Blacksmithing. Basics. Materials. Methods. Master's Teachings [1, 1 ed.] 9798350934410

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Zavkiddin Kamalov «Blacksmithing. Basics. Materials. Methods. Master's Teachings»

Contents: Foreword. History of Blacksmithing Heritage of the Kamalov Dynasty Safety precautions for blacksmithing Equipment of blacksmith workshop General Concepts of Blacksmithing. Materials Basics of Blacksmithing Forging techniques and technology Manufacturing of forged elements and products for utilitarian, household and decorative purposes Casting. Workshop and materials for casting Earthen mold casting and model making Lost wax casting Casting of complex models Embossing Embossing tools Coining technology Sheet material Mixed techniques Decorative metal processing Bukhara knives as a special kind of blacksmithing. Conclusion Literature

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Foreword. History of Blacksmithing Uzbeks have existed for a very long time and are engaged in a primitive craft blacksmithing. Particularly active development of this industry took place in the Zarafshan Valley1, which stretches from Samarkand to Bukhara. The rural population was the main incentive for the development of blacksmithing, as it needed various agricultural tools - plows, shovels, pitchforks, rakes, axes and hatchets, crowbars, picks, hammers and hammers, scythes and sickles, as well as various parts of carts, and many others. Blacksmiths also made household utensils such as teapots, boxes, cauldrons, frying pans, grips, jugs, vases, flowerpots, buckets, candlesticks, kerosene lamps, mugs, hooks and hooks, nails, chests and many other items. Large artels of artisans, specializing in the manufacture of weapons, horse breeding and jewelry, existed in various regions of the Bukhara land. The villages of Afshor, Vozhikti, Otkucha, Zarmanak, Muguloni were their home. The number of artels reached 1 thousand people. Each artel was highly specialized in metallurgical production. In addition, 10 large foundry artels, known as deggaron, operated in the city of Karmana. Each artel was engaged in the production of one or two products. In the villages of Aravan, Koza and Kumushkon, work was carried out to create plows for use in ploughs. Farmers often changed plows during the season as they needed them. Copper artists, who were also blacksmiths, were involved in decorating hotels and household items. Throughout the territory, starting from Ark, the fortress-palace of the Bukhara emir, and ending with Toki Sarrafon, there were about 200 copper forges. Various items were made here, such as teapots, boxes, jugs, vases and flowerpots, as well as jewelry for women and horses. Blacksmiths were included in the first military registration list. During hostilities, blacksmiths were forced to manufacture weapons - sabers, lances, swords, daggers, gun bolts, cannon barrels, horse harnesses, parts of saddles, mouthpieces and horseshoes. However, after peace came, they again returned to their arts and began to create peaceful instruments. In modern Uzbekistan, the blacksmith's craft began to flourish thanks to the support of Turkestan governor-generals, especially in Tashkent and the Fergana Valley. Uzbek blacksmiths, despite the import of metal products from Russia, did not ignore the development of their craft. They decided to concentrate on making unique products that were not produced in Russia. Thus, they created various items reflecting local culture and traditions. Among them were tesha hatchets, uroko sickles, ketmon and tash-ketmeni jewelry for women, cauldrons, as well as parts of Uzbek carts and more. Copper nuggets introduced people to this metal. They were treated like stones and tried to be processed. The pieces of copper, of course, did not break off - the metal simply took a new shape at the points of impact. Our ancestors were very pleased with this new material, which was flexible and much easier to process (no such force required), and most importantly, very durable and reliable. Copper products did not break and served much longer. In addition, copper tools had an important advantage - if they broke, they could be repaired, while stone ones had to be made again.

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The Zarafshan Valley is the largest intermountain depression in Central Asia, the length of which is equal to the length of the Zerafshan River. The valley is home to ancient cities such as Samarkand and Bukhara

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Copper processing reached a high level in some cultures where it was already known that the workpiece needed heat to remove defects and give it greater strength and durability. However, the spread of copper products was very limited, since humanity did not yet have the ability to mine the metal in large quantities and was limited to only rare finds of nuggets. In some regions, the new material was completely unknown, and people continued to use wood and stone. However, in the Middle East, copper was so abundant that it almost completely replaced stone. In ancient times, people were actively involved in the production of copper jewelry and ritual objects, in addition to the use of tools. The main method of work remained cold forging. At that time, in the Balkans, humanity developed an alloy of copper and tin - bronze. Thus, the era of copper came to an end. About 900 years have passed since man became acquainted with copper. During this time, the first copper “mines” appeared in individual mining areas. It goes without saying that these mines were not at all like modern mines, but that is what they were called. Following copper, it turned out that there are many other metals, the extraction of which from stone was impossible due to the lack of appropriate technologies. At the same time, other metals could be easily melted and separated from impurities. And so, the man mined tin. In ancient times, someone, somewhere and sometime decided to mix copper and tin in one common cauldron. It is believed that in the most remote places, but at about the same time, bronze products began to appear in large quantities - products that were more durable and reliable. As early as the third millennium BC, people used bronze weapons, kings drank from cups made of bronze, and somewhere coins were minted from this material. Around the same time, complex social structures began to form: states arose, writing developed. Peoples who were previously hunter-gatherers switched to agriculture. Many researchers believe that all these changes occurred thanks to a technological breakthrough made by ancient blacksmiths, who came up with a durable bronze alloy. Changes in technology led to breakthroughs in the use of carbon iron, where charcoal, coal coke and anthracite were added to molten iron to achieve additional strength. Thus, carbon iron became much harder, its wear resistance and fatigue limit increased. This breakthrough led to the introduction of cast iron and conversion steel2, which was produced by reducing the carbon in cast iron. Thanks to this, steel acquired the necessary flexibility (cast iron was a rather brittle alloy), and most importantly, it became possible to increase production volumes. The process of mastering the work with new metal among mankind was very fast: in the 12-11th centuries BC, iron had already completely replaced bronze in Palestine and Syria, became an item of trade everywhere, and already in the 8th century BC Celtic tribes were known using iron swords and combining iron and steel into multi-layered durable alloys. With the development of time, technology has progressed more and more. Man gradually mastered new techniques, experimented with various alloys and showed his skill in the manufacture of jewelry, weapons, armor and agricultural tools. This article examined only the first three key eras: from the acquisition of knowledge about metals to the first revolutionary technological breakthrough.

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Conversion steel is one of the stages of metal production or processing in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. Processing processes include: melting and casting of metal, crimping, rolling, pipe and hardware production.

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Heritage of the Kamalov Dynasty The most ancient craft in Bukhara is considered to be blacksmithing, which has been practiced by man since the very beginning of its existence. Already in the X century Abu Rayhon Beruni in his works mentioned the skill of Bukhara blacksmiths. Blacksmiths made Damascus sabers and knives, medical instruments, manicure accessories, sanitary ware and sewing accessories, which were in demand by the merchants of the Great Silk Road. Bukhara is best known for two hereditary dynasties of blacksmiths, among which the Kamalov dynasty stands out in particular. The Usto Kamol family, which founded this dynasty, is known for its masters in the art of blacksmithing. Traditions of family business are passed from generation to generation, and descendants continue to create unique products. Today Bukhara masters are actively engaged in making traditional knives, scissors, sabers, hoes and hand tools for other craftsmen. These items are entirely handmade and are of the highest quality. Usto Shokir Kamalov, born into a family of blacksmiths, has always had a passion for blacksmithing. In 1965, he became an apprentice to his father, Usto Sharif Kamalov, and thus continued the family tradition for the fifth generation.

In Bukhara, near the Telpakfurushon trade dome, a forge was established on the initiative of Usto Shokir, where he spent his whole life reviving and developing blacksmithing. In this forge, the master made traditional souvenir knives of Damascus steel with 16 patterns, none of which were repeated. Since 1995, Usto Shokir has been a holder of the UNESCO Seal of 4

Excellence certificate. Products of this blacksmith were highly appreciated at exhibitions in Germany, USA and Uzbekistan. In the forge located in Greece, France, Switzerland and Russia, you can visit the Museum of the History of Blacksmithing. It was founded by Usto Shokir and there are exhibits from the XVI-XX centuries. In the museum you can see blacksmith tools, soldier chains, medieval statute of the forge and photos of famous Bukhara blacksmiths. Zavkiddin Kamalov, son of Usto Shokir, started his craft path here. Zavkiddin Kamalov, a sixth generation blacksmith, has been working with his father since childhood. Every day they create beautiful traditional products, such as knives and scissors, which cannot be compared to factory-made ones.

The blacksmith delights with his skill, creating incredible works of art. The objects he forges from iron become real works of art, attracting attention with their beauty and uniqueness. "Blacksmithing for me is not just a job, for me it is a way of life. It is very important to me to revive and restore the traditions and skillful craft of my people," says Zavkiddin Kamalov. The sight of a blacksmith forging iron is amazing and breathtaking. Each blow of his hammer on the anvil causes excitement and makes the heart beat faster. The fireworks of sparks flying around the forge from the glowing iron evoke both fear and delight, creating a unique atmosphere.

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Safety precautions for blacksmithing When performing blacksmithing work, it is necessary to pay attention to the quality of the tools, clothing and protective equipment used, since this work is considered dangerous. A blacksmith's clothing consists of various elements: a jacket, trousers, boots, mittens, an apron, a headdress, glasses and a protective helmet. It is important that the jacket has long sleeves with cuffs that can be buttoned. The trousers should cover the waist and cover the top of the boots. It is advisable to have boots with thick leather soles. It is recommended to use mittens made of thick canvas or leather, preferably with a suede exterior. During the forging process, the apron can be made from thick canvas or leather, providing chest coverage and extending below the knees. On the apron, you can add a pocket on the chest or on the right side at the waist. In the book “Artistic Forging” by A.G. Navrotsky suggests using asbestos fabric for sewing mittens and aprons, although it is known that asbestos can cause cancer. However, it is important to work in the forge with a headdress, such as an old felt hat, beret, cap or bandana. The headdress protects the head from overheating, keeps the hair clean and prevents its destruction. Before starting work, you should check the serviceability of tools and equipment, such as a hammer, handbrake, anvil, forge, air ducts, and take measures to eliminate any detected defects. Attach the anvil securely to the chair and ensure it is stable, and ensure that its surface is level. When installed correctly, the working surface of the anvil should be at a height of 650 to 800 mm above the floor so that the blacksmith, standing on the floor, can touch its surface with his fingers clenched into a fist. The distance between the anvil and the forge must be at least 1.5 m, between adjacent anvils - at least 4 m, and from the anvil to the passage - at least 2 m. When checking the anvil for sound, it must be clear, loud and without rattling, which indicates the absence of cracks. Before starting work, you should install shields to protect others from possible damage from flying scale or metal particles, as well as screens to protect from the harmful thermal effects of heating devices. This must be done both in walkways and in other places. The tool should be checked before starting work. You should only use a serviceable tool and use it for its intended purpose. It is necessary to arrange the tools at the workplace so that they are as convenient as possible to use, and to prevent the presence of unnecessary objects in the work area. Keeping your workplace safe is very important. The floor must be level and dry to avoid slipping. It is necessary to regularly clean the work surface and not clutter it with workpieces and waste. There must be clean water in the tool cooling tank. Also in the forge there should be a container with dry sand to fill slippery areas. Before starting work, it is necessary to clean the working surface from scale, oil, water and other contaminants. Tools that are wet or oily should be wiped with a rag. During operation, it is recommended to use a protective mask or safety glasses to protect your eyes from flying particles. When processing forgings heated to white heat, it is necessary to use glasses with a light filter. 6

Loss of vision is possible if you look at bright lights incorrectly, so you should protect your eyes. It is necessary to be attentive and not be distracted by extraneous matters when performing work. It is also unacceptable for persons not involved in work to be in the workplace. Forging of blanks must be carried out in a certain temperature range. Do not work with overheated or cooled metal to avoid an accident. Tools that become hot during use should be cooled in water and dried. To remove scale and debris from the anvil, it is recommended to use special brushes or a short iron broom. Before starting forging, it is necessary to clean the workpiece from scale using a wire brush, scraper or light hammer blows. The pliers should grip the forging correctly so that the jaws of the pliers fit snugly against it and the handles of the pliers do not close or bounce off. To securely fasten forgings in pliers, it is recommended to use clamping rings or clamps on their handles. When laying the workpiece on the anvil, it is necessary to ensure a tight fit to the surface (you can check it by lightly hitting the workpiece with a hammer). To lift and move heavy workpieces on the anvil, it is recommended to use self-clamping (blank) pliers. To ensure safety during impacts, you should hold the tool handles only to the side of you, and not in front of you. To avoid squeezing your fingers, you should avoid holding your fingers between the handles of the pliers. In relation to the blacksmith, the hammerman should stand half-turned, and not opposite. It is necessary to avoid blows to pliers, tool handles and idle blows with a sledgehammer on an anvil. The end of forging should occur with the command “stop”, and not immediately after removing the forging from the anvil. Moving or changing the position of the tool on the forging is permitted only after warning the hammer operator. To cut metal, you must set the chisel strictly vertically. Chopping is done only along the edge of the anvil, and the first and last blows should be weak. Before the last blow, it is necessary to turn the forging over so that the cut side is down. The end of the forging that will be cut off should be directed away from you and to the side, and you must make sure that this does not pose a danger to anyone. Strikes with a sledgehammer should be struck straight, with full force. When finished, turn off the blower and other equipment. When servicing the electric welding unit and when working on it, precautions must be taken. Accidents occur during electric welding for various reasons. Firstly, people often get bruises and cuts in the process of preparing a product for welding. Secondly, there is a danger of electric shock if you touch live parts of an electrical circuit that operates at high voltage. In addition, during electric welding, burns from splashing molten metal and slag, as well as fires caused by molten materials, are possible. Another danger is poisoning by harmful gases that are released during welding. An explosion may also occur if welding is performed near flammable or explosive substances, or when welding pressure vessels or containers containing flammable substances. And finally, there is a danger of damage to exposed skin by the rays of a voltaic arc. To prevent the occurrence of these reasons, you should adhere to the following basic safety rules:

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- It is recommended to work only in dry shoes and on a rubber mat. When working, it is recommended to sit on a dry wooden stool. - Wires from the welding machine to the shield and from the shield to the workplaces must be reliably insulated and protected from temperature and mechanical damage. - The handle of the electrode holder must have reliable insulation. The visor of the electrode holder must be in good working order. It is important to adhere to the rules of grounding the body of the welding machine and the transformer casing. If you feel an electric shock when touching parts of the welding machine or device that do not conduct current, immediately stop working, unplug the device and notify an electrician about the malfunction. Do not touch live parts of the welding machine with your bare hands, as it is connected to a dangerous electrical network. You need to be especially careful when working in damp areas, where even a voltage of 24 volts can be dangerous. Working in a dry room at 40 volts also poses a serious danger. Turn off the electrical current immediately during breaks or when finishing work. If welding is done using direct current, first turn off the direct current and then the alternating current that powers the welding machine. Touching the forward and return wires with both hands at the same time can be fatal. In case of electric shock, provide first aid immediately. Even a slight delay in providing assistance can have fatal consequences.

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Equipment of blacksmith workshop To begin with, it is important to decide what we need a forge for. If we plan to make small blades from time to time, then there is no point in buying huge and bulky equipment - the minimum option. However, if our goal is to become professionals in forging and achieve significant results, it makes sense to gradually acquire professional equipment. In this case, saving is inappropriate - this is the maximum option. The forge can be created from a variety of building materials. This can be an interweaving of rods coated with clay, logs, various types of stone and brick, cinder blocks, concrete or welded iron. It is important to choose the material depending on our preferences and capabilities. Regardless of the material chosen to build a forge, it is important to take into account the basic requirements and features. For example, good ventilation must be provided to avoid the accumulation of smoke and harmful fumes. It is also important to have enough space to accommodate all the necessary tools and equipment. If we have the opportunity, it is worth contacting specialists who will help us with laying electricity and installing the necessary heating and ventilation systems. This will allow us to work comfortably in the forge even in the cold season. It is important to remember that creating a forge is a process that requires time and patience. There is no need to rush and skimp on the quality of equipment. Ultimately, a properly equipped forge will help us achieve success in forging and fulfill all our tasks and goals. Forges, once located in dugouts and caves, can now be built from a variety of materials and come in a variety of sizes. The roofs of forges, in turn, can be single-sloped, double-sloped or hipped, and the covering can be varied: turf, straw, shingles, boards, tiles, roofing felt3, slate and iron. However, it is preferable to use fireproof materials such as brick and stone to construct the forge and cover the roof. Forges can range in size from 2x1.5m to 10x5m or more, and heights can range from 2m to 4m. If you have the opportunity to build a forge, it will be a great investment that will serve you well for many years to come. After all, having your own forge is not only an exciting activity, but also an opportunity to create unique metal products, repair various items and even earn money. The forge can become your corner of creativity and source of inspiration, where you can develop your skills and immerse yourself in the world of blacksmithing. By building a forge in your country house, you will create a wonderful space for self-expression and the implementation of your ideas, and you will also be able to share your skills and experience with other people. So don't hesitate - build a forge and enjoy all the benefits it offers! To build a forge, you can use commercially available building materials. But if you don't have this option, don't despair. After all, there are several options for how to do without this. One of them is to simply build a shed or organize an open-air blacksmithing area. This option is suitable if you need to temporarily locate a forge or if you do not have enough space indoors. After installing the necessary equipment, you can also install a clay floor or concrete it. This will add additional strength and durability to the forge area. But you don't have to do it right away. You can start with a simple canopy against a blank wall of the house. 3

Roofing felt is a roofing and waterproofing material obtained by impregnating roofing cardboard with coal or shale tar products.

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To do this, you will need to install two or four pillars on which to lay the sloping roof. Such a canopy will protect you from rain and sun and create comfortable working conditions. As a result, despite the limitations and lack of a dedicated room, you can create a functional and comfortable place for blacksmithing. The main thing is not to despair and use the available resources and opportunities. An exhaust hood is installed above the furnace to provide natural ventilation in the room. The supporting pillars that will be used to lay the floor beams must be made of non-combustible materials, such as asbestos-cement or steel pipes, as well as brickwork. They must have a height of at least 2.6 meters. The side walls can be made of flat or corrugated asbestos cement sheets, which are then whitewashed from the inside. This creates a pleasant atmosphere indoors, especially in the hot season, when ventilation is achieved through natural air circulation through cracks and gaps in the structure. In winter, the room is heated by the heat generated by the furnace, which ensures a comfortable temperature. When setting up and equipping a locksmith workshop, it is necessary to be guided by the requirements of the greatest convenience, taking into account material capabilities. However, it is important to remember that welding work must be carried out outdoors. At the same time, it is advisable to locate the premises for an amateur forge away from residential buildings. If such placement is not possible, you can organize a workshop in two areas: the metalworking workshop should be located in the residential part of the house or barn, and the “hot” workshop – under a canopy at some distance. This solution will help avoid the need for ventilation and better ensure fire safety. It is important to remember that in the process of setting up a workshop, it is necessary to take into account and comply with all relevant standards and regulations to ensure work safety. It is important to remember that the workshop room should not only be dry and bright, but also spacious so that you can work freely in it. In the absence of natural light, it is necessary to install a good artificial lighting system, using fluorescent lamps for general lighting and incandescent lamps for the work area. This way, you can ensure comfortable working conditions and avoid unpleasant surprises associated with poor lighting. In addition to the basic equipment of a locksmith workshop, such as a bench, electric sharpener4, electric drill and electric welding machine, it is also necessary to pay attention to other aspects. For example, storing tools is a very important point, and for this you can use drawers that are conveniently placed under the workbench. It is also necessary to ensure the availability of a special vice for fixing parts and processing them using tools. However, a metalworking workshop is not the only room that can be used for working with metal. A forge is another space that requires special equipment such as a forge, anvils, a forge vice, and a straightening plate. The forge carries out work related to metal processing at high temperatures, and therefore requires special conditions and equipment for safe and efficient operation. Please note that each workshop has its own characteristics and requires a specific set of equipment. Therefore, before setting up the workshop, it is necessary to carefully consider and

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An electric sharpener is a portable sharpening machine that is designed for sharpening and straightening various tools and knives.

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study the requirements and possibilities to ensure optimal working conditions and achieve the desired results.

To create a perfect 50x50 cm slab made from durable sheet steel, we use sheets of at least 25 mm thickness. However, to ensure its strength and stability, we install the slab on a shoe welded from an angle, and preferably one of the angles is 90°. But that's not all - to ensure rapid cooling, we dig a water container into the ground. Now let's talk about heating devices. To achieve the forging temperature of the metal, we need a special heating device. In the classic version, such a device is a forge. The main element of a stationary furnace is a pedestal - this is a kind of “bed” that serves to place the hearth and heated workpieces. Thus, we take into account all the necessary details and features when creating a stove and choosing a heating device. These elements are important to ensure a high-quality and efficient metal processing process. A forge pedestal is usually installed in the center of the back wall of the forge, near the entrance. It serves as the main support for the forge and should be comfortable for the blacksmith so that he can easily move the workpieces to and from the anvil. The height of the pedestal depends on the height of the blacksmith and usually ranges from 700 to 800 mm. The horizontal surface of the pedestal “table” has an area of 1x1.5 or 1.5x2 m. 11

Material options for a forge pedestal include brick, sawn stone, and reinforced concrete. The appearance of the pedestal can be in the form of a box made of logs, boards, brick or stone. The inside of the pedestal is filled with broken small stones, sand, clay and burnt earth. This is necessary to ensure good thermal insulation and stability of the forge. When a blacksmith works on a forge pedestal, he can place his tools on the horizontal surface of the "table". This is convenient and allows the blacksmith to easily take the necessary tool without being distracted from work. It is important that the horizontal surface is strong and stable enough to support the weight of tools and workpieces. The forge pedestal is an integral part of the forge process and plays an important role in ensuring the comfort and efficiency of the smith. Firebrick is used to level the upper horizontal part of the table, as well as to lay out the table surface and edging with a metal corner. The pedestal can be cast, welded or prefabricated, and the forge nest, or hearth, can be placed either in the center or at the back or side wall of the forge. It is important to note that the hearth is the place where the highest temperature is reached, so its walls are usually lined with refractory bricks and coated with refractory clay. This allows you to effectively retain and distribute heat when working with the forge. As a result, the use of fire-resistant materials in the design of the table makes it stronger and more durable in high temperature conditions. The dimensions of the forge nest, as well as its shape, depend on the purpose and size of the workpieces that are planned to be heated. However, the central nest is usually round or square, measuring 200x200 or 400x400 and 100-150mm deep. To achieve different types of flames, several grates with different shapes of holes for air passage should be used in the forge. For example, round holes, evenly spaced, promote the formation of a torch flame, while slotted holes create a narrow and elongated flame. Also, to collect and remove smoke and gases from the forge, an umbrella is installed above the stationary forge, which can have different designs. The need to install an umbrella is due to the safety of workers and ensuring comfortable conditions in the forge. Umbrellas used to trap smoke and gases have a lower inlet, the dimensions of which usually correspond to the dimensions of the forge table. The building wall is used as the back wall of the umbrella. For the most effective operation, umbrellas are installed above the furnace at a certain height, which depends on various parameters, such as the blowing force, the height and dimensions of the exhaust pipe. Usually the height of the umbrella is from 400 to 800 mm, but the exact value is determined on site. In some cases, umbrellas may be equipped with dropdown wings. However, the disadvantage of metal umbrellas is their tendency to burn out quickly, as well as the complexity and labor-intensive nature of their repair. Therefore, to increase the durability of umbrellas, it is possible to use other materials or improve the design. Umbrellas made of refractory bricks are more reliable and durable compared to metal ones. However, their use is limited due to their significant weight. To support brick umbrellas, you need a rigidly embedded metal frame made of corners or channels, as well as additional supports in the corners. At the same time, open forges are widely used in forging work. However, their efficiency is very low and amounts to only 2-5%. This means that most of the heat required to heat the workpieces is wasted and not used efficiently.

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Thus, the choice between firebrick umbrellas and metal umbrellas depends on the specific conditions and requirements. Brick umbrellas are highly reliable and durable, but require additional support, which can be inconvenient in some situations. While metal umbrellas are lighter and more mobile, they are less reliable and require frequent replacement. All factors must be carefully considered before deciding on which umbrella to use for optimal heat utilization and safety. Blacksmiths, trying to improve the process of heating metal, came to the conclusion that in order to achieve forging temperature it was necessary to use a certain amount of coal. However, they also discovered that direct contact of metal with carbon saturates the surface with gray, which negatively affects the mechanical properties of the products. In this regard, blacksmiths came up with a way to prevent this phenomenon. They began to put blanks into the forge only after the coal had flared up well and the sulfur had burned out. This helped improve the efficiency of the forge. Blacksmiths also exploited coal's ability to sinter at high temperatures. They built a dome-shaped “cap” of sintered coal over the hearth of the forge, into which they placed the workpieces. This method made it possible to improve the heating of the metal and prevent the negative effects of sulfur on its properties. Fuel plays an important role in the heating process of workpieces in forging. Blacksmiths can use a variety of fuels, including solid, liquid, and gas. The most common uses of solid fuels are in small forges, such as wood, peat, coal and coke. However, over time, charcoal began to be used less and less. In the 18th century it was the main type of fuel, but now its production has decreased so much that it is practically not used for heating workpieces. However, if moderate heat is required for small workpieces, charcoal may still be a better choice. Its quality must be high - it must be well burned, dense, hard, not burn too quickly and have a shiny fracture and “ringing”. This will ensure faster heating of the workpieces and reduce oxidation. Thus, the choice of fuel plays an important role in the efficiency and quality of the forging process. Forge shops widely use coke to heat workpieces. Its advantages include a relatively low percentage of sulfur and phosphorus content, as well as a high calorific value. However, coal also has its use, especially if it is necessary to heat the workpieces to high temperatures. The coal must be of good quality - when burning it should give a short flame and sinter well. Its density is 1.3 tons per cubic meter, and in loose fill its mass can reach 750-800 kilograms. Blacksmiths call this coal "nut" because of its black, shiny color and size, comparable to a walnut. The weight of different types of charcoal also varies: oak and beech weigh 330 kilograms, birch - 215 kilograms, pine - 200 kilograms, and spruce - 130 kilograms. Liquid fuel, also known as petroleum, is a mixture of refined petroleum products such as gasoline, kerosene and others. It also includes residual oils resulting from the distillation process. However, the most widely used are fuel oils, which are relatively cheap and have a high calorific value. In blacksmithing, fuel oil is the main fuel used to heat metal. They provide the high temperature required for melting and processing metal products. Due to its availability and efficiency, fuel oils are an indispensable resource for blacksmiths. At the same time, their use can have a negative impact on the environment, since the combustion of fuel oil releases harmful emissions. Therefore, modern blacksmiths are actively seeking alternative and cleaner fuel sources to reduce their environmental impact and keep their operations profitable and sustainable.

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Let's look at ways to produce charcoal for those who cannot use gaseous fuel or liquid fuel to heat workpieces in forges, or buy coal or coke. Charcoal is increasingly popular because it is relatively cheap, has a high calorific value, mixes easily with air and burns completely. It is also important to note that it does not contain toxic carbon monoxide. Making charcoal is a process that can be considered. In the forest, perhaps closer to the place where trees are felled, “heaps” are arranged. They are located in an area that is sheltered from the wind and close to water. The first step is to level the area, clear it of turf and compact the soil. Then three stakes are placed in the middle and spread apart with slats to create a vertical pipe. A mound of highly flammable materials such as shavings, dry twigs and birch bark is placed on the ground around the pipe. On the second column, logs 1-1.5 meters’ high are installed. A second column is installed above this row, and horizontal logs and branches are placed on top, forming the so-called “cap”. First, the pile is covered with a layer of moss, turf and leaves, then sand and soil with coal debris are poured on top. It is important to ensure that the tire does not come into contact with the ground. Then, dry branches are placed at the base of the pile on the windy side and set on fire. When the bottom of the logs catches fire, the base of the pile is sealed tightly and combustion continues with limited air access. It is important to constantly monitor the condition of the tire. The burning process takes 15-20 hours and is considered complete when blue smoke begins to emanate from the holes. After all the vents are closed, the pile is cooled for several hours, and then the tire is disassembled and large pieces are broken up. It is important to remember that the volume of charcoal is half the volume of firewood, and its weight is four times less. There is an opportunity to start laying the “piles” in a different way. On a flat area protected from the wind, two logs 1 m long and 12-15 cm thick are laid in parallel at a distance of 30-40 cm from each other, and the space between them is filled with dry shavings and wood chips. After this, the “heap” is formalized. The formation of a hemisphere occurs gradually as the “heap” tightens. The firewood is then surrounded by wet straw on all sides and covered with a layer of earth, and then covered with 10 cm thick turf, leaving an uncovered belt 20 cm high at the bottom. After this, a window is created between the lower parallel logs and the chips are set on fire. As soon as the wood begins to burn, the window is carefully covered with straw and covered with earth. If somewhere during the combustion process the flame begins to break through, it is necessary to cover this area with straw and cover it with earth. After 10-12 hours, the firewood is completely burned, and the entire pile is covered with a thin layer of earth to the base so that further combustion occurs without access to air. Ready coal can be obtained in 3-4 hours. To do this, they rake the pile and pour water over the coal to stop burning, and then collect it. There is an easier way to produce charcoal - in trenches. To do this, logs are placed tightly in a trench 1.5-2 meters long and about 0.5 meters deep. Below, under the logs, you need to lay out small chips and shavings. Then the trench is covered with iron sheets and sand and earth are poured on top. One side of the trench is left open to ignite wood chips, and the other side is left for smoke to escape. When the wood is on fire, the windows are closed and combustion continues without air access. For more efficient heating of workpieces, it is recommended to use charcoal obtained from oak, maple, beech or birch. The forge is ignited as follows: a thin layer of coal is poured onto the hearth board, then a layer of shavings and small wood chips, previously moistened with 14

kerosene, is placed. A small amount of dry firewood is placed on top. Once the wood begins to burn, another layer of coal is added and the blowing process begins. As soon as the coal becomes hot and acquires a bright red color, you can begin heating the workpieces. During heating, the coal is periodically sprayed with water to form a protective crust that maintains the high temperature inside the burning mass. Ash from burnt wood and coal spills into the tuyere, which is periodically cleaned. To do this, equip the bottom of the tuyere with a bottom cover. Air enters the skin through the edge of the hole, which the person lifts. Then he closes the hole with his palm and, pressing on the skin, releases air into the fire. Thus, the first blowing devices appeared - bellows, which existed until the 20th century with various changes. Nowadays we can use a vacuum cleaner, compressor or electric fans for these purposes, which are more efficient. A blowtorch can be used to heat workpieces. Coal is poured into a recess, which is located next to a pre-prepared hole, and a small oven is made of refractory bricks. If desired, you can create a design in which the blowtorch will be placed below the furnace so that the blacksmith has greater freedom of movement. To do this, the bricks are placed vertically, a grate is laid on them, and four bricks are installed on it in the form of a furnace. The pipe is used to supply a blowtorch under the grate. In this case, the blanks are placed in the gap between the bricks.

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General Concepts of Blacksmithing. Materials The most common materials used in blacksmithing are cast iron, steel, and iron. Chemically pure iron is never used in technology; it is always combined with carbon, and depending on the admixture it is called cast iron, steel or iron. All these types of iron differ not only in their chemical composition, but also in their properties. Cast iron contains 3-6% carbon, steel contains 0.5 to 2% carbon, and iron contains no more than 0.5% carbon. Native iron is rarely found in nature. Iron is mainly found in the form of ores, such as iron oxides or compounds of sulfur, chlorine and others. Pig iron is produced from these ores and then converted into iron. This substance is hard and flexible, it has the properties of malleability and ductility, capable of expanding or flattening without rupture. When heated to a certain temperature, it becomes soft and flexible. The structure of iron can be fibrous or granular. Granular iron has a grayish-lead color. The quality of iron can be determined by the color of the grains. If the grains are large and dull or white in color, this indicates poor quality iron. However, a white color with a fibrous fracture may indicate good quality iron, while a dull color indicates poor quality. Iron can be divided into three grades, depending on its properties. Soft-ductile iron has flexibility and toughness in both cold and hot states. It can withstand high temperatures and welds well. Cold-brittle iron has a coarse-grained structure when fractured and is characterized by high brittleness. Most often, the color logo contains a small admixture of phosphorus, giving the iron brittleness when cold and a strong shine. When it is heated to red-hot heat, it becomes easily forged. Another type of iron is red brittle with an admixture of sulfur. It also forges well when cold, but becomes brittle when heated. Fistulas and cracks can be observed on the surface of this type of iron, and its composition is partly granular and partly fibrous. The fracture of such iron is dark and not shiny. In general, to be considered truly good iron, it must be equally malleable when cold as when heated. Grades of iron have different qualities, which depend on the production method and the ore used to make it. When hot or cold, iron easily splits into thin sheets and is drawn into wire without cracks. One way to check the quality of iron is to remove chips from the surface of the iron with a chisel. The longer the chips, the better the quality of the iron. If the iron crumbles during such a test, this is considered a sign of low quality. It is important that high-quality iron has a uniform structure, has a certain ductility and does not break under load. In practice, there are three main types of malleable iron: 1) The best type. It has a soft, viscous, flexible and plastic structure, so that even in a cold state it does not break, but bends. The surface is smooth, and when forged it turns into a fibrous structure. The color is light grey. 2) Red-brittle iron got its name due to the fact that when heated it breaks easily and under heavy loads. A distinctive feature of the sledgehammer blow is its ability to crush iron into small pieces. The reason for this is the large amount of sulfur in iron. The color of the iron is dark gray, and in 16

the fracture you can see light gray grains mixed with fibers. When iron is subjected to extreme heat, it easily burns out. On the other hand, cold-brittle iron is very similar in appearance to the previous type of iron, but it is distinguished by the presence of large shiny plates in the fracture. When heated, this iron remains flexible, but when cooled it breaks. This feature of iron is due to the presence of phosphorus. Iron that does not rust is brittle. Melting of well-wrought iron occurs at a very high temperature of 1600 °C, while cast iron can be liquefied at 1200 °C and poured into a mold. Iron contains no more than 0.2-0.6% carbon. The strength of iron depends not only on its chemical composition, but also on the finishing operations it undergoes. Forging and rolling increase strength, while hardening and exposure to fire for a long time reduce this characteristic. Here's an interesting fact about iron: its malleability is very impressive. It can easily be flattened into a thin sheet or stretched into a wire without breaking. When iron heats up, its ductility increases even more. It's funny, but iron does not change when it is in absolutely dry air or boiled water. However, if iron is in contact with both water and air, it oxidizes and becomes susceptible to rust. Polishing the iron can protect it a little from rust, and painting it with oil paint will prevent it from rusting at all. When a certain temperature is reached, iron acquires different shades, which are characteristic features for determining a given heating temperature. Thus, at 525 °C iron becomes red or “red hot”; at 1300 °C - white heat; at 1500-1600 °C - bright white. At temperatures from 1600 to 2000 °C, iron melts, but before that it acquires the consistency of dough. In this case, individual pieces can be combined into a homogeneous mass, or the iron can be welded together. From a practical point of view, welding iron is one of its valuable properties. Strip type iron has a rectangular cross-section and is divided into several types, including ordinary, busbar and hoop iron. Bar iron, also known as cut iron, is shaped like rectangle, hexagon and octagon in cross section. Thin grades of bar iron are used to make nails and hooks for carpenters, while thicker grades are used for construction purposes. For various iron connections subject to tensile forces, bolted iron is predominantly used. This iron has a round shape and different diameters. Sheet iron, which is divided into two types ordinary or roofing and boiler, is made from good-quality material through rolling. Especially boiler iron should be soft, smooth, evenly cut and free from scale or other defects. Sheet iron also includes tinplate, which is also known as white iron. Wire iron is made by drawing wires from the finest iron through holes in a steel board. After this, the wire is sorted by number and sold by weight. The thickness of the wire is determined by the gauge and is expressed in numbers, which increase as the diameter of the wire decreases. The numbers used in different factories are arbitrary. As a result of stretching, iron acquires greater hardness, density and viscosity. If you need to make the wire soft, it must be processed using additional methods. The wire can be coated with tin and a half on both sides. Is it possible to anneal shaped iron in a reverberatory furnace or, even better, heat it in an ordinary forge, placing it in cast iron with a lid tightly covered with clay? Several types of shaped iron are known by different names, such as corner, half-round, window, T-shaped (T17

shaped), and I-beam (Inverted-H-shaped). There are many grades of cast iron considered in the industry, but only a few are considered significant. Types of cast iron can be divided into two main ones: white and gray. White, also known as mirror, is distinguished by its light white color and high hardness. It also lends itself well to polishing. Gray cast iron has a dark gray color and is softer and more ductile. Some of its varieties also have malleability, like iron. However, there is another type of cast iron known as malleable cast iron. It obtains its properties as the finest iron through a special metallurgical operation. It has softness, viscosity and malleability. This metal has a major advantage over other types of cast iron. The most important advantage of malleable iron is its low cost compared to that of iron, and the ability to easily produce complex shapes that are usually difficult to obtain from ordinary iron. In addition, ductile iron has become popular in industry due to its ability to finely harden the surface, which maintains the softness of the inner core. The surfaces of products made from hardened cast iron can be enameled or coated with other metals such as zinc or nickel using the electroplating method. In addition, malleable cast iron is easy to work when cold. Malleable cast iron is malleable for processing with a variety of metalworking tools, such as chopping and cutting. When this metal is moderately heated, it can be perfectly forged, just like iron. Blacksmithing also uses another type of cast iron called steel. Steel is extracted from cast iron using different methods and differs from iron only in its higher carbon content - about 1-2%. High-quality steel should have a light tint, approaching silver. The steel has a dense, fine-grained structure and lends itself well to polishing. It is softer than iron, but harder than white (grained) cast iron. The main advantage of steel is its elasticity and flexibility, which are significantly superior to iron. The strength of steel is twice that of iron. Relating between iron and cast iron, steel has a medium composition. It is easily hardened at a certain temperature and has high weldability. Different types of steel have different hardness, toughness and elasticity. Different types of products require steel of varying hardness, and the harder the steel, the more brittle it is. This is the basis for separating steel and determining its suitability for different products. There are several types of steel: 1) High-hardness tool steel is used to make files, cutters and other sharp tools for processing hard metals. 2) Spring steel is used to make springs, it must be flexible and resistant to bending. 3) Mild steel is used to make scythes, knives and other tools where flexibility and sharpness are required. There are many different grades of steel available for sale. Below are some of them: 1) Raw steel, also known as laid, maryanka5, or sold in the form of strips. It is obtained by decarbonizing cast iron, that is, removing part of the carbon from it. Raw steel is a transition material between cast iron and iron and is used to produce low quality steels. It has a

5

Maryanka is steel that has not undergone heat treatment.

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heterogeneous structure, which is evident from the coarse-grained fracture of varying sizes and gloss. 2) Refined steel is obtained by welding and forging raw steel. Its structure is more finegrained and homogeneous, which can be seen by the fracture. Cast steel, bluish-gray in color, has a build that is not entirely uniform, but much better than that of raw steel, and it also has a slight metallic luster. Cast steel is produced by melting malleable iron or raw steel, hence its name. Cast steel has a high degree of uniform composition, has fine-grained fracture, is hard and at the same time can be easily processed in a heated state. This steel is used primarily to make the blades of expensive and sharp materials processing tools. A blacksmith is sometimes forced to work not only with the main metals that we have described, but also with others, for example, with copper and its alloys with other metals. Copper can be found in nature in its pure form, but more often it is found in the form of copper ores combined with sulfur, acids or in the form of oxides. In ancient times, copper played the same role as iron plays today. Most of the things that are now made from iron, such as weapons and household items, were made from copper. Let's move straight to the analysis of the properties and varieties of copper, which is sold, without dwelling on the methods of obtaining it from ores. Dry red copper does not oxidize at ordinary temperatures, but when exposed to moist air it develops a thin green film known as copper rust. When molten, copper does not fill molds well because it absorbs air and releases it as it cools, causing its volume to decrease. For smelting copper castings, different amounts of carbon are used and thanks to this, the main and alloyed metallurgical tools, as well as many others, reduce tank smelting. This allows you to create a variety of products and components from copper. From zinc and copper, an alloy is mainly created - brass or yellow copper, which consists of two parts copper and one-part zinc. Copper is a very flexible and ductile material. It can be produced into very fine wire, which can then be flattened into thin sheets. After heat treatment, copper acquires a fibrous structure, although initially it has a fine-grained structure. The specific gravity of copper is not constant and can vary from 8.5 to 8.96 and can be increased by machining the metal. Red and yellow copper can be heated in a forge. Attention should always be paid to the grade of copper, as it is similar to iron and steel when heated. Yellow copper is less resistant to high temperatures than red copper. Typically, the copper is heated to a deep red color and then dipped in water to soften it. Copper comes to the market in the form of tiles or sheets. Sheets are obtained by flattening tiles with a hammer or rolling them on rollers. Sold copper is rarely free of impurities such as sulfur, arsenic, cuprous oxide and others. The weakening of the ductility and ductility of copper is caused by the addition of impurities, especially cuprous oxide, which makes the metal brittle and brittle at low temperatures. Russian and Swedish copper are considered the purest. Various copper alloys are widely used in all metal products. Composed of one-part red copper and two parts zinc, brass is a 19

hybrid metal. Increasing the zinc content of this alloy also increases its hardness; thus, with a ratio of two parts zinc to one-part copper, the alloy becomes. Alloys with different combinations of zinc and copper have different properties. If the amount of copper in the alloy increases, then its ductility and malleability also increase. Typically, alloys with a zinc content of up to 40% are characterized by high malleability and ductility, they are bendable and stretchable. An excellent example of an alloy with high ductility is a combination of 15-20 parts zinc and 80-85 parts copper. In the production of products, the most in demand are copper-zinc alloys, in which the copper content is The zinc content in such alloys exceeds that of pure copper. They melt more easily, change in air to a lesser extent, and are easier to forge, sharpen and draw into wire. They are also better at filling all the creases of molds when casting various products and, in the long run, cost less than pure copper. Tompak is an alloy of copper and zinc, where copper predominates significantly, making up from 82 to 98 parts, while zinc makes up 2-18 parts. This alloy is more expensive than brass, has a redder color, greater softness and ductility. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, which is the oldest metal, used to make weapons, coins and ancient jewelry before the discovery of iron. The proportions of tin content in the alloy can be very different, affecting the properties of the resulting alloys. The presence of tin makes copper harder, louder and fusible, but at the same time more fragile. When the properties of the alloy change, its color also changes. If the tin content does not exceed 25%, bronze still has a reddish tint and retains its characteristic strength. The viscosity and viscousness of the foam, the steel-gray color appears, moving beyond the limits of this singing, something fragility is gradually replaced. The yellowish color is given to copper by zinc, which becomes very beautiful when the zinc content is increased compared to the tin content in the alloy. In air, bronze oxidizes faster than pure copper, becoming covered with a green layer of oxide. For example, all ancient statues and other bronzes found in the ground are covered with the same green tint. Therefore, an idea was developed to create a resemblance to antique bronze. Various processing methods are used to impart an artificial green layer to new bronze items. One of them is to immerse the products in a strong solution of table salt for several days, after which they are washed with water and slowly dried. This process results in the formation of a durable layer of green on the surface of objects. Another method is to use a sugar solution to which a small amount of oxalic acid is added. However, other techniques remain the same. Bronze surfaces can also be covered with greenery using a weak ammonia solution, although the greenery in this case is less durable. changeA remarkable property of bronze is its strength. When heated to a dark red state and rapidly cooled, it loses its brittleness and becomes ductile and flexible. To restore hardness, bronze is calibrated in the opposite way in comparison with iron and steel: it heats up and cools slowly. Thus, the process of tempering and hardening of bronze is carried out in the exact opposite way compared to the tempering and hardening of iron and steel. The choice of material for making items in blacksmithing varies. Iron and steel are most often used, in rare cases copper and brass are used. Cast iron is not used in blacksmithing.

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The process of preparing an item from iron or steel begins with choosing a suitable piece of material that matches the shape and size of the item. Sometimes it is enough to cut off a piece of iron and process it with suitable tools in a cold state. Processing a material to give it a specific shape often requires careful preliminary preparation. This is due to the fact that the starting material may not correspond to the desired external shape, and processing it in a cold state is a difficult and inconvenient task. Iron and steel are especially difficult to process as they are very strong and resistant to chopping and cutting tools. However, if you heat steel until red hot, it becomes soft and you can give it any desired shape, which will remain after cooling. Ultimately, it is important to properly prepare and process the materials in order to achieve the desired shape of the item. Forging or blacksmithing is an operation that consists of heating and processing metal of known softness. A forge, in addition to forging, also performs other operations such as welding, hardening steel, and other operations that require heating, but not melting, which is associated with foundry. The purpose of forging metal is to give the item an approximate shape and appropriate dimensions. In the case of finishing, the main work is turning or metalworking. However, the blacksmith often performs preliminary processing of the product to make it ready for subsequent work by the turner or machinist. Some products, such as horseshoes for horses, nails, staples, bolts, loops, hooks and others, are created by the blacksmith in finished form and given away.

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Basics of Blacksmithing The master performs all blacksmithing work in the forge, which is a separate spacious room 10-15 meters away from the dwelling. If there is no such room, a covered shed in the yard can be arranged and equipped with the necessary devices. Necessary equipment includes a forge, an anvil, a table for work, a workbench, a stand or rack for tools, and a tank with cold water.

The forge is the basis of the forge equipment and can be useful when using a sharpener, welding machine and presses. At its core, a forge is a simple furnace that is used to heat forging blanks and warm up forgings during operation. You can use coal or charcoal as fuel for the forge. Unlike a conventional furnace, the forge has an open firebox and forced air supply, which is carried out using various devices. Ancient forges often used stationary forges, which were monumental structures. Initially, they consisted of a wooden frame, which was waist-high and was densely filled with burnt earth, sand, broken small stones or clay. They created a forge by making a depression in the middle of the log house, into which a thick cast iron or copper pipe was placed. Its other end was connected to the bellows. From the bellows, air was supplied through a pipe into the recess where the coals burned. This process is called blowing, and the temperature in the forge depends on the strength of the air flow. Forges were built from brick or in the classic forge style. It is recommended to build a forge as it will last a long time. A modern horn, even if it is made according to the classical principle, will have some differences in appearance. The fire forge is installed in the center of the wall, opposite the entrance. The table pedestal has a similar design to a classic forge. It can be made of wood or brick filled with sand, clay and other materials. The optimal table height is 70-80 cm, and the dimensions of the sides can reach 22

1.5-2 meters and even more if you plan to manufacture large products, for example, fences. The surface of the forge table is lined with refractory brick, reinforced concrete or sawn stone. A hearth or fireplace is placed in the middle of the table.

The lance, which is a thick-walled tank, has a round or square shape measuring 20x20 or 40x40 cm with a depth of 10-15 cm. It is inserted into a hole covered on top with a hearth board. A pipe, consisting of a piece of refractory steel pipe, is welded to the side of the tuyere. Air is supplied from a blowing device (fan, blower socket of a vacuum cleaner, compressor or bellows) through a pipe into the tuyere body, and then enters the combustion zone through the hearth board. The type of flame depends on the configuration of the holes in the hearth board. For example, a cylindrical flame is obtained by using evenly spaced round holes, and a narrow and elongated flame is obtained by using slotted holes, including a conventional stove grate. To assemble a forging table pedestal, you can use steel angles that are connected by welding or bolts. In this case, the upper corners should be turned edges up to create a flat table surface. Then a thick iron sheet with a hole for the tuyere is placed into the resulting frame. The rest of the table space is filled with brick or other material, as in the first option. To heat the workpieces, you can use a blowtorch, placing it in a specially prepared hole and placing a small oven made of refractory bricks nearby. To provide the blacksmith with greater mobility, you can create a structure in which the blowtorch will be located under the furnace. To do this, lay the bricks on the end6 and place a grate on them, and then install four bricks in the form of a furnace. Coal is poured into this recess, and the blowtorch is brought to 6

An end is a transverse face of an extended object, similar in shape to a cylinder or rectangular parallelepiped.

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the grate through the pipe. In this case, the blanks are placed in the gap between the bricks. However, such an oven can only be used for small workpieces. The best option for ensuring the safety of working on a forge is a forge casing, which must be installed. This is a conventional exhaust system designed to remove hazardous gases generated during operation. The dimensions of the lower opening of the casing must correspond to the dimensions of the table. It is recommended to install the hood at a height of 50-60 cm from the working surface of the table, since the lower it is, the more efficient its operation. If your height allows, it is recommended to lower the level of the hood inlet. The best option for a furnace casing is a metal frame with refractory bricks. You can also use sheet iron with a thickness of 0.5-1.5 mm. It should be noted that the main disadvantage of metal casings is their tendency to burn out and collapse under the influence of high temperature and gases. Ideally, the forge should be located in a separate room. The forge should be installed in the center of the wall, which is located opposite the entrance. The anvil should be placed at a distance of 1-2 meters from the forge so that the conical horn is to the left of the blacksmith, who stands with his back to the forge. There should be enough space around the anvil for the blacksmith to move freely and, if necessary, for the hammer to work. A barrel of water should be placed between the anvil and the forge to cool the forgings and tools. In case of fire, water will also be useful. In order to maintain the constant coldness of the water in the barrel, it is buried in the ground to 2/3 of its height. The table for the blacksmith's tool should be located next to the anvil. To save space, the table can be made two-story, where a frequently used tool is placed on the upper plane, and a less popular tool is placed on the lower shelf. The forging vice, on which the upsetting, bending and twisting operations are performed, is placed next to the wall. The bench is located next to the vice. In the corners of the room there are boxes with coal, firewood and sand. Steel is one of the most important materials in the world. Blacksmiths, using their skills and talent, transform this alloy of iron and carbon into amazing products. But to understand what properties steel has and why it is so popular, it is necessary to consider its base material and additives that can improve its characteristics. There are two main types of steel depending on their chemical composition: carbon and alloy steels. Carbon steels, in turn, are divided into ordinary quality steels, high-quality carbon steels and special-purpose steels. Each type of steel has its own characteristics and applications in various industries. For example, special-purpose steels are used in the production of aircraft and space structures, where high strength and reliability of the material are required. Highquality carbon steels are widely used in construction and mechanical engineering due to their strength and ease of processing. Ordinary quality steel finds its use in the production of household products and non-critical structures. Thus, the chemical composition of steel is an important factor determining its quality and properties. Controlling the content of additives in the alloy and selecting the appropriate type of steel allows us to obtain a material that meets the requirements and ensures the reliability and durability of the final products. When looking for the ideal material for forging, you need to pay attention to ductility. Regular quality steel with a carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% is ideal for such purposes. It welds well and cuts easily. The markings of such steels are St0, St1, St2. However, we should not 24

forget about the quality of St3-St6 steels, which can also be acceptable options. These steels are most often available in the form of wire, rods, strips and sheets. If you are looking for an affordable source of the steel you need, you can look to scrap metal. It may be the most convenient resource for you. However, it is worth remembering that construction reinforcement is most often made from St0 steel, welding structures from St1 steel, and railway spikes, bolts, nuts, and nails from St2 and St3 steels. Thus, choosing the right steel depends on the specific task you plan to solve. In the manufacturing process of various tools, carbon tool steels are used. Moreover, the marking of such steels always begins with the letter “U”, and then the carbon content is indicated in tenths of a percent. For example, U9 steel contains 0.9% carbon. However, tool steel can be used for more than just tools. It can also be used in products where the material may be an unusable tool. It is important to note that alloy steels contain special additives that give them different qualities and properties. These additives are included in the composition of steel without fail and make it possible to achieve certain characteristics required for a specific application. Thus, alloy steels have improved mechanical properties and can be used in various industries that require special requirements for the material. Increasing the carbon content of steel increases its hardness and hardenability, but reduces its ductility and ductility. However, to achieve optimal steel properties, blacksmiths introduce various additives. For example, nickel can improve corrosion resistance, and arsenic can improve elasticity. Each additive has its own characteristics and affects the steel differently, which allows you to create a variety of products with unique characteristics. Moreover, alloy steels play an important role in various industrial fields. For example, the already mentioned nickel gives steel strength and hardness and increases corrosion resistance. This is especially important when creating structures that are subject to severe physicalmechanical or physical-chemical loads. Tungsten and vanadium also play an important role in alloy steels. They increase heat resistance and inhibit the formation of scale when heating steel to high temperatures. This is especially useful in the production of tools that must operate at high temperatures. In addition, silicon is one of the main elements that give steel its elasticity. This allows the use of alloy steels in the manufacture of springs, shock absorbers and other parts that must be flexible and elastic. Thus, alloy steels are an important material used in various industries. They provide not only strength and hardness, but also heat resistance, corrosion resistance and elasticity. This allows you to create designs and tools that are highly reliable and durable. Blacksmithing makes extensive use of various non-ferrous metals, mainly copper and its alloys such as brass and bronze, as well as aluminum and its alloys. But besides this, low-carbon steel, which contains about 0.1-0.2% carbon, is also used in forging work. When this steel is processed with a grinding wheel, bright sparks appear that fan out and have a slightly curved shape. They have a straw-yellow color and thickening in the middle and at the end. As the carbon content increases, the basic pattern of sparks remains the same, but more and more bright stars appear around the fan. For example, with a carbon content of 0.5%, a sheaf of steel sparks will look like the same fan of slightly curved lines, however, in the area of the middle 25

thickening, a small number of sparks are separated from the sheaf, which sparkle as individual stars. This creates an interesting and beautiful effect during the blacksmithing process. Various grades of steel are widely used in forging, including high-carbon and tool steel. These steels have special properties that are manifested in their sparks. Below is a table containing the characteristics of sparks and sprockets of various steel grades. Carbon steels are characterized by sparks that vary in color from straw yellow to light yellow. They create sparkles with abundant stars that add beauty and liveliness to the forging process. Chromium steel, in turn, amazes with its long sparks. Short thin branches ending in stars fly off from the main branch of sparks. The color of chromium steel sparks is orange-red, which makes the forging process even more impressive. Tungsten steel, on the other hand, produces intermittent sparks with small nubs at the ends. These sparks give a special character to the blacksmithing process and add a certain mystique to the art of forging. Thus, each grade of steel has its own characteristics in generating sparks and stars, making the forging process unique and exciting. Blacksmiths use these characteristics to achieve the desired result and create unique metal products. It should be noted that the choice of material and additives in steel depends on the specific purpose of the product. For example, high-carbon steels are used to produce tools because they have high hardness and hardenability. At the same time, low-carbon steels are used for building structures, as they are more ductile and malleable. Thus, the correct selection of materials and additives allows blacksmiths to create high-quality and unique steel products. It is important to control the content of additives in the alloy so as not to exceed a certain threshold and not get the opposite effect, which can negatively affect the quality of the steel. It is especially important to monitor the content of sulfur and phosphorus in the alloy, since the less of these impurities, the higher the quality of the steel. Determination of steel grade by spark Steel grade Сt2, Сt3 Сt4 Сt5, Сt10

Сt15, Сt20

Сt20, Сt30

Shapes of sparks and stars Spark filaments are thin, with thickenings in the middle and at the end, there are practically no branchings The filaments are denser than in Ct2 and Ct3 steels, and there are few branches Filaments sharp, with thickenings in the middle and at the end, few branchings, few stars Threads are the same shape as Ct5, Ct10, but there are more branching and sprockets The ends of the filaments become thin, with no thickening, branching or asterisks much 26

U12 Сt40, Сt45

Small, dense stars The ends of the filaments are sharp, the filaments are strongly branched, the sprockets are round, dense

The forge is a place where ideas are embodied and unique items are created. The main element of this workshop is the forge, in which the material is heated to such an extent that its hardness gives way to plasticity. Only at this moment can the blacksmith begin creating the desired item. However, it must be taken into account that each material has its own unique forging temperature, determined by its chemical composition. The upper limit of this interval is the temperature to which the workpiece must be heated in the forge before forging begins. After this, the forging process itself begins, which continues until the workpiece cools to the lower limit of the forging temperature range. Only when the item has cooled completely can it be considered complete. Thus, the forge is a place where craftsmanship, creativity and science come together to create unique and durable items. Before starting metal processing, it is very important to determine the correct heating temperature for the workpiece. If heated incorrectly, the metal can become overheated, which will lead to a significant loss of its ductility. Moreover, severe overheating can cause the metal to burn out, which will lead to its destruction during forging. To avoid such problems, it is necessary to heat the workpiece to the optimal forging temperature. In this temperature range, the plasticity of the metal will be quite high, which will facilitate its processing. In addition, at the right temperature, the mechanical effects of forging tools will not damage the internal structure of the metal. However, if you start forging a workpiece heated to a temperature below the forging temperature, cracks may form on it, which can negatively affect the quality of the product. Therefore, the ability to correctly determine the heating temperature of a metal is an important skill for processing metal workpieces. Since ancient times, blacksmiths had a unique skill - determining the temperature of forgings7 by color. Gradually heated metal acquires various shades. At the first stage, tarnish colors appear, replacing each other. Then the first heat color appears, following the last tarnish color. With further heating, all the colors of incandescence pass through one by one. The highest temperature corresponds to a white incandescent color with various shades of brightness. For convenience, below are tables indicating the temperatures corresponding to different colors of steel tarnish and heat. Discoloration and corresponding temperatures for steel Discoloration

Temperature, ° С

Pale yellow

210

Light yellow

220

7

Forging - An intermediate billet or finished metal or alloy product that is produced by forging or volumetric hot stamping.

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Yellow

230

Dark yellow

240

Brown

255

Brown-red

265

Purple

285

Dark blue

300

Light blue

325

Gray

330 Heat colors and respective temperatures for steel Heat colors

Temperature, ° С

Dark brown (visible in the dark)

530-570

Brown-red

580-650

Deep red

650-730

Dark cherry red

730-770

Cherry red

770-800

Light cherry red

800-830

Light red

830-900

Orange

900-1050

Dark yellow

1050-1150

Straw yellow

1150-1200

Lemon

1200-1400

White (different brightness)

1400

Blacksmiths remove the workpiece from the forge and begin to forge St1 steel at a temperature of 1300֯, which corresponds to the threshold of white heat. When the temperature drops to 800°, forging is stopped. Outside this range, steel is significantly less ductile and can fracture while resisting deformation. The optimal period for forging steel St2 is from 1200֯ to 850֯, and for U7, U8, U9 - from 1150֯ to 800֯. Steels U10, U12, U13 are forged in the range from 1130 to 870. Thus, the choice of temperature range is an important factor when forging steel. The horn is an important component of the anvil on which most of the forging work is performed. It can be hornless or single-horned, but the most versatile variant is the double28

horned anvil with a conical horn and tail. The incus has an upper horizontal plane called the face or clypeus. For reliability and efficiency, the platband must be hardened and carefully polished. The side edges of the anvil are made at an angle of 90 to the casing and have sharp edges without chips. The ribs are used for spreading and bending material. Many operations can be performed using a conical horn, which is designed for bending rods and strips radially. On the same horn, you can roll out and weld blanks in the shape of rings, as well as perform other operations, such as forging spirals. At the same time, the tail, located opposite the horn, has a pyramid shape and is used for bending and straightening closed rectangular workpieces. To attach the anvil to the stand, there are paws on its lower plane. Using staples, the anvil is attached to the stand. If you use a massive hardwood stump, the diameter of which is 60-70 cm, and its height the same, as a chair for a stationary anvil, then this will be an ideal option. The main tool in the forge is the percussion. These are handbrake hammers (hereinafter referred to as handbrake hammers), war hammers and sledgehammers. If you are unable to find a suitable stump, replace it with a wooden or metal barrel tightly packed with sand or earth. According to the advice of the experts, it is better to dig it into the ground to a depth of at least 0.5 meters and compact the earth well around the stand. For initial familiarization work, you can replace the anvil with a piece of rail or a thick metal plate. Place a thick wooden beam on top and attach an anvil to it. An unstable stand will make it difficult to work on the anvil. The main tool of a blacksmith is a handbrake, which is used for forging small products and directing the work of a hammer in pairs. The blacksmith, using a handbrake, shows the hammerman how and where to strike with a hammer or sledgehammer. The weight of the handbrake varies from 0.2 to 5 kg depending on the workpiece being processed. War hammers are heavy hammers, weighing between 10 and 12 kg. The head serves as the working part of the hammer, with the lower surface of the head being called the striker or striker, and the upper surface being the back. The backs can be wedge-shaped one-sided, two-sided longitudinal and two-sided transverse. Wedge-shaped tails are used to accelerate hot metal along or across the axis of the workpiece. Double-sided longitudinal and transverse tails simplify metal cutting. For heavy forging work, where strong blows are necessary, sledgehammers are used powerful hammers weighing up to 15 kg. The flat shape of the sledgehammer strikers makes them ideal for this job. To ensure durability, the handles of percussion instruments are made from durable hardwoods such as birch, beech, hornbeam or ash. Some old masters preferred to use rowan handles. The length of the handbrake handle can be up to 60 cm, while the hammer handle, depending on its weight and the height of the hammer, reaches 90 cm. It is important that the handles are smooth and do not have any cracks or protrusions. Particular attention should be paid to the fastening of the handle with the head to avoid serious damage to the hand. The wedge intended to secure the handle is driven in after inserting it. The most reliable are considered to be metal jagged wedges, which should be driven in to a depth equal to 2/3 of the width of the head of a hammer or sledgehammer, at a slight angle to the axis of the handle.

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Let's look at the striking technique in more detail. Elbow (or light) strikes are applied by moving the arms from the elbow. Working with a hammer has different types of strikes. The forearm is not involved in one of them. Shoulder strikes are performed by moving the arms away from the shoulder. During this blow, the hammer makes a full circle in the air: through the bottom, over the back, over the head and strikes. The highest point of the hammer's trajectory is above the hammerer's head at the level of outstretched arms. Mounted blows are used in the case of forging large workpieces or for forge welding of large parts. A blacksmith can use various backing tools, which greatly simplify his work and expand his capabilities. There are two types of backing tools: lower8 and upper9, depending on whether it is installed on an anvil or under a hammer. Let's start getting acquainted with this tool with the devices that fit under the hammer. Forging chisels are used by blacksmiths in many applications and have different characteristics. Firstly, they are divided into chisels for cutting heated and cold workpieces. Chisels for chopping cold workpieces are more massive and have a knife sharpening angle of 60 degrees. Chisels with a thinner blade are used for chopping hot workpieces. The sharpening angle of this knife is 30 degrees. Depending on the shape of the knife, there are different types of chisels. Chisels with a straight knife are used for both transverse and longitudinal cutting. The knife of the chisel for transverse cutting is located parallel to the axis of the handle, and the knife of the chisel for longitudinal cutting is perpendicular to the axis of the handle. Straight knives

8 9

Lower is a lower backing tool, which is inserted into the hole of the anvil with a square shank. Upper is an upper backing tool that has a handle for holding.

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can be single-sided or double-sided sharpened. Chisels with one-sided sharpening give a cut with a strictly perpendicular end. To decorate the surface of a product with an ornament, chisels with double-sided sharpening are often used, which make cuts with inclined ends. Sometimes the chisel blade may be left dull. In thin workpieces, punches are used to make holes and recesses. The working part of the punches, called the bit, can have various shapes, such as round, oval, square, rectangular or shaped. The choice of punch shape depends on the required hole or recess shape. Bulk workpieces can be processed using piercing or special punches. Punchons10 differ from punches in that they do not have handles and are held with pliers. To level the surface of the product after forging, smoothers are used. Their working surface can have different sizes depending on the size of the plane that needs to be leveled. For large surfaces, it is more convenient to use trowels with a working surface of 10x10 cm, and for small flat surfaces, trowels with a working surface of 5x5 cm are sufficient. And if you need to level radius surfaces, then use trowels with a cylindrical working surface. Rolling machines perform the important function of accelerating the process of elongation of hot metal along and across the axis of the workpiece. In addition, they are also used for knocking out cylindrical grooves on workpieces. In addition, rolling sheets can be used to apply patterns. To install the backing tool into a square hole on the anvil casing, a square-shaped shank is used, which is easily inserted into the hole. Undercutting is also used in one of the cutting methods. The cutting blade has a sharpening angle of 60°. To chop off the required part of the workpiece, it is placed on the cutting blade and hit with a handbrake. When performing bending operations, conical mandrels and forks are used to expand holes in the workpiece and distribute rings. Over time, an experienced craftsman collects an arsenal of different mandrels that simplify forging slopes, forge welding and bending complex profiles. In the beginning, you won't need this set of tools. Gradually, with the accumulation of experience, you yourself will determine what kind of mandrels you need, and you will be able to make them. Don't be intimidated by the large number of tools. You won't use all of them right away when you start working as a blacksmith. To master basic blacksmithing techniques, you will need a limited set of tools. To work with already forged workpieces, crimps and tamps are used, which help give them the desired shape - cylindrical, rectangular or multifaceted. The workpiece is placed between them. This group of tools includes a paired backing tool consisting of a lower and an upper tool. The lower tool, like a lower tool, is inserted into a square hole on the anvil platband, and the upper tool is located on top of the workpiece and is held by the handle, like a regular upper tool. In addition, tampers are used for longitudinal and transverse distribution of metal. When making nails, bolts and rivets, the use of a nail plate is required to connect product parts. It is a beam with various special holes. It is important to remember that connections made using bolts and rivets from the same metal as the main product look neater. A plate-mould, which has recesses of various configurations and sizes along the four side faces, can be an

10

Punchon is a kind of mini-press suitable for stamping parts and marking them.

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excellent assistant for a blacksmith. The steel plate-form also has through holes of standard shapes (round, square, triangular and others) and shaped holes on the end surfaces. To punch holes in the workpieces being processed, holes are used on the end surfaces of the plate, which has a length of side edges of up to 40 cm and a thickness of 15 to 20 cm. The plate is placed under the workpiece, which is processed with punches or punches. In addition, there are recesses on the side faces of the plate, which successfully replace a whole set of backing dies and are used for forging a variety of shaped elements. Blacksmiths, working with hot metal, must hold the workpiece in a certain position while processing it. To perform a job with a certain tool, if one hand is enough, you can use pliers to hold the workpiece with the other hand. In order for the pliers to fit perfectly onto objects of various shapes, their jaws are given different shapes. For example, to hold a cylindrical workpiece, it is convenient to use pliers with jaws in the shape of half rings. Pliers can be longitudinal, transverse, longitudinal-transverse or special, depending on the shape of their jaws. If the size of the pliers' jaws is slightly larger than the size of the workpiece, you can use the following trick. The jaws of the pliers are heated in a forge, then they grab the workpiece and hit it with a handbrake so that the jaws take the shape of the workpiece. To perform tasks in a blacksmith shop, you need to have the right equipment and tools. Forging pliers must have long handles and a special clamping ring for holding workpieces. Important equipment are steel rulers of different lengths, calipers and squares for taking measurements. You also need a shovel, a poker, a broom for cleaning the forge from dust, a spray bottle for spraying coal and tongs for working with coal. An important piece of equipment is a box of dry sand and a container of water for maintaining the forge.

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Forging techniques and technology Before forging, you need to master the skills of properly igniting the forge and controlling the heating of the metal. It is best to clean the furnace nest and ash chamber from residual fuel and ash before starting work. A flammable material such as wood chips or birch bark should be placed in the forge nest and firewood should be placed on top. After igniting the wood, the blower is activated and small portions of fuel are added until the metal is evenly heated. Before you start heating the metal, it is necessary to take into account that a large amount of supplied air can cause intense burnout and, as a result, the workpiece may become completely unusable. On the other hand, insufficient air will not provide the required temperature. Working with cold metal is generally unacceptable, and when making tools, special attention should be paid to maintaining the forging temperature regime. When starting forging, a blacksmith applies a variety of techniques and uses various forging tools, changing their combinations and sequence. However, all these various techniques come down to several basic operations: upsetting and landing, drawing, chopping, stitching, bending, twisting, smoothing. By upsetting and upsetting, you can change the geometric parameters of the workpiece. During upsetting, the length of the workpiece is reduced in order to increase its cross-section. Upsetting, in turn, involves performing upsetting only on a certain area of the workpiece. In the process of manufacturing tools or decorative elements with a variable cross-section, sediment is actively used. During upsetting, part of the workpiece is heated, which is then placed vertically on the anvil and subjected to blows from above.

Upsetting of the heated part of the workpiece must occur with a limited length to prevent it from bending. If it is impossible to limit the heating zone, notches are made at the landing site 33

using a chisel. Then the ends of the workpiece are quickly cooled in water, and the remaining heated part, marked with notches, is not touched. After this, the workpiece is planted on the anvil. If necessary, this operation can be repeated several times. Long workpieces with a large mass can be planted without the use of a hammer, by striking directly on the workpiece. If the shape of the thickening becomes irregular or has shifted, the operation is repeated or the defect is corrected by forging. One way to increase the volume of the preprocessed workpiece is to bend one end at a right angle, and the length of the bent end should not exceed 2.5 times the diameter. Then the workpiece is turned over, placed on an anvil, upset and given the required shape using forging. Drawing is one of the most commonly used operations in forging. It allows you to increase the length of the workpiece or change its shape by reducing the cross section. If it is necessary to turn a thick metal workpiece into a strip, the red-hot workpiece is held on an anvil with the help of pliers and struck along the entire length with a narrow head of a sledgehammer. Then the forging is turned and the operation is repeated. The workpiece is processed with a handbrake and a trowel after reaching the required dimensions. If the workpiece is small, stretch it out, holding it with pliers. First, the workpiece is placed on the corner of the anvil and strong blows are applied with a handbrake. Then it is shifted, turned 90° and hit again with the handbrake. This operation is repeated until the desired dimensions of the workpiece are achieved. When drawn, a round forging is formed into a square shape. Then the edges are knocked down into an octagon and the resulting round bar is finally formed and smoothed in crimps. This method is also used when it is necessary to create a workpiece with different cross-sectional shapes and volumes.

Hood on the corner of the anvil To increase the area of the workpiece or a certain part of it, the flattening method is used, which is carried out by applying several blows with a handbrake or sledgehammer. If it is necessary to flatten a strictly defined area, then a special attachment is used. To increase the efficiency of the process, rolling of various shapes (flat or semicircular) is often used. A rolling tool with a small working surface absorbs the entire force of the impact and penetrates the metal, moving it to the sides. 34

For the production of drawing hollow workpieces, such as pipes, mandrels with a slight taper and various crimps are used depending on the shape of the workpiece. If the workpiece has a large diameter, the operation is performed without crimping on the corresponding sprockets or anvil horn. Gearing on a mandrel, sperak horn or anvil is used for the manufacture of one-piece rings, shells and hoops. The pre-planted and stitched workpiece is put on a cylindrical mandrel, which rests with both ends on a stand or anvil horn, and then the ring is distributed using the handbrake or tamper. With the help of chopping, you can separate the forging into parts, so it is necessary to use the appropriate forging and metalworking chisels, as well as other forging tools and devices if necessary. Chopping can be done on both hot and cold metal. For cold cutting, the chisel should be sharpened at an angle of 60°. It is important to remember that as the rings spread out, their inner and outer diameters increase, but their cross-section increases. When small workpieces are available, they can be distributed on cones and mandrels, which are inserted into the hole of the anvil.

. Manufacturing of workpieces with variable cross-section When cutting a cold-heated workpiece, significant internal stresses arise, which can cause the formation of cracks and tears; therefore, it is advisable to pre-anneal the metal workpiece. To perform hot cutting, the chisel must be sharpened at an angle of 80-85°. Before chopping hot metal and during the process, the chisel must be cooled in water, or best of all, in an oil emulsion, where simultaneous cooling and lubrication of the working part of the tool occurs, which prevents the tool from sticking to the workpiece. Before heating the part, it is marked and a notch is made using a chisel or core along the marks or contour on the cold workpiece. Then the workpiece is heated, transferred to the anvil and chopping is performed, delivering strong blows with a sledgehammer. To avoid setting and overheating of the chisel in heated metal, it is necessary not to keep it in the workpiece for too long, as it will absorb heat and shrink. It is a good idea to have several chisels on hand so that if one gets damaged you can use others. To cut a workpiece, first make a cut to 2/3 of its depth, then turn it over so that the cut site is at the edge of the anvil, and finally chop it off. Linear workpieces can also be cut using undercutting. The workpiece is placed on the undercut and cut off using a chisel. If necessary, you can use the handbrake to strike the workpiece laid on the hook. However, care must be taken not to cut it completely, so as not to damage the undercut and the working part of the hammer. 35

Cutting the workpiece on the edge of the anvil There are several types of felling, according to conventional categories: - cutting, when the workpiece is cut, but remains connected to the base material. Then these parts are pulled out, twisted, and so on. - cutting, when the metal is separated along the outer contour. - cutting, when the metal is separated along the internal contour. Typically, the last two techniques are used when working with sheet materials. Sheet metal up to 3 mm thick is cut using a cold method, while thicker sheets are cut using a hot method. One method is the following: heat a sheet metal blank, place it on an anvil or steel plate and cut it with a chisel, leaving 1 mm of thickness. The workpiece is allowed to cool after the pattern has been completely traced along the contour. The lining is used for cold cutting. It is advisable to use shaped chisels for cutting out holes of complex shapes. However, due to the certain complexity of manufacturing and sharpening, it is recommended to use them for hot chopping and applying decorative notches. The appearance of the product depends on the thickness of the chisel, the angle and method of sharpening it. Chisels with thin blades produce a finer cut line, but are less durable and shrink faster. On the other hand, chisels with a thick blade are more durable in use, but when using them, deformation of the product may occur due to acceleration. However, this property can be used as a technological or decorative technique. One of the methods for creating holes in a forging is piercing (punching). The procedure is performed using punches (bits) with different shapes of the working part; sometimes chisels and mandrels are also used. To pierce the workpiece, it is necessary to heat the workpiece very much. The anvil or punch plate, which is located under the workpiece, must have a hole larger than the punch and be located under the place where the future hole will be created. After several blows, metal bulges at the bottom of the workpiece. Holes can be punched in several stages using a punching plate or anvil. 36

An otter is a section of metal that is cut out after the following operations are completed. The initial stage involves transferring the workpiece to the anvil plane without using a punch. Then several blows are applied to the workpiece on the convex part until a dark spot is formed, exactly corresponding to the location of the hole on the reverse side. After these steps, the punch is removed and cooled. Then the workpiece is turned 180° and the reverse operation is performed. This results in the cutting down of an area of metal called an otter. A mandrel of the desired profile is inserted into a preheated hole and it is finally formed if the hole is smaller or of a different shape. The contours of the hole are clearly visible with this piercing method due to the different structure of the metal. In another piercing method, the workpiece is placed on the flat part of the anvil and hit on the beard until the so-called rebound is felt, that is, the limit of metal compaction. Then all operations are performed as in the first case. If it is necessary to punch a hole in a square through an edge, a special chisel is used. During the work process, the square workpiece is placed on a lower part, which holds it in the desired position. Then, using a chisel, they are cut, after which they are formed with a mandrel. If the workpiece has a round cross-section, then the location of the future hole is first flattened with light blows and then cut. This method can also be used for edge cutting. If a larger hole is required than the available mandrel, the workpiece is cut and moved apart using the largest mandrel. Then, the workpiece is put on the anvil horn and forged to the required shape and size. The chisel used to punch holes should be slightly curved and shaped like cones connected at the bases.

Formation of large diameter holes A curved shape can be given to a workpiece or part of it by bending, an operation performed depending on its thickness, profile and bending shape, both cold and hot. Bending can 37

be done on an anvil, in a vice or other special devices. When bending the workpiece at a right angle, it is heated and placed on the edge of the anvil, after which a sledge hammer is used to bend the protruding end. It must be taken into account that at the point of bending there is a decrease in the cross section. In the case of workpieces with a small cross-section, this can be ignored. In order to maintain the dimensions of the section, the bending point is first upset. If the bend has a decorative purpose or does not carry significant loads, then the bend is cut and easily bent at the desired angle. When bending occurs in a vice at a right angle, upsetting and bending are carried out simultaneously. This procedure should be carried out quickly, since the vice takes heat from the workpiece, and it cools quickly. Light bends are made on cold metal. To do this, one end of the workpiece is placed on the bottom, and the other rests on the surface of the anvil, after which blows are applied from above. When making several identical parts, a plate or jig is used. When twisting (torsion), one part of the workpiece rotates around another around the same axis. Typically, the twisted rods or product elements have a rectangular or square cross-section. Rods up to 15 mm thick are directly twisted in a low temperature state. Before twisting, the workpiece is especially carefully cooled by placing it in ash or allowing it to cool along with the rock in a corner. Then a mark is made at the place of twisting, one end is fixed in a vice or inserted into a recess on a comb of the required size, and a rotating device is attached to the other and rotated in the required number of revolutions. Sometimes a piece of pipe of the appropriate size is used to ensure that the twist dimensions are fixed. However, when twisting thicker workpieces, certain difficulties arise due to uneven heating. In this case, the turns are formed unevenly, since the hot part curls more and the cold part curls less. However, in some situations this may be negligible. If it is necessary to obtain identical turns, then there is a certain method: a part of the workpiece is heated as much as possible, moving it into the forge and ensuring uniform heating in the zone of future twisting. First, twisting is done. The rods look elegant with beards extended along the edges before torsion. If you heat only half of the curl zone, and then grab the hot end and rotate the cold one, the effect is achieved when tight curls gradually unravel. The uneven curling caused by the impossibility of uniform heating can be used as an artistic technique by performing reverse curling. To do this, the workpiece is heated strongly in the center of the twist. Then, having secured it along the heating boundaries, they begin twisting from the center. The tightly curled twist path results from shaping operations that disappear as the edges of the workpiece are approached. To carry out finishing operations on a product, carried out after the formation of its basic shape and the application of all molding techniques, smoothing is used. In order to perform ironing, the product is heated to a dark cherry color. Overheating may cause the product to become deformed. When smoothing, use flat trowels for smooth surfaces and special trowels for convex and concave areas. When performing ironing, the ironing iron is moved over the product and blows are applied to it with a handbrake. It is recommended to iron not the entire product, 38

but only a part, for example, a construction line, and leave the decorative elements “not under the hammer.”

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Manufacturing of forged elements and products for utilitarian, household and decorative purposes Basic forging techniques allow you to begin making simple products after mastering them.

To create loops, use a strip of the required size, on which a distance is marked corresponding to the length of the loop circumference and two thicknesses of the strip. One end of the workpiece is heated and then bent in the opposite direction from the direction of twisting the loop. Then the workpiece is placed on the edge of the anvil and, by moving it and striking with a handbrake, it is bent. When the bend is 2/3 formed, a mandrel of the required diameter is inserted into it. Then the eye of the loop is finally formed. The second part of the loop consists of two elements - a support pin on which the loop rotates, and a holding crutch. A support pin is made from a round blank, making a mark at a distance equal to the width of the loop plus the thickness of the crutch. Then the size of the workpiece is approximately tripled. The workpiece is heated, after which it is flattened by 2/3 of its length, sharp corners are formed and a hole is created at the end of the flat part. For a crutch, one side of the workpiece is pulled out onto a wedge, and the opposite side is slightly flattened and has a hole corresponding to the diameter of the support finger. If the loop is not subject to heavy loads, you can dispense with the support pin. However, if at the moment of twisting you insert a staple and bend it around it, the loop will become permanent. To create a loop without a pin, first cut the end of the strip and bend the pieces to the sides so that they form round pieces. Then cut the second part of the loop into a U shape and fold it around the folded mustache. Thus, you will get a loop in which one part is an overhead part, and the other can be attached both from the outside and from the inside. In addition to their 40

functional purpose, hinges can also serve as decorative decoration. Once the hinges are ready and installed, handles need to be made to complete the ensemble. To achieve the greatest reliability, the handle must be secured in at least three points that are not located on the same line. To create the handle, the initial square material is split at one end, then pulled apart slightly. Holes are drilled or punched on the resulting mustache. The other end of the material is made flat using a special tool, and then holes are made in it. Then the entire material is heated, twisted in the middle and shaped into a handle, while making sure that all attachment points are in the same plane. By placing anvils on all attachment points of the surface, the finished product is checked and leveled, if necessary. The sound is made by a knocker handle, often used for gates and gates. It consists of a pad on which is attached a hinged ring or hammer, which produces a sound when tapped.

A wide strip is heated and placed on a round bar, which is placed on two pads located on the anvil. The thickness of the pads should be equal to the sum of the diameter of the rod and the thickness of the strip, and the distance between them should correspond to this size. A smoothing iron is placed on top of the bar, and blows are applied to it until all the metal is removed. Excess materials are then removed. To complete the manufacturing, retreating from the edge to the width of the strip, holes are punched in the middle on both sides, and then a piece of metal is cut out from the corners to the hole.

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Making a handle A notch is made on the inside of the whiskers of the round billet using a chisel-shaped chaser in the form of a blunted chisel. The whiskers are turned outwards as a result of the metal heating up. In the middle of the required piece of billet, a flattening is made, and then it is turned through 180 degrees. Then, on a mandrel or anvil horn, the billet is screwed into a ring. The ring, at the moment of fastening the handle, is wound into the resulting dressing. In order that the ring does not change its position, the joint is straightened to the width of the strip. Decorative overlays are used for mortise locks and can simultaneously serve as handles. To create a handle, the manufacturer initially cuts a blank from a 3-4 mm thick sheet of metal of the desired size, and then cuts it at a distance of 20 mm from the edge. The resulting pullback find it and twist the curl. Finally, a handle is formed on the edge of the anvil, and then made holes for the key and fastener, carefully finishing the edges of the product with a file. Flower-leaf plant ornamentation is a traditional feature of wrought ironwork. Making flowers from metal can be done in different ways, including the simplest - making flower elements from sheet metal. To do this, the conceived shape of the flower is divided into individual elements, after which templates made of cardboard or dense paper are used to create manufactured flower blanks. Then they are given the desired shape. Chasings with different forms of beating cold can be used to create texture on flowers that are made of thin metal.

Handle overlay: 1 - cutting of metal sheet; 2 - formation of side curl; 3 - final view of the handle 42

Using metal more than 3 mm thick, you can change the shape of the flower elements not only by cutting, but also by pressing the metal. You can also get a deeper relief by applying the texture using the hot method. Then the elements are collected into a flower. If necessary, the flower is heated and finally shaped using pincers or pliers.

Flower from sheet metal: 1 - marking and cutting out the shape of the flower; 2 - the middle of the flower; 3 - volume formation; 4 - assembled view Making a rose is similar to the above method, but with some peculiarities: three round blanks with holes in the center are cut out of a sheet of metal. The diameter of the hole should correspond to the stem on which the bud will be attached. Then the blank is cut into five identical sectors, not reaching the central hole by 5-8 mm. Assemble the unfolded blanks in a bag and strengthen them on the supporting rod, then heat and give them the shape of a rose with pliers. Part of each petal will be under the previous ones, and the other part will be under the next ones, so they are laid in a step. When unforging will reduce the thickness of the bent part and increase its size, and the forged part is again bent back to its former place, overlapping the neighboring elements. This operation is repeated with all parts of the blank. The size of the flower depends on the number of blanks with which it is assembled. The method of making a rose from metal is a variant in which a blank of the desired size is drawn off and formed in the form of a section of a smaller diameter. The billet, well heated, is inserted into the hole of an anvil or plate with the thin end, and the other, thicker end is deposited in the shape of a cone or hemisphere. Then, starting at the base of the cone, the metal is notched with a semicircular chisel.

Making a rose from a solid piece of metal: 1 - blank; 2 - anvil or blacksmith's mold; 3 semicircular chisel; 4 - finished flower.

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When making a rose with this method, it is not necessary to give specific advice about the cuts, their depth and direction, as everything depends on the preferences of the blacksmith. However, it is important to remember that the width of the chop line and the angle of deflection of the petals depend on the thickness of the chisel and the angle of its sharpening.

You can make a flower from a blank, using the ability of metal to increase area while decreasing thickness. To do this, a round plaque with a thickness of 6 to 8 mm is created (the length of the petals depends on the thickness). Based on this method, a flower can be created. It is formed by placing a heated workpiece on the corner of an anvil. Then strong blows are applied to it with a sledgehammer, displacing it perpendicular to the corner of the anvil. This process results in a thin and elongated metal, taking on a petal shape. By repeating this operation several times, you can get several petals. However, it is not recommended to make more than seven petals, since the shape of the flower is lost. The center of the flower is formed using a shaped punch. When making a rose from a single piece, the upset part is formed into a cone shape. If you settle this part before it takes the form of a plaque and then pull back the petals using the method described above, you can get a whole flower with a stem. For the final implementation of the described methods, it is proposed to create a flower on a stem with a leaf from one metal part. To achieve this, a leaf shape is applied to the stem end of a single flower. By bending the stem in half, the leaf appears under the flower. Then the lower 44

part, located under the sheet, is twisted, rolled and stretched to achieve the required thickness. If you leave a reserve of metal at the end of the stem, and then flatten and cut it, you can get a flower with two leaves. When creating complex compositions with floral patterns, the need arises for individual elements, including leaves. The technology for their production is similar to that used for flowers. Leaves can also be made from sheet metal or drawn from a single mass. Various tools such as hammers and shaped hammers are used to create texture on the surface. A special role is played by a special plate made of hardened metal and having a counterrelief corresponding to the desired texture. The process begins with laying the sheet blank with its front side on the plate, and then strong blows are applied to the back side with a handbrake. The result is the desired texture on the front side. It is important to consider that with this method, changes occur in the original shape of the workpiece due to the distribution of the metal. Therefore, it is advisable to have several slabs with different surface textures. This technique can be used as an intermediate step for further processing of the part using coins and shaped hammers. Various shapes of cones are one of the most popular elements in artistic forging, in addition to floral patterns. Bunches of one or more threads are rolled into a spiral using wire. Making a cone in one thread is the easiest way. To do this, take a wire with a diameter of 5-8 mm and cut a piece of the required length. Then one end of the piece is bent at a right angle. The length of the bent end is approximately 3 cm. The bent end is fixed in a vice so that the remaining long part is parallel to the jaws. There should be a section above the jaws that does not exceed the thickness of the wire. The clamped end will become the axis around which the spiral will twist. The workpiece is preheated and twisted to half its length. To form cone cones during frequent production, it is recommended to use pipe sections of different diameters. The spiral is placed on the corresponding pipe, and then an extension is placed in the center of the spiral. Using a handbrake, a blow is applied to the tip, which allows you to immediately obtain a cone-like appearance of the cone. The finished cones are carefully twisted and their bases are aligned. Another operation is repeated with another part of the workpiece. It is advisable to heat the workpiece with a torch during twisting, since the wire workpiece cools quickly due to its small mass. The resulting spirals are shaped into cones with bases located in the same plane. Cones can be planted with a handbrake or the center of the spiral can be pulled out with pliers. Cones with a large number of threads are made from several pieces of wire, for example, four. To take into account shrinkage, take a workpiece slightly longer than the required size. Then the ends are welded and forged into a square. The workpiece, heated at one end, is clamped in a vice, and a wrench is put on the other end and twisted. The degree of complexity of the cone depends on the number of revolutions: the more there are, the “cooler” the cone will be. After the workpiece has cooled, it is untwisted in the opposite direction to obtain the desired shape. If it is necessary to increase the diameter of the cone, upsetting is carried out by striking the end of the workpiece.

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When creating more complex cones that contain a large number of threads, difficulties arise in evenly distributing the blanks around an imaginary central axis. This is necessary so that they create a cylinder, which, in turn, does not lose its shape during the twisting process. In this situation, one of the blanks will play the role of a supporting centerline, and its length will be slightly longer than the others. The additional ends of the workpiece will be bent 180°, with a bend length of about 2 cm. During the assembly of the package of blanks, the bent ends will be placed inside the package, and the remaining blanks will be attached to the already bent ends, forming a cylinder of rods. At the end, the resulting cylinder will be pierced to its full depth. The method of making cones from a set of blanks can be changed by splitting a solid metal blank. To do this, a square-section workpiece is cut into four planes, dividing the metal into four parts. Then each part is processed on a shperak or anvil horn to remove sharp edges and burrs that appeared after chopping. After this, twisting is done. However, in some cases, cones can be made from only two threads. In such cases, these threads can be pre-flattened before twisting. When making cones, many novice blacksmiths often make the mistake of making notches with a chisel across the entire width of the workpiece to mark the boundaries of the cut. However, when the cone is untwisted, the threads often break off from the mass of metal and the cuts look uneven. It is recommended to use a core to make marks in these cases. In addition, to make the beginning and end of cuts more accurate, you can drill holes in these places. The result will be a beautiful cone of four threads, with a forged ball inside, the diameter of which is less than the diameter of the cone. In some cases, a part or part of it can serve as a clamp. In such a connection, one part is heated and forged around another. To ensure reliable connection, the coverage must be at least 3/4 of the circumference of the second part. Sometimes transverse grooves are made on the male part, corresponding to the profile of the part that acts as a clamp, at the junction. These grooves serve as guides and prevent lateral movement of the part. Riveting is the most common method of joining parts in artistic forging. Blacksmiths usually make their own rivets for their own needs. They can use either the traditional method with a nail gun11 or various devices. In the case of the traditional manufacturing method, they take a workpiece with a round or square cross-section, upset one end, which will be the head, and round the rest and bring it to the desired diameter using mandrels, and then cut off the excess part. They shape the rivet head on an anvil or nailing machine. If only one rivet is used in the connection, then rivets with a square cross-section are used so that the parts do not rotate relative to each other. A square beard is used to punch holes for them. Decorative elements such as clamps and riveted joints not only serve a functional role, but also serve as striking decorative elements. Connections can be overlapping, one-sided, two-sided and others. The choice of joining method depends on the blacksmith and is determined by the artistic idea. In addition, there are options when part of the part being connected is itself a rivet, and another part acts as a head. To give the shape the appropriate size, a cylindrical or square 11

A nail gun is an anvil with holes for hand forging nail heads.

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mandrel is attached to the end of the part. Then the same hole is made in the second part, into which the end of the first part is inserted and then riveted from the back side. By inserting a larger round or square part into a round workpiece, make a hole along the diameter of this part. Then both parts are drilled perpendicular to the connection and secured with a rivet, although you can do without it. If you do not use a rivet, then the joint is heated, placed on an anvil, a barb is placed at the intersection, and a strong blow is applied to it. The larger piece will bend into the smaller piece and lock it into the hole. To make the connection more durable, you can make a counter landing using a beard-shaped bottom. To create an aesthetically pleasing connection, you must select the appropriate rivet shape. In addition to standard round or square rivets, you can use other original shapes, for example, rectangular. To create holes for such rivets, you can use special bits or chisels.

Types of riveted joint design If you need to shape the rivet heads manually, this can be done if their number is small. However, if it is necessary to design the heads on both sides or there are a large number of rivets, it is recommended to make the matrix using the direct or reverse method. In the process of milling, engraving or using cutters, a recess is made in the end of a cylindrical workpiece made of tool steel in the shape of a rivet head. To control the operation of the process, a piece of plasticine is pressed into this recess and an impression is made. After finishing the work, the matrix is stabbed. 47

The second method, which is simpler and more reliable, is to make a rivet head blank from tool steel and give it the desired shape using files and coins. Then the workpiece is hardened and secured in the nail hole. A special process is used to create joints with different head shapes on tool steel bar. First, the end of the rod is heated and the hardened model of the rivet is installed on the head. The end of the rod is then struck so that it is completely pressed into the metal matrix. After this, the matrix is processed and hardened. To create a decorative head, two matrices are used. One of the dies is attached in a vice or other way and serves as a support, and the second is placed on top and helps form the riveted end of the rivet. Thus, connections can have different head shapes at opposite ends. You should start mastering the forging technique by performing more complex work, then moving on to simpler ones. The lattice can be created using two techniques: bending and chopping. To make a lattice, a lattice element is drawn on a life-size sheet of paper, then the places where the strip is cut are calculated and marked. Then the markings are transferred to the workpiece. To make them visible after heating, the cut lines are cut with a chisel. After this, the workpiece is cut in a heated state. The resulting mustache is bent perpendicular to the main strip and forged, knocking off the burrs formed after cutting. Bend the forged parts back to their original position. Then the workpiece is heated and these parts are twisted into curls. Metal stairs, which are decorated with forged elements, are widely used in individual construction. Making straight staircases is not particularly difficult, but spiral staircases are of particular interest. In most cases, they are metal structures, where the bow element is a steel pipe with a diameter of 90-120 mm on which the steps are installed. The flight width is from 60 to 90 cm. To determine the total diameter of the staircase opening, it is necessary to add two flights and add the diameter of the nose pipe. To determine the number of steps, their depth and height, the following method is used: suppose that it is necessary to make a staircase with a flight width of 70 cm and a support pipe diameter of 10 cm. The staircase must make 3/4 of a turn to a lifting height of 2.5 m. First, calculate the diameter stairs, multiplying the width of the flight by 2 and adding the diameter of the pipe (70x2 + 10 cm = 150 cm). Then we determine the circumference by multiplying the diameter by the number π (150x3.14 = 470 cm). Taking the depth of the step on the outer side to be 25 cm, we determine the number of steps that can fit in a given circle (470: 25 = 19 pcs.). Considering that the staircase makes 3/4 of a turn to the lifting height, we determine the number of steps for this staircase (19: 4x3 = 15 pcs.). Finally, we calculate the height of the steps by dividing the height of the room by their number (250 cm: 15 = 17 cm). The depth on the outside of the spiral staircase is 25 cm, and the height of the step, taking into account the thickness of the material, is 17 cm. The initial data for the staircase includes 15 steps. To mark the places where the steps are attached to the supporting pipe, use the following method: divide the circumference of the pipe in a segment of 3/4 by the number of steps and draw vertical lines on the pipe. Then make a mark on the first line, departing from the base of the pipe by 17 cm, on the second line by 34 cm, and so on until the end. These marks correspond to the planes of the steps.

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Please note that steps may have different designs. For example, they can be made from angle steel or wood. You can also use forged brackets on which step platforms and railing elements are fixed. When assembling the stairs, it is important to ensure that the steps are located perpendicular to the center of the supporting pipe and are at their marks. Otherwise, even a slight deviation can disrupt the rhythm of the stairs. In another variant of manufacturing a spiral staircase, steel pipe sections with an internal size corresponding to the outer diameter of the supporting pipe and a height equal to the height of the step are used. The introduction of constructive and decorative elements occurs on the resulting segments. These modules are then strung and secured to the supporting structure. Using a larger diameter asbestos cement pipe than steel as a load-bearing structure and welding or threaded connections to secure the modules are all possible options. Fireplaces create a special atmosphere in a room. However, to make them look full and complete, maintenance items are needed. They not only perform functional tasks, but are also a decorative element of the interior. The manufacture of fireplace sets has many design options. In case of a small room area, a wall-mounted fireplace set may be an option. The number of items in the sets ranges from three to five, usually including a dustpan, poker, pliers and ash brush. The brush is made of metal wire, since other materials can ignite if smoldering coals come into contact with them. Perhaps a floor-mounted version of the fireplace set can be used if space allows. To create a brush, you can use pieces of small diameter steel cable. To do this, the ends of the cable need to be unraveled and folded in half to form a loop, and then threaded onto a piece of rod with a diameter of 6-8 mm and the required length. After this, this set is inserted into a heated clip, which is a steel plate bent in half, and forged. At the time of forging, the ends are rolled. The piece of rod that is located inside will securely hold the steel pile. Fireplace grates can also serve as decorative elements. In cases where the fireplace is not used, you can use attached grates. When the fireplace is burning, the built-in opening grates can be closed and serve as protection against sparks. If the dimensions of the grille doors are too large and it is impossible to open them completely or the location of the fireplace does not allow this, the grilles can be made in the form of four sections. To install the grate fastening elements in the fireplace, it is necessary to lay the masonry using clay mortar, since punching holes for the fastening elements can damage the masonry in the future. To decorate the grille for gates and wickets, you can use an interesting way of attaching elements such as leaves. This method of fastening looks beautiful and resembles a clamp connection. To connect the elements of the product, it is necessary to spread the end of the attached part to a width equal to half the circumference of the main part. It is desirable that the main part has a circular cross-section. Then you need to combine both parts and carefully weld 49

them at the points of contact. The resulting compound must be heated in a forge or burner, and then rolled around the main part using a semicircular attachment or handbrake. To secure the grille, it can be walled into the masonry along with the hinges on which it is secured in a metal frame. When making window grilles, it is not recommended to use all available forging techniques. For example, instead, you can use rods of different sizes and cross-sections as decorative elements. Creating an original look for lamps purchased in a store can be achieved by decorating them with forged decor. Work begins by choosing a lamp with a spherical shade and determining its dimensions. Then a life-size sketch is created, according to which all decorative elements are made and welded to the metal cover of the lamp. The cover must move freely along the wire, therefore, if the lamp has a plastic cover, replace it with a metal one. In another option, decorative elements are welded to a piece of steel pipe, which is then threaded onto the lamp wire. You can attach a decorative chain to the pipe, into which an electrical wire is woven. If the wire is too thick, it is replaced with a thinner one, the color of which corresponds to black.

Metal profiles of the appropriate cross-section are used to create decorative chains of simple geometric shapes. Clamping them in a vice in a vertical position, the end of a wellannealed wire is attached to the hole in the lower end of such a device during the winding process. The wire is wound like a spring, inserting it into the hole. After reaching the required number of turns, the device is transferred to the anvil, where the spiral is cut with a thin chisel on one of the edges, obtaining chain links. Replacing cutting with sawing supported by a hacksaw is preferable, since the gaps after sawing look more neat. In a hot state, wire for a chain with a thickness of over 6 mm is wound. Chain links with complex shapes are bent on a plate with pins. The design of a ceiling lamp is similar to that of a pendant lamp, that is, a factory lamp is decorated with forged decor. 50

Casting. Workshop and materials for casting When choosing a location for a foundry, you need to consider the same factors as when building a forge. It is necessary to provide a bright, dry room with good ventilation and a high level of fire safety. The forge can be used for foundry work. In the foundry, a work table for molding, a heating furnace (urn), a container for storing molding sand, as well as shelves and cabinets for tools and accessories are installed. Exhaust hoods are placed above the oven and the mold-filling area. The chemical and physical properties of metals used for casting do not always meet the requirements for the product and casting technology, therefore alloys are often used. Alloys are compounds of several metals and chemical elements that are given certain properties. Fluidity12, shrinkage and segregation are the main casting properties of alloys. Fluidity is the ability of molten metal to fill a mold, which increases with increasing temperature of the alloy and depends on its chemical composition. The heterogeneity of the chemical and physical composition of the alloy, due to the shape and size of the casting, is called segregation. This manifests itself in different concentrations of elements in different parts of the casting. The most commonly used alloys in the home workshop are copper-based alloys such as bronze and brass, as well as aluminum alloys and the heavy metals lead, tin and zinc. Bronze is an alloy of copper with tin or other elements such as lead, phosphorus and nickel, depending on its purpose. Shrinkage is a reduction in the volume and linear dimensions of a product after cooling the metal. Containing 16-25% tin, bronze acquires a yellow-white color, and with a significant amount of tin (more than 25%) it becomes light gray. White bronze, which resembles silver, has 33% tin. To achieve the highest hardness, bronze must contain 27% tin, but this makes it more brittle. If you add 4-6% tin, bronze becomes ductile and can be forged. The melting point of copper is 1083°C, but it drops to 980°C with 8% tin and 800°C with 25% tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc (up to 45%). It is easy to machine, soft and hard solder, and accepts electroplating easily and firmly. The melting point of brass is 980-1000 °C. Most brasses do not cast well, but their casting properties can be improved by adding aluminum. Silumin is an alloy of aluminum with silicon, which is widely used for casting, in contrast to pure aluminum, which is not used for this purpose. In home workshops, electric furnaces, coke 12

Fluidity is the property of an alloy in a liquid state to fill a casting mold and reproduce its outline in a casting.

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ovens, gas and gasoline burners are often used for metal smelting, especially when making small castings. Laboratory muffle furnaces, capable of reaching temperatures of up to 1000 °C, are used to melt aluminum (with a melting point of 660 °C) and its alloys. The process requires the manufacture of a special metal crucible that can fit freely inside the muffle furnace. Two bushings are welded to one end of the crucible, which are used to grip and move it (see Figure 76). Due to the fact that molten aluminum alloy reacts actively with ordinary steel, it is recommended to use heat-resistant, stainless steel or cast iron to make the crucible. In order to create a muffle furnace with your own hands, you need materials such as refractory fireclay clay, nichrome wire with a diameter of 1.2 mm in an amount of 24 meters and a metal casing. First, a glass with an internal diameter of 150 mm, a wall thickness of 20 mm and a height of up to 250 mm should be made from clay. It is advisable to fire the glass at a temperature of 950-1000 °C, but in extreme cases this can be done while using the oven. Then the nichrome wire is wound onto a fired or well-dried glass, while an asbestos cord should be laid between the turns to avoid short circuits. The nichrome wire is placed in the recess formed after winding the wet glass with a regular cord, which is then removed. The glass is then wrapped with asbestos cord and coated with liquid glass. After drying, the glass with the winding is placed in a metal casing, onto the bottom of which a layer of heat-insulating material is first poured. The ends of the wires are led out through ceramic insulators. Then the side parts of the glass are thermally insulated, and the glass is closed with a lid. Perlite (foamed quartz), asbestos wool and fireclay chips are used for thermal insulation. The crucible is turned on a lathe, taking into account expansion when heated, its diameter should be less than the diameter of the muffle. To improve the design of the muffle furnace, it is proposed to make it rotary to avoid the need to remove the crucible13 at each pouring, which often leads to destruction of the muffle. To do this, it is necessary to ensure rigid fixation of the metal crucible with the furnace body so that it does not move freely in the muffle and cause its destruction. In this way, the melting process of high melting point metals can be improved in the home workshop. For this purpose, you can use a mine forge, which has versatility, ease of manufacture and a minimal contact surface of the metal with the furnace gases. This will improve the quality of metal melting. A mine forge can be used to melt aluminum alloys. It has a square cross-section, and the corners are dead zones filled with unused fuel. The outer walls of the forge are built of ordinary brick, and the inner walls are lined with fireproof material. A cast-iron grate is installed in the lower part of the hearth, which separates it from the ash chamber. You can choose a standard grate. The ash pan, located under the grate, provides convenient removal of ash and the supply of air necessary for combustion of coke (anthracite, charcoal). For metal smelting, cast iron or graphite crucibles are used. Graphite crucibles have a shorter melting time, but they do not contaminate the alloy with iron. Crucibles are made from a 13

A crucible is a container for heating, drying, burning, roasting or melting various materials.

52

mixture of the following components by volume: graphite (crucible) - 4.7 parts, fireclay clay 3.6 parts, quartz sand - 0.9 parts, kaolin - 0.2 parts. Refractory clay - 5.0 parts, fireclay - 2.5 parts, kaolin - 1.3 parts, graphite (crucible) - 1.2 parts. Gasoline or gas burners are used to melt small portions of metal.

53

Earthen mold casting and model making Earth casting molds are made differently. First, a casting mold is made from the molding earth using a model or template. This mold is then filled with molten metal. When the finished casting is removed, the mold is destroyed, so it can only be used once. Molds are made from a molding mixture consisting of sand and clay. The mixture should contain 12-25% clay. Before molding, the mixture is slightly moistened and mixed well so that it is loose and without lumps. The quality of the mixture can be checked by squeezing a handful in your hand: it should retain its shape and collapse when touched. The molding mixture can be used many times, but for the facing layer that covers the model with a thickness of 20-30 mm, it is better to prepare a new one. Plaster and plastic models are more affordable materials for making models. If it is necessary to restore a destroyed part, the part itself can serve as a model, which takes on its original appearance using plasticine or by soldering missing elements. If it is impossible to use the original as a model, then a plaster copy is made. The original is laid on a flat surface with its face up, and around it a shell made of wood or other material is installed that is higher than the original. Then the inner surface is lubricated with soap foam. To obtain a mass similar to liquid sour cream, gypsum is dissolved in a large amount of water. Then, in order to cover the sample with plaster, the splashing operation begins, which must be performed quickly and carefully. The best way to do this is with a brush. After this, the sample, which is covered with the first layer of gypsum, is filled with gypsum to the very edge of the shell. To slow down the setting process of gypsum, add a solution of boric or acetic acid to the water, the volume of which is 0.5-1.0% of the volume of water. To speed up the setting process, add a 3-4% solution of table salt to the water. The plaster mold should be dried at a temperature that does not exceed 50 °C. The relief is processed in counter-relief, the shells are sealed and the relief is increased. Then they proceed to making the model, for which the mold is covered with a 5% solution of potash, a 3% solution of soda ash or soap foam. The separating layer is an alkaline solution. Then the gypsum is poured, to strengthen the casting, the gypsum is diluted with water with the addition of 5-10% polyvinyl acetate emulsion. Once the model is completed, the process of molding into the ground begins. Earth molds are made in a flask, which is a box without a bottom or lid. The flask is used to impart the required strength to the earthen mold during forming, carrying and pouring of metal. Typically, a simple mold is made in two flasks, which are connected by rods and bushings that strictly fix their position relative to each other. Mounted on a sub-model board, which is a slab of metal or wood with a smooth front surface, the flask is made of wood or welded from metal. A certain procedure is used to place the model in the flask. First, the model is sprinkled with graphite to prevent the sand from sticking. To do this, use a jar of graphite, which is covered with gauze. Then a layer of facing mixture is applied through a sieve. When the model is 54

completely covered, the flask is filled with molding soil, which is laid in layers and compacted with a tamper until the flask is completely filled. Excess soil is removed with a ruler or even plank. After this, the flask with the model is turned over and the second flask is placed on it. Models of the sprue and thrust - conical bars of round or square cross-section - are installed in the mold. The flask is powdered with graphite, covered with molding mixture and compacted. Then the upper flask is removed and the sprue and stop models are removed from it, and the model is removed from the lower flask. To avoid fraying of the edges of the mold when removing the model, they can be strengthened by lightly moistening them with a mixture of graphite and water using a brush. After removing the model from the mold, narrow channels are made connecting the mold cavity with the sprue and the projection. Molten metal will enter the mold cavity through one or more channels, and air will be forced out through another. To produce original products, a molding method with growing the model is used, which includes several stages. First, half of the model is created along the parting line and placed on a sub-model plate for molding into one flask. Then the model is carefully removed, and the missing part is completed using plasticine. After this, the model returns to its place in the flask, and the second extended part is molded using a second flask in the standard way. After the metal has solidified, the product is removed from the mold, the sprues are removed and further processing is carried out.

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Lost wax casting To obtain lost wax castings, a specific method is used. Its essence is to create models of the casting and its gating system from low-melting materials such as wax, paraffin and stearin. These materials are used to create a model by pressing or pouring them into a mold. Once the wax model has hardened, it is removed from the mold and coated with several layers of compound, which, once dry, forms a fireproof ceramic shell on the model. The wax composition from the shell is then melted to create a thin-walled casting mold, and the shell is converted into a permanent flask, which is calcined and filled with metal. To create many identical wax models or to obtain a wax copy of a complex product with subsequent casting, a flexible mold made of technical gelatin or wood glue is used. Ideal forms are obtained from technical gelatin, which is pre-saturated with water (15 mg of water per 150 g of gelatin). The saturation process continues for 30 minutes with stirring. Subsequently, water is added in small portions. When saturated, gelatin increases in volume, and when heated it returns to its original volume. Change the water two or three times and soak wood glue in it for a day. To cook the glue in a water bath, you need a sufficient amount of water, which the glue absorbs. During cooking, it is necessary to control the temperature and not allow it to exceed 70°C. To reduce steam loss, the cooking container must be airtight and have a lid. If you need to compensate for losses, you can add a small amount of water to the glue. Cooking lasts one to two hours. When gelatin or glue acquires a homogeneous composition and consistency reminiscent of thick sour cream, add 6-8 ml of hot water and a plasticizer. 3-4 g of technical glycerin is used as a plasticizer. After this, the mixture is thoroughly mixed. To avoid molding of the mass, 0.5 g of antiseptic (phenol or formalin) is added to it. To begin with, the sample is surrounded by a shell and then filled with the resulting mass. If the sample is made of plasticine, place it in the refrigerator to cool it down. To prevent deformation of the elastic form after hardening, gypsum is poured from the back. Adhesive molds can be melted down and used several times, but the amount of water added must be significantly reduced.

Making an elastic form: 1 - gypsum; 2 - shell; 3 - elastic mass; 4 – model When working with adhesive elastic molds to create wax models, it is important to remember that the temperature of the modeling composition for pouring remains below 50 ° C. Otherwise, the mold will melt and become unusable.

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To form plaster models in an adhesive mold, you first need to clean it of fats by wiping it with talcum powder using a soft brush. Then the mold should be treated twice with a 20% solution of aluminum alum. If you need to create many identical elements (for example, bracelet links or decorative chains), then you can use a rubber mold for this. To produce large quantities of wax models, an effective solution is to create a rubber mold. To do this you will need raw rubber, a vulcanizer and two polished metal plates that match the dimensions of the vulcanizer. You can use a car vulcanizer with a voltage of 12 V and connect it through a step-down transformer. To create a removable mold from raw rubber, you need to cut plates the same shape and size as the metal plates. Then the rubber plates should be cleaned with gasoline on both sides and placed in bundles. The model determines the number of plates in a stack. In some places, metal balls are placed on the lower pack, which serve as locks to fix the position of the upper and lower halves of the mold. In order not to interfere with the removal of the wax model, the balls are placed in this way. The metal model is placed between the locks. The surface of the upper and lower rubber packs facing the model is covered with talc powder, and the edges of the future connector are lubricated with machine oil or powdered with talc or graphite. The package is placed between metal plates coated with talc after the top package is placed on the bottom. Then the plates with the package are clamped in the vulcanizer clamp. The vulcanization process lasts at a temperature of 140-150 °C for 30-45 minutes. After this, the bag is removed from the vulcanizer along with the plates and cooled under running water. Then cut off the excess rubber at the edges and separate the shape. If there is no sprue on the sample, it is cut out directly on the mold. There is no need to make locks when creating split molds. In this case, bags corresponding to the height of the model are assembled from cut rubber plates. The plates are pre-impregnated with gasoline. The original model is placed between two packs of raw rubber, and the large cavities of the model are tightly filled with pieces of raw rubber. The assembled package together with the metal plates is fixed in the vulcanizer clamp. The process then proceeds in the same way as described above. Once the mold is removed, it is cut into two halves, with the parting line carefully trimmed to ensure a better fit. To create the model, compositions are used that can be divided into low-melting and refractory depending on their melting point. The most affordable and convenient are low-melting model compositions, which are used for the manufacture of small castings. They are prepared on the basis of paraffin and stearin.

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Manufacturing of a rubber mold: 1 - vulcanizer; 2 - steel plates; 3 - raw rubber; 4 - lock (steel balls); 5 sample

Low-melting model compositions Components, % not less

Recipe no.

stearin

paraffin

wax

remelting

1

50

50

-

-

2

25

25

50

-

3

8

12

-

80

4

17

17

-

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In order to fill the mold, the model composition must be melted in a water bath. However, you cannot simply fill out the mold by gravity. It is necessary that the composition is easily pressed. You can make a simple device for this. First, one end of the pipe with a smooth inner surface is sealed, for example, welded or sealed. Then a piston is made from rubber, which must correspond to the inner diameter of the pipe, and a handle is attached to it. A hole is drilled in the lower part of the pipe, near the bottom, and a fitting for the rubber hose is soldered into it. Then they make a second fitting - a tip, which must correspond to the diameter of the mold sprue. One end of the hose is connected to the container through a fitting, and a fitting tip is inserted into the other end. Thus, a simple press syringe is obtained. A syringe filled with a model composition is lowered into a container of boiling water. After the melt is ready, it is actively mixed and left to cool to a temperature of 42-45 ° C to achieve a paste-like state. The rubber mold is treated with talc or lubricated with machine oil before pressing in the model composition. Similar to making wax models, molten metal must be injected into the mold cavity under pressure. The industry uses centrifugal casting machines for this purpose. At home, you can use a manual centrifuge, which can be made as follows: a steel rod with a diameter of 5-6 mm is inserted into a wooden or plastic handle and a fixed earring is attached to it. 58

To ensure free rotation of the handle on the rod, a stand made of sheet steel or a piece of pipe whose diameter does not exceed 80 mm is used. The bracket, riveted or welded to the side of the flask, is connected to a ring made on top of the bracket, a wire rocker with rings bent at the ends. The connection points must be strong and movable. The length of the rocker arm is 25-40 cm. The flasks, which are sections of steel pipes of various diameters, are designed for different models. However, the largest flask must fit freely into the centrifuge stand. Steel sprue pins, which can be made from steel sewing needles with broken ends, are attached to the model with wax. If the model has a complex shape or large mass, several pins are used, which intersect at one point and are held together with wax. The intersection point will be outside the molding compound. The height of the flask should be such that there is a gap of 1-2 cm between its bottom and the model, and at the top, in the molding mass, it is possible to cut out a sprue bowl for melting metal. The molding compound can be prepared from the following components, taking into account their weight: 1. Gypsum or pumice is the number one recipe. 2. Recipe number two includes quartz, gypsum, glucose and water. 3. To prepare 1 kg of mixture, you need to use 450 g of water. 4. The mold14 is placed on an asbestos sheet and filled with molding compound. 5. To remove air bubbles, the model with the mass must be slightly rocked, holding it by the pin. 6. When the mass has hardened, after an hour you can cut out the sprue bowl. 7. The pins are carefully removed with pliers. In the center of the sprue bowl there are sprue channels, each of which has a separate outlet. In order to melt the wax model of the flask, it is placed in a drying oven or oven with the gating system pointing downwards. The temperature is gradually increased to 350 °C over two hours to avoid steam bursting the mold when the temperature rises suddenly. The flask is then placed sideways on a sheet of asbestos located on the stove burner, and it is completely burned out with wax over a high flame. The flask is turned over for uniform heating. Melting of metal on a burner flame or in a furnace begins after loading the sprue bowl with metal with the addition of flux - borax. For this purpose, an electric muffle furnace is used, in which the temperature is gradually increased to 700 °C, with periodic exposures at 200 and 400 °C. When the walls of the flask acquire a red tint, the process is transferred to a manual centrifuge. To create larger items, you can use soldering or other joining methods to bring smaller pieces together. It is recommended to use the following alloy composition in percentage: copper - 63.7%, tin - 2.55%, zinc - 33.5%, lead - 0.25%. It is not necessary to strictly adhere to tenths and hundredths of a percent; small deviations in the composition do not significantly affect the casting properties of the alloy. After the metal is completely melted, the centrifuge begins to rotate to direct it into the mold cavity. Twenty revolutions of the centrifuge are enough to fill the mold and crystallize the metal. The casting is dipped into water to remove it.

14

Molding box - rigid frames (rectangular, square, round, shaped) made of cast iron, steel, aluminum alloys, protecting the sand mold from destruction during its assembly, transportation and pouring.

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Casting of complex models An interesting process is casting using burnt models. This method consists of creating a model from expanded polystyrene (foam), which is a cellular plastic. When polystyrene granules are foamed, such a structure is formed. After production, the model is removed from the mold by melting and gasification upon contact with the metal being poured or by burning at a temperature of 350-400 °C. To make models, you can use polystyrene foam in the form of granules or blocks. Granule models are prepared by foaming them in molds at a temperature of 100 °C. Block foam is easy to process; it can be cut with a knife and glued with dextrin. Thanks to these properties, models can be made even at home. Forming a foam model in a workshop requires avoiding glue seams, since calcination of the mold is not possible. Burning out of the model occurs only due to the temperature of the metal being poured, so the adhesive seams may not burn out completely and damage the casting. It is important to note that the foam model is intended for single use. When forming a foam model in an earthen mold, a flask is used, which must be selected in such a way as to match the height of the model. If the height of one flask is not enough, two flasks are used. First, install the flask on the under-model slab, and then powder its inside with graphite. After this, pour a layer of molding soil 3-4 cm thick and compact it. Then the model is laid on the ground and also molded with earth. During the molding process, sprues and vents are also created in convenient locations. To increase the area of contact of the molten metal with the model, it is recommended to use more sprues. Then the model is completely covered with earth and compacted well. After this, the sprues and vents are carefully removed, and holes are pierced through the ground (the larger the better) to remove gases that form when the model burns out. The one-time use of molding soil when pouring metal is due to its contamination with the slag of burnt-out morality, so the mold is ready for metal casting. In the process of creating products of complex shapes, the method of partial casting and subsequent joining is used. It is possible to use a combined approach. Its essence is as follows: a simple model shape is created from plaster or other material, and then formed in the usual way. If part of the model has a more complex shape and it is impossible to remove it from the earthen mold without destruction, then it is made of foam plastic. For example, when casting a goblet, the upper part of the model with a simple geometric shape is made of any material, and the lower, more complex part is cut out of foam plastic. To begin with, instead of a submodel slab, the upper part of the model is laid on it. Then molding is carried out in a flask. Once the molding soil is level with the model, the second piece of foam is attached to it and is finally molded. After this, the flask is turned over, a second flask is installed on it, and final molding is carried out, during which the gating system is performed. The flasks are then separated and the upper part of the model is removed, leaving the lower foam 60

part molded into the ground. When using such combined molds, one-piece and complex-shaped castings can be obtained. During the molding process of the model, there is a risk of elements shifting relative to each other. To avoid this, sewing needles or pins are inserted into the joints of the plaster mold and the foam elements, to which the elements are attached. To prevent axial rotation, multiple pins can be used. In the lost wax casting method described earlier, the original wax product is destroyed during the molding process. A more advanced method of lost wax molding is to use the original product, made of any material, to obtain a lost wax model. To create hollow products with a given thickness, a casting method is used, which includes two processes. First, a hollow model of the product is melted, and then a casting mold is created on its basis. To make a hollow model, the flask is placed on a fake slab and a false flask is formed on half of the original product using earth. A small surface of the original is smeared with soap foam and covered with a layer of plasticine up to 1 cm thick. To prevent clay from sticking to the original, the largest products are covered with a layer of clay. To create a separating layer, thin wet paper is used. Then a second flask is placed on top of the original with a false flask, and then the plaster is poured. Channels are left in the plaster for the sprues to penetrate into the plasticine or clay layer. A new flask is installed, removing the false flask and soil that ended up on top after the plaster hardened. A layer of plasticine or clay is also placed on the second half of the original, which was previously in a false flask. Then the upper flask, in which the sprue holes were left, is filled with plaster, having previously lubricated the lower flask with soap foam. When the plaster has completely hardened, remove the top flask and remove the layer of plasticine or clay, making sure that nothing remains on the original. Then the flask is installed in its place. The separating layer between the plaster layer and the original was removed, resulting in a free space corresponding to the thickness of the layer. A solution based on wood glue or technical gelatin is poured into the resulting cavity through the gating channels left in the gypsum layer. After the adhesive solution has cooled, the flasks are turned over, the separating layer is removed from the second flask and filled with the adhesive solution. Then the flasks are separated and the original product is removed from the resulting mold. To create a product with a complex surface shape (ornaments, fonts, patterns) and having cavities that are difficult to create using the usual molding method, an elastic adhesive solution is used. In addition, the adhesive mass is soft to the material from which the original is made. After applying a layer of wax to the inner surface of the adhesive jacket, cover it with varnish and wait until it dries. Using the hole previously left, the mold is assembled and melted rosin is poured into its cavity, but immediately poured out of the mold before it cools, leaving some on the walls. This operation is repeated until the required wall thickness of the product is achieved. It is important not to overheat the rosin melt to avoid melting the small elements of the adhesive mold. 61

The production of hollow products begins with the molding of a core, which is part of the molding sand that fills the mold cavity. To create the rod, a metal frame is used, made of wire, the diameter of which depends on the size of the model. A thicker rod, the end of which extends from the model, serves as the basis of the frame. After the rosin layer has hardened, the flasks are carefully separated and the resulting hollow thin-walled model is removed, which will be used as a lost wax model. During the manufacturing process of the frame, it is placed into the cavity of the model and filled with molding mass. For small products made from metals with a low melting point, you can use gypsum-talc or gypsum-quartz mass as a core and molding mass. If gypsum mass is selected, then it should be taken into account that it has practically zero gas permeability. Therefore, during the molding process, it is recommended to create additional holes for the release of gases that form when the model is heated. To perform casting from metals with a high melting point, such as bronze and brass, a core mass consisting of quartz and quartz sand with the addition of liquid glass is used. Calcination of sand must be carried out at a temperature of 750-900 °C, using a cast-iron container, for example, a new cast-iron frying pan, to avoid the ingress of iron oxides. The mixture should contain 5-30% liquid glass, and the rest should be sand. For casting large products, 1-2% technical borax or boric acid is added to the mold mixture. These substances, with a floating melting point of 741 ° C and 575 ° C, respectively, melt during calcination of the mold and, covering the filler grains, hold the mold mass together. The core of the shape we want to create is made in the usual way in a flask. And here is the rosin model that we want to obtain by melting it in an oven. At the same time, the temperature gradually increases. Molten rosin leaves the flask through the gating system, so it is necessary to place a container under this system. Thus, the molten rosin particles will strengthen the walls of the mold. After the rosin has completely drained, the mold must be calcined in a muffle furnace. If this is not possible, you can use a gas stove and oven. In this case, the temperature should not be lower than 350 °C, since rosin begins to char at 310 °C. Soot from burnt rosin will cover the walls of the mold, which will improve the quality of the casting surface. You can use a flask with a bottom to form the model using regular molding sand. The top layer, which is not in contact with the model, can be made of a mixture of quartz sand or fireclay chips with liquid glass. During melting of the model, this layer will hold the shape in the flask. The metal fed into the mold through the gating system fills it under the pressure of its own mass. Various methods are used to fix the rod in the desired position inside a hollow model, which has a single hole through which the reinforcement of the rod exits after it is smelted. In the case of large-sized castings or products with invisible places (for example, the bottom of a vase), the main rod with the fittings attached to it is passed through the model and rests on the edges of the flask with two ends, providing it with a strictly fixed position. The remaining holes after casting the product and removing the reinforcement are closed in various ways. You can drill one or more holes in the bottom of the model to rest on the molding sand. Then metal plugs are made that match the diameter of the holes in the model. The plugs are inserted into the holes of the model and form it. The metal plugs are the same thickness as the 62

model and remain in the mold after the model is melted, fixing the distance between the rod and its edge. After pouring, the plugs are fused with the base metal and do not leave any marks. In order for the rods to support the mass and not be pressed into the molding sand, it is necessary to take into account the cross-sectional area of the plugs. During the process of melting the model, the mold is turned over, so the plugs should be placed in the upper part of the mold. In addition, instead of plugs, you can use steel rods that are passed through the entire mold and model. After casting, the rods are removed, and the resulting holes are threaded and screw plugs are tightened. Another option is to countersink15 the holes and secure them with metal pins. After this, these places must be thoroughly cleaned or caulked. Creating original flat-surface art pieces such as medallions and bas-reliefs is usually done using soft materials such as plasticine, clay and wax. To create plaster models, impressions are taken from them, as a result of which the back side of the model turns out to be flat and does not follow the shape of the front surface. However, castings made using such models are heavy, which is inefficient since a large amount of metal is required. To avoid this, the method of molding from a plaster model using a frame is used. To create a casting with an internal relief that repeats the shape of the front surface, and the same wall thickness over the entire surface of the product, a molding with a frame is used. This method is used in the manufacture of casting molds using plaster models of small height and with flat walls. However, if the plaster model has high vertical walls with a slight slope, the use of this method is not recommended. In this case, the vertical walls of the casting turn out to be much thinner than the upper ones, and when pouring, the metal can fill only the upper part of the mold, and not all of it. To fix the model with the frame on the under-model slab, you can use a piece of chipboard with holes for screws. Holes are also made on the plate for the fixing pins of the lower flask. After fixing the model on the slab and installing the flask with the attached frame, stuffing with molding mixture begins with careful compaction. The thickness of the frame corresponds to the thickness of the walls of the future casting. The protrusion from the molding sand formed after removing the frame must be carefully cut off along the surface of the flask to its edge. This makes it possible to obtain an imprint of a half-mold that has a lower model height by the thickness of the frame and corresponds to the wall thickness of the future casting. Then a second half-mold is installed on the molded flask, which has a sprue channel and an extension. In this case, the upper half-form is located in the lower half-form. Together with the under-model slab, the flask is turned over and carefully removed from the flask along with the frame, after which the frame is removed. When compacting the mixture with a tamper, the upper flask, which is formed more carefully and accurately, can easily damage the fragile surface of the sand model. After removing the sprue, the upper flask is removed and, if necessary, its shape is corrected. Then, knocking out the molded lower flask with the frame, which served as a model for the upper halfmold, they install it again on the under-model plate with the help of fixing pins in its original 15

Countersinking is the process of expanding the top layer of metal around a hole in order to increase its diameter and create a recess due to this. This process is often used in metalworking to improve surface quality and ease of component assembly.

63

position. Then they fill it with molding sand, but without a frame. After finishing the molding, they turn the flask over, remove the model plate with the model and assemble both halves of the mold. The result is a cavity corresponding to the thickness of the frame. In the old days, craftsmen used various methods of earth and lost wax casting, as well as casting in solid collapsible molds. This method was used to create jewelry, buttons, and decorative plates for weapons and armor. Materials such as clay and soft limestone were used to make the molds. The hand-made clay molds consisted of two halves that were joined together using indentations. The mold cavity could be created by hand or molded into a pattern from wet clay, after which they were dried and fired. To create such forms, you can use refractory clay or crucible mass. It is important that the fireclay filler for these masses when casting forms is finely ground. It must be taken into account that during drying, fireclay clay shrinks significantly by 7-14%. The clay mold is fired in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 900 °C, after which the two halves are connected to each other by two clamps made of steel strip and fastened with screws and nuts. The process of making molds from limestone is based on the same principle as from clay. Ancient craftsmen used slate, a type of limestone, to create foundry molds. The dense structure of slate and its good processing allowed craftsmen to engrave complex shapes and create works of high art. For such forms it is also possible to use plates made of crucible graphite or graphite electrodes, which can be cut. Plates of the required size are processed with sandpaper and carefully adjusted to each other. The production of a casting mold and gating system begins with drilling holes through two points of the plates. Bolts and nuts are used to tighten them. The holes are drilled in such places that they do not interfere with the production of the mold and sprues. After this, they begin to manufacture the casting mold and gating system by cutting and engraving. When the casting is removed from the mold, it often has an unsightly appearance, covered with burnt sand, spots of different colors, etc. In such cases, mechanical impurities are removed using a steel brush, and then the product is bleached using acids and alkalis. Typically, two stages are used to process copper, bronze, brass and cupronickel: first, preliminary etching is carried out, and then final, or glossy. Preliminary etching is carried out using a solution consisting of nitric and sulfuric acids in a volume of 250 ml of each, as well as 0.5 g of sodium chloride. The processing time is 4-5 seconds, and the solution temperature is maintained within 20-25 °C. For final etching, a solution consisting of nitric and sulfuric acids in a volume of 250 ml of each, 5 ml of hydrochloric acid and 1-1.5 g of Dutch soot is used. Products are immersed in this solution for 6-8 seconds and then quickly washed in plenty of water. When working with toxic substances such as lead, zinc, cadmium and aluminum, it is necessary to use concentrated acids such as nitric and hydrochloric acids. However, it should be remembered that working with them requires special care, so it is better to cook them under a hood or outside.

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The casting process requires a special molding tool. It can be divided into two groups: tools for filling the mold and removing the model, such as spatulas, sieves, tampers, rulers, ventilation needles, wooden mallets, whetstones and brushes.

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Embossing It is preferable to use tables made of metal or wood as workstations for minters. To make a tabletop, it is best to use thick boards, preferably wooden, as they better absorb sound when impacted. It is necessary to provide a place for the tool on the work table, but you should not store it permanently on the table, as it will make an unpleasant sound when working. To do this, it is better to equip separate cabinets and shelves. Embossers usually use tables of a different design, which have sides around the perimeter of the table top, forming a box, when chasing items with large reliefs. For practical purposes, sand is poured into this container. The height of the table sides varies depending on the terrain. It is recommended to have a wooden platform (similar to that used to mount an anvil) on which the hand mechanisms are mounted and also used for carving operations. An integral attribute of the workshop are clamps. It is also important to have small bags made of strong fabric or leather filled with sand, which are used as a lining when doing hammering work. Embossing involves many operations of soldering, welding and heating metal, so to perform them you must have a gas or gasoline burner. A large number of chemicals, including those harmful to health, are used when tinting products. If it is impossible to perform this work in a well-ventilated special room, then it is better to do it outdoors. For minting, sheet metal with good plastic properties is used, usually 0.4-1.5 mm thick. Red copper, highly resistant to corrosion, is a traditional metal for coinage. Due to the high ductility and toughness of pure copper, complex shapes can be made from it. Copper can be ground and polished well, but quickly loses its shine. When hammering according to a model with constant heating of the metal, it should be remembered that at a temperature of 400-600 °C, red brittleness of copper may appear due to an admixture of bismuth. Working with copper requires preheating. If the workpiece is small, it is evenly heated with a burner until the metal glows, and then cooled in water. But a large sheet can be rolled into a roll and annealed in an electric muffle furnace, having previously tied it with steel wire. If the roll is longer than the depth of the oven, then only one end is inserted and heated. Then insert the opposite end and repeat the operation until the roll is completely heated. It is best to use a blowtorch and a ceramic pipe to burn through the metal. First of all, you need to put clay into the end of the pipe section, and then load the metal into the free hole. After this, the pipe should be placed on the bricks so that it is at the level of the nozzle of the blowtorch, and heated with a flame. If necessary, you can use two blowtorches for burning. In the case of using copper, which has increased thermal conductivity, it is necessary to increase the heating time. Coining is most often done from copper alloys, especially brass, which has a beautiful golden yellow color. 66

The ductility of brass is slightly lower than that of copper, but it is harder and stronger due to the presence of about 30% zinc. Brass is easier to chemically oxidize compared to copper. Its strength increases during the minting process during cold hardening, but its ductility decreases. To restore ductility, brass is annealed at 600-700 °C. Annealing is carried out in parts using a torch, only in places that have undergone intense work hardening, since the brass must be cooled gradually after heating. Using a gentle flame from a gas torch when annealing brass with a low melting point and low thickness at the time of striking is important to avoid burning through the metal. Unfortunately, correcting this defect turns out to be very difficult or even impossible in some cases. Sheet aluminum and its alloys have good embossing and easy deep drawing. For this purpose, you can use any brand of aluminum sheet with an impurity content not exceeding 2%. Despite its softness and ductility, aluminum requires annealing during operation, but this is quite difficult due to the low melting point of the metal (660 ° C). When carrying out annealing, it is necessary to observe the temperature regime, which should not exceed 300-350 °C. It is not recommended to use aluminum for complex volumetric compositions consisting of several parts at home due to the difficulty of soldering and welding. For minting, low-carbon soft steels are used, such as decopier16, which is annealed and pickled steel. This material is difficult to process, but has excellent finishing properties and is easily joined by soldering and welding. Both small decorative items and large compositions can be made from it. Decopier quickly hardens during operation, and therefore requires frequent annealing, which is recommended to be carried out at a temperature of 700-800 °C.

16

Decopier - plates of thin low-carbon steel of various shapes, on which filigree sets are soldered, fixing them with a binder.

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Embossing tools The main working tools of a chaser are various types of chasers and hammers, in addition to a set of marking and metalworking tools. A mint is a metal rod with a specially processed lower working part (break), its length is usually 120-170 mm. However, the dimensions of the coins may vary depending on the work for which they are intended. In cross section they can be rectangular, round or square. An emboss with a thickening in the middle part is considered the most convenient, but its production is more difficult. It makes work easier and reduces vibration on impact well. The production of coins from steel grades U7, U8, 50X is possible. For this purpose, you can use an old file, which you must first loosen and grind off the notch. Coins made from reinforced structural steel of improved quality are considered good. The process of making coins begins with cutting steel rods of the required section into blanks. Then these blanks are roughly ground on an emery wheel. After this, holding the workpieces in a vice, they are given their final shape using a file. The working part is treated with sandpaper and polished. To create a textured stamping, a notch is made on its surface and hardened, followed by tempering to relieve internal stresses in the metal. After hardening, the battle is polished. Soft grades of steel and hard grades of brass and bronze are also used for the manufacture of coins. When working with soft metals and to create high relief, mints made from these materials are used. In such cases, the metal becomes significantly thinner, which can lead to its breakthrough. Coins made of soft and hard materials absorb some of the impact energy and are slightly deformed, which allows them to work softly.

Operation of soft chaser: 1 - chaser; 2 – metal For more frequent sharpening of soft steels, hammers made from hard woods such as beech, hornbeam and oak are used. They harden the metal to a lesser extent. The length of these

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coins is slightly longer than metal coins, since the upper part and the strike are faster and require frequent sharpening. All metal coins can be divided into the following groups: - A consumable (circuit stamp) is used to create the outline of a design on metal. Depending on the sharpening angle, it can create a wide soft line or a thin and crisp line with a sharp sharpening angle. The fight can be straight or semicircular. A shotgun, which has a pointed edge with a slightly blunt end, is used to shoot the outline, apply dots along the contour of the design and transfer the design from paper to metal. To level and smooth flat surfaces, a trowel is used, the blade of which has a round or square shape. The powder gun has a spherical head of different diameters and is used to apply texture on the front side and raise the relief on the back side. The boboshnik, which resembles a puroshnik, has an oblong ellipse-shaped fight and is also used when raising the relief from the reverse side. A special embossing is used for embossing undercuts. A hammer is used in the form of a cut, reminiscent of a chisel, with a sharpened head of a straight or semicircular shape, for cutting through the background during openwork work. Figured and patterned coins belong to a separate group. In the working part, figured coins are given a certain shape using engraving or metalworking operations - this can be an independent decorative element or part of an ornament. Having a set of such coins can speed up and simplify the execution of repeating elements. To transfer a design onto metal when performing relatively large works, a special device is sometimes used - knurling. It is a metal rod 30-40 cm long. The upper part has a thrust heel, and at the narrowed opposite end there is a groove where a wheel made of hardened steel and sharpened to a cone is attached to the axis. The rod has a notch along its entire length. When working with knurling, the left hand takes the barbell by the lower part, closer to the wheel, and the right hand in the center. Then the wheel is aligned with the line of the pattern on the metal, the persistent heel rests on the right shoulder, and rolling begins. The hands control the direction of movement, and the shoulder controls the depth of the knurling. When making drawings without small elements and small rounding radii, it is recommended to use this technique. Hooks and ratchets, which are steel rods with bent working ends at right angles directed in opposite directions, are used to knock out relief on voluminous hollow products. It is advisable to use spring grades of steel for the manufacture of this tool. The working ends of hooks and 69

ratchets are given a variety of shapes, but they must be blunted enough so that the metal does not break through at the moment of impact. Hammer's tools include hooks and ratchets. Hooks have two bent ends that are used for work, while ratchets have only one working end and the other end is secured in a vice or driven into a block of wood. The length of these tools depends on the dimensions of the product and should not be less than 250 mm, and the cross section is 8-16 mm depending on the total length. It is important not to make the hooks and ratchets thicker, as this may reduce their spring properties and require more forceful hammering. The second main tool for coining is hammers, which can have various shapes and be made of metal, wood or rubber, depending on their purpose. Sometimes a metal insert is made into rubber hammers. Hammers come in different types and are designed for different tasks. For example, metal hammers are used to strike the emboss and knock out the shape, while wooden and rubber hammers are used to draw out the relief and level the background. The weight of metal hammers can vary from 80 to 300 grams. Hammers weighing from 120 to 200 grams, which are made using metalworking or turning tools, are especially widely used. A hammer has one end that is spherical and the other end that is flat. Both ends of the hammer can be shaped to give the desired impact shape. In addition, the hammer head is processed to a mirror finish by grinding and polishing.

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Coining technology In order to melt the frozen resin in the box, use a blowtorch or burner. It is important to constantly stir the resin during heating to avoid solids settling to the bottom. To prevent the resin from catching fire and burning, it is recommended to cover the box with a thin metal sheet that does not touch the surface of the resin during heating. Such a sheet will melt the resin using the generated thermal radiation and protect it from open flames. After the resin has completely melted, you need to wait a while so that it stops releasing air bubbles. First, tarring17 is carried out: the plate is heated and placed on the resin to eliminate the presence of air bags under the plate and ensure complete tarring of the surface. Otherwise, in the presence of air, metal breakthroughs may occur during operation. To prevent this, the edge of the plate is placed on the resin first and then slowly lowered all the way down. After this, the resin with the plate must cool. If you need to speed up the cooling process, you can place the box under running cold water. When the resin has completely cooled, you can begin embossing the relief. Pulling out large and small elements is done using various tools. Embossed hammers with rounded heads are used to hammer out large elements, while hammers are used for small elements. To draw out large and high reliefs, boxes and sandbags are used, which also allow you to check the accuracy of the relief on the front side, which eliminates the need for tarring and subsequent bleaching. Embossed works with high reliefs and counter-reliefs are performed on a sand cushion. It is better to make embossings with a relief of up to 10 mm on resin, and for embossings with a large difference in relief heights, it is recommended to use a combined method - partly on resin, and partly on sand. Multi-ornamental and type works with small relief are performed only on resin or lead lining. After removing the plate from the resin base, they discover that it bounced off the resin during the striking process. This means that an air gap has formed under the plate, and to remove it, you just need to pick up the plate. If the plate is firmly fixed, first chop off the resin around it, and then, heating it with a torch and grabbing it by the edge with pliers or pliers, free it from the base. After removing the plate, pieces of resin and stains remain on it, which are removed by annealing. During the heating process, the metal is annealed and the resinous substances burn out. A wire brush can easily remove any remaining solids. This method is only applicable to copper-based alloys and ferrous metals. When working with aluminum plates that do not allow high-temperature annealing, heating occurs with little heat, and the resin is removed with a rag soaked in kerosene. Rub stains on contaminated areas until they disappear completely. Then the product is freed from resin, bleached and washed. Copper, brass and silver are bleached in a solution of sulfuric acid with a concentration of 10-15%, and iron alloys - in a solution of hydrochloric acid.

17

Tarring - fixing a metal plate (plaque) on resin before making an embossed relief.

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When working with acids, you must use rubber gloves and safety glasses, and perform the process in an exhaust hood or in the open air. After treating the product with acid, it is washed in a soda solution and then in a large amount of running water. To bleach aluminum, use a warm solution of bicarbonate of soda or caustic soda, followed by copious rinsing. A steel sheet is used to lower the background. If deep lowering is required, it is performed on resin, rubber or sand. However, it should be taken into account that when using sand or rubber to lower the relief or deep background, not only the place where the blows are struck is lowered, but also the neighboring areas, which prevents the creation of strictly limited relief forms. In such cases, it is recommended to use resin as a base, and for a shallow background, use a steel sheet. In order to apply a design to the front side or texture the finished relief, as well as to deeply lower the background, secondary tarring is performed on the reverse side. First, the embossing is straightened on a steel plate, and then resin is poured on the back side, filling all the depressions of the relief. After this, the resin is given time to cool to prevent it from leaking into the box when pitching. Then the embossing is finally finished - the background is lowered, the details are worked out, the border of the relief is highlighted and the texture is applied, achieving the final appearance of the product. Font or ornamental images sometimes need to be applied to sand relief when working. In this case, to apply the design, the reverse side of the relief is coated with resin. Then the tarred part of the relief is placed on a bag of sand and minted. Instead of resin, you can use lead, which is preferable because it does not leave dirty stains. The embossing of three-dimensional forms has its own characteristics. To obtain threedimensional hollow blanks for embossing, stamping, extrusion of symmetrical parts on lathes using templates, and free hand punching are used. In the case of creating conical, cylindrical and spherical products, the development of a development for the pattern is required. If this is not possible, the drawing is done in fragments, and then the molds are filled with resin. Typically, volumetric blanks do not have a bottom, so one end is placed on a sheet of paper and lined with damp sand on the sides, and then poured through the hole. The surface of the workpiece is prepared for transferring the design in the same way as on a flat surface: the workpiece is covered with white gouache, and then the design or its fragments are transferred using carbon paper. When transferring the design onto three-dimensional forms, the metal remains clean. However, shotting on three-dimensional forms is rarely used. The process of creating a three-dimensional drawing begins with transferring it onto a form, after which adjustments and corrections are made using a soft pencil. If the design is simple or well thought out, it can be applied directly to a form previously coated with white gouache. Then the design is fixed with varnish, after which the mold is placed on a layer of sand and a consumable is used to complete the process.

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After completing the outline of the design, the resin is melted out of the mold. To do this, the mold is placed with the hole down on metal rods or on a mesh, under which there is a container with resin. If it is not possible to install the mold on the rods, it is hung on a wire and heated evenly from bottom to top using a burner to completely remove the resin. To avoid swelling and rupture of the product when heated, the narrow part of the mold is heated, leaving the rest unheated. To completely clear the mold of resin residue, it must be annealed. However, you must be very careful when annealing a bulk form, since it can be deformed under the influence of its own mass. It is recommended to anneal the mold in a suspended or vertical position. After the resin is melted and the mold is annealed, the relief of the given design is pulled out from the inside of the mold using hooks and a ratchet. The choice of method depends on the tool used. Certain difficulties arise when using hooks to form relief. First, the mold is placed on sandbags, and then the working end of the hook is inserted into its cavity, positioning it opposite the place where the relief will be made. The left hand holds the hook, and the right hand strikes its rod with a hammer. Gradually move the working end of the hook and knock out the entire relief. Then the mold is again filled with resin and worked with ordinary embossing on the front side, repeating the operation until the product is ready. However, when working with hooks, both hands of the embosser are occupied, and the position of the form is not fixed. When chasing, you can use a ratchet for convenience. To do this, the non-working end of the ratchet is clamped in a vice or driven into a wooden block. The product is held in one hand, and the other hand strikes the ratchet rod with a hammer. First, the place where the bar gives the greatest amplitude of oscillation is determined, and this place is marked. Then the product is threaded onto the working part of the ratchet and the relief is knocked out. Determining the location of the ratchet strike blindly is quite difficult, therefore, by striking the bar lightly, they feel for the right place. To determine the location of the ratchet strike, a special device is sometimes used. It is an arc that is fixed to the ratchet rod using screws and a clamp. The other end of the arc is located above the center of the battle. However, the use of this device is not always possible due to the different sizes of products, and it may interfere with striking with a hammer. To achieve the required relief, strong blows begin to be applied to the product after reaching the desired location. Such impacts cause small bumps to appear on the surface of the product. It is possible to use the hook as a ratchet if you hold it in a vice and take into account its length. To make bulk blanks yourself, you can use several methods. If you have a lathe, you can fully or partially extrude workpieces. To do this, you need to make a template in accordance with the sketch of the product. It is important to remember that the diameter of the bottom must be equal to or less than the diameter of the neck, otherwise the mold will not be removed from the template. If you plan to make a product of a different shape and proportion, then it needs to be divided so that it meets the technological requirements. Some work can be done on a machine, while other parts can be done by hand and then assembled. 73

Pressers18 are used to press metal into shape. They are metal and wooden rods of various sizes, where one end can have a wooden handle and the other can be a working one. The working ends come in a variety of shapes and sizes and are polished to a mirror finish to reduce friction on the workpiece surface. To work with soft metals of small thickness, wooden crushers are often used. Molds can be made from metal, wood or casting, and after casting the surface of the model should be carefully treated. To extrude metal blanks, a mold is used that has the same shape and approximately corresponds to the diameter of the part being manufactured. Before the extrusion process, it is necessary to thoroughly anneal the workpiece. The model with the shank is then secured in the machine chuck, and the workpiece is pressed against the mold using the tailstock. It is important that the workpiece is fixed and does not rotate during operation. To do this, a bar with holes is installed in the tool holder of the lathe, into which a pin is inserted, which serves to stop the presses. To start extruding metal, a method is used in which the central part is first pulled out to the edges. The operation is performed gradually, in several stages, at medium spindle speeds. To reduce friction during extrusion, rub the working part of the press and the surface of the workpiece with soap or other lubricants. This method makes it possible to produce spherical blanks of large diameter, the dimensions of which depend only on the dimensions of the machine, that is, on the distance from the center of the chuck to the bed. This distance is half the diameter of the hemisphere. To produce hemispheres or spherical blanks with a diameter of up to 100 mm, you can use a simple device - a stamp. This is a metal bushing that is first turned on a lathe and then 18

Pressure - a tool, a device for processing products by pressure.

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hardened. After this, a mold is made that corresponds to half the required size of the hemisphere. Blanks are issued according to this form to obtain hemispheres. The edges are then processed and adjusted to each other. The joint can be soldered or welded. If necessary, they can be preminted. To make the upper part of the punch, which has the shape of a hemisphere, steel is used, which is also hardened. The diameter of the punch should be slightly larger than the diameter of the sleeve hole. The dimensions of the stamp parts can be arbitrary and depend on the required dimensions of the workpieces. The process of using the die is as follows: a sheet of metal is placed on the sleeve, the center of the hole is approximately determined, after which the punch is placed in place and lightly struck with a hammer. When the punch squeezes out the metal a little and moves away from the center, strong blows begin to be delivered. Initially, a hemisphere is formed by separating the blank at the edge of the sleeve from the base metal. To create a hemisphere and similar shapes, a metal blank in the shape of a circle is also used. To do this, the workpiece is placed on sand and struck with a hammer in a spiral, starting from the edge of the workpiece and gradually driving the metal towards the center, pulling it out. At first the blows should be irregular and weak. The shape is hammered out gradually, with increasing frequency of blows, in several stages. Using a steel plate as a base can achieve the same effect. Hammer blows begin to be applied from the center of the workpiece, which leads to a decrease in the thickness of the metal and its spread in width. As a result, the sheet is deformed into a spherical surface, due to the fact that the intact edges prevent its spread to the sides. The formation of the required surface is achieved by taking into account this property of the metal and striking in the right places. If it is necessary to preserve the surface of the workpiece from visible traces of hammer blows, a drift on a stand is used. It is a steel spherical shape (ambus), which can be secured in a vice or hammered into a wooden block. In this case, the metal is formed by bending it rather than compressing it. Craftsmen use wooden or rubber hammers to perform this operation. When bending the stand, corrugation appears along the edges of the workpiece. If the workpiece has acquired the desired shape and size, and the corrugation is low and wide, it is pressed against a steel sheet or the surface of an anvil. If the corrugation is too pronounced and interferes with further work, then the tops of the corrugations are cut out with metal scissors and then pressed down. Remove the cut edge of the workpiece after completion of the work.

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Sheet material In ancient times, a sheet metal processing technique called cutting was popular. Wood was the main material for the production of household and construction items, while metal was used for decoration in the form of overlays and architectural elements. For example, chests that were widely used in everyday life were decorated with patterned overlays made of cut metal. Pediments, roofs of houses, shutters and other elements were also decorated with these overlays. Expanded metal can also create three-dimensional shapes, such as chimney tops and downspout funnels, as well as weather vanes and other objects. They serve not only functional purposes, but also serve as decorative elements of architecture. Small interior work can be done using perforated decorations. Decorating forged products, in particular door hinges, may involve a perforation technique. Individual parts or elements of the loop are pierced to a small thickness of the metal and then a notch is made on them. The thickness of the metal for perforated jewelry is 0.3-0.8 mm and can be made of lowcarbon mild steel. Using thicker metal is not recommended as it makes work more difficult. Galvanized sheet steel with high corrosion resistance and other soft metals such as copper, brass, aluminum with a thickness of no more than 2.5 mm can also be used. To perform cutting work, various tools are used, including chisels, scissors and tools of different sizes and sections. One of the important elements used when cutting metal is the end of a wooden block of a certain height to ensure ease of work. The master sits on a bench with his knees, between which the deck is located. To prevent the edges of long workpieces from drooping when processing them, a board is attached to the side of the deck, the long end of which is mounted on a stand. The surface of the board should be at the same height as the working surface of the deck. When working with long workpieces, the board is attached on both sides. Thin materials such as steel plates are cut with a chisel on a lead plate base, while thick materials are cut using a wooden backing. The substrate for each material is determined experimentally, taking into account its softness and thickness. In the case where the lines of the pattern contain thin bridges that are easily wrinkled, a harder substrate is used for cutting. Metal cutting is performed not only on the deck, but also using various substrates to ensure efficient processing. When cutting metal, holes are formed with a bent edge on the back side. The height of the edge depends on the hardness of the substrate: the softer it is, the greater the concavity of the metal and, accordingly, the edge will be higher. If necessary, the edge is leveled on a steel plate using a wooden or rubber hammer. The edges of the holes are processed with a file. In some cases, the edges are left, as they can serve as stiffening ribs and increase the thickness of the pattern, especially important for products of large area or length.

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To enhance the expressiveness of the product, embossing along the contour of the design is carried out on the reverse side. This can be done using a hammer19 or a semicircular hammer. In the process of making products from perforated metal, it is also possible to use embossing techniques, and vice versa. In this case, the main pattern will be made using the embossed relief technique, and the background will be carved. This method can be used to create a lamp in the form of an antique lantern. First, a template is created on a sheet of paper that will be used to unfold the product in full size. Having prepared the appropriate number of templates, they attach them to a sheet of metal and begin marking the lines of the design with dots using a core. The lines of future bends are drawn with a scriber, and then they are passed along them with a straight stamp - a consumable. The blows are applied from the back side of the product so that the front side forms a convex line, along which the shape will then be bent. After this, the desired design is carved and embossed on the surface of the workpiece, and then, bending it along the lines, it is shaped into a box. The joint connection can be made by soldering, riveting or seam locking20. The coneshaped top cover of the lamp is made from one piece of metal. A hole is made in the center of the lid, into which a metal tube with a thread for a lamp socket is soldered. The suspension ring is attached to the outer end of the tube. For a more attractive appearance, pieces of transparent or colored glass are inserted into the lantern, which serve as a background for the perforated pattern. For a better perception of the color of the glass, it is advisable to choose one that contrasts with the metal on the background. For example, a black pattern looks good on milky, frosted or honey glass. Yellow and white metals combine favorably with dark glasses. During the production of three-dimensional forms for decorative design, along with carving patterns on a flat base, additional elements are actively used. Such elements are manufactured separately and then attached or soldered to the main mold. Vernacular architecture focused on the use of various colors, overlays and decorative elements, which were either cut from flat blanks or created in volume. If necessary, individual elements were attached to metal rods. This method was especially often used in the manufacture of weather vanes and stove pipe heads. In this case, steel wire was used for the supporting frame, and then decoration was carried out using flat and volumetric elements made of expanded metal. To create small decorative and architectural figures, you can use weak connections using riveting or soldering. However, a seam joint is used to join large pieces of sheet metal together. The folds can be vertical or horizontal. They can be located on the same plane with the metal (horizontal fold) or be perpendicular to it (vertical fold). In addition, folds can be single or more complex and durable - double. A single horizontal fold is made as follows: stepping back from the edge of the material at a given distance, mark the line using a thicknesser or ruler. 19

Hammer is a stamping that is used to give the product greater expressiveness on the reverse side along the contour. 20 A seam lock is formed as a result of bending and tightly pressing the edge metal sheets together.

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To bend the metal at an angle of 90°, it is applied to the edge of the table, which is framed by a metal corner. To prevent the sheet from moving when impacted, it must be secured on top with a wooden block laid along the bend line. To ensure reliable fastening, you can use a steel angle, which is pressed against the workbench using clamps. After bending the edge of the metal at an angle of 90°, the workpiece is turned over and the edge is folded onto the front side. In this case, the eye should be located parallel to the surface of the workpiece (when making pipes, the bent edges are placed in opposite directions). First, carry out the same actions with the second workpiece, then both edges of the workpieces are connected into a lock. A massive metal strip is placed on top, and then strong blows are applied to it to seal the lock. Another way to seal the seam is to use a mallet. An important stage is the finishing phase, which consists of cutting the fold. It is necessary to place the steel strip parallel to the seam and strike along the entire length until it matches the bottom sheet. This operation is performed using a thick steel sheet backing. The production of double and vertical folds is the same from a technology point of view. When making water inlets, pipes are connected using a seam. The only difference in these connections is the method of bending the metal, which is done by caulking an end waste or segmental rod of steel. To bend pipes, you can use steel or wooden mandrels of the appropriate diameter; instead of scrap, a forge of the desired shape is suitable. If you want to decorate the head of the water intake with a perforated hole, then it can be made with soldered or riveted joints; the remaining elements of the drain are connected with seam seams. By making it from galvanized iron, you can make a perforated part or overhead decorative elements from copper or brass.

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Mixed techniques The use of different materials and their processing in the composition provides a wide range of creative possibilities. It is especially important to have high artistic taste in order to achieve the best results. Inserting non-ferrous metal elements into a forged lattice can significantly improve the appearance of the work with the right artistic approach. Embossed inserts not only serve as decorative elements, but also play a functional role when the grille must cover something. Copper or brass is used to create a wrought iron grille with a central composition of a bird, and the hammering technique is used to complete it. The silhouette of a bird is cut out of black metal and its holes are filled with embossing. An approach similar to the Basma technique is used for this work: first, an annealed non-ferrous metal coating is placed on the contoured rod structure, which is secured with clamps at the edges. Then, using rubber and wooden hammers, the metal is pressed into the voids. If it is necessary to create a relief that exceeds the thickness of the contour structure, this operation is performed in a box of sand or using sandbags. First, remove the clamp after finishing the upsetting, and then cut the embossing along the contour. It can be secured using soldering, threaded connections or rivets. It is recommended to leave a reserve of metal when cutting the contour in order to roll it around the contour line. The embossing is usually done first, and then the ferrous metal lattice is assembled along pre-marked lines. In lighting fixtures, the combination of ferrous and non-ferrous metals is especially successful. The forged structure can serve as an additional element of the composition. The combination of elements in creating a chandelier can be illustrated by a copper ball consisting of two hemispheres and connected by a steel threaded rod with a decorative nut. If it is not possible to make a decorative nut on a lathe, a standard nut is used and attached to a suitable forged element. The main load-bearing element of the chandelier is a steel ring enclosing the line where the hemispheres connect. Decorative brackets with shades and suspension chains are attached to this ring. To achieve unevenness, it is important to first tint the tops and then polish. Clear varnish is then used to cover the surface after polishing. It is optimal to use sheet metal attachments, for which you must first calculate the circumference and height. To make attachments of the required size, it is necessary to cut suitable blanks from the sheet. Then, using a mandrel, the cylinder is bent from the workpiece and soldered along the seam. If melting of the edges is necessary, such a connection must be made with an overlap. However, if this process is ignored, then straight soldering occurs without overlap. To prevent the solder seam from coming apart during reflow, it is recommended to wrap the cylinder with steel wire and use brazing alloys. The cartridge can be attached in the shape of a flower. Five strips, which divide the length of the tube along the perimeter into equal parts, measure the lengths of future petals and draw parallel vertical lines. The remaining part of the tube should have a cartridge attached. Cuts with 79

a hacksaw or a chisel on a mandrel are made along the marking lines. The resulting five stripes are then bent 90° to give them a petal shape. If you plan to bend sheet metal cylinders, it is better to perform all these operations on a reamer, and then shape the workpiece into the desired shape. The lampshade is mounted on a bracket, which has grooved recesses to accommodate electrical wires leading to the socket. First, a line is marked on the workpiece using a chisel, and then the groove is heated and knocked out using hammers. After this, the workpiece takes on its final shape. In some cases, part of the bracket is made of a hollow tube, and the other part with decorative elements is made of a solid mass of metal. Then both halves are connected by welding, and the joint area is cleaned and caulked. As a result, the wires in a certain area of the bracket will be hidden inside the tube. To fix the wires in the gutter, you can use wax or epoxy resin with filler. Coal dust or graphite is suitable as a filler for ferrous metals. A large chandelier, which is suspended at a considerable height, requires special wiring. To do this, legs are used that are welded or riveted to the parts, similar to attaching a mirror to a frame. The wires are bent and pressed into a secure position. To secure the wiring, you can use special pins. They have a cut thread on one side and a side hole on the other side (usually near the thread). The lampshade mounting parts are made with holes for the location of threaded wires. The studs are screwed into the holes until they coincide with the surface of the part, and an electrical wire is pulled through them. The wires, which are an element of the composition, can be visible and integrated into the chandelier. In the case of sconces made using forging and embossing techniques, the central element can be a decorative forged part made of ferrous metal, and geometric shapes made of brass and embossed can serve as shades. To create cylinder-shaped lampshades, a piece of pipe with the required diameter is used, which is bent from sheet metal and given shape. It is important to leave a gap of 3-5 cm between the edge of the cylinder and the back wall so that the lamp can illuminate the center. The inside of the cylinders is polished to improve light reflection. It is better to polish them before bending them to make the process easier. To avoid viewing the lamp with a socket, the height of the smallest part of the cylinder must be at least 15 cm. In the case of using sockets with a small base (minion), tubes with an outer diameter of 10 mm and a pre-cut M10X1 thread are used. When using conventional cartridges, a tube with a diameter of 12 mm with an M12X1 thread is used. The thread length should be in the range from 6 to 8 mm. If it is not possible to cut the threads yourself, you can use the corresponding parts from old lighting fixtures. The appearance of lamps can be improved if you use a simple technique in the manufacture of metal diffuser lamps. To do this, it is necessary to bend lampshades of various shapes from a metal mesh of ordinary weaving with square holes. To make the mesh look more elegant, it must first be “ennobled”. Using embossed hammers with a semicircular head, lightly forge it (the diameter of the mesh wire is at least 2 mm), then anneal it and give it the desired shape using a template. The forged element covering the lampshades is bent on the same mandrel as the lampshades, and on the reverse side a loop is welded to it, with the help of which the sconce is attached to the wall. The lampshades in this case are made non-translucent, which allows light to pass through the left gaps and holes, which significantly reduces light output.

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The production of various shapes of lampshades made from curved mesh is limited by the impossibility of deep embossing. However, you can use an interesting, but more labor-intensive method, in which the shape is created from many small elements. First, a three-dimensional template is made from a non-flammable material, for example, gypsum, and then elements for the lampshade are made from wire. These elements can be curls, rings, etc., but they must be of sufficient size to fit well into the plane of the template along all its curves. To ensure strength, each element of the workpiece is attached to the template using nitroglue so that it comes into contact with the adjacent one at least three points. Then the entire set is tightly tied with wire and the elements are connected to each other using soldering. To ensure a reliable connection, the steel and copper sets are brazed. The use of electric welding for steel is impractical, since when soldering small and thin elements, difficulties arise, and sometimes it is impossible to achieve a high-quality connection. The brass set is soldered using tin-zinc solders, after which the fastening elements are soldered. The mesh serves as the basis for decorative elements in large works. It can be used both standard and homemade. When creating a mesh yourself, you can change the size and shape of the cells to achieve the desired texture and increase the artistic level of the product. For the background mesh, wire with a diameter of 6-8 mm is used. The essence of the mesh in this case is not limited to the literal understanding of the word - the threads can be intertwined or overlapped. The edges of the mesh are limited by the frame. To achieve uniform tension on the chain-link mesh21, a frame shaped like a rectangle is used. First, the mesh is fastened with wire with a diameter of 8 mm, which is inserted into the outer cells along the entire perimeter. The size of the frame from the corner is made slightly larger than the size of the mesh. After this, the wire inserted into the larger side of the mesh is welded to the inside of the corner, and the opposite side is pulled using blacksmith pliers or a clamp and also welded to the corner. The sides are fixed using the same principle. Frame deformation can be caused by either insufficient or excessive mesh tension. It can have a different shape, limited by the shape of the metal of any section, so it can be used both over the entire area and in fragments. This is especially useful in cases where it is necessary to limit access and penetration into the premises, for example, in glazed entrance doors. In addition, when creating railings for balconies and stair railings, there may be a need to produce a large number of identical decorative elements. Molded rosettes depicting flowers and animals are very popular in fencing and trellises. They can be made of cast iron or aluminum alloy, which can be painted black. Fastening castings to the grate is not a problem. Attach the flower-shaped element using one rivet in the center of the rosette. To prevent the rivet head from denting into the aluminum casting, an aluminum rivet should be used. Mounting castings sometimes requires the use of rivets with decorative heads, which are made of aluminum by casting. To create the same texture as on the casting, the head of the rivet is hammered. However, silumin alloy22 is not suitable for these purposes due to its fragility. In 21

Chain-link - a simple auxiliary means for strengthening the components of the composition is a fine-mesh mesh like a chain-link made of metal wire. 22 Silumin alloy is an alloy of aluminum and silicon.

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some cases, before pouring metal into the mold cavity, steel pins are inserted to secure the casting to the steel. These studs securely fasten to the poured metal. Then, through holes are drilled in the steel grid, corresponding to the location of the studs on the casting. A simple method using self-tapping screws can be used to securely fasten soft alloy castings. They are often used in the assembly of window frames and doors made of aluminum alloys. To do this, through holes are drilled in the grid at the location where the casting is attached, and blind holes are created in the casting itself. It is advisable to place these holes in the casting in places with the highest relief height. After this, a deep countersink must be made on the back side of the holes, then the casting pins are inserted into the holes and the welding points are welded. Finally, the excess ends of the studs are cut off and the weld area is cleaned. In order to screw screws through holes in the casting, it is necessary that the diameter of the hole be less than the diameter of the screw by the height of two threads. The casting should be laid on the front side, and then screws in on the back side. In the process of making a double-sided rosette that completely encloses the rod, it must be molded in such a way that on the reverse side it has a recess that occupies half of the rod with a slight allowance in thickness (for subsequent processing). After casting, this side of the socket is processed and ground on a sheet of sandpaper, which is located on a flat surface. When connecting sockets with their back sides, it is necessary to make the seam as invisible as possible. After securing the rosettes to the rod, the seam can be embossed. Decorative bronze handles for fireplace accessories such as a poker or scoop can be made using the classic casting method along with steel rods. To do this, it is necessary to create a special model, which is a rod corresponding in size and cross-section to the forged part of the product. The handle is made separately, forged from bronze, and then connected to the rest of the part. To create a model of the handle, plaster or wood is used, which is attached to the end of the rod. Then the model is covered with a frame so that the rod partially protrudes beyond its edges. In order for the rod to come out of the flask, it is necessary to cut grooves in their walls. After this, the model is removed and the end of the blank of the item that we want to make is placed in the mold instead. To prevent the workpiece from shifting and damaging the mold, it is secured to the outside of the flask using plaster pads; and then the edges of the groove are covered with plaster. If we are using burnout models for casting, then we will need an appropriate number of foam models, which are then placed together with the blank in the mold. The wrought iron composition with crystal flowers and cast glass stained glass is another example of the combination of metal and glass. Cast stained glass is created by pouring molten glass into a steel shell. At the same time, at home you can use simpler technological methods to create simple geometric shapes from glass. First you need to make a frame from a 20X 20 mm corner for the desired shape of the product. Then the glass is inserted into the assembled frame and fixed with claws or adhesive mastic. A combination of metal and glass is also widely used to create stained glass windows. The metal, namely the vein of lead, serves as the basis of the structure and holds the pieces of glass in the stained glass window, which is a classic example of this combination of materials. 82

Basically, to create stained glass, sheet glass 2.5-4 mm thick with various colors is used. To achieve greater depth of the insert, its shape can be made in the form of a glass package - a set of glasses of the same shape. The package set may consist of glasses of the same color or different colors. Depending on the thickness of the set, which can reach up to 25 mm, the size of the corner for the frame is selected. However, this method of making glass inserts has the disadvantage that over time dust gets between the glasses, which makes the insert less neat in appearance. To partially avoid this, it is recommended to cover the ends of the bag with special glue or liquid glass. To produce glass blocks of various shapes and thicknesses, a workshop can use an electric muffle furnace. This method involves fusing several sheets of glass into a package. The dimensions of the blocks depend on the dimensions of the furnace chamber. To create glass blocks of a suitable shape and quantity, it is necessary to collect glass blanks in a bag and place them in a cold muffle furnace. The oven is then heated to a temperature of 700° C. After reaching the desired temperature, the oven is turned off and left to cool gradually without opening the door. As a result, the glasses fuse and a block is formed. Before assembling the block, in order to ensure better fusion of the glass, a layer of slip23 is applied - consisting of low-temperature transparent glass particles. The slip preparation process is as follows: take 10 grams of borax and 20 grams of lead oxide. The resulting mixture is called a batch. Using a spatula, it is thoroughly mixed on a sheet of paper, after which it is poured into a crucible and compacted into a small cone. The volume of the charge should be no more than three quarters of the volume of the crucible. The crucible is placed in a muffle furnace heated to a temperature of 800-900 degrees Celsius. When the mixture is completely melted (the formation of bubbles stops), it is poured into a container with water. The water is drained, and the remaining sediment - a mixture of glass fragments and water - is transferred to thick sheet glass. To obtain a creamy state, a mixture of polished granite is rubbed onto the glass with a brush. The resulting slip is then coated on the bottom glass to prevent it from fusing to the muffle chamber. A separating layer of a mixture of kaolin with water or fireclay powder is also applied between several packages of fused glass. To give the desired color to clear window glass, you can use colored slip. To do this, oxides of some metals are added to the mixture. For example, cobalt oxide will color glass blueviolet, and ferric oxide will color it brown. If you add cupric oxide, the glass will turn green. Meanwhile, a mixture of copper oxide, cobalt oxide and iron oxide will result in a black tint. To create blocks of various colors, colored slip is used, which includes the addition of tin oxide. What makes glass opaque and gives it a milky color!

23

In metallurgy, slip is a by-product of segregation refining of low-melting heavy non-ferrous metals (lead, bismuth, tin), when cooled during the refining process, impurities with limited solubility (copper, iron) crystallize.

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When making pendants for lamps and chandeliers, loops with bent ends are used. For their manufacture, non-chrome wire is used, which is usually taken from the heating coils of an electric stove. The hinges are securely fixed inside the glass, fused with it, and serve as fastening elements on chandeliers and lamps. However, it should be taken into account that wire with a diameter of more than 0.8 mm is not recommended. Since metal and glass have different coefficients of expansion, this can cause significant internal stresses and lead to glass breaking at the point where the hinge is fused. The interior design of basements widely uses the technique of artificial window niches. Instead of ordinary windows, such niches have a light source, which is covered with glass and serves as a decorative grille. This design achieves two goals: to create an architectural element and to provide natural light in a room without windows. The creation of an artificial window niche can be achieved through the use of perforated embossing. In this case, the background or part of the composition is cut out in embossing, and the resulting holes on the reverse side are closed with colored glass, which are fastened with paws. Thus, the embossed composition becomes one-sided and has a front and a draft side. If the desired composition is double-sided, the glass is fixed according to the following scheme: the cut is made in two versions (front and back), and then holes are cut in the required places, located at a short distance (10 mm) from the edge of the glass. After this, metal is applied to the front side along the entire perimeter of the holes. In the case of using soft metals with a thickness of no more than 0.8 mm, you can operate differently with the order of operations, while maintaining the same method of fastening the glass in double-sided embossing. They start by installing fixing rivets around the perimeter of the glass inserts to prevent its destruction. Then the landing depth is made corresponding to the thickness of the glass, and the glass is placed in the resulting recesses, which were also cut out with some margin around the perimeter of the mold. At the end, the coins are folded with their reverse sides and fastened with rivets of the same metal. To fasten glass into a hole for glass in embossing, the following method is used: the edges of the hole are beaded to the front side by 10 mm in one of the parts of the embossing. Then the flanging areas are carefully annealed, and both halves are connected using rivets. The entire perimeter of the holes is also fastened with rivets. After this, the glass is inserted into the resulting recesses, and the flanged edges are rolled with a wooden or polished steel spatula. Using this fastening method, if the glass is broken, you can replace it by simply bending the rolled edges. If the rigidity of the embossing is not sufficient to prevent glass from breaking, it can be mounted on a frame made of steel rod or angle. In the case where the product is large, in order to increase the rigidity of the structure, steel reinforcement is placed inside the coinage. You can replace the lead vein with a corner made of tinplate or thin copper in small and simple stained glass inserts. A corner approximately 6x6 mm is made by pulling it through a 2-3 84

mm wide die made of a steel plate. Then a corner-shaped groove is made in the die using a jigsaw and metal files used by jewelers. The hole can also be made using electrochemical or chemical milling. The corners are made from metal strips about 12 mm wide. Place the corner shape into the hole of the die using pliers, which is clamped in a vice. In order to pull the strip through the hole, you need to take pliers and grab it well. Then pull the strip through the hole using a die so that it takes the shape of the hole and becomes a corner. In order to better draw the metal, it is necessary to round the edges of the die using sandpaper and rub the workpiece with soap before drawing. For copper and brass workpieces, it is also necessary to pre-anneal them. The resulting blanks are pushed out in accordance with the natural size of the template, adjusted and glued together using tin solder on the back and front sides. When developing sketches for stained glass inserts, small rounding radii should be avoided. In order to increase rigidity, a rod is tied around the perimeter. On the sides of the corners located vertically, two parallel cuts are made with an interval of 5 mm. Then the cut part is folded back and the glass is secured in this way. The number of cuts depends on the size of the glass being pulled. In the interior of premises, home craftsmen are increasingly using a combination of wood and metal. Compositions that combine elements of forged metal and wood sawing are actively used. They can be used as a balcony railing or a decorative dividing wall indoors. In addition, in the manufacture of wooden products, forged fastening elements significantly improve the appearance. This can include nails with decorative heads, corners on window frames, decorative staples on ceiling beams, and so on. A novice craftsman can master the techniques of artistic metal processing with the help of the following examples of the use of various materials and techniques. One of the options for making a table top is to use glazed tiles, onto which the tiles are attached, gluing them onto a sheet of asbestos cement board as a base. The design can be decorated or the required color can be given using the fusible glass described above. Forged metal is used in the construction of the chairs, while wood is used for the shaped seats and backs. This combination of metal and wood is well suited for making furniture for country houses.

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Decorative metal processing When done carefully, corrugation is the simplest method for decorating forged metal, which is reminiscent of engraving and etching. The main application of corrugation is the finishing of small forged products, fittings, furniture, decorative overlays and small-sized products. Chisels with different sharpening angles and curvatures are used for corrugation. They differ from ordinary chisels in having a blunter working edge, which does not cut the metal, but presses it. Mainly, the middle parts of the lines are extruded by the semicircular working part of the coin, and their edges smoothly merge. Upon contact with the subsequent line, a smooth transition of notches is formed. The design on the product is created using a template on which lines are scratched using a scriber. It can also be drawn freehand with a pencil and scored along the lines with a chisel. The difference between smooth and grooved surfaces creates a pattern. Graining is done in a similar way, but different tools are used. To create coining for graining, the end of a heated blank is struck with a hammer against a knurled file, creating coneshaped indentations in the blank. Next, turning the workpiece 90°, the operation is repeated. Then heat treatment is performed. To achieve the desired effect, it is recommended to use several coins of different sizes and with different frequencies of teeth. When using such embossing, one stroke can create a certain texture on the surface of the product. However, a more complex process is embossing, in which the working part has the shape of an inverse hemisphere, since each blow creates only one texture point. However, after processing and light polishing, the surface processed in this way takes on the appearance of being covered with small balls. To create decorative finishes, embossing was widely used on ancient weapons and jewelry. To achieve smoother sliding of the hammer on the metal, it is advisable to wipe its working part with a cloth soaked in oil before use. Etching is a method for treating the surface of a metal in which part of it is removed chemically rather than mechanically. Etching can have a positive or negative effect. Positive etching removes metal along the image line, while negative etching removes the background while leaving the line intact. With positive etching, a product that has been degreased is coated with a protective compound, and then, using cutters and a needle, it is removed along the design line, carefully melting to the metal surface. The prepared product is placed in the solution and etched to the required depth. For protection, 88H glue with a diluted solvent or wax mastics are used. Here is their composition in percentage: Recipe 1: - Natural wax: 40-65% 86

- Paraffin: 15-25% - Rosin: 10-40% Recipe 2: - Natural wax: 50-70% - Rosin: 50-30% These mastics are suitable for etching with acids and alkalis. To remove them from products, they are placed in hot water. If you need to etch a small part on a large product, it is protected by a cardboard shell and secured with plasticine. Then the inner side of the shell is coated with several layers of a protective composition. It is recommended to use chemical milling solutions before etching. The following solutions can be used for pickling steel (temperature 20-40 °C) with the indicated content in grams per liter: - Recipe 1: - Hydrochloric acid (density 1.19) - 45 g - Sulfuric acid (density 1.84) - 550 g - Recipe 2: - Ferric chloride - 70 g - Nitric acid (density 1.4) - 650 g - Hydrochloric acid (density 1.19) - 300 g After the etching process, it is necessary to rinse the part with an alkaline (soda) solution to neutralize acid residues. For etching copper, it is recommended to use a solution (temperature 20-30 °C) of the following composition in grams per liter: ferric chloride - 75 g, hydrochloric acid (density 1.19) 3 g. In the case of simple etching of copper and brass, nitric acid is diluted in water. Add water to the solution until bubbles stop forming. Its intensive formation indicates the strength of the solution. Aluminum is etched in a solution of caustic soda at a temperature of 70-80 ° C, using 100200 g per 1 liter of water. Since the wax protective mastic melts at this temperature, in this case the following composition is used, g/l: 500 copper sulfate (copper sulfate), 200 sodium chloride (table salt), 125 hydrochloric acids. The composition for preparing copper sulfate is formed by pouring hot water and adding sodium chloride and hydrochloric acid to a supersaturated solution. After mixing and cooling to room temperature, the part is immersed in the solution for 20-25 seconds, then removed and the resulting sludge is removed. This process is repeated several times until the required etching depth is achieved. In the case of negative etching, the design line is covered with a protective compound, and the background remains open. Wax mastic is applied to the drawing using a brush or glass tube with a drawn-out spout, in small portions so that it does not harden. The design is then retouched using steel needles and a scalpel to remove excess coating. 87

To create a protective composition for aluminum, you will need 100 g of 88H glue, 90 g of kaolin and a solvent; you can use ethyl acetate and gasoline in a 2:1 ratio or just gasoline. The solvent should be added gradually until a paste that is easy to work with is obtained. When etching, it is possible to obtain not only graphic, but also relief images with texture. To do this, etching is carried out in stages. First, the details that should have the greatest height are marked on the sketch, then the details of the second, third, and so on. The first plan parts are coated with a separating compound on the metal. Using the same compound, which is removed to a certain depth, the background parts are isolated and the process of removing unprotected areas continues. Repeated repetition of this process leads to the formation of a relief in the form of steps with different heights of the pattern elements. By changing the depth of removal in different areas, a plastic relief can be created. The relief is then processed using embossing to soften the sharp edges and give it smooth lines. Inlaying is a decorative finishing method in which the depressions created by etching or engraving are filled with another metal or special material. There are different options for using colored sealing wax, which require a variety of masses. In the process of preparing sealing wax in a water bath, natural wax weighing 25 g is melted, and then 100 g of finely crushed rosin is added. 20 g of sifted chalk (can be replaced with tooth powder or kaolin) and 40 g of pigment are gradually added to this molten mixture. Note that the chalk serves as a filler, and the pigment gives the sealing wax its color. The pigments used are metal oxides such as iron oxide which gives brown color, cobalt oxide which gives blue color and chromium oxide which gives green color and so on. In addition to metal oxides, other dry dyes that are used in construction can be used. Preparation of sealing wax can occur in different ways. One of them is to stir and pour the molten inlay mixture into molds, preferably in the form of grooves, to form sticks as the sealing wax hardens. It is convenient to use these sticks to fill in the indentations by melting the end end. An alternative method involves grinding the sealing wax and dissolving it in alcohol to form a paste. The paste can also be filled into the recesses using a spatula. After the sealing wax has hardened, remove excess material from the surface using pumice or sandpaper. This treatment will give the surface a matte finish. If the inlay is expected to shine, the product can be slightly heated until the sealing wax melts or highlighted with a cloth swab dipped in alcohol. Filling depressions in ferrous metal with molten brass or copper is also possible. Direct welding with a gas torch and subsequent removal of excess metal with a scraper is another method. To fill recesses on flat products, you can use a mixture of brass filings and borax and heat it from the back side to avoid the metal being blown out by a stream of gas from the burner. If the part has a large mass, then it is heated on a forge. Using a gold imitation alloy to fill the depressions in the metal that are created by etching is also possible. One such alloy, called "American gold", may consist of the following components in the specified mass fractions. Gilding ferrous metal using etched patterns is possible by applying gold plating. The process of gilding can be carried out in a very simple way, known as "gold ether". To create a “golden ether,” gold particles are placed in aqua regia containing concentrated nitric (1 part) and 88

hydrochloric (3 parts by weight) acids, and then the same portion of ether is added. The finished mixture is placed in a bottle with a sealed glass stopper and vigorously shaken until the gold salts are completely dissolved in ether. The process begins by waiting for the acid and ester to completely separate after mixing, with the lighter ester on top. This ether is carefully poured into another vessel with a tightly closed stopper. Then the “golden” ether is applied to the product, previously cleaned of fat, using a brush. The ether evaporates and the remaining salt undergoes a reduction process, turning into metallic gold and sticking to the base metal when the product is heated. The resulting coating is then polished with a steel polishing pad to give it shine. The silver plating process is carried out by applying a mixture of silver powder obtained from the chemical reduction of silver nitrate using a hair brush moistened with a mixture of ground table salt. A coarse-grained coating on cleaned metal is obtained using silver particles in the form of regular hexagons with a thickness of less than 0.1 mm. Table salt is used to remove the oxide film. A 1:3 ratios between silver powder and table salt produces a fine-grained film, while a 1:50 ratio produces a coarse-grained coating. A method of decorative metal processing - blackening - is the application of niello consisting of a low-melting black alloy to the surface of the product. It is usually used after engraving to decorate gold and silver items. Copper also lends itself well to blackening and can be used to fill etched patterns. The main components of the alloy for blackening are silver, copper, lead and sulfur. There are many recipes that vary in color and shine depending on the composition of the ingredients. Let's look at several examples of the composition of alloys for blackening in different proportions. One way to prepare niello is to melt silver and copper in a crucible or over a piece of charcoal. Then lead and a small amount of borax are added as a flux, as well as sulfur. The resulting mixture is constantly stirred with a wooden or clay stirrer. After this, add a little more borax, remove the slag and pour the melt into a cast iron frying pan. The hardened niello is crushed into pieces and melted again with the addition of borax and sulfur. This operation is repeated at least three times. Don't forget that there are different ways to prepare niello. The alloy can be produced in two different ways. In one of them, silver, copper and lead are melted in a crucible, and then the resulting alloy is poured into another crucible containing pre-molten sulfur, the volume of which should be one and a half times larger. In some cases, the sulfur is not melted in advance, but is poured into the metal alloy in powder form. After thorough mixing, the contents are poured into a cast iron frying pan and left to cool. The alloy is then broken into pieces and melted without adding crushed sulfur. This process can be repeated several times to achieve the desired quality of the alloy. The second method is to prepare silver sulfide, copper and lead separately, and then alloy them together in the desired ratio. Powdered sulfur (20 gm) and pure silver in the form of shavings (97.8 gm) are used to prepare 1 kg of niello according to this method. The mixture is then placed in a crucible and heated in a muffle furnace to a temperature in the range of 300-400 °C. As a result, under the 89

influence of heat, sulfur penetrates the metal and forms silver sulfide. In the same way you can get copper sulfide and lead sulfide. 800 g of copper requires 250 g of sulfur, and 400 g of lead requires 75 g of sulfur. The resulting compounds are ground into powder and then mixed in the following proportions: - Silver sulfide: 111.2 g. Components such as copper sulfide and lead sulfide are in the ratio of 466.6 and 422.2, respectively. To prevent the components from burning out, the mixture is poured into a cold crucible and sprinkled with charcoal on top. Next, the crucible is placed in a muffle furnace heated to 800 °C. Then, after 30-40 minutes, ammonium chloride is added to the mixture at the rate of 284 g per 1 kg of mobile. When the mixture is completely melted, it is poured onto a heated cast-iron frying pan, where the alloy gradually cools. The flux is ammonium chloride, potash with table salt and borax. The ink is applied to the product dry or wet. In this case, the surface of the product must be pre-polished to prevent black from getting into the remaining marks and holes, which can distort the design. The edges of the product, soldering points and parts that are not subject to blackening are covered with fireproof clay diluted with water. With the wet blackening method, the products are coated with an aqueous solution of flux mixed with blackening powder using a wooden spatula in the form of sour cream. Then drying and firing occurs. Excess black is removed with a scraper and file, followed by polishing. The depth of the drawing lines that need to be inked must be at least 0.2 mm. With the dry blackening method, the surface of the product is moistened with a flux solution, and then black powder is applied to it through a sieve. Blackening is removed from areas that should not be blackened. Then the product is placed in a muffle heated to 400 ° C, where the niello is melted, and the process is carefully controlled to avoid overheating. When the mobile has completely melted, the heating is stopped. By performing chemical milling using the recipes described above, you can create throughshaped holes in products with thick metal or increased hardness, avoiding cutting and sawing. Using the same method, technologists produce shaped coins and other tools with a shaped working surface, including hardened metal. The final stage of finishing an artistic forged product is the application of a decorative protective coating to the metals. The appearance and safety of the product largely depend on the quality of this stage. It is necessary to remove scale from the surface of steel produced by forging during the final finishing of the forged product. The scale that forms on the surface of steel is a layer of iron oxide and ferrous oxide with varying thickness and density, having a beautiful gray-blue color. However, this layer does not provide protection against corrosion, since it is an oxidation product. To remove scale from small products, you can use solutions containing 150-200 g/l of hydrochloric acid. Scale gradually flakes off from the base metal, so its removal is necessary to ensure high quality of manufactured products. 90

For Hexamine, it is recommended to use a dosage of 40-50 units. You also need to add 150-200 units of hydrochloric acid and 0.5-1.0 units of potassium iodide. Additionally, methenamine in the amount of 9-10 units should also be included in the composition. Large products should be cleaned of scale by mechanical means such as sandpaper, metal brushes and ground pumice with water. After this, the product must be washed and dried. If the product is intended to be used in a dry room, it is necessary to perform additional treatment by oxidizing the surface. To do this, you can heat the product with a torch or blowtorch. As a result of processing, the metal acquires a variety of shades, ranging from straw yellow to blue-black. To achieve the desired color, it is important to stop heating at the right moment. However, this technique has a certain complexity due to the non-uniformity of the thickness of the part in the heating zone, which can lead to uneven heating and the formation of various shades. To avoid this problem, you can start heating from a more massive part of the part, thus transferring heat to thinner areas. Some cases use oxidation decoratively to produce a variety of color effects on different parts of the product. The color and texture of forged metal are fully revealed after applying a layer of wax dissolved in gasoline to the oxidized surface. The wax coating is then polished using a hair brush. To get a black color on steel products, you need to rub the descaled metal with linseed or other vegetable oil, and then heat it until a film of the desired color is formed. It is important that the oil does not ignite. At elevated temperatures, it decomposes and penetrates the pores of the oxides, reliably connecting with the metal and forming a film of black or gray-brown color, depending on the condition of the surface. After cooling, the layer dries and does not stick. The resulting coating is then lubricated with technical petroleum jelly or wax dissolved in turpentine or gasoline. The use of paint and varnish coatings is recommended for products exposed to intense atmospheric influences. To achieve good results, you can use underbody sealants that dry to a matte black color. The surface of the product is pre-primed with the appropriate primer for coating. Then, in accordance with the instructions, the finished sealant is applied to the products with a brush or spray. To blue forged items, you can use a chemical method, which will give them a rich blackbrown color. In this case, the size of the product will be limited by the available capacity. A plastic barrel with the top cut off can be used as a bluing bath. To achieve a black color, the product is placed in a bluing solution containing 15 g of ferric chloride, 30 g of ferrous sulfate and 10 g of nitric acid, dissolved sequentially in 1 liter of water. Then, when a rusty coating appears on the product, it is removed with a brush. After this, the product is again immersed in the solution and, after some time, the rusty coating that has appeared is removed again. This process is repeated until the desired thick black-brown color is achieved. Burnishing is carried out at room temperature. To obtain a black-blue color on steel, dissolve 100 g of potassium dichromate (chrompic) in 1 liter of water. 91

To obtain a matte black film on steel, you must follow the following procedure: the product is placed in the solution and kept for 20 minutes, after which it is dried at high temperature using an electric stove or a forge flame. As a result of processing, a gray-brown tint appears on the metal surface. It is recommended to repeat this operation until a black-blue color is achieved. To obtain a matte black film, you can use the following solution composition: 1000 grams of water, 80 grams of sodium hyposulfite (potash), 60 grams of ammonium chloride, 7 grams of orthophosphoric acid and 3 grams of nitric acid. The duration of the oxidation process at room temperature is approximately one hour, but when the temperature rises to 70 °C, the time is reduced to 20 minutes. Coating steel blue is achieved using a solution that includes 30 g of ferric chloride, 30 g of mercury nitrate, 30 g of hydrochloric acid diluted in 120 g of water, and an additional 120 g of alcohol. The coating time is 20 minutes, and the working temperature of the solution is 20 °C. Before coating products, it is always necessary to degrease and pickle them, that is, remove the oxide film from the metal surface by chemical means. Various solvents, such as gasoline or acetone, are used to degrease the surface of the product. After this, it is advisable to minimize contact with the surface with your hands, since even unnoticeable grease stains can lead to the formation of defects during the coating process. To remove rust when working with ferrous metals, weak solutions of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid in water (3-5 g/l) are used. They move the product in the solution using wire hangers, and then rinse with running water to remove any remaining acid. The choice of more or less strong solutions for removing rust depends on the degree of its damage. To remove rust when working with ferrous metals, it is necessary to select solutions of varying concentrations depending on the intensity of the damage. Partially affected areas with rust should be treated with sandpaper, after soaking with kerosene. If the affected area is large, the rust is removed chemically using the drug "Rust Converter" or a solution based on phosphoric acid is prepared. The acid content of the solution directly affects its effectiveness. A weak solution includes 1000 ml of water, 15 g of concentrated phosphoric acid and 4 g of butyl alcohol (ethyl alcohol can be used instead). Adding alcohol improves the wetting properties of the solution. The product is processed as follows: first, a swab is attached to a wooden handle, after which it applies the solution to the product. After drying, the product is treated with a metal brush. If you use a solution consisting of the following components in grams: potassium nitrate 6, chromic anhydride - 3, phosphoric acid - 275, tartaric acid - 12, zinc phosphate - 8, thiocarbamide - 3, and also add 100 ml of water, it will turn out stronger effect on rust. When the 92

rust is completely removed, 6 g of isopropyl alcohol can be added to the solution. In this case, the product will be degreased and sautéed at the same time. When carrying out restoration work or removing rust from products of artistic value, you can use gentle solutions that not only effectively remove rust, but also have minimal impact on the base metal. At home, it is easy to prepare such a solution, consisting of water (680 g), ethyl alcohol (160 g), emulsifier - washing powder (60 g) and phosphoric acid (200 g). To remove rust, the solution is applied to the surface with a swab until it is completely removed. To prepare the etching solution, it is necessary to use some plants - celandine, marshmallow, yarrow, as well as potatoes and tomatoes. First, chop up the leaves and stems and then pour a five percent hydrochloric acid solution over them until they are completely covered. After this, you need to close the container with a lid and leave for at least eight days. After this, you can prepare an etching solution, if, of course, a large amount of rust is found. The proportions of the etching solution are as follows, by volume: Extract - 5 parts Concentrated hydrochloric acid - 40 parts. Coloring zinc products in different colors is achieved by reacting zinc with various substances that form colored compounds. To achieve a black color on zinc products, a solution containing the following components by volume is used: - Two parts copper nitrate - Three parts copper oxide - Eight parts hydrochloric acid Water is also added in small quantities to a weaker solution consisting of 10 parts extract and 20 parts acid. This solution is used to treat products until rust is completely removed. Water should be used to rinse and dry the surface after color appears. The green tint of zinc can be obtained by mixing the following components by weight in a solution: 10 parts copper sulfate, 10 parts tartaric acid, 12 parts water 24 parts of caustic soda solution (prepared from 1-part alkali and 15 parts water). To avoid the appearance of a brown tint, the product should be rinsed with water when staining occurs. To give a blue color to a zinc product, you can use a solution consisting of 6 g of nickel sulfate, 6 g of ammonium chloride and 100 g of water. 93

The solution for golden coloring uses the following components, proportions by volume: - Tartaric acid - 1 - Soda - 2 - Water - 1 Pure clay or kaolin is mixed with the components. Then the surface of the product is coated with this mixture and, after drying, washed off with water. To obtain a brown-bronze color, use a solution consisting of 1-part verdigris and 5 parts acid by weight. The surface of the product is treated with the mixture, washed with water and dried. To paint a zinc product copper, it is enough to coat it with a solution of copper sulfate, since zinc is more active than copper. Decorative coatings are most widely used for copper and its alloys. To give copper a black color, it is tinted in a special solution that contains 0.9 g of sodium hydroxide and 0.3 g of ammonium persulfate per 100 ml of water. This solution, which is also used in photography, is heated to a temperature of 90-100 ° C, and a degreased and pickled part clamped on a wire is lowered into it. Copper and brass acquire a chocolate color when they are immersed in a solution of potassium chloride, nickel sulfate and copper sulfate containing 4.5, 2 and 10.5 g respectively per 100 ml of water. This procedure is carried out at the same temperature - 90-100 °C. To obtain black and gray colors on copper and brass, a liver of sulfur solution is used, which is prepared by melting a mixture of powdered sulfur and potash. This mixture, after heating in a metal container to a dark brown color, is kept for 15 minutes, while the appearance of a blue-green flame does not affect the quality of the mass. After heating has stopped, the mass is given time to cool and then ground into powder, which is stored in a tightly closed container. Liver sulfur solution (10-15 g/l) is stored for no more than a day, and products are bleached with it by immersing in the solution or wiping with a moistened swab. The tinting process should be carried out gradually, in several stages, so as not to immediately obtain a saturated color. Typically, products are immersed in the solution for 1-2 minutes, which makes it easier to control the process. You can also use a swab to apply the solution to the product, which allows you to adjust the depth of staining in different places and add additional amounts of solution. To apply a light gray patina, add 2-3 grams of table salt and the same amount of sulfur liver to the solution for each liter of water. The highest quality solution is a combination of liver sulfur and ammonium sulfide. Depending on the amount of liver sulfur added to the ammonium sulphide solution (from 5 to 15 grams), various shades of oxide films can be obtained, ranging from light brown to dark brown and black, which is the most saturated when using copper. 94

When using 2.5 g of antimony pentasulphide in a solution with 1 liter of four percent sodium hydroxide, the result is a brown color with a hint of redness. To lighten individual areas of the relief, use a rag with moistened sand. If the surface of the product was not degreased or decapitated before tinting, all products are wiped with sand. The tinting solution is moistened with a rag swab, then rolled in sand and gently wiped over the product. Sand acts as an abrasive, removing greasy stains and oxide films, and a tinting solution soaked on a swab creates the first primer layer for subsequent tinting, combining with the cleaned metal. The processing of large coins and sculptures can be greatly improved using this method. To achieve complete coverage of the product with a uniform layer of tint, without stains, you need to wipe with sand several times. To give an antique patina to products made of copper, brass and bronze, you can use a solution consisting of 50-250 g of ammonium chloride and 100-250 g of ammonium carbonate per 1 liter of water. The composition of the solution, which accelerates the formation of patina, includes the following components (in g/l): - Ammonium chloride: 64 - Medium copper acetate: 132 - Acetic acid (5%): 1 l In solution, g/l, a gray-green patina is obtained: - 50 g sulfur liver - 74 g ammonium chloride - 50 g of iron acetic salt - 60 g ammonium carbonate - 35 g 5% acetic acid A black-green patina can be achieved by replacing iron vinegar with copper vinegar. A blue-green color similar to malachite can be obtained in the following solution, g/l: - 40 g ammonium chloride - 120 g potassium tartrate - 160 g sodium chloride - 200 g copper nitrate Brass will acquire an azure color when briefly kept in a solution of the following composition: 3 g of lead acetate, 6 g of sodium thiosulfate (hyposulfite) and 5 g of acetic acid in 100 ml of water. The solution temperature should be about 80 °C.

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In order to give a green tint to copper, special processing of substances is used. To 100 ml of water add 20 g of copper nitrate, 30 g of ammonia, 40 g of ammonium carbonate and 40 g of sodium acetate (a mixture of soda and vinegar).

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Bukhara knives as a special kind of blacksmithing. There is a legend in the East about the amazing "Bukhara" knife! Each nation has its own national knife, which differs from others by its construction, size and decorations. We decided to create an oriental style knife made of Damascus steel, the idea came when we noticed the Bukhara knife.

Bukhara is an ancient city in Asia that everyone knows. Historically, the city stood at the crossroads of trade routes, so many people visited it. To protect their property and family from raids and robberies, people began to forge large knives with a wide blade for hand-to-hand combat. Later, the Bukhara knife became a symbol of protection from evil thoughts and envy for its owners. The handle of the Bukhara Damascus steel knife is made of set leather, brass and Wenge wood. The blade of this knife has a large width and is similar to the shape of a yatagan, tapering to the end. Its length is 160 mm, and the length of the hilt is 135 mm. "Bukhara" knife made of Damascus steel is a large and massive knife. This knife has a wide range of uses: you can use it for hunting, take it with you on a hike or simply use it as a kitchen knife at home. We hope that we have succeeded in creating a knife similar to the legendary Bukhara knives, which embody the complex and turbulent history of Central Asia. 97

Tourists are very much attracted by the collection of skillful works of blacksmith Zavkiddin Kamalov, including knives made of Damascus steel24, as well as handmade scissors.

24

Damascus steel is steel produced by forging from a bundle of different grades of metal.

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Conclusion The beginning of iron forging occurred in ancient times. This business was revered and prestigious. The blacksmith was often considered a "mystic" or wizard, capable of turning a piece of brown stone into a valuable item. Uzbek blacksmithing has been one of the most widespread types of craft since time immemorial. However, its development primarily depended on the availability of local raw materials such as gold, silver, copper and iron, with which Uzbekistan has been rich since ancient times. Zavkiddin Kamalov is the youngest master in the art of blacksmithing. In the sixth generation, he continues the glorious dynasty of Kamalov blacksmiths. This family is known in their country as respected and talented craftsmen. Since childhood, Zavkiddin spent time with his father, Shokir Kamalov, in their forge-museum. He learned blacksmithing in his youth and was a student of his father, who was a great master. He not only achieved success, but also surpassed his wonderful teacher. Currently, the Bukhara forge is known for its Damascus steel knives and stem-shaped scissors. In 1913, local artisans involved in the manufacture of metal products represented 19 independent industries, which indicates the importance of the blacksmith profession. Scissors created by the talented Zavkiddin by hand are recognizable in all corners of Uzbekistan. The Kamalov family, famous for its forge, leaves an unforgettable impression on every tourist who visits Bukhara. Jugs, vases, bowls, dishes, as well as small sculptures with images of people and animals - all these are the works of Zavkiddin Kamalov, which Uzbeks use in everyday life. But not only local residents, but also foreign tourists show great interest in these unique products. Since childhood, the young master accompanied his father and brother to many exhibitions and festivals of folk crafts, where he acted as a second master. At first, the master participated in exhibitions and competitions within his country, but soon he began to take part in festivals that were held in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Almaty. After some time, his diligence and skill brought results, and the young blacksmith began to be recognized not only in his native country, but also abroad. Zavkiddin Kamalov was educated at the Bukhara Institute of Engineering and Technology, but he realized that blacksmithing brought him great pleasure. And so, he decided to continue the work of his ancestors, introducing modern elements into the basics of blacksmithing. Zavkiddin Kamalov became the youngest master in his field, taking part in the international crafts fair in Santa Fe (New Mexico) in July 2022. Now he is an independent artist with his own students, eager to continue his work and share his skills. The young master became widely known on the Internet thanks to his talent in blacksmithing. He plans to hold several exhibitions to bring to modern society the customs and traditions of blacksmithing that his ancestors practiced. In the future, Zavkiddin hopes that his strong and wonderful family, where two children are growing up, will be interested in the affairs of the young blacksmith and will continue the family business. 99

Literature 1. Andreeva E.A. - Artistic processing of metal / - Moscow: RIPOL Classic, 2008. 384p.:il. - (Correct house). 2. Vinnikov I. 3. Soldering works. Moscow; Vysh. shk., 1979. 144 с. 3. Zhuravlev V. N., Nikolaeva O. I. Engineering steels. Reference book. Moscow: Mashinostroenie, 1981. 391 с. 4. Konkov A. S. Forging. M.: Mashinostroenie, 1966. 384 с. 5. Kuzmintsev V. N. Forging on hammers and presses. Moscow: Vysh. shk., 1985. 224 с. 6. Nodelman M. E., Uramovskiy Y. M. Reference book on locksmithing and forging. Minsk: Urozhay, 1975. 384 с. 7. Raskind V. L. Reference book of a young blacksmith-stamping. Moscow: Vysh. shk. 1985. 256 с. 8. Shekhter S. Ya., Reznitsky A. M. Metal Cladding. М.: 1982. 71 с. 9. Titov Y.A., Kokorin V.N., Gudkov I.N. - Free Forging. Initial materials and blanking operations: textbook /. - Ulyanovsk: UlGTU, 2006. - 53с. 10. Ukhin S.V. - Blacksmithing. Moscow: LLC "AST Publishing House"; Donetsk: "Stalker", 2004. - 79p.: ill. 11. Yusipov 3. I. Hand Forging. Moscow: Vysh. shk., 1984. 263 с. 12. Zlotnikov, V. L., Mikhailova P. I., Kazakevich V. V., Burenin. M. - Safety Technique and Industrial Sanitation in Forge and Press Shops/S. L.: Mashinostroenie, 1984. 256 с. 13. Balconies, windows, lattices / Transl. from sp. - M.: Publishing House "Niola 21st Century", 2005. - 128 p.: il. - (Art Metal) 14. Metal Lace: Gates and Lattices / Per. from sp. - M.: Publishing House "Niola 21st Century", 2004. - 112 p.: ill. 15. https://moya-planeta.ru/repor 16. https://silkway.uz/remesla-i-narodnoe-tvorchestvo/dr-vidy-prikladnogoiskusstva/kuznechnoe-remeslo-v-buhare/ 17. https://www.tourstouzbekistan.com/ru/blog/uzbekskie-tradicii/kuznechnoe-remeslobuxary.html 18. https://mir24.tv/articles/16458001/muzhskie-professii-buhary-remesla-kotoryeproslavili-drevnii-gorod-shelkovogo-puti 19. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nWIUhDYiXJ4 20. https://vk.com/wall-23213608_22708 21. https://autotravel.ru/otklik.php/36929 22. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blacksmith

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