts o u t land to a n o th e r with p erm issio n to p lo u g h , graze, an d use water, he is e n titled to o n e th ird o f all th e p ro d u c e . If th e re is only perm ission to graze, h e gets every seventh cow a t th e e n d o f th e year.161 T h e r e n t o f la n d m ay fo rm p a r t o f th e c o n tra c t betw een a client a n d his lord. T h e co m m o n est form o f clien tsh ip seem s to have co n ­ sisted o f th e advance o f a fief ( taurchrecc o r rath) o f cattle in re tu rn fo r an a n n u a l fo o d -re n t a n d o th e r services.162 However, it is clear from a law-text on th e p rofit (somoine) d u e for various form s o f re n t­ in g th a t a lo rd co u ld also give a fief o f lan d o r farm ing e q u ip m e n t to his c lie n t.161 A client may re n t lan d from a lay lord (flaith) o r from th e C h u rc h , a n d pays his re n t in c attle.164 L andless people T h e O ld Irish law-texts c o n c e n tra te o n landow ners and th eir d e p e n ­ dants, a n d it is g en erally assum ed th at w ealth is to be eq u a te d with o w nersh ip o f extensive lands g razed by n u m e ro u s cattle. Loss o f lan d n o rm ally brin g s a b o u t loss o f rank: Vraicecht Beer o rd ain s that 158 CIH iii 1058.12 fir trigchumal aige a n-irchomhairfeôirfri hearnaile ‘he has land of three cumals for grass for [the various] classes [of livestock]’. 159 CIH ii 506.16 = SEIL 19 § 5. 160CIH i 45.34 = ALv 284.27-8; cf. CIH vi 2193.5-6 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht III’, 311 §7. 161 CIH i 257.30-34 = AL iii 126.20-128.3; cf. ClH iii 778.26-7 = CG 4.93-4. 162For further discussion of clientship, see GEIL 29—33 and Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh kinship, 337—63. 163CIH iii 921.9, 20, 21, 25, 32, 35. 164CIH iii 921.32-4.

424

L a n d -te n u r e

a freem an w ho sells o ff his lan d loses his free sta tu s.11” Conversely, if an o u tsid er (deornd) buys a lan d -h o ld in g he is reclassified as a p erso n o f legal stan d in g (aurrad) Bretha Étgid recognizes th e special circu m stan ces of a p a rtn e rsh ip betw een a landless m an a n d a la n d o w n e r.11" A ccording to the accom panying co m m entary, th e fo rm e r is called a carpat ar imram ‘ch ario t in m o tio n ’, an d has cattle h u t n o la n d .1'1* T h e latter is called a foltarh fuithirbe ‘o n e with substance in fields', a n d has lan d but n o c a ttle .169 T h e c o m m e n ta to r gives th e ex am p le o f o n e p a rtn e r with twenty-eight cumals o f lan d , a n d th e o th e r with twenty-four cows, b u t presum ably less afflu en t p eo p le could also e n te r such p a rtn e rsh ip s. N e ith e r p a rtn e r is en title d to an h o n o u r-p rice until a form al a g re e m e n t (cmndelg) has been m ade betw een th em . T hey th e n each have h a lf th e h o n o u r-p rice which is d u e to a p erso n o f th e ir c o m b in e d w ealth. It is possible th at the term mruigfer 'la n d m a n ', w hich is used in ('.nth Gublach of the m ost afflu en t g rad e o f bóaire (see p. 447 below ), mas also be used in a q u ite d ifferen t sense o f a fa rm e r w ho has lan d but no stock, i.e. th e foltach fuithirbe o f legal glosses an d com m entarv. In Bretha Déin Chécht, th e braider (p resu m ab le a later spelling o f mruigfer) 1 is ra n k e d below th e fer midboth 'm a n o f m iddle h its'. 1,1 In th e law-text o n status Uraicecht Becc, th e mruigfer is placed above the Jer midboth, but below th e ocaire o r boaire} ' 1 In b o th texts, this category o f p e rso n is id en tified as a foltach fuithirbe in the accom panying gloss. It is p ro b ab le th at certain professionals co u ld also attain w ealth a n d status w ithout ow ning lan d , th o u g h as we have seen above (p. 419) th e assu m p tio n in legal c o m m e n ta rv is d e a th th at a successful p o et, sm ith, build er, o r lawyer is likely to p u t his 165 COT ii 638.10 = AL V 20.1-2: cf. COT ii 585.5-10 = AL iv 352.11-17. 186COT V 1640.18. 167COT i 260.13: iv 1188.24; 1261.4-6 = AL iii 140.y-142.2. 1^C om m entary on Cúic ConaraFugiti likewise refers to the arrangem ent whereby a sáerbothach ‘free cottier’ grazes and waters his cattle on another’s land in return for a supply of milk (COT iii 1038.28-31 = Thurneysen, Cóic Conara Fugill, 54 § 121). lh9The adjective foltach is a derivative of folud ‘wealth, property, etc.’, and fuithirbe (fuithribe) means ‘ridge, field-boundary, field’ (see Mac Mathúna, 'Some words for “(man-made) ridge” in Irish’, 445-6). 17°Cf. COT vi 2308.26 - Binchy, ‘Bretha Déin Chécht', 28 § 12 (commentary) bruigfeoir. 171 COT vi 2308.35 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Déin Chécht', 30 § 13. For the fer midboth, see p. 445 below. ( III ii 655.11 ; V 1609.12; vi 2274.17; 2325.21 - AL v 78.25 mbruidfear, mbruigfer.

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profits in to lan d -p u rch ase. O n e co u ld im agine th a t th e re were n o n eth e le ss m any landless craftsm en in m onastic settlem ents w ho m ad e an a d e q u a te living bv m a n u fa c tu rin g articles for th eir clerical p a tro n s. T h e m e rc h a n t ( cennaige) co u ld also becom e rich w ith o u t ow ning land, th o u g h it m ust be ad m itted that this professio n does n o t fe a tu re p ro m in en tly in th e w ritten sources.1'3 T h e law-texts m ake special m e n tio n o f th e position o f th e herm it, som etim es called a dithir Dé ‘landless o n e o f G o d ’, o r simply a dithir ‘landless o n e ' . 1 His prestige is so great th at his evidence can o v e rtu rn any c o n tra c t,1' ' an d his o a th ca n n o t be a n n u lle d by a c o u n te r-o a th (fnthnoill) . 1'6 But, in g en e ra l, landlessness entails legal restrictions. For ex am p le, Berrad Airechta p o in ts o u t th a t a c o n tra c t m ad e w ith a landless p e rso n (dithir) is invalid unless au th o rized by a p ro p e rtie d su p e rio r.1' L andlessness is o fte n associated w ith displaced or d estitu te p e o p le a t th e m arg in s o f society. T h e law-texts refer to th e ty pe o f w an d erin g dow n-and-out know n as th e sinnach brothlaig ‘fox o f a co o k in g -p it’,1731456178 a n d th e riascaire ‘m arsh-dw eller’, w ho travels fro m m a rsh to m arsh o r from m o u n ta in to m o u n ta in .179 Such p erso n s survive th ro u g h scavenging o r charity.180 A law-text o n lo rd sh ip w arns o f th e folly o f g ra n tin g a ‘fief o f th e w o o d ’ (rath caille),181 i.e. a fief o f cattle to a w ood-dw elling w an d erer (loingsech) ,182 A lo rd w ho does so c a n n o t e x p ect any pro fit (somoine) o n his in v estm en t. T h e re are a n u m b e r o f legal referen ce s to th e raitech ‘m a n o f th e ro ad , v ag ran t’, w ho is 173 GEIL 7. Note, however, that a story preserved in Cormac’s Glossary and in the Metrical Dindshenchas describes the drowning of Brecán, a renowned merchant (cen­ naige) of the Uí Néill, who was said to be engaged in mutual trading ( comchennach) between Ireland and Scotland (Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 28 § 323; E. J. Gwynn, Metrical Dindshenchas iv 82.37-44; MacCana, Learned tales, 146-7). Cf. also the mention of the cennaige (Latin negotiator) in a ninth-century text, The monastery of Tallaghl (ed. Gwynn and Purton, 149-50 § 61). 174E.g. CIH v 1818.16. i75CIH V 1570,5. The reading fiadnaisi ûrdîthre here seems better than ./. fir dtthreb of CIH iv 1150.37. 176Meyer, Triads, 22 § 165; cf. 40 § 165. 177 C/H ii 593.35—8 = Stacey, ‘Berrad Airechta’, 215 § 37. 178CIH vi 2193.26-7 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht III’, 317 § 11; CIH ii 585.30-31 = AL iv 354.11-12. 179 CIH ii 585.27-9 = AL iv 354.7-10. 180E.g. CIH ii 585.9 = AL iv 352.15-16. 181 CIH ii 433.16-17. 182C 7//iii 918.11.

426

Land-tenure

d escrib ed in glosses as 'an u n a tta c h e d p erso n w ho travels from place to p la c e ’,lfW o r ‘o n e w ho is exiled iro n t his k in '.1''1 T he law-text on legal entry, Din Lechtugud, deals with th e case of a lan d -ho ld in g b ein g taken over bv a raitech.'* ’ H e is allow ed th e use o f o n e th ird o f th e land for th re e days u n til a decision is m ade ab o u t his credentials. As a glossator p o in ts o u t. the raitech niav be able to prove th at he is a g e n u in e h e ir w ho was a b d u c te d bv fo reign ers w hen young, o r th at h e has b een awav for m any years at study.1*1’ If he is fo u n d to have n o g e n u in e claim , he m ust leave a n d pay a fine for th e use o f th e land. C o m m en tarv on Din Techtugud distinguishes th e raitech ascnama methcna 'vagrant who seeks a la n d -h o ld in g ’ a n d th e raitech déxrge a methen 'vagrant who leaves a la n d -h o ld in g ’.1*' T h e latter is n o d o u b t to be id en tified with th e esert ‘a b se n te e ’ (see p. 402). Landlessness is som etim es associated in o u r sources with p re d a ­ tory w ar-bands o f y o ung m en. Kim M cC one has d e m o n stra te d th at m em b ersh ip o f a w ar-band (/fan) was com m o n lv re g a rd e d as a p re ­ lude to th e settled life o f a la n d o w n er.1** .An o b serv atio n in the w isdom -text Tecosca Cormaic co n trasts th e lifestvle o f th e w arrio r a n d th e farm er: fénnid each co trebad ’evervone is a w arrior till farm ­ in g ’ i.e. a fa rm e r is as unlik e a w arrio r as it is possible to b e .1*'1 A g eneral low esteem for landlessness is suggested bv th e m axim ferr mruig mlichtaib ‘la n d is b e tte r th a n m ilk-vields’. i.e. it is b e tte r to own the p e rm a n e n t asset o f la n d ra th e r th a n th e te m p o ra rv asset o f cattle.190

1s ' CII1 ii 363.30-1 = AL i 106.7-8 duine dilmain bisfor sibal a hinndh d ’inadh. ]84CIH i 33.7; v 1843.6 = AL v 244.17 loingsechfine, cf. CIH iii 905.39. 185C /// i 212.32-213.17 = AL iv 28.1—5. See Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh kinship, 269-70. 186CIH i 33.7-10 = AL v 244.16-20. 187CIH i 213.6-7 = AL iv 30.7-8; cf. CIH i 212.35 = AL iv 28.6; CIH i 33.7 = AL v 244.17. Melhas ‘land-holding, home territory' is attested with both o- and udeclension. There is no justification for the suggestion at AL vi 565 that it refers to ‘marches, unappropriated ground between two territories’. 188McCone, ‘Werewolves, Cyclopes, diberga, and fianna'-, McCone, Pagan past and Christian present, 203—32. 189Meyer, Tecosca Cormaic, 46 § 31.10. For the idiom with cách co, see DIL C 273.19-21. 190Smith, ‘SenbriathraFithail, 87 § 90 (YBL version).

Landless people

427

N o m a d ry N o m ad ry is characteristic o f p eo p le living in difficult terrain such as th e A rctic o r th e S ahara, w h ere grazing may be sparse o r seasonal, a n d clim atic c o n d itio n s u n su itab le for agriculture. To secu re a d e q u a te grazing, th e e n tire p o p u la tio n m ust m ove at intervals with all th e ir livestock a n d possessions. N om adry is to be d istin g u ish e d from tra n sh u m a n c e , th e p ractice o f driving livestock i n su m m e r to u p la n d grazing. As we have seen above (p. 43), the acco u n ts o f tra n sh u m a n c e in early Irish sources indicate that those w ho acco m p a n ied th e cattle were m ainly young people, an d it can be assum ed th at e n o u g h able-bodied adults stayed b e h in d to lo o k a fte r th e crops a n d h o m estead . It is clear, too, th a t all livestock did n o t necessarilv leave th e farm : Cn'th Gablach refers to the co n sta n t p re se n c e o f sh eep ‘w ith o u t m ig ra tio n ’ (cen imrnirgi) in th e g re e n o f a p ro sp ero u s fa rm e r.191 T h e g en eral pictu re is thus o f tra n sh u m a n c e as a m ean s o f re d u c in g grazing-pressure o n the h o m e farm d u rin g th e su m m er m onths. N om adry, by contrast, d o es n o t at all fit in with th e tvpes o f farm in g described in the O ld Irish law-texts, with th e ir c o n stan t em phasis o n crop-cultivation, m a n u rin g o f th e soil, fen cin g o f land, an d o th e r indicators o f a se td e d lifestyle. In a re c e n t article, ‘N o m a d ry in m edieval Ire la n d ’, K atharine Sim m s has d escrib ed th e very d iffe re n t c o n d itio n s which o b tain ed in p a rts o f th e c o u n try in th e tu rb u le n t fifte e n th a n d sixteenth c e n tu rie s .19' In this p erio d , th e re is evidence o f th e w idespread h arassm e n t a n d ex p ulsio n o f settled agriculturalists by w andering pastoralists, w ho w ere o rg a n iz e d in g ro u p s called creaghts.193 K en n eth N icholls has lin k ed th e grow th o f n o m ad ry with a d e clin in g p o p u la tio n a n d u n d er-u tilizatio n o f land: h e sees this d e v e lo p m e n t as stem m in g from th e great plagues o f the fo u rte e n th ce n tu ry a n d th e collapse o f th e colonial econom y in Ire la n d . 194

d H ii 564.7-8; iii 780.14-15 = CG 8.198. Simms, ‘Nomadry in medieval Ireland’. 193She makes the plausible suggestion that the term creaght (also m at, keryaghte) is an anglicization of Irish caoraigheacht (cáeraigecht) ‘mass, mustering’. 1 9 4 Nicholls, Land, law and society in sixteenth-century Ireland, 9-12. 191

192

Land-tenure

428 L a n d -t e n u r e

in ia t e r

G a e l ic I r e l a n d

Legal glosses a n d co m m e n ta ry d ate m ain h from betw een th e elev en th a n d fo u rte e n th c en tu ries, a n d a re th e re fo re approxim ately hall a m illen n iu m latei th an th an th e law-texts on which thev are based. O n e m ight th e re fo re exp ect th at they w ould b e a rich source o f in fo rm a tio n o n th e d ev elo p m en t o f Irish laws an d in stitu tio n s d u rin g th e in te rv e n in g p erio d . However, as we have seen in th e In tro d u c tio n (p. 11), th e glossators a n d c o m m e n ta to rs are m ain h p re o ccu p ied with th e c o rre c t in te rp re ta tio n o f th e O ld Irish law-texts, a n d in elu cidatin g th e p rin cip les w hich are laid dow n th e re. T h e m erits o f alternative in terp o latio n s o f kev passages are discussed, hut d ire c t c o n tra d ic tio n is rare. N onetheless, these later sources d o give occasional evidence o f change. In relatio n to th e h isto ry o f la n d -te n u re in Irelan d , the use o f certain term s for lan d o w n in g c o m m o n e rs is significant. T h ro u g h o u t th e O ld Irish law-texts, a d istin ctio n is m ade betw een two m ain grad es o f land o w n in g co m m o n er: th e boni re a n d the ócaire. T h e legal capacity o f b o th is constantly stressed, a n d the law p ro tects th em from ex p lo itatio n h r th e ir lo rd o r lo rd s.1'1’ But by the tim e o f th e m ain Umicecht Becc glosses - p robably w ritten in a b o u t th e twelfth ce n tu ry - th e d istin ctio n b etw een boat re a n d ócaire has clearly b e e n lo st.1'11’ T his mav reflect a g e n eral squeezing o u t o f th e class o f lan d o w n in g c o m m o n e r in Irish society. As we have seen above (p. 408), legal glosses an d c o m m en taries co n tain h in ts o f th e ex p an sio n o f th e p ow er o f lo rd s a n d kings at th e expense o f co m m o n ers. T h e use o f th e te rm biattach po in ts in the sam e d ire c tio n .19' Biattach m eans ‘o n e w ho supplies food (b in d )'. an d has two dis­ tinct m ean in g s in M iddle an d Earlv M o d ern Irish. Firstly, biattach refers to th e rich h o sp ita lle r w ho gains status by supplying foo d an d

l9r’See CEIL 31-2. 19fiThus the glossator at CIH v 1610.40 = AL v 86.23 explains the second bóaire as ‘the best ócaire’. 197For discussion on this term, see Price, ‘The origin of the word betagius’; Mac Niocaill, ‘Vocabulaire social irlandais', 514-5; Mac Niocaill, ‘The origins of the betagh’; Curtis, ‘Rental of the m anor of Lisronagh, 1333’, 47, 51-3; Otway-Ruthven, ‘The organization of Anglo-Irish agriculture in the Middle Ages’, 3, 12; Nicholls, ‘Anglo-French Ireland and after', 373-80.

Land-tenure in later Gaelic Ireland

429

hospitality - h e is th e eq u iv alen t o f th e O ld Irish briugu,198 Sec­ ondly, biattach refers to th e p e rso n w ho pays a fo o d -ren t to a lord. In the la tte r usage, biattach seem s to he equivalent to the cede ‘clie n t’ of th e O ld Irish law-texts, an d it is n otew orthy that a M iddle Irish glossator explains th e doerchcilc ‘base c lie n t’ as a dóerbíatach}m T he fo u rte e n th -c e n tu ry lawyer Giolla na N aom h m ac D uinn S hléibhe M ine A o d h ag áin d e a t h takes th e biattach to he th e o rd in ary cate­ go ry o f co m m o n er, as it is th e biattach w ho swears in m u rd e r cases ‘o n b e h a lf o f th e g rades o f c o m m o n e r’ .200 O n e can co m p are the sim ilar p o sitio n o f th e boanc, w ho is viewed as th e tvpical co m m o n er in th e O ld Irish law-texts. B oth Irish a n d A nglo-N orm an sources suggest th a t th e biattach is in a less econom ically favourable p o sitio n th a n th e bóaire o r even th e ócaire o f th e e a rlie r p e rio d . T h e th irte e n th - o r fo u rte e n th -c e n tu ry Cath Maighe Léna refers to biataigh ‘u n d e r base trib u te o f h a rd serv ice’,201 a n d a six teen th -cen tu ry reco rd o f a legal d isp u te describes th e m as ‘hum b ly paying fo o d and trib u te ’.J"‘ In A nglo-N orm an sources, th e w ord is latinized betagius o r anglicized betagh, a n d regularly ap p lie d to a servile te n an t. For exam ple, a bull of Pope U rban IV d ated 1261 d efines the betagii as laid ascripti glebe ‘laym en b o u n d to th e la n d ’,203 a n d in th e ren tal o f th e M a n o r o f L isro n ag h , it is stated th a t they ‘shall do services at th e will o f th e lo r d ’.204 T h e situ atio n o f these betagii is thus m o re to be c o m p a re d with the dóerfuidir o r senchléithe o f the O ld Irish law-texts th a n w ith th e bóaire o r ócaire,205 A n o th e r asp ect o f la n d -te n u re in w hich c h an g e may be d etected is th a t o f in h e rita n c e . A cco rd in g to th e O ld Irish law-texts, an in h e rita n c e is to be divided in eq u al shares by the youngest heir. B ut already in th e n in th -cen tu ry , a legal glossator refers to a significan t d e p a rtu re from this g e n e ra l p rin c ip le in th a t the eld est son is e n title d to th e fa rm h o u se an d farm yard in ad d ition ,98See p. 422 above. 199LL iv 829.24747-8 = Stokes, ‘Colloquy’, 39 § 2005 L. 2 9 0 CI11 ii 691.11-12 .4. biadthaigdec ar son na ngrädh Jene. The fer buailtedh ‘man of cattle-enclosures’ swears on behalf of the noble grades: .4. fir deg aga mbia buailti ar son na ngrädh flaire, cf. C1H ii 691.28. 2 0 'Jackson, Cath Maighe Léna, 60.1562-3. 2 0 2 C ltt V 1620.29 do belh an [ a] mbiadtachaib deera ac hic bidh y dsa co umal. 2 0 3 Price, ‘The origin of the word betagius', 186. 2 0 4 Curtis, ‘Rental of the m anor of Lisronagh, 1333’, 47 (trans, p. 53). 205See GEIL 34-6.

430

Land-tenure

to his own share (see |>. 413 above). L ater so urces preserv e th e th eo ry —an d som etim es also the p r a n k e - of equ al division by th e youngest. In his Land, law and society in sixleeenth-ientury Ireland, K enneth N icholls p o in ts out that while in som e areas th e division was still in th e six teen th c e n tu ry b ein g m ade by the youngest of those en titled to share . . . in o th e rs it was bv this d a te b ein g m ade by the c h ie f o r ceann fine him self, w ho co u ld assign to him self th e best o r largest p o r tio n ’.'"1' In his ‘Lawes of Ire la n d . w ritten c. 1b 10, Sir J o h n Davies gives an acco u n t of th e m e th o d s of land-division in Gaelic Irelan d , w hich includes a re fe re n ce to th e rôle of th e h e a d o f th e k in-group ( ceann fine, anglicized canfinny)'}"' . T h e rest o f th e lan d es b e in g d istrib u te d a m o n g severall septes every sept h ad a cheefe o r canfinny [Irish ceann fin e] as they called him with a la nisi [Irish tánaiste j o f th at sept both w hich w ere ch osen by th e chiefe lord o r c a p ta in e of the co u n treye. All the rest o f th e lan d es ex cept th e p o rcio n s o f th e cheefes & tanistes d isc e n d e d in co u rse o f gavelkinde & w ere partib le am o n g th e m ales onlye in w hich division th e b astard es h a d th e ir porcio n s as well as th e legitim ate. T h e p a rtit ion was ev e r m ade by the canfinny o r cheefe o f th e sept a n d was m ad e to continew e som etim es for 3 veares, sornetv m es fo r 7 veares , but the LL version has ini epscop uasal ‘the high bishop’ (LL v 1243.36883). 122Note Stokes, Félire, 470 (Corrigenda to p. 55,1. 41) where the translation offoropre as ‘weevils(?)’ is corrected to ‘extra labours’. 123The rest of the story is found in the LL version only. 124The text simply has siat ‘they’ (LL v 1243.36900). Presumably this refers purely to Máedóc and his monks - there was hardly assistance from the fifty bishops. 125The text (LL v 1243.36902) has lubra lernaigthi ‘work or prayer’, but it is possible that l should be em ended to 7 in view of the emphasis on physical work throughout the story.

456

Farm labour

as a very serious m a tte r in d eed . N in th -een tu ry ecclesiastical legisla­ tion en titled Cain Domnaig ‘the law of Sunday ad ap ts th e G h u rch s teaching o n this m a tte r to Irish co n d itio n s, a n d places severe p e n a l­ ties on th e p erso n who fails to observe it.1_l1 An o ffe n d e r m ust p at’ a fine of fo u r d ry heifers, an d forfeits th e c lo th in g w hich he is w earing as well as any e q u ip m e n t o r valuables w hich he may hat e with him . If he is rid in g a horse, it too is forfeit. T h e fine is divided betw een the local lords a n d th e p erso n w ho p ro secu tes th e o ffender. If som ebody witnesses a n o th e r p e rso n w orking o n a S u n d ay a n d fails to pro secu te, he is h eld to be as guilty as th e actual o ffe n d e r an d m ust pay th e sam e fin e .1'' T h e text co ncludes with a strongly w orded g e n e ral d e n u n c ia tio n o f those who violate th e sanctitv o f Sunday, an d describes th em as ‘worse th a n d e m o n s ’. O n acco u n t of th e ir activities. G od brings plagues on th e fields. T h e re is failure of c o rn . milk, fru it, fish an d every p ro d u c e o f sea a n d ea rth . T h e re are fam ines, h u n g ers, unseaso n ab le w eather, an d raids for slat es bv fo reig n ers with aveng­ ing sw ords.IW Sim ilar a b h o rre n c e of th e violation of Sundav is expressed in m any o th e r tex ts.129 Cain Domnaig devotes m u ch a tte n tio n to d e fin in g the exact cir­ cum stances in w hich w ork is p e rm itte d on a Sundav. In g en eral, travel ( imthecht) is fo rb id d e n excep t for essential journevs. such as going to ch u rc h , seeking a physician o r midwife, chasing a robber, going in th e d irectio n of a sh o u t o r scream , etc. Most farm w ork is b a n n e d , a n d th e re m ust be n o lo ad in g o f an ox o r h o rse o r m an. an d no splitting o f firew ood. It is. however, p e rm itte d to te n d cat­ tle, rescue a cow f rom wolves o r a m arsh, b rin g a bull to a c ow w hich is in heat, drive cattle to water, follow a swarm of bees, o r deal with bro k en fences o r trespassing c a ttle .1 In th e ho u se, th e re m ust be rtfipor an edition of this text, see Hull, 'Cáin Domnaig'. It is similar in content to the second part (i.e. §§ 17-33) of Epistillsu ‘the epistle of Jesus’, ed. O ’Keeffe, 1 Cain Domnaig', 200-11. l 2 7 Hull, ‘Cáin Domnaig', 162 § 2. 1 1 lull. ‘Coin Domnaig', 171 10-11. 1 2 9 E.g. Plummer, Vitae i 43 S xxx; 263 § xii; Van Hamel, Immrama, 106.361-71 § 14 = Stokes, ‘The voyage of the Hui Corra’, 50 $ 61. 1 3 0 Hull, ‘Cain Domnaig', 160-2 § 1. 1 follow him in taking aurbaidi mruigrechta 'breaches of land-law’ to refer mainly to problems o f broken fences and trespass­ ing cattle which must be dealt with immediately. This is supported by the statement in EpistilIsu (O ’Keeffe, ‘Cain Domnaig’, 210) that it is perm itted to go to protect a field of corn or pasture which is being damaged, presumably by catde which have broken in.

Rest, holy days, festivals, etc.

457

no clean in g , g rin d in g , o r c h u rn in g . It is, however, perm issible to g e t w ater o r fire. T h e reg u latio n s o n co oking are com plex, a n d as in m o d e rn Sabbatarian practice - varying deg rees o f severity are ap p lied . A ccording to Cain Domnaig, baking (fuine) is b a n n e d , but a p erso n is p e rm itte d to go to a cooking-pit (fulacht), presum ably to cook food in water. O n th e o th e r h a n d , Epistil Isu forbids the boil­ ing of food (brrhad h id).111 T h e ru le o f th e m on astery of Tallaght is sim ilarly strict: th e m onks are n o t allow ed to eat cabbage which has b ee n boiled on a Sundav, o r a vegetable w hich has b een cut on a Sunday, o r b re a d w hich has b e e n b ak ed o n a Sunday, o r nuts o r b lack b erries w hich have b e e n p ick ed o n a Sunday.131132 Som e texts d eal w ith th e c o rre c t b eh av io u r w h en th e duties o f S undav-observance a n d hospitality com e in to conflict. Cain Domnaig states th a t a p e rso n is p e rm itte d to g et food fo r guests on a S u n d a y an d to m in ister to th em for th e sake o f C h rist.133 T h e p ro ­ h ib itio n on Sundae g rin d in g mav also be relaxed in the interests of hospitality. In his writings o f th e late eleventh century, bishop Patrick o f D ublin reco rd s a m o n g th e 'w onders o f lr e la n d ’, th e tra­ d itio n of th e m iracu lo u s mill which will g rin d o n a Sunday if a guest has arrived, b u t will o th erw ise refuse to m ove o n th a t day.134 Epistil Isu, however, allows n o such exceptions, a n d lays dow n severe p en alties for Sundav g rin d in g , w h e th e r in a mill o r h an d -q u ern . F o r ex am p le, if a water-mill b e lo n g in g to a c h u rc h is used o n a Sunday, th e c u lp rit m u st pay th e fin e o f o n e cumal.135136

O th er holy days Sim ilar restrictio n s apply in th e case o f certain o th e r holy days. T h u s Epistil Isu forbids u n n ecessary activity on C hristm as Day o r on I.ittle C hristm as (E p ip h a n v ).15,1 However, it is clear that th ere is no b a n on co o k in g at F aster o r C hristm as, as b o th are tim es o f feasting a n d th e re la x a tio n o f p e n ite n tia l diets (see p. 359).

O'Keeffe, ‘ Cáin Domnaig’, 202 § 17. Gwynn and Purton, The monastery of Tallaght, 132 § 13. 1 3 3 Hull, ‘Cáin Domnaig', 160 § 1 (lines 8 and 13). 134Aubrey Gwynn, The writings of bishop Patrick 1074-84, 6 6 § xxii. l3 5 0 ’Keeffe, ‘ Cáin Domnaig', 204 § 23. Middle Irish commentary on the law-text on water-mills restricts milling to six days. In the seventh-century text itself, however, milling goes on all week. For discussion, see Binchy, ‘Coibnes Uisd Thairidne', 59. 1 3 6 0 ’Keeffe, ‘ Cáin Domnaig', 208 § 28 Ciped laa didiu forsa mbë notlaic mór nó notlaic stritte, is amal domnach insin y n íhimthiagar and ‘On whatever day Great Christmas or Christmas of the Star falls, it is like Sunday and one should not go about thereon’. 131

132

458

Farm labour

Assem blies and festivals O ui sources provide som e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t o th e r tim es in w hich n o rm a l farm w ork is cu rta ile d o r su sp en d ed . fre e m e n w ould be e x p ected to assem ble for th e airrrht. at w hich legal business is tra n sa c te d .1*' A larg er assem bly is th e (knack (usually translated ‘fair’), to which n u m e ro u s re fe re n ce s arc- m ad e in legal, annalistic, an d literary sources. It is c lear from C.rith Cahlorh that every king is e x p ected to h o ld an (knack for th e p eo p le of his tú a th f;w an d o th e r law-texts stress th e subjects’ dutv of clearing an d p re p a rin g th e site .1-'1'1 T h o u g h not explicitly stated in th e legal sources, it seem s likely that an (knack is n o rm ally h eld each year in early August. T h e m ost p ro m in e n t fair in o u r texts is (knack Tailten 'th e fair o fT a iltiu ’, convened bv th e king o f T a ra .11" In p re -\’iking tim es, it seem s to have b een an a n n u a l event, unless som e ex cep tio n al circum stance p rev en ted its c eleb ratio n . For exam ple, th e A n n a A of Ulster re c o rd that in th e year T h e rem ains o f a mill at D ru m a rd , Co. D erry, have b een d ated by th e sam e m e th o d to about .AD 7 82 .11 ' T h e arch aeo lo g ical evidence th u s broadly indicates that th e w aterm ill was in tro d u c e d to Ire la n d from th e R om an world in the sixth o r early seventh century, an d th e evidence o f m illing term ­ inology in Irish su p p o rts such a date. O f p a rtic u lar significance is th e fact th at th e onlv O ld Irish w ord for ‘m ill’, muilenn, is a borrow ­ in g from L atin molina o f th e sam e m eaning. A m ong the w ords for p arts ol th e m ill listed in th e law-text o n d istra in t are milaire ‘pivotsto n e (? )’, w hich is a b o rro w in g from L atin miliarium ‘m ile-stone, c e n tra l co lu m n o f wine-press o r oil-m ill’,1423144 an d cup ‘h o p p e r(? )’, wrh ich m ay be a b o rro w in g fro m L atin cupa ‘vat, cask, b a rre l’.145 T h e te rm marcmuilenn ‘horse-m ill’ is fo u n d only in glossaries, and is d e fin e d as ‘ a m ill w hich a h o rse tu rn s ’.146 Such mills are often m e n tio n e d in L atin so u rces,147148b u t th e re is n o o th e r evidence o f th e ir use in early C hristian Irelan d . W o o d -c u t t in g

T h e cu ttin g a n d processin g o f w ood was clearly o f very g reat im p o r­ tance in th e early Irish econom y. A p ro sp e ro u s fa rm er is therefo re ex p ecte d to possess various tools for w orking with wood: th e small axe (eipit), large axe (biáU), billhook (fidbae), saw (tuiresc), adze (tá l), a n d a u g e r (tarathar) ,146 To sh a rp e n these tools h e has a w h etsto n e (liaeforcaid) .149 142Rynne, ‘Milling in the 7th century: Europe’s earliest tide mills’; Rynne, ‘The introduction of the vertical watermill into Ireland’; Rynne, Early medieval horizontal-wheeled mill penstocks’; Baillie, Tree-ring dating and archaeology, 192. I43Baillie, ‘A horizontal mill of the eighth century AD at Drumard, Co. Derry’. He illustrates a suggested reconstruction of this mill on p. 28 of this article. The mecha­ nism is also illustrated at Edwards, The archaeology of early medieval Ireland, 63; Mytum, The origins of early Christian Ireland, 198. 144Mac Eoin, ‘The early Irish vocabulary of mills and milling’, 16. 143Mac Eoin, ‘The early Irish vocabulary of mills and milling’, 16. On the other hand, it is suggested in LEIA C-294 that cup is from another Latin word, cupa ‘the bar of an oil-mill’. 146CIH ii 617.12; iii 1075(b).6; O ’Mulc. 271 § 817 Marcmuilenn .i. muilenn imsuiech. 147Moritz, Grain-mills andflour in Classical antiquity, 74—102; cf. Langdon, Horses, oxen and technological innovation, 117—18. 148 CIH ii 563.22-4; iii 780.1-3 = CG 7.178-80. U9C m ii 563.24; iii 780.3 = CG 7.179-80 (and note on p. 29); cf. CIH i 290.27-8 = AL iii 294.20 hid liac limad, no ruitech ‘grinding is the immunity of whetstones or of

486 A

Tools and Technology

x e

T h e larg e axe (hiail) is th e m ost co m m o n ly m e n tio n e d tool in o u r tex ts.150 Its crucial im p o rta n c e is in d icated in a n in th -c e n tu ry triad w hich lists th e th re e w hich a re best in a h o u se as ‘o x en , m en , ax es’. 15115234*6 A ccording to Crith Gablack, th e penalty-fine (dire) for stealin g o r destroying so m ebody e lse ’s axe F ig . 20. A suggested, sid e a n d top trieiu of th e axe d escrib ed a t CIH i i i 9 2 1 .2 5 —32. is a two-year-old h eifer (colplhach), d o u b le the n o rm a l pen altv -h n e foi a billhook. A n o th e r law-text p ro tid e s a d etailed d escrip tio n o f the si/e an d m an u fa c tu re o f a p ro p e r axe ( hind innraic) ” w hich I have used as the basis o f a speculative illustration above. ’* T h e text states th at the get id sh o u ld be an airtem in le n g th , w hich is p ro b ab le six in c h e s.15'’ I take geud h e re to re fe r to th e b lad e of th e a x e . 1 '' T he cutting-ed g e (fdebar) o f th e b lad e is th re e lin g ers in w idth, i.e. cranks’, i.e. if a person is injured while sharpening a tool on a whetstone, o r if he is struck by the crank (called by the glossator the crand cam ‘crooked stick’) , the owner of the machine is not liable. Another term for whetstone is límbró, e.g. CIH i 238.33 = AL V474.4 for ll\ m] brain. 150Old Irish biáil is cognate with Welsh bwyell, Breton bouhal, etc. (LEIA B-48). 151Meyer, Triads, 28 § 227 Tri ata ferr i tig: daim, fir, bêla. It seems that i tig here means ‘in a household, among the resources of a household'. 152 CIH ii 564.42; iii 781.7 = CG 10.246-7. 153CIH iii 921.28—32 Is e in bidil innraic: airtem fod a genned, .iii. mér lethed a foebuir, tri mërina maisü, tri mêr lethad a mil, ordlach a leth[ad] isa maisil frit, da mér a llethud anall. A déiccsifo tri gortaib .i. donnghorad y bdnghorad y a gorad foberta; is hè ni cluiibar na daur ratus fora tarn . . . Note that mér is om itted before lethad in the transcription at 921.29. I54For illustrations of Irish domestic axes from excavations o f the Iron Age and early Christian period, see Raftery, La Tine in Ireland, 239; Hencken, ‘Ballinderry crannóg no. 1’, 153; Hencken, ‘Lagore crannóg’, 106. 1' 1l or a discussion of this unit of length, see p. 564. 156Elsewhere, gend (genn) is generally used o f a wedge: see DIL G 69.72-83. How­ ever, it does not seem likely that a wedge as long as six inches would be required to secure the axehead to the handle. For further discussion o f the meanings of gend, see p. 502.

Wood-cutting ap p ro x im ately th re e in c h e s. 1 also th re e fingers.

487

T h e back (nil) o f the ax eh ead is

T h e len g th ot th e moisei of the axe is th re e fingers. T h e m eaning o f this te rm is u n c e rta in , b u t I suggest th at it refers to the loop o f iro n w hich fo rm s th e socket fo r th e axe-handle. It is o n e inch ( ordlach) across w h ere it is a tta c h e d to th e b lade, an d w idens to two in ch es at th e o th e r side. A lth o u g h »1nisei is otherw ise u n attested , a derivative »misled occurs in legal co m m e n ta ry o n accidental injury caused by ax es.138 T h e c o m m e n ta to r deals w ith fo u r situations w h ere such an in ju ry may be im m u n e fro m liability. T h e first is w hen th e axe flies o u t o f th e h a n d o f th e u se r a n d hits a n o th e r p erso n . T h e seco n d is w hen th e h e a d flies o ff th e h an d le. T h e th ird is w hen som ebodv is hit bv a chip o f wood. I suggest th at the fo u rth type o f accid en t, maisled, is w h en som ebody is h it by the b lu n t side o f th e ax eh ead . T h e im plication seem s to be th at if a p erso n h o ld in g an axe inju res a n o th e r with th e blade, h e can n o t be im m u n e from liability an d m ust be guilty o f e ith e r culpable n eg lig en ce o r m alicious in te n t. In th e d escrip tio n o f a p ro p e r axe, it is fu rth e r specified th at the ax eh ea d sh o u ld be m a n u fa c tu re d with th re e h e a tin g s:159 red heat (donngomd) w hite h e a t (bdngorad), a n d th e h eat o f tem p erin g (goradJobertaJ. * 11 Its iro n sh o u ld n o t be d e n te d by oak o r yew, i.e. th e to u g h e st woods w hich w ould be e n c o u n te re d . A n o th e r w ord w hich may have th e sam e m e a n in g as biáil is rodb, u sed in h e ro ic lite ra tu re o f a w arrio r w ho defeats his o p p o n e n t ‘like a axe(?) cuts a tre e -tru n k ’ (am ail treagdas rodhb omna). T he w ord bifiil is also used o f large axes d esig n ed for m ilitary purposes. T h u s th e law-text Bretha Etgid refers to th e slave in a k in g ’s house w ho wields a d o u b le -b la d e d axe ( bien/ imjáebur) to p ro tect the royal3 l3'F or the finger (mér) as a measure close to the inch, see p. 561. loSCIH i 285.29-32 = AL iii 274.7-11. It is suggested in the translation at AL iii 275.15 (and in the glossary at AL vi 550) that maisled refers to injury caused by the block on which wood is cut, but this seems an unlikely accident. 159CIH iii 921.30-31. On the other hand, legal commentary on Bretha Comaithchesa refers to an axe worth one scruple which has only been tem pered twice (CIH i 199.13; ii 579.30 = AL iv 130.20 a leagadh fa di). i60The adj. donn is usually translated ‘brown’, but here it obviously refers to the dull red of heated iron. l^Fobairt, lit. ‘bringing u n d er’, is used of the tempering of iron by immersion in water. For other examples, see DIL F 182.73-82. 162 JSC St 99.3124; 156.4926. See Thurneysen, 'Rodb-'.

488

Tools and Technology

h o u se h o ld . " ’3 T h e gallbiáil ‘fo reig n ax e' may be p rim arily a w eap o n o f war. An o b scu re q u o ta tio n in O ’D avoren’s Glossary speaks o f a foreign axe w ith two black spikes o r 'e a rs ’ w hich is w orth sixteen scru p le s.163164165 T h ese spikes are p resu m ab ly set in th e o p p o site d ire c ­ tion to th e blade so th a t an attack er m ay inflict d am ag e w ith a back-stroke as well as with his first blow. In a n o th e r legal re fe re n c e , however, gallbiáil seem s to be used in a n o n -m ilitary c o n te x t.163 T h e w ritten so urces also provide ev idence o f a sm aller d o m estic axe. As we have seen above, Crith Gablach d istin g u ish es the bind from th e eipit, a w ord w hich also occurs in a list o f d o m estic tools in Auraicept na nÉces,166* It is clearly a particip ial fo rm atio n from the c o m p o u n d as-ben ‘cu ts’, w hich is co m m o n ly attested in th e verbal n o u n eipe ‘cu ttin g (especially o f tre e s )’. It is p ro b ab le, th e re fo re , th a t th e eipit is a lig h t axe o r h a tc h e t suitable for c h o p p in g firew ood. I w ould e q u a te it w ith th e tiiag connaid ‘firew ood a x e ’ o f later sources, w hose sm all size is a p p a re n t from an ep iso d e re c o rd e d in th e Annals of Connacht for th e vear 1243.16, T h e an n alist re c o u n ts how G iolla gan Io n a th a r Ua M iad h aig h trick ed H u g o de Lacy in to in sp ectin g th e castle-m oat at D urrow . As H u g o was sto o p in g dow n to m easu re th e g ro u n d G iolla gan Io n a th a r killed h im w ith a tiiag connaid w hich he h a d h id d e n u n d e r his arm p it. A n o th e r m u rd e r with this type o f axe is re c o rd e d in the sam e annals for th e year 1424.168 Seán m ag R ag hallaigh was using a túag connaid to ch o p u p firew ood, an d w ith it in itiated a fatal attack on T adhg O F allam hain. Yet a n o th e r axe-killing is re c o rd e d for th e year 1232: C o n c h o b h a r m ac A odha m h eic R u aidh ri was killed in T ú a th a SO M u iread h aig h by a m an w ith a 163CIH i 285.23 = AL iii 272.23. 164 CIH iv 1485.40—41 = O ’Dav. 282 § 532 Cailech .i. cluas, ut est gallbiäil innraic mitir a fiu ,ui. screpail .x. cona dib dubhchailchib ,i. cona dib cluasaib y cona srúibh .i. na cluasa ichtaracha ‘a projection/flange i.e. an ear, that is a proper foreign axe with its two black cups is worth sixteen scruples, i.e. with its two ears and with its snout i.e. the lower ears’. This use of the word cailech (presumably Latin calix ‘chalice, cup, pro­ jection’) does not seem to be otherwise attested. Perhaps dub- here means ‘black, death-dealing’. For an addendum on cluasa, see p. 752. In legal com m entary at CIH ii 669.28 the gaillbiáil, which is defined as a croslúag lelhan ‘broad cross-axe’, is valued at fourteen scruples. 165CIH iii 895.22. 166Calder, Auraicept, 292.5725-8. 79 s.a. 1243 § 4. The editor points out that this story properly belongs under the year 1186, and relates to this earl’s father. 168AC 466 s.a. 1424 § 4.

Wood-cutting

489

w hite a x e-h an d le {samthach) .169 To p re v e n t th e id entity o f the p e rp e tra to r b eco m in g know n, th e p eo p le o f th e T iiatha w hitened th e h an d le s o f all th e ir axes. Legal glosses an d c o m m e n ta ry provide conflicting in fo rm atio n o n th e co m m ercial value o f a d om estic axe. A ccording to o n e com ­ m e n ta ry o n Bretha Comaithchesa, an axe used in cu ttin g w ood for an oak-fence is w o rth o n e sc ru p le .170 O n th e o th e r h a n d , a gloss on the sam e passage assigns a value o f th re e o r fo u r scruples to the c a rp e n try axe ( túagsaírsi) o r firew ood axe (túag connaid) ,171 Billhook In th e view o f a legal glossator, th e two p rin cip al ‘irons o f h u s b a n d ry ’ ( erna trebtha) a re th e large axe a n d th e b illh o o k .172 T h e O ld Irish te rm fo r th e la tte r is fidbae, w hich has th e basic m e a n in g ‘w o o d -cu tter’. However, like its cog n ates in o th e r Celtic lan g u a g e s,1' th e te rm has b eco m e specialized in th e sense o f a m edium -sized h o o k e d tool fo r cu ttin g rods, etc. In excavations fro m th e early C h ristian p erio d , billhooks o f d iffe re n t shapes a n d sizes have b e e n d iscovered.174 Likewise, the arch aeo lo g ical evidence from R om an B ritain indicates a tool w ith m u c h v ariatio n in d e sig n .175176 N o n eth eless, th e a u th o r o f an O ld Irish legal passage on tools felt capable o f providing precise m e asu re m e n ts fo r a sta n d a rd b illh o o k {fidbae n-inraic) .17,1 Its socket ( cráu) is a fist in d iam eter: this m ean s th a t the user can take a co m fo rtab le h o ld o f th e w o o d en h a n d le w hich fits in to the so ck et.177 T h e c u rv ed p a r t o f th e b lad e {crock) m easures th ree 169AC 42 s.a. 1232 § 6. Samthach is used o f the handle of an axe or of a billhook, e.g. CIH iii 894.17 samtachfidba nó bêlai. 170 CIH i 199.13; ii 579.30-1 = AL iv 130.19-20. 171 CIH ii 669.26-9. 177 CIH ii 467.18 = AL v 392.11. According to a commentator on Bretha Comaithchesa (CIH i 199.14; ii 579.32 = AL iv 130.21-2), a billhook for fencing is worth one scruple and must have been tem pered twice (a leagadfa di) or subjected to long heating(?) (sithaile) orintense(?) tem pering (beoteagadh). 173Gallo-Latin vidubium (whence Modern French vouge), Welsh gwyddif, Old Breton gwedom (VKG i 389; Lambert, La langue gauloise. 200). I74E.g. Hencken, ‘Ballinderry crannóg no. 1’, 128; Hencken, ‘Lagore crannóg’, 105. 1' ’Rees, Agricultural implements ii 467-73. 176CIH iii 921.22-5. 177Dorn dia chräu lit. ‘a fist for its socket’. Compare the use of the term dornchlae (dorn + cli(})) ‘sword-hilt’. A rivet (seim) keeps the handle securely in the socket (Meyer, Triads, 22 § 172).

490

Tools and Technology

fingers: this presum ably m ean s that this p a rt o f th e b illh o o k is the le n g th o f an average m a n ’s th re e fin g e rs.17'' T h e re a re also th re e fin g ers in th e b eak (corr) o f th e tool, a n d o n e fin­ g e r in its ‘o p p o site sp ik e’ {frithchorr). Finally, th e a u th o r gives th e thickness o f th e m etal a t th re e p o in ts o n the back o f th e b lade: ‘an in ch is th e w idth o f its back a t its h a n d le ( crannach), h a lf an in c h a t its m id d le (medón), o n e th ird o f an in c h a t its b eak (c a rr)’.78179 It is clear, th e re fo re , th a t th e a u th o r is d e scrib in g a b illh o o k with a cu ttin g e d g e (fóebar) o n o n e side o f th e b lade only. It is difficult to ascertain w h at is m e a n t by frithchorr. I suggest th at it refers to th e b o tto m o f th e tip o f th e blade: this m ay have a slight in w ard curve so th a t th e u se r can draw b ra n c h e s tow ards him . In som e R om ano-B ritish e x am p les this b eak is c u rv e d sideways, giving th e tool a cu t­ tin g e d g e in two planes. A n o th e r possibility is th a t frithchoir refers to a sh o rt spike o r talo n o n th e back o f th e blade. T his is an o ccasional fe a tu re in b o th early a n d m o d e rn b illh o o k s,180 F ig . 21. A su g g este d metu b u t I c a n n o t see how this a rra n g e m e n t of th e b illho o k d escrib ed at can be re c o n c ile d with the d im en sio n s CIH i i i 9 2 1 .2 2 -5 . set o u t in o u r text. l78The text reads Tri mêoirina croch rèisiu fod afoebuir, there seems to be an omission after reisiu which would have told us the length o f the cutting edge (fóebar). Croch (read dat. sing, croich (cruich)) is a borrowing from Latin crux ‘cross’, and usually refers to a cross or a cross-like object. However, it can also be used of a curved or hooked object, cf. CIH ii 563.28; iii 780.7 = CG 7.186 tinne for croich (cruich, croith MSS) ‘a flitch of bacon on a hook’. For mir ‘finger’ as a unit o f m easurem ent, see p. 561. 179 Ordl- lethil a cuil oca crand- lethordl- ar medön Irian oca chuirr. 189Rees, Agricultural implements ii 467. 460; k. 1). White, Agricultural implements oj the Roman world, 87, 93, 94, 96.

Wood-cutting

491

Saw Sm all saw-blades have b een fo u n d occasionally in excavadons fro m th e early C hristian p e rio d in Ire la n d , 181 a n d it seem s likely th a t tuiresc in th e list o f th e mruigfer's e q u ip m e n t in Crith Gablach has b e e n co rrectly id e n tifie d in this m e a n in g .182

Other tools for cutting wood, etc. T h e list o f tools in Crith Gablach also in clu d es th e adze ( tál), which consists o f a small blad e set at rig h t angles to th e h an d le. T his tool is used p articu larly for dom estic ca rp e n try - a law-text on distrain t refers to ‘th o se w ho w ork w ith adze a n d a x e ’ (áes táil f bêla) .183 A n o th e r w ood-w orking tool in th e list is th e au g er (tarathar), used fo r b o rin g h o le s .184* O u r so urces also m e n tio n o th e r cu ttin g tools u sed on the farm . T h e law-text Di Chetharslicht Athgabálae includes th e ‘h o o k o f a w o m an h o u s e h o ld e r’s h o u s e ’ ( cromán tige bantrebthaige) alo n g w ith o th e r farm tools an d ap p lian ces.183 A ccording to the accom p an y in g glosses this is an iro n h o o k (bar) o r sickle ( corrán) fo r cu ttin g iw o r holly, p resum ably for w in te r fo d d e r (see p. 46). T h e co n te x t is n o t a lto g e th e r clear, b u t th e sense seem s to be that this tool is o f p a rtic u la r im p o rta n c e to a w om an in p o o r econom ic circum stan ces so th a t she can feed h e r cattle in winter. Elsewhere, a legal g lossator refers to this type o f h o o k in a g eneral farm ing c o n te x t w ith n o specific associadon w ith w o m e n .186187 T h e list in Crith Gablach in clu d es knives for cu ttin g ru sh es (scena búana a ín e).1H' T h e sh a rp e n in g o f a fo u r-in c h knife for rush-cutting is d escrib ed in a difficult passage in a n o th e r law-text:188 ‘this is the 181 Hencken, 'Lagore crannóg’, 108-9; O ’Kelly, ‘Two ring-forts at G arryduff, 46-7; Mytum The origins of early Christian Ireland, 248. 1 8 2 C1H ii 563.22; iii 780.1 = CG 7.178 (see vocabulary to CG s.v. tuiresc). 1 8 3 CIH iii 898.1 = Binchy, ‘A text on the forms of distraint’, 78 § 5. W CIH ii 563.22; iii 780.1 = CG 7.178. It is cognate with Welsh taradr of the same meaning (LEIA T-30). 186CIH ii 374.10; v 1684.27 = AL i 124.15. Crom(m)án is a derivative o f cromm 'bent, crooked’, and is cognate with Welsh cryman ‘billhook, pruning hook, sickle’. In Modern Irish, baintreabhach means ‘widow’, but in the earlier language it refers to any woman who is the head o f a household, whether widowed or married to a landless man. In a gloss ( CIH v 1684.28) she is identified as a banchomarbe ‘female heir’. 1 8 6 CIH i 243.5 = AL v 488.22. 187CIH ii 563.22; iii 780.1 = CG 7.177. 1 8 8 CIH iii 921.14-16. The rest of the passage deals with the rent (somoine) which the recipient of a knife must give to its owner.

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p ro p e r qualitv o f a knife: a lte r it is g ro u n d so th at it is a sh arp blade, it is draw n th re e tim es across a le a th e r stro p (jirtig) 1 from level with s o u r face down to vom two knees, a n d s h a rp e n e d th en by striking against v our palm ; von th e n cut with it th re e carts of ru sh es from o n e g rin d in g . In a legal gloss a piece of m eat is said to be th e le n g th o f th e h aft o f a knife (em na sceine).l9ti F encing and wall-construction T h e a u th o r o f Bretha Comaithchesa lists th e fo u r tools which m ust be given as a fine (smacht) fo r failure to m ain tain the fo u r tvpes o f field-boundary. 111 In th re e cases, th e tool is obviously th at used in th e c o n stru c tio n o f th e field-boundary: a spade ( rcimtie) for the trench-and-bank, a billhook (jidhae) for th e b are fence, and a heave axe (biáil) for th e oak fence. T h e tool w hich is to be given for the stone wall is a socc, w hich n o rm ally m eans 'p lo u g h sh a re . 1 follow T h u rn e y se n ’s suggestion th a t socc refers h e re to an iron le te r .1 T his w ould be equivalent to th e m o d e rn p in-spar u sed in the b u ild ­ ing o f stone walls. A ccording to a c o m m e n ta to r o n this passage, the socc is w orth o n e scru p le - as are th e o th e r th re e tools - a n d m ust have b e e n te m p e re d th re e tim es (a leaghadh fa tri) .19 A n o th e r fen cin g tool is th e m allet (forchae), w hich is used to drive th e stakes in to th e g ro u n d .1'14 It is p ro b a b le that the h e a d ot this tool was n orm ally of stone, b u t h a rd w ood may also have b e e n used. For a discussion o n th e m e th o d s o f erectin g th e fences a n d o th e r field-bo u n d aries d escrib ed in th e law-texts, see p. 372.1890234

189This is the only attestation of fraig with the meaning ‘leather strop (for sharpen­ ing a knife or razor)’: see D1L s.v. 5 fraig. The first part o f the passage is quoted at CIH V 1566.9—10, where tarfraigid is glossed .i. tar criss ‘i.e. across a belt’. 190CIH ii 370.24 = AL i 132.20. 191 CIH i 65.13 = AL iv 72.2; CIH vi 2193.15 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht nr, 314 § 8 ; CIH i 199.11-14 = AL iv 130.17-22. 1 9 2 Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht III’, 315. 193CIH i 199.12-13; ii 579.31 = AL iv 130.19. By contrast, the axe and the billhook need only be tempered twice, and the spade once. A glossator at CIH ii 669.26-9 assigns a value of three scruples to each of these four tools. 1 9 4 C //i i 73.15 = AL iv 112.13. Gwynn and Purton (The monastery ofTallaght, 133.14 § 16 and glossary s.v. forrach) take fer na forchae to mean ‘a man for the measuringrod’, but it seems more likely to mean ‘a man for the mallet’. Mallets would have been widely used in house-building and carpentry as well as fencing. The heavy iron blacksmith’s hamm er is called an ord.

A nim al restraints, goads, etc.

493

A n im a l r e st r a in t s , g o a d s , e t c .

Restraints O u r sources m e n tio n m any devices for re d u c in g th e m obility o f d o m estic anim als. T h e búarach 'cow -spancel’ is used to im m obilize th e h in d legs o f a cow d u rin g m ilking, a n d is th e re fo re particularly associated with m ilkm aids in th e literatu re. A story preserved in a legal c o n te x t tells o f a m ythical fem ale lan d o w n er (banchoairt) w ho h a d seven h u n d re d cows.19:1 T h ese cows w ere m ilked by thirtyfive w om en-cooks (banchoici). each o f w hom h ad a spancel. T he spancels w ere kept h a n g in g from a cross-beam in seven gro u p s o f five, a n d each cook was able to reco g n ise h e r own spancel. It is likeh that th e earlv Irish spancel com m only consisted o f a stick, a ro u n d e d piece o f w ood an d a ro p e o r w ith e.95196 T h e M iddle Irish text e n title d Bórama refers to a b ro n ze spancel, b u t this was p ro b ­ ably e x c e p tio n a l.19' At all events, a typical spancel was o f solid e n o u g h c o n stru c tio n to deliver a m o rtal blow. T his is clear from a passage o n place-lore w hich describes how a professional buffoon ( dnith ) trie d to ra p e a girl n am e d S am pait w ho was driving h e r cat­ tle to be m ilked. She struck h e r assailant a blow with h e r spancel, m ak in g p u lp o f his h e a d .196 .A nother fo rm o f re stra in t is th e airchomal, w'hich is exp lain ed in Cor mac's Glossars as a m e th o d o f tying th e fro n t legs o f an anim al to g e th e r.1 ' In o u r sources it is n o rm ally associated with horses. For exam p le, th e O ld Irish tale Scéla Cano nine GartnAin contains a re fe re n c e to th e w eaving o f an airchomal for a h orse n a m e d G rip .200 T his text refers to p art o f this device as th e id, w hich Binchy takes to b e a rin g o r b an d . It seem s th e re fo re th a t a ro p e o r th o n g is passed th ro u g h o n e o r m o re rings to re d u c e th e h o rse ’s mobility. An airchomal has th re e parts, w hich - acco rd in g to a legal glos­ sato r - co m p rise two rings (dá id) a n d a th o n g (léithre).201 T he te rm airchomal may also be used in relatio n to o th e r anim als. Legal i95CIH vi 2117.36-2118.2 = Dillon, 'Stories from the law-tracts’, 51 § xiv. ’"L ucas, Cattle in anáent Ireland. 44. 1 9 7 L L v 1270.37729 = Stokes, ‘The Bórama', 40 § 12. Note, however, the references to iron hobbles {ferrei sigilli) in H erren, Hisperica F'amina, 76.169; 88.315. 198fX iii 745.22259. In another version (E.J.Gwynn, Metrical Dindshenchas iv 24.20) she strangled the buffoon with her spancel; cf. Stokes, ‘The prose tales in the Rennes Dindsenchas, (2)’, 36-7 § 8 6 . 1 9 9 Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 6 8 § 812. 2 0 0 Bmchy, Scéla Cano, 9.238. 2 0 1 CIH i 241.38 = AL V484.18. See DIL s.v. leithriu {léithriuí).

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co m m e n ta iy o n th e restrain t o f d om estic anim als speaks of th e use of th e ainhom al on c a l v e s . A n o t h e r law-text refers to its use to red u ce th e m obility o f trespassing h e n s .20' W riting in th e te n th century, C o n n u e distin g u ish es th e f i n e ho mat from a n o th e r type of restrain t called th e langfjhritii', w hich he defin es as a tie betw een hind-leg an d fore-leg.J" ' H e takes the word to be a borro w in g from th e English language, an d etym ologizes it as lang ‘lo n g pheiür fe tte r . " In a detailed discussion, M arstran d er argues o n th e c o n tra ry th a t th e w ord is ultim ately o f N orse origin, a n d cites a h y p o th etical O ld N orse * lang-fjöturr ‘lo n g fe tte r’.-07 A lthough th e re is o th e r evidence of farm in g te rm in o lo g y 'o f N orse orig in in M iddle Irish (see p. 249). M arstra n d e r’s case rem ain s d o u b tfu l.20K O th e r m e th o d s o f restrain t m e n tio n e d in legal glosses a n d com ­ m en tary are a ru n n in g n o o se ( sets co nth) a ro u n d an anim al s neck, a horse-h air tie ( rith niainne) a ro u n d its te e th , o r a willow w ithe (gat salarh) in its m o u th .-00 A n o th e r c o m m e n ta ry prescribes m eth o d s o f restra in in g sm aller anim als an d fow l.-1" A h e n is re stra in e d bv having a h o o d (cochall) placed over its h ead , a goat has som e s o n o f lea th e r ‘sh o e ’ (bmc) put o n its legs, an d a pig has a form o f saddle (srathar) stra p p e d to its back. A fierce d o g is h e ld bv at least o n e chain (slabrad): see p. 115.2034*78 t

202 CIH vi 2134.4 urcomail imna gamnaib. O ther versions have urcholl fona gamnaib i 68.30 = AL iv 86.2), and urchall-fona gamhnaib ( CIH ii 670.6). On the basis of these readings, DIL A 177.52 postulates a form aircholl ‘spancel, fetter’, but further attestations are needed. 2 0 3 C /// iii 897.35 = Binchy, ‘A text on the forms of distraint’, 78 § 3. 2 0 4 Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 6 8 § 812. An older term for this type of spancel seems to have been the id fata ‘long spancel’ (e.g. TBC Rec. I 67.2201 id [/la ta ). Langfiheitir survives in Modern Irish in forms such as lonncaidir, lonncairt, etc. 2,,r’Legal glossators, on the other hand, take it to be a tie between legs and head, e.g. CIH i 240.10 = A L v 478.17 (laingfitir); CIH ii 386.5 = AL t 174.7 (langfithil); CIH iii 844.35; vi 2136.40 (laingfiter, -ir). 2116 Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 6 8 § 812 Langp\ h\ eitir .i. anglis insein; lang .i. fata, pheitir im-glas. (Anglis is presumably an Irish form o f englisc ’English’.) 2 0 7 Marstrander, Bidrag, 23-7. 208In a brief discussion on Norse loan-words in Irish, Greene argues against Marstrander’s explanation of langpheitir (Greene, ‘The influence of Scandinavian on Irish’, 75-6). m )CIH i 240.10 - AL V 478.17; CIH ii 386.5-7 = AL i 174.8-10; CIH iii 844.35-6; vi 2137.1. n o CIH i 68.29-30 = AL iv 86.1-2. Cf. CIH ii 670.6-7; vi 2134.3-4. ( CIH

A nim al restraints, goads, etc.

495

A g e n e ra l te rm fo r a tie is nasc, w hich occurs in a n u m b e r o f farm ­ ing con tex ts. F or instance, a nasc is in c lu d e d in th e list o f farm ing tools a n d utensils in Auraicept na i i K ccs .'-] 1 a n d a M iddle Irish Life o f Saint Sem in refers to ties, p en s an d m ilking en clo su res as necessary farm in g e q u ip m en t.-’1- A law-text on status refers to a low-ranking craftsm an called a nasraire, ‘m ak er o f ties o r rin g s’, b u t it is n o t clear for w hat p u rp o se they w ere in te n d e d .-1' Possibly, th e tie was for the necks o f livestock. G oad Every fa rm e r fro m th e ra n k o f ócaire upw ards is e x p ected to own a g o a d ( biot),2123214 w hich is in c lu d e d alo n g w ith th e share a n d the c o u lte r a m o n g th e irons o f p lo u g h in g ’ in a legal gloss.21526 A goad is an iron spike w hich mav be a ttach ed to a stick for p ro d d in g oxen o r d ra u g h t h o rses in to action. A satirical verse o n th e p lo u g h m a n o f M ag M uccin accuses him o f fin d in g th e g oad light, b u t th e p lo u g h too heavy (étrom lais in bruitin, rothmm lais in recht).211' H e evidently h a d th e re p u ta tio n for overuse o f th e goad on his o x en , a n d laziness in his m an ip u latio n o f th e plo u g h . R ods Rods o f various types have d o ubtless b e e n u sed to drive and co n tro l anim als since th e b e g in n in g o f dom estication. Early Irish sources re fe r p articularly to th e echlasc (echjlesc) ,217 a ro d for driving h o rse s.2182190 It m ay have h a d a m etal h o o k (baccán) at the top. '* Som e literarv re fe re n ce s suggest that it was possible to stick th e echlasc in to th e g ro u n d fo r use as a te m p o ra ry te th e r.-’-’0 In the sagas, a ro d u sed by c h a rio te e rs is called a deil.221

Calder, Auraicept, 292.5725. Stokes, Lismore Lives, 57.1907-58.1908. 2 I3 C ///v 1616.24 = ALv 106.17. 2 1 4 C/Wiii 778.27= CG 4.95. 2 1 5 C1H ii 467.18 = AL v 392.11. 2 I6 Thurneysen, ‘Mittelirische Verslehren’, 83 § 6 8 . 217Both forms are from ech ‘horse’ + flesc ‘rod’. 2 1 8 E.g. CIH iii 1080.24. 2 1 9 Meid, Táin BóFraích, 2.30— 31. 2 2 0 E.s . TBC Rec. I 47.1534. 221DIL D ii. 5.53-61. 211 212

496

Tools and Technology B u t c h e r in g ,

etc.

T h e wruigfer's tools also in clu d e a sp ear for killing livestock (gru gona retinae) r 1'1 T his seem s to have b een an im p lem en t specifi­ cally desig n ed for th e sla u g h te r o f dom estic anim als. T h e texts give no in fo rm atio n as to how such spears d iffe re d from those used in h u n tin g o r w arfare. O th e r tools may also be used to kill a n d cut u p dom estic anim als. A legal glossator states that a bullock w hich a client gives as foodre n t to his lord sh o u ld have b e e n sla u g h te re d by an axe ( tú a g ). an d n o t have died th ro u g h d isease.22' T h e re is n o suggestion that a special type o f axe is used. Similarly, it is im plicit in a legal passage on tools th a t a knife (sriari) may be used for such diverse tasks as cu ttin g u p m eat a n d harv estin g ru s h e s .224 Likewise, the O ld Irish tale Táin BóFraích speaks o f th e flesh o f a h eifer b ein g cut u p by a d /e ( tád) a n d axe ( bidil) in p re p a ra tio n for a stew .'2'’ It is im plicit in the law-text BrethaEtgid that an iron im p le m e n t (iarn ) is norm allv used for th e slau g h ter (airlech) o f d o m estic an im als.221’ A ccording to the glossator, if a sla u g h tere r uses a n o th e r p e rso n 's im p le m e n t for this p u rp o se, he is responsible fo r any d am ag e to it caused bv a stone o r tooth. T h e skulls o f cattle fo u n d in excavations fro m th e earlv C hris­ tian p erio d often show sh a tte rin g o f th e fro n ta l b o n e w hich w ould be consistent with a s tu n n in g blow o f a h a m m e r (ord) o r h e a w stone. Af ter cu rin g , a p ig ’s carcase h an g s u p in th e fa rm e r's ho u se. T h u s Crith Gablach refers to a flitch o f b aco n o n a h o o k (tinnefoi rroich) ,'2'2S T r a n spo r t

technology

Chariot, cart T h e O ld Irish law-text o n roads e d ite d o n p. 537 o f this b o o k illustrates th e im p o rta n c e o f th e ch a rio t (carpat) as a m eans o f CIH ü 563.24; iii 780.3 = CG 7.180. B oth MSS have gai w hich cou ld be taken as n om . sing, or n om . plur. In his glossary to CG (s.v. gát>) Binchy takes it to b e nom . plur. 223 CIH ii 481.3 = AL ii 238.z. 224 C/H iii 92 1 .9 -1 8 . 225M eid, Táin BóFratch 9.227. 226 CIH i 2 8 8 .1 5 -1 7 = AL iii 2 86.5-9. 227M cCormick, ‘Stock-rearing in early Christian Irelan d ’, 96. 228CIH ii 563.28; iii 780.7 = CG 7.186.

Transport technology

497

tra n sp o rt. * ' In this te x t — as in early Irish lite ratu re generally - the ch a rio t is associated p articularly with p erso ns o f high rank, th e k in g a n d th e bish o p . In a n o th e r law-text, th e te rm cairptech ‘o n e w ho has a c h a rio t’, ap p ears to be u sed as a synonym fo r a lo rd .229230 T h e arae ‘c h a rio te e r’ is m e n tio n e d in Uraicecht Becc as a servant w ho enjoys prestige a n d privilege in acco rd an ce with the ra n k o f his em p lo y er.-’31 T h e ch ario t-b u ild er (carpatsáer) has the status o f th e se c o n d g rad e o f Maire, a n d is th u s a freem an with an h o n o u r-p ric e o f th re e sets,232 M uch re se a rc h has b e e n c a rrie d o u t o n th e archaeological a n d literary ev idence re la tin g to th e c h a rio t a m o n g th e Celtic p e o p le s,233234 a n d co n seq u en tly th e Irish m aterial has b een investigated in som e d e ta il.231 It seem s th at th e early Irish chariot was a lig h t tw o-w heeled vehicle draw n by two horses. Each w heel (droch) h a d a m etal rim (fonnad), a n d a p o le (sithbe) c o n n e c te d th e b o d y o f th e c h a rio t ( cret) to th e yoke (cuing). O ld Irish c o m m e n ta ry o n th e law-text Bretha Comaithchesa refers also to th e shafts o f th e c h a rio t (feirtsi carpait), w hich are said to b e m a d e fro m holly.235 It is u n c le a r w here these shafts were situated : G re e n e suggests th at they p ro jected from the back o f the c h a rio t,236 w hereas Sayers arg u es fo r an id en tification w ith th e sw ingletree b etw een th e h orses a n d th e c h a rio t.237

229For discussion o f the etym ology o f carpat, see LEIA C-41. It is cognate with Latin carpentum ‘ch ariot’, a borrow ing from Gaulish: see below. 230 CIH vi 2302.10 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Crólige', 46 § 58. 231 CIH V 1617.12 = A L v 108.20. 232CIH V 1616.17 = A L \ 106.7-8. ' '-'The C on tin en tal Celts are known to have b een especially skilled in the construc­ tion o f horse-drawn vehicles. In Latin sources, there are m any words o f Celtic origin w hich refer to veh icles o f various types, e.g. benna, carpentum, carrus, carruca, essedum, petorritum, reda, covinnus (D ottin, La langue gauloise, 223-302; Lam bert, La langue gauloise, 201). 234S ee G reen e, ‘T h e chariot as describ ed in Irish literature’; H arbison, ‘T he Old Irish “C hariot”’; Sayers, ‘O ld Irish fert, e tc.’; Sayers, ‘Textual n otes on descriptions o f the O ld Irish chariot and team ’. 238 CIH i 202.26; ii 5 8 2 .1 3 -1 4 = AL iv 150.2-3. 236G reen e, ‘T h e chariot as describ ed in Irish literature’, 67-8. 237Sayers, ‘O ld Irish fert, e tc .’. H owever, L angdon ( Horses, oxen and technological innovation, 12) h old s that the sw ingletree was unknow n in Europe until the twelfth century.

498

Tools and Technology

T h e re p ro d u c tio n below from the badly w e a th e re d n in th -c e n tu ry Cross of th e S crip tu res at C lo n m acn o is gives som e id ea of a c o n te m p o ra ry view o f a tw o-horse ch ario t. T h e O ld Irish law-texts often d istin g u ish the c h a rio t fro m th e carr o r fen ‘c a rt’,238239 w hich seem s to h a te b e e n a m u ch h eavier vehicle, p ro b ab ly with fo u r w heels. It was u sed to carry loads such as F ig . ££. A tvuo-korse c h a rio t fro m a ninth,rods. rushes. ceuturaj cro ss a t C lo u m a c u o is , C o .O jJa h j. m a n u re , and c o rn .240 Typically, a c a rt was draw n by two o x e n .241 However, o n e law-text refers to a capall cairr 'c a rt-h o rs e '.-143-2 a n d a passage in a Latin sa in t’s Life speaks o f a light fa rm s draw n bv a single horse, w hich was used to tra n sp o rt vessels for m ilk a n d b u tte r to a n d from a m o n asterv .21 ’ W hen a family m oved ho u se, th e ir belo n g in g s w ere c a rrie d in an ox-draw n cart 244

238H arbison, High Crosses i 48 (discussion); i 3 7 2 -3 (dating); ii fig. 135 (p h o to g ra p h ). 2390 1 d Irish carr is co g n a te with Welsh and Breton carr o f the sam e m ea n in g ( LEIA C -41-2 s.v. 1 carr). T h e G aulish cogn ate was borrow ed in to Latin as carrus ‘cart’. O ld Irish fén is cogn ate with Welsh gwain, etc. ( VKG i 59; JEW 1119). 2 4 0 CIH ii 570.10 = CG 22.573 carr coil, carr oine ‘a cart-load o f rods, a cartload o f ru sh es’; CIH ii 384.15; v 1690.9 = AL i 170.1—2 dochairr.i. ailich noarba ‘o f your cart, i.e. for m anure or c o r n ’. 241 E.g. Bieler, Patrician texts, 112.7; 120.2-3. 242 CIH ii 471.18 = AL v 406.1. 243Plummer, Vitae ii 26 § xvii. A currus drawn by a single h orse is also m e n tio n e d at Vitae ii 52 § xxix. 244 CIH iii 897.14 = A p p en d ix A, text 2 § 1 (10).

Ropes

499

A n o th e r O ld-Irish w ord for th e farm -cart is a, w hich ap pears in an am u sin g tongue-tw ister q u o te d in legal co m m entary. A ccord­ ing to th e p re a m b le it is th e re c o rd o f a conversation overheard in C o n n a c h t." 1:1 ‘In esser dotn to á V ‘W ill you le n d m e y o u r cart?’ Tó, mani má mo á ’. ‘I will, if my c a rt d o e s n ’t break. A m tain mo « m óV ‘W ill m y c a rt co m e back soon?’ ‘M ani má to á, tó’. ‘If y o u r c a rt d o e s n ’t break, it will’. Pack-saddle S m aller loads can be secu red o n to a pack-saddle (srathar) ,245246 stra p p e d to th e back o f a h o rse o r ox."4' Loads may o f course also be c a rrie d o n th e h u m a n back: legal c o m m e n ta ry refers to th e carry in g bv a slave o f a load o f firew ood h eld to g e th e r by a withe (gat ).248 Boat By lakes, rivers o r th e sea, a b o a t m ay be a useful o r essential ad ju n c t to farm in g . T h e law-text Di Chetharslicht Athgabálae distin­ guishes th e small w ickerw ork coracle ( cliab) from th e b o at (n á u ).249 A ccord in g to o n e glossator, if a p erso n destroys the fo rm e r he m ust pay a penalty-fine o f five sets to th e owner, w hereas if h e destroys th e la tte r h e m u st pay te n sets.250 R opes

T h e re a re m any re fe re n ce s in o u r sources to ropes, a n d th e a u th o r o f Cn'th Gablach assum es th at a p ro sp ero u s farm er o f mntigfer rank possesses a n u m b e r o f ro p e s ( lomna).251 A n o th e r law-text states th a t a w o rk m an (gniae) is ex p e c te d to have a rop e: an accom pa­ nying gloss d efin es it as a h o p e for carts an d b u rd e n s ’ (Ionian carr 245 CIH vi 2 1 1 2 .3 7 -9 = D illon, ‘Stories from the law-tracts’, 43 § i. A closely similar version is q u o ted in Cormac’s Glossary (Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 8 § 70). T h e verse has b een ed ited by Watkins, ‘In essar dam do a . 1 q u ote his translation here. 246Like W elsh ystrodur o f the sam e m ean ing, srathar is a borrow ing from Latin stratura ‘pack-saddle’. See LEIA S-182 s.v. srathar. 247E.g. LU 95.2 9 3 8 = O ’Grady, Silva Gadelica i 234.8 (trans, ii 265,z); CIH vi 2137.5. 24HC m i 2 6 5 .1 2 -1 3 = A t, iii 176.12-15. 2 4 9 CIH ii 384.15; v 1690.8 = AL i 166.21 (where cliab is inaccurately translated ‘b ask et’). 250CIH v 1690.8. For a b rief referen ce to the boat-builder, see CIH v 1615.27 = AL v 104.1. For th e use o f bovin e h id es in boat-building, see p. 55 above. 251 CIH ii 563.22; iii 780.1 = CG 7.178.

500

Tools and Technology

y h e a r t ) A legal h e p ta d refers to th e use ol a ro p e ( súahiem) to allow a p e rso n to d escen d a cliff.2' T h e re is no precise in fo rm atio n in o u r sources on rope-m aking, but twisted willow w ithes are likely to have b een a co m m o n m a te ­ rial. T h e re is also evidence o f rop es m ad e from bat k. For a brief discussion, see p. 384 above. O t h e r farm t o o l s

In the ('.nth Gahladi list of tools an d utensils which a nnuig/er w ould be exp ected to own, we find th e w ords dins fidrhm nu o c c u rrin g after tál, tarathm, tuiresr ’adze, auger, saw' an d b efo re eif/it 'h a tc h e t'.- ' In his tran slatio n , Eoin M acNeill separates th e two w ords, taking dins to m ean 'a p air o f sh ears’, a n d pdchrann to m ean a trestle! r ) \ w hich he explains as ‘a stro n g w ooden fram e to h o ld large tim b e r for sawing, e tc .'2” D. A. Binchv, on th e o th e r h a n d , takes th e two w ords together, a n d tentatively translates 'a p air of w o oden shafts, i.e. a w o o d en sh ears’ .2 523*256 N eith er ex p lan atio n is satisfactory Dias, ttsuallv m ean in g 'two p erso n s’, is only rarely u se d to m ean ‘two th in g s’.2 T h e re is th erefo re little probability that dins bv itself was used fo r 'sh ears . as MacNeill suggests. F u rth e rm o re , th e w ord dehnes occurs in this m ean in g in b o th O ld a n d M od ern Irish, as well as in Scottish Gaelic an d M anx. For exam ple, th e n in th -c e n tu ry glossator on Priscian uses it to explain L atin biceps ‘shears (for cu ttin g hair, fleece) ’.258 Binchy’s suggested tran slatio n 'w o o d en shears' is also u n likely W ooden spades (p. 465) a n d w oo d en p lo u g h sh ares (p. 469) can be used to b re a k o p e n th e soil, but a c u ttin g im p le m e n t can hardlv have b e e n m ad e o f this m aterial. In early Irish tool-m aking, the m ain use o f w ood seem s to have b e e n to provide h a n d les. An ex cep tio n is the w ooden tongs (tenchor n a h m ) , w hich is in c lu d e d in a sh o rt list o f tools a n d utensils in legal c o m m e n ta ry T h e co m m e n ta to r states th a t a penalty-fine (dire) o f five sets m ust 252 C1H ii 374.8 = AL i 140.3. 253C /tf 132.1 = A L v 236.15. 254CIH ii 563.23; iii 7 8 0 .1 -2 = CG 7.178. 255E. M acNeill, 'A ncient Irish law’, 291 § 89 (and fo o tn o te). 256 CG 29, n o te to 1. 178. 257D /L D ii, 6 6 .1 3 -1 5 . 258 Thes. ii 145.26.

Otherfarm tools

501

b e p a id by a p e rso n w ho steals o r destroys this im p lem en t. It is d istin g u ish e d fro m th e iro n tongs ( tenchor iairn) w hich has twice this v alu e.239 W ood is also th e m aterial used fo r th e beam , fo resh are, suit, a n d h a n d le o f th e plo u g h , b u t it is unlikely th at th e w ords dias fidchrann re fe r to any p a r t o f this m ach in e, as the p lo u g h is d e a lt w ith separately a t th e e n d o f th e Crith Gablach list.2 59260 It is possible that th e w ord dias in o u r list has th e m ean in g ‘p o in t’ - it is well attested as th e p o in t o f a sw ord - in w hich case it may re fe r to a chisel o r g o u g e .2" 1 In th e M iddle Irish text Cóir Anm ann, th e re is a n o th e r attestatio n o f fidchrann in a c o n te x t w here it seem s to re fe r to som e so rt o f w o o d en bar, b u t u n fo rtu n a te ly n o in fo r­ m atio n is given as to its fu n c tio n .262 A re m o te possibility is th a t dias fidchrann is a w o o d en re a p in g tool. L atin sources refer to the use in th e M e d ite rra n e a n area o f mergae 're a p in g -b o ard s’, a p air o f w ooden plates w hich are forcibly b ro u g h t to g e th e r to rem ove the ears o f c o rn fro m th e stalks. A n o th e r R om an re a p in g tool is the w o o d en pecten ‘c o m b ’ .2632645 A n o th e r Irish w ord w hich has b e e n taken to re fe r to a farm tool o r im p le m e n t is usca, T h e Dictionary o f the Irish language gives it a sep ara te head-w ord a n d q u o tes ‘h e a th e r-b ru sh ’ as a possible m e a n in g .2" 1 It occurs a m o n g th e item s listed u n d e r the h ead in g ogam tirda ‘ru stic o g h a m ’ in th e tex t o n th e O g h am a lp h a b e t in Auraicept mi nEcesr'" T h e a u th o r has co llected words b eg in n in g w ith each le tte r o f th e o g h am a lp h a b e t from various contexts, such as birds, colours, ch u rc h e s, forts, saints, arts, etc. T h e w ords collected in th e ru stic o g h am section are m ostly th e nam es for tools, su ch as biáil (axe), eipit (h a tc h e t), ord (sledge-ham m er), o r tál (adze); b u t a few are m iscellaneous w ords c o n n e c te d with th e farm such as machae (m ilking e n c lo su re ), cúal (b u n d le o f firew ood) o r dabach (tu b ). I suggest th a t th e w ord in te n d e d by CIH V 1537.23 Dire theanchuirnn croind .u.s. Dire teancuir irnd .x.s. 260CIH ii 563.25; iii 780.4 = CG 7.181—2 óg n-arathair cana uili chomopair ‘full 259

p lo u g h in g ou tfit with all its ap p u rten an ces’. 261DIL D ii, 65 .2 0 -3 4 . 262Stokes, Cóir Anmann, 400 § 268. 263For a discussion o n both these tools, see K. D. W hite, Agricultural implements of the Roman world, 110-15; C olum ella, De re rustica (ed. A sh), 2.20.3. 264DIL s.v. usca. 265Calder, Auraicept, 292.5728. For a discussion o f the ogh am alphabets in Auraicept na nÉces, see M cM anus, A guide to Ogam, 137—40.

502

Tools and Technology

th e a u th o r is not usca but asm ‘lard, grease, tallow a very im p o rta n t an im al-p ro d u ct in any early Irish h o u se h o ld : see p. 55. Finally, th e rustic og h am list includes ngrnd ( = gend).~{" T his w ord is well attesterl in Irish of a w edge (ofW ood o r m etal) used to tighten a door, fetter, e tc .2*’* Its cog n ates in o th e r C eltic languages are ap p lied to a variety of tools used for sp litting o r tig h ten in g , e.g. B reton genu ‘w edge for sp litting w o o d ’: Welsh going 'chisel, w edge (o f wood o r ir o n ) ’: C orn ish gen ‘iron w edge, m in e r's ch isel'.''1''1 I suggest above (p. 486) that gend mav also be ap p lied to the blade o f an axe, i.e. th e p a rt w hich d oes th e splitting. T h e re is a n o th e r u n c e rta in attestatio n o f gend in a section of legal co m m e n ta ry d ealin g with th e p u n ish m e n t o f setting adrift, w hich was reg a rd e d as th e a p p ro p ria te penalty for som e serious crim es. ' ' 11 T h e cu lp rit is put far out to sea in a boat with a single o ar a n d given en o u g h g ru el for a day an d a night. To w ard o ff th e sea-birds he is su pplied with a geann orda tri ndornd.2,i T his seem s to refer to a wedge o r sim ilar p o in te d tool o f ab o u t o n e foot (i.e. th re e lists) long, w hich co u ld be used to keep th e birds awav from th e food. M ary Byrne suggests tran slatin g ‘a h am m er-sh ap ed (?) (h a m m e r­ headed?) w edge th re e h a n d s lo n g (or b ro a d ? )’, taking orda to be an adjective from ord ‘sled g e-h am m er’. - '' It is difficult to see how a w edge o r o th e r b lade co u ld be h a m m er-sh ap ed o r h am m er-h ead ed , b u t I have n o b e tte r e x p la n a tio n to offer.

26,1N ote that the dathogam ‘colou r-ogh am ’ list in clu d es úsgdha ‘tallow -coloured’ (Calder, Aurai cep!, 290.5701). 267For the non-radical initial ng- in ogh am , see McManus, A guide to Ogam, 3 7 -9 . 268D //, G 69.72-83; 7 0 .1 -4 . 269IEW 4 3 7-8; GPC s.v. gaing, H em on , Oeriadur, s.v. genn. 270See GEIL 219-21 for a discussion o f this pu n ish m ent. 271 CIH ii 744.34. T h e other versions have ardu tri ndornd (CIH i 109.12) and airtim tri ndarn ( CIH iv 1301.40). 272 M. Byrne, ‘O n the p u n ish m en t o f sen d in g adrift’, 99.

A ppendix A T he texts Practically all Old Irish law-texts provide some information on early Irish farming; in Appendix 1 of my Guide to early Irish law I provide a list of law-texts, with information on editions and translations.1 A few of these law-texts are particularly important sources of information for the present book, and I give a brief account of them here. The main law-text on farming is Bretha Comaithchesa ‘judgements of neighbourhood’, which can be dated on linguistic grounds to about the eighth century. It deals with the division of land among heirs, fencing, trespass by livestock and pets, damage to trees and bushes, and other problems which may arise between neighbouring farmers. The Irish text is printed in CIH i 64.6-79.12; 191.1-205.21. There is a translation in AL iv 69-159, but unfortunately it is often inaccurate; a new edition and translation by Thomas Charles-Edwards is expected to appear within a few years in the Early Irish Law Series. It will include an edition and translation of the im portant Comingaire-text on joint herding of livestock (CIH i 192.1-33; ii 576.24-577.24 = AL iv 100.4-102.19). A legal poem which deals with some of the topics discussed in Bretha Comaithchesa has been edited and translated by D. A. Binchy in the journal Celtica 9 (1971) 152-68. The law-text Crith Gablach, from about the same period as Bretha Comaithchesa, provides a very valuable account of early Irish society, and gives us much insight into farming practice at the time. Binchy edited this text without translation, but with a legal glossary and textual notes, in the Medieval and Modern Irish Series (Dublin 1941, reprinted 1970). The most accurate translation is that by Eoin MacNeill in PRIA 36 C (1923) 281-306. The text is printed in CIH ii 563.1-570.32; iii 777.6-783.38; 952.1-953.9. A great deal of general information on farming is provided by three lawtexts on the relationship between lords and clients. Cam Aicillne ‘the law of base clientship’ ( CIH ii 479.23—502.6; v 1778.34—1804.11) is edited and translated into German by Rudolf Thurneysen in ZCP 14 (1923) 338-94. In ZCP 15 (1925) 239-53, the same scholar edited and translated the frag­ mentary Cáin Sóerraith ‘the law of free fief (CIH v 1770.15-1778.33). Di dligiud raith 7 somaine la flailh ‘on the law relating to the fief and profit of a lord’ (CIH ii 432.21-436.32) is edited and translated by Bette:Jane Trigger in her doctoral thesis ‘A man is better than his birth’, 312-58.

1 GEIL 2 6 4 -8 3 .

Appendix A

504

P anicula) aspects of farm in g an- dealt with in a n u m b e r of law-texts. A text b e g in n in g Os In'jodln lire? cl is< tisses th e value of valio n s l\p e s of lan d ((,'/// ii 675.18-676. 1(>). I n d e r th e title ‘7 ú nnumlr' it has b e e n e d ite d a n d tran slated b\ G earó id Mac N’io taill in l.n u 22 ( 1971 ) 8 1 -6 . a lo n g with later co m m e n ta ry on th e sam e topic (( III iii 8 4 3 .3 -2 1 ). In Text 0 below, I prov ide an ed itio n an d tran slatio n of a n o th e t m in ted (3) it does not walk stiffly, (4) it should not be too low, (5) it should not be too tall, (6) it should not b e ----(?), (7) it should not be in the h a b i t o f l e a p i n g a b o u t , (8) it s h o u l d n o t h a v e a n excessively la r g e m o u t h ,

In his transcription Binchy has an y before the .i. but / cannot see it in the MS. There is a line-break after slan. A letter is illegible due to rubbing before aib. Read taib? 3 About three letters have been erased after thu, probably as a correction of a dittography. 4 The initial 1 is indistinct. 5 There may be one or two letters obscured before forlim. 1

2

556

Text 7

(9 ) it should not he duinsv, ( 10) it should not lx- lazy, ( 1 1) it should not be lanto, ( 12) it should not bo a kickot, (13) it should not bo tail-swishing?), (14) it is without a hollow or'glanders or weakness or shivering, (15) sound leaping, a fleet [horse] of good riding; Í lb) if there be any of these, it is to be returned or compensation is to be paid. Discussion § 1 (1 ) Co ber breith. The phrase Cu ber br(e)ithf how should I gi\e judge­ ment?' is particularly common in the fragmentary law-text Hndsmth Fithail, e.g. 67H iii 786.25; 787.13, 20. 24; 788.12, 30; 789.1, 4, 6; vi 2131.1; 2132.29; 2135.4, 37; 2136.4011. It also occurs in Hielha Xrmed Déidenach ( CIH iii 1113.19, 33 = E.J. Gwynn, ‘Privileges’, 16.11, 16.27). See Smith, ‘Fithal and Fland Fína', 34-8; Smith. 'Further light on the Finnsruth Fithail. One could also read co bér brith ‘how shall I give judgem ent?’. (2) og. I take og here to be for OIr. oar (tie) 'voting' rather than ug 'pure, whole’. Cf. Text 1 § 3 (1), § 4 (1). ,i. im leigsin a marcaidh fuirri. This Modern Irish gloss was added to explain the word urasa (airassa) ‘easy (to m ount)’. Marcaidh is for marcaigh, gen. sing, of marcach ‘rider’. Léigsin is a late form of the verbal noun of léicid ‘leaves, lets, allows’: see DIL L 81.56. (3) ardceandach. The adjectival com pound ardchenn 'high-headed' is well attested in early Irish texts as a complimentary epithet of horses, e.g. ech Hath . . . ardchend ‘a grey .. . high-headed horse’ (LU 262.8659-61 = Windisch, ‘Das Fest des Bricriu’, 278.12-14 § 49). For other instances see DIL A 387.29-32. The form ardceandach (= ardchennach) is a deriva­ tive in -ach with the same meaning. Virgil, Georgies (ed. Fairclough), 3.79, likewise advises that a horse should have a high neck ( ardua cervix). The abstract cennairde ‘high-headedness' is attested in legal commentai s at CIH iv 1275.39 (= vi 2096.27), apparently in the context of identifying a stolen horse. In a medieval treatise on horses, gohairde 'highness of the muzzle, “star-gazing”’, is classed as a defect.6 (4) beocraide. This is a compound of béo 'living, lively' + cr(a)ide 'heart'. When used of a horse, it must have some such meaning as ‘plucky, highspirited, valiant’. It is also used in a description of horses in TBC LL 80.2918; Cecile O ’Rahilly translates ‘with lively heart’, bruiitdleathan. This is a compound of bra 'belly, chest' + letban 'wide'. Another instance of the use of this com pound in a description of a horse is to be found in LU 329.10812 = Bergin and Best, TochmarcF.taíne', 174 S 3. Varro, Rerum rusticarum (ed. Hooper and Ash), 2.7.5, advises that a 60 Cuiv, ‘Fragments of two mediaeval treatises’, 48 § 11.

Discussion

557

horse should have a broad chest (pectus latum), as does Xenephon, ‘On the art of horsemanship’ (ed. Marchant), 1.7. bairneach. Baimexh is an adj. from barae ‘anger, passion, vehemence’. It is also used as a complimentary epithet of a horse in LU 262.8667 = Windisch, ‘Das Fest des Bricriu’, 278.20 § 50. It means ‘fiery, spririted, m etdesom e’. (5 ) beac a tiathugud. I have no suggestions for tiathugud. (6 ) seimchosath. The com pound séimchosach 'narrow-legged' is likely to refer here to a horse whose slim legs indicate a capacity for speed, socineoil. A horse should be sochineóil ‘of good stock’. Early Irish texts contain many references to good breeding in horses, and particularly emphasize the importance of foreign stock: see p. 90. (7 ) slan gaiti as. I am indebted to Liam Breatnach for suggesting that good sense can be obtained by taking gaiti (gaite) as gen. sing, of gat, vb.n. of gataid ‘steals, removes’, i.e. castrates. One can compare the reference in Text 2, § 1 (21) to reithi iarna slaini ‘a ram after recovery [from cas­ tration 1". slan goisti. This probably means that the horse has not been chafed or injured by its halter (goiste). slan [tjaib. O ne could take the illegible letter to be a t, and read slán taib ‘healthy with regard to side’, i.e. the horse has no injuries on its side from beatings, etc. (8) soraig a thucht. Read soraid a thucht ‘pleasant its appearance’. (9) socomail i laim. Socomail i láim ‘easy in the hand’ presumably means that the horse responds well to pressure from the rider’s hand on the reins. For this adj., see DIL s.v. socamail. § 2. I start a new paragraph at this point, though the scribe does not pro­ vide N i with a capital n. However, the text falls naturally into two halves: § 1 ( 1)—(9) dealing with horses’good qualities, and § 2 ( 1)—( 16) dealing with horses’ faults. In the text on the defects of cattle and sheep edited above (Text 1 §§ 2, 4, 8), the negative 3 sing, consuetudinal pres, nibi and the negative pres. subj. nip are used with no apparent distinction in meaning. Like­ wise in § 2 of this text, the author appears to have switched between nibi and nib ( nip). However, in some cases, a later scribe may be responsible for inaccurate transcriptions. For instance, it seems unlikely that the original text had nib roisel, nibi ward. One would expect either nibi roisel, nibi ward or nib roisel, nib ward. (1 ) N i bi cnoc ana leac uma d ru im . There are other references in our sources to animal-diseases characterized by lumps or pustules (cnuicc): see p. 201 (black-quarter?) and p. 203 (cow-pox?). Lecc may refer to some form of bony growth on the back; one can compare the horsedefect called lec ós crû ‘stone above the h o o f, which I suggest may be ringbone: see p. 211. For ana (= ina) ‘than’, see DIL I 213.19-28.

558

Text 7

(2) nibi mamdruimneach. I read m atn dru in m ru eh rather than Binchy s m ain dru im n each . Pcrliaps m d m d m im n erh 'yoke-backed means that the horse’s back has suffered from the effects o f the yoke (mám). Alternatively, it may be a use of m ám ‘hill, lump, gap’. (3) nibu calaceimneach. It seems best to read nitri raladclmmneih 'it is not stiff-walking'. However, it could also be the prêt, nibu used jnssivelv. (4) -(5). Varro, R erum ru sti/n ru m (ed. Hooper and .Ash). 2.7.4. likewise advises that a horse should be neither too big nor too small. (6 ) nib ocheall. 1 have no explanation for the otherwise unattested adjec­ tive oche(a)ll, obviously referring to some horse-defect. Possible emend to dochéill ‘senseless’. (7 ) nib imleb/meach. The adj. létm neih 'leaping' is well attested as a good quality in horses, e.g. TBC LL 80.2917 ar dá n-echaib lúatha lémnecha ‘behind two speedv leaping horses'. Here, however, im lrim n n h leaping about’ is clearly regarded as a defect. Presumably, the author is think­ ing of a horse which is of a highlv nervous temperament, and constantis bucks and rears when mounted. (8) nib robeil. Perhaps read robéml 'with too large a m outh'. One can compare the adj. sobéoil (snbéil) 'with a good m outh': see Dll. S 310.645. Having a slender mouth (gopchóel) is regarded as a good feature in a horse (LU 260.8593 = Windisch, ‘Das Fest des Bricriu’, 276.4 § 45). (9 ) nib docearrdach. C e td (d )n c h means 'skilful, accomplished', so it is likely that docherdach refers here to an awkward clumsy horse. (13) nip luatchairceach. The meaning of this compound is uncertain. The second element seems to be cairchech, an adj. from cairche ‘hair (esp. of animals), tail’. One could take it to be lúath-chairrhech ‘swift-tailed’, i.e. a horse whose constantly swishing tail indicates nervousness or bad temper. DU, s.v. hiathchairchech quotes Plummer's suggestion that this compound means ‘foot-hairy’, in which case it would be necessary to emend to lúa-chairchech. In descriptions of the horses of champions, caschairchech ‘curly-tailed’ is given as a characteristic to be admired ( I I ' 260.8594 - Windisch, Das Fest des Bricriu', 276.5 $ 45; LL iv 833.24871). The abstract cnschairchige ‘curly-tailedness’ ia attested in legal commentary at (JH iv 1275.40 (= CIH vi 2096.28). (14) ni bi eu cua. Liant Breatnach proposes reading ni bi ru nia 'it is not with a hollow’. It is suggested at Ltd A C-258 that the OIr. form of this word is cúae, cognate with Welsh can, Breton (Vannetais) keu ‘hollow’. The compound cocúae (com + cúae) ‘hollow, empty, concave’ is well attested (DU. 285.1-8), including one occurrence in the Milan Glosses ( 7 ties, i 328.27). The author may be advising that a horse with a hollow chest is to be avoided. fothach. Totharh is well attested in the meaning glanders', a respiratory disease of horses (see p. 211).

Discussion

559

etrocht. Étracht means ‘weakness’ (DIL E 247.11-15), and is used in relation to a horse in legal commentary at CIH i 266.20; iii 787.33 = AL iii 182.15. According to a legal gloss ( CIH vi 2313.3 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Dan Chécht', 40 § 304), it may be also be used of sexual impotence, crithach. ‘Shivering’ constitutes an unsoundness in a horse (West, Black’s veterinary dictionary, 498). It may also indicate disease. As we have seen on p. 202, Immacallam in dá Thúarad refers to crithach ‘shivering’ as a disease mainly associated with cattle. (15) forlim slan soimrime somul. Due to rubbing on the left-hand margin, it is impossible to make out any text before forlim, but one or two letters may have been obscured. This uncertainty makes it difficult to under­ stand the context of (15). Unlike the rest of § 2, it seems to refer to good qualities in a horse. Forlim (forlaimm) is vb.n. offor-ling ‘leaps on, leaps over’. So one could translate forlim slán as ‘sound leaping’, i.e. the horse is a good jumper. Fori (a) im is also used in a negative sense of ‘leaping-trespass’, evidently with the same meaning as airlim, e.g. CIH i 67.22-3, 28 = AL iv 80.22, 29 ina nairlim . . . inaforlim. But the meaning ‘leaping-trespass’ does not seem to make sense in our text. Soimrime is gen. sing, of immrim(m) ‘riding’, with the prefix so- ‘good’. My translation of somul as ‘fleet [horse] ’ is uncertain. This word is also attested at CIH \i 2315.20 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Dán Chécht’, 44 § 35 noch(a) dlig somul neich. Binchy translates ‘and is entitled to a well-balanced steed’, but notes that his rendering of somul as ‘well-balanced’ is highly doubtful. I suggest that somul in both examples refers to speed in a horse. O ne can compare the following instance in a Life of Saint Findchú: Gluaisis Fmnchua andsin ana shomhulrith charpuit (Stokes, Lismore Lives, 92.3087-8). Stokes translates (p. 240) ‘Findchua then drove in his . . . chariot’. Possibly, somhulrith charpuit means ‘in his swift course by chariot (lit. of chariot)’. (16) athchuirthe. Read athchuirthi, verbal of necessity of alh-cuirethar ‘returns, restores’. If the horse is found to be seriously defective, it must be returned to the seller with a full refund. See discussion on p. 509 above to Text 1, § 1 (2) aran athchuir. fuillithe. Read fuillithi (fuilnithi), verbal of neccessity of fo-lina ‘fills up, makes an extra payment’. The defect may not be sufficiently serious to warrant the return of the horse to the seller. In this case, he must recompense the buyer by making an appropriate compensatory payment. It is difficult to be certain whether the original had fuillithi or fuilnithi. The cluster -In- was occasionally being simplified to -II- already in the Old Irish of the Glosses, e.g. Thés, i 212.22; 245.24 giallai (= giallnai).

A ppendix R U nits o f m easu rem en t (1) L ength

Shorter measurements of length used in early Irish texts are generally based on the human hand (see ordlach, mer, bas. glace, dont) or foot (see traig, ctim). An obvious disadvantage of this method is the variation in the size of people's limbs. The texts sometimes specify, therefore, that the measure is that of an average adult male.1*36 To judge by our texts, it seems that an average spear-throw was the traditional method of measuring distances of medium length (see airchor). Precise measurements of longer distances are rare in our sources, and in legal material the onlv instance I have noted is the use of the Roman mile of a thousand paces (see mile chéimenn) in a Middle Irish commentary. Long distances mat be measured very roughly by the audibility of certain sounds: see p. 571 below. Distance mav also be measured bv reference to a single join net by horse or man. For example, ('.earI L’í.Xéill refers to the distance of a horse’s run (noth eich)} Below, I list the measures of length attested in our sources, with suggested values in inches and feet. It should be stressed that they do not comprise a single integrated svstem: there is a good deal of overlapping, particularly in measurements based on the handbreadth ( bas, crob, glace, dorn, airtem). Gráinne (= \ inch) The smallest measurement of length is the cereal-grain (gránme 1. In a discussion on the fines for wounds of different sizes, the Old Irish lawtext Bretha Déin ChéchI defines the smallest category of wound as fu/l grain cruithnechta ‘a wound of [the length of] a grain of wheat'. Next is the fuit dá gráinne cruithnechta 'a wound of [the length of] two grains of wheat’. ' The same text states that there are three grains in an inch (ordlach),1 and this equation is repealed in an Old Irish law-text on land-values, ’ and in commentary on Bretha F.tgidf' We can therefore take the early Irish gráinne 1 E.g. CIH ii 483.13 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht T, 355 § 13 do läim fir toimsi tëchta ‘of the hand of a man of proper m easurem ent’; cf. ferglacc ‘m an’s hand’ (Meyer, Cain Adamnáin, 2 § 2);ferdorn ‘man's fist’ (CIH iv 1471.4-5 = O ’Dav. 218 § 129); ferchubat ‘m an’s forearm ’ (Stokes, Saltair na Rann, 84.5756). In literary sources, ferthraig ‘m an’s foot’ is a common measurement; see DIL F 83.61-5. aDillon, ‘Ceart UíNéill', 6.59 § 6 . 3CIH vi 2306.25-7 = Binchy, 'Bretha Dnn Chécht' , 26 § 5. 1 d i t vi 2309.26 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Dän Chécht' , 32 § 15. 1 CIH ii 675.30 = Mac Niocaill, ‘ Tir cumaile', 82.16-17. 6 CIH i 299.29 = AL iii 334.20. Cf. Carney, ‘Ó Cíanáin miscellany’, 132-4.

(I) Length

561

to correspond appoximately to one third of a m odern inch. In the imperial system of measures, there are three barleycorns in an inch.7 Ordlach (= approx. 1 inch) Ordlach is a derivative of ordu ‘thum b’,8 and can be roughly identified with the m odern inch (= 2.54 centim etres), i.e. the breadth of an average thumb. In Bretha Déin Chécht, the proper inch (ordlach innraic) is defined as the ninge orddan, ‘the thumb inch’.9 An ordlach is also distinguished in legal sources which is the breadth of the little finger (lútu) at its lowest jo in t.1" In the average hand, this is a slighdy shorter measure. As we have seen in the discussion on the gráinne above, the ordlach is taken in Bretha Déin Chécht to contain three grains of wheat. However, a Middle Irish glossary has the entry: na tri grainde adearar a n-ordlach ,i. gniinde coirce ~ grainde eorna 7 grainde cruithnecht[a] ‘the three grains which are said to be in an inch, i.e. a grain of oats and a grain of barley and a grain of wheat’.11 This appears to assume that a standard inch is obtained by placing a grain of each type end to end; the result would be a slighdy longer inch than the Bretha Déin Chécht one.12 A later text gives an inch of four grains: ceilhri gráine an t-órdlach.13 In our sources, the ordlach is used as a measure of circumference as well as length. Thus a hen’s egg is said to have a circumference of four inches (.iiii. ordluigh a timcomac) ,14 Mér (= 1 inch or slightly less) In the law-texts, measurements are sometimes given in terms of one, two or three fingers. This m ethod is used, for example, when describing the proper dimensions of tools,15 vessels,16 and salted meat.17 In the Annals of 'Dresner, Units of measurement, 249. The same equation is found in medieval Welsh law: see Jenkins, The law of Hywel Dda, 316 s.v. barleycorn; GMWL 192 s.v. heyd. Cf. O ’Loan, ‘A history of early Irish farming (3)’, 170 (= O ’Loan, ‘Livestock in the Brehon laws’, 69). 8VKG ii 55 §397,5. 9CIH vi 2309.26 = Binchy, ‘Bretha Dnn Chécht', 32 § 15. As Binchy points out in his notes (p. 57), words for ‘inch’ and ‘thum b’ are connected in many languages. Ungae (uinge) is from Latin uncia ‘twelfth p art’, and is usually a measure o f weight in Irish sources (see p. 585 below), but it is here used of the twelfth part of a foot, i.e. an inch. 1 0 E.g. CIH V 1781.29 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht I’, 345 § 6 . This is glossed ,i. ordluch lutun ‘i.e. an inch of the little finger’ (CIH v 1781.29 = AL ii 232.22). Cf. CIH iii 1108.4 Ordlach a tighe .i. isin all ichtarach don lûlain ‘its thickness is an inch i.e. at the lowest join t of the little finger’. 11 ACL i 56 § 279. 12See the measurements o f cereal-grains given by Binchy, 'Bretha Déin Chécht', 49. 1 3 0 ’Grady, Catalogue, 240 § 15. 14CIH iv 1521.21 = O ’Dav. 440 § 1375; CIH iv 1526.9-10 = O ’Dav. 461 § 1484. I5 E.g. CIH iii 921.23, 24, 28, 29, 30. 1 6 CIH iv 1496.40-1 = O ’Dav. 330 § 807. 1 7 E.g. CIH ii 480.25-6 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht T, 348 § 8 .

562

A ppendix B

Tigernach, the dimensions of an enorm ous salmon caught at Clonmacnois in AD 1113 are given in feet, fists and fingers.1” In tlie Roman system of measurements, the finger (digitus) is one six­ teenth of a foot, whereas the inch ( unrin) is one twelfth. There is some evidence in Irish textsofa finger ( mér) which is different from an inch (urdlack) - presumably it is a slightly shorter measurement. For example, the dimensions of a billhook given in a law-text include both the met and the ordlach: this suggests that they were not viewed as identical measurements by the author.1'1 But the evidence of other law-texts indicates that the finger and the inch could also be regarded as the same. For example, the texts distinguish four different thicknesses of salted meat. The thinnest seems to be the tinne ordlaig 'flitch of an inch (in thickness)','" then the tinnedd mér ‘flitch of two fingers’,"1 then the tinne Iri mér 'flitch of three fingers'." and finally the tinne iciime 'flitch of a hand ."' The width of the hand is generally taken to be four inches (see under bas below), so it looks as if we have an approximate one-inch, two-inch, three-inch, four-inch gradation. Bas (= 4 inches) A measure which is occasionally found in our sources is the bas, i.e. the palm of the hand, handbreadth. For example, a ninth-centurv triad gives the three proper handbreadths (basa téchtai) as the handbreadth between a person’s shoe and his leggings, between his ear and his hair, and between the hem of his tunic and his knee."1 Legal commentarv takes the has to be a four-inch measure."’ Bas is also used as a measure of the amount which can be held in the palm of the hand, e.g. bas grain 'a handful of grain’.'"18920*46 Stokes, 'Annals of Tigernach (3)’, 32 s.a. 1113. ni 921.24. iii 778.37 = CG 5.110 tine ordlaighe. ii 482.4 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht I’, 351 § 9. ii 482.24 = Thurneysen, 'Aus dem irischen Recht I ’, 353 § 10. The author makes a distinction between this flitch, which is measured at the knuckle (isin alt medönach) and another - slightly larger - three-finger flitch (C IH ii 483.1 = Thur­ neysen, 'Aus dem irischen Recht T, 354 § 11) which is measured at the base of the fingers (a mbun láimé). 23CIH ii 483.13 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht T, 355 § 13. The glossator explains .i. bas a tiget a tinne ‘i.e. a handbreadth in the thickness of its flitch’. 2 4 Meyer, Triads, 28 § 222. ‘ ' (III i 299.29-30 - AI. iii 334.20 .iiii.ri orlaiglu i inbais; cf. O'Gradv, Catalogue. 240 §15 ceithri hôrdlaighi an pais (= bais). But a three-inch bas is m entioned in Carney, ‘Ó Cianáin miscellany’, 133-4, and in medieval Welsh law the palm breadth (lied y ball) is likewise three inches (William, IJyfr lorwertli, 59-60 § 90.18-25 = .4/.AL Venedotian Code, II xvii §§ 5-6). In the imperial system of m odern times, the palm is taken to be three inches, whereas the hand is four inches (Dresner, Units of measurement, 249). 2 6 C /tfi 307.17 = AL iii 382.7. 18

19 C1H 2 0 CIH 21 C IH 22CIH

(1) length

563

Glace (= 4 inches(?)) The word glace is used of the clasping hand, or of the amount of material which can be contained by a handclasp. For example, the early twelfth-century tale Aislinge Meic Con Glinne refers to seven handfuls (glacca) of edible seaweed."' The derivative imglaice is quite common in the la w -te x ts ,a n d in O'Davoren's Glossary is equated with a fistful (l.án duirn).- Ferglace 'a m an’s hand’ may be used as a measure of length, as in Cáin Adomnáin, where a candle is said to be the length of four m en’s hands (cainnel cethri ferglac).272893031 It is probably the sáme as the bas, i.e. 4 inches. A difficult attestation occurs in a description of a sumptuous feast in Ais­ linge Meic Con Glinne, which includes an ag teóra ferglacc 'a bullock of three hands'. " The context requires a fairly large animal for consumption, so Jackson suggests in his notes the emendation to agteóra ferglacc ndéc 'a bul­ lock of thirteen hands'. However, an argument against this emendation is the fact that the phrase ag Iri nglac is attested elsewhere, and could refer to some bodv measurement other than girth. For example, a Life of Saint Mo Laisse of Daiminis refers to the tribute of an agh Iri nglac to be paid by every m inor king to the community of this saint to ward off plague.32 In the Lite of Saint Náile, an agh In nglac is said to measure a glac in its horn, a dorn in its hoof, and a bas in its tail, but these measurements seem pedantic and unrealistic.33*356 Dorn (= 4—6 inches) The dorn ‘fist’ is commonly used in measurements in our sources, but it is hard to establish its precise length: the Dictionary of the Irish language quotes O ’Donovan’s definition ‘a measure of 6 or 4 inches’.14 Uncertainty about the size of the dorn is perhaps not surprising as the width of the adult male fist is particularly variable, depending not only on bone-size but also on the am ount of muscle and tissue built up by manual labour. The Old Irish law-text on land-values states that there are six inches in a dorn,x’ and this measure is also indicated in commentary on Bretha Comaithchesa which takes a dorn to be half a foot.lh Commentary on Cctin AiciUne likewise Jackson, Aislinge, 35.1078 = Meyer, Aislinge, 89.20. E.g. CIH iii 778.13 = CG 3.74; CIH ii 482.26 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dein irischen Recht I’, 353 § 10; CIH ii 483.3 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht L, 354 §11. 2 9 C1H iv 1510.38 = O ’Dav. 394 § 1124. 3 0 Meyer, Cáin Adamnáin, 2 § 2. 31 Jackson, Aislinge, 1.14— 15 = Meyer, Aislinge, 3.14. 3 2 0 ’Grady, Silva Gadelica i 21.11; trans, ii 21. 3 3 Plummer, Miscellanea hagiographica hibernica, 113 (38). mDIL D ii, 360.47-8. 3 5 CIH ii 675.30-1 = Mac Niocaill, ‘ Tir cumaile’, 82.17. It is necessary to einend se ordlaige i nordl- to sé ordlaige i ndorn). 3 6 CIH i 66.25 = AL iv 76.21. 27

28

564

Appendix B

equates twenty dorn with thirty bas.373 8 However, it is impossible to make sense of a six-inch dorn in the passage on walls and fences in the text of Bretha Comailhchesa. Here it is stated that a stone wall or a wattle fence to confine cattle must be twelve fists in height. If we are to take the dorn to be six inches, this would mean that the wall or fence is six foot high. Even with m odern cattle - which are generally larger than those of the early Irish period - it is not considered necessary to exceed five feet. In my reconstruction in Chapter 11,1 take the dorn to be only four inches: this gives a fence or wall of four feet in height. See p. 375. It is also difficult to establish the relationship of the dont to the nob in out texts. The word crob means ‘hand, claw, paw’, and one might expect it to be the same length as the glare, which I take to be font inches (see above). However, the law-text Bretha Xemed Déidenarh describes a cow as having a measurement of thirty hands (a tombas Inorha nob).'' Comparison with commentary on Cain Aicillne indicates that this measurement refers to the cow’s girth. Thus the text of Cáin Aiállne speaks of a cow whose girth is twenty fists {fiche dorn a timcomac) ,39*and an accompanying commentary defines this as tricha crobh ina tacmaisi ‘thirty hands in her girth’.41' If we take the dorn to be four inches, the crob must then be only inches. If we take the dorn to be six inches, the crob will be four inches - like the bas and perhaps the glace - but the cow will have an impossible girth of 120 inches.4 Airtem (= 6 inches (?)) The airtem is occasionally used as a unit of measurement.4^ It seems to have been dif ferent from the standard dorn, as a description of the dimen­ sions of a piece of meat in Cain Aicillne includes both the airtem and the dorn.43* A glossator on this text takes the airtem to refer to the fist with the thumb pointing upwards, while the dorn is the shorter measure of the clenched fist (mueldorn, lit. ‘bald fist’ ).41 The O ’Davoren gloss on this pas­ sage provides no father help, and simple defines the airtem as a ferdorn ‘male fist’.45

O H V 1784.35-6 = A t ii 252.23. 38CIH iii 1121.23 = E. J. Gwynn, ‘Privileges’, 28.6. 39 CIH ii 483.12; v 1784.32 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht I’, 355 § 13. i0CIH v 1784.34 = AL ii 252.21. 41See p. 31 for a discussion on the girth o f early Irish cattle. 4 2 E.g. CIH iii 921.28. See p. 486. 43CIH ii 480.24-5 = Thurneysen, ‘Aus dem irischen Recht I’, 348 § 8 . ii 481.4-6 = AL ii 240.1-4. The ‘bald fist’ measure (moelddyrnfedd) is also used in Welsh law: see Jenkins, The law of Hywel Dda, 272 (note to 129.4). 4 5 CIH iv 1471.4-5 = O ’Dav. 218 § 129. 37

(1) length

565

Traig (= 1 foot) The traig ‘foot’ is very common as a measure of length in legal and other texts. It mat be used in one-, two-, or three-dimensional measurements. I have not noted its use in measurements of circumference. Though the length of the adult male foot is quite variable, it has been used as the basis for systems of length-measurements in many societies.4647Early Irish sources indicate a twelve-inch foot, approximately the same as the modern stan­ dard foot of 30.48 centim etres.1' Legal commentary on Bretha Étgid states that there are three basa (four-inch measures) in a foot.48 There is one legal attestation of a shorter measure based on the foot. In the description of a standard fence in Bretha Comaithchesa it is specified that the distance between the stakes should be ‘the length of a foot as far the joint of the big toe’ (traigh co ruige deil n-ordan).49 This must be approximately eight inches. Cubat (= l lÁ feet) The cubat ‘cubit’ (from Latin cubitum, (-us) ‘elbow, forearm, ell, mea­ sure of VA feet’) is used mainly in texts with Biblical themes.5051 In legal commentary it is also used in a sea-measure: see p. 570 below. Céirn (= 2}A feet) The céim ‘step’ is occasionally used as a measure of length in our sources. As in the case of the m odern yard, the céim always refers to horizontal mea­ surements. The traig ‘foot’, on the other hand, is used for both vertical and horizontal measurements. In O Davoren 's Glossary, the céim is identified with the greis (from Latin gressus), and is stated to be two and a half feet in length (dä traigh co leth)?x In ‘A note on O ’Davoren’s Glossary’, 157, E. J. Gwynn suggests that this equation derives from an Old Irish translation of the Latin mensuration tract Pauca de Mensuris, which counts 2}A feet (pedes) in a gressus (= gradus). In other texts there is considerable variation as to the length of different types of cam. In the gloss quoted above, O ’Davoren appears to regard the céim ‘step’, coiscéim ‘footstep’, and deiscéim ‘step to the right’ as being of the same length. However, a glossator on the law-text Coibnes Uisci Thairidne states that the proper step (céim inraic) is 2Vz feet, 46See Glare, Oxford Latin dictionary s.v. pes (9) ; OED s.v. foot III (7). 47It may have been slightly shorter: compare the Classical Roman foot of approximately 29.6 cm. (Kidson, ‘A metrological investigation’, 75). 48 CIH i 299.30 = AL iii 334.20-21; cf. O ’Grady, Catalogue, 240 § 15. 4 9 CIH i 195.32; vi 2133.15-16 = ALiv 112.13-14; cf. CIH iv 1493.1-2 = O ’Dav. 313 g 715; CIH i 73.15. 5 0 Stokes, Saltair na Rann, 35.2449; 36.2463; 37.2527; etc.; Calder, Auraicept, 181.2604. 5 1 CIH iv 1507.29-30 1= O ’Dav. 380 § 1048; cf. Carney, ‘Ó Cíanáin miscellany’, 133 dä traig colleith i ngreis, but also tri traig go lath a ngres.

566

Appendix B

whereas the coiscéim (raserim) is 1'/i ie e t.’" In another source, the1 coiscéim is said to be two feet, half the length of a pais (I.atin passus). ' A conflict­ ing figure is given in the Old Irish text on land-values where a deiscéim is counted as being equivalent to six feet. ’* Much of this uncertainty seems to stem from a confusion as to whether a céim consists of a step taken bv one foot (Latin gressus) or hv both feet (Latin passus). For a discussion of the use of the deiscéim 'step to the right' and luailhchéirn 'step to the left' in relation to the immaire 'ridge (of ploughland) ’, see p. 574 below.

Fertach (= 12 feet) A rare measure of length in our sources is the fertach (pertach ), a borrow­ ing from Latin pertica 'perch'. Legal commentary on BrethaEtgiA takes it to contain 12 feet and to be one twelfth of a forrach.1,1 Another legal commen­ tary confirms the latter figure: isi aili dec na forraighe in phertach 'the fertach is one twelfth of the forrach'. “ Isidore of Seville (c.560-636) gives a pertica of 10 feet, but the mensuration tract Pauca de Mensuris - in a manuscript written at Corbie about the middle of the ninth centurv - refers to perticae of 10, 12, 15 and 17 feet. The larger perticae are used to measure poorer land, so that the yields per unit of land are evened out.58

Forrach (OIr.: 12 feet (?); Mid.Ir.: 144 feet) Forrach is a particularly difficult term. In Connues Glossary, which dates from about AD 900, it is equated with the fertach (pertach) discussed above. The entry reads: pertic a pertica .i. forrach tomais lire 'pertic from pertica, i.e. a rod(?) for measuring land'. 5 O ther Old Irish texts protide evidence in support of this identification of forrach as some t\pe of measuring instrument, probably a rod of standard length. A ninth-century triad includes the forrach along with two other devices for measurement,"" and an eighth-century gloss on the Psalms uses the same word to explain the Latin expression funiculus distributionis 'cord of division', i.e. a cord or rope used to measure out land. The term forrach is also used in a passage in the law-text Bretha Comailhchesa which deals with the dimensions of a CIH ii 461.6-7 = Binchy, ‘Coibnes Uisri Thairidne', 70 § 10, gloss5. 0 ’Grady, Catalogue, 240 § 15. ( Ill ii 675.31 = Mac Niocaill, ‘ Tir cumaile', 82.18. A cow-track (bóthar) which provides access to water across another person’s land is stated to be a descéim in width in Bretha Nemed Déidenach (CIH iii 1125.18 = E. J. Gwynn, 'Privileges’, 33.22). ’’Dresner, Units of measurement, 243, distinguishes an ordinary pace of 5 feet from a military pace of 2'A feet. 5 6 CIH i 299.30 = AL iii 334.21— 2 dd troigid dec i fertaig, da fertaigh dec i forraigh. 51 a i l i 140.18-19. 5 8 Kidson, ‘A metrological investigation’, 75. S9 Meyer, Sanas Cormaic, 90 § 1055. E. J. Gwynn, ‘A note on O ’Davoren’s Glossary’, 158, draws attention to the same correspondence o f forrach and pertica in CIH iv 1507.29-30 = O ’Dav. 380 § 1048. 6 0 Meyer, Triads, 18 § 138. 52 53

(1) Length

567

headland (airchinn).1'1 It is defined as being tëoru foirge 7 urcnr flescciig ‘th ree/oíTwWi-measures and the spear-cast of a youth’. Related legal verse has a slightlv different measure: tomnnis aircinne cethrai forrgib co n-aurchur jlescaich 'measurement of a headland bv four forrachs with the spear-cast of a youth’.6162 The above attestations of forrach in Old Irish sources suggest that it is most likely to have been a measure of about 12 feet in length.63 In Mid­ dle Irish legal commentary, on the other hand, it is defined as containing twelve jertnig. i.e. 144 feet.64 An even longer forrach is indicated in the table of measures in an Old Irish law-text on land-values.65 Here it is said that there are 6 feet in a deisctim ‘step’, 6 steps in an inntrit , 6 inntrit in a lait, and 6 lath in a forrach. This gives an impossible forrach of 1296 feet. Schol­ ars have referred to the difficulties of this passage,66 and it is safest to leave it out of consideration. The measures inntrit (perhaps from Latin introitus ‘entrance’) and lait (Latin latus ‘side’) are otherwise unattested. The term forrach is also used in relation to the marking out of a site. For example, the eighth-century Additamenta in the Book of Armagh contains the following passage: Dulluid iar suidiu Patrice cu Fiacc 7 durind a loee les 7 cutsecary forruim aforrign-and ‘after this Patrick came to Fiacc and divided out his plot of land for him and blessed it, and fixed his forrach there.’67 In his edition, Bieler quotes a note supplied by D. A. Binchy: forrach , orig­ inally a native land-measure (possibly = 144 ft.), but also used in a more specialized meaning as an area of land set aside for a particular purpose (e.g. by a king for holding an assembly) ’.68 Forrach is well-attested as an element in place-names.69 Airchor (= approx. 60 feet (?)) In m odern colloquial usage, a ‘stone’s throw’ is a rough measurement of distance. In early Irish literary sources, we find similar expressions. 6 1 C1H i 78.9; 200.12 = AL iv 138.15. Gaulish arepennis, cognate with airchinn (LEIA A-39), is recorded as a square measure, equivalent to a semiiugerum (Columella, De re rustica (ed. Forster and H effner), 5.1.6 ) or actus quadratus (Isidore, Etymologiarum (ed. Lindsay), 15.15.4). However, Old Irish airchinn is attested as a measure of length only. 62CIH ii 571.11-12. Binchy’s omission o f cethrai forrgib in his edition (‘An archaic legal poem ’, 159.86-7) does not seem justifiable. 63For a Welsh rod of 12 feet, see Rowlands, ‘Mesur tir’, 272. m CIH i 299.30 = AL iii 334.21-2. m CIH ii 675.30-3 = Mac Niocaill, ‘Tir cumaile', 82.16-20. 66AL vi (Glossary) 407; E.J. Gwynn, ‘A note on O ’Davoren’s Glossary’, 158; Mac Niocaill, ' Tir cumaile', 8410. 6 7 Bieler, Patrician texts, 176. ^Bieler, Patrician texts, 238. 6 9 Hogan, Onomasticon, 429; Doherty, ‘The monastic town in early medieval Ireland’, 49-50.

568

Appendix B

Fled Beirrenn refers to ‘tilt* le n g th ol a cast from th e io rt (fat n-eiurehout on c a th r a ig ) a n d Ihgail Bruidne l)n Deign d escrib es how som e im ste rio u s birds re m a in e d th e leng th of a cast’ ijol n-nhurehnra) a h e a d of C o n a ire . w ho was h u n tin g th em with a sto n e a n d sling. ' 1 I h e sam e e x p ressio n may be used in relation to a spear-cast, e.g. fnrhetrd a bttmaig rout n-aunhora dad ‘he throw s his sp ear th e le n g th of a cast from him In legal m aterial, th e term anchor is used o f a fixed u n it of le n g th in c ario u s c o n tex ts. The lawtext Crilh Galttach d efines th e rad iu s o f th e airltse (see p. 368) as th e le n g th o f a cast from a dw elling.' ’ A sim ilar usage is d e sc rib e d in m o re d etail in M iddle Irish co m m e n ta ry o n th e maigen digona ‘th e a te a a ro u n d a h o u se w hich is u n d e r th e h o u s e h o ld e r’s p ro te c tio n ’ . ' 1 In th e case of a c o m m o n e t o f bóaire rank, this a re a e x te n d s th e le n g th o f a spear-cast on all sides. In th e case o f an o rd in a ry lo rd (aire déso), it e x te n d s fo r two spear-casts, in th e case o f a lo rd o f p re c e d e n c e (aire tuiseo) it e x te n d s fo r fo u r speat-casts. a n d so on in m ultiples o f two u p to th e king o f te rrito rie s ( ri tdath ) w hose a re a e x ten d s fo r sixty-four sp ear-casts." T h is co m m e n ta ry tu e n specifies th a t th e sp ear (cnairsech) used sh o u ld be twelve fists (tin dorn deg) fro m its iro n b lad e to th e e n d o f its h a n d le . As we have seen in th e previous sectio n . Bret/ia Cornaithchesa re fe rs to a h e a d la n d consisting o f th re e forrachs a n d th e spear-cast o f a y o u th ( urchai flescaig). T h e youth is d e fin e d as a mace hundsaige ’lad o f th e s p e a r’. " In a discussion on th e e x te n t o f cattle-trespass, c o m m e n ta ry o n th e sam e text likewise refers to a distan ce o f e ig h te e n spear-casts o f a v o u th (. uiti. n-ureora .X. anddofleascach).'1 T h e se passages raise th e possibility th a t th e early Irish system o f m e a su re m e n t m a d e a d istin c tio n betw een a sta n d a rd spear-cast (anchor) a n d a s h o rte r cast throw n bv a v o u th (airehor flescaig). H owever, n o text d istinguishes two d iffe re n t le n g th s o f cast. It seem s m o re likely, th e re fo re , th a t th e youth (JlescaehV s is m e n tio n e d in th e texts m erely to give g re a te r p recisio n to th e u n it o f m e a su re m e n t. 701*456

7 0 LU 275.9136 = Windisch, Das Fest des Bricriu’, 299.11 § 8 8 . Cf. DIL E 60.29-32 ed n-urchair. 71 Knott, Togail Bruidne Da Derga, 5.138; cf. Ibid. 9.300 = LU 209.6787. Meid, Táin BóFraích, 2.47-8. ' ’CII/ ii 564.22—3; iii 780.28—9 = CG 9.219—20 Aurchor snedar each leih is é córus a airlise 'a spear-cast which is made in every direction is the proper area of 1ns airltse'. 74CIH iv 1431.32-1432.10; vi 2111.17-25 = AL iv 226.1-228.11. For a brief discussion of the maigen digona, see GEIL 141. 7 5 In the case of a king of higher rank, the maigen digona is reckoned as the area which his livestock reach; see p. 572. 76CIH i 78.9-10; 200.12-13 = AL iv 138.16. 77 CIH i 199.36-7 = AL iv 138.4. ,KThe law-text on status Uraicecht Beer assigns tire Jlescaeh an honour-price worth one lamb (CIH v 1610.17 = AL v 84.20).

(2) Sea-measures

569

Noí n-immairi Another measure of length used occasionally in our sources is not n-immairi ‘nine ridges’. Though the immaire ‘ridge’ sometimes has a precise application as a unit of area (see p. 574), not n-immairi seems to be used only as an approximate measure of middle distance similar to an airchor. According to Keating, for example, applicants to join the Fian had to defend themselves against spear-casts thrown at a distance of nine ridges.'1’ A less common variant of this distance is secht n-immairi ‘seven ridges’. According to commentary on Broccán’s hymn, Saint Brendan never proceeded more than a distance of seven ridges without thinking of G od.'1' Mile chéimerm (= 5,000 feet (?)) The measure of a thousand paces (mile chéimenn) is uncommon in our sources, and is doubtless modelled on Latin mille passus (or passuum) ‘mile’: see DIL M 137.3—13. The only legal attestation is in Middle Irish commentary on the extent of the maigen digona ‘the area around a house which is under the householder’s protection’.81 The radius of this area extends for a thousand paces (mile chéimenn) from the residence of a saint, bishop, hermit, or recluse. It extends for a radius of two thousand paces (dd mile) from a monastic city of refuge (cathair ataig),82 I take the céim in mile chéimenn to correspond to Latin passus ‘(five-foot) pace’, and suggest a mile of five thousand feet.81 This would be slightly shorter than the m odern mile of 5280 feet (= 1.6093 kilometres). (2) Sea-measures

Not tonna At sea, the wave ( tonn) is used as an approximate measurement of length, and there are many references to the distance of nine waves.84 The pref­ ace to Colmán’s hymn in the Liber Hymnorum tells us that a plague cannot reach beyond nine waves (n i thic teidm tar noi tonna); Saint Colmán there­ fore fled with his followers to a coastal island to avoid the plague called the Buide Conaill.85 In a fragment of Muirbretha ‘sea-judgements’, it is stated that what is retrieved beyond nine waves (dar noi lonnaib) from the Keating, Forasfeasa ii 334.5201. Thes. ii 335.40. 8 1 See discussion of this passage by Ó Corráin, ‘Irish vernacular law and the Old Testament’, 304-5. 8 2 COT iv 1432.6-8; vi 2095.24-5 = AL iv 228.5-7. 83A nother text has a mile o f six thousand feet (Carney, ‘Ó Cíanáin miscellany’, 133). 84E.g. Macalister, Lebor Gabála v 54 § 415; COT iii 916.8; cf. Fenton, The Northern Isles, 441. 8 5 Thes. ii 299.1-16. 80

570

Appendix B

shore belongs to the findet."1' The accompanying For example, in some Slavic languages the verb meaning ‘to pay’ is a derivative of a noun meaning ‘linen’, e.g. Serbo-Croat platiti ‘to pay’, platno ‘linen’. 3 -f‘C/// vi 2312.32 Hiih by, 'litetha Deni C.htrhl , 40 ^ 30 samaisrih dnirthcr lennnib seen lennaib lin. In his notes on p. 61, Binchy suggests omitting the first lennaib as dittography. Cf. CIH v 1572.29 in .c. lend TOO mantles’ (in a fine). 3 8

(7) Units of value

599

hood which is worth twelve scruples (lene cona dagculpait bes fiu da screpul [ drug] 1." ' In the Book of Armagh Additamenta, we likewise find a garment worth half an ounce (dillat leith ungœ) included in the price of an area of land.*28

327CIH vi 2114.3-4 = Dillon, ‘Stories from the law-tracts', 45 § iv; CIH iii 1134.18-19 = E. J. Gwynn, ‘Privileges’, 46.27-8 (dmg is supplied from this version). Cf. CIH vi 2218.14-15. 328Bieler, Patrician texts, 174.11.

Index 1 Irish index References are to page-numbers. An ‘n ’ after a page-number indicates that the occurrence of the word is in the footnotes. Unmarked verbal forms are in the 3rd singular present indicative; otherwise person, num ber and tense are supplied. A hyphen before a verbal form indicates that it is conjunct in the case of a simple verb or prototonic in the case of a compound verb. The headwords are mainly given in their Old Irish form, and as far as possible in the same spelling as that used in the Dictionary of the Irish lan­ guage {DID. .Alternative spellings are frequently supplied in brackets after the headwords, and are cross-referenced for the convenience of the reader. Within the longer entries, most forms are quoted directly from texts in the Corpus iuris hibemici ( CIH) without normalization. Consequently, there is considerable spelling variation. For instance, caírech, cáerach, caorach, cairach and caireg are cited as genitive plurals of cáera ‘sheep’. The index includes forms in Texts 1-7 (pp. 503-59) which are discussed in the linguistic notes. In such cases the page-reference is to the discussion, and not to the occurrence (s) of the form in the Texts. In a few cases, head-words are given in Modern Irish spelling, as there are no attestations from Old or Middle Irish, e.g. ladhairineach ‘bovine foul-in-the-foot’; cf. Old Irish ladrach ‘with defective hoofs (of cattle)’. The sign * before a form indicates that it is unattested. For example, there is no attestation of the 3sg. pres, indie, con-fich ‘destroys’, but the occurrence of the 3pl. pres, indie, con-fechad in Text 2 confirms its existence. á ‘farm-cart’ 499 ab (aub) ‘river, stream’ 310n; gen. sg. aba 310n; nom. pi. aibne 335 aball ‘apple-tree’ 259, 260, 306, 380; dat. pi. ablaib 261n, 267n; cpd aballgort ‘orchard’ 260, 370 abel ‘obolus’ 595 abrae (fabra) ‘eyelash, whalebone’ 285n accais ‘cause, reason’; nom. pi. aicsin 541, 542 accobar ‘desire’; gen. sg. accobair 591 achad ‘field, pasture’ 371; gen. sg. achaid 93

‘night’; dat. sg. oidchi 317n ‘h o rn ’ 74n; nom. pi. adarca 36, 36n adastar halter, bridle’ 93, 94n; gen. sg. adastair 382n adbach ‘brucellosis’ 200 ad-comairc ‘asks, demands’; -athchomairc 528 ad-daim acknowledges, admits, per­ mits’; 3sg. perfective pres. subj. [a]d-rodma 549, -árdama 549; 3pl. perfective pres. subj. pass. ad-rodmaiter (-aithev MS) 376n ad-firi sues, draws attention to an offence’ 532 adaig

adarc

602

In d e x 1

‘invokes, appoints’; 2sg. imperative aie 518 ad-rig ‘binds’; 3sg. pres. snbj. pass ad-riastar 152n ad-rodma: see ad-daim áe liver’ 276 aél (aiél) ‘flesh-fork’ 337 áenach: see óenach affaing: see oiffing ag ‘bullock, male calf, heifer, bovine’ 59, 60, 62, 63, 136n, 174, 179, 187n, 205, 563; gen. sg. oighe 107n; ag allaid ‘deer’ 131, 272; acc. pi. aige altai 277n ai ‘poetry’ 334 aibel: see oibel aie: see ad-guid aiede ‘artefact’ 436n; nom. pi. aiedi 383 aiedide ‘suitable for making into artefacts’ 383n aidbriuth ‘suing, drawing attention to an offence’ 532; gen. sg. aidlmudha 525 aided 'slaughter (of anim al)’ 531; acc. sg. aidid 531 aidemm ‘withe to secure hurdle’ 378 aife ‘disease of horses’ 212 aig ‘ice’ 235n Aig: see aigid aige racing (of horses)’ 99, 528 áige (ágae) ‘pillar, prop’; áige fine ‘head of kin’ 284 aigid ‘drives’; 3sg. pres, indie, pass, rel. agar 95n; 2sg. imperative Aig (as name of dog) 117 ail ‘rock’ 409; cpd ailblá ‘landmark consisting of a rock’ 409; ail lechta ‘gravestone’ 409 ad-guid

‘fence’ 376n, 378n; cpds lochaile ‘lake-fence’ 377; nochtaile ‘bare fence’ 372, 374, 376; srulhaile ‘stream-fence’ 377; tartaile ‘drought-fence’ 377; tondaile ‘wave-fence’ 377; toraile ‘fence with sods and stones(?)’ 377; tórandaile ‘boundary fence’ 377; trachtaile ‘shore-fence’ 377 ailech m anure’ 229; gen. sg. ailich 230n, 498n ailgubad beating(?) of flax’ 270n aimser (aimsir) ‘time, season, period’ 460, 541; acc. sg. aimsir 128; dat. sg. aimsir 155n, 510, 528, 541, 543; nom. pi. aimsera 541; dat. pi. aimseraib 396n ain ‘period of fasting, Friday’ 346; Cétaín ‘first fast, Wednesday’ 346; Ain didine ‘last fast, Friday’ 347 ain ‘rushes’ 342n, 362, 384; gen. sg. aine 384, 385, 491, oine 498n; cpd murain ‘sea-rush’ 385 ainetham 'non-arable land' 394 aingel female slave’ 591n ainim ‘defect’ 508-9; earlier nom. sg. *ainem 509; nom ./acc. pi. ain mnea 508, 509; cpds bóainmnea ‘cow-defects’ 204. 509; diainim ‘unblem ished’ 514 ainim m (later anam) ‘soul, life, animal’ 540 ainmin ‘coarse (of food)’ 344; as subst. ‘rough land’ 395, 436 aipgigud (aipigud) ‘ripening’; gen. sg. Id aipchi (= aipiglhe?) ‘day of ripening’ 460n airbe ‘enclosure, pen’ 85n, 152; cpd osairbe ‘deer-fence, barrier for catching d eer’ 277 airchaelán ‘half-loaf 348 airchae ‘outhouse’ 361,365 airchellad ‘taking away, distraint’ 434n aile

Irish index airchenda ( airrhenta, airchindta) 'fixed, definite’ 553 airchenn ‘fixed, definite’ 553 airches ‘trap’ 281 airches (oirches) ‘proper, fitting, trained (of ox)’ 48n airchinn (airchenn) ‘headland’ 372, 567, 575; gen. sg. airchinne 567 airchinnech ‘monastic superior’ 401,453 airehomal ‘tie or restraint (for animals) ’ 493 airchor ( erehor, aurchur, urchar) ‘cast, shot, spear-cast’ 129, 175, 302, 567, 568, 575; gen. sg. aurchora. ahurchara 568. urchair 568n; dat. sg. aurchur 567; nom. pi. urcora 568 aircsiu ‘looking-on (at trespass)’ 138. 160. 173 airdrochet (aurdrochat) ‘paved area at entrance to yard’ 68, 367, 466; nom. pi. erdrochail 367n aire (eire) ‘load’ 94, 477; gen. sg. airi 96 aire ‘lord, noble’ 453; gen. sg. airech 58In; nom. pi. airig 380; aire ard ‘high lord’ 319; aire déso ‘lord of vassalry, ordinary lord’ 170n, 232n, 363, 421, 482n, 568; aire échta ‘lord of blood-vengeance’ 116, 529; aireforgill ‘lord of supe­ rior testimony’ 363, 421, 422; aire tuiseo ‘lord of precedence’ 120, 170n, 231,435, 568 aire ‘woven fence, weir’ 287, 288 airecal ‘larder, apartment, oratory’ 361n, 404n; gen. sg. airecail 361n airecht ‘assembly’ 458 airechtas assembly’; airechtais 370

gen.

sg.

603

444, 473; gen. pi, airemon 461; cpds cennairem ‘front ploughm an’ 476; tónairem ‘rear ploughm an’ 476 airet (airat, airot) ‘length, extent’ 572; cpd senairot ‘ancient mea­ surem ent’; dat. pi. senairotib 583 airfócrae ‘public notice’ 149 áirge ‘summer milking-place’ 40, 44, 250n áirgech ‘herd, milk-maid’ 44n airget: see argat airgedach ‘silver-mine’; gen. sg. airgetlaig 435 airgorad; see aurgorad airise ‘P’ 285 airlae (aurla, erla, etc.) ‘lock of hair, tuft’ 520; cpd lethrirlach ‘half-tufted (of sheep)’ 71, 520 airlann (urlann) ‘open space, lawn’ 367n; dat. pi. urlannaib 68n airlech ‘slaughter (of animals)’ 496 airleng ‘hurdle’ 366 airlim ‘leaping-trespass’ lln , 137, 138n, 146, 559 airlise ‘area around farmhouse’ 368, 369, 413, 568n airmed ‘unit of dry measure, con­ tainer’ 581, 582; gen. sg. airmeide 581, airmide 582n airndel ‘trap’; gen. sg. airdil 129n, airndil 278 áirne ‘sloe’ 261; nom. pi. árni 261; dime cumra ‘cultivated plum ’ 261, 306; dimefiadain ‘sloe’ 306 airscar (urscar; aurscor) ‘clearing, lawn’ 370, 543 airscartad (urscartad) ‘clearing, cleared area in front of doorway’ 115, 543 airsliab ‘mountainside, foothills’; gen. sg. airslébe 44n airem

604

Index 1

(airtim) ‘six-inch(?) measure’ 486, 502n, 564 airthend ‘creeping bent-grass, Agrostis stolonifera' 42, 226 áit: see átt aitenn furze, gorse, whin’ 381, 395 áith ‘drying-kiln’ 240, 365, 369; gen. sg. átho, átha 122n, 242; dat. pi. áthaib 140n, 239n aithech ‘rent-payer, client, com­ m oner’ 7, 448, 453; nom. pi. aithig 380; cpds aithechlus ‘ple­ beian h erb ’ 258; aithechmatad ‘peasant cur’ 117 aithgein ‘restitution, compensation’ 50, 76, 88, 121, 135n, 149, 161, 162n, 165, 166, 168, 170, 176, 177, 217, 386, 441; cpd lethaithgein ‘half restitution’ 161, I78n aithinne ‘firebrand’ 165 aittreb: see attrab aittrebthach (aittreabhach) ‘inhab­ itant, husbandman, labourer’; nom. pi. aittreabhaigh 448n ala- ‘second’; alaloig ‘of second calf’ 514; alahuan ‘on second lamb’ 518 álaind ‘fine, beautiful’ 514 all bridle’ 93 all ‘cliff’; gen. sg. alia 435 allaid ‘wild, undomesticated, feral’ 130, 131, 178, 186n, 272, 281, 476, 531; acc. pi. neut. altai 277n; gen. pi. masc. alta 274, 444 allm uir (allmuir) ‘overseas, for­ eign’ 90, 529; as subst. ‘foreign [horse]’ 529; nom. pi. allmairi ‘foreign goods’ 529 alt ‘knuckle’ 562n altan ‘blade, razor’; dat. sg. attain 257n altramm ‘fosterage’; gen. sg. altramma 351 airtem

‘ploughing-tackle, and straps(P)’ 172,473

amlach

halter

‘servant, hireling’ 442; cpds banamus ‘female servant’ 450; feramus ‘male servant’ 450

amus

án

‘driving (trespass)’ 138, 139 ‘staying, rem aining’ (vb.n. of anaid); gen. sg.(?) anta 553

anad

‘soul’ 166n

anam

ancraid

(ancrud) ‘ill-shapen’ 520

‘old church, church with subordinate foundations’ 528

andóit

‘shallow’ 395; as subst. ‘shallow land’ 395, 396n

andom ain

andud

(annad) ‘farrowing’ 532

‘farrowing’; andaigthe 532

*andugud

anfót

gen.

sg.

‘carelessness’ 161

(animé) ‘defective fence’ 183n,377

animbe

‘untrained’; as subst. anindle ech ‘untrained horses’ 94

anindle

anmandae

‘animal’ 540

‘relish, condim ent’ 251, 314, 316, 344, 348

annlann

anriatae

‘untrained (of ox)’ 229n

‘champion, warrior; second grade of p o e t’ 116; gen. sg. ánruith 116

ánruth

ansicc: see coire ansicc anta: see anad antreim

‘very rough land’ 395

aoibheall: see oibell apad

‘notice’ 149, 172, 528

apaig

‘ripe’ 237

ar

‘ploughing’ 96n, 367n, 449, 478; gen. sg. air 231, 447, 573

Irish index ár ‘slaughter, mortality’ 194, 295; cpds árchii ‘slaughter-hound, guard-dog’ 115, 116, 147; bóár ‘cow-mortality’ 193n, 196, 198, 214; gen. sg. bóáir 198; nom. pi. bóára 193n; mucár 'pig-slaughter’ 283n árach bond, fetter, chain"; gen. sg. áraig 150n árad ‘wooden rods, wooden mate­ rial, bier, ladder’ 388n; cpd lethárad airm ‘half-material(?) of a weapon’ 383 arae ‘charioteer’ 444, 497 arathar ‘plough, ploughingequipm ent’ 48, 469, 474; gen. sg. arathair 49n, 65, 151n, 372n, 469n, 470, 471n, 476, 501n, 574, 590 arbor (arbar) ‘corn’ 45, 83, 228n, 232, 233n, 235, 241 n, 246n, 267n; gen. sg. arbae (arba) 230n, 232, 236, 238n, 239n, 244, 333, 498n, 581,582, arbhu 140n, 239n; dat. sg. arbur 244n; nom ./acc. pi. arbanna 2n, 326 arcetluim orpim ent’ 258 archogacht ‘hunting’ 118n archogaid hunting dog’ 118 ar-corpai ‘corrupts, defiles’ 514 ard ‘high’ 319; as subst. ‘hill’ 381; cpds ardchenn, ardchennach ‘high-headed (of horse)’ 556; ardtreichem ‘well-drained tilth (?)’ 229 -árdama: see ad-daim argat ‘silver’; gen. sg. arggait 89, argait 374n, argit 593, airgit 594, 598, airgid 584n, 594, 596, 597; cpds bronnarcat ‘refined silver’ 594n; findairget ‘white silver’ 585. See also airgetlach a rm ‘weapon’ 165; gen. sg. airm 383

605

‘compensation, commuta­ tion’ 347 art ‘bear’ 190 árus ‘dwelling’ 103 as ‘milk’ 83n, 324, 325, 460, 516; gen. sg. asa 325n, ais 578n; dat. pi. asuib 578 ás ‘growth’ 462 as-beir ‘says’; 2sg. perf, ad-rubartais 554 as-ben ‘cuts’ 488 ascnam ‘seeking, going towards’ 540; gen. sg. ascnama 426 ascolt (ascalt) ‘starvation, dearth’ 194, 198, 354n as-lena ‘soils, defiles’; 3sg. pres. subj. -éilnea 542; 3pl. pres. subj. -éilnel 542 as-ren (ad-ren) ‘pays’ 517; 3sg. pres. indie, pass, adrenar 183n assal ‘ass, donkey’ 13In assan ‘ass, donkey’ 131, 132; nom. pi. asain 132 atach ‘refuge’; gen. sg. ataig 569 atam ‘atom ’ 584 at-bail ‘dies’ 12n, 513; mani epell- ‘P’ 513 áth ‘ford’ 393 áth ‘water-dropwort, hemlock’ 310; áthaba (dáthabha, táthabha) 184n, 31 On athair ‘father’ 418n athbronnad ‘aftergrass’ 45n, 136 athchomarc ‘request, permission’ 279n athchummae ‘injury, mutilation' 162n; cpd béoathehummae ‘non­ fatal injury (to livestock)’ 162, 217 athchur (athchor) ‘restoration, return’ 508; gen. sg. athchuir 509 ath-cuirethar ‘restores, returns’ 559; verbal of necessity athchuirthi 509, 559 arrae

606

Index 1

‘distraint’ 170, 180, 416n, bachlach ‘monastic client’ 453 433, 524; gen. sg. alhgabálae badb ‘hooded crow’ 191 171, 172n, 521; dat. sg. aíhgabáil bádud ‘drowning’ 182, 288n 521, 527, 530; cpd inalhgabálae badún: see bódún baid: see bold ‘capable of distraint’ 526 athloinpaire (alhlumpaire) bade place, townland, farm ’ 285n, 402; dat. sg. baili 370n; baile bó ‘aftergrass’ 45n, 422 ‘cow-land, unit of area’ 572n; cpd athlosc ‘chronically lame(?) ’ 510 senbaile ‘home farm ’ 44 athsceinm rebounding’ 154n átt (áil) ‘place’ 286n; gen. sg. áitle baineim (boinenn) ‘female’ 60n, 76, 78, 590 286 attrab ‘possession, occupation, báircne ‘basket’ 122n squatting; habitation, dwelling- bairenn ‘rock’ 298 house’ 434n; gen. sg. aitreibe 143, bairgen ‘loaf of bread’ 317n, 330, 348, 359; gen. sg. bairgine 252n 176n áu (later o') ‘ear’ 512; nom. dual Ó, bairnech ‘limpet’ 298 ‘fiery, spirited, óó, auo 512; dat. pi. oaib 512; cpd bairnech mettlesome (of horse)’ 557 áuderg ‘red-eared’ 33 baislec ‘venomous or poisoned audbart ‘sacrifice’ 52 place’ 198 áugaire ‘shepherd’ 69, 442 baislec ‘basilica, church, graveyard’ aurbach attack’ 176 198n aurbaid (airbaid, erbaid) ‘breach, destruction’; nom. pi. aurbaidi balgum (bolgum) ‘sup, draught’ 525 ban ‘white’ 91n, 121; cpds bánbéim 456 ‘white (bloodless) blow’ 163; bánaurbe (aurba) ‘clearing, destruc­ biad ‘white food, milk products’ tion, fence-breaking’ 40n, 318; bángorad ‘white heat’ 486n, 386 487 aurchur: see airchor ban‘female’; banamus ‘female aurdrochat: see airdrochet servant’ 450; banbiiugu ‘female aurgnam ‘work’ 449 hospitaller’ 417; banchoairt aurgnamaid (urgnamaid) ‘worker, ‘female landowner’ 322, 417. labourer’; dat. pi. urgnamlaib 525 493; banchoic ‘female cook’; aurgorad (airgorad) ‘scorching’ 241 nom. pi. banchoici 493; banaurrad ‘person of legal standing’ rhomarbaf ‘female heir’ 401, 415, 424 49In; baineachlach ‘female mes­ aurscor: see airscar senger’ 96n; banfuini ‘baked bacach ‘lame (of cow)’ 510 for a woman’ 330; banimb bacc ‘angle, corner, mattock, hook’ ‘woman-butter (as quantity)’ 46n, 93, 467, 468, 491 78; banmuitteóir ‘female miller’ baccad ‘use of mattock’ 468 450; banrigain ‘queen’; gen. baccán ‘hooked or curved object’ sg. banrigna 256n; banthin467n, 495 chor ‘woman-contribution (in bachall ‘crozier, pastoral staff 453n m arriage)’ 419; bantrebthach athgabál

Irish index ‘woman householder’; gen. sg. bantrebthaige 491 banb 'piglet, bonav’ 85, 86n, 87, 143, 461; cpd torcbanb ‘male piglet’ 86n banbrad herd of piglets’; acc. sg. banbraid 190 bannae (bainne) ‘drop, milk’; gen. sg. bainne 40n, 325n; nom. pi. bainde 576n; bainne ciabair ‘thickened milk’ 324 bárc ‘ship, boat, container’ 122n; nom. pi. bárca 360n b a rr ‘top, abundance, tree-top’ 104n. 237: gen. sg. bairr 304; nom. pi. bairr 237; cpd barrchmccra ‘pink-tipped’ 261 n bas ‘palm, handbreadth, handful’ 562, 581; dat. sg. bais 562n; nom. pi. basa 562, 565 bás ‘death’ 84, 291n; gen. sg. bàis 162; nom. pi. báis 291n bé ‘woman’; bé loinedo ‘woman of the churn-dash’ 325 bécech ‘bawling (of cattle)’ 513 bech ‘honeybee’ 109, 141n, 180; nom. pi. beich 368n; acc. pi. beochu 141 n; cpds Bechbretha ‘bee-judgements’ 108; bechdibad ‘bee-mortality’ 214; bechdin ‘bee-shelter’ 111 bedg ‘start, jum p, shying, leap’ 153, 196; cpd bedgdibad ‘j erking mortality’ 195 bedgach ‘disease of cattle or goats’ 196, 207; gen. sg. bedgaige 197n; nom. pi. bedcacha 193n béim ‘blow, cutting’ 542; béim súla ‘evil eye’ 174n; cpds bánbéim ‘white (bloodless) blow’ 163; cnocbéim ‘lump-blow’ 163 beirid ‘bears, delivers’; 3pl. pres, indie, -berat 531; lsg. pres. subj. -her 556

beithe beithir

607 birch’ 380 ‘bear, monster, mastiff’ 119,

190n ‘m outh’; cpd robéoil ‘having too large a mouth (of horse)’ 558 bélot ‘crossroads' 170 Beltaine ‘Mayday’ 41n, 54, 59, 460, 461,516, 533 ben ‘woman’; gen. sg. mná 48n, 107n, 418, 419, 450n, 526; dat. sg. mnai 449n; nom. pi. mná 270, 451; acc. pi. mná 510. See also bél

ban-, bé

horned(?)’ 36n ‘horned one, antlered one’ 36, 36n béochraide ‘high-spirited (of horse)’ 556 béochrod ‘livestock’; gen. sg. beóchraid 459n. See also crod béodatu ‘growing season (of tree)’ 387n beóir ‘beer’ 335; gen. sg. beóri 335 berbad ‘boiling’ 457 bernán ‘gapped one’ 216 berrad ‘shaving’ 162; gen. sg. berrtha 330n bert ‘burden’ 500 bés ‘food-rent’ 318, 446; cpd sarnbês ‘summer food-rent’ 318 bi ‘resin, pitch’ 383 biad ‘food’ 184, 428; gen. sg. biid 244n, 333, bid 72, 244, 429, 457, 459n; dat. sg. bind 94n; cpds bánbiad ‘white food' 318; gaimbiad ‘winter food’ 318; máethbiad ‘soft food’ 351; saimbiad ‘summer food’ 72, 318 biáil ‘axe’ 376, 485, 486, 487, 492, 496; gen. sg. bêlai 489n, bêla 491; nom. pi. bêla 486n; cpds gallbiáil ‘foreign axe’ 488; tir inbéla ‘land clearable by axe’ 389n, 395 bennach bennán

608

Index 1

(piast, prist) ‘beast, monster, worm’; nom. pi. biasta 122, pésli 186n, péiste 210, piasta 210n biathad ‘feeding’ 318, 355n, 451; cpd lethbiathad ‘half food-entitlement’ 351 biathaid ‘feeds’; 3sg. pres. subj. -biatha 511 biattach ‘hospitaller; one who pays food-rent, client’ 22, 428, 429; nom. pi. biataigh 429; dat. pi. Inadtachaib 429n; cpd dórrbíatach ‘base client' 429 bibdu ‘culprit, guilty one’ 149 bil ‘rim, edge’ 516 bile ‘sacred tree’ 370, 388, 409; acc. pi. biledha 388 bilfothach ‘healthy with regard to glanders(?)’ 21 In bindech sweet-lowing(P)’ 36n binit ‘rennet’ 324 biorragán ‘edible plant’ 311 bir ‘spike, cooking-spit’ 129n, 278, 338, 338n, 358; gen. sg. bera 278n; acc. pi. bera 338n birit ‘sow’ 80; gen. sg. birite 81 biror (birar, bilar) ‘watercress’ 309, 339, 347; voc. sg. a bhiorair 309; gen. sg. biorair 309, birair 313 bis ‘vessel’ 578 bithbinche ‘habitual or repeated offence, innate viciousness (of anim al)’ 141, 151, 152, 153 bithblicht ‘with constant milk’ 29, 41. See mlicht blá ‘open space, race-course, land­ mark, boundary-mark’ 95n, 409 blaán ‘madder(P)’ 269n bláesc ‘shell’; gen. sg. blaisce 575, 576 bíast

(bid) ‘immunity, exemption from liability’ l l n, 145, 151n, 153n, 154n, 155n, 179, 180, 370n, 438, 485n bláth ‘flower’ 261 n. 327 bláthach butterm ilk’ 325, 327 bled ‘whale, monstrous animal’ 284n; cpd bledmil 284n, 285n blegon: see mlegon bleith: see mleth blicht: sec mlicht bligire ( bliugere MS) ‘milker’ 511 bligre: see mligre bligrióir ‘milker’ 451n blonac ‘lard’ 86 bó ‘cow’ 15, 32, 33, 36n, 58, 163, 172n. 508. 516. 517. 518. 521. 524. 525, 526, 541, 548: acc. sg. boin 508, 524, 579: gen. sg. bó 32, 550, 580; dat. sg. boin 50; nom. dual box (ba MS) 540, ba 553, bat 553; gen. dual bó 100, 548, boo 571; dat. dual búaibh. 594; nom. pi. bat 273n, 527, bee 553; box' (boin MS) 531, ba 510, 553, 554, 589n; acc. pi. bú 40n, 49n, 167, 167n; gen. pi. bó 28, 443, ba 175, 218; dat. pi. buaib 36, 40n, 528; bó bainne ‘milch cow’ 40n; bó bhradach ‘thieving cow’ 137; bó bithbinche ‘cow of innate viciousness’ 152; In bithblicht ‘cow with constant milk’ 29, 41; bó bold ‘docile cow’ 508: bó brothcháin 'cow whose milk is used for an invalid’s pottage’ 349; bó chis ‘cow intended for ren t’ 524; bó chrocc ‘short-horned cow’ 36; bó derba ‘milch cow’ 40; bó inich ‘flawless cow’ 201, 508; bá inlóeg (inláeg) ‘in-calf cow’ 64, 580, 588; gen. sg. bó inloige 580; bó marta ‘cow for slaughter’ 53; bó méth ‘fat cow’ 53, 524; bó mlicht ‘milch cow’ 58, 64, blai

Irish index 587; bó mór ‘fully-grown cow' 52. 64, 168, 229n; bósesc ‘dry cow’ 64, 65; bó threlóeg 'three-calf cow’ 65; bó thnphne ‘three-teated cow’ 202, 509; bó Ihúir ‘fattened cow’’ 45; cpds bóainim ‘cow-defect’; nom. pl. bóainmnea 204, 506; bóár ‘cowmortality, cattle plague’ 193n, 196, 198, 214; bócharna ‘cow’s flesh’ 65n; bóchor ‘cow-dung’ 144n; bódíbad ‘cow-mortality’ 28n, 196n; bógeltach ‘cow-grazer’ 450; bógnine ‘cow-killer’ 158n; bósall ‘salted b e e f 336; bóseiche ‘cowhide’ 49; Bóslechtae ‘cowsections’ 504; bóthech (bótheg) ‘cow-house’ 365, 366

bóaire

‘cow-freeman, well-off farm er’ 8n, 27, 49, 51, 85, 88, 96, 232, 241, 242, 244, 245, 253, 254, 319, 337, 361, 364, 369, 419, 421, 428, 445, 447, 452, 453, 497, 575; gen. sg. bóhairech 421n, 575n; dat. pl. bóairechuib 453n

bóbán ‘calf 29 bocc ‘buck-goat’ 78 bocht ‘poor’; coirce bocht ‘poor oat, pilcorn’ 227; as subst. ‘pauper’; gen. sg. boicht 577

bochtán ‘liquid measure’ 347, 348, 577; cpd prímbochtán ‘prime measure’ 577

bódún (badún) ‘cow-fortress, for­ tified 366

enclosure,

bawn’ 22n,

boid ( baid) ‘docile (of cow) ’ 508 boim ‘morsel’ 330n boinech'cow-like(?) ’ 508 boinin ‘calf 508 bóithreán ‘cow-dung dried for fuel’ 57n

609

(bolg) ‘bag, bladder, blister’ 94, 208, 244, 245; dat. pl. bolgaib 208; cpds bolcsrónach ‘swollen-nosed’ 335; menbolg 'bag of meal’ 247 bolgach ‘bladdered’ 43; as subst. bolgach léasach 'swine pox’ 208 bolgam: see balgum bonn ‘groat’ 57, 598 Bóraim e (Bórama) ‘cattle-tribute’ 28 borblachas ‘rough treatment (of horse)’ 153 bordgal 'meeting-place, city’ 319 borrach ‘swelling, growth, crop(?)’; dat. sg. borraig 254n borrlus ‘leek(?) ' 254, 321 bothach ‘cottier’ 441; cpd sáerbothach ‘free cottier’ 424n bóthar ‘cattle-track, road’ 32, 391, 401, 537, 566n braich: see mraich braichles ‘wort’ 247 bráigdech ‘halter’ 94n braisech (praisech) ‘cabbage, veg­ etable soup, broth’ 255; praissech nmnta ‘nettle broth’ 340 bran ‘raven’ 192 brannuigecht (brandaigecht) ‘a type of board-game’ 452 bráo (bró) ‘quern’ 245, 439, 482; cpds lámbró ‘hand-quern’ 482; dat. sg. lámbróin 482n; límbró ‘whetstone’ 486n; dat. sg. límbróin 482n,486n brat (brail) ‘cloak, cloth’ 269, 598; gen. sg. bruit 268n; brat scarthae ‘spread cloth (to catch swarm of bees)’ 112; cpd forbrat ‘protective covering (on calf) ' 206n bratán (bradán) ‘salmon’ 286n, 289n, 293, 294 bráthair brother, kinsman’; acc. pl. bráithri 416n brathlang ‘covering (of trap)’ 279 bole

610

Index I

‘speckled’ 289n; as subst.'trout’ 295 Bréone little flame’ (name of cat) 123 breth ‘j udgem ent’; acc. sg. brith (breith MS) 556; nom. pi. bretha 548 bretnach British’ 90, 529 brise ‘brittle (of sheep’s skin)’ 518 briscén (tnioscán) ‘root-vegetable, silverweed’ 256n, 312 brissid ‘breaks’; 3pl. pres, indie. brisid (=-it) 374n; brisid lá ar ‘fails to do a day’s work for’ 238n brissiud ‘breaking (of lim b)’ 183; nom. pi. bristi 174n brithem lawyer, judge’ 447, 515 brithemnas ( brethemnas) ‘law, profession of judge’ 419 briugu ‘hospitaller’ 120, 321, 370, 422, 429, 543; in briugu feda ‘the hospitaller of the wood (i.e. hazel)’ 382; cpd banbriugu ‘female hospitaller’ 417; nom. pi. banbrugaid 417n bró: see bráo bróc ‘shoe, form of restraint used on goats’ 79, 494; gen. pi. bróg 382n brocc ‘badger’ 131, 282; gen. sg. bruicc 282; nom. pi. bruic 282n brocóit bragget, honey-beer’ 113, 334; gen. sg. brocôite, brocoli 335 brogaid: see mrogaid bronn- ‘refined, smelted’; cpds bronnarcat ‘refined silver’ 594n; bronnór ‘refined gold’ 594n brot ‘goad’ 470, 495 broth: see bruth brothchan (Mod.Ir. brachdn) ‘broth, stew’ 324, 332, 349; gen. sg. brothcháin 304n, 349, 521 brothlach ‘cooking-pit’ 337n; gen. sg. brothlaig 425 brecc

‘belly, chest, womb, uterus’ 81; cpds broinnfend, brondfend ‘white-breasted’ 123n, 289n; bruindleathan ‘wide-chested’ 556 bruchtaid bursts, issues forth’; 3sg. pres, indie, rel. brúchlas 289n braider: see m ruigfer bruig: see m ruig bru innid ‘springs forth, flows’; 3sg. pres, indie, rel. bruinnes 338n, 358 bruith boiling' 331 bruitin ‘small goad’ 495 bruth (broth) ‘blaze, glow; brewing, fermentation; heat (in ewes)’ 69, 332. 529 búaball ‘wild ox’; gen. sg. búabaill 56 buachalán: see búathfallán búachail(l) ‘cowherd’ 119, 122, 136n, 152, 442, 443,45In; dat. pi. búachaillib 525; cpd conbúachaill ‘herd dog’ 119, 164 búaid victory, trium ph’ 99n; gen. sg. búada 96, 99, 172, 528 búaidrén ‘stirabout’ 332 búaile ‘cattle-enclosure (esp. for summer m igration)’ 24, 43, 45, 136, 139, 197n, 198n, 201, 204n; dat. sg. buathligh 75n; nom. pi. buailli 429n; gen. pi. buailtedh 429n; cpd aenbuaile ‘same enclosure’; dat. sg. aenbuailidh 549 búailtechas ‘summer migration’; gen. sg. buailltechuis 44 búain ‘reaping, cutting, harvesting’ 238n, 253n, 265, 268, 449; gen. sg. búana 46n, 237, 238, 384, 447, 491; búain as ‘castration’ 530 búar ‘cattle’ 46n; cpd díabulbúar ‘double cattle, cows and hinds' 273 b ru

Irish index

611

‘diarrhoea’ 200; cpd dubúar càelàn ‘intestine’ 339; nom. pi. ‘black diarrhoea(?)’ 200 caolána 339n; caolán tóna ‘lower intestine’ 339n búarach ‘spancel' 40, 493 búathfallán (later also buachalán, cáer ‘berry’ 307n; nom. pi. caora 307, cdera 308 bólhalán, etc.) 184 buide ‘yellow’ 92, 263; as subst. cáera ‘sheep’ 15, 67, 75, 529, 530, 588; acc. sg. cairig 206, cairich Buide Conaill ‘yellow one of (cairaich MS) 518; gen. sg. cáerach Conair (name of plague) 569 73; dat. sg. cairig 69n; nom. pi. buidecán ‘yoke (of egg)’ 105, 351n cairig 75n, caoirigh 185n, cairich buinne ‘stalk, sprout, branch’; nom. 531; gen. pi. cairech 68, 364, cáerpi. buindi 252n ach 119, 365, caorach 165n, cairach búirech ‘bellowing (of cattle)’ 513 460, caireg-530; dat. pi. cairib 71n, bun ‘base, stump (of tree)’ 376n, 530, cairchaib 530 409, 562n; cpds bunepe ‘base­ cáeraigecht (caoraigheacht) ‘mass, cutting’ 387; miodhbhun ‘plant wandering group of pastoralists’ with sweet root(?)’ 311 24, 427n bunad ‘origin, base, foundation, cáerthann (cairthend) ‘rowan, inherent quality-; gen. sg. bunaid mountain ash’ 338n, 380 144n, 192, 200, 205, 207, 208, caile ‘thinness, emaciation’ 198 209.213 cailech ‘cock’ 102; nom. pi. coiligh bunchor ‘band of interwoven rods’; 301; cailech froich ‘male grouse’ nom. pi. bunchuir 375 299; cailech feda ‘capercaillie’ 301 bunnsach ‘rod, spear’; acc. sg. cailech ‘chalice, cup; flange, spike, bunsaig 568; gen. sg. bundsaige projection’ 488n; dat. pi. cailchib 568 488n caill ‘wood’ 389, 574; gen. sg. caille cabán (cobfán) ‘hollow’; nom. pi. 155n, 278n, 337n, 425, mille 301; cabána 370 cpds Cremchaill ‘garlic wood’ 308; cadhan: see cauth roschaill ‘rose-garden’ 27In cadla ‘goat’ 78n cáin ecclesiastical law, written law’ cáebad ( cáepad) ‘pelting with clods, 13, 286, 289, 393, 553: gen. sg. throwing up clods’ 154n cána 290, 593n cáech ‘blind in one eye’ 204, 511 caindel ‘candle’ 55, 563 cáechad ‘blinding of eye (by b ee)’ caindelbrae candelabrum’; dat. sg. 157 caindelbrai 55 cáel (cóel, caol) ‘slender, thin’ 79, cainnenn ‘onio n (?)’ 15, 16, 250, 251, 252, 253, 267n, 339; gen. 83n, 261, 387; gen. sg. fern. sg. cainninne 141n, caindinne caoile 598; cpd gopchóe.l ‘hav­ 252n; cainne 252n, 253n, cainde ing slender mouth (of horse)’; 253n, 267, caindi 253n; dat. sg. as subst. ‘rods, wattling, under­ coindind 267n; cpds firchainnenn wood’ 376n, 382, 390; gen. sg. tail ‘true onion’ 251n; glaschainnenn 382, coil 498n ‘green onion’ 252 cáelach ‘rods’ 379 búar

Index I

612 cairche

‘hair (esp. of animals), tail’

558 ‘tailed’; cpds caschairchech ‘curly-tailed (of horse)’ 558; liialhchairchech ‘with swishing tail (?) ’ 558 cairde ‘treaty between kingdoms’ 167 cairptech ‘one who owns chariot’ 95, 497 cairrgin ‘edible seaweed’ 315 caisel ‘stone wall’ 241, 453 cáise ‘cheese’ 328; cpd tírmcháise ‘dry cheese’ 329 cáith ‘chaff, husk’ 242, 331; gen. sg. cáitha 242 caithig (cathach) ‘trespass-fine, penalty’; nom. pi. caithchi 176n, 406, caithghe 543; cpds duinechaithig ‘human penalty’ 138, 140,141, 144n; ógcaithig ‘full penalty’ 136 caithne ‘arbutus' 380, 381 caitine (-in) ‘kitten’ 122, 144 cál ‘cabbage’ 255 calad ‘hard, stiff ; cpd caladcheimnech ‘stiff-walking (of horse)’ 558 calad ‘shore, harbour, riverside pas­ ture’ 1, 45; nom. pi. caillte 408 camall camel’ 124 camthaire (camtire MS) ‘wrap, covering (on animals)’ 206, 206n cano ‘grade of poet’ 87 cáóc ‘jackdaw’ 130; acc. sg. cáóig (caoigh MS) 130n caoraigheacht: see cáeraigecht capall ‘work-horse, pony’ 90, 94, 96, 231, 476n, 478, 498, 528; nom. pi. capaill 528; capull coilk ‘capercaillie’ 301 carae ‘friend, relative’ 42, 550; nom. pi. carait 550 cairchech

‘fresh meat, flesh’ 284, 336, 348, 353n; cpds bócharna ‘cow’s flesh’ 65n; mórcarrnda ‘great m eat’ 529 carpat ‘chariot’ 89, 95, 99n, 424, 496, 539; gen. sg. carpait 382, 497; acc. pi. cairplhiu 542; cpd carpatsáer ‘chariot-builder’ 497 carr ‘farm-cart, cart-load’ 48, 230n, 382, 498, 499; gen. sg. cairr 96, 498 carr ‘weir’; nom. pi. cairr 288n carr ‘warrior, cham pion’; gen. sg. cairr 524; acc. pi. carru 524 carrac (carraig) ‘rock’ 315; gen. sg. cairrge 305; dat. sg. carruig 377n, carraig (carraigh MS) 553 cartad ‘clearing, cleaning out, removing’ 434n, 541 cásc ‘Easter’; dat. sg. cáiscc 309 caschairchech ‘curly-tailed (of horse)’ 558 cath ‘battle’; gen. sg. catha 541 cathach ‘catde-enclosure(P)’; acc. sg. calhaig 197n cathach: see caithig cathair ‘fortified residence, monas­ tic settlement, town’ 361, 569; dat. sg. cathraig 568; cpd primchathair ‘royal residence’ 370n; gen. sg. primchathrach 370n cáthbruith ‘sowens, flummery’ 331 catt ‘cat’ 121, 123; nom. pi. call 123n; gen. pi. catt 145; cpds Catilechtae ‘cat-sections’ 121; trénchat ‘strong cat’ 123n caur ‘champion, warrior’; gen. sg. caurad 524 cauth (Mod.Ir. cadhan) ‘brent goose’ 299 cechair ‘m arsh’ 164, 182 cechrad ‘driving [livestock] into marsh’ 164 carnae

Irish index ‘ploughbeam ’ 471,476n, 495; nom. pi. céchta 388n céile ‘client, neighbour, other per­ son’ 279n, 320, 400, 429, 440, 446; nom. pi. céili 421; céile giallnae 'base client’ 446n; cpds dóerchéile ‘base client’ 167n, 429. 446n: sóerchéile ‘free client’ 446n céim m ‘step, pace, stile’ 378, 565; gen. pi. céimenn 569; cpds coiscéim ‘footstep’ 565, 566; deiscéivi ‘step to the right’ 565, 566, 567, 574; túaithchéim ‘step to the left’ 566, 574 céir wax’ 114 ceirbsire (cerbseóir) ‘brewer’ 333, 450 ceirtle ‘ball of wool’ 75 ceis: see cess céis ‘young sow’ 86n, 87, 143; cpd céistorc ‘young boar’ 88 cell ‘church’ 370n, 404n; acc. sg. dll 431; gen. sg. alle 107, 405n, 436n, 554; cpd senchell ‘old church’ 528; gen. sg. senchille 528 cenn ‘head, front, en d ’ 153, 291n, 530, 590; dat. pi. cendaib 238n, cennaib 252n, 253n; ceann an mheithil ‘head of the reapers’ 238; ceann fine ‘head of kin-group’ 430; cpds cennairde ‘highheadedness (of horse)’ 556; cennairem ‘front ploughm an’ 476 cennaid tame, domesticated’ 178 cennaige ‘m erchant’ 425; dat. pi. ceandaighaib 319 cennos ‘halter’ 473 cennsae ‘tameness, gentleness’; dat. sg. cennsai 107 cép ‘onion’ 257, 264; cpd foltchép ‘chives’ 257 cepp (cep) ‘log, stum p’ 279 ceppach clearing’ 455 cécht

613

‘h en ’ 15, 80n, 102, 146n, 588; gen. sg. circe 104, 218, 576, drei 258n; acc. pi. cerca 189n; cercfroich ‘hen grouse’ 298-9; cpds cercjogla ‘hen-offences’ 140n, 141n, 239n; rercherc ‘fully grown (?) hen’ 104

cercc

‘craftsman’ 578; gen. sg. cerda 586

cerd

‘skilful, accomplished’; cpd docherdach ‘awkward (of horse)’ 558

cerdach

cerdacht

‘craft, metalwork' 419

‘liquid measure’ 577; gen. sg. cernce 577n

cern

(Mod.lr. ‘skirret’ 256

cerrbacán

cés

cearrachán)

‘haunch (of deer)’ 275

(ceis) ‘basket, bee-hive’ 1 1 0 , 157, 244, 288; nom. dual cis 157; dat. pi. cessachaib 288n

cess

‘Wednesday’ 346

Cétaín

‘four’; cpds cethardam ‘team of four oxen’ 474n, 476; cethardoruis ‘of four doors’ 116, 364n; cethardruimnech ‘four-ridged (of barley)’ 222, 226

cethair

‘cattle, livestock’ 29, 42, 50, 119, 143n, 154n, 162, 169n, 172n, 176, I78n, 183n, 215, 217, 496, 513, 521; acc. sg. ceihri 510; dat. pi. cethraib 193, 214, 295; cpd mórchethrae ‘large livestock’ 119

cethrae

(cethraime) ‘quarter (ounce)’; gen. pi. cethramthan 585; cethrime pinginne ‘farthing’ 597; cethraimthi uinge ‘quarter ounce’ 593n

cethramthu

cetnat

‘sheep’ 68n; gen. sg. cetnata

68 cilornn

‘pitcher’ 359

614

Index 1

ein ‘offence, liability’ 183n; acc. sg. dnaid 149, 183n, 531; gen. sg. cinaid (read cinad?) 212n; dat. pl. äntaib 402n; cpds duinechin ‘human offence’ 134, 150, 153, 155, 172; ropchin ‘animal offence (for which owner pays lesser fine)’ 134, 150 cinéï (cenél) ‘race, stock, breed’ 50; cpds comchen[e\ oil of same vari­ ety (of apple)’ 260n; sochineóil ‘of good stock’ 113n, 557 cingit ‘goblet, liquid measure’ 576 ciniud ‘breeding, heredity (of animal)’; gen. sg. dneda 51 cintach ‘guilty’; cétchintach of first offence’ 149 cintecal ‘rough wool’ 71 cir ‘comb, crest’ 375 cirad ‘combing, raking’ 246, 452 circall (circul) ‘circle, hoop’ 285n cirm aire ‘combmaker’ 56, 74 cis ‘rent, tribute’ 172n, 524; gen. sg. cisa 429n; dat. sg. dos 598; ds cesarda ‘Caesarian tribute’ 594; rís rígda ‘royal tribute’ 593n cit ‘sheep’ 68n clachán: see clochán clad ditch’ 183, 393, 396, 431, 436, 542; gen. sg. claid 183n, duid 552; dat. sg. daud 183n, dud 553; cpd dadblá ‘ditch as boundary-mark’ 409 cladaire ‘ditch-digger’ 444 claide digging, ditch’ 435, 553 claideb ‘sword’; gen. sg. claidib 398 claidid ‘digs, excavates’; 3pl. pres. indie, claidhit 142n claime ‘mange, scab, skin-disorder’ 193, 196, 206 clam ‘mangy, scabby’ 206n; acc. sg. fem. claim 206 clandaid ‘plants, digs, sets’; 3sg. pres, indic, rei. dandus 279n

board, plank, beam, breast­ work (of saddle)’ 270, 279, 285n, 379 clárach ‘planks’ 379 clas digging, trench’ 154, 372, 373, 374, 479; cpd midchlas ‘middle trench (in m ining)’ 436 clasaige ‘m iner’ 586 classach: see clossach cléithe ‘roof-pinnacle, pinnacle, best’ 362, 590n; cpd senchléithe ‘ancient dwelling, hereditary se rf 429, 441 clérech ‘cleric’ 454; dat. pl. cléirchib 579 clesach ‘tricky, cunning’; as subst. clesach uisce ‘crafty one of water, salmon’ 29In cleth ‘stake, hurdle’ 148. 362, 389 cliab ‘basket, coracle’ 110, 238, 244, 290, 389, 499 cliamain ‘relative-in-law’ 25 cliath ‘hurdle, wickerwork tray, har­ row’ 241, 378, 478; dat. sg. déith 241n; gen. pl. cliath 393 clithar ‘protective’; ditharsét ‘?’ 590; as subst. gen. sg. clithair 590 cloc ‘bell’ 45, 148; gen. sg. cluic 578 d o c h ‘stone, lum p’ 203n, 377n; dat. sg. cloich 377n; nom. dual cloich 341 clochán (clachán) ‘pavement’ 144, 453 cloid ‘turns back, blunts’; -dut 486n clossach ( classach) ‘part of body (of deer)’ 275, 275n clúain damp pasture, unfilled field' 45, 371, 395; gen. sg. clúana 371 n; nom. pl. clúainti 389 clúas ‘ear, projection, spike’ 488n; dat. dual clúasaib 488n; nom. pl. clúasa 488n cnai ‘fleece’ 71, 75, 588 clár

Irish index 'bone spavin (in horses)’ 209, 212 cnairsech spear’ 568 cnap ‘nodule (of glanders)’ 211; dat. pi. cnapaib 211 end: see enu cnocc ‘lump, swelling, pustule’ 201, 557; nom. pi. cnuicc 193n, 201, 203; cpd enoebéim ‘lump-blow’ 163 enu (rnó) ‘n u t’ 84n 306, 575, 576; nom. pi. cna 307; dat. pi. cnoibh 306n; cpds cnúleslar ‘nut-shell’ 576n; cnómess ‘nut-crop’ 305 cnúas ‘produce, pickings’ 304 cnúasach ‘picking, collecting’ 298 coairt ‘landowner, husband­ m an’; cpd banchoairt ‘female landowner' 322, 417, 493 cocad ‘war’; gen. sg. coctha 541 cochall hood, hood-shaped n et’ 141, 296, 494; cochall Hsg ‘hood-shaped fishing-net’ 296n coclad ‘double ditch, ditch on either side of road’; gen. sg. coclaid 542 coclaid ‘digging’ (vb.n. of con-claid(})) 542,543 cocúae ‘hollow, empty’ 558 codai ‘hide’ 290n. See also

cnáimspetan

trechodlide

( cáe) ‘winter-hospitality’ 320, 391; acc. sg. caii 540; gen. sg. cue 541, cua 541,543; dat. sg. cai 542 fbel: see cáel cóem chlód ‘exchange (of land)’ 420 coibche ‘bride-price’ 418; cpd cétchoibche ‘first bride-price’ 418n coic ‘red ’ 268 coic ‘cook’ 322; cpd banc.hoic ‘female cook’; nom. pi. banchoici 493 cóe

615

‘guarding, custody’; gen. sg. coiméta 173 coindelg ‘contract, agreement’ 424 coinigéar ‘rabbit-warren’ 133n coinin ‘rabbit’ 133n coirce: see corcae coire (caire) ‘cauldron’ 337, 358, 577, 579 coirtged (coirtegh, coirted) ‘tanning’ 382n,386 coiscéim ‘foot-step’ 565, 566 coitchenn ‘common, of common ownership’ 212, 286n, 287n, 288n, 406, 407n, 408, 436n coitethe (cotaide) ‘dried, hardened’ 265. See cotut colainn ‘body, carcase’ 100, 591 colg ‘awn, bristle, kype(?) of salmon’ 242n, 293; cpd éo colgsnáma ‘salmon swimming with kype(?)’ 293 coll ‘hazel’ 306, 380; gen. sg. cuill 84n coll ‘castration’; dat. sg. cull 59 colpthach ‘two-year-old heifer’ 62, 168, 486, 572, 588, 590, 593n; gen. sg. colpthaige 580; colpthach firenn ‘two-year-old bullock’ 62, 588, 590 colpthach ‘shanked’; cpd lethcholpthach ‘half-shanked (of cow) ’ 204, 510 colpthae (colpa) ‘shank, handle of flail’ 267n, 358, 481 n, 510 coltar ‘coulter, knife’ 222n, 470; gen. sg. cuiltir 470 colum dove’ 107 comaithches ‘neighbourhood, farming adjacent holdings’ 376; gen. sg. comaithchesa 387 comaithech ‘neighbour’ 437, 544 comalne ( comalla, comaille) ‘dropsy’ coimét

1 9 3 n ,202

616

Index I

‘partnership’; gen. sg. comámsa 550 comann ‘pound (for livestock)' 171n comar ‘joint ploughing, agricultural co-operation’ 12, 371, 445, 468 comarbae heir’; nom. pi. comarbai 413; cpd banchomarbae ‘female heir 401,415, 491n comarbus ‘inheritance’ 416n comarthae ‘sign, identificationmark (on animal) ’ 274 comblicht: see mlicht comchennach ‘mutual trading’ 425n com chen[e]óil ‘of same variety (of apple)’ 260 comgith ‘breaker, cow in the habit of trespassing!?)’ 511 comingaire ‘j oint herding’ 49, 50, 69, 81, 176, 189, 438, 446, 545 comlachtaid ‘suckling pig’ 85 comlae ‘plank, wooden door’ 115, 362 comlóg ‘of the same value’ 86 comsae (coimse) ‘farming part­ nership’; acc. sg. comsai 549, 550 comthinchor ‘j oint contribution (to marriage)’; gen. sg. comlhinchuir 419, 423 conach ‘rabies’ 193, 199, 209, 215, 218 conach ‘caterpillar alleged to sting cattle’ 199 conar (conair) ‘path, way’ 392, 543; dat. pi. conairib 539 con-boing 'breaks, smashes’ 511; 3pl. pres, indie, conbongat 511 conbiiachaill: see cú conchaid: see dam con-claid ‘digs up, excavates’ 542 confad (confaid) ‘rabies’ 213, 215; gen. sg. confaid 215 comámus

‘destroys’ 532; 3pl. pres. indie, confechad 532 congal dog-fight’ 148, 178 conealfinnach ‘cluster-haired’ 71, 519 c o rd o n ‘dog-excrement’ 176 conn (cond) ‘top, thatch’ 239 connad ‘firewood’ 379; gen. sg. connaid 488, 489 connal ‘stubble, corn-stalk’ 222n, 237 con-sni ‘strives, struggles’ 529 copp ‘crest, tuft’ 71n cor ‘putting, twist, sowing’ 153, 231; cor (bel) ‘contract’ 433; dat. pi. coraib 402n corae (cara) ‘stone wall, weir’ 287, 288n, 372, 373, 374, 377n; acc. sg. coraid 286n, coradh 374n; gen. sg. corad 290, 552, 553; dat. sg. coraid 553 córait ‘yoked pair’ 143, 473 c o rb a d ‘pollution (by hens)’ 144 corbaid (corpaid) ‘defiles, dirties, causes defect’ 514; 3sg. perfective pres. subj. ro-corba 144n corcae (coirce) 15, 219, 220, 226, 227: gen. sg. corcca 242, corcai 245, coirce 561; corca fásaig ‘wild oats’ 227; coirce dubh ‘pilcorn’ 227; coirce bocht pilcorn’ 227; cpd coirceóma ‘mixture of oats and barley, dredge’ 227 corcair ‘murex, purple dye’ 266n, 268n corcóg ‘straw' hive’ 111 corcra ‘purple’ 263, 266, 598; cpd barrchorccra ‘pink-tipped (of apple-blossom)’ 261n corgas ‘Lent’; corgas erraig ‘spring Lent’ 346; cpds samchorgas ‘summer Lent’ 346; gamchorgas ‘winter Lent’ 346 *con-fich

Irish index

617

‘h o rn ’ 323; nom. pi. cairn craim (crand) ‘tree, stick, bee-hive I búabaill ‘ox horns’ 56 110, 260, 304n, 374n, 378, 382, 387; gen. sg. craind 374n, 376n, corp ‘body’ 97n, 550; gen. sg. cuirp craiiin 376n, 409, 500; nom. pi. 515 craind 374n; dat. pi. crannaib corpaid: see corbaid 305n; crand cam ‘crooked stick, co rr ‘pointed’ 107; as subst. ‘beak, crank’ 486n; crann crosta 'marked projection' 490; dat. sg. cuirr tree’ 407; crann fir ‘j uniper(?)’ 490n; cpd frithchorr ‘opposite 308, 380; crann fulachta fiannsa spike(?)’ 490 ‘tree of the cooking pit, holly’ co rr ‘heron, crane’ 125, 127, 128, 337n, 382; crand gabála ‘appro­ 146n, 189; acc. sg. cuirr 129, 302; priated tree’ 304n, 407n; crann gen. sg. cuirre 127; cpd corrguine giúis ‘pine-tree’ 383n; crannsúaite ‘heron- or crane-killer, sorcerer’ ‘stirring-stick’ 340; cpds crannchú 128; corrguinecht ‘sorcery’ 52, ‘pine m arten’ 130; crannchur 128. 174 ‘casting of lots’ 550; éochrann corrán ‘sickle, hook’ 46n, 480, 491 ‘yew-tree’ 383n; fidchrann ‘type of corrgubul 'skin(P)’ 79 tool’ 500, 501; lámchrann ‘handle of flail’ 48 In corrguine: see co rr crannach ‘wood, sticks, stake-fence, c o rró c ‘pit, souterrain (?)’ 367 handle’ 490; gen. sg. crainnche corns regulation, propriety’ 287, 183n; dat. pi. crannchaib 183 289. 568n crannóg ‘wooden structure, lake­ cosáinín na carraige ‘Irish moss, dwelling, bee-hive’ 51, 53, 74, 85, edible seaweed’ 315 88, 110, 298, 364n, 465 coscrad destruction’ 378n cráo: see cró cosnam ‘dispute’; gen. sg. hó coscrap ‘spasm, contraction’ 208 numa ‘cow which is the subject of crapán ( crupán) ‘disease of pigs, dispute’ 525 etc.’ 208 coss leg, foot’; nom. pi. cossa 276; crebar woodcock’ 298 cpd coiscrim ‘footstep’ 565, 566 crech 'raid, plunder’; gen. sg. creiche cos(s)achtach ‘cough (of people 167n and horses)’ 212 crech: see m uirchrech cotut ‘hard, dry’; cpds cétchotud ‘first crechad ‘ravaging, tattooing’ 267n drying(?)’ 266; cotattir ‘hard créd tin’ 435 land’ 395. See coitethe crenaid buys’; 2sg. pres. subj. -crie cráeb ‘branch, bough, tree’ 388, 508 526; acc. sg. craoib 526 cret ‘body (of chariot)’ 497 craibech ‘category of cow’ 526 criathar sieve, riddle’ 242, 285n, cralbech ‘bushy place, fence’ 526 439, 582 craíbechán ‘vegetable stew(?)’ 338, crich ‘boundary, territory’ 570; nom. pi. crtcha 407n; dat. pi. 526 cric.haib 313 cráin ‘sow’ 80 corn

618

Index 1

(crem, craum) ‘wild garlic’ 253, 308, 326, 339; cpds Cremchaill ‘garlic wood’ 308; crimfeis ‘garlic feast’ 309, 320 crinach ‘brushwood’ 388 crithach ‘shivering, trembling, shak­ ing’; as subst. gen. sg. tonna crithaig ‘quaking bog’ 182; ‘dis­ ease of cattle or horses’ 202, 203, 559; nom. pi. crilhcha 193n, 202n; ‘aspen-tree’ 380 cris ‘belt’ 492n cró (cráo, cráu, crû) ‘pig-sty, enclo­ sure, kennel, container, socket’ 19, 45n, 80, 155n, 265, 266, 366, 449n, 489, 490; dat. sg. crû 155n, 366; dat. pi. cruib 265 crob ‘hand, claw, measure of length’ 564; gen. sg. cruib 416; diminu­ tive Cruibne ‘little paws’ (name of cat) 123 c ro c c ‘short-horned(?)’ 36 croch ‘cross, curved or hooked object, blade’ 489, 490n; dat. sg. croich 336, 490n, 496 cróch ‘crocus, saffron’ 264 cróchdae ‘saffron-coloured, reddish’ 264 crod ‘livestock, cattle’ 194, 419n croicenn ‘skin’ 518; cpd mollchroicenn ‘wether skin' 72n cromán hook’ 491 crón ‘reddish-brown, roan’ 80, 92 crónán ‘purring’ 122 cros ‘cross’ 407; gen. sg. croise 598; cpd croslúag ‘cross-axe’ 488n crosach ‘measure of weight’ 585 crosaid ‘marks with a cross, prohibits’; vb.n. crosad móna ‘pro­ hibition of access to tu rf 407; past participle crosta 407 crosán ‘churn-dash’ 325n crosóc ‘coin with a cross, farthing’ 597, 597n; gen. sg. crosóigi 597n

crim

‘curds, cream ’ 84, 325; acc. sg. croith 325

croth

‘act of shaking’ 526

crothad crothal

‘rattle (around dog’s neck)’

148 (crotal) ‘bark (of tree), shell (of nut), lichen used as dye’ 264; gen. sg. crolbaill 576

crottball

( crúd) ‘caring for livestock in enclosure’ 449, 449n

croud

cm ‘gore, wound’ 54 ‘corn-rick, stack’ 232, 239; gen. sg. crúaiche 239; dat. sg. crúaich 239; acc. pi. crúacha 141n, 239

crúach

‘steak’; cpds lónchrúachait ‘tenderloin steak’ 358: leschrúachait ‘centre-cut loin steak(?)’ 358

crúachait

crúas

‘hardness (of grain)’ 242

‘h o o f 95n; dat. sg. crû 211, crua 212; dat. pi. cruaib 154n

crue

‘wheat (esp. breadwheat)’ 15, 219, 220, 221; gen. sg. cruithnechta 244n, 560, 561, 584, 588, 596: cruithnecht maol ‘bald wheat’ 228n; cruithnecht rúad ‘em m er(?)’ 224; cpd máelchruithnecht ‘bald wheat’ 228, 228n

cruithnecht

‘maggot-heap, dung­ gen, sg. crumdumai

crum dum ae

hill’; 116

crupán: see crapán crupus

‘curb (in horses)’ 209

Irish index cú ‘dog, bitch, hound’ 116, 117, 148, 149, 178; gen. sg. con 107n, 158n, 162n, 177n; dat. sg. coin 175; gen. pi. con 177, 274; dat. pi. conaib 192, 531; cú allaid ‘wolf 130, 186n, 531; al chethardoruis ‘dog of four doors’ 116, 364n; ai chonfaid ‘rabid dog’ 215; caú ingaire gamna ‘dog for looking after calves’ 119n; al oiraig ‘dunghill dog’ 116; al srichill ‘wandering dog’ 150; al selga ‘hunting dog' 118; al sodaig ‘bitch in heat’ 150, 160; cpds árchú ‘slaughter-hound, guarddog’ 115, 116, 147; crannchú ‘tree-dog, pine m arten’ 130; doburchú ‘water-dog, otter’ 130n, 282; fáelchú V o lf 186n; meschú ‘pet dog’ 120n; mílchú 'hunting dog’ 117, 118. 154; táidchú ‘thiev­ ing dog’ 150; conbúachaill ‘herd dog’ 119, 164; Conslechtae ‘dogsections’ 114. See also conach, confad, conga] cúad ‘mug, tub’ 78, 571, 578, 582; nom. pi. mid 333n cuae ‘hollow, container’ 558; cua cluic ‘bell-shaped container’ 578 cúaine ‘litter of pups’ 107n cúairt ‘circuit’ 44, 572; cpd midchúairt ‘mead-circuit’; gen. sg. midchúarda 113, 357 cúal bundle (of wood)’ 379n, 439, 501; singulative cúaille ‘fencing stake’ 374n, 375n cúar crooked’ 193n, 202 cúarán ‘shoe’ 54n, 382n cubar ‘eagle, kite’; nom. pi. cufir 129n, cubhair 189n cubat ‘cubit’ 565; cpd ferchubal ‘m an’s forearm ’ 560n cuicél ‘distaff 449n

619

‘stumbling, collision’; dat. sg. cuicilga 151 n euile kitchen, larder’ 123, 145, 362 cuilenn ‘holly’ 46n, 380; gen. sg. cuilind 46n cuimrech (comrach, cuibrech) ‘ban­ dage, tie, bond, restraint’ 93, 218. 532 532; cpd sárchuimrech (sárchuibreach) ‘excessive fettering’ 93n, 158 cuimrechtach ‘ded up’ 151 cuindéol ‘sucking (of calf or piglet) ’ 549; dat. sg. cuindiul 549 cuindrech ‘correction, control’; dat. sg. cuindriug 514 cuing ‘yoke’ 388n, 471, 472, 473, 477, 497; gen. sg. atinge 472, 477; cuing imechtair ‘outer yoke’ 475; cuing úarmedóin ‘inner(?) yoke’ 475 cuingir ‘yoked pair’ 474n cuinneóc ‘churn’ 325 cuinnfe (coindfe) ‘proper, fitting’; as subst. dat. sg. cuinnfi 166n cuirm ‘beer’ 123, 245, 332, 358; gen. sg. corma 247, 332, 334, 359; cpd michuirm ‘bad beer' 331 cuirrech ‘marsh’ 396; nom. pi. curraigh 396n cuithech deer-pit, pit-fall’ 45, 129n, 160, 279, 280; acc. sg. cuilhigh 279n; gen. sg. cuithighi 279n cúl ‘back, recess’ 285n, 486, 487; gen. sg. call 486n, 490n; nom. pi. alia 370 cularán: see curar cuilén (culén) ‘pup’ 116n cullach ‘stallion, boar’ 152, 179, 529, 530; voc. sg. a chullaigh 366; nom. pi. cullaig 5 In, 94n; cullaigmuc fech ‘boars and stallions’ 530; cpds echcullach ‘stallion’ 152; muccullach ‘boar’ 155 cuieilche

620

Index 1

culpait ‘hood’; cpd dagculpail ‘fine hood’ 599 cumal ‘female slave, unit of value, payment, unit of area’ 33, 58, 77, 415, 420, 421, 422, 439, 457, 552, 588, 591, 592; gen. sg. cumaile 574; nom. dual cumail 593n; dat. pi. cumalaib 593; cpd duinechumal ‘actual female slave’ 592 cumal cham pion’; gen. sg. cumail (or cumaile) 524 cumrae sweet (of fruit)’ 259, 261, 306, 394n; cpd firchumra ‘truly fragrant’ 26In cunntabartach ‘of uncertain origin (of disease)’ 193 cup hopper(?) of water-mill'485 curach ‘boat’ 55; dat. sg. curuch 55n curar ‘pignut’ 311, 312; diminu­ tive cularán 31 In; later forms cutharlán, clutharacán, etc. 312n cuthchaire ‘trapper’ 279, 443; nom. pi. cuthguiri 274 dabach ‘vat, vessel, cauldron, ploughland’ 358, 501, 573n, 578; dat. sg. dabaig 203n dáer: see doer dáilem ‘butler, dispenser’ 335n; nom. pi. dáilemain 358 daingen secure place, fort, larder’ 145, 160, 552 daintech ‘in the habit of biting (of horse), full-mouthed (of sheep)’ 135, 153,519 dair: see daur dáir bulling, heat’ 151n, 528; gen. sg. dára 63, 528 daire (doire) ‘oak-wood’ 381, 389, 411 dairid ‘bulls’; 3sg. pres, indie, pass. dairthir 511; 3sg. pres. subj. pass. -darlhar 512; 3sg. perfective pres, subj. pass, rodairl [h] er 63n

dairt ‘yearling heifer’ 61, 61 n, 75, 588; gen. sg. darta 572, dairte 580 dais ‘corn-rick’ 140, 239; gen. sg. daise 239n; dat. pi. daisib 140n, 239n dallsinche (dalliinechus) ‘blindteatedness (in cows)’ 201 daltae ‘fosterling’; dalla dá deil ‘fos­ terling of two teats’ i.e. calf of two cows 548 dam ‘ox’ 48, 49, 65, 151, 187, 229n, 477n, 548, 590; daum 590n; gen. sg. daim 48, 52n; nom. pi. doim 474, claim 486n; acc. pi. damu 48n; dam airc[h\es ‘trained ox’ 48n; dam allaid ‘stag’ 272, 476; dam each máma ‘ox of ever)’ yoke' 48; dam conchaid ‘wolf-fighting ox’ 49, 187; dam riatae ‘trained ox’ 48; tech ndam ‘ox-house’ 365; cpds damaisc ‘P’ 573; damgal ‘oxrage’ 151; damicht ‘ox-work(?), acre’ 573; damogam ‘ox-ogham, bovine ogham' 60n; damrann ‘oxdivision’ 414; damseiche ‘oxhide’ 48; cethardam ‘team of four oxen’ 47 4 n .476 dán ‘gift, profession’ 419 darm na ‘heat (in cows or ewes)’ 1 In,151n dartadas ‘state of being a yearling bullock’ 62n dartaid ‘yearling bullock’ 60, 61, 61 n, 75, 588, 590; gen. sg. dartadha 580 dásachtach ‘mad (of cow)’ 205 dath colour, dyestuff 268; gen. sg. dalha 266n; dat. pi. dathaibh 91n; cpd dathogam ‘colour-ogham’ 502n dáthabha: see áth daul (dul) ‘a low-grade bard’ 357

Irish index daur (dair) ‘oak’ 380, 486n; dat. sg. daraig 382n; cpds dairimbe ‘oak-fence’ 372. 376: daurmess ‘acorn-crop’ 83, 305; daurthach ‘oak-house, timber church’ 379, 385, 404n dechmad tithe, ten th ’ 447, 597; gen. sg. dechmaidh 597 deil rod used by charioteers’ 495 deil ’j o in t’; deil ordan ‘j o in t of big toe’ 565 deil teat' 548 deilgnech ‘stomach worms (in horses)’ 210 deiling (also deil) ‘sow of two litters’ 85. 87n deimes ‘shears’ 500 déirge ‘quitting, leaving’ 426 déis ‘vassalry’; gen. sg. déso 363, 421, 568 deiscéim: see céimm delg th o rn ’ 210 déntaid ‘worker’; cpd márdéntaid ‘great worker (ofwife)’ 449 dénugud (dianugud) ‘hastening’; dénugud con ‘hastening death (?) of dog' 158n dénum ‘making, production’; gen. sg. dénmaÇt) 84, 530, 532 deoch (deog) drink’ 309, 317, 334n; acc. sg. digh 334n déol ‘sucking’; dat. sg. diul 549 deorad ‘outsider, one immune from legal process’ 172n, 424, 521,528 derb ‘milking-pail’ 40; gen. sg. derba 40; dat. sg. deirb 40n; cpd foilderb (ollderb) ‘vessel with ring, liquid measure’ 578 derc (derg) ‘red ’ 31, 263, 268n; nom. pi. masc. derca 307; cpds derglaith ‘red b eer’ 334; derglorgairecht ‘red-tracking, ability to track trail of blood’ 116; dergár

621

‘red gold’ 594; derguma ‘red copper’ 586 dercna ‘berry’; nom. pi. dercnafrotch ‘bilberries’ 307 derosc ‘legal ruling’ 217 derucc {deren) ‘acorn’; nom. pi. dercain 307 dés: see dias descad ‘dregs, lees, fermentation’ 333n; acc. pi. desethu 334 dét ‘tooth’ 285 díabulbúar: see búar diainim ‘unblemished’ 514 dias ‘farm tool, chisel (?)’ 500, 501 dias ear of corn’ 236; nom. pi. diasa 241; gen. pi. dés 237, 238n dibad ‘extinction, plague; inherita­ ble assets’ 414, 441 ; gen. sg. dibaid 414n, 415; cpds bechdibad ‘beemortality’ 214; bedgdibad jerking mortality, death from fits’ 195; bódibad ‘cow-mortality’ 28n, 196n -dichet: see téit difoichid Dé ‘act of God’ 185, 200 diles ‘immune from legal process, owned; incapable of legal rem­ edy, forfeit’ 396n; cpd ógdíles ‘fully owned’ 417 dillat ‘garm ent’ 599; cpd echdillal 'horse-cloth' 96, 98 dilmain ‘unattached’ 426n din ‘shelter’; cpd bechdin ‘bee-shelter’ 111 dind ‘mountain, hill, stronghold, notable place’ 44, 144, 406; cpd dindsenchas ‘place-lore’ 15 dine ‘herd (esp. of cattle) ’ 540; gen. sg. dini 540 dinech (dinnech) ‘washing, healing draught’ 216n dingbáil ‘removing, taking away, warding o ff 116

622

Index I

dínnra (dírna) ‘denarius’ 586, 587; gen. sg. dírnai 595n; cpd galldírna ‘foreign denarius’ 587 dírann ‘undivided land’ 45, 389, 397, 406, 407, 408, 540 dire ‘penalty-fine, honour-price’ 58, 70, 76. 87. 93n, 117, 119. 122. 123, 127, 136n, 161, 163, 165, 166, 168, 169, 175, 239n, 258n, 260, 274, 351, 366, 369, 374n, 386, 387, 391 n, 441, 450, 486, 500, 517; cpds lándíre ‘full fine’ 68; lethdire ‘half fine’ 128 diriug (diriuch, direch) ‘straight. upstanding (of cow)’ 514 dirna: see dinnra di-s-cuet: see téit dithan (dithen) ‘darnel(?)’ 233,234 dithat daytime meal, snack’ 317 dithir ‘landless one’ 425; dilhir Dé ‘herm it’ 425 dithreb (dithrab) ‘uncultivated area’ 360; dat. sg. dithrub 44, dithrib 304n,407n dligid ‘is entitled, is obliged’; 3sg. pres, indie, pass, dlegar 544; 3pl. pres, indie, dkgait 408n, 529; 3pl. pres, indie, pass, dkgtair 63 *doach error for conach 209n do-acmaic (do-acmaing) ‘reaches, extends to’; -taicmaic 544 do-aig drives’; 2sg. imperative Taig (as name of dog) ’ 117 do-airchella ‘encompasses, hems in’; 2sg. imperative Tairchell (as name of dog)’ 117 do-alla ‘fits’ 540; -talla 579 do-arcorpai ‘corrupts, defiles’: -tercorpai 514 doborfiit ‘penitential ration’ 347n. See pit dobrán ‘otter’ 130 dobrith ‘penitential ration’ 347 doburchú ‘otter’ 130n, 282

docherdach ‘awkward (of horse)’ 558 do-coi: see téit do-cuirethar ‘puts, happens’; 3sg. perfective pres. subj. -tarla 529 doer (drier) ‘base, servile, unfree’ 592; nom. pi. masc. daora 440n; as subst. ‘slave’ 438; cpds dóerbiatach ‘base client’ 429; dóerchéik 'base client’ 167n, 429, 446n; dóerfuidir ‘base tenantat-will’ 429, 441; dáermanach ‘base church tenant’ 355, 453; dáeropair ‘servile work’ 439 do-goa ‘chooses’ 413n doire: see daire dolud charge, burden, rent’; cpd dubhdholadh ‘black rent (to support hounds)’ 274 dom (dam) ‘house, hom e’; dat. sg. doim 420 domnach ‘Sunday, church-building’ 196, 404n, 457n; gen. sg. domnaig 196 donn ‘brown’ 31, 36, 92, 263, 268; cpds donngorad ‘red heat (of metal)' 486n, 487; dondkthar ‘brown leather’ 54n; donnroid ‘reddish-brown dye’ 268 do-omlacht: see mligid do-ren ‘pays’; 3sg. pres, indie, pass. dorenar 166n dorn ‘fist, hoof, fistful, measure of four or six inches’ 3In, 48, 48n. 313, 401n, 489n, 563, 564, 581; gen. sg. duirn 563; nom. pi. duirn 87, 375n, 579; cpds ferdorn ‘m an’s fist (as m easure)’ 560n, 564, 580; mdeldorn ‘clenched fist (as mea­ sure)’ 564; treduirn ‘(measure) of three fists’ 326 dórtad ‘pouring, squirting, defecation (by hens)’ 145

Irish index doruba (dorgha) ‘measuring-line, fishing-line’ 297 dorus doorway' 115; cethardoruis ‘of four doors’ 116 doth 'birth, farrowing’ 81, 532; gen. sg. duith 143, 532 dothaid lays, hatches (o fh en )’; 3sg. pres, indie, rel. dothas 102 do-tlen ‘secretly introduces (live­ stock onto another’s land)’ 140n dracaixn (dragma) ‘dram, measure of weight’ 594 draigen blackthorn’ 261, 380, 394; gen. sg. draigin 375; nom. pi. droigni 514, draigne 542; draigen cumra ‘cultivated plum-tree’ 261 draumce ‘whey drink(?)’ 327, 328 drécht ‘portion, day’s labour’; cpds lethdrécht ‘half-dav's labour’ 446n; muirdrécht ‘day’s sea-journey’ 570n drettel: see treitell dris ‘bram ble’ 381, 394; nom. pi. drisi 514, 542 drobél ‘rough ground’ 170 droch ‘wheel’ 497 droichet ‘bridge’ 115, 393; gen. sg. droichit 393 dronn chine (of pig)’ 358 drúchtán ‘type of whey(?)’ 328 druidecht ‘sorcery’; gen. sg. druidechta 122 druimm ‘back, hill’ In, 557; cpd druimfliionn ‘white-backed’ 32 drúth fool, professional buffoon’ 493 dub ‘black’ 70, 89, 92, 200, 227, 263, 488n, 518; nom. pi. masc. dubha 123n; cpds dubhdholadh black ren t’ 274; dubglas ‘dark grey (of horse)’ 92; duibthir ‘black land’ 395; dubthredan ‘black fast’ 347; dubuar ‘black diarrhoea(P)’ 200

623

dubán hook' 290, 295; gen. sg. dubciin 295 dúil ‘creature, being’ 166n duilesc (duilix) ‘dulse, edible sea­ weed’ 305, 313; gen. sg. dulisc 313 duille ‘leaf 382n; cpds par duille ‘curved leaf, scroll’ 412; duileanddealc ‘leaf-brooch’ 585 duine ‘person, hum an’ 426n, 544; dat. sg. duiniu 420; cpds duinechaithig ‘human penalty’ 138, 140, 141, 144n; duinechin ‘human offence’ 134, 150, 153, 155, 172; duinechumal ‘actual female slave’ 592 dul ‘going’ 431 dumach sandbank, dune’; gen. sg. dumaige 385 dumae ‘m ound’ 409; cpd crumdumae ‘maggot-heap, dunghill' 92 dún ‘fortified dwelling, stronghold, lord's house’ 115, 363, 431, 543; gen. sg. dúin 436n, di'dne 554; cpds bódun ‘fortified enclosure for cattle’ 366; prímdún ‘great fort’; gen. sg. prímdúni 370n é: see éo écell ‘carelessness’ 279 ech ‘horse, stallion’ 90, 90n, 94, 96, 99, 100, 132, 153n, 179, 212, 528, 529, 531; gen. sg. eich 95n, 152, 512, 560; nom. pi. rich 132, 142n, 173, 529, 531; acc. pi. eocha 91n, 93n, ec.hu 158, 542; dat. pi. echaib 558; ech aige ‘race-horse’ 99; ech allmuir ‘foreign horse’ 90, 529; ech bretnach ‘British horse’ 90, 529; ech In/ada ‘prize horse’ 96, 99, 172, 528; ech daintech ‘biting horse’ 135; ech immrimme ‘riding horse’ 90, 96; ech robaid ‘horse

624

Index 1

of warning’ 96; ech sliasta ‘riding horse’ 89; ech uisci ‘water-horse’ 175; cpds echbad ‘horse-plague’ 210n; echcullach ‘stallion’ 152; echdillat ‘horse-cloth’ 96, 98; e.chidu ‘horse-colic’ 211; echraite ‘horse-road(?)’ 539; echrúathar ‘horse-rush, traffic congestion’; gen. sg. echrúalhair 541; echtháid ‘horse-thief 93, 166, 531; echthres ‘horse-fight’ 179 echaid ‘horseman’; cpd óenechnid ‘horseman’ 539 echaire ‘groom’ 443 echd(a)e ‘relating to horses’; as subst. cpd óenechde ‘horsem an’ 539 echlach ‘courier, prostitute’ 97; cpd baineachlach ‘female messenger’ 96n echlasc ‘horse-whip, rod for driving horses’ 99, 495 echmaig farcy’ 210 écht ‘slaying, violent deed’; gen. sg. échta 116, 529 eclas ‘church’ 404n; gen. sg. eclasa 172n, 524, ecalsa 355, 411,453 écmacht difficult terrain’ 389, 407 ecor ‘putting in ’ 434n ed (Mod.Ir. J'eadh) ‘distance, inter­ val, fathom, ell (?) ’ 568n, 570 éicen ‘necessity, compulsion’; gen. sg. éicne 139 éicne ‘salmon, fish’ 291n, 294, 295; dat. pi. éicnib 295 eidenn ‘ivy’ 46n, 384; gen. sg. edinn 46n éigem ‘squealing (of pig)’ 81 -éilnea: see as-lena eine; see ian eipe ‘cutting’ 488; cpd bunef)e ‘base-cutting’ 387 eipit ‘small axe, hatchet’ 485, 488

eire: see aire eiredach (eredech) ‘goblet’ 472 eirin: see eréne eiscir (escir) ‘esker, ridge’ 392 eisrecht: see esrecht éit herd of cattle’ 137 ela ‘swan’ 299; nom. pi. eladha 299n; dat. pi. elaib 299n elit ‘hind, doe’; nom. pi. elti 273n em ‘haft, handle' 492 emain ‘a type of m etre’ 99 én ‘bird’ gen. sg. éoin 124; gen. pi. én 146n; dat. pi. énaib 192, 213, 214, 295; éorna na n-én ‘barley of the birds' 223; cpd senén (sinén) ‘old bird, eagle(?)’ 129 enbruithe ‘stew, b roth’ 84, 337, 344 enech face, honour’ 529; gen. pi. log n-enech ‘honour-price’ 165n eneclann ‘honour-price’ 161, 162n, 165n, 170, 592 englas ‘diluted milk, watery milk’ 324, 327n; nom. pi. englasa 354 ennach hooded crow' 192n éo (g) ‘salmon’ 286, 292, 293; gen. sg. iach 291n; acc. dual iich 295n; éo cétsnáma ‘salmon of first swim­ ming’ 292; éo colgsnáma ‘salmon swimming with kype(?)’ 293; cpd lethéo ‘half salmon’ 292 éo ‘yew, venerated tree’ 388, 388n; cpd éochrann ‘yew-tree’ 383n éornae ‘barley’ 219, 220, 224, 225, 331, 422n, 481, 561; eorna bheag ‘two-row-barley’ 224, 225; éorna celhardruimnech ‘four-ridged barley’ 226; eorna mhór ‘six-rowbarley, bere’ 224, 225; éorna na n-én ‘barley of the birds’ 223; cpds coirreórna ‘mixture of oats and barley, dredge’ 227; maothéorna ‘succulent barley’ 223

Irish index

625

epaid (aupaid) 'magic spell, esrecht (eisrecht) ‘one outside law, charm ’; gen. sg. uptha 175n pet (animal)’; nom. pi. esrechta 122n,181 -epelltar nana epell 513 éraic ‘payment, body-fine’ 304, 517, ess ‘stoat’ 130 597; gen. sg. érca 87, éirce 517, -es(s)er 2sg. fut. of deponent vb. related to iasacht ‘loan, requisi­ 518, érci 590 tion’ 499; 3sg. pres. subj. pass. ere ‘salmon’ 294 528, 529 ere 'cow' 28 erelc (elrrc) ‘ambush (of d eer)’ 277 étach ‘cloth, clothing’ 270; cpd ardélach ‘fine raiment’ 459n eréne (ririn) ‘chicken’ 102,218 érlam ‘patron saint, founder of étach ‘jealousy’; gen. sg. étaig 177 church’; gen. sg. érluma 405, 406 etarbae ‘boundary, fence’ 444n, 511; dat. pi. etarbib 374n erna: see iarn etarbaige (etarpuige MS) ‘fencer(?)’ ernaigde ‘prayer’; gen. sg. ernaigthi 443, 444n 455n email share, category, kind’; acc. etarche ‘(drainage) trench’ 372 étechtae: see téchtae pi. earnaile 423n etham ‘arable land’ 389, 394, 395, errach ‘spring’ 59, 136; gen. sg. 436; dat. pi. ethamnaib 394; etham erraig 346 ndiguin ‘preserved grassland’ 45, errgenn \nngettn:\ gen. sg. 136; cpd ainetham ‘non-arable’ errginn (eirginn?) 71, 71n 394 esáin ‘dricing away, refusing a guest’ étracht ‘weakness, impotence’; dat. 321 sg. étrocht 559 esair ‘strewing (of rushes)’ 384, etrud ‘milking-time’ 170 450n fácbáil ‘leaving’; cpd mífácbáil -esarlaider ‘P’ 543 ‘bad leaving, irresponsible esarn ‘year-old wine’ 319n abandonm ent (of livestock)' 173 esbach ‘vain, idle, unoccupied’ 432 fáebar (Jóebar) ‘blade, cutting-edge’ escaire (esgaire) ‘public warning (of 486, 490; gen. sg. fóebuir 486n; hazard)’ 150, 215, 278, 279n cpd biáil imfáebur ‘double-bladed escar ‘fall (from horse)’ 152 axe’ 487 escir: see eiscir fáechan ‘periwinkle’ 298; dat. pi. escong ‘eel’ 295 fáechnaib 298n escop ‘ja r’ 319, 581 fáel ‘wolf 178, 186nl 188; cpd escrae ‘cup, goblet’ 269, 319, 323, fáelchú ‘wolf 186n 571, 581; cpd leithescrae ‘half fáenaid: see fóenaid cupful’ 580 fáer ‘autumn food-rent’ 72 esem ‘yoke-strap’ 473 laesam: see fóesam esert ‘absentee, one who abandons faill neglect’ 173 fair: see fóir his land’ 402, 426 fairche ‘parish, district, field’; esgaire: see escaire fairche in arathair ‘ploughingesrad ‘strewing of rushes’ 450. See field’ 476 esair

626

Index 1

Féne ‘freeman, commoner, lay­ fáiscre 'pressing (of curds)’ 329 m an’; nom. pi. Féni 516; gen. pi. faithche ‘green, infield’ 68, 99, Féne 429n, 516, 579 111. 168, 274, 369, 370, 378, 431, 467n, 540, 571, 591; dat. Fénechas ‘Irish law, customary or pi. faichthib 68n; sechtar faithchi traditional law’ 413n ‘outfield’ 111, 168, 370,431 fás ‘empty (of ear of co rn )’; nom. fénnid warrior’ 426 pi. neut. fása 2n fennóc (feannóg) ‘hooded crow’ fásach ‘wilderness, waste’; gen. sg. 191, 192 corca fásaig ‘wild oats’ 227 feóirling ‘farthing’ 597; gen. sg. feadh: see ed feoirlingi 597; cpd leth/eoirling febas ‘worth, excellence’; gen. sg. ‘half farthing’ 597; gen. sg. bóaire febsa ‘well-off commoner' lelhfeoirlinge 597 8n, 49, 96, 319, 447n, 448n, 575 fecc ‘spade, spade-handle’ 465, féorus spindle-tree’ 380 465n,466 fer ‘m an’ 447, 451n, 492n; gen. sg. fedan ‘carrying, draught (esp. of fir 116, 419, 529, 560n; nom. oxen)’; gen. sg. fedna 388n; dat. pi. fir 429n, 486n; acc. pi. firu sg. fedain 474 510; fer buailtedh ‘man of cattleféichem (féchem) ‘litigant’ 514, 515 enclosures’ 429n; fer bunaid féidlecán (féithlecán?) ‘m oth’ 382n ‘owner’ 144n; fer fothlai ‘man féil ‘festival’; Féil na n-airemon of withdrawal, aspiring lord’ ‘festival of the ploughm en’ 461 333; fer midboth ‘man of middle feis ‘sow’ 86 huts, sem i-independent youth feis ‘lying-down trespass (of on lather's land' 75. 253. 321. livestock)’ 136 326, 327, 445; fer selgga ‘hu n ter’ 274, 444; cpds feramus ‘male feis ‘nighttime meal, feast’ 317, 357, servant’ 450; fnchubat ‘man's 461; gen. sg .fasse 72; cpds aimfeis forearm ’ 560n; ferdorn ‘m an’s ‘garlic feast’ 309, 320; tarbfeis fist (as m easure)’ 560n, 564, 580; ‘bull-feast (for selecting king)’ 28 ferfuini ‘baked for a m an’ 330n; fell: see pell ferglac ‘m an’s hand (as measure) ’ felm ‘fence’ 374, 377; acc. sg. feilm 560n, 563; fergniae ‘manser­ 374n vant, workman’ 51, 592; ferimb felmae ‘fence’ 374 ‘man-butter (as quantity)’ 78; ferfemaid ‘strips, dehusks’; 3sg. thinchor ‘man-contribution (in perfective pres. subj. ro-fema 481 m arriage)’ 419; ferthraig ‘m an’s feram {fern) ‘seaweed’ 304n, 305 foot (as m easure)’ 560n femmain ‘seaweed’; femmain bolgarh ‘bladdered seaweed’ 43 femmar ‘seaweed’ 312; gen. sg. femair 313 fén ‘cart, waggon’ 498 fenamain ‘wattling’ 375

fér ‘grass, grassland’ 42, 233n, 235; gen. sg. fioir 371n, 423n; acc. pi. fera 511; cpds férgort ‘enclosed pasture’ 371; luigférglasféoir ‘lush green grass’ 45

Irish index

627

'land' 228n, 441n; gen. 260, 304n, 306; girrfhiadh ‘short sg. ferainn 573n: ferann dibaid game, hare’ 282n ‘inherited land’ 414n; fearand fiada ‘witness’ 514, 515; acc. sg. gormheic ‘land of a sister’s son’ fiadain 409n 418n; ferann rigdamna ‘land of king’s heir’ 403; ferann taisigechta fiada (fiadu) ‘lord, owner (of anim al)’ 515 ‘land of king’ 403n; ferann tánisteachta ‘land of king’s heir’ 403n; fiadan (fiadain) ‘wild, uncultivated’ cpds dagferann ‘good land’ 420; 261, 300, 306 drochferann ‘bad land’ 420 ferb ‘milch cow’; nom. pi. ferba fiadnaise ‘evidence’ 425n 529n; cpd flrferb *true(?) milch fiallach (fianlach) ‘warrior-band’ cow’; gen. sg. firferba 529 116, 276n ferbolc ‘bag, scrotum(?)’ 516 fian ‘war-band, band of hunters’ fe rlond *?’ 512. Read forlann? 337, 426 fe rn alder-tree’ 380 fert ‘grave-mound’ 52, 409, 436; fianas ‘warfare, hunting’; gen. sg. fiansa 337, fiannsa 382 gen. sg. fá rt 436n fertach (pertach) ‘perch (m easure)’ fiarduille ‘curved leaf, scroll’ 412 566; dat. sg. fertaig 566n; nom. dual fertaig 566n; nom. pi. fertaig fid ‘wood, tree’ 261n, 285n, 387, 389, 390; gen. sg. fedo (feda) 567 155n, 237, 282n, 301, 304, 374n, fertad ‘digging of grave-mound’ 380, 381, 382, 407, 409, 541; 436n cpds fidblá ‘tree as boundary’ fertas ‘shaft’; nom. pi. feirlsi 382, 409; Fidbretha ‘tree-judgements’ 497 387; fidchrann ‘tool(?)’ 500, 501; fiacail ‘tooth’; fiacail ainsi ‘one of fidlann ‘wooden container’ 581, three back teeth of whale(?)’ 582n; fidnemed ‘sacred tree’ 387, 285; fiacail gnóe ‘beautiful tooth’ 388; aonfidh ‘a single tree’ 374n 285n; cpd aenfiacail ‘single tooth’ fidbach: see ibdach 187n fiach ‘raven’ 192 fidbad ‘wood’ 389; dat. sg. fidbaid fiach ‘payment, fine’ 170n, 433n, 374n 508, 516, 588; gen. sg. féich (feig MS) 517; cpds lánfíach ‘full fine’ fidbae ‘billhook’ 375, 466, 485, 489, 492 179, 278; lethfiach ‘half fine’ 162, 179, 278 fidchell ‘a type of board-game’ 452 fiad ‘wild’ 261; as subst. ‘wild ani­ filidecht ‘poetry’ 419 mal, game’ 130n, 274, 276n, 280, 282n; cpds fiadabatt ‘wild apple- fin ‘wine’ 358; gen. sg.fina 319, 581 tree’ 306; fiadgraig ‘herd of wild finchad *shaggy(?)’ 35, 509, 510 horses’ 88n; fiadmila ‘game ani­ mals’ 282; fiaduball ‘wild apple’ finchaide ‘shaggy’ 509, 510 ferann

628

index 1

find (jinn) ‘fair, white’ 32, 33, 70, 80, 263, 306, 518; gen. sg. fern. firme 32; nom. pi. neut. finna 2n; cpds findairget ‘white silver'; gen. sg. findairgit 585; Findbennach ‘white-horned’ 36;finnisse ‘whitebacked(?)’ 32; finnuma ‘white copper’ 586, 587; broinnjind, brondfind ‘white-breasted’ 123n, 289n; druimfliionn ‘white-backed’ 32; Jofind ‘white-bellied’ 71, 518; forjind ‘white-backed’ 71, 518; lois[j]inn ‘white-rumped’ 32 findcholl ‘whitebeam’ 380; gen. sg. findchuill 338n fine ‘kin-group, kinsman’ 288, 355, 402, 406, 414, 426n; fine chômer­ ais ‘near kinsman’ 402; fine érluma ‘kin-group of patron saint' 405, 406; fine grin ‘kin-group of land’ 405, 406; áige fine ‘head of kin’ 284; ceann fine ‘head of kin’ 430; cpds geljlne ‘descen­ dants on the male line of the same grandfather’ 414; derbfine ‘descendants on the male line of the same great-grandfather’ 414; iarfine ‘descendants on the male line of the same great-great-grandfather’ 414; indfine ‘descendants on the male line of the same great-great-great-grandfather’ 414 finnach (findach) ‘hairy, shaggy’ 509, 519; cpd congaljinnach ‘cluster-haired (of sheep)’ 71, 519 fintiu ‘kin-land’ 399, 402 fir ‘j uniper(?)’; crann fir ‘junipertree(?)’ 308, 380; edera fir juniper berries(?)’ 308 fir ‘true’ 251; cpds firchainnenn ‘true onion’ 251n: firchumra

‘truly fragrant’ 26 In; firferb ‘true(?) milch cow’ 529; firlúachair ‘true rush' 385n; firlus ‘true herb’ 254n firenn m ale’ 62, 187n, 590 fit: see pit fithe ‘wattling’ 362 fithnaise ‘pestilence (of cattle)’; gen. sg. fithnaisi 174, 174n fithrech edible seaweed’ 313 flaith ‘lord, king’ 117, 320, 407, 422, 423, 440, 448, 554; gen. sg. flat ha 172n, 288, 436n, 517, 524; gen. pi. flat [A] a 429n; flaith cétgíallnae ‘primary lord’ 320n, 400; flaith forgiallnae ‘second lord' 320n; flaith cuitrid ‘third lord’ 320n flann ‘crimson-red (of cow’s coat)’ 31 fled ‘feast’ 357 flesc ‘rod, whip’ 481, 482, 495n flescach south, stripling' 75. 50,s; gen. sg. fiirmig 507. 50,s. 575, flescaich 567 fliuchaidecht ‘wetness’; gen. sg. fliuchaidechta 200n foach ‘commonage’ 406 fobach ‘digging under, scraping’ 143, 176m 242 fobairt 'dipping, tem pering’ 487n; gen. sg. foberta 486n, 487; cpd lúathfobairt ‘swift dipping (for fish)’ 286n fochenn (fochann, fúachonn) ‘young corn' 140, 232, 233, 235; singulative foichne ‘blade of corn’ 232n; diminutive foichnin 232n fochlaid ‘rooting-trespass (by pig)' 143 fochloc ‘lowest grade of poet’ 590 foehlocht (fothlucht) ‘brooklime’ 310

Irish index fochraic ‘rent, fee, wages’ 423, 436, 442, 525; gen. sg. fochreca (Jocrecha MS) 524, 525 fochsal: see foxal fo-coislea ‘removes, carries off'; 3sg. pres, indie. foxlaid 189 fócrae ‘notice, proclamation’; gen. sg. j ócrai 413 focul(l) {focal) ‘test, verdict’ 246, 550 fodail 'division, class, subclass’; nom. pi. fodla 380 fodraime ‘damage to crops, etc.’ 144 fóebar: see fáebar fóenaid (Jáenaid) ‘flattens, abases’; 3sg. perf. pass, ro-fóenad 377 fóesam (Jáesam) ‘adoption’ 417; gen. sg. macfáesma ‘adopted son’ 452 fo-fich ‘trespasses, injures, attacks’ 527, 532; 3pl. pres, indie, -fuachat 527 fofind ‘white-bellied (ofsheep)’ 71, 518 fogal (fogail) ‘trespass, injury’ 140n, 167n, 181, 239n, 434; nom. pi. fogla 140n, 141n, 239n fogamar (Jogmar) ‘autum n’ 71 n, 136; gen. sg. fogmair 72, 459n; dat. sg. fogmur 230n foglaid ‘robber’; gen. sg. foglado 29 In fognam ‘work, labour’; gen. sg. fognamo 90, 94 *fogumrad ‘auttim n(?)’; gen. sg. fogumraid 71 foich ‘wasp, warble-fly(?)’ 204; gen. sg. foiche 203; cpd marcc[f]oich ‘horse-fly’ 204 foichne: see fochenn foigdech ‘furze’ 42, 45

629

foil ‘enclosure, ring, pig-sty’ 80,136, 165n, 365, 366, 578; cpds Joilderb (follearbh) ‘vessel with a ring, liquid measure’ 578; muccfoil ‘pig-sty’ 364 foileim (failenn) ‘seagull’; gen. pi. fallend 104n foilmnech ‘leaping up, vicious (of dog)’ 148 foimrimm ‘unauthorized use’ 169; gen. sg. foimrime 170n foindel ‘wandering’; gen. sg. foindil 150 fóir (fáir) ‘nest (of pig), lair (of deer), burrow (of fox), nest (of h e n )’ 80, 155n; gen. sg. cearcfáire ‘broody h en ’ 80n foirrgid ‘raider, stretcher, trespassing bovine’ 137, 511 foirsed (Joirtsed) ‘harrowing’ 231; gen. sg. fuirsidh 478; dat. sg. foirtsiud 231, 478, foirsed 478 folach (fulach) ‘support' 383 fo-lfna ‘fills u p ’ 559; verbal of necessity fuillithi 559 follugud ‘neglect’ 137n foltach ‘one with substance, land-owner’ 424 foltchép (foltchib) ‘chives’ 257, 350 fonnad ‘wheel-rim’ 497 forbart ‘maturity (of animal)’ 59; gen. sg. forbarta 63, 536 forbrat ‘protective covering (on calf)’ 206n fore ‘fork, three-pronged weapon’ 467 forcán ‘apple’ 259n forchae ‘mallet’ 375, 492, 492n forcsiu ‘surveying, examining, equivalence’; gen. sg. forcsen{?) 75 fordorus ‘lintel’ 362 forfind ‘white-backed (of sheep)’ 71,518

630

Index 1

forgab (fo r c a m ) ‘feast’ 32In forgell superior testimony’; gen. sg. forgill 363, 421, 422 forgemen ‘skin covering (insidechariot)’ 54 forglas ‘blue-black(?)’ 80 forláeg ‘aborted calf 200 forlaim ‘mounting, leaping, leaping-trespass’ 169, 559 forlann ‘superiority in strength or numbers’ 512 for-ling ‘leaps on, leaps over, adopts (of cow)’ 37, 548, 559; 2sg. pres, subj. -forlais 169n forlóg ‘additional payment’ 420 forloscud ‘arson’ 164 foropair ‘additional work’ 454; nom. pi. foropre 455 forrach ‘measuring rod, unit of length’ 372, 566, 575; acc. sg. forrig 567; gen. sg.forraighe 566; dat. sg. forraigh 566n; nom. pi. foirge 567, 575, foirrge 575n; dat. pi. forrgib 567 forraite ‘illegal road-construction(?), purpresture(?)’ 435 forrán ‘attack’; gen. sg. forráin 116 for-reith ‘runs onto’; 3sg. pres. subj. -fuirr 512 forrót ‘minor road’ 544 forscrath ‘illegal sod-cutting(P)’ 435n forscris ‘illegal scraping(P) of land’ 435 forus ‘household, residence, pound (for livestock)’ 171, 527, 532; gen. sg. forais 85 fo-serba steals’; 3sg. pres. subj. pass. foserbthar 80n fot (fod) ‘length’ 87, 361 n, 375n, 486n, 490n, 568, 571,575; dat. sg. foil 575 fót ‘sod’ 377n, 397; nom. pi. foil 372n, 574; dat. pi. fótaib 246

fótbach ‘sod-cutting’ 435; gen. sg. fótbaig 396 fothach ‘glanders, strangles’ 16, 194, 211, 558; cpd bilfolhach ‘healthy with regard to glanders(P)’ 21 In fothana thin underneath’; as subst. ‘thin milk underneath cream' 325n fothlae ‘theft, withdrawal, secret trespass’ 139, 435; gen. sg. lóeg fothlai ‘weaned calf(?)’ 51, 515; fer fothlai ‘man of withdrawal, aspiring lord’ 333 fothlucht: see fochlocht fothrebad lower husbandry, servile farmwork’; gen. sg. fothrebtha 525 fothud ‘m aintenance’ 524; gen. sg. folhuda 524 fourt ‘afterbirth’ 143n foxal (fochsal) ‘theft, removal’ 144, 206, 58In fraig ‘leather strop’ 492; acc. sg. fraigid 492n Franc ‘Frank’ 319 frith ch o rr‘opposite spike(?)’ 490 frithe ‘estray, that which has been found’ 540 frithgnam (frichnam) ‘render, ser­ vice, labour’ 87, 228n, 230n; gen. sg. frichnama 389n, 395, 418 frithnoill ‘counter-oath’ 425 fróech (fráech) ‘heather’ 42, 45, 381; gen. sg.froich 299, 307Jraic.h 395; cpd fmechmess ‘bilberry harvest' 307 fróechán (fráerhán, fraochán) ‘bilberry’ 307, 459n fróechoc (fráechóc, fraochóg) ‘bil­ berry’ 307; nom. pl. fraochóga 307 fúacair ‘proclaims, warns’; -fócair 532

Irish index ‘trespáss, damage’; cpds gamfuacht ‘winter trespass’ 136; samfuacht ‘summer trespass’ 136 fuairthneach ‘third-year stripper cow’ 526 fúal ‘m anure’ 229 f úaslucad ‘releasing’ 440n fubae 'attack, foray’ 166, 174, 186 fu id ir 'tenant-at-will, semi-freeman’ 434, 440, 441, 442; gen. sg. fuidre 440n, 441 n; cpd dóerfuidir ‘base tenant-at-will’ 429, 441 fu il ‘blood, wound’ 54, 151n, 155n, 560; gen. sg. fold 354 fudged ‘shovelling’ 468 fuiliugud blood-letting’ 163 fuillem ‘interest, earnings’ 100, 579n fuine ‘baking’ 457; cpds gen. sg. banfuini ‘baked for a woman’ 330; ferfuini ‘baked for a m an’ 330n fuinnside: see uinnside fuirec ‘preparation, feast’ 32In fu irire d ‘feeding, refection’ 321n fuithirbe ‘ridge, field-boundary, field’ 424. 424n fulach: see folach fulacht ‘cooking-pit, cooking’ 337, 457; gen. sg.fulachla 382; dat. sg. fulucht 59n fulachtóir ‘cook’; nom. pi. fulachtóiri 322 furnaide ‘waiting, feast’ 32In fuacht

631

‘goat’ 78; gen. sg. gabair 79; dat. sg. gobor 73

gabor

gabor

‘horse (esp. white)’ 92

(gabal) ‘fork’; gen. sg. gabla 589, 590; dat. sg. gabal 153

gabul

gabulgice

‘swineherd’s forked pole’

443 gadar

(gagar) ‘tracking dog’ 118

(gai, ga) ‘spear’; acc. sg. gai 184; gáe gona éisc ‘spear for killing fish’ 290; gai gona cethrae ‘spear for killing livestock’ 496; gáe gréine ‘sun-beam’ 401n; cpds murgha ‘harpoon’ 296n; róngáe ‘seal-spear’ 283

gáe

(Goidel) ‘Irishman’; gen. pi. Gaoidel 595

Gáedel

gaile

‘stomach’ 210

gafann

‘henbane’ 184 (gailUn) ‘capon’ 103

gaillin gaillire

‘male foal of foreign origin’

91 gaillit

‘foreign m are’ 91

(gem) ‘winter’; cpds gaimbiad ‘winter food’ 318; gamchorgas ‘winter Lent’ 346; gamfuacht 'win­ ter trespass’ 136; gemsecol ‘winter rye’ 221, 230

gaim

(gabáil) ‘seizure, appropria­ tion, levy, tax’; gen. sg. gabála gaimred ‘winter’ 136; geimrid 41 177n, 304n, 407n; dat. sg. gabáil 530; cpds cétgabáil ‘first seizure’ gáir ‘cry, bleat’ 68, 334n 186n; rodgabáil (or rodgabali) ‘madder-tax’ 269; salanngabál (or gairid ‘youth, lad’ 75 salanngabal?) ‘salt-tax’ 342 gairleóc ‘garlic’ 22, 255 gabáltaige ‘ability to seize (of dog)’ galam lake-fence’ 377n 116 gabál

gen. sg.

632

Index I

‘disease’ 174, 195; gen. sg. galair 198n, 349; dat. sg. galur 521; nom. pl. galair 205, 207, 208, 213: galar bunaid ‘inherent ailment’ 192, 200, 213; galar cunnlabartach ‘disease of uncertain origin’ 193; galar gairet ‘short disease’ 174; galar nairni ‘kidney(?) disease’ 174n; galar na placodi ‘strangles(P)’ 212; galar rigin ‘stiff sickness’ 198; galar tecmaisech ‘infectious disease’ 192, 196, 200; cpd crithgalur ‘shaking disease’ 193n, 202 gall ‘foreign, Gaulish’ 91; subst. ‘for­ eigner,Gaul’ 250, 257, 319, 459n; nom. pl. gaill 440n; cpds gallbiáil ‘foreign axe’ 488; galldírna ‘foreign denarius’ 587 gall ‘standing-stone’; nom. pl. gaill 409 gall ‘cock’ 103n gallan ‘standing-stone’ 409; dat. sg. gollán 409 gamnach ‘stripper, cow with year­ ling calf’ 40n, 60, 293n, 526, 550; gen. sg. gamnaige 40; nom. pl. gamnacha 354 gamnachas ‘being with yearling calf 550 gamain ‘calf, older calf 40, 59, 60, 197, 526, 550; gen. pl. gamna 119n; dat. pl. gamnaib 494n; cpd malhgamain ‘bear’ 190n garad ‘drought-fence’ 377n garrda (garraidhe) 'garden, garth’ 250, 368n gas ‘stem’; cpd óengas ‘single stem’ 386 gat ‘withe’ 384, 439, 494, 499; dat. sg. got 329n gat ‘theft, removal, castration (of stallion)’; gen. sg. gaite 557; dal. sg. gait 167

galar

‘gate’ 378 ‘goose’ 105, 300; gen. sg. geóid 105n geilid (gelid) ‘grazes’; 3pl. pres, indie, geilit 142n; past participle -geilte(?) 512 geinndecht (gentliucht) ‘witchcraft’ 174 geinti ‘gentiles, heathen’; cpd túaithgeinti ‘fairies’ 120 geir ‘tallow’ 55 géis ‘swan, whooper swan' 299 gel ‘bright, white’; cpd gehcialh ‘white shield’ 570 gelestar ‘cattle-pond’ 391, 397, 401 gelt (geilt) ‘grazing’ 105n gem: see gaim gemar ‘unripe corn’ 233; gen. sg. gemair 231 n, geamhair 232n gemen ‘hide’ 54. See also forgem en gend (genn) ‘wedge, blade (of axe)’ 486, 486n, 502; gen. sg. genned 486n gerrad ‘cutting, mutilation (of animals)’ 162 gerrán ‘work-pony’ 22n, 91, 94; gerrán bán maircech ‘white galled pony(?)’ 91n gert ‘products of cow, milk and dung’ 230, 516 gésachtach screecher, peacock’ 108; nom. dual dá ghéasadich(?) 108n gess ‘solemn prohibition, taboo’ 353 giallnae ‘base clientship’ 238, 446n; flaith cétgíallnae ‘primary lord’ 320n, 400; flaith forgiallnae ‘second lord’ 320n gigrann ‘barnacle goose’ 299 gilcach ‘broom, reed’ 381, 385n geata géd

Irish index ‘servant, assistant, lad’ 321; gilla con ‘kennel-lad’ 274; gillae glomair ‘bridle-boy’ 443 giritán ‘periwinkle’ 298 giunad 'shaving' 163 giús ‘pine’; gen. sg. rrann giúis 383n glace ‘hand, handful, measure of length’ 563, 581; nom. pi. glacca 563; cpd ferglac ‘m an’s h and’ 5 6 0 n .563 glais ‘stream ’ 411 ; acc. pi. glasa 305n glaisen ‘woad' 16, 141, 264, 265, 266, 267; gen. sg. glaisine 265; cpd glaisengort ‘woad-garden’ 141. 265, 370 glám ‘thorny or prickly weed(?)’; nom. pi. gláma 394 glanad ‘to clear, clean (road, etc)’ 540, 541, 542, 543, 544; cpds gortglanad ‘weeding’ 233, 452; nemglanad ‘failure to clear’; gen. sg. nemglanta 540 glanaid clears, cleans’; 3sg. pres. indie, pass, -glantar 541,542 glas ‘grey, green, blue’ 28, 73, 92, 123, 263, 264n, 265, 266, 267; cpds dubglas ‘dark grey’ 92; roghlas ‘very green’ 233n; glaschainnenn ‘green onion’ 252; glasfeóir ‘of green grass’ 45; glassrian ‘grey bridle’ 89n glasar ‘rust, mildew (on wheat)’ 237 gleslige ‘burdock’ 394 gleth ‘grazing, grazing-trespass’ 143 glom ar ‘bridle-bit’ 93; gen. sg. glomair 443 glondras ‘glanders’ 209 gnáe (gnóe) ‘beautiful, fine’; fiacail gnóe (gnari) ‘beautiful tooth (of whale)’ 285n; cnó gnáe ‘beautiful n u t’ 306 gniae ‘workman’ 499; cpd fergniae ‘m anservant’ 51, 592 gillae

633

‘work, one twelfth of a ploughland' 450n, 573n gnimrad ‘work, sexual activity (of anim al)’ 66, 100, 128; gen. sg. gnimraid 128 gó (gáu) ‘injustice, falsehood’ 433 gob: see gop goibnecht ‘smithcraft’ 419 Goidel: see Gáedel goire ‘maintenance of relative’ 418 goiste ‘halter’; gen. sg. goisti 557 gonaid ‘kills, wounds’; lsg. pres, indie, gono 216 gop (gob) ‘muzzle, mouth, beak (of animal or bird)’; cpds gobairde ‘highness of muzzle (defect of horse)’ 556; gopchóel ‘having a slender mouth (of horse)’ 558 gor ‘pious, dutiful’; cpd gormac ‘dutiful son, sister’s son’ 418 gorad ‘heating, tempering’ 487; dat. pi. gortaib 486; cpds donngorad ‘red heat’ 486n, 487; bdngorad ‘white heat’ 486n, 487 go rm blue’ 263, 266 gort ‘tilled field, cornfield’ 234,236, 370, 378; gen. sg. guirt 237; dat. sg. gurt 371n; nom. pi. guirt 370n; dat. pi. gortaib 231 n; cpds gort­ glanad ‘field-cleaning, weeding’ 233, 452; aballgort ‘orchard’ 260, 370; férgort ‘enclosed pasture’ 371; glaisengort ‘woad-garden’ 141, 265, 370; ithgort ‘corn-field’ 370; lubgort ‘vegetable garden’ 111, 141, 168, 250, 368, 370 gortán ‘small field, garden’ 15, 253 gortin: see guirtine grafand ‘horse-race’ 99 graig ‘herd (of horses)’ 166; gen. sg. grega 174; cpd fiadgraig ‘herd of wild horses’ 88n gnim

634

Index 1

ibar (iubar) ‘yew’ 185n, 380, 486n; cáera ibair ‘yew-berries’ 308 ibdach (Jidbarh) ‘two-row barley(?)’ 219, 220, 223 ibróracht ‘manufacture from yewwood’ 322; gen. sg. ibrórachla 383 ic (c ) ‘payment’ 212n icht ‘deed, work’; cpd ddmichl ‘ox-work(?)’ 573 id ‘ring, spancel, withe’ 378n, 493; id fata ‘long spancel’ 494n idath ‘wild cherry-tree(P)’ 308, 380; gen. sg. cáera idaith ‘wild cherries(?)’ 308 idu (ida) ‘pang, stomach-pain’ 193, 200, 205n, 207, 211, 213; cpd echida ‘colic in horses' 211 ilar ‘eagle’; nom. pi. Hair 189n imán (immán) ‘driving (of live­ stock)’ 197n; acc. sg. imáin 531; cpds certimáin ‘proper driving' 173n; lúathimáin ‘fast driving’ 173n im b (imm, im) ‘butter’ 318n, 325, 326, 35In, 372, 582n; gen. sg. ian ‘mug, cup, pail, measure’ 78, imme 316n, 577n, imbe 401; acc. 113n, 223n, 323. 332, 578; gen. pi. imenna 326; cpds banimb sg. eine 577, 579n; nom. plur. ‘woman-butter (as quantity)’ 78; eana, iana 223n ferimb ‘man-butter (as quantity)’ iaru (iara) ‘red squirrel’ 130 78 iarcain ‘dyestuff 266; gen. sg. imbe (ime) ‘fence, fencing’ 278, iarcceQ) 266n 287n, 288n, 372, 401, 452, iargrinne ‘after-bundle, belongings 543; gen. sg. imbi 447; nom. left after monk’s death’ 466 pi. imeda urcradacha ‘temporary iarn ‘iron, weapon’ 276n, 435,486n, fences’ 377n; cpds animbe ‘defec­ 496, 583n; gen. sg. iairn 276n, tive fence’ 183n, 377; dairimbe 501, iaraind 553; dat. sg. turn ‘oak fence’ 372, 376; lánimbe 276n, iarann 47In; nom ./acc. pi. ‘complete fence’ 553 erna 379n, 470, 489 imbel (imel) ‘edge, margin’; nom. iasc ‘fish’ 293n, 295; gen. sg. nsc pi. imli 370 287n, 288, 290, m g 296n, 553 Im bolc ‘spring festival’ 460 iascaire ‘fisherman’ 286, 443 imcaisiu ‘sight’; acc. sg. imdsin 204n

‘grain’ 333, 581; gen. sg. grain 560, 562, 581; singulative gráinne (gráinde) 55, 560, 561, 584; nom. pi. gráinde 561, gráinni 596 greis ‘pace’ 565 grellach ‘swamp, m ire’ 543 grian ‘soil, subsoil, land' 142n, 405n; gen. sg. grin 405, 406 gruiten ‘small curds’ 327, 351 grus ‘cheese’ 326, 328 gruth ‘curds' 318n, 327, 328; gen. sg. grotha 329 gúal ‘charcoal’ 379; gen. sg. gúaile 379n gubae ‘funeral lamentation’ 52 guin ‘killing, slaughter (of anim al)’ 12n; gen. sg. gona 290, 496; cpd tenguin ‘single killing’ 286n guinid ‘gorer, aggressive bovine’ 179, 204, 509 guirtine (gortin) ‘small field’ 159; nom. pi. guirtini 389 gúng (gúnga) ‘posterior’ 519; cpd gúngablach ‘with misshapen posterior (of sheep)’ 519 grán

Irish in d ex

‘care, nurture, guarding’ 50, 122n imdae bed-cubicle’ 362 im dell mashing (of malt)’ 333 im echtraid ‘outer ox (of ploughteam )’ 476 imglaice ‘fistful’ 252n, 253n, 563 im léim nech inclined to leap about (of horse)’ 558 im m aire (iomaire) ‘ridge, raised bed’ 232, 253, 372,'569, 574: gen. sg. imairi 372n; nom. pi. immairi 569; acc. pi. imaire 170n; dat. pi. imairib 246, 254n; immaire becc ‘small ridge’ 574; immaire mar ‘large ridge’ 574 im m irge (imirche) ‘passage, migra­ tion’ 400, 527; acc. sg. immirgi 427 im m itecht ‘j ourney, wandering’ 151 im m rim m riding’ 132; gen. sg. immrimme 90, 96; cpd soimrim ‘good riding’; gen. sg. soimrime 559 imoirgnechas ‘mutual attack (by oxen)’ 179 im ram ‘voyage, wandering’ 424 imthecht ‘going about, travel’ 456 imus (umus) ‘celery(?)’ 250, 253, 254, 349 inathar ‘intestines’ 276 inbe (indbe) ‘tripe’ 339 inbéla ‘clearable by axe’ 389n, 395. See biáil inber ‘estuary’ 553; gen. sg. inbir 286, 289, 553 inchruth household items, equipm ent’ 361 ind ‘end, limit, completion, smallest am ount’ 63, 87, 376n, 536; cpd indfine ‘end-kin’ 414 indarbe ‘expulsion’ 398 in d e l(l) ‘arrangem ent, yoking, harnessing, trap ’ 280, 573 im choim ét

635

(indiúin) ‘anvil, griddle’ 337 n ,338 indes ‘milking-enclosure, milkingplace’ 40, 148, 173; acc. sg. indis 528; gen. sg. indise 187n, 518, indisi 518, 528, innisi 518 indile possessions, wealth, cattle’ 162, 178n, 365, 584; dat. pi. innilib 208n indire ‘suitable for payment' 75n indie ‘land-measure’ 573 indliged ‘illegality’ 171 indligthech ‘illegal’ 433, 436 indra (innrad, indrad) ‘ridge’ 253, 367, 372; gen. sg. innraid 571 indrechtán‘sausage(?) ’ 339 indud (indulh, indad) ‘young animals, calves’ 29, 449, 516 inéraic (indéraic) ‘payment’ 517, 550; gen. sg. inéirce 517, 518 in-éren ‘pays’ 517, 550; 3sg. pres. indie, pass, in-érenar 550 ingaire ‘herding, looking after’ 119n,438n ingelt ‘grazing’; gen. sg. ingelta 572 ingen ‘nail, clove, bulb' 252n; nom. pi. ingni 252n ingen ‘girl, daughter’; dat. sg. ingin 4 16n ingenas 'virginity (in cows)’ 201 ingor ‘impious, unfilial’ 413 inich (inech) ‘perfect, saleable’ 201, 508 inis ‘island’ 2n, 32; gen. pi. innsi 223; cpd muirinis ‘marine island’ indéoin

2

(inláeg, indláeg) ‘in-calF 64, 550, 588, 590n; gen. sg. fern. inloige 580 inlóegus (indláegus) ‘being in-calF inlóeg

200

‘inciting (of dog)’ 150, 177n inne ‘stable’ 93, 136, 366 inm uilliud

636

In d e x 1

innrad: see indra ‘measure of length’ 567; nom. pl. inntrit 567 inol ‘apprentice’ 75. 102, 597 inraic (indraic) ‘proper, fit for sale’ 75, 330, 372, 379, 486, 488n, 489, 508, 520, 561,565,589 intech ‘wattling’ 378n ith ‘corn’ 140, 481; gen. sg. etha 235n; cpds ithgort ‘corn-field’ 370; ithland ‘threshing-floor’ 240; ithloinges ‘weed of corn­ fields’ 233, 235; itech (ithtech) ‘barn’ 243n itharnae ‘rush light, tallow candle’ 55n ithir ‘soil, land, arable’; cpd drochilhir ‘bad land’ 231 iubaile ‘limitation period’ 192 iuchair (iuchra) ‘milt, spawn’ 292, 294 iunaid ‘treads, mates (ofcock)’; 3sg. pres, indie, rel. iunas 102 iurrus: see oirgid inntrit

lá ‘day, twelve-hour period' 54, 238n, 246, 457n, 573; gen. sg. laoi 317n; dat. sg. ló 317n; nom. pl. laetha 32; dat. pl. láib 573n; là miniana ‘a day’s reaping’ 447; là n-air ‘a day’s ploughing’ 447; là n-imbi ‘a day’s fencing’ 447 lac (lag) ‘weak, feeble, flabby’; cpd luigfér (= laicfér?) ‘lush(?) grass’ 45 lacht ‘milk’ 83n, 86, 230n; gen. sg. lachta 510, 550; lacht geimrid ‘winter milk’ 41 lachtnae ‘dun-coloured’ 70, 263, 518 lachu ‘duck’ 107, 298; gen. sg. lachan 107n

‘bovine foul-in-thefoot, blister (between claws of h e n )’ 520 ladrach ‘with defective hoofs’ 520 láech ‘layman’; dat. pl. láechaib579n láeg: see lóeg láem ‘tray for corn-drying kiln’ 241n lafan ‘frog’ 190n lagat (loiget) ‘smallness’ 219n laid ‘type of poem ’ 36; gen. sg. laoidhe 36n láige (lága) ‘spear, turf-spade, loy’ 479n lainnéne ‘griddle-turner’ 322 láir ‘m are’ 92, 530; gen. sg. lára 94n lait ‘measure of length’ 567; nom. pl. laiti 567 laith ‘beer’ 332; cpd dnglmth 334; gen. sg. derglatha 334n láithrinn ‘proper place’ 432 lám ‘h and’ 540; gen. sg. láime 562; dat. sg. láim 153, 557, 560n; cpds lámbró ‘hand-quern’ 482; lámchrann ‘handle of flail’ 481n: lámraite ‘by-road’ 391, 539, 540; lámthorud ‘handiwork’ 270 lánamnas ‘m arriage’ 419, 423 langa ‘ling’ 297 langpheitir ‘long fetter, tie, hobble’ 93. 494 lann ‘griddle’ 322 larg: see lorg lath (loth) ‘mire, m arsh’ 182n láth 'frenzy, mating (of livestock)’; gen. sg. láith 155n lathach (luthach) ‘mire, m arsh’ 182 lathrach (lothrach) ‘mire, m arsh’ 396n laulgach (lulgach, loilgech) ‘milch cow’ 58, 59, 64, 75n, 526, 550, 587, 590, 598; acc. sg. hdgaig 591 ; gen. sg. lulaicce 75n, lulaice 579; nom. pl. lulaca 75n ladhairineach

Irish in d e x

laulgachas (lulgachus) ‘calving’; lulgachus Beltaine ‘May calving’ 41 n lebar (leabhar) ‘book, m anuscript’ 32; cpds madebar ‘copy of manuscript’ 412; senlebar ‘old manuscript' 412 lecc ‘stone, kneading-slab, bony growth’ 322, 439, 557; lec ôs crû ‘ringbone(P)’ 211, 212 lecht ‘grave, tom b’; gen. sg. lechta 409 lecla ‘rush’ 384 legad (leaghadh) ‘to melt, tem­ per’ 479n, 487n, 489n, 492; cpd brnlenghadh 'intense! ’") tem pering’ 489n iéibend ‘threshing-floor’ 240n léigend ‘learning, scholarship’ 419 léimnech ‘leaping (of horses)’ 558; cpd imléimnech ‘inclined to leap about (of horse)’ 558 léine ‘tunic, m antle’ 269, 599 léithre (leithriu) ‘thong’ 493 léithuisce: see bath lem elm’ 380 lemlacht ( lemnacht) ‘fresh milk’ 123, 324, 579; gen. sg. lemnachta 84, 324n lénae ‘damp pasture’ 395 lenn {lend) ‘cloak, m antle’ 598n; dat. pi. lennaib 598n léoman lion, large dog’ 119n les (lis, lios) ‘farmyard, courtyard’ 111, 141, 168, 239, 363, 367, 368, 369, 413, 431; gen. sg. liss 367n; dat. sg. lis 141n, lius 368n; cpds sechtarlis ‘area outside yard’ 140n, 141n, 239n; senlis ‘home farm ’ 44 les ‘loin’ 358; cpd leschrúachail ‘centre-cut loin steak(?)’ 358 lés ‘blister, bag’ 208 lésán ‘sting, blister, pox’ 203, 208

637

‘vessel, beehive’ 76n, 110, 145, 160, 579, 580; gen. sg. lestair 576; cpd cnúlestar ‘nut-shell’ 576n lestrae ‘vessels’ 580 lethar ‘leather’ 54; cpd dondlethar ‘brown leather’ 54n lethe ‘shoulder’ 275 letheirlach; see airlae lethet (lethal, leithet) ‘width’ 372n, 486n, 490n, 516, 574n, 575, 575n li ‘fleece’ 72 liae ‘stone’; gen. pi. liac 353, 374, 485n; liaeforcaid ‘whetstone’ 485 bai g ‘physician, doctor of humans or animals’ 217, 217n lias ‘pen, enclosure, byre’ 40, 68, 136, 152, 364, 365; gen. pi. lés 164n, lias 165n liasrad ‘tending livestock in pens’ 450 bath ‘grey’ 80, 89, 92; as subst. Hath ‘disease of sheep' 205; cpd liathuisce (léithuisce) ‘grey water (in sheep)’ 206, 218 Uathadh ‘rot (in sheep)’ 205 bathroit ‘ball’; gen. sg. líathróite 370n bchtiu (littiu, lite, kite) ‘porridge’ 84, 324,331,351 lUe ‘lily’ 271 lim ‘sharp, sharpening’; cpd lírnbró ‘whetstone’ 486n; dat. sg. límbróin 482n,486n limad ‘to whet, sharpen’ 485n bn ‘flax, linen, fishing-net, deernet’ 238n, 269, 270, 277n, 287, 289, 482, 598n; cpd linchor ‘net-casting’; gen. sg. linchuir 290 hnaid fills’; 3pl. pres, indic, linat 516 bnaige ‘netsman’ 289 linchur ‘physician’s bag’ 250 lestar

638

In d e x 1

( linn) ‘beer’ 333, 334n; gen. sg. lenna 334n linn (lind) ‘pool, pond’ 107n; gen, sg. linde 484n; cpd linnblä ‘pool as boundary-mark’ 409 Hr ‘diarrhoea’ 348 lis: see les loarg (lorac, lârac) ‘haunch’ 358, 359 lobrae ‘weakness’ 531 loch ‘lake’ 125; cpds lochaile ‘lakefence’ 377; turloch ‘summer-dry lake’ 45 loch ‘black, dark’ 80 lod ‘fence in stream!?)’ 377n lóeg (láeg, laogh) ‘calf 29, 36n, 40, 52n, 58, 59, 60, 61n, 107n, 119, 152n, 165n, 364. 365, 44.3, 511. 515, 548, 549; gen. sg. Mg 517, laoig 526; acc. pi. lóegu 38, laega 40n, laoghu 510; dat. pi. laegaib 40n; Ineg allaid ‘fawn’ 272; lóeg folhlai 'weaned(P) calf 51, 515; cpds alalóeg ‘second calf; gen. sg. alaloig 514; cétlóegh ‘young(?) calf 590n; forláeg ‘dead calf, aborted calf 200; lúlaig ‘small calf 87n; nom. pi. luluigh 87n; marblaogh, marbhlaegh ‘dead calf, aborted calf 200, 549 log ‘value, payment’ 36n, 58, 65n, 76, 87, 122, 268n, 418, 593, 595; gen. sg. lóige 59, 60, 62, löge 580; dat. sg. lúaig 50; lóg n-enech ‘honour-price’ 165n loiget: see lagat loim m ‘drink (esp. of milk)’ 318n; gen. sg. lomma 316n, loma 325n loingsech ‘wanderer’ 425; loingsech fine ‘one exiled from kin’ 426n loinid ‘churn-dash’ 325; gen. sg. loinedo (luinealha MS) 325 loisce ‘lameness’; loisce buaile ‘foul-in-the-foof 204n lind

(loistreán) ‘burning (of grain on stalk)’ 23, 240 loisinn ‘white-rumped (of cattle)'

loiscreán

loisinnán

‘white-tipped one, fox’

32n ‘rope, leash’ 499; gen. sg. lomnai 162n; nom. pi. lomna 499 lom datu bareness (of grain)’ 242 Ion ‘blackbird’ 214; gen. sg. luin 309 lón ‘provisions, light meal’ 317 lónchrúachait: see crúachait lond (lonn) ‘fierce’ 155, 204, 513 longad ‘dining’ 342 longbronn ‘chest-cartilage’ 339 lorac: see loarg lorg ‘shaft, handle’ 481n; gen. pi. larg 448 los ‘tail, end, rum p’ 32n; cpd loisinn ‘white-rumped’ 32 losat ‘kneading-trough’ 322, 439, 450. 582; gen. sg. loisde 325n lose ‘lam e’ 204, 511; cpd alhlosc ‘chronically lame (?)’ 510 loscaid (loisrid) ‘burns’; past participle pi. loscthi 241 loscann ‘toad, frog’ 190n loscud ‘burning’ 164n, 165n, 437 loth: see lath lothrach: see lathrach lo t(t) (loit) ‘destruction’ 141n, 267 luach ‘kicker (of horse or cow)’ 204, 509, 513 lúachair ‘rushes' 257, 342n, 384n; firlúachair ‘true rush’ 385n; murlúachair ‘sea-rush’ 385 lua(e) (lúa) ‘hoof, kick’ 153, 509 lúaide ‘lead’; gen, sg. luaidi 435n; dat. sg. luaidhi, luaidhe 587 lúaith ‘ash’; cpd murlúaith ‘sea-ash, salt’ 341 hiathchairchech ‘swift-tailed, with swishing tail(?)’ 558 lom an

Irish in d e x

(luib) ‘plant’ 250, 258; nom. pi. lubai 250, 257; dat. pi. luibib 258n; cpds lubgort ‘garden’ 111, 141, 168, 250, 368, 370; lubgortóir ‘gardener’ 250 lubair 'work, labour’; gen. sg. lubra 455n luch ‘mouse, rat’ 188, 243, 244; nom. pi. lochaid 236; gen. pi. lochad 244; luch beag ‘mouse’ 244; luch frangcach ‘French mouse, rat' 244 lugach ‘P’ 513 Lugnasad festival in early August, beginning of harvest’ 237, 458, 459, 461, 533 luigfér: see lac luis ‘Irish letter-name (identified with elm, pine or rowan)’ 42n luise *?’: loscad luise 437 lu n g a it ‘medicinal herb (?)’ 258 lupait ‘six- to eight-month female pig, feast (of pig?)’ 85, 321n lúrcc ‘piglet’ 87, 87n, 536 lurchaire foal' 92 lus ‘plant, bush, herb, vegetable (esp. leek)’ 141n, 255,' 268n; nom. pi. losa 304n, 349, 381; gen. pi. loses 254n; cpds lusbian '?’ 311 ; aithechlus ‘plebeian herb’ 258; borrlus ‘leek(?)’ 254, 321; firlus ‘true herb, true leek(?)’ 254n; riglus ‘royal herb’ 258; tarblus ‘bull-herb’ 258 lúth ‘vigour, sustenance’ 42 lúth ‘ram part’ 431 lútu ‘little finger’ 561; gen. sg. lútun 561 n; dat. sg. lúlain 561 n lub

‘son, boy, child, offspring’ 107n, 351n, 391n, 540, 548; gen. sg. meic 450n, 593, male 548; acc. pi. macu 416n; mac bundsaige ‘lad of the spear’ 568; mac dá bó

macc

639

‘child of two cows, calf with two m others’ 38n, 548; mac fáesma ‘adopted son’ 452; macc fócrai ‘outlawed son’ 413; macc ingor ‘impious son’ 413; mac muini ‘son conceived in bushes’ 413; mac tire ‘wolf’ 178, 186n; cpds maefuirmid ‘second-lowest grade of poet’ 590; machbar ‘copy (of manuscript)’ 412; Maccslechtae ‘son-sections’ 412, 413; gormac ‘dutiful son, sister’s son’ 418; gen. sg. gormheic 418n surety, enforcing surety’; acc. pi. maccu 518

macc

machae

‘cattle-enclosure’ 35, 501

‘boys, children’; gen. sg. macraide 122n

macrad

(mod) ‘bald, hornless, awn­ less’ 32, 35, 162n, 228; máel domnaig ‘cattle-plague’ 196; cpds maílchinnáin ‘stomach-worms (in horse)’ 210; máelchruithnechl ‘awnless wheat’ 228; máeldorn ‘clenched fist (as measure)’ 564; máelgarb ‘foot-and-mouth disease(?)’ 195, 196, 198

máel

máelad

‘shaving, cutting off ears(?)’

162 máelán ‘awnless wheat, freethreshing wheat(?)’ 220, 228, 228n; máelán muilchi ‘wild oat(?)’ 233, 234 (rnóeth) ‘soft, succulent' 328; nom. pi. masc. máelha 307n; cpds máelhbiad ‘soft food’ 351; maothéorna ‘succulent barley’ 223; máethslucud ‘soft swallowing’ 14 1 n ,180

máeth

‘curds, soft cheese’ 328, 328n; nom. pi. maot\h]la 351n

máethal

640

In d e x 1

plain, open country’ 1; gen. sg. maige 131, 282, muige 304n; dat. sg. maig 398; dat. pi. maigib 405n; cpds murmag ‘sea-plain' 385; ógmag ‘untilled plain’ 395; rathenmag ferny plain’ 395; Senmag ‘old plain, naturally treeless plain’ 5n magar ‘spawn, fry’ 294; dat. sg. magur 289n m a g ra ‘bent, marram-grass(?)’ 385 m aidm ‘bursting’; maidhm talmhan ‘earthquake’ 185 maigen ‘place, precinct’ 370n, 394n, 436n; maigen digona ‘area around house under owner’s protection’ 568, 569; cpd sechtarmaigen ‘area outside precinct’ 370n maigre ‘salmon’ 294; gen. sg. maigri, 294 mainder ‘pound (for livestock)’ 171 n mainister ‘monastery’ 404n; acc. sg. mainistir 554 maircech ‘galled, with sores (of horse)’ 91n maisel ‘socket(?) of axe’ 486, 487; dat. sg. maisil 486n maisled to injure with axehead(?)’ 487 maistred ‘churning’ 325, 439 mám ‘yoke’ 558; gen. sg. máma 48; cpd mámdruimnech ‘yoke-backed (?)’ 558 mám ‘fistful, scoop’ 581; nom. pi. máim 143, 581 manach ‘monk, monastic client’ 405, 452, 453; nom. pi. manaig 355; acc. pi. manchu 401; cpd dáermanach ecalsa ‘base church tenant’ 355, 453 manchaine ‘clientship, service’ 45I n , 453 mag

‘jaw, gums’; Mant na mulchán ‘Cheese-guzzler’ (nickname) 329 m ár (mór) ‘large, great’ 52, 64, 87n, 117, 143, 168, 224, 225, 229n, 283n, 365, 387, 389, 392, 411, 459n, 540, 574; gen. sg. masc. máir 285; mil mór ‘whale’ 284; cpds mórchethrae ‘large livestock’ 119; márdéntaid ‘great worker (of wife)’ 449; máirmíl ‘whale’ 284, 349 m arb ‘dead, lifeless’; cpds marbdil ‘inanimate possession’ 166; marblaogh, marblaegh ‘aborted calf, dead calf 200, 549 m arbad ‘killing’ 157; g e n . sg. marbtha 335 marbaid ‘kills’; lsg. pres, indie. marbu 217; 3pl. perfective pres, subj. pass, romarbtar 183n marbdatu ‘dormancy (of tree-growth)’ 387n marc ‘horse, m are’ 90; nom. pi. maire 173; cpds marcc[f]oich ‘horse-fly’ 204; marnnuilenn 'horse-mill' 485 marc ( marg) ‘mark, eight ounces of silver' 598 marcach ‘horseman, rider’ 90n; gen. sg. marcaidh 556; nom. pi. marcaig 97 marcaigecht ‘riding’ 96 marclach ‘pony-load’ 94 margad ‘market’ 319, 459n maróc ‘sausage’ 339 mart ‘dead animal, carcase’ 100, 176, 177, 183, 192, 201, 598n; gen. sg. marta 53 mát ‘pig’ 79n man!

‘cur’ 118n; cpd aithechmalad ‘peasant cur’ 117

matad

Irish in d e x

‘m other’ 235n; gen. sg. máthar 416n, 549; acc. pi. máithre 38 mathgamain ‘bear’ 190; nom. pi. mathgamna 190 m econ ‘root’ 229. 314 m ed ( meth) ‘measure, weighing scales’ 58In. 582, 583. 584 medach ‘consisting of m ead’ 579 m edam ‘j udge, arbiter’ 291, 339, 514. 515 m edbán (jneadhbhán) ‘edible seaweed, laver’ 313, 314 m edc ‘whey’ 325n, 327; gen. sg. midg 327n; cpd medcuisce ‘whey-water’ 327 m edón ‘m iddle’ 490; cpd úarmedón ‘P’; gen. sg. cuing úarmedóin ‘inner(?) yoke’ 475 meigel ‘bleating, mewing’ 520 meiglech (meidlech) ‘in the habit of bleating’ 520; cpd romeidlech ‘bleating excessively’ 520 meiglech ‘bleating, mewing’; acc. sg. meighligh 123n meile ‘gelding’ 91 n m éin ‘mine, ore’ 435n, 436, 553 meinistir ‘service-set (of priest) ’ 148 m eisrin ‘liquid measure’ 577, 578 meithel ‘reaping-party’ 238, 446; gen. sg. methk, meithil 238; nom. pi. meithle 238n m elg ‘milk’; cpd oimelg ‘sheep’s milk’ 460 m ell ‘sphere, ball, bulb, swelling’ 253n, 312 melle ‘edible root, bitter vetch (?)’ 312 m ellit ‘hydromel(P)’ 113, 578n m en (min) ‘meal, powder’ 245, 247, 268; gen. sg. mine 332; cpd menbolg ‘bag of m eal’ 247 menadach gruel’ 84, 332, 348 máthair

mennán

641 ‘kid’ 79; nom. pi. mendáin

87n ‘place, abode’; gen. sg. mmdoto 539 Méone ‘little meow’ (name of cat) 123 m er ‘mad, crazy, confused, brisk, swift’ 205, 212; cpds mearaithne ‘non-recognition’ 355; merechdum ‘tetanus (in horses)’ 212 m ér ‘finger, inch’ 486n, 561, 562; nom. pi. mé.oir 490n, 579 meracht ‘madness’ 432 mesar (mesair) ‘measure, vessel’ 41, 516, 571,577 mescán ‘butter-pat’ 325 mesrad ‘tree-fruit, acorns’; dat. sg. mesruth 84, 530, 532 mess ‘fruit, harvest, acorns’ 83, 304n, 305, 306, 376n, 381, 382, 383, 530; gen. sg. mesa 84n, 155n, 237, meso 305n, measa 530; cpds cnómess ‘nut-crop’ 305; daurmess ‘acorn-harvest’ 83, 305\fráechmess ‘bilberry harvest’ 307 mess ‘j udgm ent, valuation’; cpd senmes ‘ancient valuation’; dat. pi. senmesib 583 mess ‘fosterling, pet, favourite’; cpd meschú ‘pet dog’ 120n messán ‘pet dog, lapdog’ 120, 161; gen. sg. mesáin 121 meth ‘failure (of legal obligation, etc.)’ 55,238, 367n méth ‘fat’ 53, 83rt, 449n, 524; gen. sg. fern, méithe 84, 29In méthad fattening’ 449, 531 méth aid ‘fattens’; 3sg. rel. pres. indie, pass, méthar, méthtar 83n methas ‘land-holding, home ter­ ritory’ 426; gen. sg. methasa 426 mennat

642

In d e x 1

‘protective covering (on sheep)’ 206 m i ‘m onth’; mi air ‘month of ploughing, March’ 231; mi búana ‘month of reaping, September’ 237 miach ‘bushel, sack’ 60, 62, 140, 219, 244, 330, 379n, 481, 582, 588, 589; gen. sg. méich 59, 75, 588, méch 581n; nom. pi. méich 232n, 371n, 582n; cpd cenmiach ‘a single bushel’ 582 miad ‘rank, honour’ 318 mian ‘desire’ 256n; gen. sg. mein 350; mian ngalair ‘desire of one in sickness’ 349 mias ‘board, platter, table’ 323, 582 miaslach ‘m anure’ 229 m id (miodh) ‘m ead’ 109, 113, 358; gen. sg. meda 578; cpds miodhbhun ‘plant with sweet root(?)’ 311; midchúaird ‘mead-circuit’ 113 midbach error for idbach (= ibdach) 223n midboth: see fer midchlas ‘middle trench (in mining)’ 436 mide *?’; molt midi 529 mífácbáil: see fácbáil m il ‘honey’ 109; gen. sg. mela 581; cpd milchnbttr ‘honey-desirer, bear’ 191 m il ‘animal, worm’ 12n, 179n, 216, 217, 230n, 531, 540; mil maige ‘hare’ 131, 282; mil rnár (mór) ‘whale’ 284, 285; cpds bleidmil ‘whale’ 285n; fiadmila ‘game ani­ mals’ 282; máirmíl ‘whale’ 284, 349; mílchú ‘hunting hound’ 117, 118, 154 milaire ‘pivot-stone(?) of water-mill’ 485

methir

‘thousand’; milechéimenn ‘mile’ 569 milgetan ‘belly’ 358 m illiud (milled, mille) ‘destruction, bewitching (of cattle)’ 175, 218, 305n; gen. sg. milite 175; nom. pi. milhuda 174, 193n, 203 milsén ‘sweet cheese' 78, 328 min: see men m in level (of land), fine (of food)’ 229, 344, 574 minaigecht ‘snapping (by dog)’ 178 mirmta ‘small bird, tit’ 189, 302 m inugud ‘pulping (ofw oad)’ 265 m ir ‘piece, morsel’ 129n, 317; mir mein ‘desired morsel (by preg­ nant w om en)’ 350; cpd mimir ‘bad morsel, bewitched food’ 175 mlegon (blegon) ‘milking’ 439, 509; gen. sg. mbleguin 578n mleth (bleith) ‘grinding’ 245, 482n mlicht (blicht) ‘in milk, milch’ 58, 64, 587; acc. pi. fern, blichta 167n; cpd bithblicht ‘with constant milk’ 29, 41; as subst. ‘milk’ 73, 323, 443; gen. sg. blechta 39n; dat. pi. mlichtaib 426; cpds búanblicht ‘lasting supply of milk’ 38; comblicht ‘full milking’ 509 mligid (bligid) ‘milks’; 3sg. pres, indie, pass. rel. blegar 525, 526; 3pl. impf. pass, -bligtis 39n, 273n; 3sg. perf. pass, do-omlacht 578n mligre (Migre) ‘milker’ 40, 152, 443, 451, 511, 515. See also bligire. bligrióir mocol mesh (of n et)’; gen. sg. moccui! 289n modisach ?’ 513 rnóel: see mael móeth: see máeth m óin ‘moorland, bog’ 136, 307, 395, 396, 407n, 574; gen. sg. móna 396, 407; dat. sg. mónaid 397 mile

Irish in d e x

643

molt ‘wether’ 69, 77; molt feisse ‘pig-slaughter’ 283n; muccullach ‘boar’ 155; muccfoil ‘pig-sty’ 364; ‘wether for feasting’ 72; molt fogmair ‘autum n wether’ 72; molt muccrecht ‘pork sausage(?)’ 339; midi ‘fattened(?) wether’ 529; dagmuca ‘fine pigs’ 530 molt sambid ‘wether of summer- m ucc(a)id swineherd’ 82, 443; dat. food’ 72, 318; cpds moltchroicenn sg. mucaidhe 366; cpd rigmuccid ‘skin of a wether’ 72n; úan‘royal swineherd’ 274, 444 molt ‘wether lam b’ 76; gen. sg. m ucóir ( mucor) ‘hip, fruit of rose’; úanmuilt 76n, 580 nom. pi. mucóra 307 monad ‘money’ 597 m ug ‘male slave’ 438, 442; gen. pi. mónann ‘cranberry’ 307; nom. pi. moga 592; dat. pi. mogaib 440n mónainn 307 mugna ‘salmon(?)’ 294 mónóg ‘cranberry’ 307 mugsaine ‘slavery, work of slave’ 438 mór: see már mothar ‘thicket, dense woodland’ muide ‘vessel (generally for milk)' 576 390n mraich (braich) ‘m alt’ 94n, 244n, muilchi: see máelán 246; gen. sg. mracha 244, mbracha m uilenn ‘mill’ 222*n, 288n, 482n, 350, bracha 582, 588 484, 485; gen. sg. muilinn 122n, 482n, 553; sáer muilinn ‘mill­ mrogaid (brogaid) ‘extends’; 3pl. wright’ 482n; cpd marcmuilenn fut. pass, brogfaiter 407n ‘horse-mill’ 485 mruig (bruig, brug) ‘land’ 426, 514; nom. pi. bruigi 408; mruig muillech '?’ 32n rig ‘king’s land’ 138, 403; cpd m uilleóir ‘miller’ 484; cpd mruigrecht ‘land-law’; gen. sg. banmuilleóir ‘female miller’ 450 mruigrechta 456n m u illiu d ‘inciting (of dog)’ 150, 177 mruigfer ‘land-man, prosperous muine ‘bush’; gen. sg. muini 413 com m oner’ 8, 80, 232, 245, 332, 361, 363, 371, 379, 421, 424, 431, m uinél neck’ 276 447, 468, 477, 484, 491, 499, 500, m u ir ‘sea’ 408, 441 n; gen. sg. mara 2, 283, 298, 570, mura 582; bruider (= mruigfer?) ‘one 283n; dat. pi. muiribh 289n; who has land but no cattle’ 75, cpds murain ‘sea-rush’ 385; Muir424 bretha ‘sea-judgements’ 319, 396; mucc ‘pig’ 15, 79, 80n, 83, 87, muirchrech ‘sea-measure’ 570; acc. 143, 155n, 165n, 365, 438, 531; pi. muirchrecha 570; muirdrécht gen. sg. muicce 84, 29In; nom. ‘day’s sea-journey’ 570n; murgha pi. muc(c)a 84, 142n, 282n, ‘harpoon’ 296n; muirinis ‘marine 529, 531, 532; dat. pi. muc.ca.ibh island’ 2; murlúachair ‘sea-rush’ 283n; mucc allaid ‘wild pig’ 131, 385; murlúaith ‘sea-ash, salt' 341; 281; muc cáel ‘lean pig’ 83n; murmag ‘sea-plain’ 385; murraith muca denma (= dénma?) ‘pigs ‘sea-fern(?)' 314; romuir ‘great being fattened(?)’ 84, 530, 532; sea, open sea’ 553 mucc mara ‘porpoise’ 283; muc mäh ‘fat pig’ 83n; cpds mucár m uirin ‘bent, marram-grass’ 385n

644

In d e x 1

‘bent, marram-grass’ 385n m úl ‘mule’ 133n; nom. pi. múil 132 mulach ‘hard cheese’ 329; gen. sg. mulaig 329n mulchán ‘hard cheese’ 329 m û r ‘wall, bank’ 373, 374, 431

m uirnech

náescu

‘snipe’ 298

nasc ‘tie, ring’ 495 nascaire 'maker of

ties or rings’ 495

nathir ‘snake, adder’ 190n náu (nó) ‘boat’ 55, 499; acc.

sg. not 55n; dat. sg. not 55n nemed ‘sacred, privileged, immune’ 171, 521; as subst. 260, 387, 436n, 528; nom. pi. ne(i)mid 172n, 518, 521, 527, 528; cpd fidnemed ‘sacred tree, tree belonging to privileged person’ 387, 388 n e n a d m im ‘cider(?) ’ 261 nenaid ‘nettle’ 311; gen. sg. nennta 340; Glas nenta ‘nettle-grey (of cat)’ 123; spiorad neannta ‘venemous spirit, hairy caterpillar’ 199n nenntóc ‘nettle’ 311 niae ‘sister’s son’; gen.

sg. niad 418 ‘?’; cú.al nincis 379n; les nincis 367; ploit nincis 362n; tech nincis 362, 363 nochtaile ‘bare fence, wickerwork fence’ 372, 374, 375, 376 nées ‘rushes’; gen. sg. nais 144n nóm ad ‘four and a half days, nine days’ 246; gen. sg. nómaithe 530; acc. pi. nómaithi 530 notlaic ‘Christmas’; notlaic mór ‘Great Christmas, Christmas Day’ 457n; notlaic sléille ‘Christmas of the Star, Little Christmas’ 457n nuidlech ‘recently calved cow’ 37, 151,432,523

nincis

‘recent calving’; gen. sg. nuidlechais 432 nús ‘colostrum, beestings’ 38, 324 nuidlechas

6 : see áu óbéle ‘open space, gap’ 40n oblann ‘apple-tree’ 259n obraige labourer, workman’ 444 óc (oac, óg) ‘young’ 514 ócaire ‘lowest grade of adult free­ man, small farm er’ 8, 49, 75, 241, 243, 245, 253n, 254, 321, 362, 416, 418, 421, 422, 428, 445, 452. 453, 473, 474, 484, 495 ocbáil raising’ 393 ochell '?’ 558 ochtach ‘Scots pine’ 380, 383n ochtrach: see otrach ócthigern ‘minor lord’; gen. sg. ócthigim 367n odar (odor) ‘dun-coloured’ 31, 70, 92; gen. sg. fern, uidre 31, 32 odb lump, protuberance’ 200 odbach ‘black-quarter, black-leg' 200 óen (den, aon) ‘one’; cpds dat. sg. aenbuailidh ‘same enclosure’ 549; óenechaid ‘horsem an’ 539; óenechde ‘horsem an’ 539; aonfidh ‘single tree’ 374n; óengas ‘sin­ gle stem’ 386; ænmiach ‘single bushel’ 582; gen. sg. óenseichi ‘sin­ gle hide’ 55; dat. sg. aentig ‘same [cow-J house’ 549 óenach (áenach, aonach) ‘assembly, fair’ 99, 153n, 320, 360, 361, 391, 403, 458, 459n, 461; gen. sg. aonaigh 99n, áenaig 541, ænaigh 543 og («g) ‘egg’ 104, 104n; gen. sg. uige 576, uigi 258n; ug tirimm ‘hard-boiled egg’ 105n

Irish in d e x

óg

645

‘full, complete, untouched, ól (óol) ‘drink, draught, liquid mea­ untilled’ 137n, 395n; as subst. óg sure' 324, 327, 578, 579; gen. sg. n-arathair ‘full ploughing outfit’ oil 113n, 578; ólFéne ‘draught of the laity’ 579; ól medach ‘draught 50In; cpds ógcaithig ‘full penalty’ of m ead’ 579; ól Pátraic ‘draught 136; ógrííles ‘fully owned, immune of Patrick’ 579; cpd lethó(i) l ‘half­ from legal process’ 417; ógmag draught’ 579n; gen. sg. leihóile ‘untilled plain’ 395 579n ogam (oghom) ‘ogham alphabet’ 6, olae ‘oil’ 359n 409n; ogam tirda ‘rustic ogham' 501, 525; cpds damogam ‘ox- olann ‘wool’ 67, 71n; gen. sg. olla 75, ogham, bovine ogham ’ 60n; 588 dathogam ‘colour-ogham’ 502n ollam ‘chief poet’ 321n, 592 oi ‘sheep’ 69; cpds oiba ‘sheep- ollderb ‘liquid m easure(?)’ 578. mortality’ 205n; Oimelc See also foil ‘sheep-milk(?), spring festival’ *omalc ‘milking(?)’; dat. sg. omulc 460 527. See also oimelc oibel (aibel, aoibheall) ‘heat, sexual om ar (ammar) ‘trough’ 83n, 154 excitement, gadding’ 137; gen. omnae ‘tree-trunk, tree’ 487; gen. sg. aíbil 1 In; dat. sg. aibaill 138n, sg. omnai 409; gen. pi. omne 411 aoibheall 303 omthaim thistles’ 394 oiffing (affaing) ‘scruple, silver penny’ 595; nom. pi. afuingi 595 opar (opair) ‘work’; cpds comopair ‘appurtenances’ 501 n; dáeropair oigi ‘guest’ 321; gen. pi. aiged 321n ‘servile work’ 439; propair ‘addi­ tional work’ 454; nom. pi. propre oimelc ‘milking(?)’ 460n, 527. See also *omalc 455 opann (obann) ‘anthrax(?)’ 199 Oimelc: see oi oirce [orcae) ‘pet dog’ 120, 149; or ‘edge, limit’; dal. sg. ur 385 ór ‘gold’ 435, 459n; gen. sg. m r 585, diminutive oircne 120n 593n; cpds hronnór ‘refined gold’ oircél ‘wooden trough, chute (of 594n; dergóir ‘of red gold’ 594 a mill)’ 83, 155n, 484; gen. sg. orbae (orba) ‘inheritance, hold­ oircéla 83 ing’ 278n, 412, 421n; orbbae oirches: see airches claidib ‘sword-inheritance’ 398; oirdne ‘splinter of wood’ 378 orbae rruib p sltasla ‘inheritance of hand and thigh’ 416; orbae niad oirgid (orgaid) ‘kills, injures’ 527; ‘inheritance of sister’s son’ 418; Isg. pres, indie, orgo 217; 3sg. cpd senorbae ‘old inheritance’; fut. with 3pl. suffixed pron. iurrus 541; verbal of necessity orta[i\ gen. sg. senorbai 415 52n orcae: see oirce oisc ‘young ewe’-69 orcán ‘piglet, bonav’ 81; gen. sg. orcáin 81 n oisén (oisin) ‘fawn’ 272

646

Index 1

orcc ‘piglet, bonav’ 80n, 81, 87n, 532; acc. pi. orcu 189; cpds lúorc (lúrcc) ‘small piglet’ 87n; nom. pi. lúoirc 87n; orepheta ‘pet piglet’ 81, 137 orcc ‘salmon’ 289n, 294 ord ‘ham m er’ 492n, 496, 502 orda ‘P’ 502 ordlach inch’ 41, 55, 487, 490n, 516, 560, 561; gen. sg. ordlaig 562, ordkiighe 562n; nom. pi. ordluigh 561, ordlaighi 562n, orlaighi 562n; cpd lethordlach ‘half-inch’ 490n ordu ‘thumb, big toe’ 561; gen. sg. orddan 561, 565 ordu ‘piece’ 573 os ‘deer, bovine’ 272, 274, 444; nom. pi. uis 282n; os allaid ‘wild deer’ 272, 444; cpds osairbe ‘deer-fence’ 277; Osbretha ‘deerjudgem ents’ 278, 279; ossfioil ‘venison’ 273n ósar ‘j unior, youngest’ 413n othras ‘sick-maintenance, medical care’ 149, 164, 217, 318 otrach (ochtrach) ‘dung, dunghill’ 230, 364; gen. sg. otraig 116, 209

píanán ‘sack’ 227 piast: see blast pinginn (penginn) ‘penny’ 87n, 306, 533, 596; gen. sg. pinginni 584n, 596, pinginne 597; nom. pi. pinginne 594; cpd lethpinginn ‘halfpenny’ 597 pipur ‘pepper’ 342 pis ‘pea’ 222n, 248 piscatal‘yoke-peg (?) of plough’ 471 pisóc ‘malign spell (on cattle)’; nom. pi. pisóca 174n pissire ‘weighing-scales’ 584n pistai 'yoke-peg(P) of plough, bolt’ 472, 472n (possibly to be iden­ tified with deil: see OIL D ii, 5.68-9) pit (fit, feit) ‘ration, morsel’ 343n, 526; cpds doburfiit ‘pen­ itential ration’ 347n; samfit ‘summer-ration’ 318n, 321n, 343n placodi: see plocóid plág ‘plague’; plág lochad ‘plague of rats’ 244 plait (ploit) ‘paved area’ 362; ploit inns ‘paved area within house (?)’ 362n plocóid ‘stopper, bung’ 212; galar pais ‘step’ 566 naplacodi ‘strangles(?)’ 212, 213 Pátraic ‘Patrick’; dirna Pátraig poc: see bocc ‘Patrick’s denarius’ 587; 61 pollán pollan (fish)’ 296 Pátraic ‘Patrick’s draught, liquid pónair ‘bean’ 16, 249 measure’ 579 pond: see pun pauper (puiper) ‘pauper’; nom. pi. port ‘place, locality, bank, mound, puipir 355n shore, harbour’ 360n, 396n; péire ‘pear’ 22, 262 gen. sg. puirt 396; port monad pell ‘rug’ 71 ‘turf-bank’ 396n pell (fell) ‘horse’ 90n portach turf-bank’ 396n pertach: see fertach práca ‘brake, heavy harrow’ 478n peta pet animal or bird’ 124, 125, praisech: see braisech 127; nom. pi. peltai 146n; cpd préchán ‘crow, kite, hawk’ 129; orepheta ‘pet piglet’ 81, 137 nom. pi. précháin 189n petacht ‘tameness, captivity’ 128 prep ‘bucking (by horse)’ 153

Irish index prepad ‘bucking (by horse)’ 152 primit ‘first fruits’; nom. pi. primiti 447 proind ‘main meal’ 317 puinene ‘unit of weight or value’ 584; nom. pi. puineni 595 ptm (pond, pan) ‘pound, measure of weight’ 585 punnann ‘sheaf of corn’ 12, 238, 239. 249

647

rannaid ‘divides’ 413n; -ranna 551; 3sg. pres, indie, pass, randtair 416n ra sa s‘stripping(?) ’ 385n rastal ‘rake, drag-hoe’ 463, 468 rath ‘fief, advance to client from lord’ 320, 423, 425, 441 ráth 'paying surety’; nom. pi. rátha 367n ráth ‘earthen ram part’ 364

ráca ‘rake’ 22. 468 radrachus ‘failure to conceive (of cow)’ 201,511,512 raedra “?’; ma raedra 511 raibceth ‘great bellowing (of cattle)’ 513 rail ‘great oak’ 409; nom. pi. railge 390 rait ‘bog-myrtle’ 381 raite ‘road, clearing, rough land’ 435, 539, 540, 541, 543; gen. sg. raiti 540; cpds echraite ‘horse-road’ 539; forraite ‘illegal road-construction(?)’ 435; lámraite ‘byroad’ 391, 539, 540; dat. pi. láimraitib 540; lógraite ‘curved road’ 391, 392, 540 raitech ‘man of the road, vagrant’ 425, 426 raith ‘bracken’ 381; cpd rathenmag ‘ferny plain’ 395 ráithe ‘season’ 389 rámae (rámann) ‘oar, spade’ 374, 465, 467. 479, 192; acc. sg. rámhuinn 448n rám at ‘cleared area, road’ 39In, 543, 544; nom. pi. rámata 543; gen. pi. rámada 544 rann (rand) ‘division’ 408n, 573; acc. sg. roinn 526; cpd damrann ‘ox-division’ 414

ráthbuige ‘rampart-builder’ 444 ráthugud ‘noticing, observing’ 187n ratus ‘?’ 486n ré ‘time, period’ 143, 532 recc ‘sale’; dat. sg. reic 401 recht ‘law, Mosaic law’ 52; cpd mruigrecht ‘land-law’; gen. sg. mruigrechta 456n recht ‘law-abiding freeman’ 286, 304, 406 rechtaire ‘steward’ 279, 444; dat. pi. rechlainb 290; rechlaire for blicht ‘steward for milk, dairy-manager’ 443 rechtge ‘ordinance’ 447 redg ‘leaping (by horse)’ 153 réide ‘smooth place, plain’; dat. pi. rédib 68n réim (m ) ‘way, course’; gen. sg. rame

409 reithe ‘ram ’ lln , 69, 7ln, 77, 151n, 155, 530; gen. sg. reithi 74n; nom. pi. rethi (rethe MS) 531, reithedha 51n rem ur ‘fat’; as subst. remur n-imda ‘shoulder fat’ 358 rerchercc ‘fully grown (?) hen’; gen. sg. rerchirce 104

648

Index 1

ri ‘king’ 404; gen. sg. rig 138, 391n, 403, 408n, 543; dat. sg. rig 279n, 448n, 544; rí cúiád ‘provincial king’ 408; ri Eirenn ‘king of Ire­ land’ 408; ri ruirech ‘overking’ 572; ri Temrach ‘king of Tara’ 408n; ri túaithe ‘petty king, tribal king’ 165n, 284, 403, 408, 445n; rí túath ‘king of territories’ 568; cpds rigdamna ‘royal heir’ 403; riglus ‘royal h erb ’ 258; rigmuccid ‘royal swineherd’ 274, 444; rígsét ‘royal sét' 590; rigsliasta ‘of royal thigh’ 383 riabach ‘brindled’ 32 riascaire ‘marsh-dweller’ 425 riatae ‘trained (of ox or horse)’ 48, 96n, 229n; cpd a?iriatae ‘untrained’ 229n rige ‘stretching’ 153 rige ‘kingship’ 448 Rincne ‘little spear(?)’ (name of cat) 124 ritire ‘rider, knight’ 97n riuth (rith) ‘run, running, running noose (on horse)’ 494; dat. pi. rethaibh 91n; -noth eich ‘horse’s run (as distance)’ 560; riuth fola ‘dysentery’ 354; cpd somhulrith ‘swift(?) course’ 559 rob; see rop robéoil ‘with too large m outh (of horse)’ 558 rodb ‘axe(?)’ 487 robud ‘warning’; gen. sg. robaid 96, 528 roid ‘m adder’ 267, 268, 584; gen. sg. roidh 141n, roide 267; cpds donnroid ‘reddish-brown dye’ 268; rodgabáil ‘madder(?) tax’ 269 roid ‘knotted withe’ 378. See also id roideo: see ruud roilbe ‘m ountain’ 397, 406, 407, 553; acc. sg. roilbi 407n

rómar (rúamar) ‘digging’ 465n; dat. sg. rómur 465 rón ‘seal’ 282; cpd róngáe ‘seal-spear’ 283 rondid ‘reddens, dyes re d ’ 268 rop (rob) ‘domestic animal’ 154n; cpd ropchin ‘animal-offence (for which owner pays lesser fine)’ 134, 150 ros ‘linseed’ 269n; gen. sg. ruis 269 ros (later rós) ‘rose’ 271; cpds roschaill, rostan ‘rose-garden’ 27ln rose (ruse) ‘eye’; cpd drochrusc ‘evil eye’ 174n rosualt (rosmáel, rossai) ‘walrus’ 283 rout (rot, rod) ‘road, secondary road’ 153, 391, 408, 539, 540, 542, 553; nom. pi. róid 543; cpds formt ‘minor road’ 544; primrót ‘main road’ 544, 554 rúad ‘re d ’ 269; cruithnecht rúad ‘red wheat’ 224; as subst. riiad otraig ‘red dung, swine dysentery’ 209 rúadán ‘emmer(?) wheat’ 219, 220, 224, 225 rúainne ‘hair, fibre’ 494 rúam ‘red dye’ 268 rúani ‘spade, turf-spade’ 465n, 467n, 479; dat. pi. rúamaib 479 rúamaima (ríiamcinda, rúamanta) ‘reddened’; nom. pl. fern, súile niamanna ‘pink-eye, infectious keratitis (in cattle)’ 204n rúathar ‘rush, raid’; gen. sg. rúathair 167n; cpd echrúathar ‘horse-rush’; gen. sg. echrúathair 541 rud ‘iron o re’ 268n rudrad ‘prescriptive period’ 434 ruidles ‘immune from legal action’ 290

Irish index ‘animal-trespass over a num ber of land-holdings’ 137 r u i t e ‘path (?)’ 543,544 ruitech ‘crank’ 485n, 486n ru n ‘secret’; cere cen run ‘non-broody(?) h e n ’ 102, 588 ruse ‘bark, bark-container’ 326, 383; gen. sg. rúisc 384 ru u d (nid) ‘great wood’ 389, 397, 406, 407, 540, 553; gen. sg. roideo 540 ru iriu d

649

‘swarm (of bees)’; cpds cétsaithe ‘first swarm’ 111; tarbsaithe ‘bull (second) swarm’ 109 salach ‘dirty, muddied (of live­ stock)’ 164; nom. pi. masc. salcha 367n salad ‘stamping down’ 143n, 144 salann ‘salt’ 340, 342n, 525; gen. sg. salainn 341; salann Saxanach ‘English salt’ 341; cpd salanngabál ‘salt-tax’ 342 salchad ‘fouling (by livestock), saball ‘b arn ’ 222n, 243, 369; gen. sg. dirtying (of livestock) ’ 144, 164 sabaill 122n; dat. pi. sablaib 140n, sail (saill) ‘salted meat, pork, fat’ 239n 321, 336; saill bruicc ‘salted sacart (sagart) ‘priest’ 121, 256n badger-meat or badger-fat’ 282; sadall ‘saddle’ 98, 285n cpds bósall 'b e e f 336; sensaill sáeb (sâeb) ‘crooked, false’; cpd sáe‘m atured bacon’ 336n; úrsaill bléim ‘awkward ju m p (by horse) ’ ‘fresh pork(?)’ 336n 153 sam ‘sum m er’ 63; cpds sambés ‘sum­ sáer ‘craftsman’ 321, 578; sáer m er food-rent’ 318; saimbiad muilinn ‘millwright’ 482n; cpd ‘summer food’ 72, 318; samchorcarpatsáer ‘chariot-builder’ 497 gas ‘summer Lent’ 346; samfit ‘summer morsel’ 318n, 321n, sáeth ‘trouble, disease’; gen. sg. 343n, 321; samfuacht ‘summer sáetho 197n trespass’ 136 sai (sui) ‘expert’ 383 saiguén (soignén) ‘lightning’ 185n; samad ‘sorrel’ 311, 339 saignén teintide ‘flash of lightning’ Samain ‘festival at beginning of November’ 46n, 59, 60, 320, 461, 185 533; gen. sg. Samna 85, 357, 461 sail ‘willow, sally’ 380; gen. sg. salach samaisc ‘three-year-old dry heifer’ 494 63, 64, 168, 533, 588, 589; gen. sailliud ‘salting’ 336n sg. samaisce 447, 451n, 580; nom. saillte ‘salted’ 339; as subst. ‘salted pi. samaisci 63, 441n; dat. pi. m eat’ 336n. See also sail samaiscib 598n safltinche ‘potential (of animal) ’ 65, samrad ‘sum m er’ 59n, 136, 355 66, 77, 79, 100, 105, 517 samthach ‘handle (of tool)’ 489 sainchron ‘private property’; dat. sg. sartan ‘a year’s growth of wool’ 71 sainchrund 595n sás ‘noose, snare’ 494 saire ‘craft, woodwork’ 381 scacad ‘to strain (beer)’ 334n ‘beer-strainer, cup­ sairse ‘craft, woodwork’; gen. sg. scacatóir bearer’; gen. pi. scacadóiri sairsi 489 334n sairsecht ‘craftsmanship’ 419 saithe

650

Index 1

scam iu n g s’ 197 scamach ‘with infected lung’ 197; as subst. ‘lung-infection of cattle or goats’ 197, 198, 207; nom. pi. scamarha 193n scaraid ‘parts’; 3pl. pres, indie. scarait 549; -scarat 550 scatán ‘herring’ 297 scatánach ‘herring-fisherman’; nom. pi. scatánaig 297 scáth ‘fright, shying (by horse)’ 152 scé ‘whitethorn’ 380 scechóir ‘haw’; nom. pi. scechóra 307 sceithech (scethach) ‘mawkish, nauseous’ 334 scell ‘husk, seed (of pepper)’ 342; dat. pi. scellaib 342 scian ‘knife’ 496; gen. sg. sceine 492; nom. pi. scena 384, 491 scibar pepper’ 323, 342; gen. sg. scibair 342 scioból ‘barn’ 243n scis ‘rest, period of grace (after sale)’ 528 scó ‘beer’ 333n; scó sceithech ‘nauseous beer’ 334 scóaire ‘brewer’ 247, 333, 350, 450 scolóc ‘student, low-ranking ecclesiastical tenant’ 453n, 597n scor ‘unyoking, pasturage’ 50, 572 scorán ‘?’ 472 scoth ‘flower’ 237 scraith ‘thin layer of sod, scraw’ 435 screpul ‘scruple, unit of weight and value’ 58, 330. 517, 533. 584, 593, 594, 595, 599; gen. sg. scribuil 268n; nom. pi. screbuill 65n, scripuil 595; cpd lethscripul ‘half-scruple’ 595n scribend ‘writing, docum ent’ 411 scriplin ‘bundle, small am ount’ 268, 584 scúap ‘brush, sheaf 238n, 313; dat. pi. scúapaib 238n, 269

scuichid ‘weaned(?) piglet’ 82 sdán: see stán sebacc (seboc, seabhac) ‘sparrow hawk, buzzard(?)’ 129, 189, 303n; seabac selga ‘hunting hawk' 303 secal ‘rye’ 219, 220, 221; cpd gemsecol ‘winter rye’ 221, 230 sed d eer’ 273n sedguine ‘deer-hunter’ 128, 273n sedguinecht ‘deer-hunting’ 273 seib ‘bean’ 16, 222n, 248, 249, 264 seiche ‘hide’ 31, 54, 290; gen. sg. seichi 55, seiched 55n; cpds bóseiche ‘cowhide’ 49; damseiche ‘oxhide’ 48 séig ‘hawk, osprey, bird of prey’ 128, 189, 189n, 190n, 302, 303 seim ‘rivet’ 489n séim ‘slim, narrow’; cpd séimchossach ‘narrow-legged (of horse)’ 557 seir ‘heel, hock (of horse)’ 209, 212 seirine: see sirin seirthech (serthach) ‘ailment of horse’ 209 seiscenn (sescann) ‘m ire’ 396 seisedach (sesedach) ‘sixth, dry measure’ 306, 583 seisrech ‘team of oxen, area of ploughland(P)’ 471n, 476, 477, 574; gen. sg. sesrige 477; dat. sg. sesserig 477n selann ‘delicacy, treat’ 326, 345, 525n,577 selb land-holding’ 514, 524 selc (selg) ‘hunting’ 275, 277, 298; gen. sg. selga 118, 303, 444, selgga 274 selcid h u n ter’ 443; nom. pi. selcithi 274 selgán ‘sorrel’ 311 sellach ‘one who looks on (at offence)’ 236

Irish index 'clover, trefoil, wood-sorrel’ 42, 311 semróc (seamróg) ‘shamrock, trefoil, wood-sorrel’ 311 sen ‘old’; cpds senairot ‘ancient dimension' 583; senbaile ‘home farm ’ 44: senchell ‘old church’ 528; senchléithe ‘ancient dwelling, hereditary se rf 429, 441; senén (sinén) ‘old bird, eagle(?)’ 129; senlebar ‘old manuscript, orig­ inal' 412; senlis ‘hom e farm ’ 44; Senmag ‘old plain, natu­ rally treeless plain’ 5n; sentries ‘ancient valuation’ 583; senorbae ‘old inheritance’ 415 sénach ‘rejecting(?)’ (= séntach?) 510 sénaid ‘rejects (of calf by cow)’ 510; 3pl. imperf. -séndais 510 senchae ‘historian’ 411 sep (sépí) ‘onion’ 264 seralach ‘ailment of horse (?)’ 212 serbán (serbainn) ‘bitter cereal, pilcorn(?)’ 220, 227; serbán mucc ‘dandelion’ 83 sercol (sercoll) ‘titbit, delicacy’ 113n, 316 serr ‘sickle’ 480 serrach ‘foal, colt’ 94, 100; gen. sg. serraig 530; nom. pi. searraig 94n sesc ‘dry’ 63, 69; bó sesc ‘dry cow’ 64, 65; cpd sescslabrae ‘dry cattle’ 44 sesedach: see seisedach sesrae ‘sextarius, liquid measure' 577 sét (seod) ‘object of value, unit of currency’ 58, 100, 517, 589, 590, 591; nom. pi. séoit 529; dat. pi. sétaib 467n; sét gabla ‘forked sét' 589, 590; séoit taurchluideo ‘chattels of subjection’ 446n; cpds clitharsét ‘protective

seminar

651

sét' 590; lucharsét ‘?’ 591n; rígsét ‘royal sét' 590 sét ‘path’ 39ln , 537, 539 sgilling (sailing) ‘shilling’ 598 sibal ‘movement, journey, travel’ 426n sical shekel’ 594; nom. pl. sicail 594 sidin (sideng) ‘deer, venison’ 273n sü ‘seed, seed-corn’ 50, 231, 232, 260, 294 simin ‘rush’ 55 simsán (simsôg) ‘wood-sorref 311 sinchân ‘young fox’ 188 sine ‘teat’ 163, 201, 203, 509 sin e ch ‘cow-pox(?)’ 195,203 sinnach ‘fox’ 130, 188, 282; sinnach brothlaïg ‘fox of cooking-pit, wandering down-and-out’ 425 sinser ‘senior, eldest’ 413n sirin ‘cherry’ 22, 263 sith- ‘long’; cpd sithaile ‘long heating(?)’ 489n sithal ‘bucket’ 582 sithbe ‘pole (of chariot)’ 497 slabhac: see slibac slabrad ‘chain’ 491 slabrae ‘stock, cattle’; cpd sescslabrae ‘dry cattle’ 44 slaide (slaige) ‘clearing (bushes etc.)' 543 sláine ‘recovery’; dat. sg. sláini 530 slán ‘healthy, healed, exempt’ 59, 60n, 178n, 21 ln, 530, 557, 559 slat ‘rod’ 362n sleaghán ‘turf-spade’ 479 sieg (sleagh) ‘spear’ 278n, 479 sliab ‘m ountain’ 45, 395, 406; gen. sg. sléibe (sleibi MS) 540 sliasait ‘thigh’; gen. sg. sliasta 89, 383, 416 slibac (slabhac) ‘pith inside cow’s horn, seaweed, laver’ 314, 314n slice ‘shell’ 230n

652

Index 1

‘way, road, highway, clearance’ 5, 78, 153, 230n, 391, 392, 394, 537, 553; nom. pi. slighti 370 slinn ‘slate, shingle’ 362; gen. pi. slinned 385 slúasat ‘shovel’ 466, 467 smacht ‘fine’ 136, 137, 146, 492, 540 smér ‘blackberry’; nom. pi. smha 307 sm iur (smir) ‘marrow’; cpds smnammtur, smirchomairt ‘(medicinal) marrow-mash’ 53 smólach ‘songthrush’ 214 snám ‘swimming’ 293; cpds cétsnám ‘first swimming (of salmon)’; gen. sg. cétsnáma 292; colgsnám ‘kype(?) swimming’ 293; gen. sg. colgsnáma 293 snomad 'stripping of bark’ 386n socamail ‘pleasant, easy (of horse)’ 557 socc ‘ploughshare, iron lever, pinspar’ 374, 469, 470, 492; socc sáil ‘pig of the sea, cuttlefish’ 283n, 469n sód ‘weir’ 287; sódh muilinn ‘millweir’ 553; cpds lánsód muilinn ‘full mill-weir’ 553; lethsód muilinn ‘half mill-weir’ 553 sodach ‘heat (in bitches)’; gen. sg. sodaig 150, 160 sóer (sáer) ‘free, noble'; nom. pi. fern, sáera 383, 451; cpds sáerbothach ‘free cottier’ 424n; sóerchéile ‘free client’ 446n sóerad (sáerad) ‘setting free’ 440n soire ‘free status’ 450 solomraid (solomrad MS) ‘easy to shear’ 71 somoine ‘profit, return, interest’ 113n, 333, 423, 425, 49In, 578 somul fleet (of horse)’ 559; cpd sornhulrith ‘swift course’ 559 slige

‘pressing down (of soil)’ 143 n ,144 sopp ‘wisp’ 242 soraid pleasant’ 557 sorn ‘oven’ 222n spadumus ailment of horses’ 209 spe(a)l ‘scythe’ 22, 480 s p in ‘wild rose(?)’ 381 spiorad neannta ‘hairy caterpillar’ 199n. See nenaid splinda 'splint (ailment of horses)’ 209 spor ‘spur’ 98 sraif (sraib) ‘sulphur’ 258 sráit ‘street, paved area’; gen. sg. smile 144 srannan ‘snorting, hoose(?) in goats’ 207 srathar ‘pack-saddle, restraint (on pig)’ 91, 94, 494, 499 sreb milk-duct' 163 sreth ‘strewing, series’; acc. pi. sretha 144n srian ‘bridle’ 89, 93; cpd glassrian ‘grey bridle’; dat. pi. glassnannib 89n sroigell ‘whip, scourge’ 481n srúb ‘snout’ 330, 469n, 470; dat. sg. sriiib 488n srúbán bun, measure of oatmeal’ 330, 330n; sníbán éorna ‘barley b un’ 331 srú b la in g ‘muzzle’ 178 sruth ‘stream’ 287n; gen. sg. srotha 286n; cpd srulhaile ‘fence across stream’ 377 stáec ‘steak’ 283n stán (sdán) ’tin’ 586, 594 stiróip ‘stirrup’ 98 suainem ‘rope’ 500; dat. pi. súanmib 384n súathad ‘kneading, mixing’; gen. sg. súaite 340 sub ‘strawberry’; nom. pi. suba 307 sonnad

Irish index súg (sugh) ‘j uice’ 261, 331n; cpd súighdhéraibh ‘with juicy drops’ 334n súghán ‘sowens’ 33In súil 'eye'; gen. sg. súla 174n; nom. pi. mile 204n; cpd drochsúil ‘evil eye' 174n su ille c h ‘spelt wheat(?)’ 219, 222 suma ‘pack-horse’ 91 súst ‘threshing-stick, flail’ 222n, 240, 481; cpd sústgal ‘violent movement’ 481 táball sling’ 302n tacmaise ‘girth’; dat.

sg. tacmaisi 564 badger(P)’ 353n táeb: see tóeb táid ‘th ief; dat. pi. táithib 531; cpds táidchú ‘thieving dog’ 150; echtháid ‘horse-thief 93, 166, 531 Taig: see do-aig tailm ‘sling’ 302 táin: see tán tairbine ( tairbin) ‘young bull’ 63, 64 Tairchell: see do-airchella tairdbe ‘lopping (of tree)’ 387 tairgille ‘fore-pledge’ 135 tairlim ‘alighting (from horse)’ 169 tairsce ‘grazing-trespass’ 111, 137, 146 taisigecht ( toisigecht) ‘kingship, chieftainship’; gen. sg. taisigechta 403n taite ‘beginning (of season)’ 459n tál ‘adze’ 485, 491, 496; gen. sg. láil 491 talam ‘land, earth’; acc. sg. talmain 514; gen. sg. talmhan 185, 229n, 257n; dat. sg. talmain 232n, 253n, 371n, 468n, 582n; cpd talamchumscugud ‘earthquake’ 185n tán (táin) ‘driving (of cattle)’ 28, 138; nom. pi. tána 28 tadg

tanach ‘hard cheese’ 329 tánaise (tánaiste) ‘second’

653

266; as subst. ‘heir-apparent’ 430 tánaistecht ‘office of heir-apparent’; gen. sg. tánisteachta 403n tanalaig ‘sheet(?) of metal’; dat. pi. tanailgib 436n tarae ‘dried corn’ 242; dat. sg. tara 330, taru 581 tarathar ‘auger’ 485, 491 tarb ‘bull’ l l n , 32, 50, 150, 528; nom. pi. tairb 5 In, 63, 528, 531; cpds tarbchad ‘bull-hostile (of cow)’ 201, 510; tarbfeis ‘bullfeast (for selecting king)’ 28; tarblus ‘bull-herb’ 258; tarbsaithe 'bull-swarm, second swarm’ 109 tarbach: see torbach tarr ‘belly’ 85, 276 tarsunn ‘condiment, relish’ 113, 251, 255, 316, 321; gen. sg. tarsuinn 317n; cpd dagtharsann ‘good condim ent’ 316n tartaile ‘drought-fence, dry weather fence’ 377 táth ‘binding, solder; squeezing, pressed cheese’ 329, 587 táthabha: see áth taulach ‘having broad forehead(P)’ 32n taulchach ‘hilly’; etham taulchach ‘hilly arable land’ 394 taurbaid (lurbaid) ‘postponement (of legal process)’ 173 taurchrecc (turchrec) ‘fief, advance to client from lord’ 320, 423, 446, 589n,593n tech (teg, teagh) ‘house’ 45n, 107, 113, 36In, 362, 365, 366, 444; gen. sg. tige 145, 160, 446, 491, 543; dat. sg. tig 486n, teigh 591 n; nom. pi. tige 369, 413; cpd aentech ‘same [cow-]house’; dat. sg. aentig 549

654

Index I

techt ‘messenger’ 97, 444 técht ‘thick, viscous’; as tech! ‘thickened milk' 324 téchtae ‘proper, legal’ 177, 229n, 288n, 474, 560n, 571; nom. pi. fern, téchtai 562; neg. élechlae 433 techtaire ‘messenger’ 97 techtugud ‘possession, ownership, legal entry’ 304n, 436; gen. sg. techtaigthi 433n tecmaisech ‘infectious’ 192, 196, 200 teidm

‘disease’ 208n, 569; nom. pi. tedmann 193; teidm filhnaisi ‘magic pestilence (on cattle) 174 teine ‘fire’ 437, 461n teinnid ‘cuts, castrates(?)’ 516; -teind 516 teintech (tentich) ‘lightning’ 2n téit ‘goes’; 3pl. pres, indie, rel. tinfi­ dae 8 In; 3sg. perfective pres, indie, with 3sg. fern, infixed pron. di-s-cuet 539; 3sg. perfec­ tive pres, indie, prototonic -dicket 524; 3sg. perfective pres. subj. do-coi (do-cáe, do-cai) 270n teithre ( tethra) ‘crow’ 130 tellach ‘legal entry’ 432, 433 Tem a ir ‘Tara, high place, emi­ nence’; gen. sg. Temrach 408n; dat. sg. Temraig 398; in Temairfeda ‘the em inent one of the wood (i.e. the oak)’ 382 tempall (tempul) ‘church’ 404n tenchor ‘tongs'; tenchor crainn ‘wooden tongs’ 500; tenchor iairn ‘iron tongs’ 501 -tercorpai: see do-arcorpai term onn ‘church-land, monastic settlement’ 404 tetnais ‘tetanus’ 212 tiag ‘bag, scrotum’; dat. pi. tiagaib 478 tiathugud *?’ 557

tigernae ‘lord’ 238n: gen. sg. tigerni 528 tiget (tiged, tighe) ‘thickness’ 516, 561n, 562n, 571 tigradus ‘last sighting (of livestock)’ 150, 159, 160 timchell going around, circuit, sur­ rounding (by hunters)’ 277; gen. sg. timchill 65, 590 timcomac ‘girth’ 31n, 561, 564 timthach ‘clothing, accoutrements, accompaniment’ 290; dat. sg. timthuch 359 tinchor ‘contribution (into mar­ riage)’; gen. sg. tinchuir 419; dat. sg. tinchur 419 tindscrae (linnscra) ‘bride-price’ 418, 419 tiruie ‘flitch (of bacon)’ 336, 496. 562; dat. sg. tinniu 579 tinne ‘bar of metal, ingot’; dat. sg. tindih 436n tinól ‘collection, property brought into m arriage’ 420 tir ‘land, territory’ 176n, 230n, 279n, 374n, 401, 403, 408n, 421. 437, 484n, 518, 544, 554, 571; gen. sg. tire 178, 186n, 229n, 374n, 423, 433n, 435n, 566; dat. pi. tiribh 236; tir claidih ‘swordland’ 398; tir cumaile ‘land worth a female slave’ 574; tírinbéla ‘land clearable by axe’ 389n, 395; tir mbó ‘land of a cow (as ren t)’ 572; tir n-andomuin ‘shallow land’ 395; tir ndarla ‘land worth a yearling heifer’ 572; tir ndibaid ‘inheritable land’ 415; tir n-ecalsa ‘church-land’ 411; tir tri mecon ‘land of three roots’ 229; mac lire ‘son of the land, wolf 178; cpds cotaltir ‘hard land’ 395; duibthir ‘black land’ 395

Irish index ‘drying (of grain)' 241, 246, 452 tirim ni ‘dry, hard-boiled (of egg)' tirad

655

‘fruit, produce’ 306n, 460n; gen. sg. tumid 447, 553; gen. pi. torad 460n; cpd lámlhorud ‘handiwork’ 270 105n du g ‘thick’; as ting 'thickened milk’ toraile ‘type of fence’ 377 tórand ‘boundary’; cpd tórandaile 324; cpd tiuglagin 'gruel' 345 ‘boundary fence’ 377 tlenaid ‘steals’ 139 torann ‘thunder’ 185n; dat. sg. tochar (tochor, tochur) ‘putting, cast­ torainn 138n ing up, jetsam ' 396; gen. sg. torbach (tarbach) ‘useful, benefi­ iochuir 396n; dat. sg. tochor 360n cial’ 230n; as subst. ‘person on tóchar ‘causeway, trackway’ 392, business, legitimate visitor’ 432 453. 473, 542 ' tore ‘boar’ 83, 85; gen. sg. tuirc 85, tochrae ‘bride-price’ 419 283n, 469n; nom. pi. tuirc 85; tochum lud ‘movement of tore allaid ‘wild boar’ 281; cpds population’ 398 torebanb ‘male piglet’ 86n; torctóeb (táeb) ‘side’ 372, 575; gen. sg. thrichem ‘three-year-old(?) boar’ taib 557; dat. sg. taib 578 85n; céistorc ‘young boar’ 88 tóg (túag) ‘curve, bow’ 540; cpd tornaire ‘turner' 322 tógraile ‘curved road’ 391. 392, tort ‘lo af 330 540 tortine (toirtin) ‘small loaf, cake’ 247, 330; dat. pi. tuirtinib 266 togairt ‘dairying’ 450 tothlae ‘theft, illegal grazing’ 139, togán ‘pine m arten’ 130 140, 141, 515 togmall ‘pine m arten’ 124, 130n toud {touth) ‘to bring forth, give toich ‘?’ 519 birth’; dat. sg. touth 143n, loud toirnech ‘thu n d er’ 2n 523 toll ‘pierced, hollow’ 279 tracht ‘strength’ 153 tomus (tomas) ‘measurement, mea­ tracht ‘strand, shore’; gen. sg. suring’ 564, 567, 574n, 576n; trachta 305; cpd Irachtaile gen. sg. tomais 319, 566, 581n, ‘shore-fence’ 377 584, 586n, tomuis 582, 587, toimsi traig 'foot, measure oflength’ 481n, 560n 565, 571; nom. dual troigid 566n; ton ‘rear, hindquarters’; gen. sg. nom. pi. trchghthi 361 n, traighe tóna 339n; cpd tónairem ‘rear 362n, traigthi 575; gen. pi. traiged. ploughm an’ 476 361 n; dat. pi. troighaib 574n, tonn ‘wave, sea; bog, swamp’ traigtib 575; cpd ferthraig ‘man’s 408n, 569; gen. sg. tuinne 283n; foot (as m easure)’ 560n nom ./acc. pi. tonna 182, 569, tráill ‘slave’ 439n 570; dat. pi. tondaib 297n, tonnaib treabhandar boiled fresh milk with 569; cpd tondaile ‘wave-fence’ 377 butterm ilk’ 328 tonn ‘skin, surface (of ground)’; treagad: see tregat treb 'house, household, farm’; gen. dat. sg. tuinn 232n, 470 sg. trebe 591; nom. pi. treba 441 n top u r ‘well, water-source’ 484n torad

656

Index 1

‘ploughing, farming, hus­ bandry’ 48n, 96n, 102, 426; gen. sg. trebtha 489 trechlam ‘edible plant’ 311 trechodlide ‘(boat) of three hides’ 55, 55n. See also codai tredan ‘three-day fast’; cpd dubthredan ‘black fast’ 347 treduirn: see dorn trefne: see trifne tregat ‘pain, pang’; treagad fithnaisi ‘magic colic’ 174n treichem: see ard treitell (drettel) ‘pet (animal)’ 125 trelóeg ‘having had three calves(?)’ 65, 65n tremanta ‘whey drink’ 327, 328n tresc ‘refuse, leavings’ 82 tresinechas: see trifnecht trét ‘h erd ’ 82, 137; gen. sg. tréoit '2&1 trian ‘third, measure of dry capac­ ity’ 167n, 288n, 408n, 490n, 583, 594; dat. sg. triun 594n trichem ‘sow of three litters’ 85, 87n; cpd torcthrichem ‘three-year-old(?) boar’ 85n trifne (triphne, trefne) ‘three-teated’ 202, 509 trifnecht ( treifnecht, trifnechus, tresinechas) ‘three-teatedness’ 202, 509 trillsin ‘sheaf’ 268 trog ‘giving birth’ 81, 92, 530 trog ‘castration(?) ’ 530 from ‘elder-tree’ 380 trosc ‘cod’ 297 túag ‘axe’ 467, 496; túiag connaid ‘firewood axe’ 488, 489; túag sairsi ‘carpentry axe’ 489; cpd crostúag lethan ‘broad cross-axe’ 488n túag: see tóg

trebad

‘provision, preparation, manure, m anuring’ 229, 229n, 230n, 394, 447; gen. sg.(?) túir 45; tuair 230n túarastal ‘stipend, paym ent’ 104 túargan (túarcon) ‘beating, threshing’; dat. sg. tiiargain 270 túath ‘petty kingdom, people, tribe, territory’ 116, 287, 360, 403, 406, 416, 458, 568; gen. sg. túaithe 165n, 284, 403, 406, 408, 433, 445n, 484, 529; dat. sg. túaith 279n, 287n, 436n; nom. pi. túatha 391 túath‘north, left, perverse, wicked’; cpds túaithchéim ‘step to the left’ 566, 574; túaithgeinti ‘fairies’ 120 tubae ‘cutting, digging’ 435n tucht ‘appearance’ 557 tudomain ?’ 516 tugae ( tuige) ‘covering, roof, thatch, straw’ 240, 246n, 385 tuidin (= tuididen?) ‘mill-race’ 484n tuigthe ‘thatched’; dat. sg. fern. tuighthi 239 tuile 'flood, high tide, abundance’ 377, 382n tuillem ‘earnings’ 290 tuirenn ‘wheat’ 221, 334; gen. sg. tuirne 334n tuiresc ‘saw’ 485, 491 tuirtine: see tortine tulchán ‘hill’; nom. pi. tulcháin 370 tulchubae bowl’; dat. sg. tulchubu 383 tumad blob’ 351 turchairthe ‘j etsam, what is cast up by the sea’ 408n turloch ‘turlough, summer-dry lake’ 45 turorgain ‘digging up, plundering’ 253n turtugud ‘legal protection’ 527 tuar

Irish index túth

‘smell’ 350

657

‘water’; gen. sg. uisci 175, 332, 542, uisce 288n, 29In; dat. sg. uisúachtar ‘cream ’ 324 ciu 182, 348, uisce 287n; gen. pi. úadadbar I uadabhar MS) ‘material’; uisci 293n; uisce beatha ‘water of úadadbar tineda ‘heredity’ 51 life, whiskey’ 335; usee coitchenn úaillnid '?’ 542 ‘commonly owned water’ 408; úairtnech "salt-fed(?) cow’ 43, 525, uisce marbtha ‘water of death’ 335; 526 cpd medcuisce ‘whey-water’ 327 úaisle ‘dignity, nobility’ 219n ulcha ‘beard, comb (of cock)’ 103 uan ‘foam (on beer)’ 333n umae (umha) ‘copper, bronze’ 435, 553, 594; cpds derguma ‘red cop­ úan ‘lamb’ 69, 75, 76, 588; nom. pi, per’ 586; finnuma ‘white copper’ liain 69n; cpds lúúan ‘small lamb’ 586, 587 87n; nom. pi. lúain 87n; úanmolí ‘wether lamb’ 76; gen. sg. úan- umaide ‘coppersmith’ 586; gen. sg. umaidi 586, 587 muilt 76n, 580; alahuan ‘with a second lamb’ 518; tresuan ‘with a umus: see imus ungae (uinge) ‘twelfth part, ounce, third lamb’ 518 inch’ 58, 561, 585, 593, 594, 598, úartan ‘?’ 525 599; nom. dual ungi 585, uinge uball ‘apple’ 259, 261,306; nom. pi. 585n; nom. pi. ungi 585n; uinge ubla 259; dat. pi. ublaib 306n; cpd orddan ‘thumb inch’ 561; cpd fiaduball ‘wild apple’ 260, 304n, kthuinge (leathunga) ‘half-ounce’ 306 585, 59In ucht ‘breast, bosom, slope’ 411, 581 uptha: see epaid udim: see aidemm ur: see or udnocht ‘wattle-fence’ 374n urgadach ‘P’ 276n ug: see og urscartad: see airscartad uinge: see ungae úsca iard , grease’ 55, 502 uinnem an (uinniún) ‘onion’ 22, úsgdha ‘tallow-coloured’ 502n 251; nom. pi. uindemuin 255 úth ‘udder’ 163, 206, 512; údgilte uinnius ‘ash-tree’ 380 ‘udder-grazed, with damaged uinnside (fuinnside) ‘ashy, with ash udder(?) ’ 512 trees’ 394n úthud (uthjaigh, ufadh) ‘mastitis(?)’ ú ir ‘soil’ 142n; gen. sg. litre 253n 206 uirge ‘testicles’ 530 uisce

In d ex 2 Scottish Gaelic an d M anx index References are to page-numbers. An 'n ' after a page-number indicates that the occurrence of the word is in the footnotes. Scottish Gaelic words are unmarked. Manx words are marked (M). bac môna

‘turf-bank’ 396n

bó ‘cow’ 15 bradan ‘salmon’ 293 bra d d a n (M ) ‘salmon’ 293 brisgein ‘silverweed’ 312

dabhach ‘vat, ploughland’ 573n dairt ‘heifer’ 61 n dartaidh ‘heifer’ 61n dartan (dartach) ‘two-year-old bull’

61n deamhas

‘sowens, drink or jelly from fermented grain-husks, flummery’ 33In caora ‘sheep’ 15 capull coille ‘ “horse of the wood”, capercaillie' 301 carraigean (cairgein) ‘Irish moss, Chondrus crispus’ 315n carra-meille ‘bitter vetch’ 312 cathan ‘brent goose, barnacle goose(P)’ 300n cearacan ‘skirret, wild carrot’ 257 cearc ‘h en ’ 15 closach ‘carcase (of anim al)’ 275n coirce ‘common oat’ 15; coirce-dubh ‘black oat, pilcorn’ 228n colpach ‘heifer’ 62n corran ‘sickle’ 480n cow ree(M ) ‘sowens, drink or jelly from fermented grain-husks, flummery’ 331n crodh catde’ 60n cromag ‘skirret’ 257n crotal ‘rind, husk; lichen giv­ ing brownish-red dye, Parmelia saxatilis' 264 crôthadh ‘to bring into enclosure or pen’ 449n cruach ‘corn-rick, stack- 239 cruithneachd ‘wheat’ 15

càbhruich

‘shears’ 500

low island of barley, Tiree’ 223 eileirg deer-ambush’ 277

Eilean iosal an eórna

‘type of edible seaweed. Palmaria palmata' 313n folachdan brooklime(?)’ 310n fithreach

gamhain ‘older calf 60 gàradh ‘enclosure, garden’ 250 geamhar ‘blade of corn, corn in

the blade’ 233n gearran ‘gelding, pony’ 91 giodhran ‘barnacle, barnacle goose’ 300n gioradan ‘periwinkle’ 298n

jo u is h (M )

‘shears’ 500

‘with large hoofs’; tarbh ladhrach ‘large-hoofed bull’ 520 laogh young calf 60 loghta n(M ) ‘dun-coloured (of fleece)’ 70n, 74 lu ss (M ), lhu ss(M ) ‘leek’ 255

ladhrach

‘coastal plain, low-lying plain’ 223 m uc ‘sow, pig’ 15 mulachag (mulachan) ‘cheese’ 329n; mulchag Bhealltainn ‘year-old Mayday cheese’ 330 machair

Scottish Gaelic and M anx index 'young ewe’ 69n

659

timchioll

‘surrounding, circuit' 277

p o a n re y(M ) ‘bean’ 249 pônair ‘bean’ 249

tir unga

ounce-land, unit of area’

saidhe ‘hay’ 47n sealgag ‘sorrel’ 31 In sguab ‘brush, sheaf of corn’ 239n shughlaig(M ) ‘sorrel’ 311n slabhagan (slàcan) ‘laver’ 314 subhan ‘sowens, drink or jelly

tréiscir

othaisg

from ferm ented flummery’ 33In

572n

grain-husks,

(taraisgeir, etc.) ‘turf-spade’ 480, 480n

uan

‘lamb’ 449n

ùth

‘udder’ 206n

In d ex 3 Anglicized form s o f Irish and Scottish Gaelic term s This hook is based on Old and Middle Irish texts from the pre-Xortnan period, but relevant information on farming, hunting, etc. is also supplied by later English sources. I list in this index the anglicized forms of Irish or Scottish Gaelic terms which have beeen quoted. After the headwoi (Is I give the Modern Irish or Scottish Gaelic spellings in brackets. The headwords of the latter are marked (S ). References are to page-numbers. An ‘n' after a page-number indicates that the occurrence of the word is in the footnotes. (baile bó) ‘land of a cow, unit of land’ 572n bawn (badhún) ‘cow-enclosure, green in front of farmhouse’ 22n, 366n ' betagh (biatach) ‘servile tenant’ 22, 429 bonav, bonham ( banbh) ‘piglet’ 87n bonnyclabber (bainne clabair) ‘thickened milk’ 324 booley (buaile) ‘cattle-enclosure (esp. on summer-grazing)’ 24, 43 ballyboe

callow

(caladh) ‘wet pasture by river’

1 canfinny

(ceann fine) ‘head of kin’

430 (capull coille) ‘large woodland bird, Tetrao urogallus’, 301 carragheen (cairrgin) ‘Irish moss, Chondrus crispus' 315 coghill (cochall) ‘hood, hood­ shaped n e t’ 296 colpe, collop (colpthach, colpach) ‘heifer, area of land’ 572 colpindach(S) (colpach) ‘two-yearold heifer’ 62n creaght: see keryachte

capercaillie(S)

(crotal) browish-red saxatilis’ 264

crottle

‘lichen giving dye, Parmelia

(dabhach) ‘vat, ploughland’ 573n dowgollo (dubhdholadh) ‘black rent (to support lord’s hounds)’ 274 drim m on (druimftiionn) ‘whitebacked cow’ 32 dru m lin (druimlinrù) 'blunt-nosed hill’ 1, In dulse, düse (duileasc) ‘type of edible seaweed, Palmaria palmata' 313 davach(S)

elrick(S) (eileirg) ‘deer-ambush’ 277 esker (eiscir) ‘gravel ridge’ 392 (feannóg abú!) ‘hurra for the hooded crow!’ 192 florin (fiorthann) ‘creeping bent-grass, Agivstis stolonifera' 42 fraughan, froghan (fiaochdn) ‘bilberry’ 307, 459n fennockabo!

garran

(gearrán) ‘work-pony’ 22n,

91 (gearran) Highland pony’ 91

garron(S)

‘work-pony,

creaght, creat (caoraigheacht) ‘migratory herd with attendants’ 24, 427, 427n

keryachte,

Anglicized forms o f Irish and Scottish Gaelic terms lelyaghe loughty

(loilgheach) ‘milch cow’ 587 {lucht tighe) ‘household'

404' {láighe) ‘turf-spade’ 479n

loy

m oiled

(maol) ‘hornless (of cattle)’

35. 35it

( maolgharbh) ‘cattleplague’ 196n mullahawn, mullagham (mulchán) ‘hard cheese’ 329 moylegarow

(pollan) ‘a fish of large lakes, Coregonus albula 296

pollan

(seamróg) ‘wood-sorrel, trefoil’ 311 slane (sleaghán) ‘turf-spade’ 479 sloke (slabhac) ‘laver’ 314 shamrock

661

(súghán) ‘drink or jelly from fermented husks, flummery’ 331, 33 In sroan, sruan (srúbhán) ‘loaf, measure of oatmeal’ 330n

sowens

tanist (tánaiste) terunga(S) (tir

‘heir-apparent’ 430 unga) ‘ounce-land'

572n (timchioll) ‘surrounding (of deer)’ 277 togher (tóchar) ‘causeway, trackway’ 392n troander (treabhandar) ‘boiled fresh milk with buttermilk’ 328 turlough {turloch) ‘lake which dries up in summer’ 45

tinchell(S)

(uisce bealha) ‘water of life, distilled spirit’ 335

usquebaugh, whiskey

Index 4 Welsh, Breton an d C ornish index References are to page-numbers. An ‘n' after a page-number indicates that the occurrence of the word is in the footnotes. Modern Welsh spellings are unmarked. Middle Welsh spellings ate marked (MW), and an Old Welsh spelling is marked tOW). Modem Breton spellings are marked (B), Middle Breton spellings ate marked (MB), and Old Breton spellings are marked (OB). Modern Cornish spellings are marked (Ci), and an Old Cornish spelling is marked (OCt. ‘work-horse’ 90n ‘oat’; ceirch llwyd. ‘grey oat, pilcorn’ 228; ceirch coliog ‘prickly oat, pilcorn’ 228; cpd blewgeirch ‘hairy oat, pilcorn’ 228 cennin ‘leek’ 16, 251; cennin ewinog b a nv(B ) ‘sow with litter’ 16 ‘garlic’ 252n banw ‘piglet’ 16, 87n clafri ‘mange, scab (on sheep)’ be le g (B ), baelec(M B) ‘priest’ 453n 206n be le r(B ) ‘cress, watercress’ 309n clustgoch ‘with red ears (of catde)’ berw r ‘cress, watercress’ 309n 34 blewgeirch ‘hairy oat, pilcorn’ 228 chvyd, c lu y d (M W ) 'hurdle, harrow’ bloneg ‘lard’ 86n 478, 479 bouc’h (B ) ‘buck-goat’ 78n craf ‘wild garlic’ 308n b o u h a l(B ), bouc’h a l(B ) ‘axe’ 486n cram (OB) ‘wild garlic’ 308n brag ‘malt’ 246n bragod, bracaut(M W ) ‘bragget’ 335 crau pig-sty’ 366n c ro w (C ) ‘pig-stv’ 366n brenigen ‘limpet’ 298n brennigenn(B) ‘limpet’ 298n crowyn ‘pig-sty’ 18, 19, 366n bresych ‘cabbage, vegetable soup’ crym an ‘billhook, pruning hook, 340n; bresych ffa ‘bean soup’ sickle’ 49In 340n; bresych ffa ‘pea soup’ 340n cuaran ‘shoe, boot’ 54n breuan ‘quern’ 245n cwlltwr ‘coulter’ 470n broch ‘badger’ 282n cwrw ‘beer’ 335n bual ‘wild ox, drinking-horn’ 56n cyfar ‘co-ploughing’ 445n bugeilgi herd dog’ 119n cylor, clôr ‘pig-nuts’ 31 In bwch ‘buck-goat’ 78n cynflith ‘cow on first calf 37 bwyell ‘axe’ 486n cynnwgl, ke n h u gh e l(M W ) ‘rough bytheiad ‘scenting hound’ 118 blanket, saddle-cloth, quilt’ 71 n c a r(r) ‘vehicle, cart’ 498n cynthaid, kyn th e it(M W ) ‘first cau ‘hollow, empty’ 558 swarm’ 11 In a e rg i ‘battle-hound’

ceffyl

amaeth

115 ‘ploughm an’ 476 aradr ‘plough’ 469 a ra r(B ) ‘plough’ 469 arth ‘bear’ 190n

ceirch

Welsh. Breton and Cornish index das ‘rick, stack, heap’ 239n dera, dere ‘staggers(?)’ 197n draenghvyd ‘thorn-harrow’ 479 drythyll, trythyll 'lively, wanton’

125n ‘otter’ 282n

dyfrgi

663

‘old habitation, winter dwelling’ 44n hiriau. h yrye u (M W ) ‘long yoke’ 475 hualog ‘spasms(P) in pigs’ 208n hwch ‘pig, sow’ 469n hydd ‘deer, stag’ 273n hendref

iau

‘yoke’ 474n

‘condiment, anything eaten with bread' 316n eog 'salm on’ 293 ewin ‘claw, nail, clove (of garlic)’ 252n

y m p (M W ) ‘shoot, fruit-tree graft’ 259n iv in (B ) ‘yew’ 388n iwrch roe deer’ 272n

‘beans' 249 ‘beans’ 249 ffa ‘beans’ 249, 340n ffust ‘stick, flail’ 48In

‘pignuts’ 31 In kenhughel: see cynnwgl k e u (B ) ‘hollow’ 558 kigne n(B ) ‘garlic’ 16, 251 kyntheit: see cynthaid

enllyn

fa v (B ) fa v (C )

gafr ‘goat’ 78n ga h e n(C ) ‘henbane’

184 gaing 'chisel, wedge’ 502 g a v r(B ) ‘goat’ 78n geilwad ‘caller, driver (of ploughteam )’ 476, 476n g e n (C ) ‘iron wedge, m iner’s chisel’ 502 g e n n (B ) ‘wedge for splitting wood’ 502 gerran ‘dw arf 91n g le s in (O C ) ‘woad’ 16, 267n gwain ‘cart, wagon’ 498n gwartheg 'cattle’ 34 gw ddyf ‘billhook’ 489n g w e d o m (O B ) ‘billhook’ 489n gwyn ‘white’ 34 gwyran ‘barnacle goose, barnacles’ 300n hafdy ‘summer-house’ 44n hafoty ‘summer-house’ 44n haidd barley’; haidd rhywiog

‘fine barley, two-row barley’ 226; haidd garw ‘rough barley, bere, four- or six-row barley’ 226 hanvesk(B) ‘dry heifer, dry cow’ 64

imp,

sprout,

k e le r(B )

‘garden, courtyard’ 368n ‘disease of sheep, liver-fluke’ 205n lluarth ‘vegetable garden’ 368n llwyf, lu y f(M W ) ‘elm’; rafluyf ‘rope of elm [-bark]’ 384n llym ru ‘drink or jelly from fer­ mented grain-husks, flummery, sowens’ 331 llynm eirch ‘moisture of horses, glanders’ 21 In llys ‘court, courtyard, royal residence’ 364n lo w a rth (C ) ‘garden’ 368n lio rz (B ) llederw

maenol ‘territorial unit’ 335n march horse, stallion’ 90n m edd ‘m ead’ 335n medel ‘reaping-party’ 238n meiau, m e yye u (M W ) ‘mid-yoke’

475 melfochyn ‘honey-pig, m e n n (B ) ‘kid’ 79n mes ‘acorns’ 83n m e z(B ) ‘acorns’ 83n m ilgi ‘greyhound’ 118 moch ‘pigs’ 79n

bear’ 191n

664 m oelddyrnfedd

Index 4 ‘fist-breadth’ 564n

myn ‘kid’ 79n n o u id lig i(O W )

‘recently

cow’ 38n og, oged ‘harrow’ 478, 479n olwyn ‘wheel’; pi. oluyneu 471

calved

staol(B)

‘stable’ 369n

taradr auger’ 491 n ta rvhe d (B ) ‘second

swarm (from

hive)’ 110 tarwhaid,

ta ru h e it(M W )

‘second

swarm (from hive)’ 110 trythyll: see drythyll

palm’; lied y balf ‘palm breadth’ wynwyn onion’ 25In 562n pannwr ‘fuller (of cloth)’ 123 ymp: see im p pys ‘peas’ 340n yscur: see ysgwr pystyl ‘yoke-peg(P), yoke-bow(?)| ysgadan herrings’ 297n 472 ysgub ‘brush, sheaf of corn’ 239n ra d e n (B ) ‘fern, type of edible ysgubor b arn ’ 243n ysgwr, yscur (MW) ‘wooden bar, seaweed’ 314 part of plough’ 472 rhaff, ra f(M W ) ‘rope’; rafluyf ‘rope ysgyfaint ‘lung, strangles (in of elm [-bark] ’ 384n horses)’ 197n rhaw ‘spade, shovel’ 465n ystabl ‘stable’ 369n serr ‘sickle, billhook’ 480n ystrodur ‘pack-saddle’ 94n, 499n siprys ‘dredge, mixture of oats and ywen ‘yew’ 388n barley’ 227 palf

In d ex 5 Latin index References are to page-numbers. An ‘n ’ after a page-number indicates that the occurrence of the word is in the footnotes. The initials of the scientific names for plants and animals are capitalized. The scientific names for cere­ als are based on the classification used by Zohary and Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World (2nd ed., Oxford 1993). The spelling of some Late Latin words is variable: in such cases alter­ native spellings may be given in brackets after the main entry, e.g. affrus (avrus, aver) ‘draught-animal’. ‘fattened’; as neut. subst. nom. pi. altilia ‘capons, fattened poultry’ 103, 594 Accipiter gentilis ‘goshawk’ 188 Am m ophila arenaria ‘bent, A ccipiter nisus ‘sparrow hawk’ 188 marram-grass’ 385 Acherontia atropos ‘death’s head Anas platyrhynchos ‘mallard’ 107,298 hawk-moth’ 199n actus ‘unit of area’ 574, 574; actus ancilla (ancella) ‘female slave’ 591n; acc. sg. ancillam 132n; gen. sg. quadratus ‘square area’ 567n; andllae 594; nom. pi. ancellae 591 actus minimus ‘smallest area’ 574 Anguilla anguilla ‘eel’ 295 Aegilops squarrosa ‘a wild grass’ 220 Anser anser ‘grey lag goose’ 105, 300 affrus {avrus, aver) ‘draughtanimal, farm-horse or ox’; nom. Apis mellifera ‘honeybee’ 108 A p iu m graveolens ‘celery’ 254 pi. affii 21 aqua vitae ‘water of life, distilled Agrostem m a githago ‘corn cockle’ liquor’ 335 183, 235 aquila ‘eagle’ 129 Agrostis stolonifera ‘creeping Aquila chrysaëtos ‘golden eagle’ bent-grass, florin’ 42 188 Alaria esculenta ‘an edible seaweed, aratrum ‘plough’ 469n; abl. sg. dabberlocks’ 314 aratro 477n albus ‘white (of sheep) ’ 70n Arbutus unedo ‘arbutus, strawberryalga maris ‘seaweed’ 43 tree’ 380 A lliu m ampeloprasum (var. porrum) Ardea cine re a ‘heron’ 125 ‘leek’ 251, 255 area ‘level ground, threshing-floor’ A lliu m cepa ‘onion’ 251, 264 240n A lliu m sativum ‘garlic’ 251 arepennis ‘Gaulish land-measure' A lliu m schoenoprasum ‘chives’ 257 567n A lliu m ursinum ‘wild garlic, argentum ‘silver’; gen. sg. argenti ramsons’ 308 592, 595 Ascophyllum nodosum ‘knotted Alnus glutinosa ‘alder’ 380 wrack’ 43 Alosa alosa ‘allis shad’ 297 Acarapis w o odi

bees)’ 214

‘a parasitic mite (of

altilis

666 asinus

Index 5 ‘ass’ 13 1n ; acc. sg. asinum

132n assellus atomus

‘ass’ 13In ‘atom’ 584

bella-donna ‘deadly nightshade’ 310n aula ‘court, vard, enclosure’; acc. pi. aulas 365n avenae ‘oats’ 234 Avena fatua wild oat’ 227. 234 Avena sativa ‘common oat’ 226, 227 Avena strigosa 'bristle-pointed oat, pilcorn, black oat, grey oat’ 226, 227

Atropa

baculum

‘crozier,

pastoral staff’

453n Balaenopteramusculus

‘blue whale’

285 ‘church, churchyard, graveyard’ 198n basiliscus ‘venemous reptile’ 198n benna ‘carriage, wagon’ 497n Berula erecta lesser water-parsnip’

basilica

310

‘servile tenant’ 429; nom. pi. betagii 429 Betula pendula ‘silver birch’ 380 Betula pubescens ‘downy birch’ 380 biceps ‘tool with two cutting edges, shears’ 500 Bison bonasus ‘European bison, wisent’ 56n Bombus ‘bumblebee’ 109 bos ‘ox, bovine’; acc. sg. bovem 132n; acc. pi. boves 474n, 477n Bos brachyceros ‘short-horned ox’ 30n, 56 Bos longifrons short-horned ox’ 30n. 56 Bos primigenius ‘wild ox, aurochs’ 29, 30n, 56 Bos taurus ‘domestic ox’ 29 betagius

‘cow-enclosure’; abl. sg. bovello 148 Bovidae *Ox family’ 29 Branta bernicla brent goose’ 300 Branta leucopsis barnacle goose’ 300 brassica ‘cabbage’ 255, 340 Brassica oleracea ‘wild cabbage’ 255 Brassica rapa ‘turnip’ 256 Bufo bufo ‘common toad’ 190n Bufo calamita ‘natterjack toad’ 190n buris ‘ploughbeam’ 47In butyrum ‘butter’; abl. sg. butyro 55 bovellum

caballus ‘work horse’ 90n calix ‘chalice, cup, projection’ 488n Calluna vulgaris ling’ 381 campus ‘plain, open land’; gen. sg.

campi 572 ‘white, shining (of copper)’ 586n Canis lupus ‘wolf 114, 130, 186 canis pecorum ‘herd dog’ 148 canis quattuor hostiorum ‘dog of four doors’ 364 cannula ‘reed, quill, stubble’ 222n Capra aegagrus ‘bezoar goat’ 77 Capra hircus ‘domestic goat’ 77 Capreolus capreolus ‘roe deer’ 272n carpentum ‘two-wheeled chariot’ 497n carruca ‘carriage, wheeled plough’ 471.497U carrus cart’ 471 n, 497n, 498n caseus cheese’ 328, 329 cattus ‘cat’ 12In caulae sheep-fold, enclosure’ 364 caulis ‘stalk, stem, cabbage’ 255 Centaurea cyanus ‘cornflower’ 233 cepa ‘onion’ 257, 264 cera wax' 114n cervisia 'beer' 333n candidus

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