Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education [1 ed.] 9781617281402, 9781607416432

Citation preview

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD SERIES

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

APPROACHES TO EARLY CHILDHOOD AND ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD SERIES Motivation in Education Desmond H. Elsworth (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-234-7 Reading Literacy of U.S. Fourth-Grade Students in an International Context Justin Baer, Stéphane Baldi, Kaylin Ayotte,Patricia J. Gree and Daniel McGrath 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60692-138-3 Teacher Qualificationsand Kindergartners’ Achievements Cassandra M. Guarino, Laura S. Hamilton, J.R. Lockwood,Amy H. Rathbun and Elvira Germino Hausken 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60741-180-2 Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading Ana Carolina Pena (Editor) 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60741-236-6

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Nutrition Education and Change Beatra F. Realine (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-983-4

Reading at Risk: A Survey of Literary Reading in America Rainer D. Ivanov 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-582-9 Evaluating Online Learning: Challenges and Strategies for Success Arthur T. Weston (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-107-9 Learning in the Network Society and the Digitized School Rune Krumsvik (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-172-7 Rural Education in the 21st Century Christine M.E. Frisiras (Editor) 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60692-966-7 IT- Based Project ChangeManagement System Faisal Manzoor Arain 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-148-2

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reading: Assessment, Comprehensionand Teaching Nancy H. Salas and Donna D. Peyton (Editors) 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60692-615-4 Reading: Assessment, Comprehension and Teaching Nancy H. Salas and Donna D. Peyton (Editors) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60876-543-0 (On-Line) Mentoring: Program Development, Relationships and Outcomes Michael I. Keel (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60692-287-3 Enhancing Prospects of Longer-Term Sustainability of Cross-Cultural INSET Initiatives in China Chunmei Yan 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-615-9 Multimedia in Education and Special Education Onan Demir and Cari Celik 2009. ISBN 978-1-60741-073-7

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PCK and Teaching Innovations Syh-Jong Jang 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-147-5 Academic Administration: A Quest for Better Management and Leadership in Higher Education Sheying Chen (Editor) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-732-3 New Research in Education: Adult, Medical and Vocational Edmondo Balistrieri and Giustino DeNino (Editors) 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-873-3 Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education Francis Wardle 2009. ISBN: 978-1-60741-643-2

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD SERIES

APPROACHES TO EARLY CHILDHOOD AND ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

FRANCIS WARDLE

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Wardle, Francis, 1947Approaches to early childhood and elementary education / Francis Wardle. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 978-1-61728-140-2 (E-Book) 1. Early childhood education. 2. Education, Elementary. 3. Child development. I. Title. LB1139.23.W368 2009 372.21--dc22 2009016911

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.  New York

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

DEDICATION

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

To my late father, Derek Duncan Wardle, who taught me so much about life and children, and my late “Brazilian father”, Joao Antonio Meira, who introduced me to the wonderful people and culture of Brazil.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

CONTENTS Preface

xi

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Introduction

xiii

Chapter 1

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

1

Chapter 2

Constructivist Approach

23

Chapter 3

The High/Scope Approach

47

Chapter 4

Montessori

73

Chapter 5

Waldorf, British Infant/Primary Schools, and Free Schools

95

Chapter 6

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky

115

Chapter 7

Reggio Emilia

143

Chapter 8

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

169

Chapter 9

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

195

Chapter 10

Exceptional Children

223

Chapter 11

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

247

Chapter 12

Brain-Based Learning

279

Chapter 13

Federal and State Programs

295

Chapter 14

Religious Approaches

321

Chapter 15

Behavioral Approaches

345

Chapter 16

The Project Approach to Learning

365

Glossary

385

References

411

Index

433

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PREFACE This book covers a vast range of different philosophical and practical approaches to early education, from Free/Open schools and Waldorf education, to the Core Curriculum and the learning standards approach of the U.S. federal No Child Left Behind Act. By the early years I mean the ages from infancy through the end of elementary school. While some of the approaches, such as Montessori and Reggio Emilia, are best known for the preschool years, and the standards approach is best know for American K-12 education, there is more and more overlap and merging across early childhood and elementary education approaches, worldwide. All the approaches covered in this text are used in programs from infancy through the end of elementary school, even if each may focus on a certain age within this time frame. We are seeing major changes in infant, prekindergarten and elementary school education approaches, worldwide. These changes are the result of several major factors, including the extensive and powerful new brain research; globalization of markets, ideas, and the Internet; rapid demographic shifts in many developed countries, and a move to more universal education in developing countries and more universal preschool programs in developed countries. Thus, the focus of this book in describing a variety of current education approaches, with a detailed description of their historical and philosophical foundations and their current practice is very timely.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION My father was a teacher for almost 60 years. As a teacher his students and their families were most fond of his fieldtrips and projects. When he taught in England, his fieldtrips included descending deep into a Welsh coalmine, visiting historic castles and manor houses, taking a class to London to visit the Houses of Parliament and watch MPs in action (they stayed at his sisters home), and periodic trips to a local Cadbury factory (the biggest chocolate maker in England). Fieldtrips in Pennsylvania included riding on a coal barge down the Monongahela River, retracing the steps of General Braddock’s movements during the American Revolutionary War, participating in bird-banding during the spring and fall bird migration, spelunking (and getting lost) in the Sinks of Gandhi cave in W. Virginia, and many a hike along the Appalachian Trial. His projects were long and very educational. One involved growing and harvesting rye grass, thrashing and grinding the grain, and baking rye bread – which was then eaten by the students and their families. Another included identifying the various edible plants in the woods surrounding the school, harvesting them and making jams and jellies, and then proving an entire meal of edible plants for the children. But maybe his most famous project was teaching students in a variety of schools in Pennsylvania and New York how to breed, band, care for and train homing pigeons. There are now several generations of adults who have learned this skill from my father. My father’s fieldtrips and projects utilized ideas and concepts from many of the education approaches covered in this text, including John Dewey (chapter 1), the Project Approach (chapter 16), British Infant/Primary schools (chapter 5), Free/Open schools (chapter 5) and the constructivist approach (chapter 2). Almost all of my father’s teaching experience was in religious schools, and therefore he had a strong connection to religious education approaches (chapter 14). And, because my father taught in schools in England and America, and these schools had elements of German education (Froebel) and Paraguayan social and cultural influences, there was clearly a strong global perspective in his work. Finally, because fieldtrips and projects are a gateway to expose children to a vast array of concrete, real-world activities, occupations and people, and use multi-sensory learning, they have a lot in common with the Montessori method and High/Scope. While my father had a teacher’s certificate (from the University of London), and was aware of many of the theories in this book, including Froebel (Kindergarten), John Dewey, Reggio Emilia and Summerhill (Free Schools) (he visited the school during his training), he probably was not consciously aware of the many theories he implemented in his practice. In

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

xiv

Francis Wardle

fact, many belief he was so committed to these activities because he was a lifelong learner, and because the traditional classroom bored him (Wardle, 2003). Nevertheless, his fieldtrips and projects show how many different approaches can be practically applied in a variety of educational contexts.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

SCOPE OF THE BOOK This book covers a vast range of different philosophical and practical approaches to early education, from Free/Open schools and Waldorf education, to the Core Curriculum and the learning standards approach of the U.S. federal No Child Left Behind Act. By the early years I mean the ages from infancy through the end of elementary school. While some of the approaches, such as Montessori and Reggio Emilia, are best known for the preschool years, and the standards approach is best known for American K-12 education, there is more and more overlap and merging across early childhood and elementary education approaches, worldwide. All the approaches covered in this text can be seen in programs from infancy through the end of elementary school, even if each may focus on a certain age within this timeframe. We are seeing major changes in infant, prekindergarten and elementary school education approaches, worldwide. These changes are the result of several major factors, including the extensive and powerful new brain research; globalization of markets, ideas, and the Internet; rapid demographic shifts in many developed countries, and a move to more universal education in developing countries and more universal preschool programs in developed countries. Thus, the focus of this book in describing a variety of current education approaches, with a detailed description of their historical and philosophical foundations and their current practice, is, I believe, very timely. The purpose of this text is to provide the student with an overall sense of the wide range of educational approaches that currently are being used to teach and care fore young children. While advocates of the learning standards approach to early education (infants through elementary grades) seem to suggest that there is an overall professional consensus that this is the best approach for all children, particularly minority and low income children (Bowman, 2006), this simply is not the case. Not only are their entire counties that use very different approaches to early education (see chapter 9); but even within this country there is a vast range of choices covering how we educate our young children. This book attempts to provide the learner with an understanding and rich information about the vast range of options available to teach young children, worldwide. There is no preferred sequence to follow in reading and studying the chapters in this book; in fact, each can be studied totally independently of each other. However, within each chapter there are a number of references made to ideas, practices, and beliefs in other chapters throughout the book, thus providing the reader both with a sense of connectedness between ideas, and with the ability to compare and contrast curricula approaches. And, while the focus of the book is for the early childhood and elementary college student in the United States, it clearly has application and relevance to university students in other countries studying early education approaches.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Introduction

xv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

I wish to acknowledge my wife, Ruth, who has had to put up with the long hours I have dedicated to this project, and to all the individuals whose programs I have profiled and who were nice enough to allow me to interview them and observe their program in action. I would also like to acknowledge those individuals in the Denver area whose actions have resulted in my having enough time to write this and other books.

All Photographs by the author.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 1

JOHN DEWEY AND THE BANK STREET APPROACH

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION John Dewey is considered the father of progressive education. He was a philosopher and educator. It should be noted that, while many of the theorists and educators discussed in this book are Europeans, Dewey was an American educational philosopher who has had a great influence both on K-12 programs and on American early childhood approaches. While Dewey focused more on K-12 education than early childhood education, many of his ideas were critically important to the development of the Bank Street Developmental-Interaction Approach in the early 20th century, and in the free-school/alternative school movement of the 1960s and 70s. As I discuss in other chapters, Dewey’s influence can also be seen in the Reggio Emilia approach and the British Infant and Primary School philosophy, and his ideas about the social nature of education are reflected in Vygotsky’s work. Many contemporary infant and toddler programs incorporate important aspects of Dewey’s philosophy. Finally, his view of the school as a community is a trend that is returning to our schools and early childhood programs. According to Greenberg (1987), the prototype for Head Start was the Bank Street Developmental-Interaction Approach - a model developed by a group of women who believed the education of young children was the best vehicle to produce the social change they envisioned and desired. This approach, grounded in the progressive education of John Dewey and his colleagues, built on the fervor and goodwill of a group of dedicated women in the early part of the 20th century, in particular Harriet Johnson, Lucy Sprague Mitchell, Caroline Pratt, Patty Smith Hill, and later Barbara Biber. It is not surprising that Dewey’s approach conflicted with the traditional school approach of Horace Mann and other school officials that was popular when he developed his philosophy (Wiles and Bondi, 2002). Dewey’s faith in the individual child and his belief in the education of everyone for the good of democracy, would, I believe, pose the same kind of challenge to the current standards approach to education in the United States. By the same token, the Bank Street model’s whole child approach runs counter to today’s focus on academic content standards, which is often implemented at the expense of music, art, physical education, character education, and the overall social and the emotional development of each child.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

2

Francis Wardle

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. To what extent was the emerging early childhood field at the turn of the century a direct result of the women’s movement at that time? 2. How much does the Bank Street Developmental-Interaction approach owe to John Dewey and progressive education? 3. Why did progressive education never really catch on in traditional public schools in the United States? 4. What is the role of the teacher in John Dewey’s educational philosophy? 5. What does the Head Start model owe to the Bank Street approach? 6. What is the relevance of Dewey’s progressive philosophy in the current debate over learning standards in K-12 education?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

JOHN DEWEY AND PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION John Dewey lived from 1858 to 1952. He was born and raised in Vermont, began teaching at the University of Michigan, and went on to teach at both Columbia University (New York) and the University of Chicago. He created a lab school at the University of Chicago, where he experimented with many of his educational ideas. John Dewey and his colleagues developed what came to be known as progressive education: a problem-solving, inquiry-based approach that focuses on the integrity of individual student experiences in the educational process; an approach that dramatically challenged the traditional teacher-directed orientation to education practiced at that time. Dewey viewed this traditional education as being dominated by external ideas and content being imposed on children. “The subjectmatter of education consists of bodies of information and of skills that have been worked out in the past; therefore, the chief business of the school is to transmit them to the new generation” (Dewey, 1997/38, p. 17). Describing progressive education in comparison to traditional education, Dewey wrote, “to imposition from above is opposed expression and cultivation of individuality; to external discipline is opposed free activity; to learning from texts and teachers, learning through experience; to acquisition of isolated skills and techniques by drill, is opposed acquisition of them as a means of attaining ends which make direct vital appeal; to preparation for a more or less remote future is opposed making the most of opportunities of present life; to static aims and materials is opposed acquaintance with a changing world” (Dewey, 1997/1938, p. 19-20). According to Dewey, children learn through experience. He believed the nature of that experience should structure the various components of education: discipline, scope and sequence, and goals and objectives. He understood that children have built into them a desire to learn, to grow, and to acquire knowledge. “I assume that amid all uncertainties there is one permanent frame of reference: namely, the organic connection between education and personal experience; or, that the new philosophy of education is committed to some kind of empirical and experimental philosophy” (Dewey, 1997/1938, p.25). He believed two kinds of experiences in schools can be educational – those that interest, stimulate and absorb the student, and those experiences that “live fruitfully and creatively in subsequent experiences”

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

3

(Dewey, 1997/1938, p. 28). In other words, educational experiences must be both interesting and individually captivating, and must lead to future experiences and learning. Dewey’s ideas can be seen in many aspects of prekindergarten and k-12 education (and even in college programs), especially in the more creative and innovative programs. His concept of the value of each child’s experience was the underpinning of the free-school movement of the 1960s and 1970s, and is the foundation for many contemporary approaches, such as expeditionary learning (Outward Bound) and Reggio Emilia; his concept of personal meaning is threaded though the work of Gardner, memory theorists (information processing), Bruner, and gifted and talented programs, and his view of educational experiences leading to future learning opportunities is the basis for the notion of dispositions (Katz, 1998)(see chapter 16). Dewey’s ideas are also relevant in the rapidly developing field of infant and toddler care, which by necessity must take a whole child approach that considers physical, social, emotional, affective, linguistic and cognitive development, and that includes the individual child’s home and cultural background (Lally, Griffin, Fenichel, Segal, Stanton, and Weissbound, 1995). Finally, many of Dewey’s ideas are very consistent with what we have learned from the new brain research (see chapter 12).

Dewey’s Ideas about Education

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

John Dewey wrote volumes and volumes about education, the role of education in a democratic society, and art education (1897; 1899; 1916; 1934; 1938). Many of these ideas became part of the progressive education movement, and are highlighted in Box 1:1, Excepts from My Pedagogical Creed (1897). Below I discuss some of the more relevant features of Dewey’s philosophy as it apples to early childhood and elementary education, starting with his radical views of the curriculum. Box 1.1. Excerpts from My Pedagogic Creed, John Dewey, 1897 • I believe firmly that education must be conceived as a continuing reconstruction of experience; that the process and the goal of education are one and the same thing. • I believe that the active side precedes the passive in the development of the child’s nature; that expression comes before conscious impression; that the muscular development precedes the sensory; that movements come before conscious sensations. • I believe that there is, therefore, no succession of studies in the ideal school curriculum. The progress is not in the succession of studies but in the development of new attitudes towards, and new interests in, experience. • True education comes through the stimulation of the child’s powers by the demands of the social situation in which he finds himself. • The child’s own instinct and power furnish the material and give the starting point for all education. • I believe that education, therefore, is a process of living and not preparation for future living. • The school life should grow gradually out of the home life…it is the business of the school to deepen and extend the child’s sense of values bound up in his home life.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

4

Francis Wardle Box 1.1. (Continued) • I believe, finally, that the teacher is engaged, not simply in the training of individuals, but in the formation of proper social life. • I believe that interests are the sign and symptoms of growing power. I believe that they represent dawning capacities. Accordingly the constant and careful observation of interests is of the utmost importance for the educator. • I believe that only through the continual and sympathetic observation of childhood’s interests can the adult enter into the child’s life and see what it is ready for, and upon what material I could work most readily and fruitfully. • I believe that education is the fundamental method of social progress and reform. • I believe that much of present education fails because it neglects this fundamental principle of the school as a form of community life. • I believe that we violate a child’s nature and render difficult the best ethical results, by introducing the child too abruptly to a number of special studies, of reading, writing, geography, etc, out of relation to this social life. • I believe that as such simplified social life, the school life should grow gradually out of the home life; that it should take up and continue the activities with which the child is already familiar in the home. • I believe that the question of method is ultimately reducible to the question of the order of development of the child’s powers and interests. (Dewey, 1897).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Curriculum One of Dewey’s main concerns was the traditional view of the curriculum as simply a tool to transmit external ideas, values and skills into a child. His view was radically different, beginning with his concept of scope (content to be taught) and sequence (the order in which content should be taught).

The Content (Scope) of Curriculum Should Emanate from Children’s Experiences Probably Dewey’s most radical and controversial break with traditional education was his belief that curricular content should derive from the child’s experiences, not from some curriculum made up of carefully selected, culturally transmitted facts, skills, content and discipline. According to Dewey, children’s experiences and interests should be the starting point, the impetus for the curriculum. It should then be up to the teachers and the school community to nurture and support the curriculum. Thus, to Dewey the school is less a place to transmit knowledge and more of a place to create and experience knowledge, beginning with each child’s unique and valid experiences. The Structure (Sequence) of the Curriculum is Based on a Child’s Natural Learning and Development The curriculum should, according to Dewey, be structured around the laws implicit within the child’s own nature and how children learn – the order of development of the child’s interests and powers. Thus, as a child becomes more fully involved and intrigued in a content area, and more skilled in learning, the content will naturally expand and become more

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

5

complex, abstract and sophisticated. A child will learn new skills when she needs to learn them to further investigate and learn about her topic of interests. Skills and knowledge are learned for a purpose, not simply because they are in the curriculum or the teacher decides they need to be learned.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Education is Not Preparation for the Future The best preparation for the future is a full exploration and development of issues, ideas, and concepts in the child’s immediate, present school experience, according to John Dewey. He believed that education is the process of living and not a preparation for future living. School experiences should be as real and vital to the child as her experiences at home and in her neighborhood. He rejected the pervasive notion of his time that believed the primary purpose of schools and curricula is to prepare for the future, and that the goal of each grade is to prepare the child to move closer to that final destination. For Dewey, educational processes and goals are essentially the same thing. The British Infant/Primary philosophy and later the American Free/Open Schools of the 1960s and 70s picked up and further explored the idea that providing a full and meaningful childhood is the best preparation for adulthood (Wardle, 1985)(see chapter 5). All Children Should Have Art Education Dewey was committed to educate the whole child, and not just the moral and academic aspects that the curriculum of his time addressed. He saw art as having equal value to other subjects in the curriculum (1934). “Children’s art was taken seriously, regarded as authentic, worthwhile, and valued on its own terms” (Engel, 1995, p.8). According to Dewey, children use art to express their deepest thoughts and feelings, and people who have not learned how to do so are unhappy and tortured within (Dewey, 1934). To Dewey the use of art in the curriculum was to help all children develop emotionally; he did not view art as simply a subject for children who were artistically gifted. To this day his book, Art as Experience (1934), is treasured by art educators.

Learning Occurs Through Experience Dewey’s view of how children learn also differed radically from his contemporaries. For Dewey, not only does the curriculum need to start with the child, but all learning should start with experience.

Children Learn by Doing Children can learn a whole variety of important technical skills by simply engaging in certain activities, such as cooking, sewing, the trades, etc. However, Dewey believed that math, science, literature, government and history – the more formal subjects of the curriculum – could also be learned in this way, and that learning by doing is far more effective in the long run (1897). Also, he felt these common, everyday activities made education more accessible and meaningful for more children, especially for new immigrants and the poor. He saw no reason to divorce education from life, or to elevate certain kids of education and learning above other kinds of education and learning.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

6

Francis Wardle

Learning Occurs though Educational Experiences While curricular content begins with what the child brings to the school, specific educational experiences are needed to teach the child, and not just any experiences are educational. According to Carol Gerhard Mooney (2000), an educational experience in Dewey’s view must meet these criteria: • • • • •

It is based on the children’s interests and grows out of their existing knowledge and experience; It supports the child’s development; It helps the children develop new skills; It adds to the child’s understanding of the world; It prepares children to live more fully.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Out of these educational experiences children develop the foundation for future learning, particularly in content areas.

Children are Whole-Child Learners Dewey wrote forcefully against the idea of teaching isolated subjects to children too soon (1897). The totality – or the Gestalt – of the whole child: physical, emotional, social and intellectual - must all be educated at the same time, through integrated projects and wholechild activities. Gestalt is a psychological term that means individuals are predisposed to organize things in a specific way, and the nature of that unique organization - the patterns, relationships and overall perception - is more cognitively important than simply adding up all the individual parts (Ormord, 2008). Dewey particularly emphasized the inclusion of the social and emotional side of the child’s development, which is why he was a strong advocate for art education in schools. Since children are whole-child learners, whose brains and thinking are not naturally divided into domains (physical, cognitive, social, emotional and so one), they should be taught in an integrated, holistic fashion.

Much of Learning is Social Contemporary educators and politicians viewed the central purpose of public education as teaching individual children specific skills, while molding them into good Americans through the transmission of the American values, but Dewey believed people should learn to become free, democratic citizens by actually engaging in democratic activities when they are young (1897; 1938). In other words, he saw the school as a small society, and viewed much of learning as the child’s response to the school’s social environment.

The School as a Social Institution For Dewey, the school is a social institution and learning is a social activity. In a social context children are forced out of their narrow, egocentric actions and feelings, and must learn to view themselves as contributing members of a group. Further, Dewey felt that when children learn within a social context, they learn the skills and strategies that prepare them to become responsible adults in a democratic society. Using the school as a social structure

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

7

enables children to engage in important moral training: children learn character and moral behavior by functioning within a moral, social institution – the school. Dewey not only stipulated that social and moral education is the responsibility of the school, but that the school must be a community in which the child grows and learns. Further, since learning is primarily a social activity, the school is the social context in which this learning must take place. He suggested that there should be a delicate balance between the rights and needs of the individual child, and the child’s commitment and responsibility to the social group – the school. A central goal of education should be to help children learn this balance, according to Dewey.

Teaching Requires Unique Skills For John Dewey, curriculum and instruction begin with the child, but the child’s educational experiences are expanded, enriched, enhanced, differentiated, and focused by the teacher. Each of the child’s educational experiences should be carefully planned, and educational environments must be developed and created to maximize learning (Mooney, 2000). One of the central roles of the teacher is to carefully observe each child and to be able to know the child’s interests, motivations, and experiences. According to John Dewey, teachers should be well-trained, confident professionals who can continually observe and assess the needs of their students, and create and recreate challenging environments and rich educational experiences (Mooney, 2000). Some argue that Dewey’s philosophy places extra burdens on teachers, and requires a larger range of skills and dispositions of teachers than does the traditional educational approach (Wardle, 1985; 1975; n.d.)

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Box 1.2. Dewey’s Learning by Doing For one year I taught a kindergarten class at New Meadow Run School in Pennsylvania. At the beginning of the year I found out that a new batch of laying chicks was about to be brought to the barn, so I asked if the kindergarten class could be responsible for raising the chicks. The barn was well equipped for raising and caring for sheep, goats, and chickens. Further, as someone who grew up on a farm, I knew something about raising hens; also several of the fathers of students were very knowledgeable and could be used as consultants, if needed. Once the chicks arrived, we began to care for them. Every morning at the beginning of our nature walk, the kindergarten class first stopped off at the barn to feed the chicks and to top off their water – rain, sun or snow. The children rotated in the feeding and watering of the chicks. Once the chickens began to lay eggs the excitement grew. Now, not only did we feed and water the hens at the beginning of our walk, but we also collected the beautiful brown eggs on our return. The children experimented with ways to get into the high nesting boxes, retrieve eggs from under aggressive hens, and carefully collect the eggs without breaking any (not always successfully).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

8

Francis Wardle Box 1.2. (Continued)

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

They, of course, counted every egg as they carefully placed them into the collection baskets, and marveled at the large ones, especially those with double yolks. We dropped off the the bucket of eggs at the communal kitchen on our route back to the classroom. Once we returned to the classroom we recorded on our big wall graph the number of eggs collected that day – pasting on the graph a brown cutout construction paper egg for each egg we collected. Further, it was now springtime, so we found nests and eggshells in the woods, which the children brought back and put on our science table. Connections were also made between our laying hens and a nest of Canadian Greece that we carefully monitored on our daily walks. A final connection was made with the whole community when it was announced that the beautiful, brown, hard-boiled eggs provided for the communal super were collected from the hens the kindergarten class had carefully raised from tiny chicks. Concepts children learned from this activity, include, − Caring for living things − Working together as a group − Helping raise food for each child’s family and the whole community − Documenting the number of eggs collected each day; graphing the results − Writing in individual journals about hens, eggs, and caring for the chickens − Learning the relationship between feeding chicken and the eggs they lay − Learning the relationship between domestic eggs and chickens, and wild birds, nests, and baby birds in the spring − Connecting the daily activity of feeding chickens with children’s individual experience of caring for pets at home and occasionally feeding farm animals − Learning the responsibility of following through on tasks and assignments. Birds that were not fed or watered would die. Learning that a group can achieve more than an individual, when they work together.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

9

Education is a Vehicle for Social Change If schools did their job of preparing children to live effectively in a democracy, then society would improve. Thus Dewey believed that a central purpose of education is to improve society, and not simply perpetuate the status quos. In this view he agreed with Rudolf Steiner, who developed the Waldorf Schools in Germany between the two Great Wars (see chapter 5). Dewey felt this could be accomplished as a result of the school’s teaching children how to balance their personal needs with the needs of the community, in this case, the school. Further, the number of children – especially poor children – who were being poorly educated or not educated, greatly disturbed him. He viewed public education as a way of making education accessible to the masses, thus meeting a fundamental need of democracy (1996/1938). But to be effective, public education must be conducted in a way that is effective and gives poor children both the tools to function in a democracy, and the dignity to do so. Dewey believed that not only should education prepare citizens to function effectively in a democracy, but that all citizens in a democracy should have access to an education.

Impact of Dewey’s Philosophy Dewey’s educational philosophy was radical because it challenged the basic beliefs held at that time in America and much of the world regarding public education The beliefs that Dewey challenged, included,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • •

• • • • • • • • •

Children are passive receivers of knowledge and information; Teachers are expert disseminators of knowledge and skills; A central purpose of education is to improve the culture, habits and civilization of poor, minority, and immigrant students, including Native Americans and African Americans; Certain students are simply unable to benefit from formal education - often the poor and disabled; For many children, work in factories and farms is more important than going to school; There exists a critical body of knowledge that must be taught to all students, which is defined by a carefully developed and written curriculum; The skills and knowledge that are taught in schools must be taught through a universal, prescribed, graduated sequence to all children; Schools were legally segregated by race, in many cases by class, and by ability/disability – if the disabled were served at all; The teaching of culture – music, dance, art, and literature, is only important for children from middle-class and upper class homes; The education of boys is of much more importance than the education of girls; The focus of education for the masses is on trades and trade-related skills; The teaching of moral rules, through religious instruction, is viewed as a central purpose of education, particularly for the poor and new immigrants, whom it was assumed lacked moral understanding and behavior;

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

10

Francis Wardle •

Group membership and behavior is of most importance, while individuality is discouraged (Wiles and Bondi, 2002; Wardle, 2003). Box 1.3. Reflective Thinking

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

John Dewey experienced opposition to his methods and philosophy. At that time in American history and the history of American education, public schools in the US focused on assimilating all American children to the same skills, language, history, information and values. Schools were serving more and more children, including poor children who had not attended school before, and children of new immigrants. Many politicians and educators believed the central role of public education at that time was to teach formal English and common American values and American culture Today our schools are experiencing a large increase in immigrant students, many of whom do not speak English, and we have also expanded our educational vision by educating children with a variety of disabilities, along with increasing the number of prekindergarten children, mostly from poor families. Finally, NCLB is billed as a program designed “to close the academic divide” between white and Asian children on the one hand, and minority children on the other. Are these current educational conditions similar to those that occurred in Dewey’s time, and is the resistance today to Dewey’s educational philosophy similar to the resistance to his ideas during his lifetime?

It is not surprising that Dewey’s ideas have had a profound impact on a variety of educational movements that challenged traditional approaches to education in this country and around the world. Any approach that focuses on individual development, honors the child’s contextual world (home, community and culture), challenges the cultural transmission view of education, and emphasizes the value of the arts and free expression, will find a great deal in common in Dewey’s work. Dewey’s ideas had a tremendous impact on the free school movement of the 1960s and 70s that developed as part of the overall counter culture (see figure 1.1). Other approaches covered in this text, including Reggio Emilia, High/Scope, British Infant/Primary Programs, the Project Approach, and even some concepts embraced in multicultural education, include significant principles directly traced to Dewey. The popular thematic approach to curriculum development used in many early childhood programs and elementary schools worldwide, originated with John Dewey (Mooney, 2004). And of course, the Bank Street Developmental Interaction approach flows historically and philosophically out of Dewey’s progressive education, which probably makes Dewey the great grandfather of Head Start. I taught at a free school in Taos, New Mexico for 2 years, and then for three years at a similar school in Kansas City, Missouri. The free school movement in this country lasted for about 15- 20 years, from the early 1960s through to the end of the 1970s. Figure 1.1. Continued on next page.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

11

These schools implemented many of John Dewey’s important ideas: the school as a community and the child’s responsibility within that community; learning by doing with lots of projects and extended activities; use of children’s experiences and ideas as the initial stimulus for learning which teachers would then expand and elaborate; being concerned with each child’s daily experiences and growth as opposed to following a preset curriculum with prescribed activities; extensive use of the community in which the school functioned, including the use of parks, museums, markets and parents’ businesses; and connecting the school closely with the home (which was easy to do, since these were parent–run programs)(Wardle, 1985; Wardle, 2008). Many of these free schools, including PACERS School (People Actively Committed to Educational Reform in Schools) in Kansas City, experimented with student governance and control, exploring the idea that children can best learn to function in a democracy by actually governing their schools as a democracy. At PACERS School the students developed the rules, called whole-school meetings to address infractions, and meted out punishment. They also organized and monitored the daily cleaning of the school (Wardle, 1985)(See chapter 5). Figure 1.1. Dewey and Free Schools.

BANK STREET DEVELOPMENTAL-INTERACTION APPROACH

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Roots of the Bank Street Philosophy Henry Barnard, first U.S. Commissioner of Education (1867), believed schools should be agents of social change, and that every American child has a right to an education. He was instrumental in supporting the development of Froebel kindergartens in the United States. During this time in Europe, Freud was stressing the importance of the early years in personality development, and in America, G. Stanley Hall published, The Content of Children’s Minds, which focused on the importance of studying children’s development (Sears, 1975). And, by the end of the 19th century, the progressive education movement had developed a solid canon of beliefs, which included: • • • • • •

Recognition of the individual needs and differences in children; Teachers should be attentive to all the needs of children; Children learn best when they are motivated and are interested in the learning materials; Rote learning is bad and useless in educating children; The teacher should support the child’s total development – social, physical, intellectual and emotional; and Children learn best when they have direct contact with real materials (Greenberg, 1987).

These ideas were well known by educators of the time, although not practiced in most public schools, and Dewey was a much sought-after colleague and intellectual mentor. Lucy Sprague Mitchell attended lectures by John Dewey and often sought out his advice (Antler, 1987). Also at this time, Lucy Sprague Mitchell and other intellectual women were deeply

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

12

Francis Wardle

committed to social reform. They knew and admired Jane Adams and other female social reformers of the day, and the fight for the women’s right to vote was a significant social movement of the time. Lucy Sprague Mitchell, Harriet Johnson, Caroline Pratt and other reformers saw child care and early education as a natural part of this women’s social reform movement, and as a way to serve poor children and their families (Greenberg, 1987). According to Dewey, one of the central functions of American public education was to provide a means for poor and immigrant children to be able to struggle for a better life (Cremin, 1964). He felt that our schools had failed to reach whole segments of our society. Further, he also believed that schools should be agents of social change, educating people who would then improve society. According to Antler (1987), “Lucy [Lucy Sprague Mitchell] found that Dewey always called forth new ideas …it was after talking with Dewey one afternoon in 1913 about the social aspects of education that Lucy developed a new scheme for using schools as community centers” (p. 207). Beginning in 1916, Lucy S. Mitchell, Harriet Johnson, Caroline Pratt and other women in New York City developed a variety of enterprises that eventually led to the creation of the Bank Street model of early childhood education. Some of these activities included, • • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• •

Creation of the Bureau of Educational Experiments (BEE); Creation of a school to experiment with new early childhood ideas and to conduct research on children’s learning - a lab school to study young children; Development of a teachers’ college to educate prospective teachers of young children in these new concepts and approaches, and to promote the new philosophy; Support of workshops for prospective writers of children’s books; Creation of a bulletin – an official publication – to function as a vehicle to disseminate all these new findings, ideas and philosophies (Greenberg, 1987).

Focus on the Early Years While Lucy Sprague Mitchell and her colleagues were developing the various components of what would become the Bank Street College, Caroline Pratt created a play school in Mitchell’s house – which both the Mitchells helped support financially. Lucy was one of the school’s teachers. The play school was based directly on ideas of progressive education. “In many ways, the Play School was typical of the progressive schools that began to flower at about this time. Influenced by the educational philosophy of John Dewey and Francis Parker, the Play School exhibited characteristics that became the hallmarks of the progressive tradition” (Antler, 1987, p 241). At the time progressive schools were beginning to gain popularity, traditional kindergarten programs used a very different approach. The traditional kindergarten programs in the early 20th century in US public schools were very different from the program originally developed by Froebel in Germany. With a very teacherdirected approach, carefully preescribed scope and sequence curriculum, and rigid use of Froebel’s educational materials, these programs had become a distortion of Froebel’s childcentered approach (Roopnarine and Johnson, 2005). Box 1.4 illustrates some of the differences between the traditional American kindergarten approach of the 1920s, and the progressive school approach.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

13

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Box 1.4. Differences between a Froebelian and a Progressive Play School Approach to Early Childhood Education Froebelian Kindergartens in America

Progressive Play School Approach

Froebelian kindergartens were highly teacher-directed: the order in which activities were to be learned was carefully selected, and what the children were to do with materials was determined by the teacher. Materials were specifically made for teaching, such as Froebel’s gifts,

In the Dewey schools, children had choices in both activity and the direction of those activities.

The Froebel approach is based on the concept of the unfolding of the flower – the natural, unhurried and un-pressured maturation of the child.

While Dewey’s approach was age-specific and very developmental, it was not quite as strictly maturational.

Froebel stressed the interaction of the individual child with specific, carefully chosen materials.

Dewey’s’ programs stressed, “learning though doing” - one of the phrases he made famous - particularly learning through interacting with the physical and social world.

European-based models, including the kindergarten, were not concerned with the democratic process, including equality, or with children learning democratic skills and practices.

Dewey empathized the democratic process and learning how to operate within a democratic governmental system, through social interactions and cooperative activities. (Based on Greenberg, 1987)

Dewey’s schools included ordinary found objects, natural materials, and toys.

While Dewey’s philosophy was largely a reaction to the K-12 traditional curricular approach, the Play School was more of a reaction to the traditional public school kindergarten of that time. Fundamental concepts from the Play School continued to develop through the 1940s-50s, and became the central approach used in childcare programs, campus child care, some public school preschools, city recreation centers, and after-school programs. Some of these ideas have also impacted public schools, such as the important role of the teacher in working with parents (Greenberg, 1987; Sears, 1975). Concepts typically found in these programs, include: • • • • •

Learning through play; Planning, doing, thinking, and discussing as the most natural way for children to grow and learn; The role of the teacher as the careful preparer of the environment, guider of children, and parent liaison; The belief in the critical role of the parent in shaping the lives of young children; Lots of student choice;

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

14

Francis Wardle • •

The importance of enough time to master activities; The importance of friendships and cooperative learning (Greenberg, 1987).

In 1899 Dewey wrote School and Society, which stressed the use of nature and real materials in education, and the importance of children manipulating real objects – what we now call hands-on-learning and learning with manipulatives (an idea that re-emerged with Piaget, see chapter 2). Dewey’s own lab school at the University of Chicago, from 1896 to 1903, also served four and five year olds. And in 1916 Dewey wrote Democracy and Education, which expressed many of his ideas about education and social change. The Bureau of Education and Experiments (Bank Street) implemented many of the ideas espoused in these books and explored in Dewey’s Chicago lab school. In 1918 the Bureau of Educational Experiments launched a nursery school for children 15 months to 3-years old, collaborated with Pratt’s Play School for 3-7 year olds, and then added a program for eight-year olds (Greenberg, 1987). The resulting program became a lab school where new ideas were tried, systematic research was conducted, and like-minded educators and psychologists could come together and learn from each other. Research results were used to improve the school’s programs. In 1929 Barbara Biber joined the Bureau. Barbara strengthened the program’s intellectual underpinnings and pioneered its developmental-interaction approach (Antler, 1987). In 1930 the Bureau moved to 69 Bank Street, and changed its name to Bank Street School.

Philosophy of the Bank Street Approach

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Bank Street Approach to education is based on three main sources (Mitchell and David, 1992): 1. The psychology of Freud and his followers, especially Anna Freud and Erik Erikson, who were concerned with a child’s social and emotional development within a social context; 2. Developmental psychologists like Jean Piaget and Heinz Werner, whose theories focused on cognitive development; 3. Educational theorists and practitioner like John Dewey, Susan Isaacs, and Lucy Sprague Mitchell. While these are the main theoretical sources, over time other theorists have influenced the school’s approach to early education, including Kurt Lewin, Lois Murphy, Lev Vygotsky and Barbara Biber (Mictchell and David, 1992). Further, the developmental-interaction approach that developed at the Banks Street nursery school was a revolt against the traditional education of the period that was viewed as conformist and anti-individual. John Dewey emphasized individual worth, stressed thinking and problem solving, believed in “learning by doing”, and focused on the cooperative and social nature of the school community. He also deeply believed in the individual’s responsibility to the community, and in the need for schools to develop this sense of community responsibility in their students. According to Biber and Franklin (1967), and

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

15

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Mitchel and David (1992), these ideas were further consolidated by the founders of Bank Street to include 6 theoretical concepts for early care, development and education: 1. As the child matures, she uses the development of a sense of independence to interact with the environment, make an impact on that environment, and satisfy her curiosity about the environment. Through interacting with the physical environment the child not only learns about the physical world, but also learns about the impact she can have on that world. This in turn develops a sense of self-worth in the child. 2. The child’s cognitive development is enhanced as a result of his organizing and struggling with the environment, and progress in complexity, integration, differentiation and abstraction takes place. This direction of development occurs in stages, with each of these stages being different in each domain – physical, emotional, cognitive, etc., and with each stage influenced by experiential and cultural factors. In general, young children develop from holistic, global concepts to differentiation – from whole to part and from gross to fine. The child also learns to differentiate betweens self and others, reality and fantasy, and behavior and motivation. 3. Progress from earlier to later levels of functioning in any domain – emotional, intellectual, social, and physical – is characterized by periods of balance in which the child’s view of the world matches his experiences, and periods of conflict, in which the child’s mental structures are inadequate to fully understand the new experience. This idea is, of course, exactly the same as Piaget’s concepts of accommodation and assimilation (Berger, 2009) (see chapter 2), and Erik Erikson’s developmental stages that present a conflict that must be mastered in order for the child to progress to the next level; i.e. Trust versus Mistrust (Erikson, 1963). Children are also continually preparing to be able to move to another level. Moments of equilibrium may signify a lull before the next move. Struggles and “regressive behavior” might, in fact, signify the child is getting ready to advance to the next level. The role of the teacher is to help the child consolidate new understanding to existing ideas while also providing a variety of challenges to promote growth and development. 4. An individual does not operate at just one developmental level, but engages in behaviors at a variety of levels. As she progresses developmentally, earlier or more primitive ways of organization are not simply removed, but are integrated into more advanced ways of organizing her mind. Further, the young child can quickly move from one mental state to another, say from fantasy to reality, or from egocentrism to more objective behaviors (Biber and Franklin, 1967). 5. The child’s sense of self is based on what he can do, and what he observes others doing. Self-image emerges from a maturational process in which the child learns about people and things around him, and about himself. The child learns from mastering the environment and from the modeling of important people in his social environment. 6. Growth and maturation develop through conflict. These conflicts are between the child’s needs, impulses, and motivations, and the expectations of the culture and society, such as in the development of emotional regulation. How the child resolves these conflicts is based on the quality of human interactions, and the reasonableness and appropriateness of societal and cultural demands – particularly the expectations

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

16

Francis Wardle of the teacher and the developmental appropriateness of the educational environment (Biber 1984; Mitchell and David, 1992).

Two additional fundamental underpinnings of the Bank Street philosophy are the learner as an active explorer, and learning by doing. The child learns as a total organism, not through separate, isolated areas or domains (Mitchell, 1950). And the child learns within a social unit (school or early childhood program, and classroom), which provides the child with many opportunities to learn democratic behaviors, from simple conflict resolution skills and cause and effect behavior, to collective decision-making and learning responsibility for themselves and their program. Children learn by doing, but for the doing to have value, there must be continuity and connectedness… “every experience both takes up something from those which have gone before and modifies in some way the quality of those which come after” (Dewey, 1997/1938, p. 35). Box 1.5. Reflective Thinking Both progressive education and the Bank Street Approach were, to one degree or another, a reaction against the current educational and kindergarten approaches of their time, that focused on teacher knowledge and authority, universal group instruction, and ridged curriculum expectations, scope and sequence. Do you predict that some time in the future there will be a similar reaction to our current learning standards, accountability and assessment approach to education? If so, when?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Putting It All Together In the developmental-interaction approach of the Bank Street College of Education, infants, toddlers, preschoolers and elementary school students are engaged in a variety of activities, endeavors, and interactions. In these activities we can clearly see both the influence of the progressive education movement of John Dewey and his colleagues, and specific Bank Street characteristics. Some of these activities, endeavors and interactions are discussed below.

The Role of the Environment According to Cuffar, Nager and Shaperio (2005), the Bank Street classroom should include hollow and unit blocks, dramatic play props, sand and water, paper and crayons, wood, puzzles, manipulatives, Cuisenaire rods and Dienes blocks, teacher-made materials, and a wide variety of books. Open-ended materials and structured materials should also be available. Space for a range of activities, from dramatic play and group time to individual exploration, needs to be provided, and scheduling should be flexible enough to allow for extensive projects and fieldtrips. Part of the classroom should be devoted to literacy development - environmental print, books, a listening area, writing opportunities, individual and class journals, and a comfortable place for reading alone, while a vast range of art materials for nonverbal expression also

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

17

needs to be provided. Literacy should be encouraged within the context of social communication, group activities, and peer interactions. Infants and toddlers need lots of opportunities to explore the physical environment, to engage in activities in physical proximity to each other, and to develop important relationships with adults. Of critical importance is the human and physical environment that encourages exploration and experimentation, and that rewards risk taking, initiative and exploration.

The Role of the Family

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Children’s first knowledge of social systems is the family. Further, both empirical research and theory indicate that the family is the most influential context for the child’s wellbeing, development and learning, and therefore the family’s central importance to each child is clear (Berger, 2009). Because our children today come from such a wide diversity of family structures, the constellation of family social systems must be addressed, and children need to develop a secure sense of belonging within their own, unique families, whatever its structure. Thus it is critical, particularly in infant and toddler programs, to work with the whole family, as well as with the child (Berger, 2006). Programs must find ways to work effectively with fathers (Wardle, 2002), and adult members of the extended family. As children mature they soon learn to expand their knowledge to include other families and the rich diversity of family structures – single, two parent, interracial, extended, teen, grandparent, and gay/lesbian. They also learn about the family’s cultural artifacts – food, songs, customs, icons, traditions, and so on. The child expands her mental structures from the social concept of an individual family to the school community and then on to the neighborhood community. Of course all these social units are learned through concrete experiences, play, art, books, stories, oral histories, social interactions and discussions (Cuffar et al, 2005).

The Role of the Curriculum The curriculum in the Bank Street approach is very creative and flexible, because content and processes tend to merge. Curricular ideas that are used include the Emergent Curriculum (Jones and Nimmo, 1994), the Project Approach (Katz and Chard, 2000)(see chapter 16), and the Thematic Approach (although Dewey tried to distance himself from this method, as it become overly structured, teacher directed, and not personally meaningful to each child). Below are several ideas that illustrate how a curriculum using Bank Street concepts can be developed for early childhood and elementary students.

Social Studies is at the Heart of the Curriculum Children should learn the social significance of curricular content, beginning with themselves and their immediate family, and then expanding to their community, occupations in the community, immigration and transportation of people, buildings for people, and a variety of social structures – governments and institutions – for people. This is where the idea of community helpers originally came from. For both Dewey and the Bank Street approach,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

18

Francis Wardle

learning is fundamentally a social activity; its contents are grounded in social meaning. Therefore, it is not surprising that social competence – the ability of children to function and to learn successfully in a variety of different social contexts – is at the heart of the original Head Start philosophy (Greeneberg, 1969).

The Study of History Should Begin with Each Child’s Community According to Cuffa et al, the early grades are the time to begin to teach history (2005). However, these studies should begin with the history of each child’s community. At this point children should be helped to answer these questions, “What did people need, from a historic perspective? How have people changed the world? How have they adapted? How have they learned to survive?” (p. 289). Much of this study of the past focuses on how people have worked together as social units to solve their problems, and how they have been able to overcome individual conflicts to address the problems of the group (Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004). These historical studies follow the chronological curricular sequence of present to past, which is a much more meaningful approach for young children than the more traditional sequence of past to present (Wiles and Bondi, 2002). It is also one meaningful approach to content sequencing of the curriculum advocated by Oliva (see chapter 8). Children use all the curricular domains in studying the past: math, science, art, writing – maps, diagrams, drawings, research, reports - and possibly even creating a culminating activity (see The Project Approach, chapter 16). Curriculum integration is used not only as a way for students to learn and master tasks and content in each area, but also as a way to explore and know the world and to express their own understanding of the world (Cuffar et al, 2005).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Box 1.6. Reflective Thinking Today’s early childhood programs and elementary schools focus on knowledge gained though brain research, the role of the family and the parent in the child’s education, learning standards, assessments and checklists, the importance of literacy and literacy across the curriculum, and providing ‘school readiness’ for prekindergarten children. In your opinion, to what extent is the Bank Street approach consistent with this current knowledge and emphasis, and to what extent is it maybe outdated and a philosophy that belongs to another time?

The Role of the Teacher I have touched on the role of the teacher within the overall Bank Street philosophy in various places throughout this section. Here are a few more specific examples of the important role of the teacher and caregiver in the Bank Street approach.

The Teacher is the Connection between the Child and the Body of Knowledge In the Bank Street model the teacher acts as the connection between each child’s personal and meaningful set of experiences, and the body of knowledge and skills of each curricular area of study. Teachers use their knowledge of child development and the experiential world

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

19

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

of each individual child, along with their own knowledge, interest and expertise in the content area, to structure appropriate learning opportunities for young children in the program. The teacher’s role is to use the children’s experiences and the teacher’s knowledge, resources and activities to create meaningful activities through which students learn and progress (Mooney, 2000). One of the central roles of teachers in infant and toddler, prekindergarten, and elementary programs is creating a daily schedule for learning to occur, and then monitoring that schedule. Unlike many traditional early childhood and elementary school practices, which rigidly follow a preset daily schedule (Wardle, 2005), the Bank Street approach requires teachers to be highly flexible, creative and innovative. Since much of the curricula is student driven, students’ interests and engagement will determine much of the schedule. Teachers must be sensitive to know when activities or projects have run their course, as well as when activities or projects should be extended, enriched and expanded.

The Teacher Implements the Philosophy The overall purpose of the Bank Street Developmental-Interaction approach is to provide every opportunity and encouragement for the child to fulfill her potential and capacity, and to have multiple opportunities to experience many successes in a variety of ways (Cuffar et al, 2005). The learning of the whole child, dynamic interaction between the child and the physical environment, and the use of artistic and scientific activity, all carefully structured by a competent teacher, is the process used by the Bank Street approach (Cuffar et al, 2005). And, as has been discussed in detail, the Bank Street approach is not only concerned with the whole child, but is based on the belief that the whole child is greater than the sum of its individual parts – more than the combination of the cognitive, language, affective, physical and social domains. Put another way, children learn new ideas and skills in a holistic manner, using all their senses, intellect, and emotional and physical being, rather than learning isolated skills and concepts through only one of their faculties. It is the role of the teacher to continually provide opportunities, extend learning, and make connections that enable each child to develop in this holistic manner.

Program Activities for Preschoolers Specific preschool activities are developed from the Bank Street philosophy (Biber, Shapiro and Wickins, 1977; Mitchell and David, 1992). And many of these specific ideas can be used to develop learning activities for prekindergarten programs and elementary schools. Others have been incorporated into specific curricula, from science and ecology, to conflict resolution and anti-bullying programs. A Bank Street approach in prekindergarten and elementary schools, •

Provides opportunities to enable children to make an impact on their environment through direct physical contact and maneuvers – exploring the physical world, such as space, equipment, materials, environments, and physical protection.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

20

Francis Wardle •

•

•

•

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

•

Promotes the potential of ordering experiences through a variety of cognitive strategies. A vast variety of sensory-motor and perceptual experiences that focus on observation and discrimination, and that require the child to discriminate, order, categorize, sequence and catalogue, must be provided. Provides a variety of opportunities to help children understand how the world works – observing functions within the school – heating system, water pipes, electric systems and drainage plans, roofs, gutters, and methods to keep the snow from collecting on the roof; and studying systems surrounding the school – traffic, people flow, ecology, shade, use of the sun in winter, etc. These activities help to advance the child’s functional knowledge of their environment. Supports play as an important way of processing and internalizing learning experiences. All sorts of dramatic play opportunities should be nourished, and the stage should be set for a diversity of dramatic play experiences – activities, materials and props, modeling, support, extensions, different size groups and different age children, use of children’s personal experience, and integration of curricula content. Helps children learn socially expected behaviors by communicating a clear set of non- threatening controls: limits, rules and regulations. Threats and punishments are to be rejected, while taking another’s point of view, verbally examining the issues, and providing alternative choices are encouraged. In the final analysis, the teacher uses a supportive, positive relationship with the children to help them understand and follow these expected behaviors. Helps the child cope with natural conflicts that are intrinsic to their stage of development. This includes working out conflicts over possessions, separation from the family and difficult transitions, by encouraging the special relationship of a child to the teacher, and providing gentle and appropriate guidance. The teachers must carefully attune themselves to each child’s unique inner will and motivation. Helps the child develop an image of himself or herself as a unique and competent person. This must include helping the child to learn more about themselves - family, ethnic and gender identity, likes and dislikes, and to help each child learn awareness of his or her unique skills, abilities and competencies. Helps the child establish mutually supportive patterns of interaction. The teacher needs to assist the child in developing positive social contacts and interactions with both adults and children. This involves the child building a variety of informal and formal communication channels, verbal and nonverbal, with both adults and children (Biber, Shapiro and Wickens, 1977; Mitchell and David, 1992).

Many of these guidelines apply equally to infants and toddlers, along with preschool and school-age children, and help the caregiver and teacher focus on the unique, whole child needs of these children (Lally et al, 1995). Further, the guidelines stress the importance of the relationships and interactions between adults and children, something considered by many to be the core of quality infant, early childhood and elementary school programs (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

John Dewey and the Bank Street Approach

21

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Role of Assessment The use of I.Q. tests to determine the effectiveness of Head Start in its early days not only concluded the program to be a total failure, but also illustrated the difficulty of assessing the effectiveness of early childhood programs with certain kinds of assessments (Wardle, 2003). It was not until the results of the first Perry Preschool Study were reported, using a very different type of program assessment, that Head Start was viewed as successful (Zigler and Muenchow, 1992). As Barbara Biber suggests, many early childhood theorists and practitioners are uncomfortable with the methodology and instruments often used to assess young children and early childhood programs (1984), and as the NAEYC/NAECS/SDE Guidelines for Appropriate Assessment (1991) further articulates, methods and approaches used to evaluate young children’s development and learning must be very carefully selected and administered. In fact, many believe certain kinds of educational and developmental assessments should not be given to children under the age of 8-years-old (Charlesworth, 2004). The federal No Child Left Behind act requires the use of standardized (criterion referenced) assessments beginning in third grade, for math and literacy (and later science) (U.S. Department of Education). In chapter 8, I discuss some of the problems with highstakes assessments. Needless-to-say these assessments have led to a narrowing of the curriculum, both in elementary schools and early childhood programs (Scott-Little et al, 2005). The purpose of assessment in the Bank Street Developmental Interaction model is to document each child’s progress in all curriculum and development goals and objectives, thus providing important information for curriculum decisions, activities choices, and overall program changes (Cuffar et al, 2005). A variety of methods, from observation, portfolios, checklists, anecdotal notes, parent reports, and other assessments are used to this end. These are called authentic assessments, which are those instruments and methods that document a child’s demonstrated performance, within their natural environment or context – home, classroom, or community. Authentic assessments are more interested in what a child can do, and the progress of their learning, than in what they cannot do; further, these assessments focus on whole-child learning, as opposed to discrete skills, tasks and behaviors (McAfee and Leong, 2002). Finally, authentic assessments require children to perform within their familiar surroundings – both physically (i.e. the classroom), and socially (i.e . their teacher) Other more holistic early childhood approaches, such as High/Scope, have developed their own child assessments tools. High/Scope has created the COR – Child Observation Record – which has been developed and revised alongside the continued development and revisions of the High/Scope curriculum(1992). Many local Head Start programs and other early childhood programs use a variety of assessments that meet the criteria of the NAEYC/NAECS/SDE Guidelines for Appropriate Assessment (1991); many teachers in elementary classrooms have developed a variety of approaches to authentically assess the development and learning of their students.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

22

Francis Wardle

CONCLUSION

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Progressive education developed as a revolt against the traditional educational focus of American schools of the time. Dewey focused both on the development of the individual child, and the importance of social education. Of most importance was his belief that curriculum and instruction should start with the child, and should not simply be a preset list of content and skills imposed by an expert from outside of the child. Teachers were to use the child’s individual experiences to structure and arrange the curricular content, which should include art and should focus on the social nature of learning. Further, he felt a full, productive and challenging education was the best preparation for the future of all Americans. Finally, to Dewey education is critical for the success of democracy: all children need to be educated, and education must prepare children to function effectively within a democracy. The Bank Street Developmental-Interaction approach grew out of the progressive education context. While Dewey focused on K-12 education, the developers of the Bank Street approach focused on children 15 months to 8 years of age. Further, this approach grew out of a very active and significant women’s movement at the turn of the century that was concerned with the rights of women and the needs of poor children and families. So it is not surprising since the inception of the efforts of the founders of the Bank Street College of Education that quality childcare and early education in the United States have been closely tied to women’s rights and women’s liberation (Greenebrg, 1987). There is, of course, considerable overlap between Dewey’s progressive education, and the Bank Street approach. Maybe the best way to view this overlap (both philosophical and age-wise) is to observe a continuum beginning at infancy and progressing through K-12 education – and even into college.

PROJECTS/ACTIVITIES 1. Should teachers using the Bank Street Developmental-Interaction approach receive specialized training, just as Montessori and Waldorf teachers are required to? 2. Just as progressive education was a reaction to the traditional educational approach of the time, is it possible that a similar movement will develop in reaction to our current focus on standards, outcomes and accountability? 3. Both Dewey and the Bank Street model focus on educating the whole child, and educating the child in a holistic manner. Discuss whether this is the best way to teach young children, or whether teaching discrete skills in isolation – math, reading, writing, art, etc - is a more effective and practical approach. Support your arguments. 4. Visit several early childhood programs and/or elementary programs, both private and public. Determine to what extent the approach in each program matches Dewey’s philosophy and/or the Bank Street model, and to what extent it more closely matches the traditional U.S. Froebelian approach (see figure 1.4). 5. If your college or university has a child care/early childhood program, visit the program and interview its director regarding the curriculum. Ask the director to what extent the curriculum follows Dewey’s philosophy and/or the Bank Street approach.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 2

CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION In the early 1960s, Piaget’s ideas about child development were introduced to American psychologists and educators. Jerome Bruner was one of Piaget’s early proponents; the seminal book by John Flavell (1963) introduced many academics to Piaget’s ideas in this country. Piaget, of course, had been working and publishing in Europe, starting work at the Rousseau Institute in the early 1920s, and publishing several important books between 1923 and 1932. Educational psychology, child psychology and pedagogy in the United States at the time Piaget was working and publishing in Europe were dominated by behaviorism, and by a backto-the-basics traditional scope-and-sequence approach to science and math education that resulted from Russia’s launching of Sputnik in 1957. The embrace of Piaget’s cognitive approach in the early 1960s, first by developmental psychologists and then educators, was a pendulum swing away from the overly interventionist, mechanical and controlled approach of behaviorism (Ormrod, 2008). As we see throughout this book, historically our thinking about development and learning swings from one extreme to another, from conservative to progressive and then back to conservative. Piaget’s popularity in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980 - 90s is an example of the progressive swing. Piaget’s theory has had a tremendous impact on various approaches to education. Major approaches covered in this book – High/Scope, the Project Approach, Reggio Emilia, British Infant and Primary Programs, Free/Open Schools, and the original Head Start philosophy, owe much to Piaget. Further, the highly influential book, Developmentally Appropriate Practice, first published in 1987 (Bredekamp), and then revised in 1997 (Bredekamp and Copple), is greatly influenced by Piaget, along with Dewey, Erikson, Vygotsky, Bruner, Bandura and others. While many of these theories are considered constructivist, this chapter will focus on Piaget’s contributions. Later chapters cover High/Scope, Vygotsky, Dewey, Free School, and other similar approaches.. Piaget’s theory is considered a cognitive theory, because he focused on how children think and how their thinking changes over time. However, it belongs under the constructivist umbrella, because in his theory people actively organize and try to make sense of new information they acquire, often in unique and idiosyncratic ways (Ormrod, 2008). Constructivism requires action – manipulating objects, pouring water from one container to

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

24

Francis Wardle

another, asking questions about how something works, conducting trial and error experiments, risk-taking, and using the scientific method. This chapter briefly describes some of Piaget’s principles, and then outlines criteria that characterize a Piagetian educational approach. Because Piaget was often quite vague about the educational application of his theory (Gredler, 2005), it is difficult to describe exactly what a Piagetian preschool and school should look like. Piaget’s popularity in academic circles was replaced by Vygotsky, Reggio Emilia, and now the learning standards approach to education and curricula (Bredekamp and Copple, 2009). The last section of this chapter will explore the impact of these changes on Piaget programs, and discuss the relevance of Piaget’s theory in today’s world of early education.

FOCUS QUESTIONS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1. To what extent does the Piagetian approach favor the European emphasis on nature – predetermined genetic programming - in contrast to the North American emphasis on nurture – the impact of the external environment on development? Which approach is the best? 2. Is there a fundamental contradiction between a Piagetian approach to learning, and a standards-based approach? 3. Why do we not have a clear picture of how Piaget’s ideas should be applied in the early childhood and elementary school curriculum? 4. Why did the Piagetian approach only become popular in the US in the 1960s, when he was quite well-know in Europe between 1920-1960? 5. Piaget was trained as a biologist. How is this scientific orientation reflected in his theory? Does this perspective limit the validity of his approach?

PIAGET’S THEORY Genetic Epistemology Piaget called his approach to the study of cognitive development, genetic epistemology. According to Brainerd, the word genetic, as Piaget used it is, “a nineteenth century term referring to any sort of research dealing with ontogenetic or phylogenic development” (1978, p 16). Ontogenetic development means following the developmental course of an individual; phylogenic development means following the developmental course of a species. Piaget’s genetic epistemology is a combination of two interrelated concepts: the biological nature of the predetermined stages children’s cognition will progress through – what we usually call maturation - and the need for the organization – the child – to actively interact with the environment for this progress to actually occur. Piaget believed that cognitive development is directly related to – but not caused by - maturational changes (Gredler, 2005). Piaget was trained as a biologist, and, as such, thought and wrote like one. In fact, his four-stage theory of cognitive developmental is said to follow the prototype of the

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach

25

metamorphosis of the butterfly – a four-stage theory – sequential, invariant, which each of the stages being qualitatively different. Embedded within these two basic concepts is what Piaget calls cognitive structures, cognitive functions, and cognitive content. Cognitive structures are the form – shape or pattern – that cognition takes on within each stage of mental growth; cognitive functions are the purposes or goals that express the direction cognitive development is going, and cognitive contents are the intellectual acts that characterize cognitive development at each stage (Brainerd, 1978). Only cognitive contents can be measured directly. Cognitive structures, functions and content develop in each of Piaget’s stages. Further, as we will discuss later, in each stage these three concepts are qualitatively rather than quantitatively changed (Brainerd, 1978). This is critical to understand in today’s discussion of education, because it suggests that what Piaget called the American Question – that of excelling or pushing development and learning – could not occur quantitatively – it would have to be qualitative. In other words, more (school, academics, instruction, direct teacher input, curricular content, time in school) is not, according to Piaget, necessarily better. As we continue the discussion of the cognitive view, this American Question is critical to remember and contemplate.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Power All theories must have power – the engine that drives them. This power is the energy that motivates children to progress upward, developmentally, otherwise learning and development would simply not occur; intellectual growth would stop. In behaviorism the power is our built-in desire to fulfill basic needs – food, love, sex – and to avoid pain and punishment (see chapter 15: Behavioral Approaches). In Piaget’s theory the power is equilibration. The process can be described as having 4 sequential stages: 1) the current cognitive level of the child, 2) the child encounters new information that does not fit into their current cognitive concepts, 3) this, ‘conflict’ produces a level of disequilibrium in the child, which then 4) forces the child to accommodate their cognitive structures – change them – to accept the new information – thus achieving equilibrium or equilibration (Siegler and Alibali, 2005). Thus a child’s active exposure to the environment causes a disequilibrium that must be resolved. To resolve this conflict, the child must create new and more sophisticated constructs – what Piaget called schemes. The child learns.

Schemes In each of the developmental levels, schemes are examples of cognitive structures. Schemes are, “examples of abstract cognitive structures by which the organization assimilates information; they are the basic units of cognitive structure” (Brainerd, 1978, p 26). They are a series of related cognitive contents that operate as a unit, or whole. Schemes start as sensorymotor units and move to cognitive units; as development progresses, schemes become more abstract and more complex.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

26

Francis Wardle

Assimilation and Accommodation Piaget believed that children learn buy constructing their own view of reality. They do so by taking in information from the real world – the environment – through their senses (Berger, 2009). Through the process of accommodation and assimilation they then develop a more and more accurate and sophisticated sense of this reality. For example, when a child throws a piece of wood into a pond, and it floats, he hypothesizes that all things float. Only after throwing several objects in water that do not float is the child required to revise his hypothesis. Generally he does not throw out the old theory; he simply modifies it. Maybe now its big things float and small things sink (Ormrod, 2008). Through this process the child’s internal mental construct about floating and sinking becomes refined: his schemes become more accurate and abstract. Assimilation is the process whereby an individual changes or morphs incoming information to match his or her preexisting hypothesis - the cognitive structure they currently possess. The individual makes sense of the new data from their own state of mind and state of cognitive development. Accommodation is the process of forcing the mind to accept and understand new and more complex structures and concepts. To accommodate new data, the mind must change; new schemes must be created or old ones made more complex. Adaptation is the combined process of assimilation and accommodation. It occurs at each of the four levels of development. For Piaget, assimilation and accommodation are two sides of the same coin: you cannot have one without the other (Siegler and Alibali, 2005). Together they produce what Piaget’s calls equilibrium, or equilibration.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Stage Theory Piaget’s theory is a discontinuous theory, meaning it is not a linear progression of quantitative improvement, but rather a stepwise approach of four overall stages that are qualitatively different from each other. Piaget believed that each of these four stages in his theory is real; the stages are not simply a way to arbitrarily divide development in order to study it in more detail. At each stage, according to Piaget, children actually think differently. Figure 2.1 describes these four stages. Piaget believed that children are preprogrammed to progress through each of his four stages. However, the ability to progress through these stages is a direct result of each child’s manipulation of the environment. And, while the desire to investigate, experiment with, and try to make sense of the environment is innate, for this to occur children must, 1) be provided with a responsive, interesting and stimulating environment, 2) be given many opportunities to engage in this exploration of the environment, and 3) be continually supported in this sincere desire to make sense of their world (Ormrod, 2008). Finally, the quality of the child’s interaction differs from stage to stage. Each stage meets five criteria: qualitative change, universal invariant sequence, inclusion of cognitive structures from the previous stage, overall integration of each stage, and preparation for achievement. •

Qualitative change. Each stage must show a change in the qualitative way a child thinks, not simply “more of the same”.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach • •

•

•

27

Invariant sequence. Piaget believes all children, worldwide, progress through the same four stages, in the same order. Inclusion of cognitive structures of the proceeding stage. While each stage does not build on the previous stage in a linear fashion, the stages are progressive – they are building blocks for the next stage. Thus, completion of a stage is necessary for the mastering of all subsequent stages. Overall integration of structures of each stage. All the structures that develop in a given stage must be mastered before a child can move to the next stage. For example, a child must achieve conservation in every area, not just say, number conservation, to progress from the preoperational stage to concrete operations (see the section on concrete operations). Preparation for achievement. Each stage progesses from a more primitive and unsophisticated level to a more advanced form of its unique characteristics – what Piaget calls preparation for achievement.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Box 2.1. Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development I. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) Infants process the world through actions – its external – they cannot think internally. a. Primary circular reactions/use of reflexes (0-1 month) b. Primary circular reactions/the first acquired adaptations (1-4 months) c. Secondary circular reactions/awareness of things (4-8 months) d. Secondary circular reactions/new adaptations and anticipation (8-12 months) e. Tertiary circular reactions/new means through active experimentation (12-18 months) f. Tertiary circular reactions/new means through mental combinations (18-24 months) Object permanence marks the end of this stage II. Preoperational Stage (2-6/7 years) Children have internal thought processes, but this thinking is relatively unsophisticated. The thought process is intuitive, not logical or rational. Conservation marks the end of this stage III. Concrete Operational Stage (6/7 - 11/14 years) Thought becomes rigorous and logical; children can think rationally. However, they still think based on ‘concrete personal experiences’, not wholly abstract ideas and concepts. IV. Formal Operations (11/14 + years) Thinking no longer must depend on observed or experienced data and information. At this stage a child can think of things they have not directly experienced, and can also think of things that have never actually happened.

Sensorimotor Stage During this stage, Piaget believes that the infant processes information externally, through the use of schemes made-up of the interaction of all five senses and physical activity. For example, a child can focus on a moving object, grasp the object with her hand, bring the object to her mouth, and then suck on the object: a combination of sight, taste, and physical activity. Once this has become an automatic response to anything within her reach, a scheme has been created.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

28

Francis Wardle

The sensorimotor stage is subdivided into 6 sub-stages: these sub-stages are paired in what Piaget calls circular reactions. Circular reactions are actions that repeat themselves – and are thus circular, having no beginning or end. My daughter, who lives in France, says the closest French phrase to circular reaction is, “a cat chasing its tail”. These circular reactions become schemes, because they become automatic and are therefore internalized in the child’s mind. Through the 6 sub-stages the circular reactions progress from simple, automatic reflexes, to the goal-directed, purposeful behavior of the last sub-stage (Berger, 2009). Thus the child progresses from automatic response to the environment, to actually “thinking about” the environment. •

•

•

•

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

Stage One. Primary circular reactions/reflexes (birth – one month). Reflexes, such as sucking and grasping, that the infant is born with, make up these schemes. These are genetic predispositions – they are not learned. Stage II. Primary circular reactions/first acquired adaptations (1-4 months). This is the first assimilation and accommodation of reflexes by the child: sucking a pacifier differently than a nipple; grabbing a bottle to nurse on. Stage III. Secondary circular reactions/an awareness of things (4-8 months). At this stage the child develops an awareness of people and objects as separate entities; the infant uses the objects and people to create circular reactions, i.e. clap each time their mother claps, place the bottle into their mouth a soon at they grasp it. Sage IV. Secondary circular reactions/new adaptations and anticipation (8-12 months). At this age the child becomes purposeful in her interactions with objects. The infant anticipates the action, i.e., will push their mother’s hands together to make her clap. Stage V. Tertiary circular reactions/new means through active experimentation (1218). Now the child starts to experiment with possible actions and their potential results. For example, he might do something “good” and then clap his hands in pride. Stage VI. Tertiary circular reactions/new means through mental combinations. Children now ‘think’ before an action, beyond simple trial and error (Berger, 2009). For example, before clapping her hands the child looks around to see if there is anyone who can see and hear her clap.

Piaget sees the child at this age developing from basic, automatic reflexive behaviors to the environment, to using very primitive symbols (schemes) to “think about the environment”.

Preoperational Stage (2-6/7) At this age children use internalized thought processes – the schemes formed through senorimotor activities, to think and learn. While children at this age can think representationally, through dramatic play, language, drawing, and the symbolic use of materials - their thoughts lack rigor, logic, and deductive properties (Siegler and Alibali, 2005). Thus symbolic thinking – including language – is limited by centrism, focus on appearance, irreversibility, egocentrism and animism, and the inability to do more than one mental operation at a time (Ormrod, 2008). The preoperational child has not achieved conservation, which is the principle that the amount of a substance (length, weight, number,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach

29

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

mass and volume) remains the same, even when it appears to change (Berger, 2009). Children’s thinking at this stage is driven by perception – what something looks, tastes, smells, feels or sounds like. Therefore, since a nickel is larger than a dime, it must be worth more. Further, a child’s sense of time is dominated by events and activities (a birthday is a party with friends and gifts, not a celebration of the passage of time), and things are often action-oriented, as Bruner so aptly said: “a hole is to dig”.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

30

Francis Wardle

Concrete Operations (6/7 – 11/14 years old) Children can now think logically – they can manipulate ideas, concepts, and operations. They can think in a linear, progressive fashion, and can reverse their steps, which preoperational children cannot do. Children have acquired conservation. This ability to think logically, however, still has one missing component: they can only think logically about concrete information – things the child has experienced herself. Thus, while children this age seem to be highly logical and rational, they also believe things like car accidents and getting pregnant, “won’t happen to me”. Many argue that this is therefore a critical time for children to have many important experiences, especially those that link cause and effect, and that teach children the consequences of risky behaviors (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). Formal Operations (11 + years old) The child’s thinking ability is fully abstract: they think of concepts, develop hypotheses, and entertain solutions/effects – even of things that they have not personally experienced. And they can conceive of solutions and solve hypotheses that are not based on fact or reality. Children who achieve this stage can design utopian societies, create space cities, and are often very critical of rules and regulations that the believe lack fairness and insight. Because of their ability to view concepts and values in the abstract, children this age can often be very moral and righteous (Berger, 2009).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Box 2.2. Reflective Thinking: Piaget and Culture Piaget is often criticized for failing to include cultural context in his theory (TrawickSmith, 2003). Piaget argued that children the world over learn and develop through the same processes and sequences. He believed that, while the environment – physical and social – is the medium through which development occurs, the nature of the environment (social and physical) does not in any way change the process and direction of development and learning. What do you think – does a child’s cultural context fundamentally impact the way she constructs her own thinking and knowledge? (See chapter 6 for Vygotsky’s view of this question).

Piagetian Early Childhood and Elementary School Programs While the developmental theories of Piaget are well known and understood by most psychologists and learning theorists, there is considerable disagreement among experts about how to accurately apply his theory to various educational endeavors. Piaget, along with Vygotsky, did not explicitly describe the instructional uses of his ideas, because he was more interested in how children learn, rather than how to teach children and what to teach children (Gredler, 2005). However, one of the tremendous advantages of using Piaget’s theory as a curriculum framework is that he provides very clear ideas about how children learn at different ages. This has been particularly beneficial in developing curricular approaches for the rapidly expanding infant and toddler field (Lally, Griffin, Fenichel, Segal, Szanton and Weissbound, 1997). Figure 2.1 lists some of the characteristics of early childhood and elementary education programs that are based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach

31

Piaget-based infant, early childhood and elementary school programs have some if not all of these characteristics: Present learning opportunities at the stage/sub-stage of the child’s development; Provide ever-more complex and challenging opportunities for children to learn; Emphasize hands-on, concrete learning; Emphasize active learning in responsive environments; Provide multiage learning at least some part of the day; Encourage children to answer their own questions and solve their own problems; Support child-directed and initiated learning and curricula; Provide a variety of ways for children to represent what has been learned; Focus on the child’s developmental stage, not the adult structures, content, functions and outcomes; Include transformations in the curriculum; Provide an integrated, whole-child approach; Focus on math and science; Use lots of fieldtrips; Encourage children to structure their own learning; Enable children to learn from each other in a variety of ways; Teach to the operations of each stage; Make extensive use of all cognitive levels of play and encourage play; Use Kohlberg’s moral reasoning theory in designing a conflict resolution program Figure 2.1. Characteristics of Early Childhood and Elementary Education Programs Based on Paiget’s Theory.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Learning at the Child’s Level According to Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997), one of the questions that must be asked when making decisions about working with young children is, “What is known about child development and learning – knowledge of age-related human characteristics that permits predictions within an age range…? ”(p. 9). Most of these age-related abilities are defined by Piaget’s four stages. Cleary, if children learn qualitatively differently at each of Piaget’s stages, then it only follows that they must be taught differently at each stage. Thus the sensorimotor child needs lots of stimulation of all 5 senses, opportunities for physical activity - fine and gross-motor, and many ways to combine senses and motor activities in a variety of behaviors. The preoperational child needs lots of opportunities to explore, risk, play, manipulate a vast array of real objects, expand language usage, and engage in lots of cognitive and social play. However, this concept of matching the child to his cognitive level should not be viewed as a purely maturational approach where all children the same age should be expected to be doing the same thing – and those who cannot meet those expectations should then be viewed as deficient. Not only is there tremendous individual variability within each stage, but also the child’s contents of each stage will differ greatly. Thus a linguistically gifted preoperational child may well be reading at the third grade level, and a mathematically gifted preoperational

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

32

Francis Wardle

child may be able to do third grade math, but both will still have the mental structures of a preoperational child. Further, not only should we match the curricular expectations to the child’s stage of development, but, according to Piaget, children must master each level and the tasks within a level before moving to the next stage (Ormrod, 2008). Therefore it is essential that each child fully master the stage before being expected to more forward, regardless of external expectations and learning standards for her age.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Provide Ever-More Complex and Challenging Activities Cleary Piaget believed that children only progress when their schemes are challenged – and thus forced to change. Further, his entire theory states that children progress from the simple to the complex, from hands-on to abstract, and from external schemes to more internal schemes (Berns, 2009; Brainerd, 1978; Ormrod., 2008). Because children are continually ordering and reordering their world, their world must be an environment that is complex and flexible enough to be worked on by the child – to be ordered according to the child’s internal schemes. If the child is never exposed to more challenging and complex tasks, she will have no need to try to make sense out of the stimuli, because it will already makes sense to her. It will simply match her existing schemes. Thus, within the structures of each stage, activities and the environment should continually challenge each child. These challenges can be produced by continually changing the environment (or taking the child to a new one), teacher modeling, and by students interacting with more advanced students. Further, activities must not be so prearranged by the teacher that the child does not have to impose her sense of order and organization onto the activity. Finally, in the Piagetian approach the teacher needs to sit back and allow the child to solve some of her own problems and challenges. It is a misunderstanding of Piaget to assume that children should not be challenged and exposed to ideas and concepts above their current level. Cognitive dissonance forces a child to seek new solutions and structures: to learn and grow.

Self Discovery Method It is believed that ‘active discovery’ is what happens in development (Byrnes, 2001). Further, it is believed that the child should be at the center of this exploration - thus directing and controlling his development and learning. The self-discovery approach is often presented as the central difference between a Piagetian educational program, and a traditional scope-and-sequence approach (Siegler and Alibali, 2005). In the Piagetian approach the teacher should, 1) keep in mind the child’s active and central role in their learning, and 2) help children become aware of conflicts and inconsistencies in their thinking (Brainerd, 1978). Children should be encouraged to engage in their own learning – be provided with challenging situations, environments and materials, and then encouraged to experiment, investigate, ask questions, order, and come up with their own answers and conclusions (Duckworth, 1964). Advocates of Piaget’s approach believe

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach

33

children’s self-directed learning is both qualitatively and quantitatively better than a more teacher-directed approach (Byrnes, 2001).

Peers and Mixed-Age Groups

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

In, The Language and Thought of the Child (1962), Piaget stressed the need for peer interactions in assisting children’s learning. There are two fundamental reasons for this belief, 1) interacting with peers will help children develop less ego-centric and more universal schemes, and 2), the conflict between the ideas and perceptions between peers will inevitably lead to shifts and improvements in the child’s thinking – especially if the peers are at different cognitive levels (Kamii, 1985). Thus a Piaget classroom should not only encourage children to learn, experiment, play and engage in other activities together, but should also include considerable small group projects that are child directed. Children working together on a project forces a level of disagreement and conflict – cognitive dissonance - for cognitive growth to take place (Brainerd, 1978). Even children of the same chronological age often have different schemes regarding basic information and understandings.

Mixed-Age Activities The use of mixed-age groups of children for at least part of the school day is a further extension of the concept of peers learning together. The central value of learning with peers is the assumption that peers will have different ideas and opinions about the issues, concepts and constructs being addressed. Peers of different ages not only increase the diversity of these differences, but may even provide interactions between peers who are at different developmental stages – say an 18-month-old in the sensorimotor stage and a three year old in the preoperational stage, or a 5-year-old preoperational child and a 7-year-old child who thinks in concrete operations, at least in some areas. Or the children may in fact be in the same stage – say preoperational – but range from preparation to advanced in their mastery within the stage. The other advantage of peer teaching is that in many cases peers are better ‘instructors’ than teachers, because their experiences are closer to their peers, and the cognitive conflict is closer and more meaningful to them than it would be to a teacher or other adult.

Opportunities to Learn the Operations of Each Stage In Piaget’s theory, a child has moved from the sensorimotor stage to the preoperational stage when she has achieved object permanence (Berger, 2009). By the same token, a child has achieved the concrete operational stage when she can conserve – numbers, liquid, mass, and length (Berger). Thus a Piaget program for infants and toddlers should include games like peek-a-boo and the nursery rhyme, Patter Cake, Patter Cake (put the cake in the oven – but it does not go away). For the preoperational child, the program should provide a sand and water table for children to play with solids and liquids – transferring them from containers of

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

34

Francis Wardle

different sizes and using a variety of tools, so they can learn that the amount of solids and liquids is always conserved, even when the perception is that these amounts have changed. Programs for children in the concrete operations stage should provide lots of opportunities for children to explore abstract concepts of number, liquids, mass, size and length, to integrate many ideas and properties at the same time, and to fully explore many aspects of each child’s unique experiences. Many standards (i.e the math standards of the NCTM) and math curricula (i.e. Everyday Math [University of Chicago, 2004]) capitalize on these Piagetian ideas. However, children in the concrete operations stage are not ready for algebra, or for science activities that do not ‘make sense to the child’ (Berger, 2009).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Active Learners Using Concrete Materials The core concept of Piaget’s theory is that children construct their own knowledge, rather than simply absorbing it or having the teacher transfer knowledge to them through teacher manipulation and direct instruction (Siegler and Alibali, 2005). This is why the approach is also called a constructivist approach, because the child constructs knowledge separately by manipulating concrete materials and objects from the environment, as opposed to simply receiving information from teachers, peers, books or parents (Ormrod, 2008). Other theorists, such a Bruner, Vygotsky, Toleman, and the Gestalt psychologists are also considered constructivists. Children interpret their experiences in the physical and social worlds and thus activity construct their own mental schemes (DeVries et al, 2002). Construction requires action active learners engaged in using an active mind. However, for young children to have their mind actively involved, they need to use their bodies, the environment, symbols, language, social relationships, and a variety of different situations. For Piaget, these conditions for learning are required through the concrete operations stage, since at this stage the child is still manipulating a vast variety of concrete ideas based on direct experience (Berger, 2009).

Material Used in the Program The kinds of curricular materials used in Piaget programs are very important. These materials must be concrete rather than abstract, and must be objects that can be manipulated by children (Berger, 2009). This is critical for two reasons, 1. Since children construct their own knowledge, they need to be able to actively engage in a variety of possibilities, combinations, manipulations and juxtapositions, to create their own view of the world. They need freedom to engage in trial and error, be creative and push and pull their own cognitive limits – to mess around with the real, concrete world. 2. Since, according to Piaget, children’s thinking is dependent on concrete information until the formal operations period, concrete materials and real experiences, as opposed to only using the abstract symbols of words and numbers, need to be provided at all times. Even in the concrete operations period, if a child has not had direct, concrete experiences with materials, constructs or ideas, they will struggle. I remember teaching a young, gifted 9-year-old artist how to shade objects with shadows and highlights to make them look 3 dimensional. However, since he had

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach

35

never had the opportunity to play with water and mix colors and paints, he could not resist simply messing around with mixing water for the next several hours! He was not ready to move on. Not only must these materials be ones that children can manipulate by themselves, but teachers need to assist students by showing them a variety of ways the materials can be manipulated, transformed, juxtaposed and combined. A teacher needs to help students engage in the actions that must occur to create the concept or operation – for example, how to move liquid from one container to another in order to see that it retains its volume (conservation) even though its appearance has changed (Berger, 2009). There are several widely used elementary math curricula – Math Their Way, and Math Everyday, for example – that are carefully built around these two concepts of how to use materials in teaching and learning. Ironically, many parents who learned math through the traditional rote memorization approach, and the drill-skill method, along with some math teachers who have taught this way most of their careers, find these new, constructive math curricula very frustrating.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Field Trips One of the major thrusts of early childhood intervention programs in the 1960s attempted to increase the IQ of low income children by exposing these children to “cultural resources” in the community – museums, classical music and dance, art galleries, musicians and artists, libraries with good books, and so on (Wardle, 2003). This idea was further codified in Smilansky’s research on sociodramatic play with low income children, where she took children on fields trips and then encouraged them to represent their new learning through sociodramatic play (1968). The premise was that low-income children were culturally deprived and would therefore benefit from exposure to culture, which would then increase their IQs. While the idea of cultural deprivation has been dismissed as inappropriate, it is still believed that many of today’s young children, who spend much of their early years watching TV, are limited in their exposure to important educational and real-life content and activities (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005; Wardle, 2000; Wardle, 2003). For example, we have all heard that many children today believe that milk (and most other essentials for living) come from the supermarket. Not only is this incorrect, but it suggests children lack fundamental and basic knowledge about how the world works. For Piaget, higher-order thinking and abstract thought must be built on concrete experiences. Field trips provide what Brainerd calls, “conflict teaching (1978). ..getting children to learn something new by confronting them with major inconstancies in some of the beliefs they currently hold” (p. 282) – incorrect schemes. Obviously for this to occur in a Piagetian manner, children must discover this conflict for themselves. Thus, returning to the idea that milk comes from the supermarket, a field trip to a farm at milking time will challenge the child’s belief in the origin of milk. Maybe the child will declare, “we get our milk from the supermarket”. The farmer may then show the child the container as she fills it with milk to be processed, then bottled, and finally sent on to the supermarket.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

36

Francis Wardle

Any field trip that challenges a child’s concepts about the world supports Piaget’s theory. Many good field trips for young children are based on processes or actions: growing flowers and vegetables, making bread or tortillas, creating art, building houses and playing music, and so on. Young children are fascinated by function, movement, action and change (Berger, 2009). The more concrete the hands-on-experiences, the more effective they will be: tasting the cow’s warm milk, smelling the chicken’s environment, and actually planting some flowers. The Project Approach, discussed in chapter 16, utilizes this Piagetian idea, as does the Reggio Emilia approach (chapter 7) and many aspects of Dewey’s theory (chapter 1).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Play For Piaget, play is assimilation – changing reality to match the child’s internal schemes (1962). For example, in symbolic play children ignore the real identities of objects and materials to impose their own meaning on them: a table becomes an operating table, a block becomes a phone, a rope is the intravenous tube, and an old shawl becomes the doctor’s tunic (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). Because children are ‘playing with’ existing schemes, they are not learning anything new. However, they are practicing and consolidating the new schemes they have learned – through assimilation – what Piaget calls gaining mastery (Gredler, 2005). Piaget believed this process – play – is essential: without play the newly acquired skills and concepts would be lost. As I have discussed, according to Piaget, assimilation is a critical component of learning. Piaget’s stage theory can be diagramed in a step-wise fashion – vertical and horizontal. In the big picture the vertical progress is moving from one operation to another – say from preoperational thought to concrete operations; within each stage vertical movement is produced through accommodation – changes in schemes. The horizontal progress is consolidation and mastery of these new operations. Finally, Piaget believed play’s purpose, along with the consolidation of newly acquired skills and concepts, is to prepare the child for the next vertical learning spurt. Thus Piaget thought that, “play is critical as a condition for learning to occur” (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005, p 41). Piaget believed children progress through 4 stages of play: functional, constructive, symbolic (dramatic) and games with rules (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). Functional play is playing with objects and the child’s body based on their physical characteristics: stacking blocks and knocking them down; sliding and swinging on the play equipment. Constructive play is using objects and the child’s body to physically create something else: using blocks to build houses and create cities; using the body to create an imaginative dance. Symbolic (dramatic) play is using objects and the body to symbolically represent something else: a block becomes a phone, the child becomes a doctor, and the classroom is transformed into an emergency room. Finally, games with rules involves children playing together according to externally imposed rules, and following those rules in their play: Follow the Leader, Simon Says, soccer, baseball, and so on. Games-with-rules requires children to be able to control their egocentric nature to follow the rules for the good of the game and the good of the group playing the game. For any program – infant through elementary age – play is an essential component. The constructive math curricula just mentioned incorporate many games. Figure 2.2 lists some ways to encourage play in early childhood and elementary school programs.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach • •

• •

• •

•

37

Offer play opportunities after all new learning. For example, after children return from a field tip, provide extensive play choices. Let children play as long as they need to. Only the child knows when he has fully assimilated new skills and concepts. Most programs do not allow enough time for play (Christie and Wardle, 1997). Understand that children need to be able to play after learning any new concept or skill, not just some of them. Play for one new concept does not transfer to another. Balance new ideas, information and conflict learning (accommodation) with play (assimilation). Thus children need time to play scattered throughout the day, week and semester. Do not try to accelerate or speed up the learning of new skills, concepts or information by eliminating play (Kamii, 1973). Support each level of cognitive play: functional, constructive, symbolic, and games with rules, regardless of the children’s ages (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). Do not just focus on symbolic play. Do not make play contingent on children performing other tasks or activities. All children need to be able to play throughout the day.

Figure 2.2. Ways to Encourage Play in Early Childhood and Elementary School Programs.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Transformations According to Foreman and Hill (1984), a transformation is the actual process of physical change. Further, for children to fully understand scientific phenomena, it is important for them to directly experience transformations. For example, it is important to observe rain and its impact on the land while it is raining, not just before and after it has rained. When I was a child in always-rainy Western England, I used to love creating irrigation ditches and drainage tunnels for the rainwater that collected on the pathways and washed off the buildings. And I didn’t mind getting wet! Another way to learn about transformations is to observe the representations of transformations – the physical record left behind by the transformation. For example, a ball that is dipped in paint and then rolled down a surface covered with paper will leave a trail of its transformation – a representation. Finally, Foreman and Hill believe it is important for children to experience what they call the continuum of change. Instead of simply bouncing a large rubber ball and experiencing how it jumps off a hard surface, children should experience playing with ping pong balls, tennis balls, golf balls, super balls, cricket balls, and baseballs to internalize the continuum of bouncing balls (1984). From a Piagtian perspective, experiencing transformations and the continuum of change allows children to learn the actual process and direction of concrete actions. Thus, when playing with a variety of balls a child does not only learn that balls bounce, and that a certain level of energy is needed to bounce balls, but that size, composition and degree of inflation will determine how much the ball bounces, as well as impact the level of energy needed to bounce the ball. Studying transformations takes the idea of concrete materials one step further, and suggests real experiences with transformations – how things change in the physical world – is also important for children to experience at each cognitive stage, but especially in the

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

38

Francis Wardle

preoperational and concrete operational stages. They are important because, just as a child constructs information in her mind about how to solve problems, sequence size, shape and color, and classify according to function and physical characteristics, a child is also continually hypothesizing about how the world works – force, gravely, properties, light and darkness, shadows, erosion, evaporation, growth, etc.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Learning Mathematics Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has been used most frequently to teach math, including teaching seriation, ordinal numbers, and class inclusion (Brainerd, 1978). Further, many of Piaget’s disciples focused on how to teach math to young children (Flavell, 1963; Kamii 1985; Sigel, 1969). And, as I already pointed out, many of his ideas are directly used in some of the more popular elementary school math curricula. This focus on math is because Piaget wrote extensively about how children develop basic mathematical concepts (Piaget, 1952; Inhelder and Piaget, 1964), and because math tends to be introduced during the early grades in public school, when children are in the preoperational and the concrete operational stages. A third reason so much attention has been focused on using Piaget’s ideas in teaching math is because the application of Piaget’s theory to math instruction, “is in direct conflict with the assumptions of pre-Piagetian math education” (Kamii, 1985, xi) – an approach that emphasized the internalization of knowledge through teacher instruction, student practice and rote learning. Because Piaget’s approach is so radically different from the traditional approach, it has received considerable attention by educators (Flavell, 1963; Kamii, 1985; Kamii and DeVries, 1980; Sigel, 1969). Remember that in the 1960s schools in the United States were increasing their focus on traditional math and science instruction as a result of the 1957 Russian launch of Sputnik. Math learning from a Piaget perspective centers on the creation of basic math concepts and operations by the child. This includes most of the ideas already discussed: teaching and learning within the child’s developmental stage; child-directed learning; use of concrete manipulatives, and making sure each child is deeply engaged with materials, ideas, operations and language. Further, the Piaget approach focuses on math concepts, such as one-to-one correspondence, sequencing and seriation, grouping by physical characteristics, greater and less than, comparing properties, and developing and observing patterns and relationships (Kamii and DeClark, 1985). Counting, addition and subtraction, knowing simple geometric names, factions, and multiplication facts, are all considered highly dependent on first understanding these conceptual foundations, and thus are stressed less in a constructivist math approach (Wardle, 2003). With the downward extension of academics into the early childhood years, and increased math expectations of elementary-age students, a deep understanding of Piaget’s sensorimotor, preoperational and concrete operations stages is becoming more critical.

Learning Science: Shadows By looking at how young children understand shadows, we can get an idea of the constructivist approach to teachings science, which can then be extended to the teaching of

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach

39

other fundamental scientific constructs. Piaget studied children’s developmental understanding of shadows (1927/1960; 1945/62); in 1986 Rheta DeVries identified developmental stages in children’s reasoning about shadows, which span from around age 2 years old to beyond 9 years old. In order to progress though the stages needed to understand the complex phenomena of shadows, children must resolve many contradictory ideas – schemes – they have developed about shadows. Piaget expressed the belief that we can tell a great deal about children’s thinking by examining their errors. Further, to gain a full understanding of phenomena, children must face their contradictions and resolve them (DeVries, Zan, Edmiaston and Wohlwend, 2002). Some facts about shadows young children cannot understand, include (DeVries et al, 2002), •

•

•

•

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

Movement of shadows does not require direct contact. Children believe the only way to move an object is to have direct contact with it: thus they try to move a shadow by pushing it! Light makes something dark. It is incomprehensible to children that light can create (dark) shadows. They believe light produces light; adding more light should make something lighter. Proximity to the screen does not always result in a shadow. Children believe that simply standing by a wall produces a shadow; they do not understand that they must stand between a light and a screen surface or the floor for a shadow to be created. One’s shadow does not move from back to front by leaning or turning around. When asked if they can move their shadow that is on the floor, from in front of them to behind them, most of children simply turn around. Others lean forward. They believe that the shadow’s location depends simply on their actions alone. Shadows unaccountably disappear. When a child moves to the other side of the light, the shadow disappears. They conclude that it ran away; they then run after it to find out where it went! The configuration of a shadow does not always correspond to the shape of an object. A child who had seen the shadow of a 2D elephant could not conceive of the rectangular shadow caused by turning the elephant 90 degrees. He insisted the elephant did not create the rectangular shadow.

These are just some of the examples of contradictions children have regarding shadows. DeVries et al (2002), argue in true Piaget logic, that children must have direct, physical experiences with shadows to resolve these contradictions. Further, they believe there is also an important role for teachers to play in helping children truly understand basic scientific phenomena. In this role, several principles should be followed, • •

Find out what children notice and what they wonder about. From statements and observations, find out what students know about the phenomena being learned; Base activities on relationships children are struggling with. Understanding shadows requires children to construct ideas about the relationships among light, objects, a flat surface and the shadow (DeVries et al, 2002). Thus children must have lots of opportunities to investigate these relationships.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

40

Francis Wardle •

•

•

•

•

Plan activities based upon children’s interests and questions. As children hypothesize about shadows, such as, “are shadows always black”?, engage in activities that enable them to answer these questions. Help children explore their ideas about shadows - even incorrect ones. For example, children are often surprised that carefully created details they have made on shadow puppets - sequins sewn onto them, different colors, etc. – did not show up on the shadows. Then they explore how to make details that will be clearly seen on the shadows. Control variables so children will be more apt to observe relationships between each variable – in this case, light, objects, screen and shadow. There are so many possible variables in these relationships that it is very important to keep some of them constant while manipulating others. For example, keep the light stationary while moving the object; keep the object stationary while moving the flat surface, etc. Get children to make predictions about the phenomenon being studied, and help them become conscious of contradictions between their expectations of shadows and what actually happens. Have children follow-through to see if their predictions come true, and then help them see contractions between their predictions and reality. Encourage children to figure out how to make shadows “behave” in certain ways. For example, how can they make a shadow bigger or smaller? How can they make it appear on different backgrounds? How can they change the actual shape of the shadow?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Teachers in constructivist classrooms understand that for children to fully understand the many basic scientific constructs, they must ask questions, explore errors and revisions, and have enough time to reflect on their learning. Further, these teachers need to help students focus on the process of scientific exploration.

Meaningful Learning Since, from a Piagetian perspective, children construct their own knowledge, they must be motivated to do so. It is reasonable to suggest that children will not construct knowledge about things that do not interest them and that they are unfamiliar with. Why should they? As already discussed, Piaget assumes children are pre-wired to learn, and that they will progress through each of his four stages sequentially (Gredler, 2005). However, this progress and subsequent mental development is not automatic – it requires continual positive interaction with the environment. And, of course, to interact with the environment the child must be interested in that environment, and must enjoy “interacting”. For Piagetian education programs, this belief in meaningful learning requires the use of some basic tenants of the emergent curriculum (Jones and Nimmo, 1994), at least during part of the school day. It also requires teaching within the child’s developmental stage and within her zone of proximal development. The Project Approach, High/Scope curriculum, Reggio Emilia approach, Vygotsky’s ideas, and a true understanding of Dewey’s thematic approach to curriculum all capitalize on this need to make learning meaningful, as does the British Infant/Primary approach. All these perspectives are covered in detail in various chapters in

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach

41

this book. Because children attending our education programs bring with them such a diversity of experiential, personal, family and community backgrounds, a great deal of time and energy is needed to make sure learning is continually meaningful for each individual child. Box 2.3 suggests some ways to make sure activities in early childhood and elementary classrooms are personally meaningful.

Box 2.3. Making Learning Meaningful for Children Teach within the child’s developmental stage;

• • • • • • • • • • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • •

Teach within each child’s ZPD; Use real, concrete, multi-sensory materials; Use materials that stimulate all five senses; Ask parents when they enroll their children and at parent-teacher conferences what their children enjoy doing; Send home newsletters on a regular basis to solicit ideas for curricular topics; Carefully observe children; Ask children what they would like to learn; Observe how children respond to new materials, fieldtrips, and classroom visitors; Ask yourself what would interest the children (not, what would interest the teacher, what does the curriculum call for, or what did we do last year)? Do not use predetermined curricular themes; practically those created by commercial companies; Use a curricular approach that provides a basic framework that allows you to insert themes and content relevant to each child in your class; Be very sensitive to each family’s cultural diversity. Use this knowledge to solicit curricular ideas; Teach to the whole child with an integrated approach; Provide a schedule that allows for large periods of time for children to interact with each other and the environment, including the outdoor environment; Provide a balance of guided, self-correcting and open-ended activities.

(Based on Jones and Nimmo, 1994).

After Piaget Since the height of Piaget’s popularity in the 1960s and 1970s, academics became enthralled with Vygotsky, then Reggio Emilia, and now learning standards. Further, Piaget’s theory has been criticized from four major directions, 1) researchers who claim that Piaget was too conservative in his view of the capacity of children, partially infants; 2) the environment has more impact on development and learning that Piaget believed, 3) advocates of the standards-based approach who claim it is a more efficient way to educate children, especially low-income and minority children, and 4) multiculturalists who argue that Piaget’s theory is a European approach that is not compatible with the cultural contexts of minority children.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

42

Francis Wardle

Infant Capacity New brain research (Shore, 1997), more sophisticated research methods and instruments, and extensive research on the learning of infants and young children (albeit usually white, middle-class children) have lead many to believe that infants are much more competent and able to learn than Piaget claimed (Berger, 2009); further, some elementary age children appear to exceed Piaget’s concrete operations stage (Ormrod, 2008). However, many believe that Piaget seems to have over-estimated the ability of adolescents – and even some adults (Ormrod).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Impact of the Environment Current research suggests that the environment - both social and physical - does have an impact on learning (both positive and negative) and that good educational programs can greatly enhance learning (Ormrod, 2008). However, due to the genome project and additional research that it has promulgated, we have also increased our understanding of the genetic and biological impacts on development and learning (Berger, 2009). Part of this criticism comes from a simple shift in our view of development. The brain research has refocused our attention on the appropriate and ideal environments for maximum cognitive development, thus stressing the importance of the environment as opposed to Piaget’s focus on biology (Lally et al, 1997; Shore, 1998). Further, the epigenetic focus on development and learning – the match between genetics and the optimum environment – is gaining considerable popularity in today’s scholarship (Berger, 2009). Thus it would seem that what we call goodness-of-fit is a critical component in this discussion. To this end there really is little disagreement with Piaget. Content-Based Standards Approach Today, of course, with the federal No Child Left Behind act driving public school curricula, and the Head Start approach being structured through Child Outcomes, standards are having a dramatic impact on early childhood and K-12 programs in the United States (Gronlund, 2006). What are standards? Standards simply define what a child is expected to know and be able to do in a specific content area at the end of each grade – including preschool and kindergarten (Gronlund, 2006). (Chapter 8 provides an extensive review of the standards approach). Thus standards can be very developmentally appropriate, such as the already mentioned National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (2000); and, in fact, Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) to some extent are standards – what we call performance standards, in that they address best practices for each age, based on children’s development. Standards are beneficial and helpful when they are based on what children can do: physically, cognitively, socially, emotionally, and based on brain development (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997), and when they take into account both the natural variability of children at each age, and the various kinds of exceptionalities. Standards are destructive when they conflict with what children can do, and when they focus on discrete skills and content (Gronlund, 2006). As I discussed at the beginning of this chapter, only one of the three areas of development that occur in each of Piaget’s stages can be measured (Brainerd, 1978).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach

43

Box 2.4. Reflective Thinking: Piaget and Standards

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Below are some specific PreKindergarten standards from a variety of states (Gronlund, 2006). Analyze whether these standards assist teachers and programs in providing young children with a Piagetian approach to learning, or wthether they provide an approach that encourages teachers to simply “teach to the standard?” (Note that some standards say, “the child will learn”, while others say, “the child learns” - thus the difference in the verb endings). Communication and literacy standards − Demonstrates knowledge of the alphabet. − Listen to and identify spoken words that rhyme (e.g.. rhymes, poems, songs, word games) including word families (e.g. c-at, b-at, s-at). − Listen to a wide variety of age appropriate literature read aloud. − Count or tap the number of syllables in multisyllabic words to show awareness of the syllable as a discrete unit. Mathematics standards − The child will describe simple geometric shapes (circle, triangle, rectangle, and square) and indicate their position in relation to herself and to other objects. − Compare sets of equal, more, and fewer and use the language of comparison (e.g., “equal”, “more”, and “fewer”). − Children develop knowledge of sequence and temporal awareness. Science standards − Demonstrates understanding of scientific inquiry. − Describe the way weather changes. − Analyze the relationships between observable weather patterns and the cycling of the seasons. − Recognize that living things are made of parts. Social studies standards − Identifies similarities and differences in personal and family characteristics. − Develops an understanding of location, place, relationships within places, movement and region. − Appreciates their own and other cultures (cultural anthropology). Physical development and health standards − The child demonstrates control, balance, strength and coordination in gross motor tasks. − Students will demonstrate the ability to use nutrition and fitness knowledge, skills and strategies to promote a healthy lifestyle. (Gronlund, 2006)

For standards to have value, we have to be able to measure them, which is why assessment is such a big part of the standards-approach to education. Advocates of standards view education using the typical industrial model, with each standard provided at the correct place in the educational assembly line that will produce the desired societal product at the end of the line: an educated citizen (Hirsch, 2001).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

44

Francis Wardle

Multiculturalism Piaget conduced his research on his own children (Gredler, 2005). Further, the ideas for his theory developed out of the active and fertile intellectual culture of the early part of the 20th century in Europe (music, ballet, art, literature, philosophy, psychiatry, psychology, child psychology, architecture, etc.)(Sears, 1975). As such, his world-view and the theoretical underpinnings of his theory are deeply embedded in European culture (Gedler, 2005). Thus, some critics have argued that his theory is not helpful in understanding the development and learning of children from non-European cultural perspectives (Hatch et al, 2002; Lubeck, 1998; Neito, 2004; Ryan and Greishaber, 2004; York, 2003). Further, they believe that educational approaches that focus on his theory and his ideas are ethnocentric and focus on Western values such as competition, autonomy, individuality, and individual progress, as opposed to non-Western values of cooperation, group belonging, respect for elders, and working together, and that they do not appreciate the strong impact of culture on all learning (Hatch et al; Nieto, 2004; York, 2003). This view was particularly strong in the criticism of the first edition of Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Bredekamp, 1987), but is less so of the revised edition (1997), which now includes the view that cultural context is a significant contributor to the way children develop and learn (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997). Research does suggest that culture has a direct impact on development and learning (Ormrod, 2008). However, it is not a simple matter of Piaget’s theory matching up with the dominant culture. For example, children in Mexico whose families make pottery acquire certain conservation much sooner than Western children, because they have lots of experience manipulating water and clay (Price-Williams, Gordon and Ramirez, 1969). In other nonWestern counties, conservation develops later (Cole, 1990).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONCLUSION Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has had a profound impact on early childhood practices. Many of the other approaches discussed in this book are heavily influenced by Piaget’s theory; the seminal book, Developmentally Appropriate Practice (1987; 1997), is also grounded in Piaget’s ideas (along with other important theorists such as Dewey, Erikson and Bandura). One reason Piaget’s theory has had so much influence is because of its constructivist nature – the belief that children activity construct knowledge - an approach that radically challenged both behaviorism and traditional school approaches in the Untied States (Kamii, 1985). Piaget’s ideas were also disseminated throughout the United States at the same time Head Start was being developed, and Free/Open Schools were popular. Translating Piaget’s ideas into educational and pedagogical techniques can be somewhat problematic, because Piaget was quite vague about the educational applications of his theory (Gredler, 2005), and also because his ideas, as I have said, directly challenged many of our traditional views of teaching – teacher directed, using pre-developed curriculum, learning isolated skills, etc. Many parents, administrators, teachers and politicians still do not understand Piaget’s conceptual approach to development and learning. While Piaget’s influence today is generally on the decline due to the downward extension of content standards in early childhood and elementary education, and the increased popularity of approaches with stronger social and cultural contexts, his ideas are used

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Constructivist Approach

45

extensively in the new infant/toddler programs (Lally et al, 1997), and many of the new math and literacy curricula being implemented in elementary schools across the country. Further, he provides the most radical example of the developmental approach to education (with maybe the exception of the Waldorf approach) – one that will always be a significant component of any early childhood and school curriculum (Wiles and Bondi, 2002). In fact, it could be argued that as we gain more scientific information about brain development and the learning of infants and young children, a developmental approach to early care and education may well return.

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1.

2.

3.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

4.

5.

Acquire a written early childhood or elementary school curriculum of a local program – Head Start, a campus childcare program, private program, public school, etc. Carefully analyze the curriculum to determine to what extent the curriculum follows Piaget’s ideas. To what extent does Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and learning reflect the European approach of development, as contrasted to the American approach of behaviorism? In your opinion, is it possible for a highly competitive, technological society such as the United States to follow a Piagetian approach to education, or is it simply unrealistic in today’s world? Why and why not? One of the central canons of Piaget’s pedagogical approach, much like the Waldorf approach, is not to push or accelerate a child’s learning. Yet we in the United States (and many other developed countries) believe in what Piaget called, ‘the American question’: accelerating the learning of young children. Is this need to accelerate learning at a young age a good idea? What are possible advantages and disadvantages of accelerating the academic learning of young children? Today there are two conflicting ideas regarding development and learning. One, supported by the genome project and new research, that suggests an ever-more powerful correlation between biology and learning; the other, based on the No Child Left Behind legislation, content standards and the Core Knowledge Curriculum (see chapter 8), that claims all children can and should learn the same things at the same time. Where do you come down on his conflict? Where would Piaget come down?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 3

THE HIGH/SCOPE APPROACH

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION The heart of the famous Perry Preschool research, which was used by advocates of Head Start to convince the U.S. government to continue funding the program, is the High/Scope curriculum (Weikart, Bond, and McNeil, 1978). The High/Scope curricular approach is based on theorists and perspectives that were very popular in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s – Erikson, Piaget, Dewey, Hunt, Kohlberg, Bowlby, Ainsworth, Rogers, Flavell, Smilansky, Bruner, the Bank Street Approach, and others (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995). Thus the High/Scope approach stresses active, child-directed learning in an environment carefully structured by adults. While this approach has been fine-tuned since the 1960s, and new research and theories have been used to bolster its rationale, it still remains grounded in the social and educational milieu of the 1960s – the same environment that produced Free/Open/Alternative schools and open classrooms, British Infant/Primary programs, Values Clarification and Head Start. The central question today is whether High/Scope is still a viable choice for the educational realities of the new millennium. High/Scope differs substantially from Waldorf, Montessori, and British Infant/Primary programs in that the former tend to be private options for middle-class parents in this country and around the world, while High/Scope has always been positioned as an approach for young, at-risk students, because of the research results of the well-controlled studies High/Scope conducted on low-income, minority students. Over the years many Head Start programs have adopted the High/Scope curriculum because it is a published curriculum that closely matches Head Start’s comprehensive approach and original educational philosophy. However, over the last several years Head Start’s philosophy has been moving slowly towards a more outcome-based, learning-standards approach, as have many public school early childhood programs and elementary school programs. This chapter describes the High/Scope curricular approach, including its philosophical and research base, the content and structure of the curriculum, the role of the teacher and the teacher-student relationship, setting up the environment – both indoors and outdoors, daily routines, and student assessment. While High/Scope originally focused on preschool-age children (2 ½ to 5/6 years old), some of it concepts have been implemented in a variety of elementary schools and other children’s programs, worldwide. However this chapter focuses on the preschool approach. After the discussion of the High/Scope approach in detail, there is a brief description of the use of the High/Scope curriculum by the Renaissance Children’s

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

48

Francis Wardle

Center for Homeless Families. The two research studies conducted and published by the High/Scope Foundation are then discussed, and finally there is a brief section on several additional studies that seem to refute the popular perception that High/Scope curricula are not effective with low-income, minority children.

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. What are the key experiences in the High/Scope curriculum approach? What is their theoretical basis? How are they used to implement this approach? 2. What is the role of the adult in implementing the High/Scope curriculum? Is it directive, non-directive, or somewhere in between? 3. What is the function of the Plan-Work-Recall sequence in the High Scope curriculum approach? What is its theoretical rationale? 4. What is the role of the environment in the High/Scope curriculum approach? Is the role of the environment as critical as some other approaches, such as Montessori and Reggio Emilia? 5. Is the High/Scope curriculum approach still effective for at-risk students in the 21st century, or is a more didactic approach warranted?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

HIGH/SCOPE APPROACH In 1962 David P. Weikart lead a team of educators in developing a curriculum to use with young students who were struggling in the local public schools in Ypsilanti, Michigan. Dr. Weikart believed that the local pubic school was not providing, in his opinion, an appropriate early education for these children. To develop his curriculum, David Weikart and his team collected and analyzed the latest contemporary research and theories. As a result of these activities the High/Scope ideas and beliefs were generated, which are, • • •

A coherent theory about teaching and learning must guide the curriculum development process; Curricular theory and practice must support each child’s capacity to develop individual talents and abilities through ongoing opportunities for active learning; Teachers, researchers and administrators must work as partners in all aspects of curriculum development, to ensure that theory and practice receive equal consideration (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995, p. 5).

Since its initial creation in 1962, the High/Scope curriculum – initially called the cognitive oriented curriculum – has gone through several revisions and improvements. Both the High/Scope Perry Preschool Study (Schweinhart and Barnes et al, 1993) and the High/Scope Curriculum Comparison Study (Schweinhart and Weikart, 1998) are based on the use of this curriculum in the early childhood programs they researched. Both of these studies are described at the end of this chapter.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

49

According to Weikart (1995), in the High/Scope curriculum adults and children share control, with adults following the lead of student learning. “When we accept that learning comes from within, we achieve a critical balance in educating young children. The adult’s role is to support and guide young children through the active learning adventures and experiences” (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995, p. 3). The theoretical underpinnings for this curriculum are Piaget (1969, 1970), John Dewey (1963/38; 1933), J. McVicker Hunt (1961), John Flavell (1963), Lawrence Kohlberg and Rochelle Mayer (1972), and other constructivists who focused on cognitive and intellectual development of young children, along with Erik Erikson (1950), John Bowlby (1969), Mary Ainsworth et. al (1978), and Margaret Mahler (Mahler, Pine and Bergan, 1975), who focused on the young child’s emotional and social well-being. The curriculum is broken into 5 different components: active learning, adult-child interactions, the learning environment, daily routines, and assessment. The content of the curriculum is embedded within all of these components by what High/Scope calls key experiences. Each of these components is grounded theoretically in the work of the above theorists, and is discussed in detail, below.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Active Learning: Initiative and Social Relations “The corner-stone of the High/Scope approach to early childhood education is the belief that active learning is fundamental to the full development of human potential and that active learning occurs most effectively in developmentally appropriate learning opportunities” (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995, p. 15). Further, active learning presupposes children possess personal initiative - the innate desire to explore, solve problems, and construct personal meaning, which occurs within a social context of peers and adults. The High/Scope curriculum is targeted to children in Piaget’s preoperational stage (2-6/7 years old). According to Piaget, children progress by interacting with their social and physical environment, creating theories and ideas about the world based on these interactions, and then resolving the conflict between these theories and actual reality (Siegler and Alibali, 2005). In resolving genuine conflicts, children’s intellectual development progresses – as a result of the interaction between the children’s innate wish to solve problems and the environmental realities. Thus, according to Hohmann and Weikart (1995), active learning is defined as, “learning in which the child, by acting on objects and interacting with people, ideas, and events, constructs new understandings” (p. 17). While the original High/Scope approach focused on the preoperational child, active learning is also extremely effective in teaching children in the concrete operations stage (6/7 years old -11/12 years old), as demonstrated by a variety of other approaches covered in this book (British Infant/Primary Schools, the constructivist approach, etc), and by the use of active learning in a variety of elementary school math curricula (see chapter 2). Active learning is subdivided into 4 kinds of activities, •

Direct actions on objects. Children use all their senses to find out about all kinds of materials, toys and equipment. Through direct experiences with these concrete objects, children begin to develop abstract concepts.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

50

Francis Wardle •

•

•

Reflection in action. Children need to reflect on their actions with materials to develop thought and understanding. “Why did the stone sink in the water? Why did the piece of wood float?” This mental activity is needed to understand the world. Children might even manipulate materials and objects as they try to represent what they are thinking and trying to solve. Intrinsic motivation, invention and generativity. The child uses personal interest in the process of generating hypotheses and then testing out these hypotheses. The process children go through to create personal meaning is central to their learning. As Piaget emphasized, the mistakes children make in their theorizing tell children as much about the world as their successes; each child must personally discover how the world works. Problem solving. The process of reconciling the unexpected with what a child already knows stimulates learning. The child will continually problem-solve, using existing knowledge to resolve unknown issues. As she does so she will resolve the problem and understand more about the world. Hohmann and Weikart give this nice example, “Roberto, a child pretending to cook soup, tries to cover the pot of ‘soup’ (water) with a lid. He expects the lid to cover the pan, but instead it falls into the soup, and water splashes on his hand. Roberto knows from experience that the lid is supposed to stay on top of the pan, so he decides to place several other lids on the pot until he finds one that fits properly and does not fall into the soup” (p. 18). This is a meaningful example relevant to classroom experiences.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Adult Support of Active Learning While the child is the discoverer of knowledge and the constructor of meaning, the adult’s role is to empower and encourage the child’s learning, and to put the child in situations where active learning can take place. Specifically, the teacher in the High/Scope curriculum supports active learning by organizing the environment and routines for active learning; establishing a climate for positive social interactions; encouraging children’s interpersonal actions, problem solving, and verbal reflection; observing and interpreting the actions of each child in terms of developmental principles embodied in the High/Scope key experiences (see a following section), and planning experiences that build on the child’s actions and interests (Hohmann and Weikart 1995).

Quality of Adult-Child Interactions The High/Scope curriculum describes the teacher’s role very specifically. Adult-child interactions in the High/Scope framework include the critically important building blocks of human relationships, and decribe in detail ways to provide a supportive climate through the use of five key adult behaviors.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

51

Building Blocks of Human Relationships Children develop a foundation for social interaction through the development of these building blocks, which are described in figure 3.1. These building blocks are constructed around Erikson’s psychosocial theory, which is an eight-stage theory of psychosocial development. As children progress through the first five of these stages (from infant to adolescent), they move from total dependence (on their mother or caregiver) to independence (Berger, 2009). For each stage, Erikson presents a developmental crisis that must be resolved through the individual’s interaction with the social environment (Berger). To achieve a healthy resolution of each stage, the child needs social and emotional support. Parents and teachers provide much of this social support for young children, which usually requires a balance between care and protection on the one hand, and encouragement and the support of independence on the other hand.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Supportive Climate The High/Scope curriculum’s concept of a supportive climate places the role of the teacher midway between a laissez-faire view of children doing whatever they want, and a teacher-directed approach. In the High/Scope curriculum children share control over the teaching and learning process, and a balance between freedom and control is established and maintained. Teachers act as partners with children, even in addressing conflicts – acting as models and engaging children in problem solving. Trust. Erikson’s first stage is trust versus mistrust, and involves children learning to trust themselves and the people around them (1950). In the classroom, the preschool child learns to trust new adults and peers, along with trusting their own feelings and motivations. Autonomy. From Erikson’s second stage, autonomy versus shame and doubt, this portrays the ability of children to learn, explore, and care for themselves, without always relying on adults, or seeking adult approval. Initiative. The third of Erikson’s stages, initiative versus guilt, is the process by which children follow through on a task – to describe their intentions and then carry them out, acting purposefully and feeling confident in their ability to make choices and decisions. Empathy. Empathy starts in infancy, when children show concern for crying peers (Strayer, 1986). Empathy is the capacity of children to understand the feelings of others by relating them to feelings they have had. Preschoolers have a large capacity to express their feelings and to express empathy for the feelings of others. Self-confidence. Self-confidence develops within supportive settings, and is, “the capacity to believe in one’s own ability to accomplish things and contribute positively to society” (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995, p. 46). This self-confidence includes the belief that one can cope with life’s challenges. According to Curry and Johnson (1990), secure and harmonious love relationships and the successful accomplishment of tasks develop a sense of self-confidence. Children gain selfconfidence from inner pride in problem solving and task completion, but not from external adult praise. (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995). Figure 3.1. Building Blocks of Human Relationships.

In many early childhood programs the daily schedule shifts radically from freedom to control, and back again, throughout the day. There may be a teacher-directed lesson or group Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

52

Francis Wardle

activity, followed by free play, and then a return to a highly structured, teacher-directed activity. The High/Scope approach believes in providing the same supportive climate and child-teacher balance throughout the day, even when children are playing on the playground. Because there are usually two teaches or a teacher and an aide in each classroom, there is ample opportunity for adults to support student learning, both indoors and outdoors. Teachers can provide supportive environments for young children by consistently providing five key behaviors, which are, • • • • •

Sharing control between adults and children; Focusing on children’s strengths; Forming authentic relationships with children; Making a commitment to supporting children’s play; Adopting a problem-solving approach to social conflicts, in which the children help solve the problems (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995).

Learning Environment A good learning environment must support the specific educational curricular approach used by a program or school (Wardle, 2003). For the implementation of the High/Scope curriculum, there are several guidelines that can assist early childhood educators in creating the appropriate environment (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995). These include,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

•

•

The space is inviting to children. Elements that make an environment welcoming to children and adults include: softness, rounded corners, pleasing colors and textures, natural materials, and light, cozy places. The space should be divided into interest areas to encourage distinctive types of play, such as a sand and water area, block area, dramatic play area, art area, toy area, book, writing and computer area (literacy), woodworking area, music and movement area, and outdoor area. These areas are defined by low shelves and other boundaries, and should cover most of the available space. Each area should have enough space for needed materials and for children to freely interact, and should be arranged in a manner that communicates to children the function of the area, where materials are located, and where they need to be returned. This encourages children’s initiative and autonomy. These areas must also be large enough for any child who might be in a wheel chair or using other assistive devises. The space includes places for group activities, eating, napping, and storing children’s private belongings. The interest areas need to be arranged in such a way that there is space for group activities, such as morning circles and movement activities. Providing storage space for each child enables children to keep tack of personal belongings. These should be labeled with each child’s picture or name, and be accessible at all times. Interest areas are arranged so children can see other areas and easily move between them. Children need to be able to see other children engaged in other centers, and be free to move from center to center; teachers need to be able to easily see the various

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

•

•

•

•

53

centers for easy and safe supervision. Centers that are compatible, such as literacy and art, need to be placed next to each other to encourage interaction and integration between them. The interest areas need to be flexible enough to respond to children’s changing interests. Teachers should continually change these areas in accordance with children’s changing needs, provide novelty and challenge, extend learning, and finetune the classroom environment. There should be enough materials to support a variety of play. There should be adequate materials in each learning area, so that several children can play together; further, the materials need to encourage a variety of play, including sensorimotor play, games, constructive play, and sociodramatic play. The art, literacy, science and math activity areas also need adequate and diverse materials. Materials must reflect the children’s lives. A variety of materials should reflect the children’s home experiences: photos, books, dolls, miniature figures, environmental print, props in the dramatic play area, music, food, etc. Adequate storage should encourage children to use and return materials without adult assistance. Children need to be able to select materials from a variety of areas to integrate into their projects and activities – say take paint from the art area to the block area to paint signs for the city they are constructing. But children also should be able to easily return materials to their respective shelves in each center when they have finished using them, and at clean-up time.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Carefully arranging the environment promotes children’s engagement in active learning, encourages children to take initiative, and enables teachers to interact comfortably with each child.

The Outdoor Environment In a High/Scope program, children need to have daily opportunities to play in a safe, outdoor playground. The play area should have a variety of landscape elements, such as hills and valleys; sunlit and shaded areas; grass, rocks, water and gravel; and a variety of plant life – safe trees, shrubs, flowers and a vegetable garden. A variety of colors, textures and smells should be present, and the entire area must be enclosed within a fence or barrier, for safety. Areas need to be created for different kinds of play, including climbers, swings, wheeled toys, sand/dirt and water play, and playing games on grass. Materials should include fixed structures for climbing, swinging and sliding; loose materials for exploring, pretending and constructing, and wheeled toys for pushing, pulling and riding. Finally, storage should be provided on the playground so that children can easily locate – and return – materials needed to play on the playground. Children and teachers should not have to go into the main building to get these play and learning materials.

Key Experiences Key experiences are both curricular scope and sequence rolled into one: curricular content.. But, just as with Dewey’s learning-by-doing view of education, it is difficult to

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

54

Francis Wardle

isolate the content and sequence of learning in an approach that is based on active learning. These key experiences of the High/Scope curriculum have gone through considerable development and many revisions during the more than 30 years of High/Scope’s existence. According to Hohmann and Weikart, key experiences are a series of statements describing the social, cognitive and physical development of children ages 2½ to 5/6 years of age. They, “describe what young children can do, how they perceive their world, and the kinds of experiences that are important to their development” (p. 297). While other curricula use goals and objectives, outcomes, or learning standards to structure and drive them, High/Scope uses key experiences. These experiences are ‘key’ in that they are essential to the child’s construction of knowledge, and are ‘experiences’ because children engage in them, they are often child-selected, and they take place repeatedly in a variety of contexts over a period of time (Hohmann and Weikart 1995). These experiences are based on the belief that, 1) children this age seek out certain experiences in their effort to make sense of the world and to construct their own meaning, and 2) children need to engage in these experiences with a variety of materials and in a variety of settings. The focus is on engaging in experiences across materials, settings and time, so that children learn general concepts and constructs rather than focusing on learning specific skills (Wardle, 1989). These experiences are not goals or objectives to be used to structure lessons or learning opportunities; rather, they are ongoing opportunities for learning. “Taken together, the key experiences provide adults with a framework for understanding young children, supporting their intellectual, physical and social strengths, and planning experiences that are appropriate to each child’s level or learning” (p. 298).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

58 Key Experiences There are 58 key experiences in the High/Scope curriculum. These experiences are categorized under 10 developmental and learning areas, which are, • • • • • • • • • •

Creative representation Language and literacy Initiative and social relations Movement Music Classification Seriation Number Space Time (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995).

Figure 3.2. describes some of the specific key experiences within several of these categories. Cognitive representation. Examples include imitating actions and sounds, pretending and role-playing, and drawing and painting. Initiative and social relations. Examples include making choices, plans and decisions, expressing feelings in words, and dealing with social conflict. Figure 3.2. Continued on next page.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

55

Movement. Examples include moving with objects, moving in sequence to a common beat, and describing movement. Music. Examples include developing melody, singing songs, and playing instruments. Language and literacy. For example, dictating stories, writing in various ways, including scribbling and invented spelling, and reading in various ways. Classification For example, sorting and matching, holding more than one attribute in mind, distinguishing between some and all. Seriation. Comparing attributes (longer/shorter, bigger/smaller), arranging things one after another, and matching one ordered set to another ordered set. Number. For example, counting objects and arranging two sets of objects in one-to-one correspondence. Space. For example, filling and emptying, observing people, places and things from different viewpoints, and interpreting spatial relationships in drawings, pictures and photos. Time. For example, experiencing and describing rates of movements; experiencing and comparing time intervals; and anticipating, remembering and describing the sequences of important events. (Hohmann and Weikhart, 1995). Figure 3.2. Key Experiences for Children 2½ to 5/6 Years Old.

Purpose of Key Experiences Key experiences enable teachers to structure, support, enhance, and develop children’s learning within the High/Scope framework. Specifically, they enable adults to,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

• •

•

•

Focus their observations and interpretations on children’s actions. Adults use key experiences to determine the validity of children’s actions and to engage in appropriate ways to expand, enrich and extend them. Serve as a cross-cultural reference for observing and interpreting children’s actions. Key experiences provide a common language for educators and teachers around the world to use in training and implementing the High/Scope approach. Help maintain reasonable expectations for children. Essentially the key experiences provide the DAP for the curriculum (Brederkamp and Copple, 1997). Answer important questions about the legitimacy of children’s play. These key experiences enable adults to see the value of play, and to understand how play provides a wealth of critically important learning and developmental opportunities for young children. Can guide decisions about materials and daily routines. This is the traditional function of any curriculum – to operate as a framework or blueprint of the program’s educational philosophy to provide guidelines for selection of activities, development of the environment, and creation of the daily schedule (Wardle, 2003). Thus if a teacher determines that children are not engaging in enough of the movement key experiences, the teacher will change spaces, find appropriate materials, and initiate movement activities. Recognize and support children’s emerging capabilities. This is really the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) view of learning and development. In order for a teacher to maximize a child’s learning, they must know each child’s ZPD (see

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

56

Francis Wardle chapter six for an explanation of this concept). Teachers learn each child’s ZPD through observation and knowledge of the key experiences.

Daily Routines The daily routine provides a structure for the events of the day – a structure that defines how children use the areas and the kinds of interactions children have with peers and adults (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995). Daily routines include, plan-work-recall, small group time, and large-group time. This approach to the daily routine is designed to support children’s initiative by breaking up the day into manageable blocks of time. See box 3.1 for a variety of examples of daily routines.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Box 3.1. Examples of Daily Routines Half-day Routine. Children arrive/depart at the same time Children arrive Informal gathering Planning, work, cleanup, recall Snack Large group Small group Outside and depart Half-day Routine. Children arrive/depart in staggered intervals Small group for early arrivers Informal gathering Planning, work, cleanup, recall Snack Outside Large Group Small group for late departures Full-day Routine. Arrival and departure at the same time Breakfast Large group Planning, work, cleanup, recall Small group Outside Lunch Books and rest Snack Outside and depart. Full-day Routine. Staggered arrival/departure Breakfast and free play Informal gathering Planning, work, cleanup, recall Outside, snack Small group

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

57

Box 3.1. (Continued) Full-day Routine. Staggered arrival/departure Large group Lunch Singing, rest Outside, snack Plan, work, recall with parents. (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995, p. 155).

Daily Routines: Plan - Work - Recall

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The plan-work-recall process is the heart of the daily routine and the center of the High/Scope curricular approach, and includes all aspects of active learning – materials, choices, key experiences, and adult supervision (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995). “In making daily plans, following through on them, and then recalling what they have done, young children learn to articulate their intentions and reflect on their actions. They also begin to realize they are competent thinkers, decision makers, and problem solvers” (p. 167). The plan-do-recall process is divided into planning time, work time, and recall time.

Planning Time In the High/Scope setting children plan every day, both during planning time, and throughout the day. The planning process involves the children expressing their intentions about future actions. Because children do this on a regular basis in the program, they learn they can have control over some of their actions, behaviors and experiences. During the planning process children establish a program or goal, imagine and anticipate actions, express personal interests and intentions, shape intentions into purposes, deliberate, and make ongoing modifications to their plans. This process of planning in the curriculum meets a very specific purpose. Planning encourages children to articulate their choices, ideas and decisions, develops in children a sense of self-confidence and control, increases the child’s level of involvement, and develops complex play (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995). While the capacity to plan depends on a child’s developmental age, it increases with practice and involvement. In the High/Scope curricular approach there is considerable emphasis on children planning their daily activities. One of the purposes of this process is to teach children that they have control over future actions and experiences. What will happen to a child when she moves from a PreKindergarten or Kindergarten program that uses the High/Scope curriculum, to a traditional Kindergarten or first grade program where children do not engage in planning and have no control over their future actions and experiences, but rather where the teacher plans the day and each activity, based on a predetermined curriculum? Will this frustrate the child? Is this setting the child up to fail?

Figure 3.2. Continued on next page.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

58

Francis Wardle

Obviously teachers must help children learn how to plan. They do so by engaging with children in intimate conversations, playing a variety of planning games with props and partnerships, and using representations to assist in the planning process. In this process the teacher asks specific questions to help plan, and then scaffolds children’s thinking and planning. They help children decide on needed space, materials and activities, think about details, and describe the sequence of events needed to complete the task. Teachers write down the children’s plans, and model the value of planning by engaging in the process. Figure 3.2. Reflective Thinking.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Work Time In work time children engage in the activities they developed during the planning time. They adapt and develop their plans as they go, and change their activities accordingly. During this time the children are involved in the key experiences, and in using active learning through a combination of play, exploration, and interaction with materials and people – other children and adults. The child is constructing their knowledge. Specifically they build social relationships, develop initiative, figure out how things work, discover mathematical and logical relationships, develop symbolic representations, and use language in a variety of ways (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995). Teachers engage with children in a variety of ways to support this process. They do so by, • • • • • • • • •

Providing places for children to work; Constantly scanning and observing what children are doing; Gaining the perspective of the child; Offering children comfort and contact; Participating in children’s play; Encouraging children’s problem solving; Examining their interactions with children as they occur; Recording their observations of children, and Bringing work time to an end.

Teachers are particularly focused on examining the plans children bring to their work, and discovering how these plans are being implemented. And – since interaction is the key to active learning, the teacher helps children interact with materials, each other and with the teacher.

Recall Recall occurs in the final segment of the plan-work-recall sequence, and throughout the day as children reflect on their work. The recall process helps children make sense of what they have been doing. In recall children remember, reflect on the experience, relate plans to results, discuss their actions and discoverers with each other, and evaluate the results of their plans. Specifically, when children recall they continue to develop their ability to recount past events and activities, select various aspects of their experiences to recall, construct their own

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

59

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

meanings of what they did, and use a variety of different ways to represent and recall these experiences. Teachers have a specific role to play in helping children recall. This includes providing a supportive, warm setting for the activity; using a variety of props to assist in recall; listening to, inviting, and scaffolding children’s thinking and talking about what they have done, and anticipating children’s development in their ability to recall their experiences, over time.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

60

Francis Wardle

Daily Routines: Large and Small Group Time and Outdoor Time During the day young children spend time alone, in small groups, and in large groups. Here we examine their small group and large group experiences.

Small Group Time Small group time is a teacher-initiated activity where the teacher meets with the same five to ten students each day, for several months at a time. During this time children explore and experiment with materials, talk about their discoveries, and solve problems. The teacher introduces a new activity, which children then investigate and process. This activity often extends into their work-time. Ideas that teachers introduce come from their observations of the children during the remainder of the day. Many of these activities are also key experiences. Small group time is important because it provides opportunities to,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • • • •

Enable children to develop a close and trusting relationship with one teacher; Build on each child’s strengths; Provide new materials and experiences; Engage in regular peer contacts and interactions; Allow adults to observe and interact daily with the same children; Enable the teacher to practice a variety of instructional and supportive strategies in a relatively controlled setting.

Teachers use a consistent plan in the classroom to meet with each group everyday, but may select the location in the classroom - or outdoors - where the required materials or space are located. Teachers plan for these small group times much like traditional teachers design lesson plans: selecting a site or activity area, determining and gathering needed materials, and making sure the activities are related to various key experiences. They also plan the session, with an introduction, middle, and conclusion, as well as possible extended activities, or follow up (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995). If differentiation is needed for exceptional students, either gifted students and/or students with a disability, this is also planned, and the needed materials gathered (Wardle, 2003).

Large Group Time Large group time is for the entire class to share important information and to engage in activities appropriate for large groups. Many programs start the day with a large-group time to inform everyone of important information and coming attractions. Large group time is usually about 10 minutes and can include singing, movement experiences, story telling and brief discussions. During this time children need to manipulate materials, such as story-telling props, scarves used as dance props, or their own bodies. They make choices about what they want to do and how they want to do it. While adults introduce the activities, the teacher must make sure these activities are active, short in duration, and move quickly from one activity to another. In addition to singing, music, movement and dance, other large group activities include story telling and reenactments, games, projects, and discussing messages and upcoming

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

61

activities – all of which match well with various key experiences. The importance of large group time in the High/Scope curriculum, includes, • • • •

Building a sense of community; Creating a body of common experiences children can refer to during the day; Developing leadership and membership among the children; and Developing group problem solving.

The location for the large group experiences depends on the activities involved. Obviously the space must be large enough but it also needs to be close to the materials needed for the activity. In the High/Scope approach it is critical to remember that in large group experiences children need to actively participate, initiate ideas and suggestions, and solve problems (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Outside Time Outside time is an opportunity to engage in a variety of key experiences, including creative representation, language and literacy, initiative and social relations, movement, music, classification, seriation, number, space and time. Children engage in healthy, unstructured play, and learn about and connect with nature, while this time outside enables teachers to learn more about each individual child. The outdoors also encourages children to engage in a range of gross-motor activities, problem solve with new materials and peers, and try out physical tasks like climbing, swinging and riding, and other challenges which are difficult to engage in inside. Children enjoy outdoor time on the school’s playground or a neighborhood playground or park. Many of the approaches covered in this book have large group time in their daily schedule (High/Scope, Free/Alternative schools, British Infant/Primary schools, Montessori, etc). How is the use of large group time across approaches the same; how does it differ? What are reasons for the similarities and differences? Figure 3.3. Reflective Thinking

Authentic Assessment The High/Scope approach uses authentic assessment to record the progress of children in the program. Authentic assessment is, “an assessment of learning that focuses on performance of skills or knowledge in a manner that is within an appropriate context (Martin, 1999, p. 350). According to Martin, these features characterize authentic assessment, • •

Children exhibit what they know and can do in a familiar context; focus is not on what they cannot do; Authentic assessment does not compare what a child can do to what other children can to or to some external criteria (normative or criterion reference);

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

62

Francis Wardle • • •

•

Authentic assessment focuses on the big picture (holistic, integrated knowledge), not isolated skills and knowledge; Authentic assessment includes areas such as creativity, initiative, attitude, perseverance, and social interaction; Authentic assessment is concerned with what the child typically does in the learning and social environment, not how the child responds to isolated questions and artificial problems; An authentic assessment includes what children produce as part of the learning process – pictures, written labels, constructions of unit blocks, maps, and written assignments (Martin, 1999).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Further, a good authentic assessment enables every aspect of the curriculum to be assessed equally, and does not just not focus on parts of the curriculum. Thus, in the High/Scope curriculum all of the key experiences are assessed, with equal importance and attention given to each one. The heart of High/Scope assessment process is the Child Observation Record (COR) for children age 2 ½ to 6 years old (2006). The COR is designed to, “provide a practical and meaningful assessment system for developmentally appropriate early childhood programs” (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995, p 98). The COR process is conducted biannually from observations and information that are collected on each student on a daily and continuing basis. The instrument is divided by each key experiences. For example, under the initiates key experience, the COR items are: 1. Child does not yet identify problems; 2. Child identifies problems, but does not try to solve them, turning instead to another activity; 3. Child uses one method to try to solve a problem, but if unsuccessful, gives up after one or two tries; 4. Child shows some persistence, trying several alternatives methods to solve a problem; 5. Child tries alternative methods to solve a problem and is highly involved and persistent (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995, p. 98). A variety of methods are used to collect the data needed to fill out the COR on each child. Below are some of the ways data is collected.

Daily Observations Teams of teachers work together to observe and document children’s behaviors. In observing children, teachers learn more about each child, including the materials she likes to play with, how she uses materials, how she solves problems, with whom she likes to play, choices she makes, the kind of play and verbal communication she engages in, kinds and uses of language, the types of questions the she asks, and the paintings, drawings, models and other representations she makes. As teachers more completely understand the High/Scope process, they begin to ask additional, more complex questions, such as,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach • • • • •

63

What plans does the student make? What does the student enjoy doing during each section of the day? Does the student use symbolic representation? To what extent does the student use language to describe feelings, observations, problems, conflicts and possible solutions? How is the student involved in various activities listed under each key experience?

Note Taking/Anecdotal Notes Each teacher develops his or her own unique method for recording ongoing information on students. In so doing, the teacher avoids any judgments and simply records factual evidence of the child and the child’s activities. Some teachers use note cards, others a journal, and still others a clipboard. Photographic records of children’s projects and involvement can also be very helpful. Programs that use digital records (computer records) are encouraged to take digital photos.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Portfolios Portfolios are collections of products the child has created over time that document the child’s performance and growth in key experiences. They can be used to record student progress in certain key experiences, such as language and literacy, and in creative representation. Some programs keep portfolio materials in a variety of physical configurations; others create digital files for each child. The data collected from these and other methods are useful for developing future activities in each key experience for children, for conferences with parents, and for completing the COR documents

The Renaissance Children’s Center Drive along West Colfax Avenue, in Denver, Colorado, toward the mountains. Colfax Avenue is a busy, business artery of small shops, car dealerships, and motels that runs from the extreme east of the city – almost the plains of Kansas – through the heart of Denver, directly passing the Colorado State Capitol, Catholic Cathedral, Denver Library, and the Denver County Administration Building, and then on west to the foothills of the Rockies. Turn north just before “Casa Bonita”, a Mexican restaurant replete with cliff divers, and then pass the campus of the Rocky Mountain College of Art. Just beyond the college is a new housing development; below it next to the street is a squat, stoned-fronted early childhood center with an infant/toddler playground to the east, and the preschool/school-age playground on the south side of the building. This is the Renaissance Children’s Center. The housing development is home to many previously homeless families; the Colorado Commission for the Homeless sponsors both the housing development and the Children’s Center. Begun in 1999, the mission statement of the Renaissance Children’s Center is, “Provides a place where children can feel safe, are supported in their individual needs, and are given tools for academic learning, social interactions, and emotional competence which will serve them throughout their lives” (Renaissance Children’s Center, 2000, p. 2). The center serves

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

64

Francis Wardle

children, infants through school age. Many of the children are from homeless families or families who were recently homeless; many, therefore, do not pay for the services.

Comprehensive Model for Developing the Whole Child

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Renaissance Children’s Center uses a comprehensive model for the whole child (see figure 3.3). This approach addresses the social and emotional, cognitive and intellectual, and physical needs of each child, through the use of the High/Scope curriculum, ECE Cares, Relationship Roots, Infant/Toddler Environmental Rating Scale (ITERS)(Harms, Cryer and Clifford, 1989), Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale (ECERS)(Harms, Clifford and Cryer, 1998), NAEYC accreditation and mental health services (Renaissance Children’s Center, 2000). ECE Cares is a mental health training program that focuses on creating an emotionally and physically safe environment; Relationships Roots is a program to help children learn boundaries and solve problems with other children and to help teachers respond to inappropriate behaviors, and the Infant/Toddler Environmental Rating Scale and the Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale are classroom environment scales designed to make sure the classrooms are quality environments.

Figure 3.3. Renaissance Children’s Center Comprehensive Model for Developing the While Child. Used with permission.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

65

Use of the High/Scope Curriculum

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Renaissance Children’s Center selected the High/Scope curriculum because it addresses the specific mental health and educational needs of homeless children. It does so by including an environment where children feel emotionally and physically safe and secure; providing shared control of the environment by children and adults; focusing on building a sense of community within the classroom; using positive language to help children understand their feelings and the feelings of others, and enabling teachers to support and model children’s play (Renaissance Children’s Center, 2000). Further, the High/Scope approach empowers the program to help children gain a sense of control, make choices, plan ahead, and focus on helping children learn to solve their own problems and resolve their own conflicts (Renaissance Children’s Center). Children are provided with an environment full of materials that support their individual interests and development; teachers are able to focus on the development of the whole child, through the use of key experiences for infants/toddlers and preschoolers; and the plan-workrecall process not only helps children learn how to think ahead and avoid being impulsive, but also develops in children a variety of higher-level thinking skills. Further, caring adults support children’s play and learning by asking questions, adding materials, scaffolding learning, and modeling play; small group activities enable teachers to build important relationships, and there are many opportunities for children to choose materials that interest them, are challenging, and extend their activities and cognitive development (Kinney, personal communication, 2004). The High/Scope approach enables the program to expose children to a large range of language and literacy experiences in a variety of ways, such as being read to, environmental print, and writing in a variety of natural settings and contexts (Renaissance Children’s Center, 2000). Further, the High/Scope approach matches up philosophically and practically with the other programs used by the Renaissance Children’s Center.

The High/Scope Preschool Curriculum Comparison Study and the Perry Preschool Study The High/Scope Preschool Curriculum Comparison Study was begun in 1969, following the Perry Preschool Study, which is discussed later in this section. The High/Scope Preschool Curriculum Comparison Study followed 68 children born in poverty in Ypsilanti, Michigan, who at 3-4 years of age were randomly assigned to three programs based on three distinctive curricular models. The three curricular models used in the study were, •

Direct instruction. Teachers used a scripted approach to present classroom activities in a predetermined sequence. Teachers defined ahead of time specific academic goals in reading, math, and language, and used positive reinforcement to reward correct responses. This approach is based on the behavioral modification approach to teaching and curriculum of Bereiter and Engelmann (1966), which was being used in some Head Start programs at that time.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

66

Francis Wardle •

•

Traditional Nursery School Approach. This is a child-centered approach with classroom themes and considerable daily free play. Teachers provided a safe and secure environment in which children could develop and mature naturally. According to Schweinhart and Weikart (1998), this approach is based on the psychoanalytic tradition of early childhood education; much of it is similar to the Bank Street model (see chapter 1). High/Scope. The distinctive model described in this chapter, although in 1969 it was not as well developed as it is today. Its fundamental concepts, however, were the same as the current program (Schweinhart and Weikart, 1998).

Results of the Research The intent of this study was not to compare academic outcomes such as grades, IQs, or achievement test scores, but rather to address indicators of social and asocial behaviors, such as arrests, crimes, volunteering, and divorce rates (Schweinhart and Weikart, 1998). By age 23, results indicate there were no significant differences between the nursery school group and the High/Scope group. However, there were many differences between these two groups and the Direct Instruction group (Scheinhart and Weikart, 1998). These included, •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

While 6% of the High/Scope or Nursery group needed treatment for emotional impairments or disturbance during their school years, 47% of the direct instruction group did, which is well above the 17% of all children this age in the United States who need treatment. 43% of the High/Scope group and 44% of the Nursery group engaged in some form of volunteer work before age 23, but only 11% of the direct instruction group volunteered.

Additionally, the High/Scope group showed these advances over the direct instruction group, •

•

•

• •

10% of the High/Scope group had been arrested for a felony compared to 39% of the Direct Instruction group. Further, through age 27, only 7% of the High/Scope group had been arrested 5 or more times, while a full 35% of counterparts were arrested 5 or more times. None of the High/Scope group was arrested for property crimes, while 38% of the Drect Istruction group was. Property crime may be distinguished by the need to challenge authority. At age 15, 23% of the High/Scope group reported they engaged in 10 or more acts of misconduct, while 56% of the Direct Instruction group were involved in 10 or more acts of misconduct. 31% of the High/Scope group was married and living with their spouse, while none of the Direct Instruction group was married. 70% of the High/Scope group planned to graduate from college while 36% of the direct instruction group did (Scheinhart and Weikart, 1998).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

67

The Original Perry Preschool Study

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

In the original Perry Preschool study begun in 1962, 123 low-income African American students were randomly assigned to a treatment group of a quality early childhood program, and a control group that received no early childhood education. The early childhood program used the High/Scope curriculum, students attended for 2 years (age 3 and 4), teachers had Baccalaureate degrees in early childhood education, the adult-child ratio was 5/6 to 1, and teachers visited children’s families weekly. Children attended the program 2 ½ hours a day, five days a week. The results were analyzed when the subjects were at various age intervals (Schweinhart and Barnes, et al., 1993). Like the previous study reported, the High/Scope Perry Preschool Study was more interested in exploring behavioral indicators such as arrests, crime, home ownership, and education, rather than just academic indicators of success. The study also quantified the cost benefit of a quality preschool program. The results at age 27 showed, 1. Seven percent of the treatment group as opposed to 35% of the control group were arrested 5 or more times; 7 % as compared to 25% of the control group were arrested for drug use; 2. Four times as many of the treatment group as opposed to the control group made more than $2000 per month (1992 dollars), 3 times as many owned homes, and two times as many owned a car; 3. Seventy-one percent of the treatment group compared to 54% of the conrol group received a GED or high school diploma; 4. Both men and women in the treatment group had more stable marriages (longer) and fewer out-of-wedlock births (57% compared to 83%). 5. Based on a complex cost-benefit analysis using 1992 dollars, public investment in the program resulted in a $7.16 return on the investment of each dollar (Schweinhart and Barns, et al., 1993).

Results After Age 40 In 2005 the High/Scope Press published results of the Perry Preschool Study after the subjects turned 40 years of age (Schweinhart et al., 2005). Results continued the trends reported at ages 7, 9, 10, 14, 19 and 27 years of age. These results are summarized below, and are all based on this citation.

Education Sixty-five percent of program participants graduated from regular high school, while only 45% of non-participants completed high school; 84% of females of the treatment group graduated compared to 32% of the control group. Further, 8% versus 36% of females were treated for mental impairments; 21% compared to 41% experienced grade retention. At ages 7, 9, 10, 14, 19 and 27, program group children scored higher on a variety of school achievement, language and intellectual assessments (Schweinhart et al., 2005). At age

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

68

Francis Wardle

15 and 19 program group students had better attitudes toward school; also their parents had better attitudes regarding the support and value of their children’s education.

Economic Performance More of the program group compared to the non-program group were employed at age 40 (76% v. 62%). At age 40, more program group males than non-program group males were employed (70% to 50%); at age 40 the program group’s median annual earnings was $20,800 compared to $15,300 for the non-group participants (2005 dollars). At age 40, more of the program group owned a home (37% to 28%) and more owned cars (82% to 60%), especially men (80% to 50%). At age 40, 76% of the program group, compared to 50% of the non-program group, had savings accounts. There is also evidence of much less overall social services use by the program group participants; however, there is little significant difference on any individual indicators of social service intervention.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Crime Prevention Lifetime arrests of program group participants compared to non-program group participants was 36% to 55% (being arrested more than 5 times); 32% v. 48% for violent crime, 36% v. 58% arrested for property crime, and 14% to 34% for drug crimes. Also at age 40, the program group participants had fewer arrests for property felonies, violent misdemeanors, and property misdemeanors, and from age 28 to 40, fewer arrests for violent felonies, drug felonies and property misdemeanors. Fewer people from the program group were sentenced to jail between ages 28-40, and spent fewer total days in jail. Health/Family/Children More program males were directly involved in raising their own children (57% to 30%); more program participants reported getting on well with their families (75% to 64%), and fewer program participants used prescription drugs (17% to 43%), marijuana (48% to 71%) and heroin (0 to 9%). Cost Benefit Analysis Using 2000 dollars and adjusting for inflation, the economic return of the investment of $15,166 per student was $258, 888 – a $17.07 return per dollar invested - $12:90 to the general public, and $4:17 to each person (based on individual income differences). Of the amount returned to the public, 88% was from crime savings, 4% from educational savings, 7% from increased taxes and 1% from welfare savings (Schweinhart, et al., 2005). The results of the first Perry Preschool Project Study radically affected the future success of Head Start. (It must be noted here that the Perry Preschool Project was not a Head Start program, despite it often being mistaken as such). The famous Westinghouse Study of the initial Head Start program had shown no success of the Head Start program in increasing IQ gains, the preferred measurement of success for educational intervention programs at that time (Ohio University, 1969). The results of the Perry Preschool Project not only provided proof of the success of an early childhood intervention program (like Head Start), but also suggested that measures

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

69

other than IQ gains would provide a better way to determine the success - accountability if you will - of early education intervention programs. Care, however, must be taken when using these results to support early intervention programs and universal preschool in the United States. Most early childhood programs do not include all the components of this model program; for example, the Perry Preschool Program is a two-year program, and all the teachers all held college degrees in early childhood education (and received salaries and benefits to match their qualifications).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Do Low Income, Minority Children Require Direct Instruction? One of the more interesting findings of The High/Scope Preschool Curriculum Comparison Study is that the nondirective High/Scope curricular approach was more successful, for low-income, minority children, than a direct instruction, behavioral approach. And, while the Perry Preschool Project Study was not a comparison of different approaches, its positive results on low-income, African American children were achieved through the use of the High/Scope approach, which is, as has been detailed throughout this chapter, a childdirected and non-behavioral approach (see chapter 15 for a detailed discussion of behavioral approaches to early childhood and elementary education). Not only did the results of both of these studies challenge the accepted belief by many educators of that time that low-income, minority children need a curriculum focused on direct teacher instruction, but this same debate has been rekindled with today’s learning standards approach to curriculum (Bredekamp and Copple, 2009). A number of early childhood scholars have argued that curricular approaches for young children based on Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997), are Eurocentric approaches that are not effective for the education of low-income, minority children (Bowman, 2006; Hatch et al., 2002; Lubeck, 1998). Some of the current changes in Head Start, including Child Outcomes, and the adoption of the CORE Knowledge Curriculum and the Galileo Curriculum by some local programs, reflect this renewed belief in direct instruction for low-income, often minority students (see chapter 8 for a detailed discussion of this trend).

Study in Washington, DC Schools Rebecca Marcon conducted several studies of preschool children in the Washington, DC public schools (1990; 1992; 1993; 1994). She began with 250 four-year olds, with 91% African American children, 71% low-income children, and 66% children from single-parent families. She followed consecutive groups of four-year-olds with these similar demographic characteristics through the 4th grade (Macron, 1994). Like the High/Scope Curriculum Comparison Study, Marcon randomly assigned students to three curricular approaches: 1) child initiated classrooms: teachers who facilitated active learning by allowing children to select the focus of their learning (very similar to the High/Scope approach); 2) academic-directed classrooms, where teachers provided direct

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

70

Francis Wardle

instruction and learning experiences in a variety of academic areas, and 3) an approach that fell between these other two extremes. Box 3.4. Reflective Thinking

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Both of the High/Scope studies and the research conducted by Marcon show excellent results of a child initiated, whole child and developmental curricular approaches for lowincome, minority preschool children. Further, the federal No Child Left Behind law requires curricular approaches to have solid research support. These examples would seem to meet this federal requirement. Yet the current emphasis on learning standards, outcomes, and assessments that the No Child Left Behind act has produced in preschool, kindergarten and the elementary grades has resulted in the adoption of more teacher-directed, academicallyoriented approaches in Head Start and other early childhood and early elementary curricula. Why is this?

A variety of assessments were used to determine student progress in academic, social and emotional areas at the end of preschool, kindergarten, and 4th grade, for each child study group (Marcon, 1994). Results showed that after preschool, the students who attended the child-initiated classrooms were the most successful in the mastery of academic skills deemed important for school success by local educators. This was true for each subsequent group of 4 year olds. Kindergarteners showed similar results. Further, a comparison of children who just attended kindergarten (with no preschool) showed that those who attended a kindergarten approach that included a socioemotional component did better at forth grade than students who attended a program without the socioemotional component. As Marcon states, “There is a link between socioemotional functioning and (school) achievement” (1994, p.11) By age nine (end of 4th grade), children who had attended the three preschool models showed significant differences. These differences included overall grade point average, and math, science, language, spelling, art, music, reading, health/physical education, and citizenship assessment scores. In all cases the students who attended the child-initiated options scored significantly better than children who attended the other two approaches. As already stated, an early childhood model that is child-initiated is very similar to the High/Scope approach, and the High/Scope approach includes a significant socioemotional component as part of its philosophy and implementation. Thus these studies of low income, primarily minority children in the Washington, DC public schools by Macron replicate the results of the Perry Preschool Project Study and the High/Scope Curriculum Comparison Study, and also strongly support the view that a High/Scope curricular approach is effective with low-income, minority students.

CONCLUSION The original High/Scope curriculum was created in 1962. Since that time it has been modified and tweaked, but it still retains much of the flavor and thinking of the optimistic 1960s. Thus the High /Scope curriculum comes out of the same period in American history that produced Head Start, the Peace Corp, and the War on Poverty; a period when massive government intervention was believed to be a moral mandate that would dramatically

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The High/Scope Approach

71

improve the lives of the poor and disenfranchised in this country, particularly children (Sears, 1975). The High/Scope curriculum is a whole-child approach that focuses on children’s rational choices, key experiences, the role of the teacher to support, challenge, extend and elaborate children’s interactions and to create rich, supportive environments, and the development in children of the ability to plan their future activities and to develop a sense of personal control and empowerment. The two studies conducted by the High/Scope Foundation document that this curricular approach is highly effective for programs that serve low-income and minority children. The High/Scope approach is used in early childhoods programs throughout the world, and is applied in various components of elementary school and after-school programs (public and private). However, it is viewed by many today as being out-of-step with the current focus on outcomes, learning standards, pre-academic kindergarten readiness programs, and elementary approaches dominated by assessments and accountability.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1. Is the philosophical basis of High/Scope – its cognitive, social and emotional foundations – still reverent for at-risk preschool children today? 2. Find a program in you community that uses the High/Scope curriculum and one that uses a more academic and teacher- directed approach. Which do you feel prepares the children best for kindergarten entry? Which do you believe prepares children for overall school and life success? 3. High/Scope was developed to be used with low-income and minority preschoolers. The Renaissance Children’s Center for homeless children in Denver, Colorado, uses High/Scope because they believe it matches up well with the academic, social and emotional needs of homeless children. What are factors of the curriculum that would support this argument? 4. Architects of the High/Scope curriculum claim that the plan-work-recall protocol teaches children to plan ahead and to reframe and represent what they have learned. To what extent are these ideas sound ways to increase children’s cognitive, emotional (emotional regulation) and behavioral skills, since they do not directly teach specific academic skills and content? 5. The original High/Scope program used teachers with four-year degrees. Many early childhood programs today employ teachers who do not have four-year degrees. Can the High/Scope approach work in these programs? Should early childhood teachers be required to have four-year degrees?

RESOURCES High/scope website http://www.highscope.org

High/Scope Educational Research Foundation 600 North River, Ypsilanti, MI. 48198-2898

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 4

MONTESSORI

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION Almost everyone has heard of Montessori programs for young children. And many educators have very specific opinions about these programs. Today there are five thousand private and approximately two hundred public Montessori programs in the United States (Kahn, 1995). Further, Montessori schools are popular worldwide, in Canada, Russia, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, South Africa, Tanzania, Mexico, Columbia, India, Brazil and many other counties. Some of these are early childhood programs, others traditional elementary schools, and some even extend into high school. There are two Montessori organizations – the Association Montessori Internationale and the American Montessori Society (AMS). Both organizations certify programs and approve training institutions to prepare certified Montessori teachers. Montessori teachers are required to be certified from an official Montessori training. The Montessori philosophy is part of a family of distinctly European approaches to education – Pestalozzi, Froebel, Waldorf, British Infant/Primary programs, and the contemporary Reggio Emilia programs of Northern Italy. As such, Montessori developed out of a distinct historical time (pre and post WWII) and culture (European and Italian). Ironically, while Maria Montessori developed her unique method to serve the poor children whom the Italian educational establishment believed could not benefit from a formal education, her method today is primarily used to teach middle and upper-income children of educated parents throughout the world. In the United States, Montessori programs are supported by families of doctors, lawyers, educators and professors; in Brazil they are one of a choices of private kindergarten programs (before first grade – usually before age 7) that the wealthy and middle-class families use. To many families throughout the world, the term Montessori is associated with elite, quality early education programs, so much so that many schools that are not officially Montessori programs use the term to attract well-healed parents; there are many programs with the Montessori name that do not have the required approval and teacher credentials. With the advent of public school charters and the increasing number of early childhood options in the US, there is an increase in the number of public school and not-for-profit Montessori options – both sanctioned and unsanctioned. Further, some of these choices include all the elementary years, and still others such as those in Cincinnati, extend all the

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

74

Francis Wardle

way through High School. However, for a Montessori public school or Head Start program that must meet their own local and national standards and polices, adding a layer of Montessori regulations and best practices is very difficult and very expensive. This chapter examines the history and philosophy of the Montessori method, including sensitive stages, the concept of the absorbent mind, the critical importance of the prepared environment and materials, which are unique to the Montessori approach and are at the center of the Montessori curriculum, and the importance of the arts in the curriculum. I also discuss the specific content of the Montessori curriculum, including practical life. And, as with all educational models, I examine the unique role of the teacher in the Montessori method. At the end of the chapter I describe a visit to Cornerstone Montessori Program, a well-established, successful Montessori program that serves 125 children.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. Why is an early education model developed specifically to meet the needs of poor, difficult to educate children, now associated with elite, middle and upper-middle class educational options, world-wide? 2. To what extent is the Montessori approach similar to other European approaches – Waldorf, British Infant/Primary programs, Reggio Emilia, and the original Froebel European Kindergarten? And to what extent is it different? 3. To what extent is the Montessori philosophy’s emphasis on a carefully planned environment and on using daily living experiences a result of Montessori’s working with poor children in the slums of Rome, where she created the original Montessori program? Is this emphasis still as important and relevant in Montessori programs today? 4. Montessori’s philosophy stresses the inner motivation of the child, and the teacher’s role in nurturing and scaffolding the child’s motivation to blossom and be fulfilled. Is this idea still tenable, in a world with external standards and carefully developed Kindergarten entry requirements? 5. Is the Montessori approach one that would be effective with low-income children? Can a Montessori Head Start program, for example, be successful?

HISTORY Maria Montessori was the first female medical doctor in Italy. The persistence and tenacity she exhibited in accomplishing this feat is a reflection of the dedication and focus of everything she set her mind to throughout her long life. She was born in Chiaravalle, in the province of Ancona, Italy, in 1870. In her medical work, Maria Montessori was particularly fascinated with how children learn, and how they use their immediate environment to assist in their learning (Kahn, 1995). As a psychiatrist at a clinic in Rome University, she came into contact with many children who had a variety of mental and physical disabilities, which greatly peaked her interest in working with children whom the system and society were failing. She carefully observed the children she treated, and came to believe that the

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Montessori

75

environment has a crtical impact on the development and learning of young children (Grazzini, 1996). In 1901 she returned to the university to study psychology and philosophy; in 1904 she became a Professor of Anthropology at the University of Rome. In 1906 Montessori was asked to work with a small group of poor children in the San Lorenzo District of Rome; in 1907 she established Casa Dei Bambini (Children’s House) to work with poor children in the slums. Montessori carefully observed these children, whom the Italian educational establishment had determined could not benefit from a formal, state supported education. In particular, she observed how effortlessly and easily they learned from the surrounding environment, and their tireless interest in manipulating various materials. Montessori was fascinated by how these children used materials and the environment to learn without the direct instruction and guidance of adults, which many of these children did not have (Grazzini, 1996). Montessori’s program in the slums of Rome soon became internationally known. In 1913 Alexander Graham Bell and his wife, Mabel, invited her to visit the United States, where they established the Montessori Educational Association in their home in Washington, DC (Grazzini, 1996). Thomas Edison, Helen Keller, and Margaret Wilson, the daughter of president Woodrow Wilson, also supported her. In 1915 she demonstrated her method with a glass “school room” exhibit at the Panama - Pacific International Exhibition in San Francisco. On a subsequent visit to the United States she gave presentations at the National Education Association Conference and the International Kindergarten Union. In 1917 Maria Montessori opened a research institute in Spain; in 1919 she provided teacher-training classes in London, and in 1922 she was appointed a government inspector of schools in Italy. But she was forced to leave Italy in 1934, due to her strong opposition to Mussolini. In 1938 Maria Montessori opened a Montessori training center in Laren, Holland, and in 1939 she created a series of teacher training centers in India. In 1940 Maria offered training classes in London, and in 1947 she created the Montessori Center in London. In 1949, 1950 and 1951 she was nominated for the Nobel Peace prize (Grazzini, 1996). However, while she was very busy in Europe and India, she was almost totally forgotten in the United States (Torrence and Chattin-McNichols, 2005). Throughout her life she also wrote a great many books, including The Absorbent Mind, The Discovery of the Child, The Child in the Family, The Advanced Montessori Method (Volumes I and II) and Education and Peace. Maria Montessori died in Noorwijk, Holland in 1952, at the age of 82. In the 1950s a series of private Montessori schools in America serving middle-class families developed; in 1959 the American Montessori Association was created, with the intent of adapting the approach to a more American cultural outlook (Rambush, 1992). The American Montessori Association was created to liberalize some aspects of the Montessori method, thus providing an educational option that was more consistent with what American parents were looking for (Rambush, 1992). Then, beginning in the 1960s, when the diversity of educational alternatives expanded dramatically in the United States, parents began to pressure for Montessori magnet schools as a public school option. Today there are more than 200 public Montessori schools in the Untied States that offer programs for children ranging from age 3 though high school (Kahn, 1995).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

76

Francis Wardle

THE MONTESSORI METHOD The Montessori approach is in many ways more unique than many other approaches covered in this book, although it also shares some basic ideas with other models. One of the ideals it shares with Piaget, for example, is the idea that young children develop and progress through distinct developmental stages. In the Montessori philosophy these stages occur at 6year intervals: 0-6 (infancy); 6-12 (childhood); 12-18 (adolescence), and 18-24 (maturity). Like Piaget, Montessori believed each stage is unique and qualitatively different, and that the completion of one stage prepared the child for the next stage. She also shares with Froebel the belief in creating specific educational materials for young children, which are common in all of today’s Montessori classrooms. Other aspects of true Montessori programs are unique to this model, however. While some of Montessori’s ideas have found their way into most good education programs, others are only seen in Montessori programs. Two examples of Montessori ideas that are now almost universal in programs for young children are child-sized furniture, and low shelves for easy storage and access by students to materials and equipment. The Montessori method focuses on encouraging children to explore, manipulate, and discover the world on their own – the environment, materials, nature and the aesthetic world

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Montessori

77

(Lillard, 2005). Thus, the environment is very carefully designed to encourage exploration, discovery and self-directed learning. In this respect, Montessori views the environment in the same way that the Reggio Emilia approach views the environment: as the third teacher. The Montessori environment encourages mastery by the child at her unique developmental level (Kahn, 1995). The Montessori environment is characterized by order, aesthetics, and child-sized furniture and equipment. The teacher’s role is to carefully design and create this environment, to assist children in exploring and using the environment, and then to reorder the environment to promote new and challenging learning experiences (Kahn, 1995). The teacher’s role is not to teach directly, but to carefully set-up the environment so self-directed learning can take place. Part of Montessori’s well-designed learning environment are the unique, selfcorrecting materials, originally designed by Montessori. These educational materials were designed to teach sequential skills in a single construct or concept area, and are ‘selfcorrecting’ in that children can generally figure out how to complete them correctly, without the help of a teacher. But through the use of these matirerials, teacher’s can also easily determine if the child is struggling with a concept, and therefore needs the teacher to demonstrate the concept again. One of the most unique characteristics of Montessori programs – even more so today than when she first developed the approach – is the use of mixed-age groups of children. In the preschool years these mixed-age groups are usually 3, 4, and 5 year olds. Also each child stays with the same teacher for a full 3 years, much like the approach used in Reggio Emilia, Waldorf, and British Infant/Primary programs, and the practice that is known as looping, which is popular in some public elementary schools.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Basic Montessori Concepts Montessori’s philosophy can be described by looking at the basic concepts of the method. These concepts are listed in figure 4.1 and are described in detail here:

Basic Stages Of the four stages Montessori describes, from infancy through maturity, she believed the first (0-6 years), and the third (12-18 years) are particularly dynamic regarding physical and psychological changes and development, with the other two being relatively stable (Grazzini, 1996). Sensitive Stages Montessori viewed the unique mental abilities of each period as sensitive periods, which she felt are particularly susceptible to the development of certain unique, inborn abilities, skills and concepts in the child (Torrence and Chattin-McNichols, 2005). She believed that learning these skills and concepts would lead to new interests and skills, while the new acquisitions learned during the period would remain for the child’s entire life (Grazzini, 1996). For example, she believed a child in the first sensitive period seeks order in her environment, and that this motivation to order the environment peaks at around 5 years of age (Torrence and Chattin-McNichols, 2005). By age five the child will have created in her mind

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

78

Francis Wardle

an inner sense of order, which then will allow her to move on to the next mental task of abstract thinking and complex problem solving. Thus, one of the central roles of the Montessori teacher is to be sensitive to where the child is in her development, and to order the environment and activities accordingly. − − − − − − − − − − − − −

Basic stages Sensitive stages. The absorbent mind Children are self-motivated to learn A prepared environment Individual learning Inner discipline Daily living/practical life Multi-sensory learning Use of the arts Freedom of choice Learning about the real world Learning though movement

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 4.1. Basic Concepts of the Montessori Approach.

The Absorbent Mind Montessori believed that the process of the young child absorbing information from the environment actually forms the child’s mind. She believed the process of responding to external stimuli of both the physical and the social world structures the child’s mind, which she termed the absorbed mind (Montessori, 1967/1949). Further, she divided this first period of infancy into two sections – 0 to 3 years, when the child absorbs things from the environment subconsciously, and 3 to 6 years old, when the child does so consciously. An example of absorbing information during the first period is the way a child absorbs the sounds, nuances, rhythms, and rhymes of her native language (Montessori, 1967/1949). Once the child’s ability to absorb input from the outside world becomes conscious, her learning becomes intentional and directional. Then the child intentionally explores the environment, makes mental relationships, orders information systematically, and creates intentional memory, much like Paiget’s schemes. These first two stages of Montessori’s theory (0-3 and 3-6) very closely approximate Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (0-2 years) and his preoperational stage (2-7 year old). Montessori’s concept of the absorbent mind is also very consistent with information we now have from extensive research about how the brain requires certain kinds of stimulation during the early years to develop synapses and dendrites (Shore, 1997)(See also chapter 12 for a discussion on brain research and brain-based approaches to education). Children are Self-Motivated to Learn Children who are provided the right kind of environment that matches their stage of development will learn. Further, so long as the environment is interesting, meaningful and orderly to the children, they will benefit, because they are genetically programmed to want to

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Montessori

79

make sense of the environment. However, external rewards such as stickers or money are destructive, because they inhibit natural development and jeopardize internal, intrinsic motivation (Montessori, 1948; Montessori, 1912/64).

Prepared Environment As I have already discussed, for Montessori the learning environment is critical: it must be orderly, aesthetic, child-sized, with learning materials designed specifically for children at their sensitive period, and designed specifically to teach certain skills and concepts at the child’s developmental age. Part of this approach to aesthetics and preparing a deliberate environment can be seen in the well-known Montessori educational materials. Box 4.1. Reflective Thinking Results from recent extensive research on the function and development of the brain indicate that young children’s brains develop as a direct result of their active use (Shore, 1997). The parts of the brain that are used in a variety of ways, particularly by using all the senses, expand and grow, while the parts of the brain that are not used are pruned and eventually die out. This seems very consistent with Montessori’s idea of the Absorbent Mind. Was Montessori, at least regarding the Absorbent Mind, simply ahead of her time?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The environment should be designed to promote individual learning and child independence. Ease of access for children and the ability to return materials to their appropriate place is central. The role of teachers in the Montessori approach is to manage, readjust and manipulate the environment to the educational and developmental benefit of the children. The Montessori teacher very deliberately orders, monitors, and reorders the environment.

Individual Learning Teachers demonstrate, guide and model learning, but don’t teach directly. Teachers also introduce materials and activities in a carefully planned sequence. Children then master skills and progress through activities on an individual basis: each child in a Montessori program follows his own personal schedule, not the schedule of the peer-age group, teachers, a curriculum or state learning standards. Inner Discipline Montessori believed children develop internal discipline to direct their own learning. They learn this through having freedom within limits – clear choices and clear consequences. Thus rules and behavioral expectations must be clearly defined. Within these limits the child has freedom of choice; further, by making these limited choices, the child develops mental discipline and the behaviors needed to engage in self-directed learning and emotional selfregulation (Montessori, 1989). Daily/Practical Living Because the poor children Montessori initially worked with in the slums of Rome lacked the stability of order in their homes, and did not have access to every-day home objects,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

80

Francis Wardle

Montessori included real household objects in her curricular materials, and stressed real household activities in the curriculum. Children set the table with glass and china utensils, sweep the floor with real brooms, wash the tables, care for plants, iron clothes, and engage in other “daily life” work.

Multi-Sensory Learning The Montessori approach stresses the use of all the child’s senses to learn from the surrounding world – the environment – and she believed children learn more effectively through multi-sensory input – using more than one sense at a time to process incoming information. This is, of course, consistent with her view of the absorbent mind. Montessori especially focused on the sense of touch and the need for young children to physically manipulate objects, feel sensations, and experience real things. She developed concrete materials and materials that use a variety of senses as academic learning aides; examples are sandpaper letters and the moveable alphabet.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Use of the Arts Because of her belief in developing all of a child’s senses and in using all five senses in the child’s learning, Montessori programs stress music and art activities. Also there is a close connection between her emphasis on the arts and her view of the ordered, aesthetic learning environment. Maybe, because the poor children she worked with had neither of these, Montessori stressed order and aesthetics in her programs. In this area the Montessori method is quite similar to the CORE Knowledge Curriculum (see chapter 8) Freedom of Choice Individual learning in the Montessori approach begins with the child selecting an activity, materials, and/or a daily living experience. Once the free choice is made, however, the child must then follow the activity or use the materials in the correct, prescribed manner (Montessori, 1989). Learning about the Real World Montessori believed that fantasy had no place in the education of children under age 6. She believed pretend play is a function of unsatisfied, selfish desires. Further, she felt that when a child engaged in “playing house”, the child really wanted to care for a real house, so she provided her children with real, child-size brooms, mops, irons and other housekeeping materials (Lillard, 2005). She also believed that the main goal for children under age 6 is to learn about the real, concrete world, and that fantasy play detracted from this purpose. She felt fantasy play and using objects symbolically confused children between fantasy and reality. Maria Montessori also divided time into two parts, work time and leisure time, and she believed that school was work. Further, her materials were not to be used for playing but only for serious learning (Lillard, 2005). For elementary age children (Montessori’s second stage), Montessori believed that imagination was based on the abstraction of the real, concrete world that children had learned during the first stage. Thus, she felt it was critical for young children, before elementary school, to learn accurately about the real world, so that when they entered school they would be able to use this concrete information to think creatively and abstractly. “Correct use of

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Montessori

81

Montessori materials guides children’s minds from the concrete to the abstract, whence children’s creative imagination can take over” (Lillard, 2005, p. 186). The reader can see the parallel between this idea and Piaget’s belief in concrete learning, especially in the early years.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Learning Though Movement In Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (0-2 years old), children develop schemes though combining movement with their senses (Berger, 2009). Montessori believed that this approach extends into the later years (Lillard, 2005). She believed much of cognitive development involves kinesthetic movement, both fine motor (manipulating objects) and gross motor (moving the whole body)(Montessori, 1967).

Curriculum In the Montessori approach the carefully designed environment is at the center of the curriculum, because Montessori believed children independently explore their environment through touching and manipulating. “Our work as adults does not consist in teaching, but in helping the infant’s mind in its work of development” (Montessori, in Kahn, 1995, p. 4). Thus the environment must encourage and structure this learning; the teacher must structure, monitor and restructure the environment to provide the needed cues for learning to take place.

Materials As has already been discussed, Montessori designed specific learning materials for her program. These materials are carefully designed to implement the curriculum and to teach specific skills. For example, the pink tower is made up of cubes of varying sizes that stack sequentially, from large to small, creating a pyramid tower. Because the critical feature of this piece of equipment is size (large to small), and proportions, each cube is pained the same color, allowing children to focus on size relationships. Other Montessori materials focus on teaching colors; geometric shapes; area, linear and volume measurement, and other geometric

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

82

Francis Wardle

concepts. These materials are self-correcting, in that it is immediately obvious to the child when a mistake has been made, thus enabling the child to rectify that mistake without the need of direct adult intervention. For example, if a child builds the pink tower with one cube out of sequence, it is very clear there is a problem! And, if not, another child will surely point it out. Montessori’s materials can be used together; they can also be used in progressively different ways. For example, once the child has mastered the size relationships of the pink tower, it can then also be used to teach basic metric measurement – both linear, area and volume. “The objects surrounding the child should look solid and attractive to him, and the house of the child should be lovely and pleasant in all its particulars….It is almost possible to say that there is a mathematical relationships between the beauty of his surroundings and the activity of the child; he will make discoveries rather more voluntarily in a gracious setting than in an ugly one.” Maria Montessori, as quested in Kahn, 1995, pp. 9. Figure 4.2. Aesthetics.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Montessori materials are made of hardwood, carefully finished, and aesthetic to look at and to handle. These materials are kept on low shelves that children can access without adult assistance. Once a child has completed an activity with a material or piece of equipment, she returns it to its place on the shelf, and then moves on to another activity.

Classroom Montessori believed children learn from each other in mixed-age groups of children who are all within the same developmental stage, and that they all need to learn to care for the classroom. Teachers create an orderly, well-maintained classroom; children return materials and utensils to their rightful places and help maintain the classroom order, aesthetics and cleanliness. All furniture and learning materials are child-sized. The classroom environment is divided into four curricular areas: practical life, sensorial, mathematics, and language. Practical Life In the practical life area, children use child-size brooms, mops, cups and saucers, and other everyday items. Children develop mastery and satisfaction by completing these tasks. While children see these activities all around them, the practical life activities enable them to master skills, develop concentration, and regulate emotions. These activities also provide a necessary link between home and school. Practical life experiences are categorized into four areas: • • • •

Care of person – buttoning, zipping, tying shoes, etc; Care of the environment – cleaning, sweeping, gardening and ironing; Development of social relations – greeting, serving, thanking – graces and courtesies; Movement – balancing, jumping, dancing (Kahn, 1995).

Further, these practical life experiences allow children to engage in a variety of activities without adult intervention, and match up well with this sensitive period’s instinct for refinement, coordination, independence and order (Kahn, 1995). Practical life encourages the Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Montessori

83

preschool child to be able to say, “I can do it by myself.” It is consistent with Erikson’s stages of autonomy versus shame or doubt (age 1-3 years old), and initiative versus guilt (3-5½ years old). It also fits somewhat with Erikson’s next stage, industry versus inferiority (5 ½ 12 years old).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Sensorial: Exploring the World As I have already discussed, Montessori believed very much in learning through all the senses. She felt this both helped the child develop creative and expressive abilities, while also enhancing academic growth. She believed children learn to order, classify and comprehend the world through sight, touch, sound, taste and smell. She felt imagination is built by collecting accurate, detailed and concrete information from the real world, using all five senses. She also believed the more senses the child use to learn any concept, skill or idea, the easier it is for the child to grasp. Thus, when a child uses the famous Montessori sandpaper letters to learn his letters, he will not only remember the sight and sound of the letters, but also the muscles in his hand will remember the tracing motion on the sandpaper, thus enabling him to write the letter when it comes time engage in that activity. This approach also enables children with different learning styles (Gardner, 1983) to learn equally well, by focusing on the sensory input and learning style that they prefer and are good at. Music, art, mathematics and language, according to Montessori, should all be learned through the use of multi-sensory input from the environment. And, finally, Montessori believed the preschool child is particularly susceptible during the period of the absorbent mind (0-6 years old) to learning through all the sensory domains. Thus it is critical to make sure all learning opportunities during this stage have multi-sensory possibilities. Additionally, because each stage builds on the previous stage, these multi-sensory experiences are also critical for children over 6 years old who have not experienced them earlier, or who lack multi-sensory experiences in certain important areas. Mathematics Montessori materials encourage manipulation, counting, comparing, ordering, organizing and patterning. Concrete materials are used to learn discrete math skills – addition, subtraction and division, along with linear, area, and volume measurement, and geometric shapes. Like all Montessori materials, the math materials carefully build on each other. Through the use of concrete materials the child can count ten beads, and can understand that 10 beads is physically one more than 9 beads. Further, as the child sees concrete patterns such as 3 red beads and 2 blue ones totaling 5 beads, the child can easily learn basic math facts. These activities then extend to the use of abacuses, cuisenaire rods, and other materials that show how the base ten number system works. Language In the Montessori model the development of oral language is considered the foundation for reading, writing and communication (Kahn, 1995). The child learns the specific vocabulary for all the elements of the rich, carefully designed environment - shapes, textures, colors, objects, geometric shapes, plants, trees, mathematical operations, artists and composers, and practical life props. Language areas in the classrooms are arranged and rearranged to stimulate all sorts of oral language development.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

84

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Children learn the written alphabet using Montessori’s moveable alphabet, they learn letter-sound combinations using the sandpaper letters, and then they begin to use these phonetic relationships to write words, sentences and stories, within the context of their daily classroom activities. Children learn to write and read together, in combination and with each enhancing the other. Children’s explorations and curiosity in learning new words extend into the disciplines of science and social studies – animals, plants, birds, countries, people, scientific phenomena, names of cloud formations, different kinds of weather and weather-related phenomena, maps, physical characteristics such as water, mountains, oceans, customs, nature, people and so on (Kahn, 1995). In the Montessori approach, reading and writing are the medium though which children then learn many of the other academic disciplines.

Art and Music In the Montessori method, art and music are forms of self-expression that enable children to learn about the world, including the development of their vocabulary: to represent their experiences in the real world. Materials for art and music exploration are carefully included throughout the overall, planned environment, crossing over into all four physical areas of the classroom. Art materials such as paint, crayons, chalk, clay, textiles, and a variety of papers and other surfaces, are always available. In a similar manner, musical instruments, opportunities to dance and move to a rhythm, and possibilities to write songs are always available in each area. Classic works of art are hung at the child’s level, and children have many opportunities to listen to classical music. As has already been discussed, the design and layout of the overall environment is planned with a strong belief in order, cleanliness, color and overall aesthetics. Exploration of art and music is also an integral part of social studies. Period music and dance, the art of an era or time-frame, classical music, and specific art styles, are all used as ways to enhance the learning of history, geography, peoples and cultures. The arts in the Montessori approach are viewed as a natural part of the physical world (Kahn, 1995). Daily Schedule The daily schedule in the Montessori approach differs between programs, depending on the age of the children and the length of the day. However, all Montessori programs include in their daily schedules large blocks of time where children are expected to structure their own learning, select individual activities, and work independently (see the two sections of Cornerstone Montessori Program’s schedule, that are just under two hours in length). Outdoor Environment Montessori viewed the use of the outdoors as an extension of the classroom. The outdoor world is brought into the classroom through the use of plants, flowers and classroom animals. Children also explore plants, flowers and animals outside. Not only does the outdoors provide a wealth of new and different learning materials to explore, investigate and order, but it enables children to develop responsibilities and independence. “Solicitous care of living things affords satisfaction to one of the most lively instincts of the child’s mind” (Montessori, quoted in Kahn, 1995, p. 19)

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Montessori

85

Role of the Teacher The Montessori method is based on the unfolding of each child’s inner motivation. Thus the teacher’s role is to find ways to enhance the child’s self-creation, motivation and exploration. The teacher does this through observing the child and knowing the specific needs of each child at each developmental age. Using this information, the teacher sets up the environment with a focus on order, warmth, care and calmness, and then the child chooses independent activities within the environment, pursuing them at her own pace After the teacher demonstrates and models the materials and activities, she invites the child to use them in the same manner as she did. If the child can do so, the teacher knows she has judged the child’s development correctly; if not, the teacher will introduce another material or activity, or demonstrate the activity at a simpler and more basic level, until a match is found. But the teacher never directly interferes or corrects the child; rather she adjusts her approach. The Montessori teacher always follows the lead of the child.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Stretching the Definition of a Montessori School The term Montessori has such cache and credibility among parents and politicians that many programs that are not certified Montessori programs, by one of the two official Montessori associations, use the word Montessori to attract parents, both in the United States and in and other countries. Other programs, such as some public charter schools, deeply believe in the Montessori philosophy, but cannot afford to add Montessori teacher certification and program accreditation on top of the required public school certifications, regulations and requirements. To be a true Montessori program, the school must have teachers who have completed a specific and approved Montessori training, and must be accredited by one of the Montessori Associations - either the American Montessori Society (AMS) or the Association Montessori Internationale. Additional teacher training and updating of skills and knowledge are also required, along with periodic re-certification of the overall program by one of the associations. Box 4.2. Reflective Thinking Montessori is a very distinct and clearly articulated approach to education, with its own accreditation organizations and requirements for preparing teachers. However, unlike most of the other philosophies discussed in this book (with the exception to some extent of Waldorf, British Infant and Reggio Emilia), the word Montessori carries a very strong, positive association among many educators, parents and politicians. Thus there are many Montessori programs (public and private) that do not belong to one of the two Montessori credentialing associations, and do not have certified Montessori teachers. Is it ethical for schools that follow the overall Montessori philosophy, but are not strictly Montessori programs, to use the Montessori name?

Unlike approaches such as Bank Street, Reggio Emilia, High/Scope, the constructive approach, and other early childhood and elementary education models, a Montessori program is far more than just the use of the curriculum: it requires specific teacher training, a specific curriculum, use of Montessori materials, a radically unique approach to grouping children

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

86

Francis Wardle

(multi-age), and accreditation by an external organization. Not only do these requirements distinguish Montessori education programs from other educational approaches, but they also pretty much guarantee the high cost of these programs.

CORNERSTONE MONTESSORI SCHOOL Cornerstone Montessori School is situated in a predominantly white, suburban community. It is housed in a large, attractive, one story log building, and several smaller, outlying buildings. The large, main building is neatly and geometrically divided into 4 large, square rooms, with a central hallway. Thus each of these symmetrical rooms has two outside walls, each with very large windows. The rooms contain three preschool classrooms (3 to 5 years old) and one kindergarten (5 to 6 years old) classroom. One of the other buildings houses a newly opened toddler room; the other contains the offices. The school grounds include large, old cottonwood trees, bushes, and shrubs that give it a rural and bucolic feel; the playground includes swings, a tricycle path, and large boulders for climbing.. There are 125 students, mostly preschool (3 to 5), but also kindergarten (5-6) and toddler (18 month to 3 years). Figure 4:3 is Cornerstone Montessori School’s Vision Statement.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preschool Room The preschool room is large and well lit, with natural light entering from the large windows on two sides of the room, and neon lights. Two of the walls are wood panel; two are painted white. The square room is divided by a variety of strategically positioned low shelves, allowing easy viewing of all areas except the bathrooms – which nonetheless do not have a door. The areas include math, art, literacy/reading (with a comfy chair and large plant), snack area, water access, individual cubbies, and an area for practical life activities- with water, a porcelain jug and bowl, and cleaning materials. Low, square tables that accommodate four students are situated in each area. Half of the floor space is carpet, the other half is beautiful, natural wood. Part of the carpet area is large enough for the entire group to engage in group activities (see schedule, figure 4.4). Low shelves hold a variety of Montessori activities, materials, and other manipulatives, some carefully arranged on trays, and others in small boxes or tubs. Large equipment is hung on the walls and stored on the top of tables and shelves, so children can see them and have easy access to them. There is an art easel, a variety of math and science equipment, paints, and pens and pencils. The art area is close to a sink, which is attached to the wall, near the bathrooms. There is very little art on the walls and no environmental print, which together give the walls a rather bare feeling to the uninitiated observer. There are a variety of plants. But there is no dramatic play or house keeping area and there are no traditional unit blocks. There is a feel of openness, order, deliberateness and cleanliness, with an array of child-sized tables, chairs, sinks and toilets. There is nothing adult-sized; teachers sit on the children’s chairs or on the floor. A child had to bring in an adult chair for me to sit on while I observed!

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Montessori

87

We, the staff of Cornerstone Montessori School, follow the teachings of Maria Montessori by embracing the uniqueness and potential of each child and member of our community. As the role of adults is always evolving, we promise to create an environment that nurtures the development of compassion, imagination, respect, trust, honesty and kindness. Our commitment is to guide children in a loving, playful, joyful, warm and safe environment, which requires us to be prepared, present, whole and accountable. Our classrooms are to be kept clean, warm, secure from any danger, and welcoming to the eyes and activities of children. The classrooms are designed to meet the children’s developmental needs and purposeful activities: they are ideal environments to encourage self-construction and independence. Be reminded that Dr. Montessori developed Casa dei Bambini – the Children’s House – as a place for children …(with) child-size furniture, fixtures, and activities, so that children would be empowered to participate in all facets of their dally living, and therefore construct the person they are meant to become. (Parents Guide to a Montessori Classroom, n.d.) Figure 4.3. Cornerstone Montessori Vision Statement.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Children’s Activities I observe the children during the morning work period (see the schedule, figure 4.4) – a period of almost two hours in length. The room is busy with children intently engaged in a vast variety of individual activities: painting, doing map puzzles, washing windows, sweeping, using a variety of Montessori materials, engaging in a picture-letter correspondence activity, placing their completed products in individual portfolio folders (as a example of authentic assessment), stringing together colorful beads, punching holes in paper, and lacing cards. Several children are eating a snack of healthy fruits and juice. There are three places for children to sit at the snack table. So long as there is a free seat, children can snack any time they choose during the work period (in the morning and the afternoon). While there is a nice buzz in the air, there is no sense of chaos or disorder. Many children stick to their tasks for a considerable length of time, with a very purposeful attitude. They then carefully pick up the materials and activities and return them to their rightful places, before choosing another activity. It is a little disconcerting to see these little children moving about the room following their own rhythms, so self-assuredly, independently and very purposefully. Most children are engaged individually, with a few twosomes doing an activity, and with several children simply watching what another child is doing. There are also a few groups of more than two students. Three or four students seem to have difficulty settling down, floating from one activity to another, and sometimes getting themselves and the children they interrupt into trouble. It must be noted, however, that this is the second day of the new school year, so students are still learning the routines and reestablishing themselves.

Role of the Teacher The three teachers are scattered evenly throughout the room, and are engaged with the children in a variety of activities. These include redirecting behavior, introducing materials and activities, reminding students to return materials before starting something new, and

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

88

Francis Wardle

helping students focus on their own activity, rather than the activity of another child. Teachers also continually clean areas of the classroom with the assistance of students – for example, sweeping, wiping and washing the windows, with child-sized, practical life equipment. The teachers always use calm, low-key voices, and ask students to do the same. They also physically model to the children how to perform the activity or behavior, then retreat and let the children try on their own. 7:30 – 8:00 Arrival and open-work time 8:00 – 8:45 Playground 9: 00 - 9:20 Group and Brain Gym* 9:20 – 11: 10 Work Period, including snack 11:10 – 11: 30 Group ** 11: 30 – 12: 25 Lunch 12: 15 – 12: 45 Playground 12: 45 - 1: 30 Rest Time 1:30 –3: 30 Work Period, including snack 3: 30 – 3: 45 Line (group)

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

3: 45 – 4: 30 Playground 4: 30 – 6:00 Work Period, snacks, closing classroom *Brain gym is an educational kinesiology curriculum that involves a variety of specific movement activities. This is consistent with Montessori’s belief in the close connection between movement and cognitive development. **Games, songs and other activates occur in group time. Figure 4.4. Preschool Daily Schedule for Cornerstone Montessori School.

On several occasions teachers reprimanded the students for ‘just playing’, and then showed them how to refocus on the activity, or to wrap up the activity and try something new. This occurred twice, with a child wanting to play with the sponge, water, bowl and jug that are in the practical life area, and when a child was supposed to be cleaning up her paint in the sink after her art activity, but discovered that it was more fun to play.

Assessment Cornerstone Montessori uses two forms of assessment: a portfolio of each child’s work, reviewed on a monthly basis, and a developmental checklist (figure 4.5).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Montessori Child’s Name:____________________Birth Date:______________________ PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Large Muscle Exhibits sense of equilibrium and balance Moves with ease Uses playground equipment with confidence Small Muscle Hand dominance Able to coordinate eye/hand movement Maintains strength in pincer grasp SOCAIL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Independence Able to care for self Acts for self-satisfaction Asks for help when necessary Self esteem Displays a positive, healthy attitude Is secure and self-confident Accepts responsibility for self

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Self control Maintains appropriate behavior Uses words as a response to conflicts Able to wait their turn in group settings Social skills Works and plays cooperatively with peers Respects needs of others Openly relates to adults Participates in group Able to share Figure 4.5. Continued on next page. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Self-motivation Shows active interest in classroom activities Chooses challenging activities Enjoys helping others and sharing knowledge Cares for materials and the environment Accepts adult direction Organizational skills Able to organize items within an activity Figure 4.5. Continued on next page. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

89

90

Francis Wardle Uses time constructively Follows a logical sequence in an activity Completes one activity before beginning another

Concentration Shows age-appropriate attention span Able to complete multiple-step activities Listens to and follows directions Able to play/work alone Plays cooperatively with others Participates in large group activities

Speech Uses appropriate speech articulation Organizes thoughts before speaking Initiates conversations with appropriate vocabulary

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Literacy Understands words consist of sounds Interested in learning letters Identifies letters visually, tactically and by sound Blends identified letter sounds to form simple words Writes name Math Associates numerals to quantity for 0-10, 11-100 Understands meaning of less/more Demonstrates knowledge of addition Exhibits interest in concept of time Writes numeral symbols Cornerstone Montessori, n.d. Figure 4.5. Cornerstone Montessori School Developmental Skills Checklist for Preschool Children (3-6 years old)(n.d.).

Further, the school conducts a periodic Talk About (conference) with parents, where goals in each domain are set and reviewed. The Kindergarten students also complete the local, public school district-approved reading assessment, enabling the district to place incoming students into ability groups when they transition from Cornerstone Montessori School into first grade. Most of the children at Cornerstone Montessori School enter the local public school after they finish at the Cornerstone School. According to the school’s director, parents are not very satisfied with these assessments, and want the school to implement exhaustive assessments to document their children’s academic progress and prowess, and to assure them how well they are doing compared to other children their own age. (Maybe this is one example of the elite status that Montessori programs tend to have, discussed earlier in this chapter). But the director believes this would be inappropriate, because most of the children

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Montessori

91

come from highly educated and competitive homes, which already place too much pressure on them, and because a more heigh-stakes approach to assessment is not consistent with Montessori’s belief that children unfold at their own, natural pace, and not according to norms, external expectations and peer comparisons (Hebb, personal communication, 2005).

Montessori Affiliation Cornerstone Montessori school is a member of the American Montessori Society, which conducts an onsite evaluation of the program every year. All the school staff are trained through an accredited Montessori training program (there are two in the area); the school has the required Montessori materials, and their parent handbook and teacher handbook are full of writings and statements based on Montessori’s philosophy, not to mention many direct quotes from Dr Maria Montessori.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONCLUSION The Montessori approach to education comes out of a rich European tradition that produced Rousseau’s radical ideas (for his time), Froebel’s Kindergarten, the British Infant/Primary programs, Waldorf schools, and the contemporary Reggio Emilia approach. As such it is an outgrowth of the same cultural, philosophical and historical milieu that produced these ideas and programs. Within this general cultural prism, however, each of these approaches developed out of a unique context. Maria Montessori’s philosophy was created with a focus on meeting the needs of poor children whom the educational establishment of her time had rejected. Further, she was particularly fascinated with the impact of the environment on learning, probably because of the poor environments she observed in the slums of Rome. Thus much of her approach stresses a carefully prepared, orderly and aesthetic environment. The focus on the environment also produced the well-known, Montessori child-size furniture, and the development of carefully designed learning materials. Another unique contribution of her theory is the belief that not only do young children absorb a great deal of information as they explore and make sense of their world, but that information from the world is best absorbed through the use of as many of the five senses as possible. To this end she emphasized including art and music in everyday educational activities. She also believed that children are self-motivated to learn and thus external rewards and motivation are not needed, and can even be very counter-productive. Montessori advocated mixed-age groups within her classrooms, the inclusion of daily, practical living activities within the overall curriculum, and the role of the teacher as someone to create, rearrange and adjust the environment, while following the student’s lead rather than directly instructing and teaching. To a large extent the Montessori educational method has become an expensive, private educational alternative, worldwide. On the other hand, unlike Froebel’s Kindergarten, which has lost most of its unique philosophy and distinct characteristics as a result of being adopted by public school systems worldwide, Montessori programs have retained much of their original intent, mandates, and best practices. The irony, of course, is that while the Montessori method is an approach that was developed to meet the needs of poor children with little or no education at home (if they even had a home), and whom many believed could not

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

92

Francis Wardle

benefit from a formal education, it now serves to a large extent middle-class and wealthy children of educated parents. To be sure, public Montessori charter schools are increasing nationwide, but their effectiveness is yet to be fully determined.

QUESTION/PROJECTS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1. Visit a Montessori school. Is the school a public or private school? If it is private, what are the demographics, such as race/ethnicity and income, of the families who use the school? Is there any attempt – though scholarships, for example – to diversify the economic and racial background of the student body? If it is a public school, do middle-class white families primarily attend the school, or is it racially and economically diverse? Given the answers to your questions, is the school primary for white, middle-class families, or more diverse family demographics? Why/why not? 2. The Montessori approach is an international education model. Do you believe it will continue to expand on the international stage? Why/why not? 3. Montessori programs stress work and jobs, which often lead to a lack of opportunities for play in the classroom. Do young children need to play? Should Montessori programs include more play, particularly dramatic and imaginative play? 4. Montessori, Waldorf and British Infant/Primarily programs require teachers to receive training and certification in their own, affiliated institutions. Public Kindergarten teachers are required to meet the state’s certification requirements. What are the different results of these two approaches? Does it mean the former programs stay more true to their original philosophy than pubic Kindergarten programs do to Froebel’s original philosophy?

RESOURCES American Montessori Society (AMS), 281 Park Ave., South, 6th floor. New York, NY. 10011. www.amshq.org Association Montessori Intenationale, 410 Alexander St., Rochester, NY. North American Montessori Teachers Association, 11424 Bellflower Rd., NE. Cleveland, OH. 44106. www.montessori.nmata.org

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Montessori Montessori Accreditation Council for Teachers Education (MACTE), 17583 Oak Street, Fountain Valley, CA. 92708. 888-446-2283.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Toronto Montessori School. www.toronto-montessori.on.ca

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

93

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 5

WALDORF, BRITISH INFANT/PRIMARY SCHOOLS, AND FREE SCHOOLS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION Waldorf schools and British Infant/Primary schools are two distinctive educational philosophies that provide a stark contrast to many early childhood and K-12 schools in most communities, especially in the United States. While overshadowed recently by the Reggio Emilia approach, both of these philosophies also contain many elements very similar to Reggio Emilia. Like Montessori programs, Waldorf schools and British Infant/Primary schools are international models that are more popular outside the United States, probably because they reject what Piaget called ‘the American question’: our fixation on finding and implementing ways to accelerate children’s early academic acquisition; and the popularity today of more specific pre-academic and academic early childhood and school approaches. Both these models have historically been viewed as school age approaches in this country, but now many Waldorf and British Infant/Primary Schools also serve younger children. Since both approaches are radical alternatives to our current learning-standards approach to education, some parents and teachers view them as attractive choices. Both Waldorf and the British Infant/Primary programs view the early childhood years as a significant stage within the child’s overall development and education, a stage that needs to be respected and nurtured and not simply viewed as the preparation for the next stage or for setting the stage for successful K-12 learning. With these models, the elementary years are also viewed as a self-contained stage with its own characteristics and requirements for teaching and learning. Free Schools (also called alterative and open schools) of the 1960s-70s were even more radical than Waldorf and British Infant/Primary schools. While ostensibly based on Dewey, Piaget and British Infant/Primary philosophies, these schools were as much a reaction against the structure and formalism of traditional American public education, and a direct outgrowth of the counterculture movement of the time (Wardle, 1975). American educational thought and practice has always tended to follow a pendulum swing from conservative (a focus on content, skills and teacher-directed learning) to progressive (a focus on student choice and whole-child learning), and back again. The American free schools of the 1960s-70s are an example of the progressive swing. Free schools tended to focus on K-12 programs, but did

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

96

Francis Wardle

also serve younger children, especially since these schools were ungraded, with no Kindergarten entry requirements. Many free schools also served entire families, from the oldest to youngest child.

FOCUS QUESTIONS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1. Both Waldorf schools and British Infant/Primary schools developed during unique periods in world history. How did these historic events impact the philosophies of both approaches? Given that the world has radically changed since then, are these educational philosophies still relevant and practical in today’s historical and political contexts, particularly in the US? 2. Most Waldorf and British Infant /Primary schools in the United States are private. In your opinion, would these programs be effective as public early childhood and school programs? Would they work for low-income children? 3. The standards-based approach used by public school early childhoods programs and schools, and to some extent the outcome-based approach used by Head Start, require children to master specific skills and tasks at each specific chronological age. The three approaches covered in this chapter take a very different approach. Which is the most effective approach? Why, why not? 4. In the three models presented in this chapter, the early childhood and elementary ages are two distinctive periods of growth and development. Further, these programs also treat each stage as a unified, integrated whole, not as a time to simply prepare the child for the next level of their education. What do you think of this approach?

WALDORF SCHOOLS Waldorf schools are based on the educational philosophy of the Austrian, Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925). His philosophy is called anthroposophy. Anthroposophy means, wisdom of the human being, or the wisdom that knows what it means to be human. In other words, it’s a path to self-knowledge. According to Steiner “anthroposophy is a way of knowing – a cognitive path that leads the spiritual in the human being to the spiritual in the universe (quoted in Bamford and Utne, p 46, n.d.). Steiner was a philosopher before becoming an educator (Montessori, Piaget, Vygotsky and Erikson were not trained educators, either). Steiner was asked to start a school for the children of workers at the Waldorf Astoria Cigarette Factory in Stuttgart, Germany. He opened his first school, called the Waldorf School, in 1919. The Rudolf Steiner School of New York City was started in 1928. Waldorf schools in Germany and Europe were closed during the Second World War because Hitler mandated that every teacher in Germany had to be a member of the Nazi party (Arnold, 1986). After the war the schools expanded rapidly around the world. Now there are Waldorf schools in North America, Central and South America, the Middle East, Eastern Europe, Japan, South Korea, and Thailand.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Waldorf, British Infant/Primary Schools, and Free Schools

97

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Educational Philosophy Like Froebel, Steiner was interested in developing the whole child; unlike many contemporary American approaches, he believed the early childhood years are an entity in and of themselves, and not simply a preparation for later, formal school education. He believed the child’s being is made up of the body, soul and spirit, and that all these areas develop through three distinct, self-contained developmental stages: early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Because of his belief about the child’s spirit and soul, he was careful to protect children against what he viewed as the adult evils of the world, including too early adult academic expectations and unhealthy early adult influences. In fact, Steiner believed that education should develop children to be strong and free enough to withstand the evils of society and the world (Steiner, 1926). He did not see the primary goal of education as the transmission of culturally developed knowledge and skills; rather, the goal was to educate the child so that thinking, feeling and doing would all combine to develop a healthy person (Darcy, 2004). Steiner believed that people educated with his approach would create and implement positive solutions to human dilemmas, rather than perpetuate the negative doctrines, values and beliefs he observed all around him while writing his philosophy in Germany during the two Great Wars (Darcy, 2004). According to Steiner, “we shouldn’t ask: what does a person need to know or be able to do to fit into the existing social order? Instead we should ask: what lives in each human being and what can be developed in him or her? Only then will it be possible to direct the new qualities of each emerging generation into society….The new generation should not just be made to be what the present society wants it to become” (Steiner, 1915-21, quoted in Darcy, 2004, p 1 ). Waldorf education nurtures and responds to each individual child’s natural educational and emotional stages of development, and addresses the whole child – head, heart and hands (Barnes, 1991). Waldorf education carefully balances academic, creative and practical activities to develop a child’s self-confidence and self-reliance, while fostering personal integrity and a sense of responsibility and community (The Denver Waldorf School, n.d.).

Three Developmental Stages The Waldorf philosophy is probably the most maturational of all educational philosophies, encouraging children to naturally progress though three overall developmental stages, and avoiding direct focus on academics until the middle childhood stage. Figure 5: 1 describes the three developmental stages of the Waldorf Educational Philosophy. Body: Early Childhood (Infant to the end of Kindergarten) A time to develop the physical body and the senses. At this stage children should learn through imitation of adult behaviors, creative play and role-playing. Soul: Middle Childhood (First grade to puberty) Children at this age learn primary through feelings and imagination. Because learning is emotional, instruction should be whole learning – projects, legends, fieldtrips, the arts, and so on. Figure 5.1. Continued on next page.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

98

Francis Wardle

Spirit: Adolescence (Puberty on) Specialized study in a variety of subjects is pursued in blocks of time, with content specialists, as opposed to general teachers, providing instruction. Focus is on observation, reflection, and the ability to think for oneself. (Barnes, 2001) Figure 5.1. The Three Stages of the Waldorf Educational Philosophy.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Curriculum Elements Several curricular elements are used to implement the Waldorf philosophy. The first is implied by the discussion of the three distinct, self-contained stages: a spiral curriculum. During each stage, and even within a stage, the same basic knowledge is introduced and experienced at different levels of complexity and depth, each time becoming more complex and integrated: a spiral curricular approach (Bruner, 1966). The second curricular element is the large amount of time dedicated to a single subject or project. Each school day begins with a single lesson on one topic that lasts up to three hours and continues for several weeks – the main lesson. The emphasis is on exploring the topic using a variety of approaches – art, movement, language and more. During the rest of the morning shorter lessons are taught, such as foreign languages, which start in first grade. Afternoons are devoted to more active pursuits such as art, crafts, gym, dance, and gardening – a typical European approach, still practiced to this day. The goal is for each subject that is taught to contribute to the development of a well-balanced individual (Barnes, 2001). All learning at each age includes activities that involve all faculties. Waldorf education not only believes that the arts and practical skills are essential components of education, but that children who do not receive them will be emotionally and socially short-changed (Barnes, 2001). Teachers stay with the same students through the middle childhood grades (elementary school), particularly during the initial three-hour period, which allows teachers and students to develop strong relationships that help develop the nonintellectual domains of the child. In the Waldorf approach, the child-teacher relationship is the central vehicle through which teaching, learning and development occur (Darcy, 2004). Thus the deep, rich relationship that develops over the years is critically important. Further, this long engagement allows the teacher to know and document the growth and development of the child, and to be able to assist and support the child’s full development, over time. Making and doing, creating beauty and working with one’s hands, are an integral part of the curriculum: knitting, crocheting, painting, woodworking, drawing, etc. Physical movement abilities are also very important. Waldorf programs use Eurythm, which is a way of translating ideas and feelings into the art of bodily movement – creative dance, allows children to develop a sense of harmony and balance (Bramford and Utne, n.d.) Eurythmy is a movement activity that attempts to make visible the tone and feeling of music and speech. It helps develop concentration, self-discipline, and a sense of beauty. It is learned in a group, and thus embodies sensitivity to others while developing individual artistic mastery. This activity is used throughout the curriculum, at each of the three stages, thus exploring rhythm, meter, story, and geometric forms (Questions about Waldorf, 2005).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Waldorf, British Infant/Primary Schools, and Free Schools

99

The Waldorf curriculum follows the development of the child – which, according to Steiner, follows the human evolutionary process, what is referred to as ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny – individual developmental following the development of human evolution (Toole, 2003). Thus children learn letters by using body gestures and movements, and by seeing the letter shapes in nature and the world around them – creating their own materials in imitation of the natural world (Barnford and Utne, n.d.) By the same token, children are introduced to math and numbers in a rhythmic way that engages them physically – involving pacing, marching, clapping and dancing – much like the use of ancient chants (Toole, 2003). This approach is very familiar to music teachers who use Carl Orff’s method of teaching choral and instrumental music to young children (Wardle, 2003).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Early Childhood Curriculum In Waldorf education, early childhood covers the time period from infancy to the end of Kindergarten, with a concentration on preschool and Kindergarten (see figure 5: 1). This is a time to expose children to learning about the environment through their senses, and to develop the use of imitation. For teachers of children this age, creating an environment that encourages exploration, imitation, and creative play is the goal, so that children can simulate their social and physical world: role play a parent’s cooking or working, painting and drawing to describe the real world, and imitating language through nursery rhymes, songs, puppet shows, and creative dance. Engaging in more specifically academic activities at this age is considered destructive (Barnes, 2001). According to R. Trostli (1998), the main task of the early years (0-7) is for parents and teachers to address the child’s spiritual and temporal existence together. The role of early childhood education is to bring the child’s soul and spirit (the inner child) into harmony with physical reality – to make them fit each other. Thus the use of the term body for this stage. According to Steiner, everything that affects the child from without is recreated and reflected by the child from within (Barnes, 2001). The goal is to create this harmony.

Rhythms of the Day One way harmony is accomplished is through using the rhythms of the natural and manmade world extensively within early childhood programs. Each day has a rhythm, maybe beginning with play and circle time, consisting of games, songs and nursery rhythms, followed by play outdoors and ending with a story or folk tale. The week also has a rhythm to it: one day for baking, another for painting, and so on. Seasonal activities – spring planting, maple sapping, harvesting fruit in the fall and preparing plants for the cold winter ahead, expose children to the rhythms of the seasons and the natural cycle of the year. These activities connect the child’s soul and spirit to the external world (Trostli, 1998). The Environment Young children absorb the world around them through all their senses, and are very susceptible to all the external environmental influences. A critical role of adults in the child’s early life is to arrange and create an environment where order, beauty and harmony dominate.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

100

Francis Wardle

The classroom has walls painted in luminous colors, tables and other furniture are carefully made of solid wood, and most of the toys and educational materials are handmade from natural materials. The environment is simple, natural, and real, helping to develop in children a healthy relationship with natural materials and the concrete world around them. Toys and materials stimulate the child’s imagination and fantasy. Materials and found objects are also used in a variety of creative ways. But toys and materials should be basic and unstructured enough to encourage creativity and fantasy (Trostli, 1998).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Teachers’ Behaviors What is most important at this age is how the teacher behaves, what they say, and how they feel: everything that is done in the child’s presence is transformed into the child’s spirit, soul and body, including attitudes and feelings. Children imitate the adults around them good, bad, hopeful and fearful (Trostli, 1998). Young children engage in a variety of imitations, from repeating what an adult has just done, such as spinning wool or creating a clay pot, to dramatic play where a group of children will recreate a recent field trip. It is critical that teachers are very careful of what they do and say, from putting toys away to responding to children’s questions. According to Steiner, human development starts with spiritual growth at each of the three stages - early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence - and this spiritual development is eventually revealed physically, often many years later (Steiner 1921/ 2001). Therefore, what we do with children during these first seven years of life will have an important impact on the child’s future spiritual health, life and success. Teachers’ Modeling During the first seven years the child is learning to walk, speak, and think, and, according to Steiner, learns to do these things though imitation of adults. Since the child is predisposed to learn to walk, our role is to provide guidance and assistance, but not to force or aid the child in walking. Box 5.1. Reflective Thinking During the early childhood years, the Waldorf curriculum includes considerable focus on art, music and movement. Given the critical importance of literacy, technology and academics in today’s world, can an early childhood educational approach afford to focus so much time and energy on these nonacademic areas? Is this realistic in today’s world? What is the value of teaching these activities in the early years? Do you agree with this emphasis?

To support language development, adults need to model excellent speech, and also tell the truth and be genuine in their use of language. Thought, according to Steiner, is developed from the use of language. The development of walking, speaking and thinking set the foundation for the child’s education and life.

Play The best activities for young children involve play. In play, children should imitate the work of adults. In a Waldorf program children engage in playing the typical activities that

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Waldorf, British Infant/Primary Schools, and Free Schools

101

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

might go on at home, such as cooking, baking, cleaning, washing, sewing, gardening, and building. These activities also involve two other important Waldorf ideas: they are done rhythmically, thus creating a sense of security, and they are based on real events and activities, helping children become grounded in life’s realities. For Steiner, the imaginative and creative play of the early years is a critical activity that develops the child’s inner dreamlike state, before the child must face the realities of the world in first grade (Darcy, 2004; Trostli, 1998). Waldorf early childhood programs prepare children for later academic tasks and successes by engaging the will through meaningful life activities, by cultivating the feelings through the arts, and by stimulating creativity and fantasy through imaginative play (Trostli, 1998). Teachers allow the child’s intellectual facilities to unfold naturally, much like Froebel viewed development as the natural process of opening like a flower.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

102

Francis Wardle

Reverence for Nature A central part of the early childhood curriculum is to foster the young child’s natural awareness and reverence of nature and the cosmic world. Activities that encourage this development are seasonal experiences, songs and stories about nature, and a variety of activities using natural materials. Reverence for nature develops in children a sense of wonder and a sense of belonging and connectedness to the real world.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Middle School Years In the Waldorf approach, the middle school years are from first grade to puberty. While this stage builds on the early years, it is also viewed as a distinct stage (see figure 5.1): the Soul. At this stage, the child’s main vehicles for learning are feelings and imagination, which allow them to learn a vast amount of intellectual information in a meaningful way. Steiner held that at this age children do not learn rationally and abstractly, but rather through emotions and feelings. However, the way children learn at this age affects their ability to develop rational and analytical thought used to learn later in life. Thus, learning in middle childhood should focus on whole child, integrated learning – projects, legends, folktales, mythologies, art, dance, and drama – rather than intellectual information taught in isolation from children’s feelings and personal meaning. First grade begins when a child begins to lose his baby teeth. The way the child learns at this time also radically changes, and therefore the approach to teaching must also change (Toole, 2003). At this age the child has an enormous capacity for memory, and can develop a rich, inner imagination. According to Toole, “The entire Waldorf first grade curriculum is presented in a way that appeals to the child’s sense of wonder and his developing capacity to create inner imagination” (2003, page 6). Children at this age learn through the use of their imagination. Therefore a major role of teachers at this age is to excite the students’ imagination and natural enthusiasm for learning in every subject, including math, history, physics and languages (Barnes, 2001). Materials, artifacts and activities that were common before the historical age of reason are used to teach at this age – folktales, legends, mythologies, oral histories, parables, pictures and artwork (Barnes, 2001). Through the enthusiasm of the imagination, nature, science, mathematics, geometry, and practical works and crafts are, “the food and drink to the soul of the child” (Barnes, 2001, p. 4). Math ideas can be introduced through drama, art and music; language through songs, stories and role-plays. The elementary years are the time for educating the feeling intelligences, somewhat like Dewey’s learning to love learning, and developing dispositions for learning (1938). Only after the “physiological changes at puberty, which mark the virtual completion of the second great developmental phase, that learning undergoes a metamorphosis to emerge as the rational, abstract power of the intellect (Barnes, p. 4).

Curriculum Learning activities at this age are used to heighten curiosity, and engage and strengthen the visual memory. These activities expands a child’ perception and cognitive abilities for moving on into the third stage of education (The Denver Waldorf School, n.d.)

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Waldorf, British Infant/Primary Schools, and Free Schools

103

A single subject of project is the main lesson for the first two – three hours of the day for several weeks. This allows students to study each subject and content area in depth. The classroom teacher guides the students through these projects, and follows the cohort from first through eighth grade. Other teachers work cooperatively and in teamwork to support the main teachers and complement the learning. Teacher challenge and nurture each student, encouraging them to achieve their full potential (The Denver Waldorf School, n.d.) Movement, music and a foreign language begin in first grade, because the child’s use of imitation allows them to watch movement and hear language and music, imitate it and then finally internalize it. Further, the use of their emotions helps children develop a love for music, dance and foreign languages. Students first learn to play the recorder or another simple instrument. Once the recorder is mastered, they then choose the instrument they wish to master. (In many music programs, including the Orff method, children first learn to play the recorder)(Wardle, 2003). At this age children also learn to knit, along with exploring fairy tales and fables of their culture. At third grade students are introduced to farming, gardening, house building and grammar. At fifth grade children learn mythology, zoology, and geometric drawing, along with more complex math, language and arts (Bramford and Utne, nd). Figure 5.2 shows a possible Waldorf curriculum for the early elementary grades.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

The wonders of nature are introduced through stories and imagination; Draw with crayons and paint and water color; Learn to knit and make a hat or scarf; Sing and learn to play the recorder; Learn a second language through an oral instructional approach; Do eurythmics; Learn a variety of circle and singing games; Engage in a pictorial introduction to learning the alphabet, writing, reading, poetry and drama; Learn folktales and fairytales, legends, stories, nature stories; Engage in house building, gardening; History, math, language arts, and science, taught in three-to-five week main lessons (three hours each); Handiwork: woodworking, knitting, sewing; Music: singing, recorder, brass, strings, other instruments; Movement: dance, games, gymnastics; Art.

Figure 5.2. Curricular Examples for Elementary Grades.

Assessment In the Waldorf educational approach each child is encouraged to ‘do their best’, and is supported in exploring, expanding and fully developing areas of personal interests and strengths. Teachers assess student’s growth and development though observation, products, group participation and involvement, parent conferences, and documentation of the child’s development and progress over the entire time in school. Since teachers stay with the students from grade to grade, they are very cognizant of each child’s progress, strengths, and areas of needed improvement. Positive school-home communications enable the school and family to

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

104

Francis Wardle

work together to support the development and progress of the child. Grades are not given, and tests are not used (Darcy, 2004).

Current Status of Waldorf Schools

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The first U.S. public school using the Waldorf method was established in Milwaukee in 1991 (Darcy, 2004). Worldwide there are now 740 Waldorf schools, 1087 Waldorf Kindergartens (in many countries Kindergarten is any program before first grade – see chapter 9, Global Approaches), and 300 special needs centers in 44 countries. In the United States Waldorf schools are a rapidly growing option for parents who want their children to attend an alternative to the ever-more accelerated and standards-based programs of most American public and private schools. Waldorf schools are also attractive to parents who believe their children should learn a second language, beginning in first grade, and should have a rich education in the arts – music, dance and the visual arts. There are more than 200 Waldorf schools in the United States of America (Denver Waldorf Schools, n.d.) With the advent of public charter schools in the Untied States, the Waldorf philosophy is moving into the public school area, serving a more diverse student population. This increase of programs has lead to a dearth of Waldorf teachers, who must receive specialized teacher training from one of several Waldorf teacher-training programs worldwide (there are five in the U.S.) (Darcy, 2004). The Waldorf philosophy is also moving more into the early childhood area. According to Mary Goral, director of the early childhood education program at St Mary’s College in Milwaukee, “I truly believe that what is needed in public schools is something much more like Waldorf, something that engages the whole child – body, soul and spirit” (p. 10, in Bamford and Utne, n.d.).

BRITISH INFANT/PRIMARY SCHOOLS In 1967 the British government produced a document called the Plowden Report (Her Majesty’s Stationary Office). The report documented a new movement in about one third of British primary schools – which the British call Infant Schools (age 5 to 7-8 years of age). In England elementary schools are divided into infant and junior school. School begins at age 5; infant school is from 5 to 7/8, and junior school from 7/8 to 11 years of age, which is when students go on to secondary school (Featherstone, 1967). The discussion in this section of the chapter applies to both infant and junior schools (5-11 years of age). Also in 1967 Joseph Featherstone reported about these activities of the British ‘revolution’ to American readers in a series of articles in The New Republic, which greatly impacted American education, resulting in the Free/Open school movement (see the next section of this chapter).

Philosophy These shifts in the traditional approach to primary school instruction in Britain were based largely on Piaget’s theory (Perrone, 1972), although John Dewey is also very evident.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Waldorf, British Infant/Primary Schools, and Free Schools

105

The innovative primary schools in Britain were characterized by several factors that challenged the traditional educational approaches that had been common in British elementary schools. Some of these charcteristics are discussed below.

The Integrated Day Children spend most of the day pursuing activities of interest to them, based on their individual choices. In so doing, they learn educational concepts and objectives in an integrated fashion, rather than in sequential, time and subject specific classes. The day is broken into large blocks of time where children use literacy, design, art, reading, math and science to explore projects of interest to them. Mixed-age Groups Classes are composed of children, 5 to 7 or 8 years of age, and children 7/8-11 years old in the junior school. Further, teachers follow students through their entire primary school experience. Thus, each classroom represents a cross-section of the entire school; further, teachers have time to fully understand and appreciate the strengths, weaknesses, and learning trajectory of each student (Evans, 1975). And teachers have plenty of time to get to know each student’s parents and extended family, and to work with each family over a long period of time.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Emphasis on Thought Processes As opposed to the traditional emphasis on educational objectives, skills, and outcomes, the focus in this approach is on thinking processes and problem solving, including self regulation, planning, working together with other children, and the development of individual responsibility in learning (Featherstone, 1967). Deconstruction of the Work-Play Dichotomy In this philosophy it is believed that children learn a great deal through play; further, that children learn concepts and skills through play that they cannot learn through direct teacher instruction. Finally, it is believed that the traditional work versus play dichotomy, at least at the primary school level, is a false argument that restricts optimum learning (Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1967). Intrinsic Motivation The British approach is based on the belief that children are pre-preprogrammed to want to learn, and that feelings of control, achievement, mastery and competence are the best motivators for learning. Thus external rewards are not used. The Teacher as a Guide, Facilitator, and Supporter In this approach the teacher in more of a guide, facilitator, and supporter. Also, teachers work in teams, dividing up different classroom responsibilities and capitalizing on each individual teacher’s strengths, interests and dispositions. In this approach it is also believed that teachers who are given flexibility and responsibility by administrators rather than being closely directed, supervised, and expected to follow a preset educational plan or currciulum, are much more productive, creative, innovative, motivated and enthusiastic (Evans, 1975).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

106

Francis Wardle

This approach is similar to the role of the teacher in the Project Approach, discussed in chapter 16.

Preparation for the Future Finally, the British approach does not focus on creating readiness skills for the scope and sequence of the next grade a student will enter, but rather focuses on the idea that, “the best assurance a child has for the future is a meaningful, absorbing, and productive present” (Evans, 1975, p. 299). Box 5.2. Reflective Thinking All the curricular models discussed in this chapter stress a whole child, developmental approach. As such they contrast with the current trend in US public schools – and public and private schools in most other countries - of standards, assessments, and a focus only on academics. However, another trend in American public schools today is a move toward charter schools. Some of these charter schools are selecting the very approaches discussed in this chapter, as well as others (i.e. Montessori and Core Knowledge Curriculum). Is there a fundamental contradiction between the overall public school preK-12 approach, and these charter school approaches? Or do these radically different approaches allow true choices for American families? Is choice a good idea in public education?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Today’s British Infant/Primary Schools Today these schools are called infant and primary schools to covey the origins of the original programs, but also to include the more common terminology used worldwide to encompass this age group (early childhood and elementary school). British Infant and Primary schools throughout the world have continued the tradition started in 1967. Some ideals in contemporary versions of these schools are, the grouping of children into mixed-age clusters, with teaching teams following the same group for several years; extensive use of play, learning centers, integrated learning, the project approach, and field trips into the community, and an emphasis on learning how to learn, the process of learning, and building on each child’s previous knowledge and current childhood experiences. While most of these schools, worldwide, are private schools, the model has had an impact on public schools, especially in Australia and New Zealand. Further, in the United States there are partnerships between private British Infant/Primary schools and public schools.

Whole-child Approach In this approach the whole child is considered in the educational philosophy: social, emotional, creative, intellectual, and physical. Further, traditional learning domains are used in an integrated fashion when teaching new skills and concepts. The philosophy follows the child’s interests and motivation in learning a variety of age-appropriate skills and concepts, using a variety of teaching methods, and considering student’s various cognitive, sensory, and kinesthetic learning styles.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Waldorf, British Infant/Primary Schools, and Free Schools

107

Emphasis on Creativity and Learning-by-Doing Various forms of creativity are utilized to enable children to express what they have learned and to support each child’s development of a strong, independent, unique personality. It is believed that children learn best by immersing their whole being into the learning process: painting, writing, dancing, playing, constructing, and manipulating objects. Importance of the Environment Since the British Infant/Primary School approach focuses on individual, peer and small group exploration and mastery, designing a classroom to facilitate and encourage this process is critical. Classrooms are designed with a variety of learning centers, a library and reading area, a cooking area, and opportunities for children to display their work. There are few chairs and no desks. Some classrooms have a piano in a corner. Noise levels are often high, and social interaction intense and emotional.

STANLEY BRITISH PRIMARY SCHOOL The Stanley British Primary School in Denver is a well-established early childhood and elementary school based on the philosophy of the British Infant/Primary School. The broad goals for the Stanley British Primary School, include, • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • •

To create an integrated curriculum in a challenging, experiential learning environment; To help children develop to their fullest potential, emotionally, socially, intellectually, creatively and physically; To help children learn how to learn and establish a firm foundation for lifelong education; To help children be responsive and contributing members of the world; To value diversity of all kinds: racial, ethnic and socioeconomic, as well as children with special needs and challenges; To actively involve parents in their children’s education (Myer, 1992).

Figure 5.3 provides a quick comparison between the Stanley British Primary School program and a typical, traditional United States public school approach. Traditional Program

Stanley British Primary Program

Children are grouped according to age within a twelve-month range, in one classroom.

Children are grouped in multi-age and multigrade settings.

The curriculum is presented part to whole, with an emphasis on discrete academic skills.

The curriculum is presented whole to part, with an emphasis on integrated learning.

Figure 5.3. Continued on next page.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

108

Francis Wardle Planning of the curriculum and activities is based on grade-level and local state standards. Adherence to a fixed, predetermined curriculum is highly valued.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Teachers begin with what the child doesn’t know.

Planning of the curriculum is based on teacher enthusiasm and children’s needs, interests, and past experiences.

Teachers use children’s knowledge as a springboard for further understanding, and to uncover new subject matter.

Instruction is mostly to the whole class, with small groups for reading, writing and math.

Direct teaching instruction is focused primarily on small groups.

Children’s learning is dependent on auditory attention and a focus on rote memory.

Children are encouraged to collaborate with each other and to learn through each other’s firsthand experiences.

Learning is passive most of the time.

Children’s learning is a result of active participation, with guidance, facilitation and support from teachers.

The day is scheduled in strict blocks of time.

The school day allows for long blocks of uninterrupted learning.

Assessment of children’s learning is viewed as separate from teaching, and occurs exclusively through the use of tests.

Assessment of student learning occurs through teacher’s observation of children’s work, portfolios and exhibits. (Wardle, 2003, based on Myer, 1999)

Figure 5.3. Some Differences Between a Traditional Elementary School Program and the Stanley British Primary School.

Assessment According to the Stanley British Primary School, “We as a school believe in addressing the whole child and in giving personally relevant and meaning tasks. We are an ungraded school with high standards and expectations. Our assessment policy and tools reflect this philosophy” (2000, p. 17). Assessment methods used by Stanley British Primary School, include: • • • •

Careful observation and documentation on a daily basis Weekly reading and writing conferences Documentation of books students read Reports on each curriculum area by using specific curriculum charts and checklists, twice a year. These charts outline progress for each grade in each area. According to the school the charts were designed by the school’s faculty, “to give parents a detailed outline of the curriculum as it relates to average skill expectations at each

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Waldorf, British Infant/Primary Schools, and Free Schools

• •

• •

109

grade level. It is important, however, to remember that each child is an individual and develops at his/own unique rate” (Stanley British Primary School, 2000, p. C-1). Yearly narrative reports Portfolios, which include student goals/evaluation, projects from integrated units, and samples of student’s writing, math, science, socials studies, foreign language and the arts. Parent/teacher conferences as needed Special conferences with learning specialists, as/if needed for specific children

(Stanley British Primary School, 2000)

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

FREE/OPEN/ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS The term open schools, means many different things to different people (Evans, 1975). To some, it refers to an open classroom, or school without walls; for others, it implies open communications, and, finally, it can mean having an open mind about education. However, according to Evans, a broad definition of open education is, “a form of education organized to facilitate transactions characterized by freedom of choice and highly individualized activity” (p 292). In open schools the content and structure of the curriculum develop from teachers and students working together as joint decision makers. Teachers stimulate and facilitate, but don’t coerce; children are viewed as individuals, and the process is considered to be educationally more important than the products, outcomes or curriculum objectives. While open education can legitimately be viewed as a ‘second coming’ of American progressive education of the late 19th and early 20th century (see J. Dewey and the Bank Street approach, chapter 1), its roots include British Primary Schools – known in Britain as the British Infant School Movement (Evans, 1975), A.S. Neill’s seminal book, Summerhill (1960), a variety of other writings critical of the traditional educational approach of the time, and the American counterculture.

Free/Open School Philosophy The writings of A. S. Neill – including Summerhill – about the free school he started and administered in England since 1921 – were influential in starting the free school movement in the United States. Paul Goodman, John Holt (who later became an advocate of homeschooling), George Dennison, George Leonard, and Ivan Illich criticized exiting public school practices, and suggested alternative approaches to education. Other influential factors in the growth of the movement were young, idealist teachers, dissatisfied parents, and many unhappy children (Wardle, 1985). Further, the emergence of free schools in the United States was a direct result of the deconstruction of all traditional institutions in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s – family, community, religion, nation and school. The counterculture movement of the sixties and seventies impacted everything, including our schools. And, of course, as already mentioned, the free/open schools of this time were a swing away from the intense, teacher-

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

110

Francis Wardle

directed science and math approach instituted in American ipublic schools after the launching of the Russian Sputnik in 1957. Box 5.3. Reflective Thinking

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

One of the basic philosophical precepts of free/open schools is student choice. This view is based on the belief that not only do children need to learn how to make wise and responsible choices, but that by choosing certain activities, learning is more personally meaningful and therefore more educational. We usually think about this issue of making responsible choices in adolescence, but obviously students need to learn this skill sooner. When should student choice be an important part of an educational curriculum? Should it start at infancy? What kind of choices should children have in early childhood and elementary school programs? What kinds of decisions should be left up to the teachers and administration? And what about collaborative decision-making, such as the group decision-making used in PACERS School(see below)?

The basic concept of the free/open school philosophy is placing the child at the center of the entire educational process, and trusting the child to direct and control her own learning. An example of this philosophy can be seen from PACERS School (People Actively Committed to Educational Reform in Schools). Every morning the entire school (children aged 4 to 13 years old) met to announce school activities that teachers and students would present during the day; at any time during the day, a student could call a meeting to address a problem; problems were resolved democratically, through a one-person, one-vote system (including teachers and parent volunteers); students developed their own procedures for cleaning the school with a rotating student supervisor; students worked together on multi-age projects; the surrounding community was extensively used for fieldtrips, projects and volunteers, and students chose whether or not they wished to participate in learning activities that were developed and presented by teachers and other students (Wardle, 1985). Figure 5.4 describes a typical day at PACERS School. PACERS School was started in the mid 1960s. It was created by middle-class parents who tried to initiate a program of open education in the Shawnee Mission School District in Johnson County, Kansas. The district refused their request, so they started their own school, which they located in a two-story building on the Missouri side of Kansas City. Britt runs through the open door, asks Karen to help her, and then races down the back stairs and across the grass. She and Karen check to see if Quack, their pet white duck, is all right. Britt has just arrived on Monday morning at PACERS School. After she and Karen play with Quack, they come back inside the school and settle into a game of Risk with several other students and Judy, one of the teachers. Britt is a gregarious ten -year-old with short, erect pigtails and a constant, effervescent smile. While Britt and the other children play their game, more children come into the school, take off their coats, and find an activity to do. Trell - age seven - swings open the door grandly, and marches into the room, greeting all his friends with utmost importance. He then grabs Chrisy and they both go outside and climb onto the platform and then ride down the very fast pulley ride. After two turns on the pulley ride, Trell takes a turn down the 20-foot metal slide. Figure 5.4. continued on next page.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Waldorf, British Infant/Primary Schools, and Free Schools

111

Both the boys helped build the playground they are now enjoying. They dug holes, mixed concrete, and learned how to read a spirit level, measure sections of wood, hammer nails, drill holes and tightened bolts. Once back indoors, Trell gravitates to the writing area, where he sits down and begins to draw and write. Judy, one of the teachers, calls out, “meeting time,” and everyone quickly looks at the clock, just to make sure its 9:30. By this time, all 27 students, ages 4 to 13, have arrived. Everyone gathers for the meeting, and then Britt complains that the workshop is always a mess when it’s time to do clean-up at 2:30. The students and teachers discuss the problem, come up with a solution, and then vote on the new rule, which passes. Judy then describes activities that have been planned for the rest of the day, and students sign up for the activities and the field trip. Now that the meeting has finished, students gather to select their end-of-the day jobs. The only structure of the day at PACERS School is the morning meeting and the afternoon jobs, when the students clean the school before going home. Trell’s name is called. He wants to clean the science area, but that job is already taken, so he selects the wood shop. Britt gets to be the checker – the job of making sure all the other jobs are done. Each child must get the checker to approve the completion of their job before they are allowed to go home. Britt is in the kitchen working with four other students and Judy, the teacher. Her hands are in the dough as she mixes pastry for pizza and follows the cooking directions that she and other students wrote out earlier. Every Monday some of the students cook a meal for the rest of the school. They decide the Friday before what to cook, and then bring the ingredients from home on Monday Britt likes the school. “You can work at any grade you want to – you can get a lot done if you want to”, she declares. She can work with younger children or older students; she can learn from some, and teach others. After doing as much math as he wishes to, Trell decides to go to the wood shop with Chris to build boats. They both build very different boats – using skills learned while building the playground – and wonder aloud if their boats will float. At this time the younger students decide to have a dance practice. They all really enjoying learning traditional folk dances because they have watched the older kids dance. Luckily, the dance teacher is available and can facilitate the practice. During practice some of the children use the large world map to locate the countries where each dance is from. “Lunch is ready!” All the students eat either in the lunchroom or kitchen (one of their rules). Then the fieldtrip to Loose Park gets under way. Trell and Chrisy bring their boats along to see how well they can answer their earlier questions about whether their boats will float. PACERS students make many trips into the community: historic cemeteries, local car assembly plants, the Agricultural Hall of Fame, weather stations, TV newsrooms, art galleries, and a variety of museums and parks. Back at school after the field trip, Trell races downstairs to clean the wood shop, and Britt starts to monitor the other children. She engages in a long conversation with Alyssa, who always has a very good reason for not doing her job! Alyssa can be very stubborn, but, because Britt is the checker, Britt must persuade Alyssa to do her job. Rarely are teachers drawn into these arguments; students are encouraged to work out their own conflicts. Alyssa and all the other children finally complete their jobs to the satisfaction of Britt, and then begin to go home in their various car pools. But when Trell’s mother comes into the school, Trell complains, “Why did you come? I want to stay here”! (Francis Wardle, 1985) Figure 5.4. A Day in the Life of a Free School.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

112

Francis Wardle

Parent Run Schools

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Free/Open schools were small, parent-run schools housed in a variety of homes, churches and commercial buildings scattered across the country. They varied in their level of freedom – some providing almost total free choices, such as PACERS School, while others had more structure and external requirements. The ages of children served, total number of children, and teacher qualifications and skills differed from school to school. Middle-class families (often mothers) started these schools. PACERS was started by families in Kansas City; Da Nahazli school in Taos, New Mexico, where I also taught, was started by a couple from San Francisco, and served mostly children of local artists and families who lived in a variety of communes and other alternate life-styles in the area. The governance of these schools also varied. DaNahazli School was essentially run by its founding couple, with some input from community educators and parents. But decisions were made ultimately by the couple. Alternatively, PACERS school was run by a democratically elected parent board that made all decisions for running the school, from budgets, hiring and firing, curriculum, and so on. This board also appointed a parent volunteer to act as the official school head, or principal. There are no so-called free/open schools today, although a variety of public alternative and charter schools have adopted many of the ideas developed and used by free schools. Some of these ideas include the concept of a school and classroom as a community (Vance and Weaver, 2002), extensive use of projects, multiage-grouping, use of conflict resolution skills and peer mediation, student rule making, team teaching, the use of the community for experiential learning (what we now call expeditionary schools) and teachers staying with the same group of students for several years of the school experience (sometimes called looping). Thanksgiving at PACERS School (figure 5.5) describes the kind of projects that were extremely common in free/open schools. All the students in the school conducted research on the pilgrims and Native Americans before Thanksgiving. They researched how Native Americans lived before the landing of the pilgrims. They also researched what the white man brought to America: Christianity, different foods, tools, horses, and various customs. But they also discovered many negative things the white man brought, such as guns, smallpox, whisky, scalping, social diseases, a sense of cultural and religious superiority, and the idea of Manifest Destiny. Further, the students studied how these additions from Europe forever changed the lives of Native Americas in North America today. We then constructed a large picture map by pasting cutout magazine pictures of ships, Native Americans, pilgrims, and flags the children made onto a large world map. But as we approached Thanksgiving the students expressed a desire for a different way to celebrate Thanksgiving, one that would help them personally understand the research they had conducted, and destroy some of the stereotypes they had learned in past Thanksgiving celebrations. So they officially invited Native American students from Haskell Indian Institute in Lawrence, Kansas to celebrate Thanksgiving with the whole school, and to help them understand the meaning of Thanksgiving from another point of view. Parents and students then cooked a fantastic Thanksgiving meal and waited for our guests to arrive. Four Native Americas came to visit our school, all wearing everyday Western clothes. While two of them set up the large drum, the others changed into dance costumes of quills, feathers, bells, and intricate beads and bone-work. The students were very fascinated with the costumes,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Waldorf, British Infant/Primary Schools, and Free Schools

113

and had to find out the animals the bones came from, the kinds of bird feathers used, who made the costumes, and the symbolic and religious meanings of these the artifacts. The Native Americans also told the students about the tribes they belonged to and a little about their different backgrounds. The drummers then showed the students how to play the drums. Then the two drummers began to sing and play. They then danced. The first dance was a social dance, with the man and woman holding hands and dancing in a big circle around the two drummers. (The Indian students told the children that at their social dances the women choose their partners). The two dancers then performed a war dance and a round dance. Then the students were asked to join in. They were reluctant to dance until I joined in, and then all the children danced the round dance. It’s easy! You travel to the left around a circle, not holding hands, and starting with the left foot. Then you bring the right foot to the left foot. Then repeat: left forward, right together, left forward, right together, around the circle. After the dancing, the dancers and drummers answered more question from the students about Indian life, the impact of the pilgrims and other white men on Indian culture and history, and their lives as present day Indians. The dancers changed back into their everyday clothes, and then our students invited the Indians to join us in our Thanksgiving meal, and they accepted. (Native American and Indian are both collective labels for various indigenous peoples of the Americas. In other countries, such as Brazil, (Amerindian) and Guatemala (Maya), other terms are used. While academics and the U.S. Census Bureau prefer the label Native American, many Native Americans themselves prefer Indian, although they usually use the specific label of the tribe or nation to which they belong. (F. Wardle, 1985) Figure 5.5. Thanksgiving at PACERS School.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONCLUSION Both the Waldorf and British Infant/Primary School approaches to education are European imports to this country, as are Froebel’s Kindergartens and Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s ideas. However, unlike our public school Kindergarten programs, contemporary Waldorf and British Infant/Primary programs have stayed close to their original philosophical roots. In the case of Waldorf programs, the careful adherence to the considerable writings of Rudolf Steiner, including his published works on education, has enabled Waldorf schools to remain true to their founder’s intent; in the case of British Infant/Primary programs, while there are still some private British Infant/Primary schools in this and other countries, ideas that originated with this model are also reflected in a variety of other approaches discussed throughout this book, such as the Project Approach and Reggio Emilia. Free/Open schools no longer exist, but many of the ideas developed and celebrated in these schools have also been adopted by a variety of other approaches, including a vast array of public charter schools.

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1. Carefully consider your own early years, between 3 and 6 years of age. Did you attend children’s programs or stay at home? Regardless, were your experiences similar to the Waldorf and British Infant/Primary approaches, or were they more like

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

114

Francis Wardle

2.

3.

4.

5.

traditional Kindergarten readiness programs and many current standard’s based preKindergarten programs? If you had young children, or if you currently have young children, would you place your child(ren) in a Waldorf program or a British Infant/Primary program – if money and location were not a deciding issue? Why or why not? Compare and contrast Waldorf schools, Free/Open schools, British Infant/Primary schools, High/Scope and the Bank Street model. What are common factors; to what extent did these programs influence each other, if any? Refer to Figure 5: 5, Some Differences Between a Traditional School Program and a British Infant/Primary Program. Use this model to compare other approaches in this chapter, either to each other, or to the traditional early childhood and school approach. All the approaches described in this chapter reflect the progressive view of education. Will our current conservative approaches become more progressive in the future? If so, when?

RESOURCES

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Waldorf Early Childhood Association of North America 285 Hungry Hollow Rd., Spring Valley, NY. 10977 www. waldorfearlychildhood.org Waldorf Answers http://www.waldorfanswers.com 845-352-1690

Waldorf World www.waldorfworld.net Rudolf Steiner College www.steinercollege.org Steiner Waldorf Schools in UK and Ireland www.steinerwaldorf.org.uk Anthroposophical Society in America www.anthroposophy.org Anthroposophical Society World Headquarters www.goetheanum.ch

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 6

CONTEXTS: BRONFENBRENNER AND VYGOTSKY

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION Both Urie Bronfenbrenner and Lev Vygotsky view the development and learning of children within a variety of social and cultural contexts. While neither theorist ignores the biological component of a child’s development, they place their focus on the impact of social and cultural contexts: family, peers, community, race and ethnicity, neighborhoods and schools, and the adult’s role in development and education. Both Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory are very attractive to many contemporary professionals because of this focus on the social and cultural context in the development and education of children. This view is consistent with the belief of many that, “it takes a village to raise a child.” Further, both theories enable us to study realtionhips between programs and families, and to carefully examine the role of the teacher in early childhood and education programs. Both Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory are consistent with post-modern thinking about early childhood and elementary education – that the best programs are ones where the contexts of home, neighborhood and program are similar, consistent and mutually supportive. Bronfenbrenner in particular forces us to look beyond the specific educational program to examine structural aspects of a society that on the one-hand support families and children’s development, and on the other hand make it more difficult to raise and educate healthy children. Vygotsky not only focuses on the relationships between child, adult and community, but also challenges us to see how early childhood programs and schools can educate our children with the positive values of the overall culture in which they are being raised (Berk and Winsler, 1989). In this chapter, I first examine the various levels of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, and then use our understanding of these levels to discuss ways to work with children and their families. I then explain the basics of Vygotsky’s theory and the explore implications of this theory for quality early childhood and elementary education programs.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

116

Francis Wardle

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. How do the ecological contexts in Bronfenbrenner’s theory interact with each other? For young children in preKindergarten and elementary school, which of these contexts has the most direct and powerful impact on their development and learning? 2. What is the difference between low-context and high-context cultures, how do they affect children’s learning, and how should they influence a program’s design? 3. Both Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky are products of the Russia’s socialist/communist history. How does this influence their theories? 4. Why are Vygotsky’s and Bronfenbrenner’s approaches to early childhood and elementary education popular with many contemporary educators? 5. What is the role of the teacher in Bronfenbrenner’s theory and Vygotsky’s theory?

ECOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Urie Bronfenbrenner developed the conceptual model known as the ecology of human development (1979, 1989, 1995). He was raised in Russia during the turbulent Russian Revolution. Figure 6.1 illustrates some of the personal influences on Bronfenbrenner’s theory.

Figure 6.2. The Basic Structures of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky

117

In his theory he proposes that humans are a product of their interactions with various ecological environments - biological, psychological, social and cultural, which develop over a period of time (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998). Bronfenbrenner has divided these environments into 4 groups – microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem, which he describes as surrounding the child very much like Russian Nesting Dolls. Additionally, he adds the concept of the chronosystem – changes (historical) over time in ecological systems or within the individual that produce new conditions that influence development and learning (Berns, 2007) (See Figure 6.2). None of these contexts work alone. – they interact in different ways; further, the child also has an impact on them. Below is a discussion of each of these ecological systems.

“Bronfenbrenner’s notion of parent involvement and the ecological model of child development emerged from two sources – his own childhood and his cross-cultural research. Born in Moscow, he immigrated to the United States in 1923. His father, a physician, took a job as director of an institution for the “feeble minded” in Letchworth Village, New York.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

From time to time, Bronfenbrenner’s father would anguish over the commitment to the institution of a person who was not retarded. Sadly, after a few weeks there, these people of normal intelligence would begin to mimic the mannerisms of the rest of the residents. When one of these pateients came to work in the Bronfenbrenner’s household, however, she gradually resumed a “normal” life. To young Urie, it was an important lesson in how family and community expectations influence human behavior. After such an upbringing, Bronfenbrenner decided to become a psychologist. During the course of cross-cultural studies in Western and Eastern Europe, he was struck by the observation that Russian parents, both fathers and mothers, seemed to spend more time with their children than did American parents.” (Zigler and Muenchow, 1992, p. 16) Figure 6.1. Bronfenbrenner.

Microsystem The microsystem – small system – is comprised of elements that have direct, immediate impact on the child – family, early childhood program, school, peers and community. Family is where the foundation of trust, security, exploration, learning and language are developed and nurtured; the early childhood program and school are where children learn specific skills and are exposed to the wider society. Peers and the community directly impact children’s development through modeling, playing, support and reinforcement. A child’s development is influenced both by her interaction with these contexts, and how members within each context relate to each other – the relationship between mother and father; the past experience a teacher may have had with the child’s older sibling, and the relationship of a child with her siblings (Berns, 2007).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

118

Francis Wardle

Mesosystem The meso - intermediate – system includes linkages and relationships between two or more of the microsystems – family and school, family and peer group, and so on. In some cases the links may be weak, such as when a family has no direct involvement with their child’s early childhood program or school, or when a child’s peer group never visits the child’s home. The more links there are between microsytems – and the higher the quality of these links – the more positive impact one has on the other, and both have on the child. Thus, families and schools that have positive relationships produce children with higher academic performance (Epstein, 1983). The mesosystem forces us to focus less on programs, agencies, schools and the family, and more on the relationships between these institutions, agencies and services, and how they should work together to support the development and education of the child. Put another way, when programs, agencies and families work together, their positive impact on the child is much more powerful than when they work separately.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Exosystem The exosytem – outside system – involves contexts in which children are not active participants – such as with the microsystem – but which still affect them through their impacts on the microsystem. A parent’s employment setting, a school district’s elimination of physical education or arts programs due to budget cuts, and the city’s recreation department’s decision to build a neighborhood playground, all have a direct impact on the life of the child. Neighborhoods, parents’ employment, community expectations, and the status of the neighborhood school within the community, are all examples of the exosystem. The debate between the quality of inner-city schools and other children’s programs, and suburban schools and programs, is a discussion that recognizes the influence of the exosytem on children’s development and education..

Macrosystem The macrosystem – or large system – refers to the overall society in which a child belongs, along with the child’s various subcultures. The United States, different social classes, ethnic and racial groups, religions, and rural, urban and suburban neighborhoods are all part of the macrosystem. Obviously, each child exists within many simultaneously existing macrosystems. The impacts of the macrosystem are all encompassing. Children attend free public schools in the United States because we have a philosophy that believes in the importance of education for a democracy; a child with disabilities has certain rights in American schools, due to our belief in equal educational opportunity. However, children from different religions will have very different educational experiences, particularly if they attend religious schools. Racial and ethnic groups comprise macrosytems that impact children in a variety of ways. Edward T. Hall (1969) proposed another form of macrosytem – low and high context cultures. Low context cultures are those that focus on rationality, practicality, competence and

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky

119

individuality; high context cultures are people-oriented contexts that value intuition, cooperation, group identity and traditions. In low context cultures words carry their own precise and objective meanings; in high context cultures, the social context of communication defines its meaning, and thus facial expressions, tone of voice, and the social context in which a word is used have a direct impact on its use and meaning (Hall, 1969).

Chronosystem The chonosystem involves changes of the ecological systems and individuals over time, and how these changes impact the child’s development (Berns, 2007). Cleary, the historical era of the depression radically affected the development of children during that time, not to mention the upbringing of children by parents who lived through the depression. In fact, generational cohorts (baby boomers, “X”ers, millenniums, and so on ) are examples of very powerful chronosystems. The wide use of immunization to practically eliminate childhood illnesses in America and other developed countries has had a profound impact on children’s development and education (Berger, 2009). When I was a child I contracted polio; today in developed countries parents don’t’ worry about their children catching these devastating childhood illnesses. Computer use by middle-class families and in most schools in the United States is another example of the chronosystem, as is the increased use and acceptance of child care in most developed and many developing countries.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ECOLOGY OF CHILD CARE AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION First I will discuss the ecology of child care and early childhood education; then I will extend the discussion to the ecology of education. There are, of course, many places where the two overlap. Child care and early education are part of the microsystem. As such, they have a direct impact on the lives of young children. However, the mesosystem, exosystem, macrosytem and chronoystem directly impact child care and early childhood education.

Microysytem Influence of Early Care and Education on Children More and more children are spending more and more time in child care and early childhood programs in the US and the world. Thirteen million young children in the US spend all or part of the day in an early childhood setting of some kind (Children’s Defense Fund, 2001). In the mid 1970s, 30% of mothers of children under 6 were employed, as were 50% of mothers of school agers; in 2000, 65% of mothers of children under age 6, and 77% of mothers of school-age children, were employed outside the home (Children’s Defense Fund, 2001). Elementary-age children are also spending more time in institutions, away from home, though extensive use of after-school programs. Cleary this change has an impact on the development of children, including less time with parents, less time with siblings (most programs do not include mixed-age groups), discontinuity between the culture of the home and program, and the quality of the program itself. There is also less opportunity for families

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

120

Francis Wardle

to teach their children important skills, traditions and values. Further, families may feel a certain loss of control, importance and continuity. The Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study (1995) rated only 8% of infant programs and 24% of preschool programs good or excellent, while 40% of infant programs and 10% of preschool programs were rated as poor. Factors contributing to this state of affairs are (Berns, 2007): • • •

Poor training and qualifications of staff; Very high staff turnover; Extremely low wages and benefits for people working with young children.

While attempts are being made to increase the quality of early childhood programs, such as accreditation (NAEYC, 2005), and the use of early childhood environmental rating scales (Harms and Clifford, 1998), the above factors hinge on the ability to pay child care providers and early childhood teachers adequate wages and benefits. Head Start and public school early childhood programs are increasing wages and benefits for teachers, but private programs, other not-for-profit programs, and family child care homes are not. It should be noted that, while most elementary teachers receive higher pay and benefits, those who provide afterschool services (also during vacations) do not. When programs positively address these factors, certain early childhood intervention programs have had marked success in impacting the lives of children, including the High/Scope Perry Preschool Project (Schweinhart and Weikart, 1997).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Mesosystem Influence on Early Care and Education As child care and early childhood programs have increased in popularity, the quality of program-family relationships has become of increased interest to educators and program designers. Further, with the heightened concern regarding the academic divide in education, these same issues have been raised. Three areas of program-family interaction can be examined: parent involvement, cultural consistency, and curricular input. •

Parent involvement. The federal Head Start Project, begun in 1965, directly included low-income parents within its overall design, including a separate parent involvement component to coordinate and support home visits, parent conferences, parent volunteers, and the hiring of parents in the program. Parents are also required to be participants in committees along with the program’s governing board, the Parent Policy Council. This focus on the critical role low-income parents are required to play in their child’s program has made Head Start a revolutionary program (Greenberg, 1969). Interestingly, Bronfenbrenner was one of the principle founders of Head Start. Joyce Epstein has authored many studies that show the positive impact of parent involvement on the academic performance of young children (Epstein, 1983; Epstein and Dauber, 1991). The results are particularly powerful for lowincome families, who often have poor relationships with their children’s early childhood programs and schools.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky •

•

121

Cultural consistency. Many believe minority children are less successful in early childhood programs and schools because most of these programs reflect white middle-class values and therefore conflict with the values of minority homes (Derman-Sparks, 1989; Ramsey, 1998; York, 2003). Minority children must learn to function in two distinctive contexts: home (and neighborhood), and the early childhood program and school. Thus programs working with minority children need to find ways to increase linkages and supports between the home and their child’s early childhood program and school. As Bronfenbrenner points out, these links are critical. Curricular input. Learning theorists and early childhood research have consistently shown that children’s learning is much more effective when the material they learn is personally meaningful and based on each child’s unique experiences (Wardle, 2003). John Dewey consolidated this concept into an entire educational approach – what we call progressive education (1997/38). To capitalize on this concept, many early childhood programs and schools find ways to include the family directly and indirectly in the curriculum: field trips to parents’ places of employment; family members volunteering in the classroom, etc There are also continued efforts to include each child’s cultural background in the program’s curricular content (Banks and Banks, 2006)(this concept is discussed in chapter 11); other approaches discussed in this books illustrate ways learners can be actively involved in creating their own curricula.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Macrosystem’s Impact on Early Care and Education The macrosystem’s impact on early care and education includes, 1) political ideology of the United States, which includes equality, assimilation of new immigrants, and educating children with disabilities; 2) racial/ethnic diversity, 3) the economic need to care for children while parents are either working or attending training, and 4) preparing children to become successful citizens – teaching academics, socialization, character, patriotism, and so on. Ironically, another macrosystem influence is the belief in the United States that caring for young children does not require specialized training or well compensated professionals, which, as already suggested, has an extremely negative impact on the development and education of young children.

Chronosystem Influences on Early Care and Education Early care and education in the United States received a tremendous boost by a significant historical event – the need for women to work in factories during WWII. The federal government subsidized child care centers so women could help manufacture war related material (Sears, 1975). These workers were paid on the same pay scale as the ship builders. The next jump in early care and education in this country was during the 1960s. This was due to several factors, including,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

122

Francis Wardle • • • •

•

Increased numbers of women working outside the home; The emergence of the contemporary Women’s Movement; The belief that child care would support more women getting off welfare; Studies that showed the importance of the early years for later academic performance, such as the Perry Preschool Study (Schweinhart and Weikert, 1997) (see chapter 3); Increased acceptance of divorce and an increase in the number of single, female – headed households.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

In 1965 Head Start was created. Also during this time commercial child care chains emerged and increased in number. And Title I funds and Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (special education) funds were used for schools to target the education of young children at risk. Current chronosystem influences on early childhood programs in the United States are mixed – some positive and some not so positive. There is increased attention to early childhood programs – Head Start and Early Head Start, and a general movement toward statefunded universal pre-Kindergarten programs (see chapter 13). This focus is because of the federal No Child Left Behind act, results of brain research that stress the critical importance of the right kind of care, stimulation and nurturing during the very early years, and the continued racial divide in school performance. However, little attention is focused on needed improvements in the quality of basic child care, and increased availability of quality infant and toddler care (Wardle, 2003). Two fundamental barriers still exist: lack of overall high quality in programs for young children, and an abysmal lack of funding to provide adequate wages and benefits (Burns, 2007).

Impact of Technology Another impact on early childhood education, particularly in developed countries, is technology. While the largest impact of technology is during the K-12 school years (see next section), many early childhood programs – including Head Start – are enthusiastically implementing technology within their programs. However, this has created a considerable dilemma. Many believe computers should not be introduced until at least age three (Elkind, 1998; Haugland, 1999; NAEYC, 1996), while others believe that they are not needed until much later (Wardle, D. n.d.). Another concern is that the limited resources used to purchase, continually upgrade and maintain computers, and to train teachers how to best use them, take resources away from critically important areas such as the arts and playground equipment (Wardle, 2000). Finally, there is deep concern regarding the most developmentally appropriate manner to implement technology in programs for young children (Haugland, 1999; NAEYC, 1996).

ECOLOGY OF SCHOOLS Elementary schools can also be examined using Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems, particularly the macrosystem and chronosystem. While many of these issues are the same as those already discussed for early childhood education, some are a little different.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky

123

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Macrosystem’s Influence on Schools Public schools have many conflicting stakeholders who have a huge impact on the local school board. Because the public’s investment (tax monies) is much higher in schools than early childhood programs, school districts tend to be large and dynamic political entities. Further, because the basic values of the society can be codified in the written curriculum, public school curricula became a battleground of cultural influence. As discussed earlier, the basic macrosystem impacts on our schools include equality, assimilation of new immigrants, serving special needs students, diversity, caring for children while parents work or are in training, and preparing children to be productive citizens in a democracy (Berns, 2007). As we shall see under the section of the chronosystm’s influence on schools, the nature of each of these macrosysems has changed over time, and will continue to do so. Since the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, a number of efforts to increase equality in our society have impacted our schools: bilingual education, gender equity, multicultural education, and educating children with disabilities (Sears, 1975; Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004). Regarding our country’s view of the separation between church and state, schools (an agent of the state) have become less religious since their inception, when their only purpose was religious. However, the current struggle over the inclusion of Intelligent Design creationism - in some public school curricula illustrates that religion is still a factor in American schools. After Russia launched Sputnik into space, the federal government passed the National Defense Education Act (NDEA), specifically to increase the math and science proficiency of American students. Since then there have been many other national attempts to influence the preparation of students for future success, including Goals 2000 and the current No Child Left Behind act (see chapter 8: Standards and the Core Curriculum). These last two initiatives have resulted in statewide standards, an emphasis on literacy in the early years, and the use of outcomes to drive Head Start’s curriculum. The character education movements of 1920-21, the 1960s, and today, are all attempts to increase the moral preparation of our students (Lickona, 1991).

Chronosytem Influence on Schools Schools have changed over time, as they reflect the changing values and the changing dynamics of a society. The 1963 Supreme Court Decision on religion in public schools, the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, WWI and WWII and Sputnik, all directly impacted American schools. In a country like Brazil, the change of the national government from a military dictatorship to an elected democracy has had a profound impact on the public schools. Chronosystem influences on schools in most countries today includes violence, technology, the standards/accountability movement, immigration and globalization.

Violence Children are seeing more and more violence on TV, videos, video games, and computer games. Additionally, as a result of the 1999 Columbine School shootings in Colorado and other incidences of school violence, schools in many states in America and around the world

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

124

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

have implemented a variety of state mandated anti-violence and anti-bullying programs. Antibullying programs have existed in Norway for more than 30 years (Olweus, 1999), and are now also common in Brazilian public schools (Wardle, 2005). Many elementary schools have adopted conflict resolution programs and the current character education movement is partly a result of this rising violence in our society (Lickona, 1991). Despite its honorable intent, there is some indication that the response to violence by our nation’s schools might have some negative results. Some suggest that a too absolute application of anti-violence and anti-bulling programs - i.e. zero tolerance programs - are affecting rough-and-tumble play and physical outdoor play, with a particularly negative affect on boys and on childhood obesity (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005; Sutterby and Frost, 2002).

Technology Learning basic technology skills has become one of the goals of education in many developed societies. The impact has produced two related challenges for schools, 1) a severe drain on resources from other areas in the school budget, since computers are expensive to purchase, support and upgrade, and teachers must be trained; and 2) an increase in the academic divide, because inner-city and rural schools that serve low-income families who cannot afford computers and internet access often are not able to provide full access to technology (Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004). While state and federal grants, along with equipment donations from technology companies, are addressing this dilemma, these costs – particularly for wiring older schools, maintenance and teacher training – still strain many school budgets. A related problem is that, while experts believe computers should be integrated within the classroom to enable them to be used in a variety of innovative ways and in a variety of content areas (Haugland, 1999), most elementary schools still use computer labs rather than providing several computers in each classroom. However, technology has also had some powerful positive impacts on schools in many countries. Technology has helped students with a variety of disabilities: to assist students who cannot speak and/or write to communicate with teachers and peers; specific computer programs support children’s academic instruction; and students with learning disabilities often can use computers to modify their instruction. Further, in rural areas that lack teachers and content expects, computers match students with needed instruction (see the Hope Program in chapter 14). And technology connects students to the rest of the world, to vast amounts of culture, knowledge and information they might otherwise lack. Finally, in wellequipped schools the electronic classroom is greatly improving and enhancing instruction and learning for all students. Standards/Accountability The standards movement in the United States has changed the face of education. From a chronsystem’s perspective, standards are another swing towards ‘basics’ in the progressiveconservative cycle that has occurred in public education since the boginning of public schools (Sears, 1975)(see chapter 8). When these standards are based on the developmental growth of the whole child they provide sound guidelines for teachers, textbook companies, and curriculum developers (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997); when they are tied to a ridged interpretation of scope and sequence, they can increase the number of children who experience failure and frustration in our schools (Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky

125

One natural outgrowth of standards is assessment. When assessments are authentic documentations of children’s progress in all domains, they are valid and very helpful (NAEYC 1991); however, in many schools assessments are high-stakes tests that produce anxiety in children and frustration in teachers (see chapter 8 for a detailed discussion about the standards approach to curriculum and assessment).

Immigration American schools have historically viewed their role as enabling new immigrants to assimilate into the American culture and to learn English as quickly as possible (Sears, 1975). While this is also true today, the increased variety of immigrants, the number of immigrants who do not speak English, and the number who come from cultures very different from the mainstream United States culture, have all increased in recent years (Wardle and CruzJanzen, 2004). Immigrants come to this country to improve their circumstances and opportunities for their children; however, their numbers and educational needs place pressure on our schools, including the need to provide bilingual education in a vast variety of languages, the challenge to adjust to changing family and community cultures, and the need to find effective ways to work collaboratively with these new families (Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004). Other countries, such a those in Europe, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, are also experiencing the strain of immigration on their schools.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Globalization In chapter 9, global approaches to early childhood and schools are discussed. In that chapter I also cover some of the impacts of globalization on our educational programs, which include, teaching a second language to English speaking children, beginning in the early years, multicultural education, and technology proficiency. Further, U.S. schools must educate their citizens to be able to compete in the global marketplace.

ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS There are no early childhood programs or schools that identify human ecology as their philosophical and curricular approach. However, most early childhood programs and schools include many concepts from Bronfenbrenner’s model, and aspects of this approach have gained a significant following in the field of early childhood education, K-12 education, and educational psychology and sociology. Not surprisingly, since Urie Bronfenbrenner was one of the original framers of Head Start, the comprehensive approach of Head Start is an ecological model that can be used both in early childhood programs and schools. Because the ecological approach addresses all aspects that impact a child’s development, from the immediacy of the family and peers, to the more distant influences of culture and historical periods, any discussion of an ecological approach in education could easily become longwinded, highly philosophical, and not very helpful. I think the best approach is to focus on the mesosytem – the ways educational programs can work closely together with families and communities.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

126

Francis Wardle

Mesoystem Approaches Today more and more focus is being placed on how children’s programs and schools can work to develop positive program-family linkages, and support parents in their efforts to encourage their children’s learning (Epstein, 1983).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Families For programs to be able to work effectively with families, they must understand the different structures of today’s families. According to Berger, children need families to provide basic material necessities, encourage learning, develop self-confidence, nurture friendships, and foster harmony and stability (2009). There are many diverse forms of the family, and all of these various forms can provide the basic functions required to raise and educate healthy children. The prevalence of single parents raising young children poses some important ecological questions. In recent years the number of single-parent – usually female – headed households has increased dramatically. The percentage of children living in single-parent households has more than doubled since 1970 (U. S. Census, 2000); if the current trend continues, about 37% of children born in the 21st century in the US will live with both parents from birth to age 18; in 1998 in the U.S., 33 % of infants were born to mothers who were not married (U. S. Census 2000). This percentage is even higher in minority homes, especially African American families (Berger, 2009). Most single-parent families are also low-income families. Some start out this way, while others become poor as a result of divorce or separation. Poor families often have no health care, are served by poor quality schools and early childhood programs, practice poor nutrition, live in unsafe neighborhoods that lack playgrounds and cultural facilities, and have poor parenting skills (Berger, 2009). The increased physical demands of being a single parent added to the financial constraints often make raising children very difficult.

Some have argued that the lack of two parents in any home can be offset by increased extended family involvement (Berk, 2006; Pearson et al., 1990). However, from an ecological Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

127

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky .

perspective, a child needs both a strong family and an effective extended family. The challenge, of course, is how to increase family stability. Recently there has been a plethora of articles and books about the critical role of fathers in raising children (Young Children, Oct 2002; Wardle, 2005). Clearly part of this effort is to make sure non-custodial fathers take responsibility for their children, as well as to include new fathers/boyfriends in the parenting process. However, there does seem to be an increasing cultural shift toward both recognizing the critical role of fathers in the lives of young children, both girls and boys , and in insisting that all fathers take responsibility for their own children. From an ecological perspective, this is positive.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Program-Home Linkages As I have already discussed, when early childhood programs and schools work closely with families, children tend to do much better socially and academically (Cochran and Henderson, 1986; Epstein and Dauber, 1991; Henderson and Berla, 1994). However, increasing parent involvement in the education of their children is difficult, especially for low-income families (Berns, 2007). To address this issue we must begin with conducting more research on various approaches to parent involvement, especially for low-income and minority families. Traditionally, for a variety of reasons, most educational research has been conducted on white, middle-class families (Wardle, 2003). Thus our body of knowledge on parent involvement with low-income parents and minority families is quite thin, and we need desperately to add to it. Ideas based on our current body of knowledge are outlined in Figure 6.3. Provide a variety of classes for teachers-in-training on effective methods of working with low-income families; Get to know your parents and their goals for their children (Gonzalez Mena, 2004). Learn from Head Start approaches that have been used to empower low-income parents in becoming directly involved in the education of their children; Expand the various fatherhood programs to include direct father-program involvement and support; Take programs to parents. Often low-income parents do not feel comfortable in early childhood programs and schools. Thus parent involvement programs should be taken to parents: local Head Start programs, recreation centers, Boys and Girls clubs, apartment complex community rooms, city parks, and so on. Provide programs and services at times that are convenient to parents, and not necessarily to the program. It is well known than many working parents and single parents simply cannot take time off during the day to visit their child’s program. Thus activities need to be provided when parents can attend. Work with parents and businesses to create days that parents can visit their school or child care center during work time Take every possible opportunity to communicate to parents the different ways they can fulfill their responsibility to support their children’s welfare and education. Figure 6.3. Ideas to Improve Family-Program Linkages.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

128

Francis Wardle

Working with Parents to Reinforce Learning Early childhood programs and schools are also interested in helping families reinforce learning and development at home. Because of what we have learned from the early brain research and research on parent involvement, this is critical (Shore, 1997)(see chapter 12). One place where programs can impact the child’s home life is in the use of TV and other electronic media. The use and misuse of TV has become a prevailing issue in many homes. I remember my wife invited a young family to spend some time living with us while they were looked for an apartment. The couple had a delightful, very bright 6-year old daughter. However, she spent all of her time watching TV. When I offered her a box of Legos, some unit blocks, and art materials, and suggested she play in the backyard, her mother insisted she sit and watch TV, and not engage in any activity that might make a mess or require adult supervision. Today American homes have more TVs than bathrooms; many young children have TVs in their rooms. The negative impact of TV and other electronic media on children is well documented (Levin, 1998). TV watching and other sedentary activities are a contributing factor to the increasing problem of childhood obesity (Sutterby and Frost, 2002). Further, some research suggests that watching TV lowers a child’s metabolism, thus reducing the number of calories that are burned (Berger, 2009). Early literacy development begins at birth, and is nurtured, scaffolded and supported in a responsive environment of modeling, speaking, reading, and lots of adult-child verbal interactions (Berk, 2006). Homes dominated by TVs prevent this interaction from occurring. In many homes TV has become a baby-sitter, and children no longer experience important childhood activities like visiting the library, going to the zoo, exploring nature centers, and simply messing around in the backyard. Finally, volumes of research suggest children learn a range of inappropriate behaviors regarding racism, sexism, materialisms, lack of respect for authority, and violence from TV and video games (Levin 1998). Figure 6.4 lists some ideas for addressing this problem.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky •

•

• •

• •

129

Launch an extensive campaign educating parents about the negative effects of TV, through pediatricians and pediatric dentist offices and early childhood centers and schools; Before being released from hospital, provide parents of all new-born infants with a 20 minute video on parenting skills, including the negative impact of too much TV watching; Encourage schools, child care and early childhood programs to develop informational campaigns about TV and its negative impact on development and learning; Teach teachers and prospective teachers ways to discuss the negative impact of TV with young children’s parents – about Power Rangers, poor food choices, and commercialization, and so on. Encourage parents to launch campaigns against TV stations and advertisers who provide negative programming and negative commercials; Show a video in pediatrician’s waiting offices and pediatric clinics on healthy nutrition, the value of family activities (particularly physical ones), and the positive result of turning off the TV.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 6.4. Ideas for Reducing the Negative Impact of TV on Young Children.

Educational Program-Community Linkages Another obvious mesosystem approach that is finding more favor today is programcommunity linkages. Many Reggio Emilia programs foster this approach (see chapter 7). Head Starts have always worker very closely with their communities. Adams County Head Start presented an Annual Children’s Festival for the entire community, which involved the county library, the local volunteer fire department, a variety of children’s performance groups, several middle school and high school bands, a petting zoo, several elementarily school science demonstration projects, Discovery Toys, and, of course Head Start. The day started off with a parade, lead by the County Commissioners and a local fire engine, which was followed by children on specially decorated bikes, tricycles, wagons, or walking with their families (Wardle, 1987). Not only were we able to provide a fun, free day for families, but also we – Head Start – created a variety of linkages with many community organizations that support families. We also assisted families in making contact with these community agencies. Program-community linkages are very important for a variety of reasons. The central reason is that we are all members of communities. Children need to develop an undersigning of their relationship not only to their family and their early childhood program, but also to the community in which the family and program must thrive. Further, early childhood programs and schools that are supported by their communities do well and develop children who are successful, while programs that lack community support struggle (Berns, 2007). Finally, we need to teach children how to be responsible members of a community – to help with community projects, visit senior centers, support those who are less fortunate, and so on. Many early childhood programs and schools have mastered ways of working effectively with the community. Some work with community agencies to recruit volunteers for the classroom, kitchen and playground: scouts, adopt-a-grandparent programs, community service workers and various juvenile programs. More and more high school programs, such as

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

130

Francis Wardle

the National Honor Society and the International Baccalaureate Program, require their students to do community service, including working in schools and early childhood programs. Early childhood and school buildings should be used for a variety of community activities, such as festivals, art shows, a day for alternative games, cultural festivals, a community health fair, and so on (Wardle, 2003; Wardle, 2008). While carefully chosen fieldtrips are essential for giving children a connection to the wider world, they are also a wonderful way to link the program with the local community. When planning fieldtrips, teachers should carefully consider a variety of ways to use the local community. Also, teachers should be encouraged to be actively involved in their own community – advocacy groups, dance associations, Big Brothers/Sisters, art associations, soccer clubs, interracial support groups or adoption support groups, etc.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY Vygotsky was born in eastern Russia in 1896. He graduated from Moscow University in 1917, the year of the Russian Revolution. He died of tuberculosis at age 38. However, his work was continued by colleagues, including Luria and Leont’ev. In college he studied languages, so its not surprising that his theory focuses on the role of language in development and learning (Berk and Winsler, 1995). According to Vygotsky’s (1930-35/1978) sociocultural theory, “cognition is a profoundly social phenomenon. Social experience shapes the ways of thinking and interpreting the world available to the individual” (Berk and Winsler, 1995, p. 12). For Vygotsky, the primary link between the individual and his or her social context is language: language is how the individual structures his thinking; the individual develops his language through social contact and communication with others in the same cultural group (Vygotsky, 1934/1978). Language is critical to the child’s cognitive development. Thus, the way the child structures her world, and thinks about things, is determined by the child’s social and cultural contexts.

Sociocultural Context Vygotsky believed that a child’s cognitive constructs and capacities are built around her social interactions. He believed this develops in two ways, 1) simply through the kinds of interactions and the language used, 2) and the way the individual uses her socially constructed cognition to process new information and to structure knowledge in general. To Vygotsky, intelligence is linguistically based. He believed that people who develop in different sociocultural contexts not only use different languages but will also think differently: they will show variations in cognitive capacities, particularly in higher-order mental processes (Berk and Winsler, 1995). However, Vygotsky recognized a whole range of biologically-based universals in child development, including the ability to grasp patterns, to recognize human emotions, and to acquire language to meet each person’s social and communicative needs. That said, the strength of Vygotsky’s theory lies in his understanding that cognition does not develop alone,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky

131

but must develop within the fertile ground of social and linguistic interactions. This is particularly true for the development and learning of young children, who are in the process of developing language, forming mental constructs, and learning various information processing strategies.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Social Nature of Education and Cognition “Vygotsky took charge of creating a Marxist theory of psychology and child development, aiming to reconstruct the field of psychology and education in the Soviet Union in ways consistent with the social and cultural changes taking place around him” (Berk and Winsler, 1995, p. 4). For example, consistent with the emphasis Marxist theory places on social movements and collective activities, “Vygotsky’s theory of child development assumes that social interaction and children’s participation in authentic cultural activities are necessary for development to occur. …Vygotsky’s theory grants a special place to social interaction in ontogenesis as the means of developing all complex, higher mental structures” (p 4-5). Ontogenesis is the course of development of an individual over time. Thus Vygotsky saw education – and the use of language – especially higher-order, formal school language – as critically important for the education of all Russian children. According to Vygotsky, children use language to structure their own thinking, to formulate ideas and problem solve, and for a variety of social functions. For example, a question from an adult can be a sincere attempt to get more information, or it can be a rhetorical statement. Questions can also be used satirically. And, what we call the pragmatics of language obviously differs from culture to culture, which is why Vygotsky’s theory is called a sociocultural theory. In some societies language use is extremely literal and precise; in others it is used in a variety of creative, euphemistic, and colloquial ways. E. T Hall’s concept of high and low context cultures – and the use of language in these cultures discussed earlier in this chapter, is an excellent example of this construct (Hall, 1969). Box 6.1. Reflective Thinking Both Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky were raised in Eastern Russia during the early years of the Russian Revolution, when collective responsibility and the value of the group over the wishes and needs of the individual were emphasized. Both theorists emphasize the importance of community and culture on the development and education of young children, and the responsibility of society and culture to support development and early education. Do you think their own cultural contexts – living and being educated in Russia during this time – had an impact on the development of their theories? How/to what extent? Further, to what extent are their theories useful in a highly individualistic society such as the United States?

Vygotsky believed children learn through collaboration with more knowledgeable members of their own society and culture. He believed that children learn ways of thinking and problem solving through these dialogues, which they eventually internalize and use to guide their own thinking and actions (Van de Veer and Valsiner, 1991). Research seems to support this idea, when the child’s partner is “an expert” and when the interaction is one of cooperation and mutual respect (Forman, 1987; Perlmutter et al., 1989). Barbara Rogoff calls

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

132

Francis Wardle

this process, guided participation (1990); others have termed it scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, and Ross, 1976; Wood, 1989). Scaffolding is, “a support system for children’s efforts that is sensitively attuned to their needs” (Berk and Winsler, 1995, p. 4). All scaffolding occurs within the child’s zone of proximal development (see a future section).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Importance of Language As has already been mentioned, language is at the heart of Vygotsky’s theory. Vygotsky looks at language in three distinct ways, 1) language is used for social communication between children and others within a cultural context; 2) language is used as the internalized mental structures that a child - and ultimately an adult - uses to “think” - through mediation of signs and internalization; and, 3) and language is used to structure and facilitate one’s own learning, what Vygotsky called private speech. Vygotsky called language the “tool of the mind” – the tools which children use to shape the way they structure their minds, think about experiences, and formulate future actions. Further, he viewed language as a result of social interaction - child and adult - and as an artifact of the child’s specific culture. Thus language not only reflects individual culture’s values and social patterns, but also as a child’s language becomes more complex and flexible, their cognition becomes more complex, flexible and sophisticated (Berk and Winsler, 1995). Vygotsky’s idea of the internalization of reality into the mind is the process of taking something that originated concretely, and then internalizing it through the use of language as an external tool that is used to mediate interactions between people within a social and cultural context. However, language is also used as the internal communicater within each child’s mind. From this perspective, a person raised in one culture will exhibit the thinking of that culture even if she travels or moves into another cultural milieu. In some of my college classes I have had some very intelligent foreign students who struggle not only with some of the concepts being taught, but also the way language is used in my tests.

Zone of Proximal Development Vygotsky believed that children learn from social collaboration - language - between themselves and “an expert”. However, this collaboration must occur within the shared region of interaction, what is called a zone of proximal development. Vygotsky was not interested in measuring what children already know and can do, but rather, “what they can do with the help of another person and have the potential to learn” (Berk and Winsler, 1995, p. 26). Vygotsky defined this zone of proximal development (ZPD) as, “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1930-35/1978, p 86). The child’s ZPD is the area between the child’s independent performance on a skill or task, and the level the child can achieve with expert assistance. The teacher’s role in learning, then, is to facilitate learning of the child within the ZPD – or a little above their level of independent function. Further, a teacher will not be effective

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky

133

teaching below the child’s ZPD, which is something the child can already do alone, or above the child’s ZPD, which the child cannot do, even with expert assistance.

Scaffolding

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The concept of scaffolding uses the analogy of the building scaffold. In the act of building, the scaffold is used to construct the building; on completion the scaffold is removed. The child is the builder, the social environment the necessary scaffold to enable the child to learn (Berk and Winsler, 1995). Effective scaffolding must meet certain characteristics that many teachers carefully use in working with students. One of the most universal forms of scaffolding is the use of parentese by parents world-wide to assist their infants in learning their home language (Berger, 2009). Characteristics used by an expert in scaffolding create a collegial, creative, supportive, elaborative structure for learning (see Figure 6.5). Joint problem solving. In scaffolding the child and an adult or another child are jointly engaged in trying to solve the same problem. Intersubjectivity. For scaffolding to work, both the learner and the expert need to see the problem in the same way and at the same level – thus enabling two-way communication. For example, the adult might bring the child to the same level by connecting the task to something the child understands. “Remember when we made the bread? Well, this is like the bread dough”. Both participants must constantly strive for a shared view of the situation or task. Warmth and responsiveness. While the child leads the activity in scaffolding, its success depends on the expert’s warm and responsive encouragement. The setting needs to be secure enough for the child to experiment, hypothesize, and risk. The expert carefully “dances with” the learner as they solve the problem together. Keeping within the zone of proximal development. The activity must be kept within the child’s ZPD by designing the task and environment at the child’s level, and then by continually adjusting it to the child’s development and learning. As the child nears the top of the zone, less expert intervention and direction is needed. One way to do this is to breakdown complex tasks into smaller, manageable units. Promoting self-regulation. Adults should not only give children as much control of the task as possible - and more and more as they become more efficient in the task - but also allow them to grapple with problems without automatically intervening. (Based on Berk and Winsler, 1995) Figure 6.5. The Expert’s Role is Scaffolding. (Note that the expert is not always an adult).

As the expert interacts with the child within the ZPD, the expert’s level of involvement changes. Initially they have more direct involvement, but slowly they need to move to less and less direct involvement and instruction. To do this, adults should ask open-ended questions that allow students to solve problems themselves. Sigel, McGillicuddy-Delisi, and Johnson (1980), discuss three levels of adult involvement: literal (low level) distancing questions and statements directly about the environment: “what letter does the word start with? This word ends with a ‘T’”; inferential (medium-level) distancing - adult involvement that compares objects or asks questions about other relationships: “which is the biggest?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

134

Francis Wardle

Look, ‘apple’ starts with the same letter as your name”; and critical (high-level) distancing adult involvement that forces children to go beyond the concrete information – “what do you think will happen when we put the boat in the water? Why is it important to water the plants in the garden?” While the traditional expert in the classroom is the teacher, volunteers, parents, aides, and even peers also make good experts.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Private Speech Children use language to scaffold there own learning – what Vygotsky calls private speech. For example, when the teacher teachers a child how to put a jig-saw puzzle together, the teacher might say, “first do the corners, then do the entire edge, and then start on the people”. When the child works on the puzzle alone, she says to herself, “first do the corners, then do the edges, and then do the people”. I have had teachers tell me that children even use the same pitch of voice and inflection when they repeat the teacher’s directions in private speech! Children also use private speech to regulate their own behavior: “remember, walk when you are inside”, thus repeating the class rules (Berger, 2009). Initially, young children talk to themselves out loud, but as they get older they learn to internalize their speech. Vygotsky believed that children learn self-talk by first learning the social use of language, and then by learning to use it to guide their own thought processes and actions. According to Vygotsky (1934/87), children internalize the cultural tool of language, which they then use to structure their own thinking and guide their own behaviors. Language, therefore, branches in two directions: social communication and private speech. This internalization of speech that children initially acquire from their culture also functions to use speech for self-regulation, what we call emotional regulation (Berger, 2009). Vygotsky believed private speech is how the individual internalizes the sociocultural contexts in which she lives and develops. Thus private speech helps the child control and direct their reactions to external stimuli from the cultural environment: values from the home, school and community.

Context of Private Speech Young children’s use of private speech depends on context. In a study of Kindergarteners using private speech, the students engaged in much more private speech when they were involved in goal setting, problem solving and academic activities, than in other activities (Berk and Winsler, 1995). Thus teachers should interact verbally with young children in collaborative efforts at goal setting, problem solving, and developing learning activities. Children should be encouraged to solve problems together, and teachers should focus on having children hypothesize and suggest solutions rather than providing direct instructions and giving specific information. Private speech is particularly frequent between ages 2½ to 6 years old (Gillingham and Berk, 1995), and the more difficult the task, the more private speech is used. Further, young children who use private speech are able to accomplish more difficult tasks (Kohlberg, Yaeger and Hjwertholm, 1978). As might be expected, however, when tasks exceed the child’s zone of proximal development, private speech declines (Behrend, Rosengren, and Perlmutter, 1992).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky

135

Private Speech and Scaffolding When adults scaffold the child’s learning through the use of verbal instructions and learning techniques, children internalize this scaffolding and use it for future cognitive processing. As already suggested, private speech is more effective when adults use fewer directives and allow children to accept more control as they become more competent (Winsler, 1994). Children use private speech as a problem-solving tool when children experience a rich, socially interactive environment (Berk and Winsler, 1995). For example, if children ask a teacher, “is it going to snow today?” the teacher should respond by asking the children whether they think it will snow, why they think it will or will not snow, and what conditions are needed to for it to snow. The teacher might then suggest that the group of children go outside to determine if these conditions exist. When outside, the teacher will then help the students repeat – in private speech – the conditions that must exist for it to snow. Then, as a group, they can answer the question; “will it snow today?” Teachers can support the use of private speech in children, by 1) engaging in rich social interaction with the children, 2) scaffolding learning for the children, 3) teaching children at the upper level of their ZPD, and 4) encouraging and supporting children’s use of private speech in problem solving. All young children should be encouraged to use private speech, and not be expected to “think inside their head”.

USE OF VYGOTSKY’S IDEAS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS AND SCHOOLS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Many of Vygotsky’s ideas can be used in working with infants, toddlers, preschool and elementary school children. Berk and Winsler (1995) provide four overall themes in helping to apply Vygotsky’s ideas to the teaching of young children through elementary age. 1. Emphasize adult-child, and child-child interactions. Vygotsky believed that through thes interactions children learn to control and manipulate the symbolic systems and formal structures of their culture. There are many opportunities to do this, from a caregiver’s verbal and facial responsiveness to a infant’s attempts at communication, to a third graders attempt to speak to a classmate in a foreign language. 2. Emphasize literacy. All sorts of verbal interactions, extending and elaborating speech, use of language in a variety of social contexts, environmental print, individual journals, wall newspapers, and other explorations of language, reading and writing, should be supported within a literacy and language-rich contextual approach. 3. Emphasize teaching within the zone of proximal development. This requires knowledge and sensitivity to each individual child’s current level of progress within each domain, and “capitalizing on momentary instructional opportunities” (p. 115). The use of emergent curriculum is particularly suited for this approach (Jones and Nimmo, 1994). However, teachers must remember that the ZPD is unique to each child, and is never the same for an entire class. 4. Make the classroom a community of learners. The development of a classroom community where children and adults work in joint partnership in culturally meaningful activities is at the heart of the Vygotskian approach (Moll, 1990). The

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

136

Francis Wardle classroom should be a warm supportive and safe environment for risk-taking, exploring, and extending the limits of each child’s zone of proximal development. Box 6.2. Reflective Thinking: Focus on Language

Much of Vygotsky’s theory focuses on the use of language in learning and development. How should classrooms with children who do not speak English use language in Vygotsky’s approach? Should they focus on the child’s home language, or on English? Further, does this emphasis on language short-change children who, according to Gardner’s eight intelligences, do not have verbal and linguistic strengths (Gardner, 1983)? (Remember, boys in general are often behind girls in language development [Berger, 2009]} Also, Bruner (1983) has suggested that children naturally progress through three stages of representation – enactive, iconic and then symbolic (language). Does Vygostky’s focus on language force children to move too soon to symbolic representation, especially children who may be somewhat delayed in their verbal abilities, or who are from cultures that emphasize enactive (physical) and iconic representation over verbal processing?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Structure for Learning Much like the High/Scope approach (see chapter3), the Vygotsky approach focuses on individual and small group activities. Large groups are used to develop and articulate rules, introduce broad concepts, show children how to use the learning centers and other learning opportunities, and to plan the day. Sometimes large groups are used to conclude the day’s activities. The majority of experiences are small group and individual activities at various learning or activity centers, and participating in various projects. Often, however, activities that begin in these centers mushroom into combining a variety of areas, and even become an entire classroom activity, such as creating a theme-based fair, exploring the same idea in every center, expanding to include the playground and even neighborhood (i.e. the school campus) and including parents and community volunteers. Individual activities involve children interacting with curricular materials, either created by themselves or by others. Children are encouraged to transfer skills they have learned through social discourse and interaction with visual, symbolic and written forms.

Teacher-Child Involvement Several innovative ideas have been developed to maximize Vygotsky’s concepts as they apply to teacher-child interactions. These interactions can be used with children of any age. They include, 1. Reciprocal teaching. In this process a group of one teacher and two to four students explore a text together. Initially the teacher models and scaffolds the children’s learning of the text; eventually the teacher reduces her involvement, and each member of the team takes a turn leading the discussion. For infants this will simply

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky

137

be turning the pages, pointing to objects, and labeling each object; for older children elaborate discussions and recollections of personal experiences related to the text will take place. Scaffolding is facilitated through the use of cognitive strategies of questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting. 2. Inquiry method. This approach can be used to teach a variety of content, and focuses on the idea of dialoging about the activity and its content. To engage in this process, important classroom conditions must exist: listening to each other’s ideas, expressing one’s own ideas clearly, cooperative problem solving, persisting at difficult tasks, and trying to find consensus regarding solutions (Berk and Winsler, 1995). This approach stresses how learning occurs through interactions (teacher-student, studentstudent), and how to build knowledge through a collective, collaborative problemsolving process, as opposed to individual learning. Children and teachers work together to develop shared knowledge and understanding of the content being covered. The role of the teacher is complex, and includes articulating different interpretations and solutions, helping children learn to work together in small groups, facilitating discussions about the content, supporting productive ideas, reframing student contributions in more sophisticated language, and helping children come to shared agreements. Thus students – with expert teacher assistance – create knowledge collectively. 3. Creating a literate classroom. In a literate classroom the teacher engages in a variety of activities that involve sophisticated use of oral language, reading, writing and thematic approaches to learning. In each setting the teacher and students collaborate together as a group – a social system in which children learn through collective, interrelated zones that are mutually and actively created by teachers and children (Moll, 1990). According to Moll and Whitmore (1993), in the literate classroom the teacher serves as a guide and supporter: an active participant in learning, a facilitator, and an evaluator. While it is easier to imagine the literate classroom for preschool and school age children, this approach can also be used with infants and toddlers. In this approach teachers are sensitive to children’s interests and zones of proximal development regarding language acquisition and use, and are aware of their interests and involvement in picture books and print-rich materials. Children are encouraged to explore language and books together, at their developmental age within their zones of proximal development. Various activities that encourage writing – scribbling, painting, finger painting, etc., also develop a child’s early literacy (Wardle, 2003).

Child-Child Interactions Vygotsky believed that ‘the expert’ who assists the learner within the zone of proximal development can be an adult (parent or teacher) or a child. Thus, for the Vygotsky approach, understanding child-child interaction is critical. For Vygotsky, cognitive and social development occur as children collaborate with peers ([1930-35] 1978; [1934] 1962). According to Vygotsky, children can scaffold the learning of other children, within the learner’s zone of proximal development. This occurs when children work together intersubjectively – when they collaborate together toward a common goal. Often children have pretty good intersubjectivity skills, because their similar ages and developmental levels

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

138

Francis Wardle

place them much closer to the learner’s ZPD than that of an adult. This closeness not only increases their intersubjectivity, but also improves scaffolding because they remember the particular scaffolding that helped him learn the specific task or skill. Collaboration is increased when teachers help children develop the social skills needed for peer collaboration, organize the learning environment, and reduce their own direct involvement in the activity. Mixed-age grouping appears to encourage the child-child interactions that contribute to social and cognitive development, because in mixed-age groups children who are slightly above or below their own zone of proximal development are encouraged to learn for each other (Rogoff, 1990). The older, more expert children befit by developing the use of private speech to assist the other children, which they then can use to regulate and scaffold their own social behavior and learning, and by practicing newly acquired skills with their less expert peers (Berk and Winsler, 1995; Katz, Evangelou and Hartman, 1990). Mixed-age environments also provide more diverse and socially integrated play experiences, with peers interacting at different cognitive and social play levels (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005).

Other Ideas for Using Vygotsky in the Classroom

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

In the book, Tools of the Mind (1996), Bodrova and Leong discuss a variety of additional activities for the classroom that utilize some of Vygotsky’s concepts. They specifically focus on the zone of proximal development and the role of the teacher as the expert. “Our aim is to help teachers think through how to foster independent performance” (p. 137). The following examples are based on ideas from this book (Bodrova and Leong).

Block Building For this activity to be most effective for young children, it needs to be a shared activity. This means that children must be involved in creating the same structures and using the same language to discuss their activity. The activity begins with the children describing what they want to build. This will, of course, change during the activity. The teacher should help the group of children work together on one project, and help the chidlren regulate each other’s behavior with the central goal of achieving the task.. The teacher helps the students talk through the planning and building process. Further, as they work together, the teacher will help children build structures to meet the criteria of their plan. For example, if they are building a city, they need buildings, roads and parks. If it’s a house and a garage for the toy cars and miniature people, then these structures need to be big enough for them to fit inside. Children can also use colored pieces of paper cut out in the shape of blocks to ‘plan’ their construction; or they can do a drawing of what they would like the finished construction to look like. Older children can use squared graph paper for planning, or use computergenerated plans. Then, as they build, they go back and forth between the concrete manipulations and the higher-level abstractions and planning. To evaluate progress of block building, teachers should consider these questions, •

Is there growth in the child’s plan? In the use of different materials to assist in the planning?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky • • • •

139

Is there growth in the child’s ability to engage in cooperative activities? Is there growth in the complexity of the construction? Is there growth in the child’s ability to take on different roles and implement the plan? How much teacher support is needed?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Making Patterns Engaging in pattern making is an important math activity for all students. The activity begins with the teacher demonstrating simple patterns in reading books, building, drawing, cooking, music, dance, gardening, science, cars in the parking lot, art, woodwork, and so on. Obviously, as children learn simple patterns, they can then progress to learn more complex ones – more items, more repetitions and complexity within items, and patterns that become more sophisticated (ie, AB, AABB, AAABBB; ABAB, ABCABC, and so on). Here are some pattern-making ideas, 1. Transfer patterns from one material to another, i.e., after making a necklace with beads, repeat the pattern with macaroni or buttons; 2. Translate the patterns from one medium to another. For example, an ABAB pattern can first be illustrated with long and short unit blocks, then with loud and soft drumbeats, then with musical notations. 3. Help children translate patterns from the concrete to the symbolic: by drawing the items from the pattern, representing them in cutout form, using them to create an image on photographic paper, or using verbal descriptions (i.e. loud, soft; long, short, etc). 4. Have children continue a pattern begun by a teacher or peer, or repeat the entire sequence. Help children verbally describe the pattern and what they did to extend it (and what they can do to extend it further). 5. Encourage children to see patterns in their everyday world: plates on the table; windows in the building; chairs stacked in hallway, products on the grocery store shelves, the school’s annual schedule, the patterns of the day and the week, etc. 6. Discover patterns in nature: the metamorphosis of the butterfly, the reproduction of birds (egg, gestation of the egg, chick, bird, etc). To evaluate learning of this activity, determine, • • •

Can the child complete a pattern, label a pattern, finish a pattern, and create a pattern? Do these patterns become more complex and sophisticated over time? Is there growth in the child’s ability to translate patterns from one material, medium, or symbolic system to another, or from concrete to iconic and then to symbolic? Is there growth in the child’s ability to verbalize and communicate a pattern to another person?

Dramatic Play Any child-generated theme or theme from movies, stories, fieldtrips, and so on, works well to stimulate dramatic play. Children should be encouraged to explain verbally what the

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

140

Francis Wardle

dramatic play will be about, even if they do not adhere to the original script. Play should extend over several days, and at the end of each day plans should be made for the next day. The next day should begin with a review of what has been accomplished, along with revisions for future plans. Older children can write down the plans and scripts, design the environment, and write out lists of needed props, etc. Teachers should intervene in the dramatic play when these things occur (or don’t occur); interventions should follow the scaffolding ideas already discussed, • • • • • • •

Children are not talking to each other A specific child is excluded from the activity Few distinctive roles emerge and children forgo the planning stage Children do not engage in fantasy play Children do not use objects symbolically Isolated themes are used, rather than an overriding idea with smaller sub-themes Children do not seem to know how to use drawing and writing to plan and record their activities.

To evaluate learning during dramatic play, observe whether, • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • •

There is growth in children’s use of symbolic objects, and also thier ability to use more sophisticated symbols; There is growth in the language used in play; for older children there is growth in the use of art, writing and other ways to represent the play’s process; Complexity and range of play have expanded; The number of roles children adopt during play have expanded Whether there is growth in a child’s ability to extend play over several days, and whether the child plans her play activity; for older students, how other themes in the curriculum are incorporated and extended within the dramatic play episode (Bodrova and Leong, 1996).

All of these activities involve children learning from each other (language, emotional regulation, play), extending and expanding their use of language, trying out different roles, cognitively moving from manipulation of concrete materials and actions to symbolic symbols and actions, and using art and writing to plan and record activities. The teacher’s role is to initiate, scaffold, extend, model, and evaluate learning (Bodrova and Leong, 1996).

CONCLUSION Both Urie Bronfenbrenner and Lev Vygotsky were interested in the various contexts in which learning occurs, is supported and reinforced. Bronfenbrenner proposed an ecological systems approach of influence on children’s growth and learning, beginning with the family and expanding out to overall cultural and historical contexts. He viewed these various contextual impacts much like the concentric rings of Russian Nesting Dolls. On the other hand, Vygotsky proposed a sociocultural theory, where the very nature of culturally mediated

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Contexts: Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky

141

human interactions define both the structure and content of a child’s mind, and the way they interact with others. The medium for both of these impacts for Vygotsky is language, and the structure, meaning and content of language are culturally defined. Early childhood and school approaches consistent with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory stress program-home collaboration, support government and business polices that encourage parents to be more involved with their children’s education programs, and encourage the elevation of teachers’ pay, benefits, and status in society. Programs that support a Vygotsky approach encourage project learning, development of classroom communities, mixed-age grouping, a focus on individual and small-group activities and a literate classroom, and stress the role of the teacher as a collaborator, facilitator, and scaffolder, as opposed to an authoritarian disseminator of rules, knowledge, information and the truth.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1. Visit three classrooms: preschool, 1st grade and 5th grade. Evaluate each on the Vygotsky view of the role of the teacher in learning. How is each classroom the same; how are they different? 2. Interview a teacher of a preschooler, 1st grader and 5th grader. Ask each of them to give you their opinion of mixed-age grouping of children, at least for part of the school day. How does this compare with what Vygotsky suggests regarding the value of mixed-age activities? 3. Many of Bronfenbrenner’s ideas can be seen in the federal Head Start Program. How could the implementation if his ideas improve public elementary school programs? 4. Since language is central to Vygotsky’s view of development, how would Vygotsky view bilingual education programs? Which bilingual programs would be most effective from a Vygotsky perspective? 5. Select either Bronfenbrenner’s or Vygotsky’s theory, and discuss how it applies to a quality infant/toddler program.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 7

REGGIO EMILIA

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION In this book a variety of international early childhood and elementary education approaches, both old and new, are discussed. Some, like Froebel’s Kindergarten and Montessori, eventually were adopted in many countries, including the US, while others, like the French ecole maternelle, are only popular in their own country. But, of all the international early childhood approaches, the Reggio Emilia approach is currently the most popular in academic early education circles today, in this country and throughout the world. In 1991, Newsweek Magazine identified Reggio Emilia as the best early childhood program in the world, and in 1993 Carolyn Edwards, Lella Gandini and George Foreman edited the seminal book, The Hundred Languages of Children: The Reggio Emilia Approach to Early Childhood Education (since then a second edition has been published [1998]). These events helped to publicize this early childhood approach, along with the traveling exhibit, The Hundred Languages of Children, which first appeared in North America in 1987. Since then thousands of educators from around the world have visited the Municipal Preschools of Reggio Emilia, in Northern Italy. The Reggio Emilia philosophy is based on ideas from John Dewey, Vygotsky and Piaget, child development research, and much of the same theoretical foundation of many of the other approaches discussed throughout this book. Additionally, Reggio Emilia is deeply influenced by European and Italian history and culture, and is supported by the social commitment of Italian society to adequately support quality programs for children and families. The chapter begins with a short explanation of the history and unique philosophy of the Reggio Emilia approach, and then describes in detail some of the critical components of the Reggio Emilia approach: the use of space and the environment, the importance of time and projects, and the role of student documentation. There is then a short discussion of how other programs wishing to adopt the best ideas from Reggio can go about this process, followed by a description the Boulder Journey School, a Reggio Emilia school in Boulder, Colorado.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

144

Francis Wardle

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. To what extent is the Reggio Emilia approach a natural outgrowth of Italian traditions, culture and society? 2. What are the philosophical underpinnings of Reggio Emilia? Are these uniquely Italian or are they based on wider sources? 3. Can the fundamental components of the Reggio Emilia approach be transferred effectively to American early childhood programs and elementary schools? What are the potential barriers to implementing a Reggio Emilia type of program (early childhood or elementary school) in the United States? 4. To what extent is Reggio Emilia similar to other approaches discussed in this book, such as Dewey and British Infant/Primary programs? And, if there are such close similarities, what accounts for Reggio Emilia’s universal popularlity today among educational professionals throughout the world? 5. Documentation is central to the Reggio Emilia approach. What is documentation, and why is it important? What are different forms of documentation? How can documentation address the thorny issue of the assessment of young children?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY Reggio Emilia is a town located on the ancient Roman road, Via Emilia. The Apennine Mountains to the south and the Alps to the north border the region in which the town is located. This region of four million people is the largest and wealthiest region in Italy, and is rich in culture, art, architecture, agriculture and tourism (Cadwell, 1997). In this part of Italy social services for families and children are well developed, comprehensive, and well subsidized by the national government (Italian Department of Education, 1990). Efforst to provide important social supports for families and young children in Italy began in 1820. Later, after World War II, local initiatives to provide various programs for children and families developed in Italy and were supported by the government. The national government gave local municipalities money to help rebuild after the war, and in the town of Villa Cella, near Reggio Emilia, the community decided to use this federal money to build a school. Thus, in 1946 the Reggio Emilia phenomenon was born. Parents and local citizens also used funds from the sale of a WW II tank, trucks, and some horses, to fund the first schools (Gandini, 1993). From its inception, a local teacher by the name of Loris Malaguzzi guided the endeavor of parents and educators in developing and creating the unique Reggio Emilia philosophy and practice. The Reggio Children’s network (an official supportive organization based in Reggio Emilia, Italy [see resources]) includes Canada, Greenland, Mexico, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Chile, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Spain, United Kingdom, Holland, Germany, Belgium, Israel, Switzerland, France, Portugal, Tanzania, Senegal, India, Nepal, China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, the US, and many other countries. Figure 7.1. Reggio Emilia Worldwide. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

145

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

During the 1950s in Italy, the importance of education and the progressive ideas of Celestine Freinet and John Dewey produced the development of the Movement of Cooperative Education, which was headed by Bruno Ciari, who was appointed to lead the local city school system in the region (Edwards, Gandini and Foremen, 1998). Ciari’s writings had a profound impact on education throughout Italy. He believed that education should liberate children and develop their social, communicative and affective domains, and that schools should work closely together with families and communities. Further, he believed that school staff should work collaboratively and collectively in carefully designed educational spaces that are meticulously cared for (Cadwell, 1997). Many other regions in Italy also used the money given to them from the government after the war and money donated from educational foundations to create high quality municipal early education programs. However, the schools of Reggio Emilia are particularly innovative, and include the atelier (studio/workshop), atelierista (studio teacher), a pedagogical team, involvement of elected officials, and a commitment to research, communication and documentation (Edwards, et al., 1998). In the 1960s a law was passed in Italy providing for free education for all children 3 to 6 years old, as a downward extension of the already available public schools; in 1971 this law was extended to infants and toddlers (Gandini, 1993). Further, in Italy there is a general belief that education and social services should go hand in hand to support the growth, development and education of young children, so national approaches to meeting the needs of families and young children are comprehensive and continuous (Gandini, 1993). Today in Italy 90% of children 3 to 6 years old attend some kind of early childhood program: municipal, national or private (Gandini, 1993). The town of Reggio Emilia presently supports 22 preschools and 13 infant/toddler centers. Families who wish to attend these schools are accepted based on a point system that prioritizes need (i.e, single-parent families have more points than two-parent families). At age 6 years old the children transition to the local state – run public school system.

Philosophical Underpinnings The basic educational and psychological underpinnings of Reggio Emila originated in the United States and Europe (Gandini, 1993). Major theorists such as John Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky and other European scientists were carefully studied and included in the development of the approach. Further, according to Lella Gandini, American research on child development and learning was carefully studied and used in subsequent years to continually develop the Reggio Emilia approach. These philosophical and scientific ideas were molded within the Italian cultural framework (for example, the Italian view of time and space), and the national and local government’s subsidizing of quality, comprehensive programs for children and families. Further, the basic belief of combining and partnering educational and social services within the same agencies is very evident in the Reggio Emilia approach. The basic principles of the Reggio Emilia approach can be outlined under these beliefs (Gandini, 1993): •

The image of the child (see figure 7.2). Teachers construct and design their work and activities to respond to this powerful view of the child. The teacher assists and supports the child’s internal motivation to grow and learn.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

146

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

147

“In Reggio the child is viewed as strong, powerful, rich in potential, driven by the power of wanting to grow, and nurtured by adults who take this drive towards growth seriously” (Wurm, 2005, p. 16). Children have curiosity, are interested in constructing their own learning, and in engaging in social interactions (Gandini, 1993). Figure 7.2. The Image of the child.

•

•

•

•

•

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

•

•

• •

Children’s relationships and interactions. Educations must focus on each child’s relationships to other children, the family, teachers, and to the environment, school and community. A system must be in place to encourage these relationships. The three subjects of education. Children’s well being, the well being of parents, and the well being of the teachers are all important and all influence each other and the education and welfare of the child. Further, children have basic rights, including the right to quality education and care. The role of parents. Parental participation is essential: day-to-day interaction with teachers, discussion with staff about education and psychological issues, fieldtrips and celebrations. An amiable school. The school is designed in such a way to encourage desired behaviors and learning: problem solving, group dynamics, working independently and with teachers, and using private, individual spaces, etc. Time is not set by the clock. Children’s own sense of time and their personal rhythms are considered in planning and implementing learning opportunities. The daily schedule is flexible and encourages students to complete tasks; because teachers stay with the same group of children for their entire stay in the program, they learn each child’s unique sense of time and personal rhythms. Teachers as partners. Teachers consider themselves partners in learning with the children; they experiment, observe, hypothesize, conduct research, and problem solve together and with the children. Cooperation as the foundation of the system. Teachers work in equal pairs, and teachers and other staff throughout the school work together as a collegial team. Teachers are continually engaged in research and planning, aided by a pedagogista, who supports cooperation between teachers, parents, and community and city administrators. The interdependence of cooperation and organization. Cooperation is deliberately and carefully supported by structures and systems. The high level of cooperation that exists in Reggio Emilia schools is due to thoughtful organization and planning. Cooperation is a highly valued aspect of the school, and is constantly strived for. The emergent curriculum. Teachers articulate general goals and possible directions they will take, with adequate preparation for all possible experiences. The curriculum then emerges though children’s observations and interests, and teachers scaffolding, enhancing and differentiating. Projects. Projects are at the center of the curriculum. Projects start from different places, and can last from a few days to a few months. Atelierista and Atelier. In every school a teacher trained in the visual arts works closely with the teachers and the children. Called an atelierista, this teacher works

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

148

Francis Wardle

•

out of a studio, called an atelier, which is well equipped with a vast array of resources, materials and tools. The power of documentation. The process of children’s learning and the products of the children’s work are carefully arranged and displayed by students, teachers and the atelierista. These panels serve many functions, including communication to parents, valuing children’s learning, and enabling teachers to evaluate their own work (Gandini, 1993).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Another way to view the philosophy of Reggio Emila is to examine the roles of the child, the teacher, the evironment, and the parent, and finally to explain the critical role of documentation. Figure 7.3 presents these fundamentals of the Reggio Emilia approach. The child as protagonist. Children are competent, rich, capable, and able to use the environment to construct their learning The child as collaborator. Children are viewed as collaborators with other children, staff, parents, and the community, and the emphasis is on working and learning in small groups. It is believed that children form their view of themselves and learn through interactions with others. The child as communicator. This is the basis of the famous idea of the 100 Languages of Children: the notion that children learn best by representing what they know and are knowing through a variety of ways, including words, pictures, dance, music, sculpture, dramatic play, etc. The environment as third teacher. The environment has order, beauty and purpose, which helps children discover, communicate and be valued, without unnecessary teacher intervention. The teachers as a partner, nurturer and guide. Teaches support children’s learning in partnerships that focus on open-ended discovery and problem solving. Teachers listen to and observe children, and model the inquiry method of learning. The teacher as researcher. Teachers work in pairs while maintaining collegial relationships with all the staff. Teachers see themselves as researchers continually improving what they are doing and how they are working with children; children are also viewed as researchers. A pedagogista works together with the staff in this endeavor. The documentation as communication. Learning and the process followed in learning are carefully documented in transcripts, photographs, and products. These are then presented in carefully created panels or books. These documents communicate to parents what is happening, show children their learning is valued, help staff better understand how children learn, and provide a visual history of the learning and experiences that have occurred in the school. The parent as partner. Teachers solicit ideas from parents in developing ideas and projects for the children. Parents play an active role in supporting the learning of their children, and in developing ideas by interacting with the staff. Figure 7.3. Fundamental Ideas of the Reggio Emilia Approach. (Adapted from Cadwell, 1997).

SPACE AND THE ENVIRONMENT Space in Reggio Emilia Space is the physical structures and features in which the child experiences education: buildings, playgrounds, bathrooms, parking lots, and so on. Environments speak to how this

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

149

space is ordered and arranged for children to use, grow and experience. The space provides the scaffold or framework within which the environment is created, changed and adapted. Space limits or enhances the environment (Wurm, 2005).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Space Reflects the View of the Child The use of space expresses the Reggio Emilia view of the child (see figure 7: 2). This view drives everything in the program, including the way the space is designed (Wurm, 2005). For example, in a Reggio Emilia building the bathrooms are places where children meet in comfortable surroundings. They are child-friendly and child-sized: sinks within easy reach, mirrors that tilt so small children can see themselves, documentation panels hung at the child’s level, a shell collection to play with, and a big, overstuffed chair for children to sit together and read. There are plants and mirrors and sinks children can access without the help of an adult. Some children go into the bathroom stalls in pairs (Wurm, 2005). Space in Reggio Emilia Schools Space in Reggio Emilia schools is made up of the classroom, hallways, the outdoor spaces, entrances, eating areas, common courtyard, bathrooms and the kitchen. When these spaces are originally designed the needs of the children are carefully considered: low windows to look out of, outdoor lighting, good places to eat, lots of fresh air, and a design that encourages a sense of community (Wurm, 2005). There are no hallways as we know them, and many low windows that produce an ample amount of natural light and a feeling of being outdoors while actually being indoors. Rooms connect to each other without hallways in between, which help to develop connections and a sense of community. All the schoolrooms open into a square or courtyard, which is used as a common meeting space and is the heart of the school. This is very similar to schools, early childhood programs and community buildings for other chidlren’s programs in Brazil - private, public and religious (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). Doors between the classrooms and courtyards are left open to allow the natural flow of air and people; some buildings do not even have complete walls between the classroom and courtyard. Roof overhangs often cover part of this central courtyard. In both Brazil and Italy this wonderful way of creating a building around a center courtyard is possible because of the climate, and is also a function of a more social and communal society (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). The windows in the Reggio buildings open horizontally. The overall school space is designed by teachers and architects collaboratively. Teachers are carefully consulted to assist in this process. Each Reggio Emilia school includes these significant spaces: • • • • •

Atelier (studio – where the teachers, students and the atelierista work); Kitchen; Group meeting space – this space is also often used as a lunchroom and parent meeting room; Entryways. Classrooms

Every classroom includes a construction area, an art area, a house/dress-up area, tables for a variety of games, and bulletin board space. Document panels exist throughout the Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

150

Francis Wardle

school, including the bathroom, as has already been mentioned. Some schools have computers.

Changing the Space Teachers continually examine all the spaces in the program, determine how well these spaces are working, and then make alterations and improvements. They ask if the space works well for children, families and teachers; then they ask parents what they want and explore solutions with the use of architects and consulting various design magazines. All spaces are examined in this way. For example, Wurm (2005) recalls an occasion when the teachers were dissatisfied with the way the construction space (the area where children engage in complex construction projects) was being used. First they examined and documented how the space was being used, and determined it was used primarily by boys, individually and in small groups, and for short periods of time. They wanted it to be used by more girls, larger groups, and for longer periods of time. Thus it would need to be changed (see continuity and change, later in this section). The first change they made was to create a nature scene backdrop behind the area, which resulted in children extending their building from just building horizontally to building vertically, using the scene as a backdrop. The teachers then brought in a slide projector to continually change the backdrop. Groups of girls responded to the trees and flowers in the slides by building together in the space, and children began to stay in the area for longer periods of time. In making these changes to the space, teachers modeled how they expect children to learn: asking questions, hypothesizing, testing, making changes, and then examining the results of these changes (Wurm, 2005).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Environments The environment is the feeling conveyed when we enter a building, a room, or a space in the room – sounds, smells, warm or cold, inviting or unpleasant. It involves scents, movement of air and light, sounds, colors, and the arrangement of materials and furniture (Wurm, 2005). When a person enters a Reggio school it is open, airy, and clean; materials are at the child’s level, and enticing – colorful, orderly, and accessible. The environment communicates to everyone the value of children and the Reggio Emilia image of the child. The environment is designed in such a way that it encourages children to explore and discover all of its possibilities, while also helping children learn about the environment’s intrinsic dangers. But it is not designed to prevent accidents; it is designed so children learn how to use the environment responsibly and safely. It must be carefully and deliberately planned. According to Wurm, one way to understand the use of the environment within the Reggio philosophy is to examine the environment from four different points of view, • • • •

The environments as a 3rd teacher; Continuity and change; Public versus private spaces; Care and cleaning (2005).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

151

The Environment as a Third Teacher This is the concept that the environment supports students’ efforts in pursuing their interests and explorations without the need of adult help and intervention. The environment is set up and organized to help the children manage their own learning – materials, space and time. When new children come to Reggio they initially find the apparent freedom of the Reggio approach difficult. The Reggio environment is designed to encourage children to follow their interests and construct and engage in their learning with minimal teacher direction and control. However, it is not a free-for-all; children are expected to become engaged, involved, and self-directed, and teaches sometimes have to help them in these endeavors.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Continuity and Change Products and documentation created by children are displayed throughout the building in a variety of panels and displays. Further, documentation from previous classes are also displayed, which represent a history of many children who have experienced this space in a variety of constructive and educational ways. These documentations and projects remain as long as children and teachers wish; however, when a new group of children desires to use the space for something else, then it can be adapted, changed, or even replaced. There is a constant balance between continuity and change, history and the present. From an American perspective, this may also be considered a part of the European cultural value of a rich, carefully treasured history, and a present reality and future that is built from this legacy. Public v. Private Space Children have individual cubbies where they store their own, private things. However, when these objects are brought into public spaces and become part of the public domain, they must be shared. Children learn this distinction; when children take items from other children’s cubbies, a public discussion ensues, and children learn about the need to respect private spaces and what is kept in them. Children begin to develop the understanding of the societal distinction between public and private space and public and private property, and the distinction between private and public responsibility. This is, of course, critically important in raising future citizens who need to be able to care for their own private possessions and also to respect, treasure and protect communal property. Again, one might argue that in Europe there is more emphasis on developing this distinction than there is in the cultures of the United States, Mexico, Brazil and other newer societies. Care and Cleaning The Reggio Emilia environment is regularly and very carefully cleaned. Surfaces are washed and dusted, and cloth materials washed weekly. The school is treated as the kind of place that children deserve – clean, aesthetic, carefully cared for and maintained. Further, materials that need constant care are used, as opposed to only materials that rarely need to be cleaned or maintained. This enables the spaces to have a homelike feel, yet maintains the cleanliness and hygiene required of a building where many young children are cared for and educated (Wardle 2003). It also sends the message to children of the value of homemade and craft materials and equipment.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

152

Francis Wardle Box 7.1. Reflective Thinking: Reggio Emilia and Montessori

Both the Montessori method and the Reggio Emilia approach are uniquely Italian inventions. Montessori’s approach developed in the slums of Rome during the beginning of the 20th century; Reggio Emilia developed in the small, financially comfortable towns of the North of Italy after WWII. Both approaches emphasize the careful and deliberate use of the environment, the role of the teacher, and multiage grouping. In what other ways are they the same, and in what ways are they different? How can you account for these similarities and differences? To what extent are the similarities simply a function of the Italian - and to some extent, European - culture? Do you think Reggio Emilia will become as popular worldwide as the Montessori method? Why/ why not?

TIME AND PROJECTS IN REGGIO EMILIA PROGRAMS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Time Time in Italy, like other European countries (with the possible exception of England) and South American cultures, is much more relaxed and flexible than it is in the United States. There is no rush, day planners do not dictate behavior and schedules, and there is the feeling that tomorrow is as good as today to complete a project or assignment (Wurm, 2005). Mealtimes are valuable social activities, and lunch is followed by rest time (siesta), during which time businesses are closed (Wardle, 2003). Lunch can extend well into the afternoon. Time spent with family and friends is considered valuable above all else. This approach to time is present in Italy to varying degrees, and is in strict contrast to the America concept of the value of time, schedules, deadlines, task completion and eating on the run. It is also reflected in the view of time in Italian and American early childhood and school programs, such as each country’s approach to the daily and weekly schedule (Wardle, 2005). In Reggio Emilia programs there is an overall daily schedule, with predictable events that students do each day, which students can anticipate and use to structure their day, such as the initial assembly, fruit (snack), projects, lunch, rest, and pickup. But the overall daily schedule is very fluid and elastic, and teachers gently and softly move children into scheduled activities (Wurm, 2005). A strict clock schedule does not dictate activities or experiences; time is almost suspended to allow children to pursue activities to their logical end or to a logical place to pause, and to allow relationships to develop to their fullest potential. Projects do not have to be completed at a given time; things unfold and blossom at their own pace.

Example of a Daily Schedule The daily schedule for children in Reggio programs is highly flexible and spontaneous. Here is one example of such a schedule, based on Wurm, (2005): Drop off - 7:30 am Children arrive and play freely. This is a very informal time when children are dropped off and parents can chat with a staff person or play with their children before they go on to work.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

153

Assembly - 9 am approximately The class share some fruit to begin the day, and then discuss the possible educational projects for the day. The assembly for 3-year-olds might be just 15 minutes long; the assembly for older children is longer – for five-year olds lasting 45 minutes of more. Teachers use the assembly to follow-up on discussions about things that have occurred earlier, and to introduce ideas and potential projects for the day. At the end of the assembly students make choices about what they wish to pursue for the rest of the day and for the entire week. (See chapter 5 for a discussion of school-wide meetings in free/open schools). Assembly ends - 9:30 -10 am Project Time - 10 am Here children go to the area for the activity they chose at the assembly and engage in their project of choice. They may decide to change midmorning to work with other students on another project, or they might be invited by a teacher to engage in an activity in the atelier. Usually right before lunch the class will reconvene to discuss how they spent the morning and what was accomplished. Getting Ready for Lunch - 11:30 am Lunch is a sit down, traditional Italian meal, with several courses. Some of the children assist in preparing the meal and clearing up the lunchroom. Older children serve the younger ones and care for their needs during the meal. Lunch begins at about 11:45.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Prepare for Rest - 12:30 pm All students rest; even the older ones stay on the cots and relax after lunch. This, of course, is consistent with the European siesta. Children get up from their rest, put on their shoes, and have snack - 3:00 - 3:15 pm After rest-time students gather at tables for a snack, while putting on their shoes. They then play freely until being picked up by their families. Pick up begins - 4:00 - 4:30 pm Some children are not picked up until 6 pm. Teachers and parents visit, while children play freely. Parents also view the daily schedules, products and photographs that inform them what has transpired throughout the day.

Wait Time Teachers in Reggio expect new ideas and concepts to take time to develop, blossom and mature. They plant several ideas, possible projects and activities in the minds of the children, and then allow days or even weeks before the same idea or concept is reintroduced or brought up again. Further, teachers understand that individual children adapt to new materials and ideas at different rates, and that children need to explore ideas, possibilities, and challenges together with other children. “Learning does not unfold in a linear fashion. All children have their own meandering paths that collide into one another, pushing each other forward, backward and sideways” (Wurm, 2005, p. 58).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

154

Francis Wardle

Projects Projects are used in a variety of early childhood and elementary school approaches, including John Dewey, the Project Approach, British Infant and Primary programs, and Free/Open Schools (all of which are discussed in chapters in this book). Even highly structured, standards-based curricula often have thematic units. However, the use of projects in the Reggio curriculum needs to be carefully described. Projects are the center of the Reggio curriculum. The Italian word is progettazione (see figure 7.4). According to Wurm (2005), there are four different kinds of projects that staff and students engage in during their experiences in Reggio Emilia schools. These are, Intended Projects, Environmental Projects, Daily Life Projects, and Self-Managed Projects. However, as one might expect, the boundaries between each of these categories are not strict, and projects often start as one kind and develop into another. There are three factors to consider in describing the use of projects in the Reggio Emilia curriculum. These are: 1. 2.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

3.

Acquisition of skills, knowledge and concepts do not occur in a linear, logical way, but rather in stops and starts, web-like trajectories, and even through regression. Constructing knowledge is a social process. This is because other adults and children both support and challenge certain ideas and hypotheses that an individual might have. Thus individual children are forced to revise and restructure their knowledge, based on the input and influence of others, both children and adults. Children create their own hypotheses about how the world works. These hypotheses come out of each child’s experiences, values and unique sense of time. These hypotheses then drive each child’s future learning and experiences.

Words and phases such as planned curriculum and curriculum planning are not suitable for the complex, multifaceted approach to the knowledge gathering process of children in the Reggio Emilia approach. Progettazione describes the complex process of multiple actions, experiences, and dialogues that occur between children and children, and children and adults, in the process of learning (Carlina Rinaldi, 1994, paraphrase). Figure 7.4. The Concept of Progettazione.

Intended Projects Intended projects include the project themes used by every child in every class at school. They evolve over a three-year period. The basic themes are the same from year to year, but are implemented differently by each teacher. Some examples of these intended projects, include: 1. A color theory project, to explore children’s understanding of the theory of color. 2. Introduction to books: reading, being read to, and learning to read.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

155

3. Messages: developing written messages, from visual symbols to sophisticated verbal communication. 4. Exploring ones own identity and the identity of others. 5. Developing and maintaining relationships with others (Wurm, 2005). The projects for these themes are quite basic at the beginning of the school year, but become more complex, sophisticated and detailed as the students progress through the 3year-cycle. These intended projects provide a map or blueprint for teachers, atelierista and the pedagogista to create, develop, expand, and process their overall approach to each topic collaboratively (Wurm, 2005). Students revisit the same theme on a regular basis, with approaches becoming ever-more involved and sophisticated. The way these themes progress and manifest themselves differs from school to school, and from year to year.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Environmental Projects These projects develop in the specific environments within the school: the construction area, house play, art area, spaces for games, and the light table. Projects either develop spontaneously by the children, or emerge from teachers’ observations of children’s development and activities. On most days children choose one of these areas to work in. The teacher-initiated projects are quite deliberate and carefully planned, based on the teachers’ observations of the students interacting in each specific environment. Teachers often include ideas, scripts, questions, new props, etc, based on careful observation of children’s interactions, over time. These areas are used by children every day and provide the opportunity for children to explore literacy, dramatic play, home, community, and gender roles, etc. Daily Life Projects These projects develop spontaneously out of what children see around them in their daily life experiences: something they saw on their way to school, a discussion they had at home, a road construction project outside of the school, and so on. This is the most flexible of all the project concepts. It comes from almost anything. Many of these projects can develop into other kinds of projects, such as the intentional projects. Self-Managed Projects Self-managed projects are short-term projects offered along-side longer projects. Individuals throughout the day can work on these projects. One example is an ongoing metal sculpture where children select items from a pile of resources and add them to the communal sculpture; another is a large, communal “weave” construction (Wurm, 2005). These selfmanaged projects encourage children to interact with different students without direct adult intervention. Children socialize, chat, and engage in constructive activities with their friends. These projects often become a vehicle for children’s social interactions and peer relationships. Self-managed projects are a manifestation of the value of social interaction and friendships evident within the Reggio philosophy.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

156

Francis Wardle

DOCUMENTATION Reggio Emilia schools are known internationally for their approach to documenting students’ work. According to Rinalldi (1994), documentation is a process of gathering evidence and artifacts of what happened in the classroom and school. It includes the process of gathering evidence, collecting and ordering the evidence, reflecting on and analyzing the collection, and finally, the presentation of all that has been collected in very carefully planned panels for others to enjoy. In this way children’s learning is made visible to the children, families, teachers, visitors and the community. Further, the documentation of children’s learning and progress is also highly honored and valued by the school community. Documentation begins with observation. Documentation of student’s work helps teachers develop as practitioners – in understanding children, developing and supporting learning opportunities, and helping children learn though various means. It gives teachers information about themselves and their students, and enables families to appreciate what their children are experiencing in school. Finally, it provides a record of work accomplished by children, over time. These documentations are not just the products that children create and the various steps they go though to accomplish them. They legitimatize and honor the process of learning, growing and developing. They include teachers’ notes, transcriptions of children’s discussions as they problem solve and create, photographs detailing the various processes, and representation of children’s thinking and problem solving in a variety of media (Cadwell, 1997). According to Wurm (2005), documentation is used in Reggio Emilia schools in a variety of ways, including,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • • • • •

•

For children to reflect on their own work – its progress, development, and possible completion; For children to connect to and reflect on other children’s work; For adults to reflect on children’s work and hypothesize about where their work with students might go to next; For families to experience and enjoy the work and exploration of their children, and for families to understand their children’s learning progress; To document children’s growth over time; To develop a complex and detailed picture of the child in all developmental domains – both their current status and progress over time; To provide a resource for the wider community of educators to better understand children’s learning – as data for further research and information for their deliberation and education; To share with a sponsor or the community at large what is happening inside the school (Wurm, 2005, p. 107).

Student assessment and various forms of authentic assessment have been discussed in different chapters throughout this book. One of the great advantages of the Reggio Emilia approach - and one of the specific Reggio ideas other educational models have found considerably helpful and inspirational - is the way the Reggio Emilia use of documentation has, embedded within it, all sorts of authentic assessments. Because the process focuses on documentation and not student assessment, the evaluation is not separate from the overall

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

157

activities and interactions of the children’s daily lives. Further, only one of the functions of documentation is to record student progress, thus making assessment more organic and natural. Finally, because this documentation is conducted on all aspects of the Reggio philosophy, it is totally aligned with the intent and purpose of the overall program: there is no disconnect between curriculum and assessment, as there so often is with other approaches (see figure 7.5).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

There are many ways to categorize the documentation that occurs in Reggio Emilia programs. Julianne Wurm has developed four categories: Everyday Life Things that happen on a regular basis at school, and include, Notes from each day of the class Collections of funny comments from children throughout the year Birthdays Daily agendas Products of Projects Individual projects that develop out of the interests of students or teachers. These include, Students’ explorations of angels, including words and drawings Students’ graphic representations of their school Students’ visual representations of their interpretation of the smell of fire. Works in Progress Documentation of events that developed from students’ experiences at home or in the classroom. Teachers use these to help them evaluate their children’s learning. A reflection of a student’s ideas about conflict and how these ideas changed over time. Looking towards elementary school. Intended Projects Documentation of intended projects, over time. Examples include: Giving oneself and others identity Bookmarks Graphics (Wurm, 2005, p. 108-109). Figure 7.5. Forms of Documentation.

Possible Products Students are involved in finding ways to present their own products and to document their own record of learning. Developing a critical eye begins at this stage. Teachers work with the students to help select their best work. Part of this process is for the teacher to record the child’s own sense of importance and empowerment in their learning, their own judgment of their progress, and the child’s critical thinking skills. Possible student products include: • • •

Wall panels, with or without a narrative Booklets Pasteboards

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

158

Francis Wardle • • • • • •

Student work assembled on cards Books Student portfolios of drawings and paintings Paintings or drawings on matte board Videos CD of photographs or music (Wurm, 2005, p. 110).

A variety of tools are used to document students’ learning. These include all sorts or writing materials, a laptop computer, video and print photography – 35mm, digital, disposable and/or Polaroid, and tape recorders for sound recordings. The value of the Reggio documentation process is that it is truly authentic assessment that includes student input. Student input is critical because it gives each student the sense of importance in evaluating their own learning, and empowers them with a sense of control. Students learn to take responsibility for their own learning and growth. It only makes sense that a philosophy which focuses on student initiative and that honors the image of the child, would also include authentic student assessment of their own learning.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Adaptation to the Reggio Emilia Approach to Different Settings and Cultures Schools and early childhood programs, worldwide, are continually trying to improve. One way they do this is by adapting ideas from what they consider to be successful programs. However, originators of the Reggio Emilia approach warn against trying to copy the approach en masse and transferring it to other places, cultures and settings. They do, however, believe ideas from Reggio Emilia can be, and should be, used to stimulate change and improvement in a variety of other educational systems, programs and schools (Valentine, 1999). There are many ways to go about this adaptation process. Below is the approach used by Early Years Education in Scotland to evaluate and improve their own national early childhood programs, though the comparison and use of ideas from Reggio Emilia (Valentine, 1999).

Reflecting on Current Practice In the enthusiasm and need for change and improvement, there is the danger of throwing out what is good simply for the sake of a new trend (Valentine, 1999). In reflecting on the existing educational practice and model (the one to be improved), Carlina Rinaldi suggests we reflect on these questions, • • • • • •

What do we hope for children? What do we expect for children? What is the relationship between the school and research? What is the relationship between the school and education? What is the relationship between the school, family and society? What is the relationship between the school and life (Rinaldi, 1999).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

159

Physical Features These questions can be considered in reflecting on the current early childhood or school environment, and on contemplating possible ways to change it: • • • •

Do we place enough importance on the use of space in our curriculum organization/planning? In making decisions about the use of space, to what extent do we take account of how children naturally use space? Is the adult’s use of space taken into consideration? How can the organization of space help create a genuine living and working environment for which the child feels responsible? Box 7.2. Reflective Thinking

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Montessori, Waldorf, and British Infant/Primary programs are very that programs which use their name are a true replication of their model. They use a variety of rules and regulations to make sure of this, such as accreditation by an official organization, and specialized, authorized staff training. However, Reggio Emilia takes a very different view, believing that the model cannot be copied, and that all Reggio programs must reflect the unique cultural and community contexts in which they exist. Does this pose a problem? For example, can it dilute the approach? Further, are their unique Reggio characteristics that must exist for a program to be considered one that follows the Reggio Emilia philosophy? Does this really matter, so long as a program is trying to continually improve and meet the needs of their community? What do you think?

Time As has already been suggested, the use of time in an educational program tends to reflect a culture’s view of time. But is this view good for children and learning? Here are some questions to consider in examining the program’s use of time, • • • •

• • •

How do we consider the ‘how’ of children’s learning in curriculum planning? Is there a flexible approach to the curriculum that allows children the time to pursue their own particular interests (Wardle, 2005)? Should practitioners be re-thinking the ‘how’ of their interactions with children? In organizing the daily routine should the approach to working with children be more about their needs and interests, rather than about an adherence to following a schedule (Wardle, 2005)? Are our early childhood and school settings too busy and too cluttered? Is adequate consideration given during the curriculum planning process to the time children require to be reflective about their own learning? Can time be organized in ways that increase adults’ opportunities to be more reflective about the children and about their own practice?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

160

Francis Wardle

Collaboration The Reggio Emilia curriculum planning process stresses collaborative partnerships between teachers and school staff. Does our program have such a climate? • • •

•

Do we place enough importance on making opportunities to meet with other colleagues? Could staff development and training focus more on staff sharing ideas for best practices, rather than more traditional staff training? Because of qualifications and different salaries in most programs, some staff are considered more valued and important than others. How are we attempting to address this issue in our setting? Are traditional staff meetings the most appropriate forum for cooperative and collegial discussions and action?

Partnership with Parents All early childhood programs and schools must find effective ways to work with parents (which is discussed throughout this book). Here are some questions to help examine this critical program component, • • • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

How is day-to-day contact made with families? How are families encouraged to contribute to the life of the school? In organized activities are parents encouraged to take a lead or are they simply expected to attend? What means can we use to encourage contact and create relationships with parents who are unable to make frequent visits to the school? Is a partnership the model we should be aiming for in establishing relationships with parents?

Curriculum A program’s curriculum is based on the program’s educational philosophy (Wiles and Bondi, 2002). How well does our curriculum reflect our philosophy? Is it consistent? •

• • •

How do we take account of the four guiding principles of the Scottish Curriculum Guidelines (or whatever is the underling philosophy of your curriculum) – the best interest of children, the central importance of relationships, the need for all children to be included, and an understanding of the ways in which children learn – in planning and supporting children’s learning In planning for a broad and balanced approach to the curriculum, how do we consider depth in the curriculum? Do we allow children enough time to engage fully with their topic or area of interest? How can we create a context in which children’s interests and curiosities are listened to and legitimized?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

161

The Role of the Adult and Child Education is a human endeavor, and in schools and early childhood programs the human component is made-up of adults and children. The role of both must be carefully examined, • • • • •

What expectations do we have of children in our setting? Children are capable people. Does our approach reflect this? How would you define the adult’s role in relation to children’s learning? To what extent do children play a lead role in their own learning? How effectively are the adults engaging with the children both as companions and as fellow learners?

Documentation As we have discussed in many chapters, assessment of children’s learning is becoming central to many programs’ curricular approaches. To what extent is this positive? What should be the nature of this documentation? • • • • •

What methods are currently being used to document children’s progress in learning? How effectively do we document the process of learning? How can current records of learning be used with children to stimulate future learning? How effectively do current records communicate children’s experiences and learning processes to parents? Do children and parents contribute to the documentation process? (Valentine, 1999)

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

BOULDER JOURNEY SCHOOL As you leave the town of Boulder to the north, and begin to head towards Lyons and Estes Park, home of the beautiful Rocky Mountain National Park, you get a glimpse of a bright yellow playground on the side of the main road. Nestled under a canopy of low trees, and hidden between the road and a housing development, is a tan colored block building, the home of the Boulder Valley School. Over 200 children, infants through Kindergarten, call this school home. In entering the building a visitor is immediately surrounded by a variety of panels, maps, documents, pictures, and communications about the community of Boulder and the school community. Children’s pictures, reproductions of children’s projects, and quotations from Reggio Emilia, are everywhere. One inviting hallway leads through the entire building, and is an invitation for children to create a racetrack (which, apparently, has been done often!) Other spaces flow through rooms, offices, and faculty workspaces with an organized sense of inclusion and community.

Conceptual Framework Boulder Journey School sees itself as a school, “influenced by Reggio Emilia”. They believe Reggio Emilia is a model that uniquely exists in a specific place (Reggio Emilia) in

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

162

Francis Wardle

Italy. And the creators of the school envision the Boulder Journey School as existing within the culture of Boulder, Colorado, and the United States. According to the school’s brochure (Boulder Journey School, n.d.), “The work of the school community has evolved through our dialogue with the educators in Reggio Emilia, Italy, and educators across the country and throughout the world who are inspired by the world-renowned Reggio Emilia Approach to Early Childhood Education. Faculty members belong to the North American Reggio Emilia Alliance, a network of educators, parents and advocates seeking to elevate both the quality of life and the quality of schools for young children” (p. 3). The school places considerable emphasis on the community of learners (students, parents, teachers and the community), “who think reflectively and who collaborate in dialogue with one anther as they… • • • • • •

Explore and discover Organize and interpret information Ask questions and build answers Propose ideas and strategies Make choices and negotiate decisions Develop and test hypotheses

In order to….

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • • • •

Solve problems Define meanings based on values Build new understandings Experience life Generate hypotheses, tests theories and ask more questions Project further investigations…..……..ultimately co-constructing a knowledge base that continues to evolve and grow” (p. 2).

Figure 7.6 is the Boulder Journey School’s statement of their image of the child and their view of the community of learners. Our values are based on a strong image of children as curious, competent and capable of constructing knowledge. From the moment of birth, children are engaged in a search for the meaning of life, seeking to understand the world that surrounds them and the relationships that they form and develop with others in their world. Educators and families acting as partners in the research of the children, seek to encourage, enhance and extend the children’s thinking and learning, thereby creating a community of learners (Boulder Journey School, n.d., p. 2). Figure 7.6. Boulder Journey School.

Overview Children are divided by chronological age, with a classroom for each age, but they have many opportunities to work with children of different ages, doing projects, working in the studio, and playing on the playground. There are 15 classrooms, with the youngest for

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

163

children 3 months old, and the oldest for children over 5 years old. In most classrooms there are two teachers – one, a mentor with a MA degree, the other an intern, with a BA. Some classrooms have 24 students and four teachers. Teachers progress with the children, from year to year, providing consistency, security and trusting relationships. Rooms are expansive, clean, well lit, with a light-colored laminate wood floor, a large window on one side, and walls and furnishings in white, light wood or beige. Entrances to most of the classrooms are from the large, central hallway. The rooms are partly arranged, partly in a state of organic change. Since this is the beginning of the school year, many rooms are waiting for a new group of children to enter and mold to their likening. A three-year-old classroom has an extensive and elaborate set of water-works projects that takes up an entire corner of the room, and that will continue to an ongoing project for this new year. Some projects last a year, some longer. Each room has a distinctive, unique feel to it. It should be noted that the building was designed and constructed before the school’s philosophy shifted to “being influenced by Reggio”. Thus there have been attempts to open up the building, create communal spaces, and provide a sense of ownership and belonging. Toddler and infant rooms include mirrors, cushions, plants, material hanging from the ceiling, areas with low light and shadow, pull-up areas, toys that make noises, stacking utensils and toys, and a vast variety of differently-textured, naturally-made fibers and materials. In the large, central hallway there are many completed projects that children and visitors can explore. These include an extensive project of a Saturn Rocket that fills one entire hallway (Boulder is the home of the University of Colorado, and houses several space industry companies). Another project is a complex series of activities and constructions dedicated to the idea of liberating the classroom hamster. It includes a “Hamster’s Bill of Rights”.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Training Institute The school has created a training institute in collaboration with the University of Colorado at Denver. Students from the university are interns for a year in one of the school’s classrooms, while they pursue a master’s degree in education from the University of Colorado. Each intern explores several research projects within the school, along with meeting more traditional content requirements for their degree. The classroom mentors are members of the North American Reggio Emilia Alliance. This emphasis on training places the Boulder Journey School philosophically close to Montessori, Waldorf and British Infant/Primary schools, that require their teachers to have specialized teacher training and experience. The Boulder Journey School has also instituted a Study Tour Program, which provides opportunities for educators from across the country to have direct experience with the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education (Boulder Journey School, n.d.)

Documentation There are examples of documentation throughout the building: in the classrooms, hallways, entryway, studio, etc. And in each classroom there are thick notebooks, called

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

164

Francis Wardle

Journey Books, which contain documentation of each child’s entire development and progress throughout their experience in the program. These notebooks follow the child as she moves from classroom to classroom. Videos, photographs, product samples, audiotapes, pictures of activities, written work, pictures of projects, and teacher reports, comments, and feedback are contained in these books. These documents are used to communicate with parents and with the greater community, record student’s growth and progress, and provide exploration and research for the teachers. They also provide the information, ideas and data for emergent curricula for each class, group of children and individual child. There is a specific framework and structure each teacher follows to complete the Journey Books – when material should be collected, the type of documentation, and documents that show both growth and areas of weakness, etc. Documentation is the only form of evaluation used for the students at the Boulder Journey School. When children transition from the Boulder Journey School to the local public school, there is no entry-level test they need to take and pass. Because the Boulder Journey School serves very well-educated, middle-class families, the local schools have no concern about the children’s school readiness.

Curriculum

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

“We moved from a thematic, weekly teacher-controlled curriculum approach, to using what children are doing as the beginning of our curriculum”, said Alison Maher, the director of the school (personal communication, 2006). While children have many ideas for projects, activities, and ideas they wish to explore, teachers help the children consolidate these ideas and develop them into the curriculum, considering several factors, • • • • • • •

Ways the community can become involved; Ways parents can become involved; Planning required; Kinds of materials needed; Kinds of activities, involvement, and lessons that the project will generate; Use of the studio; Ways teachers can use the project as part of their own learning, investigations, growth and research.

Many of these activities, projects and explorations originate from teacher’s interests, and areas that teachers wish to explore and investigate with the children. The waterworks project in the 3-year-old classroom is one such example. However, Alison stressed that these ‘projects’ are simply the vehicles that structures the curriculum – that provide the framework for planning, webbing, discussing, investigation, exploration, experimentation, learning to work together, and learning.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

165

Studio and Outdoors The studio is set off at the end of the building. According to Alison, it is not like the studio in Italy, which is placed in the center of everything (personal communication, 2006). But it is a very inviting, well-organized space with a rich collection of art materials, tools, paper, clay, found objects, and a computer. It appears to be a very wonderful workshop for any child! I know I would have loved it as a young child. Because Boulder is in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, the studio also includes many collections of natural objects, including rocks, fossils and various plants. The outdoor areas are used by all the children, teachers and parents, and are not segregated by age. They include typical climbing structures, along with lots of flowers, shrubs, and trees. There are also a variety of delightful areas of shade and privacy for children to meet and play. “The children are engaged in ongoing research, inspired by the world in which they live, as citizens of the Boulder community. Consequently, the Boulder Journey School culture is both a recipient of and a contributor to the culture of the city in which it resides” (Boulder Journey School, n.d. p. 2).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONCLUSION The Reggio Emila approach to early childhood and elementary education is an outgrowth of several intersecting factors, including the Italian social commitment to children and families, the significant financial commitment of the community to quality early childhood and education programs, the overall Italian culture, educational theorists such as John Dewey, Piaget, and Vygotsky, and contemporary research on how children learn and develop. Further, the continual self-reflection and careful updating of the program’s practices is a significant factor in the success of this approach. While the Reggio Emilia approach borrows concepts and ideas from many of the other early childhood and education approaches covered in this book, including Head Start, British Infant/Primary programs, free schools, Bank Street, and Montessori, it seems to have been able to combine all these elements in such a way that it has attracted the attention and admiration of much of the early education community, worldwide. Unique aspects of the Reggio Emilia model include the deliberate and careful design of its buildings and classrooms, the arrangement of the environment to encourage specific behaviors and interactions, its flexible and low-key approach to time and schedules, a threeyear ‘looping’ of students and teachers, a variety of ways to use projects as the primary vehicle for exploration, theory making, and leaning, and the extensive use of documentation to record student growth, articulate teachers’ thinking, and communicate student learning to parents and the community. But maybe the most attractive part of the Reggio approach to much of the rest of the world, especially those of us struggling with content standards, continual high-stakes assessments, and teaching discrete academic skills and tasks, is the the deep belief in each child’s innate capacity to make sense of the world, construct their own knowledge and meaning, and learn and develop.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

166

Francis Wardle

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1. The Reggio Emilia approach combines some of the best elements from Bank Street, John Dewey, Montessori, the Free/Open School movement, and British Infant and Primary approach. Since it is so derivative, why is it so popular and acclaimed by early childhood professionals, worldwide? 2. Visit a private early childhood or elementary education program (tuition-based) and a public one (public school or Head Start). Determine from your observations any aspects of each program that reflects any part of the Reggio Emilia approach. Is the public or private program more like Reggio? Why/why not? 3. What are some ideas that American educators can learn and take from the Reggio approach? What aspects of the approach are uniquely Italian, and cannot be replicated? 4. The Reggio Emilia approach places a great deal of emphasis on documenting children’s thinking, exploration, learning, and development. In many early school approaches in the Untied States and other countries, the focus on assessment is to document whether the child has mastered certain skills by the end of a specific grade or time period. What are some of the advantages of the Reggio Emilia approach, for children, teachers, parents and the community? 5. If you were to develop your own early childhood or elementary school philosophy, without considering the practical aspects of funding and government regulations, what elements would you take from the Reggio Emilia approach? Why? What would you not include, and why?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

RESOURCES Boulder Journey School www.boulderjourneyschool.com Reggio Children www.zerosei.comune.re.it/inter/reggiochildren.htm The Reggio Emilia Approach to Early Years Education. Scottish Consultive Council on the Curriculum. www.ltscotland.org/uk Gandini, L., and Edwards, C. P. (2001). (Eds.). Bambini: The Italian approach to infant /toddler care. New York: Teachers College Press. Edwards, C., Gandini, L., and Foreman, G. (1993/1998). (Eds.). The hundred languages of children. Greenwich, CT: Ablex Publishing Corp. Innovations in Early Education: The International Reggio Exchange. The Merrill-Palmer Institute, 71A East Ferry Ave., Detroit, MI, 49202. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Reggio Emilia

167

100 Languages of Children (1995). (Vidiotape). By S. Lyon. Available from M.S. Lyon, 101 Lombard St., 605W. San Fancisco , CA: 94111.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Hundred Languages of Children: Narrative of the Possible (1987). Contact: Reggio Children USA, 1341 G. Street, NW, Washington , DC: 20005 (202, 265-9090). (exhibit).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 8

THE STANDARDS AND CORE KNOWLEDGE CURRICULAR APPROACHES

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION In this chapter the standards approach to early childhood and elementary curricula is explored, along with the Core Knowledge Curriculum. These approaches cover the age-range from infancy through the end of elementary school. There is some overlap between this chapter and other chapters in the book, particularly chapter 13, Federal and State Early Childhood Approaches. The standards approach dominates in pubic early childhood and elementary school programs, due to the impact of the federal No Child Left Behind act. However, it is also impacting Head Start, state funded pre-Kindergarten programs, and private and non-profit early childhood programs, as evidenced by the central role of standards in the revised edition of Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Bredekamp and Copple, 2009). In this chapter the traditional public school curricular approach of scope and sequence will be discussed, along with Goals 2000 and the No Child Left Behind act, learning standards, and accountability through the use of standardized assessments. In examining the Core Knowledge Curriculum, I will also discuss the central concept of cultural capital and the Core Knowledge approach to scope and sequence. An example of a Core Knowledge preschool program will also be covered.

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. To what extent are public school pre-K programs a downward extension of the school’s K-12 curriculum? 2. What is the learning standards approach to curriculum? How does this approach impact curriculum for young children (through elementary school)? 3. What are standards, and how do they differ from curriculum? Who sets the standards and are all standards equally implemented in our early childhood and elementary school programs?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

170

Francis Wardle 4. What is the relationship between the traditional public school scope and sequence approach to curriculum, and the standards approach? 5. The Core Knowledge Curriculum and standards approach are based upon learning specific content/skills, in a specific sequence, with each grade building on the knowledge and skills learned in the previous grade. Do most subjects/skills/concepts lend themselves to this sequential approach? Further, what happens to students who get left behind for whatever reason?

THE PUBLIC SCHOOL APPROACH: A BRIEF HISTORY The history of American public schools begins with the two Ye Old Deluder Satan Acts of 1642 and 1647 (Uphoff, 1997). As the title of the laws implies, the purpose of these acts was to teach children how to read so they could read the Bible, and thus ‘delude Satan’. This religious purpose of American public education ran through American schools up to the famous Supreme Court decision of 1963. Soon after the creation of the new nation, public education was seen as a fundamental foundation of democracy – the creation of a literate citizenry (Wiles and Bondi, 2002). But there has always been debate as to what the exact purpose of American education should be. Throughout the history of the US, the various purposes of public education have included, •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • • •

To assimilate new immigrants to American values – often considered “better values” than those they left behind; also to assimilate people from various places, cultures and languages into the American culture; To prepare students for careers that require a college education – initially lawyers and ministers, then doctors and teachers; To teach specific trades needed, first for an agricultural economy, then for an industrial society, and now for the information age; To ‘civilize’ non-White Americans, particularly Native Americans, Hispanics, Chinese and Japanese, and African Americans; To teach the basics of math and literacy; To teach religious and moral values, or at least, American religious values (Wiles and Bondi, 2002).

A major struggle in defining America’s educational purpose has been a tension between educating those of means, and providing schools for the masses – including waves of newly arrived immigrants – a struggle that continues today. Horace Mann advocated for the latter, as did John Dewey. Court cases such as Brown versus the Board of Education (1954), and legal challenges that led to the creation of IDEA for children with disabilities in 1975, have continued to broaden the rights of all American children to a free, public education.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

171

Pendulum Swings As this country searched for its own identity and place in the world, it also searched for its unique philosophy of public education. As the focus switched from teaching vocational skills to college entrance requirements, and from teaching protestant religious values to more universal values, skills and knowledge, the curricular philosophy has swung between the extremes of progressive education and a variety of back-to-the-basics approaches. Examples of progressive trends include the influence of progressive education from 1890 through the 1930s, and open classrooms and multiage groupings in the the late 1960s and 1970s (and new math and values clarification); conservative trends developed immediately after Sputnik (1957) and are evident in today’s standards based approach to curriculum (Wardle, 2003). Today, with a few interesting exceptions, the public school philosophy is decidedly in the traditional, back-to-the basics camp. While some of these shifts occurred after significant historical events (Sputnik, Dewey’s work, the counter culture, and the report, A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), they should also be viewed as the overall result of this nation’s continual struggle to define education as we believe it should be in a free, egalitarian society (Wiles and Bondi, 2002). Box 8.1. Reflective Thinking: What Should Public Schools Teach? Public education is all about what is needed to prepare citizens to be successful in the future. Beginning in early childhood, what should we be teaching (scope), and when should we be teaching it (sequence)? What does it take to prepare a person to become a productive citizen in a democratic society?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Kindergarten In 1836 Friedrich Froebel started the first kindergarten in Blackenburg, Germany. In 1856, Margarethe Schurz, a German immigrant, began the first all-German Kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin; Elizabeth Peabody in Boston established the first English-speaking Kindergarten in 1860, and in 1873 the first Kindergarten in the US associated with the public schools was opened. Public Kindergartens spread rapidly throughout the United States, as they did in others countries, such as New Zealand, S. America, Europe and Australia. In England, German immigrants brought Froebel’s idea with them, and in 1884 established the Froebel Educational Institute, to promote the Kindergarten philosophy within teacher training programs (Beatty, 1995). Later a British government report extolled the values of the Kindergarten, and many of Froebel’s ideas were incorporated into government programs for 3-5 year olds in England. In the Untied States Kindergarten is the term used to cover the grade before first grade; in Germany, Brazil and other counties it describes early childhood programs that serve children between 3 years old and the official school entry age (Sears, 1975). (The reasons Kindergarten is always written with an upper case K is because, in Germany, all nouns begin with upper-case letters) Friedrich Froebel’s original philosophy stressed the extensive use of the outdoors and letting children learn a their own pace. He believed a child’s growth and learning unfolds like

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

172

Francis Wardle

a flower, according to its own unique, biological timetable. Thus, children’s development and learning should not be rushed (1887). Other original Froebel ideas include, • • • • • • • • • • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

Concrete exploration of the natural environment. He felt hands-on-leaning allowed young children to associate abstract concepts with the real thing; The value of play and encouraging play in young children; Use of educational materials – a range of materials he created, called God’s Gifts (blocks, balls, patterned blocks, dominos, mosaics, etc); A natural flow between the indoor and outdoor environments; A deeply spiritual purpose for education; A central role for women in the care of young children; Home-school convergence; Allowing children to develop according to their own predetermined timetable; Learning that is not compartmentalized – children learn in a holistic, whole child manner; Children need help from teachers to see connections and similarities. Teachers must know when to interact with children, and when to withdraw; Digging in the garden and observing growing plants allows children to learn from nature; this way the learning can provide a lasting hold on the child’s attention; and Multisensory learning and the critical use of multisensory perception (Froebel, 1887).

Kindergarten Today In many ways kindergarten is still the orphan child of the public schools. Many states still only fund half-day kindergarten programs; some districts make up a full day with tuitionpaying students. Thus inequality of education starts at an early age. While many public Kindergartens are less structured and less teacher directed than elementary approaches and practices, public school Kindergarten programs are clearly more academic than Froebel’s original philosophy: more structured and teacher directed, teaching academic content as isolated subjects, reducing art, music, dance and physical education, and even assigning homework (Kagan et al., 2006; Meyer, 2005). It is ironic that Froebel’s insistence on the use of the outdoors and nature for Kindergarten-age children was due, in large part, to his own dislike as a child of quiet, sedentary, indoor academic activities (Froebel, 1887).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

173

Public School Early Childhood Programs In the 1960s early childhood education became popular in this country on two fronts: feepaying, commercial child care for middle-class, working families, and Head Start, for lowincome families. Head Start demonstrated the value of early childhood programs for the purpose of intervention for low-income children and other children who might struggle in school; commercial child care (national chains and individual community centers) established in the minds of the public acceptance of child care for young children, particularly because they were patronized by middle-class families (Neugebauer, 1999). This in turn had two direct impacts on public school programs, 1. Creation of early childhood programs as a way to ‘prepare’ certain children for the rigors and demands of public school; and 2. Creation of before-and-after school programs to care for children before and after the official school day, and during school vacations. Today local school districts provide an entire range of early childhood programs beyond traditional K- 12 grade classes. These include a variety of tuition-based half-day Kindergartens, district preschool programs targeted to at-risk children, the ever-increasing number of state funded programs, and Title I programs. Many schools also have preschools for children who meet IDEA special education guidelines (see chapter 10).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PUBLIC SCHOOL CURRICULAR APPROACHES As I have already discussed, the history of American public schools has been a search for its true purpose and function within a pluralistic, democratic, egalitarian society. Within the educational philosophy of this country, the search for purpose as it applies to curriculum has focused on two overall areas: what should be taught, and when it should it be taught. In curriculum language, we call this a scope (content) and sequence (sequencing of content) approach (Wiles and Bondi, 2002). While this approach has not historically dominated programs before first grade, it is now finding their way into early childhood programs.

Scope Scope is what should be taught in school. “By scope is meant the breath, variety, and types of educational experiences that are to be provided pupils as they progress through the school program. Scope represents the latitudinal axis for selecting curriculum experiences” (Saylor and Alexander, 1954, p. 284). Scope is the curriculum content; when curriculum planners at the district or state level set the minimum requirements for graduation from high school, they are responding to the question of scope (Oliva, 2001). And, according to Goodlad, scope is the “actual focal points for learning through which the school’s objectives are to be attained” (1963, p. 28). In general, there has always been an agreement that U.S. public schools should teach literacy (reading and writing) and basic math. Science was soon

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

174

Francis Wardle

added to the list of content. Beyond these areas, individual states decided on their own the rest of the content, including the state’s history. Further, the history of the United States – particularly its unique contribution to world governments and the pursuit of individual liberty – has been central in the public school curriculum (Wiles and Bondi, 2002). The European influence in the traditional curriculum was be seen in a focus on art, music, literature, dance, teaching a foreign language, and physical education. However, today other countries with a strong European cultural heritage have a much stronger commitment to teaching the arts and foreign languages than does the US. The challenge for curriculum planners, schools and teachers, is in selecting the scope. As Peter Oliva states, a central problem is the limitation of the concepts, skills, knowledge and attitudes to be included in the curriculum (2001). In other words, there is far too much to include in the curriculum than there is time to teach it. And, every year we seem to add new school initiates. It is well known – as Alvin Toffler pointed out in his 1970 book, Future Shock – that we continue to experience an explosion of knowledge, made even more apparent today with the advent of technology, which has exponentially increased this explosion. Figure 8.1 lists the big questions that must be asked to address the content (scope) issue. What do young people need to succeed in our society? What are the needs of our locality, state, nation and the world? What are the essentials of each discipline? (Oliva, 2001).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 8.1. The Big Questions Regarding What is Taught in Our Schools.

Individual states and local school districts have, historically, determined what should be taught; textbook companies and district/school-level curriculum committees having also had a significant role. Now, with Goals 2000, the federal No Child Left Behind act and state standards, curriculum content throughout the US is more standardized and universal.

Relevance to Public Early Childhood Programs For years Kindergarten and public school early childhood programs were viewed largely as programs for preparing children for school entry. As Goal One of Goals 2000 states, by the year 2000, all children in America will start school ready to learn (Colorado Department of Education. 1991)(See figure 8.4). Head Start was designed to give children a “Head Start” in school success; its original philosophy stressed social competence. Thus the scope of preschool and Kindergarten programs were “readiness skills”. But those skills tended to focus on social skills, self-concept development, and social competence (U.S. Department of Education, 1995). It was believed that the number one school readiness skill – the skill a child needs to succeed in K-12 school – is the ability to function and learn in a unique social environment comprised of other children and adults. Play, social activities, the arts, and a whole-child approach were the focus of public school early childhood programs, including Kindergarten (U.S. Department of Education, 1995). It was accepted that entry into the “big school” was accompanied by more direct teacher instruction, and specific skill and content approaches to instruction.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

175

This has now changed, due largely to the scope of public school K-12 and preschool programs. The scope of pre-K - 12 public school programs is now the content defined by No Child Left Behind: math, literacy, and eventually science (Meyer, 2005). So today public school early childhood and elementary school programs focus heavily on literacy, math and science, at the detriment of music, art, physical education, and play - indoors and outdoors (Meyer, 2005). Further, because programs now focus on these three content areas, curricula are much less integrated and the approach much less of a whole-child concept.

Sequence While scope is the “what” of curriculum organization, sequence is the “when” (Oliva, 2001). As Saylor and Alexander point out, “determination of the sequence of educational experiences is a decision as to the most propitious time in which to develop the educational experiences suggested by the scope” (1954, p. 249). When determining the best sequence of any curriculum scope, these ideas must be addressed (Oliva, 2001),

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • • • •

The maturity of the learners The interest of the learners The readiness of the learners The relative difficulty of the items to be learned The relationship between items to be learned The prerequisite skills needed to learn specific items and skills.

In addressing the last two items - the relationship between items and the prerequisite skills needed in each case - there are many different ways to sequence curricular content (see figure 8.2). While some content and skills require specific prerequisite skills and knowledge to learn most effectively, such as some math concepts, many curricular sequences used in public schools that seem to be set in stone – even based on the notion of prerequisite skills – are hard to defend (Oliva, 2001). Even Boom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom et al., 1956), which is usually presented in a hierarchical manner (low level facts to higher order thinking) can be used at any level and any order (Ormrod, 2008).

Three Ways to Sequence Learning According to Donald Orlosky and Othanel Smith (1978) there are three general ways to sequence learning, 1. Sequence according to need. This approach follows the child’s own learning style, learning approach, and set of unique experiences: it follows the Dewey approach to learning (1938). 2. Macrosequencing. This approach follows the child’s individual growth and development, and is the same as Developmentally Appropriate Practice {Bredekamp and Copple, 1997).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

176

Francis Wardle 3. Microsequencing. This is the learning of subject matter according to prerequisite knowledge required of each unit of content, “assuming that for the learning task there is a hierarchy extending from very simple to the more abstract and complex elements which lead to the attainment of a specific objective” (1978, p. 267).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Unfortunately, K-12 programs have traditionally used only the microsequencing approach (Oliva, 2001). As I discuss later in this chapter, The Core Knowledge Curriculum also relies on this approach to sequencing skills and knowledge. Further, this approach assumes that each content areas (scope) has a set, immutable sequence that should be used in its instruction for maximum, effective learning.. In the next section we will discuss how standards further this belief in an absolute, universal sequence for all learning in all content areas. From the simplest to the most complex. In math children must understand how to work with 1s, for example, before working with 10s. In chronological order. History is most often taught in this fashion, from past to present. In reverse chronological order. Occasionally, a history teacher will start with the most recent events and work backward to the most ancient events, based on the assumption that a child’s attention can be grasped quicker with more recent and therefore more familiar events. Themes that exist in the present may be the same as those of earlier time (see Bruner’s structure of disciplines). For young children who have a very poor concept of historical time, this approach makes more sense than chronological order. From the geographically near to the geographically far. Some argue that it makes more sense to study phenomena and conditions close to home and to gradually expand the learner’s horizons ultimately to the world and even the universe. Thus a curriculum will start with the child’s home, community and city, before moving to homes and cities in other states and countries. From far to near. This procedure focuses on distant lands and reserves study of the home environment – the piece de resistance – until the end. Social studies classes that start with the world and finish with the child’s own country, state and city are a good example. From the concrete to the abstract. The pupil learns to count blocks by first manipulating them physically and only later manipulating them mentally. This idea is solidly supported in many early childhood approaches, including Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997). From the general to the particular. This approach starts with the principle and proceeds to examples. Concept learning follows this approach (Bruner, 1960). An example would be learning the various functions and structures of families, then placing each child’s family within these structures and functions. From the particular to the general. This approach starts with concrete examples and proceeds to the principle. Many early childhood approaches follow this approach. An example is studying cows, pigs, dogs, rabbits and cats, and then studying animals in general. Figure 8.2. Ways to Sequence the Curriculum (Oliva, 2001).

The debate over sequencing content, skills and concepts within a curriculum focuses on two opposing ideas: one, that curriculum should start with the learner and progress with the learner’s knowledge and development; and, two, that the curriculum should start with the subject matter. The first approach requires choosing content, skills and instruction based on

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

177

each child’s normative and idiosyncratic growth and development, interests, aptitudes and learning styles; the latter on placing subject matter at the grade level it is assumed learners will, or should, be able to master (Oliva, 2001). Not only has the latter approach been the historical approach used throughout U.S. public education, but it has now pushed its way down to early childhood programs (Meyer, 2005).

Goals and Standards

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

After the 1983 report, A Nation at Risk: the Imperative for Educational Reform (National Commission on Excellence in Education), many school districts restructured both their curricula and instructional methods; furthermore, a national panel established the 6 goals for Goals 2000. These goals are specific national goals for our schools, including early childhood (Goal 1). Figure 8.3 lists these six national goals. The federal No Child Left Behind act, a reauthorization of the federal ESEA (Elementary and Secondary Education Act, first passed in 1965) adopted these 6 goals and created grade-level standards for each of them. Goal One. By the year 2000, all children in America will start school ready to learn. Goal Two. By the year 2000, the high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%. Goal Three. By the year 2000, American students will leave grades four, eight and twelve having demonstrated competency over challenging subject matter including English, mathematics, science, history and geography. Every school in America will ensure that all students learn to use their minds well, so they may be prepared for responsible citizenship, further learning and productive employment in our modern economy. Goal Four. By the year 2000, U.S. students will be the first in the world in mathematics and science achievement. Goal Five. By the year 2000, every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. Goal Six. By the year 2000, every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning. (Colorado Department of Education, 1991). Figure 8.3. Goals 2000.

What are Standards? There are different kinds of standards, different definitions, and considerable confusion. Barbara Bowman (2006) provides these definitions, •

•

Program standards. These define the quality of programs: adult-child ratios, activities, environments, training and staff qualifications, etc. NAEYC accreditation standards and Head Start performance standards are examples of program standards. Best practices would fit here. Content standards. These establish the skills and knowledge to be taught at each grade level. Basically these define what should be taught at each grade level, much like the scope and sequence approach to curriculum just discussed.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

178

Francis Wardle •

•

Learning standards. Like objectives in the curricular development process (Wardle, 2003), and outcomes in other approaches, these are the skills, concepts and content to be learned (and demonstrated) at each specific age and stage of learning. Kindergarten entry skills (readiness skills) that must be demonstrated by children entering kindergarten is one example; another is the standards that are assessed by standardized assessments at the end of different grades. The major difference between content and learning standards is that learning standards tend to be assessed. Standards for professional development. These specify what teachers should know and be able to do to be effective, and to obtain state certification (K-12) and state licensure (early childhood).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

In this chapter I will focus on learning standards (although the term content standards is also sometimes used), which is the concept used by state departments of education and by state agencies that establish early childhood state standards (Gronlund, 2006).

Where do Standards Come from? According to Bowman (2006), “we make them up” (p 43). The ‘we’ involves educators, specialists, publishers and politicians. Some are developed by professional associations such as the National Committee of Teachers of Mathematics (2000); others are cobbled together by educators, educational bureaucrats and politicians. There are three central issues that need to be examined when discussing learning standards, 1) are they developmentally appropriate (i.e. do they match the developmental levels of students at the age they are targeted), 2) what does the standard require to be taught, and 3) which of the standards does the program and the school focus on? (This last issue can be viewed from the opposite direction: what content areas are not included in the standards, and therefore considered unimportant?) In a study conducted of preschool and Kindergarten programs, Kagan et al., determined that 89% of the Kindergarten standards focused on language development and cognition, while 7% focused on social-emotional development and only 1% on physical and motor activities. In the preschool programs studied, 54% of the standards focused on language and cognition, 18% on social/emotional-development, and 10% on play/motor development (2006). Further, while many states have standards for everything they teach in K-12 schools (and some things they don’t), including the arts, humanities, character education and technology, because the NCLB act bases annual school improvement only on literacy and math (with science being added later), these are the only learning standards that really matter in most US public schools. Assessment The No Child Left Behind act requires states to create learning standards and then to assess all student progress on the literacy and math (and later science) standards every year, beginning in third grade. To be accurate the act does not require states to do anything. In the United States the authority to run local schools is established at the state and not the federal level (Wiles and Bondi, 2002). What the act does is provide federal incentive money for states that agree to abide by certain requirements. These requirements are specified in figure 8: 4. The standardized tests fulfill the political will to respond to the Nation at Risk report, and to provide teacher accountability. The assessments used to determine how well students

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

179

are accomplishing the standards are criterion reference measurements: they assess whether the student has mastered a specific criteria or performance standard in a specific subject areas at a given grade level (Oliva 2001). They establish levels of mastery ahead of time, and usually report scores using a binary system (below proficient, proficient, above proficient). Of particular interest, the levels of mastery are the same for all students, including those with special needs and students whose first language is not English (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). Learning standards can be helpful. They can address the problems with scope and sequence described by Oliva (2001), and, if they are carefully and deliberately created by a knowledgeable organization, such the math standards created by National Committee of Teachers of Mathematics (2000) (NCTM). Learning standards can be a very helpful guide both to curricular planners and to teachers. It is very helpful for teachers to know what a child should be taught, and when the child should be taught it (Bowman, 2006). The No Child Left Behind Act is the reauthorization of ESEA, which was first passed in 1965. ESEA funds Title I and other federal programs. The new program mandates include,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Increased accountability Schools must provide state-assessments in reading and math to all students in grades 3 to grade 8. The results of these assessments must show progress for these specific groups: low income, race/ethnicity, disability, and students with limited English proficiency. Schools must show adequate yearly progress for each group (AYP). More choice for parents and students For schools that do not show adequate AYP, students are allowed to attend better public schools and public charter schools. Students from schools that fail to meet progress for 3 or more years can choose to attend public or private schools funded with federal funds. Schools must also provide transportation for these students. Greater flexibility This act allows for more flexibility of federal funds by the use of local schools. Up to 50% of these funds can be used for any one of these programs, Title I, Teacher Quality, Educational Technology, Innovative Programs, and Safe and Drug Free Schools. Putting Reading First NCLB ensures that every child can read by the end of third grade. Scientifically based reading instruction programs must be used in the early grades, focusing on K-3rd grade students who are ‘at risk’ of reading failure. Other Major Program Changes Federal funds are provided to prepare teachers in the use of scientifically based research methods and approaches. Further, local public schools (LEAs) must hire teachers who are highly qualified in core academic subject areas, including special education teachers. NCLB also supports programs that teach non-English speaking students to learn English. (U.S. Department of Education, 2002) Figure 8.4. NCLB act (2002).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

180

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Standardized Assessments While normed tests (IOWA, CAT, most developmental assessments and checklists) provide scores based on student averages (statistical), content standards are based on what a child should be able to achieve at a certain point in her education – usually at the end of each grade. To give just one example of the difference between these two approaches, my daughter scored above the 75 percentile on the math section of the PSAT (normed test), yet scored below proficient on the Colorado Student Assessment Programs (CSAP)(criterion referenced) math test. Those who support standardized assessments (criterion reference measures) point to this disparity as the problem with normed assessments. One criticism of standardized tests is that these tests have become a major influence on school programs. Many curricula and textbooks are now designed to teach skills and content covered by the test, and teachers are more are more focusing their instruction on “teaching to the test”. According to Longstreet and Shane (1993), “by merely raising standards without reassessing the criteria, that is, the subjects that are being tested, the curriculum is made even less susceptible to real change and less flexible to the needs of the future” (p. 147). Another way of putting it is that standards and assessments have narrowed the curriculum, focusing it on reading, math and science, at the expense of all other areas (arts, PE, social skills, character development, etc), and preventing the possibility of change to meet the needs of a changing nation and a changing world (Meyer, 2005). In the study conducted by Kagan et al., reported earlier in this chapter, the analysis of the results showed that, 1) the assessments used both in the preschool and Kindergarten programs aligned with the standards and not with each program’s curriculum, and 2) the standards focused almost exclusively on literacy and cognitive development, at the expense of socialemotional development and motor/physical activities. Thus we have curriculum driven by assessment. Accountability Historically early childhood and K-12 programs have used a variety of ways to determine their effectiveness and accountability. Most used what Bowman calls program standards. The Head Start PRISM review conducted every three years on every program is one example; another is the NAEYC accreditation process. However, schools also used a variety of other ways to measure outcome-based accountability: drop-out statistics, graduation rates, the number of children who go on to college, the number of children in special education, and so on. Further, all grant funded programs (which includes Head Start and Title I) have always had complex accountability measures that were required to be met for renewal of their grants. However, one of the most revolutionary aspects of NCLB (and one of its most incendiary, according to critics) is that it has redefined the term accountability. Now test scores on standardized tests in math and literacy (and later science) are used to determine whether a school and its teachers are successful. Thus accountability has been defined as success in math and literacy on standardized assessments (see figure 8.5).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

181

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Standards and Early Childhood Education The current standards movement, and the accountability that accompanies it, has had and continues to have two direct impacts on public school early childhood approaches. First, since the end of third grade is now a period when these standardized assessments are administered, the end of the ECE period (3rd grade) is now being evaluated. Thus, ECE has a sort of graduation. And, as with all graduations, we are now focused on preparing children to pass this test: curricula and instruction now focus on preparing children to achieve well on these standardized tests. While K-3rd grade programs were rarely totally developmentally appropriate, they are now even more focused on traditional K-12 approaches to instruction (Meyer 2005). Secondly, most states have created early childhood standards (Scott-Little, Kagan and Frelow, 2006). Early childhood standards are, “documents that outline expectations for preschool age children’s learning and development. ….the documents all describe knowledge, skills and/or characteristics expected of children before they enter Kindergarten (Scott-Little et al., 2006, p 27). As of 2005, 44 states had early childhood standards; the remaining six were developing them. Further, several states are also developing standards for infants and toddlers (Scott-Little et al., 2006). These early childhood standards are not as content-specific and academic-specific as K12 standards. And, as might be expected, these state developed standards vary greatly from state to state, However, they still focus on literacy, general knowledge, and cognition, with physical well-being, social-emotional development, and approaches to learning being radically shortchanged. Specific areas that are de-emphasized include physical fitness, relationship with peers, initiative, imagination, language comprehension, and understanding rules, routines, social groups and relationships (Scott-Little et al., 2006). In the Kagan et al. study reported above (2006), the ECE standards were dominated by language and cognitive development (54%), while the Kindergarten standards had a whopping 89% of their standards focused on cognition and literacy, (p 29). Note that in both cases there were no standards for the arts. Overall results of the use of standards in early childhood – both the K-12 standards implemented in the public schools, and the state early childhood standards – is that the nature of instruction focuses on these standards (that, after all, is the intent) and assessment drives curriculum. Here in Colorado many elementary school teachers have reported to me that students were required to use their art, music, physical education, computer and ‘free play’ time to focus on improving skills in the areas assessed by the state tests. We know that in some elementary schools and school districts recess has been shortened or eliminated so that teachers can focus on instruction in the areas covered by the assessments (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005).

Conclusion Public schools around the world reflect the educational philosophy of the nation in which they exist. Throughout the United States history there has been an ongoing struggle to define the purpose of American education. While everyone agrees that a free society depends on the education of all of its citizens, the content and approach of that education is continually under

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

182

Francis Wardle

debate (Oliva, 2001; Wiles and Bondi, 2002). As a result American public school approaches have swung from one side of the pendulum (progressive education) to the other (back-to-thebasics). Public school early childhood and elementary school programs are structured by a traditional scope and sequence curriculum approach, along with state learning standards and standards determined by assessments mandated by NCLB. The net result of these standards and assessments is a shift of focus in public early childhood and elementary education approaches from social skill development and the development of social competence, along with quality experiences in art, music, physical education and play, to a greater focus on specific academic instruction, particularly in literacy and math. While this new focus is most concentrated in public school early childhood and elementary school programs, it is having a profound impact on Head Start and private and non-profit early childhood programs.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CORE KNOWLEDGE CURRICULUM As the United States national perspective regarding education has slowly shifted more and more towards standards, assessments, accountability and teaching the basics in recent years, curricula and early childhood approaches that reflect these philosophies have become more prominent, popular and influential. One of these new approaches is the Core Knowledge Curriculum. In addition to increased popularity, these approaches also have a direct impact on other, less structured and less traditional approaches to early childhood education. For example, E. D. Hirsch, architect of the Core Knowledge approach, testified before the United States Congress as part of the reauthorization process for Head Start. While the Head Start approach was originally based on a Bank-Street model, constructivism and other popular ideas of the 1960s (Greenberg, 1987), and its overall approach still is comprehensive in nature, its educational compontent has recently experienced a considerable shift toward standards, outcomes, assessment, and a more direct approach to teaching pre-academic skills (see chapter 13). The Core Knowledge Curriculum harkens back to a more traditional approach to teaching basic information. It focuses on scope and sequence, teaching the basics, and accountability at each grade level. Thus it is an approach that is particularly popular in religious schools, private schools, and charter schoosl that cater to parents who want a very structured and disciplined approach to teaching and education. Initially the Core Knowledge Curriculum covered the elementary grades, but recently it has been extended downward to cover the preschool and Kindergarten ages as well.

Philosophy of the Core Knowledge Curriculum In arguing for a Core Knowledge Curriculum approach to education, E. D. Hirsch quotes Thomas Jefferson, who advocated for public education by saying the purpose of public education in the United States is, “to diffuse knowledge more generally through the mass of people” (quoted in Hirsch, 1996, p. 17.) In addition to Jefferson, the American educator Horace Mann argued that democracy required a common school to give all children the knowledge and skills to keep them economically independent and free, while William Bagley

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

183

declared, “a most important function of formal education, especially in a democracy, is to insure as high a level of common culture as possible” (1934, p. 139). This view of providing common skills and cultural knowledge has always been a popular view of the purpose of American public education (Wiles and Bondi, 2002). Those who accept this view believe that a vital democracy must have a public education approach that teaches a shared body of knowledge to every child (Hirsch, 1996). To this end, Hirsch wrote the book, Cultural Literacy in 1987, which is an appeal to teach this common body of knowledge in public schools across the United States. However, in the 1980 and 1990s, the term cultural literacy produced too much controversy, so the name was changed to Core Knowledge, and the Core Knowledge Foundation was created. Further, in the educational milieu of those times, the Core Knowledge Curriculum was highly unpopular (Hirsch, 2001). However, as the United States reacted to the highly critical report of public schools, A Nation At Risk (1983), established Goals 2000, and then moved towards standards, accountability, and a more back-to-the-basics educational philosophy, the Core Knowledge Curriculum gained popularly. “It [the Core Knowledge Curriculum approach] has spread to more than two hundred public schools in thirty seven states…”(Hirsch, 1996, p 13). Recently, E.D. Hirsch suggested that this common approach to teaching a body of knowledge and skills is particularly needed in places like today’s Soviet Union, because a newly formed democracy (from what was a totalitarian state) requires a literate population with a common cultural literacy (2001). This is somewhat ironic, because Vygotsky made the very same argument for the need of the new Soviet state (in 1917) to educate all its citizens with a common cultural heritage and purpose, which he viewed as emanating from a common language (Cole, 1996).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Capital According to Hirsch, intellectual capital is knowledge, and this knowledge functions at all levels of our society to determine school and life success, social class, and psychological and physical health (1996). He believes it is the foundation on which success in life is based; it is the cultural glue that enables people in the Untied States to be successful in school, college, and whatever occupation they choose. It is the ingredients upon which success is built. Children who enter school, ‘ready to learn’ already have this intellectual capital, and are therefore capable of using an existing body of knowledge to learn and gain more knowledge – thus knowledge begets more knowledge, capital more capital (the classic scope and sequence view of learning). Conversely, children who enter school without this intellectual capital are unable to benefit from learning at school. “The ever-increasing differential in acquired intellectual capital that occurs during the early years ends up creating a permanent gap in such children’s acquired abilities, particularly in their abilities to communicate in speech and writing, to learn new things, and to adapt to new challenges” (Hirsch, 1996, p. 20). Hirsch believes this deficit can be remedied in preschool and primary school, to the extent that children who enter school without this cultural capital can catch up. However, instruction at this age must be specifically and intensely focused on this “shared intellectual currency of society. Selectivity is critical” (1996, p. 20). Thus, according to Hirsch, the

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

184

Francis Wardle

pedagogical approach recommended by Dewey, Bruner and others, and described in other chapters throughout this book, that focuses on teaching children the tools needed to be good learners rather than teaching specific facts and content, “has all but nullified the bright promise of school integration and the civil rights movement” (Hirsch, 1996, p. 21). According to the Core Knowledge Curriculum approach, the only way to create educational opportunity and equality in the United States is to teach all children the same thing at the same time; further, children who enter preschool without this needed cultural capital, for whatever reason, need an intense and special inoculation of this knowledge – a true remediation approach. It is interesting to note that the genesis of Head Start is very much based on a similar idea: that low income and minority children need a “head start” to compete with their white, middle-class counterparts (Wardle, 2003). Box 8.2. Reflective Thinking

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

According to E.D Hirsch, children who enter preschool from low-income homes and who lack “intellectual capitol” need an intense education in these needed skills and knowledge. In the 1960s the term used to describe children who attended Head Start was, “culturally disadvantaged children”. Head Start was a comprehensive remediation program to offset this disadvantage. Should early childhood programs for low income and minority children focus on their deficits, or should they build on their cultural and experiential backgrounds? What is the best approach to prepare low-income and minority students for K12 school?

E. D. Hirsch developed the Core Knowledge Curriculum, to “introduce solid knowledge in a coherent way into the elementary school curriculum” (1996, p. 13). The philosophy of the Core Knowledge Curriculum is not only based on the belief that there is a core body of knowledge that every American student should receive, but that this body of knowledge must be taught in a carefully developed and articulated – assumed to be absolute – sequence that carefully builds on itself. All American children, regardless of income, race, ethnicity and language, should receive this universal curriculum at the exact same time and in exact same sequence. The specific scope and sequence is outlined in a series of books, beginning with, What Every Kindergartener Needs to Know – through to What Every Sixth Grader Needs to Know (1991-1996). It has been further developed through additional books, national conferences, and the Core Knowledge Foundation. Recently a Core Knowledge Preschool Sequence was been added to this sequence. Figure 8.5 provides an outline of the overall Core Knowledge Curriculum philosophy.

Children Should Enter School Ready to Learn Goal One of Goals 2000, initially proposed by George Bush in 1989, states, “all children should enter school, ready to learn” (State of Colorado, 1991). Thus, students must enter formal education with a foundation of vocabulary, knowledge and skills. Most public schools now give Kindergarten entry-level assessments to determine whether entering children have needed entry-level skills. In the Core Knowledge Curriculum philosophy, the progression of learning must then go through a progressive sequence of grades, with students mastering the

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

185

skills and knowledge at each grade before they can progress to the next grade. Thus, the Core Knowledge approach presupposes that all children entering Kindergarten, first grade, second grade, and so on, are at the same place, and are all “ready to learn” at each grade level (Hirsch, 1996; 2001). Each student should enter each grade, according to Hirsch, ready to learn the common material of that grade. Further, because each child’s home life provides an unequal preparation for the child, “it is the duty of school to provide each child with the knowledge and skills requisite for academic progress – regardless of their home background” (1996, p. 24). From a Core Knowledge perspective, schools should be the great equalizer, and providing each child with the society’s common body of knowledge ensures this equalization. In today’s world, preschool becomes a significant tool in this effort. Core Knowledge is: Solid Core knowledge includes a body of lasting knowledge that forms the core of the preschool to grade 8 curriculum. This solid knowledge includes basic principles of constitutional government, events from world history, essential elements of mathematics, and oral and written expression, art and music masterpieces, and universal poems and stories.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Sequenced Children learn new knowledge by building on what they already know. Thus, a school should clearly define the knowledge and skills that children should learn at each grade. The core curriculum provides this grade-level content to be learned. The approach determines that children are ready for each grade they enter, and prevents gaps and repetition – repeating some content from grade to grade and omitting other content because it is not included or there is little time for it. Specific By clearly defining important knowledge in language arts, history and geography, math, science and the fine arts, the Core Knowledge Sequence presents a practical answer to the question: what do our children need to know? Shared The Core Knowledge approach not only assumes that there is a universal body of knowledge that every child in United States needs to learn and know, but also believes that knowledge is culturally shared. Thus, to be able to read a newspaper, watch a TV news program, and understand sports analogies, a child must know the culturally shared knowledge. Figure 8.5. What is Core Knowledge? (About Core Knowledge 2005).

The Origins of the Intellectual Capital Taught in Schools According to E. D. Hirsch (2001), the Core Knowledge Curriculum “is a systematic approach to teaching the knowledge that is most useful and valuable. It selects the knowledge

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

186

Francis Wardle

that will give students the best possible preparation for learning and for life. …The principle of Core Knowledge is inherently a principle of using time effectively in school” (p. 5). Based on this concept, the big question is, of course, “what is the body of knowledge that must be taught, and what is the best sequence for children to learn this body of knowledge?” According to E.D. Hirsch, the content and sequence for the Core Knowledge Curriculum is based on content and sequences used by the “highest performing” elementary schools around the world, as well as a consensus of parents, teachers, scientists, professional curriculum originators, and various educational experts. The Core Knowledge Foundation has consulted schools, experts, and literature to determine what should be taught in school, and when it should be taught (Hirsch, 2001). The central view of the Core Curriculum approach is, one, that every child in the United States should learn a shared body of knowledge, and, two, that this shared body of knowledge must be very carefully sequenced, building from year to year and moving a child systematically from little or no knowledge to full intellectual capital. It is a view that presumes the child enters school with little or no knowledge, and that all knowledge must be ‘fed into’ the child. Further, it’s a view that believes every child can acquire this given amount of knowledge within this given sequence, regardless of disability, demographic status, or home background. In fact, as I have already indicated, it is a view that believes it is the best approach to overcoming children’s unequal home and cultural backgrounds (Hirsch, 1996; Hirsch, 2001). As such, the Core Knowledge Curriculum is a classic, traditional scope and sequence approach to education in the tradition of Horace Mann and other traditional American educators, and thus can be accurately viewed as the prototypical “back-to-the-basics”, or traditional approach covered in this book.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preschool Curriculum As I already mentioned, a preschool Core Knowledge curriculum has recently been added to the other grade levels. The inclusion of the preschool component (age 3 to 5 years of age) can be viewed as a result of the general move in education over the last fifty years to recognize the importance of early education, particularly for low-income and minority students. The creation of the Core Knowledge Preschool Sequence is very much similar to the development of public school preschool curricula created to prepare children to meet the local school district’s Kindergarten entry requirements: a classic example of the downward extension of the overall public school approach. The Core Knowledge Preschool Sequence includes, movement and coordination, autonomy and social skills, work habits, language, mathematics, orientation in time, orientation in space, science, music, and the visual arts (see figure 8.6).

Instruction The Core Knowledge Curriculum spans preschool through eighth grade. Below is a discussion of how this curriculum is to be taught.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches Movement and Coordination Physical attention and relaxation Gross motor skills Eye-hand coordination Group games Creative movement and expression Autonomy and Social Skills Sense of self and personal responsibility Working in a group setting Work Habits Memory skills Following directions Task persistence and competition Language Oral language Nursery rhymes, poems, finger plays and songs Children’s literature: read alouds Emerging literacy skills Mathematics Patterns and classification Geometry Measurement Numbers and number sense Addition and subtraction Money Orientation in Time Vocabulary Measurement of time Passage of time (past, present, future) Orientation in Space Vocabulary Actual and represented space Simple maps Basic geographical concepts Science Human characteristics, needs and development Animal characteristics, needs and development Plant characteristics, needs and development Physical elements (water, air, light) Tools Music Attention to differences in sound Imitate and produce sounds Listen and sing Listen and move Visual arts Attention to visual detail Creative arts Looking at and talking about art (core knowledge, 2005).

Figure 8.6. Core Knowledge Preschool Sequence.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

187

188

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Teaching Using the Core Knowledge Curriculum Teaching using the Core Knowledge Curriculum requires the teacher to create a community where all its members share common knowledge, skills and information. Thus, in learning activities there must be agreed upon vocabulary, concepts, understandings, and knowledge. According to the Core Knowledge approach, teachers must carefully use the specific content guidelines and sequences to deliver their lessons. However, teachers are encouraged to creatively utilize a variety of ways to teach this very specific content, i.e., use songs, paper-mache models, cut out shapes, make charts, use a variety of drawing and painting, etc, when they are learning about the seven continents (in Kindergarten). Teachers are, “free to think about how best to teach the specific materials” (About Core Knowledge, 2005). They are encouraged to create a variety of different lessons and use a variety of teacher approaches, bringing to the activity their own unique knowledge, enthusiasm and interests. Workshops, collaborative learning groups, and research projects are all encouraged. Criticism of Developmentally Appropriate Practice However, because the Core Knowledge philosophy is based on the belief that children must learn a large body of general knowledge, and that the best time to do this is in the early years (About Core Knowledge, 2005), there is a tremendous focus on the acquisition of basic knowledge and essential skills. To this end the Core Knowledge approach is unequivocally critical of what they consider, “unexamined ideas about what is developmentally appropriate and inappropriate” (p 4). They believe the conventional view of developmentally appropriate practice, carefully and extensively detailed in the early childhood literature (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997), and discussed at length in other approaches covered in this book, deprives young children of learning important knowledge. They believe rote learning has its place, and that knowing basic facts and general knowledge are a prerequisite for discussing and analyzing complex ideas and solving problems. The focus is on learning facts, not on discovering them or manipulating them. Factual knowledge is needed before a child can think, discuss, or problem solve (About Core Knowledge, 2005). The curriculum model is what we call a machine model of education, curriculum and instruction (Short and Greer, 2002), and the teaching approach is a reductionist approach – that of learning individual skills and the smallest components of knowledge as building blocks to more complex concepts, ideas and knowledge. The teaching approach advocated in the Core Knowledge Curriculum is one that focuses on learning a maximum amount of knowledge, skills, vocabulary and intellectual capital, especially during the early childhood period. While teachers are encouraged to creatively select and develop a variety of approaches, the focus is on efficiency and productivity (Short and Greer, 2002).

Assessment It should come as no surprise that the Core Knowledge Curriculum approach takes a very specific and unbending position regarding assessment.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

189

Curriculum-Based Assessment First, in the Core Knowledge approach there is a very strong belief in the value of formal assessments of children, including young children (Hirsch, 2000). There is also the belief that the value of assessments far outweigh any potential negative effects they might have; further, it is also believed that the valid and reliable assessment of young children is possible and productive, an opinion not supported by many early childhood experts (Charlesworth, 2004; NAEYC and NAECS/SDE, 2003). Not surprisingly, because the Core Knowledge approach is one that is focused on curriculum skills and content presented in a carefully developed sequence, the assessments advocated by E. D. Hirsch are called curriculum-based tests (Hirsch, 2000). According to Hirsch, curriculum-based tests, “try to determined how well specific content standards in a particular domain for a particular age group have been learned” (p.1). In other words, a curriculum-based test is a criterion reference test based on all the domains covered during the specific curricular year.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Assessing Content and Skills Well-designed curriculum-based assessments that assess valid and accurate content-based standards are the best way to raise real world competencies in American children, and to make sure overall student competencies will be learned (Hirsch, 2000). Thus, according to Hirsch, curriculum standards and assessments beget student competencies. When a curriculum is based on carefully sequenced, shared content – as is the Core Knowledge Curriculum – and if a child’s success in each grade is based on accumulation of content from previous grades (Hirsch, 1996), it is clear that content-based assessments are critical. In this way it can be determined, one, whether the child has mastered the curriculum, and, two, whether the child is ready to move on to the next level (grade). Use of Assessments E. D. Hirsch and the Core Knowledge Curriculum approach believe that content-driven curricula along with rigorous assessment of that curricular do not contain within them the cultural bias so evident in competency-based assessments (Bishop, 1998). Since that which is taught and assessed in agreed-upon and universal (rather than cultural and specific), there is no cultural bias (Hirsch, 2000). E.D. Hirsch stresses that grade-level assessments should be used to determine to what extent the curricular standards have been learned. He proposes that the initial grading should consist of only three levels for each domain – fail, pass, and superior (2000). He further cautions that assessments should not be used for all the psychometric activities and number crunching that compare, rank, codify, place on a normal curve, and otherwise manipulate student scores, as is so popular today in American schools. In essence the only purpose of curriculum-based assessment should be to determine whether the content and skills of the curriculum have been learned, and whether the student is ready to move to the next level. The only exception to this use of assessment, according to Hirsch, should be an annual screening and diagnostic assessment to determine whether a child may need special educational services (Hirsch, 2001).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

190

Francis Wardle

EVERGREEN COUNTRY DAY SCHOOL Evergreen Country Day School has been in existence for thirty years. It provides education for 171 students, age 2 through 6th grade. In the future they intend to add one grade each year until the school reaches the 12th grade. The curriculum for the entire program is the Core Knowledge Curriculum. Of their curriculum, they state, “Our program has its foundation in the Core Knowledge Curriculum. It is designed to provide a logical progression of skills and concepts that will serve as an academic foundation to prepare our students as engaged, life-long learners” (Evergreen Country Day School, n.d., p 2.) To a large extent, Evergreen Country Day School is a typical private school that caters to upscale, well-educated, white families. The local public school is not only a typical, wellequipped suburban public school, but it also provides a charter school alternative with a Core Knowledge Curriculum. However, local families still attend the Evergreen Country Day School. In fact, the school is currently building a new facility, expecting considerable growth.

Core Knowledge Preschool The capacity for the early childhood component (age 2 though 5) is 92 students; elementary school, 79 students. According to the director, Elisa Stables, the Evergreen Country Day preschool exists to provide an entry point into the school, and sets a solid foundation for the children’s education in K-6 (and eventually K-12). According to Ms Stables, the reasons the preschool uses the Core Knowledge Curriculum are,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• •

•

To provide a continuous scope and sequence from age 2 through the entire school experience; To provide a curriculum that satisfies the highly competitive and committed parents who use the school. The school is positioned as “the academic” alternative in the community, which poses considerable problems for the preschool program, because parents want homework and don’t understand the importance of play. To provide a detailed framework and guide for teachers. Teachers can focus on how to implement the curriculum in a variety of creative and innovative ways, rather than spending time determining what needs to be taught, and when (sequence). Thus, much of the work is already done for them.

According to a flier provided by the school, “The Core Knowledge Preschool Sequence specifies what to teach, not how to teach. The sequence designates specific knowledge and skills. Teachers are able to start wherever the child is and identify steps, activities and strategies that will lead to the final goal…The Preschool Sequence is intended to guide the planning of experiences and activates for preschool children by offering a coherent progression of skills and activities…” (Evergreen Country Day School, n.d., p. 1) Figure 8.7 provides an example of the preschool curriculum for October.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

191

Movement Maintain balance on beam, walking forward, backward, sideways; navigate obstacle course, using different movements (all year). Game: Dick, duck, goose Autonomy/Social Skills Dress self independently (all year), respect the personal belongings of others (all year), and interrupt a conversation politely (all year) Oral language Describe oneself, home and immediate family; carry on a conversation with other children (all year). Nursery Rhymes, Poems, Finger Plays, Songs Rhymes: Peter, Peter, Pumpkin Eater; I’m a little Teapot; Oh, Where, Oh Where, Has My Little Dog Gone? This is the Way the Ladies Ride. Storybook Reading and Story Telling Retell a story that has been read aloud (all year). Stories: Thumbelina, Frederick, Blueberries for Sal, A Child’s Book of Great Art. Emerging Literacy Skills in Reading and Writing Dictate a simple letter, invitation or thank-you note (all year); writing strokes: moon, cross (all year); trace and then draw independently outlines of geometric shapes and irregular forms. Mathematical Reasoning Classify objects/pictures according to color or shape; compare groups of objects of no more than six objects/groups and use quantitative vocabulary to describe them; demonstrate 1-1 correspondence with concrete objects, up to and including 6 objects; construct a collection of objects having the same number as another group, up to 6 objects. Orientation in Time and Space Time: name the current day of the week, the day that was yesterday and the day that will be tomorrow (all year). Time: name and locate the day and month on a calendar (all year). Time: use monthly calendars to name holidays and special events marked by symbols (all year). Space: between, at the corner of, above/below. Space: trace the path described on a picture map in which different objects represent different landmarks. Scientific Reasoning Care for, observe, and record observations of animals (all year) Select and use appropriate tools for particular tasks: cut -scissors, join paper -staple. Music Identify classmates by voice alone; imitate clapping pattern sequences of at least 4 claps per pattern that vary in tempo, number and length of pauses between claps (all year). Visual Arts Use scissors and stapler as needed in completing art projects; sculpture (all year); examine and create a work of art in the style of Egyptian, Blue Hippo; examine and talk about the details and story of Degas, Little Fourteen Year Old Dancer. (Evergreen Country Day School, n.d. p. 107-108). Figure 8.7. Evergreen Country Day School Pre-Kindergarten Core Knowledge Curriculum (October).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

192

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Adapting the Core Knowledge Curriculum According to the director, while the program closely follows the Core Knowledge Curriculum’s scope and sequence, the program uses a developmentally appropriate approach to teaching concepts, especially through the use of play. For example, when they teach a letter of the alphabet, they cook it in pastry, have the children lay on the floor to create the letter, and reproduce it in sand and clay. Science projects are conducted on the playground, in the sand and water table, and on fieldtrips. “While the Core Knowledge Curriculum is very rigid, with specific time lines and daily schedules, we do not follow these mandates. We use a much more DAP approach”, reports the director (personal communication, August 3, 2006). The early childhood program also adds specials, in music, art, Spanish, and the library, for 20-30 minutes a week in a separate classroom. These classes are continued in the K-6 program, with PE and computers also added. Physical Space and Organizational Structure The early childhood building is an old Children’s World Leaning Center’s facility. It has large, square classrooms with tiled floors, widows, toilets, cubbies, bulletin boards and storage in each room. Each classroom is arranged with traditional learning centers, except for the rooms used for the specials. Two large playgrounds (toddlers and preschool) cover one entire side of the building. They are well equipped but have very little grass, no sand, and no shade. The elementary school and Kindergarten building is just below the playground. The preschool director reports to the head of the K-12 school who reports to the board of directors. Teachers meet Colorado Child Care licensing requirements (group leaders) and attend a variety of conferences to maintain their qualifications. K-6 grade teachers hold Colorado teacher’s licenses. There is very little racial and ethnic diversity in the student population, with a few adopted Asian children and a few mixed-race children. Unfortunately, children identified by Child Find (the organization that identifies preschool children with a disability) tend to move to the public school preschool because their parents believe they will be able to get better services than in the private preschool, and because the school has not been successful in having the local public school district provide services to children in their school who have disabilities.

CONCLUSION While the public school approach to early childhood and elementary education has fluctuated from progressive and innovative to back-to-the-basics and specific academic preparation, since the publication of the highly critical report, A Nation at Risk, the general consensus regarding public school curriculum for young children has gradually shifted from Bank Street, Reggio, British Infant/Primary and the original Froebel Kindergarten approach, to a more traditional philosophy, and a downward extension of K-12 curricular approaches. Elementary programs have seen the influence of NCLB, with a renewed focus on math, literacy, and science, and a de-emphasis on physical education, social studies and the arts. Both early childhood and elementary education programs have succumbed to a standardsbased approach to curriculum, and the use of standardized assessments to determine student

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Standards and Core Knowledge Curricular Approaches

193

learning. Further, because of the mandates of NCLB, the only learning standards that really matter are math, literacy, and science. The Core Knowledge Curriculum matches this change of focus, and has become quite popular in public charter schools that cater to parents and educators who advocate a traditional, rigid scope and sequence approach to early childhood education. The main difference between the traditional public school approach and the Core Knowledge Curriculum approach is that the Core Knowledge Foundation has carefully determined the specific content of the curriculum and the individual grade level sequence for each domain. However, this, of course, is what learning standards are doing for American public schools and early childhood programs.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1. Visit a public school Kindergarten program. Observe the daily schedule, view the curriculum and observe teacher instruction. Is it a half-day program or full-day program? If only half day, what do the children do for the rest of the day? 2. Visit a public school preschool (but not Head Start or Kindergarten). Who are the children in the program – how do they qualify? Where does the funding come from for the program? What is the curriculum? To what extent is the curriculum driven by standards and local Kindergarten entry requirements? 3. Find the website for your state’s department of education. Download the state learning/content standards. Which of these are assessed by state-mandated assessments? At what grade are students assessed? How are the results of the assessments used? 4. Most public school approaches have a very specific sequence for the acquisition of basic skills and concepts. Why is this problematic for children with special needs, children whose home language is not English, and immigrant children? 5. By using the Core Knowledge Foundation website, find a core knowledge elementary school in your areas. Visit the school, interview the staff, and then compare what you have observed with what is covered in this chapter.

RESOURCES Core Knowledge Foundation Website www.coreknowledge.org The Early Childhood Assessment Consortium www.ccsso.org/projects/scass/projects/earlychildhood. National Child Care Information Center http://nccic.org/pubs/goodstart/index.html. U.S Department of Education www.ed.gov/print/nclb/overview/intro/execumm.html.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 9

GLOBAL APPROACHES TO EARLY CHILDHOOD AND ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION Any book on early childhood and elementary education approaches must include a global perspective, because the world is becoming an ever-smaller place, several U.S. child care companies are globalizing, our expanding immigrant population brings new ideas and educational expectations from their home countries to our programs, and post-modern thought requires that we examine our approaches to early care and education in relation to approaches to educating and caring for young children in other societies and cultures (Wardle, 2005). Further, international globalization is moving many industries toward international approaches and standards. For example, the playground manufacturing business is seeking to develop international equipment safety standards (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). However, studying the world’s early childhood and education approaches is an extremely complex task, for a variety for reasons. Just some of these reasons include, • • •

•

•

A lack of formal information in Western educational and child development circles about approaches to early care and education in many societies and cultures; The same diversity of approaches to caring for and educating young children in every country that we have in this country; An overlay of typical European and U.S. approaches, such as Montessori, Piaget, Waldorf, and Froebel, and traditional Western education approaches, in countries colonized by Europeans (i.e. Brazil, African countries, New Zealand, Australia, etc) but often in forms that are very different from those in N. Europe and the US; Cultural difference regarding the care and education of children. For example, in the United Arab Emirates, a woman must be in charge of the nation’s early education programs, an all-women’s university has been created to teach women about the care and education of young children; and men and boys over age 10 are not allowed in parks and other public places dedicated to women and young children (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). The impact of the extreme gap between the poor and wealthy within many countries and cultures;

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

196

Francis Wardle •

•

•

The role of religion in caring for and educating young children, from very low involvement in Europe to medium involvement in the US and very high involvement in Brazil and other South American countries, Africa, and other areas of the world (Neugebauer, 2002); Every nation has a very unique and different view of the goals of their national educational efforts. These differences are also reflected in each nation’s early childhood approaches; Whether nations take a national approach to addressing social issues, such as most European countries, or leave these issues up to states, local municipalities, and private for-profit and non-profit entities, which is more common the North and South America.

This chapter will expose the reader to some approaches used to educate and care for young children in a variety of countries, including Brazil, Guatemala, New Zealand, France and Japan. The hope is that the reader will begin to understand how various global approaches to early care and early education are a reflection of each country’s complex context of history, social strata, cultural factors, religion, and the influences of various global early childhood movements, such as Froebel, Montessori and Dewey.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. What is the role of religion in caring for and educating young children in various countries? 2. How does the French ecole maternelle compare to the U.S. federally-funded Head Start program? 3. What are some of the family and community experiences of Maya preschool children that children in organized early childhood programs might miss? Are there ways to include these experiences even for children who attend organized programs? 4. Could New Zealand’s approach to supporting the language and culture of Maori children in schools work in the US? With which populations? How? 5. How important are adult-child ratios in determining quality care and education, and how important is staff training, qualifications/certifications and well-compensated staff? How do nations differ on these quality issues?

COMPARISONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS WORLDWIDE All countries begin formal education somewhere between ages 5 and 7 years old. At this age children either attend the state’s public schools or one of the many private/religious choices. Before we look at some of these choices, we will explore some comparisons of different preKindergarten programs. From 1986 to 1998, the High/Scope Foundation conducted a study of early childhood programs in a variety of countries (Neugebauer, 1999). Seventeen countries were involved, including Hong Kong, Italy, Portugal. Thailand, Romania, Ireland, United States, Finland,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

197

South Africa, China and Nigeria. The purpose of the study was to develop an overall impression of the development, behaviors, care and education of preschool-age children around the world.

Similarities Across Countries The study unearthed many similarities about young children’s development and behaviors, and how young children are cared for, worldwide. These similarities include,

Children Worldwide Develop at about the Same Pace Across nations, four-year-olds exhibited similar fine-motor skills – particularly in art projects, and similar gross motor skills – swinging, sliding, jumping and playing. “Everyone ……will be struck by the similarities in the children – how they run, jump, and manipulate materials in much the same way” (Weikart, quoted in Neugebauer, 1999, p 32).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Parent-Teacher Expectations Within each country, parents and teachers had the same expectations for 4-5 year olds. In almost all the countries studied, parents and teachers expected children to learn to relate to peers; and parents and teachers rated language skills and personal self-sufficiency skills high. On the other hand, relationships to adults and self-expression were generally rated low across countries. Parents in many of the countries wanted their children to be prepared to function in a global economy, and not simply be prepared for an agricultural existence. Trained Versus Untrained Teachers The research compared programs with trained teachers to programs with untrained teachers. There was no real difference between the two groups. The researchers believe this is due to several factors, including, 1) lots of early childhood training is theoretical, and lacks practical, hands-on application, 2) the large size of many of the groups necessitated a focus on classroom management, with little time for more developmentally appropriate approaches to teaching and practice, and 3) most programs studied did not follow a well developed early childhood model, curriculum and/or approach to discipline and education. Mother’s Role In all countries covered in the study, when children were not cared for in a program, they were primarily cared for by their mothers. On average for all the countries studied, fathers spent 40-45 minutes a day caring for their young children; in US the average was 42 minutes a day. The new emphasis on fathers and males in early childhood programs the United States is beginning to address this deficit (Wardle, 2005a). Reasons for Similarities The similarities discovered in this research are probably due to an overall agreement among teachers of young children, as a direct result of the international sharing of information. “In the last 30-40 years, there has been a lot more systemization of what is known about children and development. As a result, there is more commonality today than

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

198

Francis Wardle

you noticed 20-30years ago” (Weikart, quoted in Neugebauer, 1999, p34). Also, more and more parents view education as the best way to prepare their children for the future, and preschool education as the foundation for this later, formal education. Finally, according to the research author, the consistency of approaches may be due to the consistency of intellectual, physical and social development of children, across nations and cultures worldwide (Neugebauer, 1999).

Examples from Specific Counties

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

In addition to summarizing findings from 17 countries, four selected counties are profiled in this study in more detail: China, Nigeria, Finland and the United States. Information on various aspects of the programs in each of these four countries is provided in figure 9.1. In the figure definitions of skills and cocnpets are:concept: Self-sufficiency: caring for own needs; self-assessment: assesses own abilities and behaviors, develops a sense of selfconfidence; self expression: expresses creativity through arts and crafts, music, dance and/or imaginative play; social skills with peers: interacts and cooperates with other children; social skills with adults: listen to, cooperates with, and respects adults; language skills: expresses thoughts and feelings verbally; motor/physical skills: improved coordination, balance and agility through large-muscle activities; Pre-academic skills: learns basic concepts, small muscle coordination, and begins to master skills necessary for reading, writing and arithmetic. Areas in italics indicate differences between teachers and parents (Neugebauer, 1999). Characteristic Location of child Care/education Own home Other home

USA

China

Finland

Nigeria

47% 17%

63% 5%

30% 35%

89% 3%

Center/preschool Major Sponsors (other than parents)

36% Private organizations Religious organizations Government Educational institutions (school)

32%

33% Government

8% Religious organizations

Adult: child ratio Average Range

Head Start

Preschools

1:8 1:3-1:10;

1:7 1:4-1:14

Teaching expectations 2 most important areas

Social skills with peers/Language skills

Employer Educational institution Government Urban Rural 1:20 1:31 1:6-1:45 1:51:60

Language skills/Selfsufficiency skills

Religious organizations

Child Care Centers 1:6 1:3 –1:9

Social skills with peers/ Self-sufficiency skills

Private organizations

Preschools 1:21 1:8 – 1: 60

Pre-academic skills/Language skills

Figure 9.1. Continued on next page. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education Characteristic 2 least important areas

Parent expectations Two most important areas Two least important areas

199

USA Motor/Physical skills/Pre-academic skills

China Selfassessment skills/Preacademic skills

Finland Self-assessment skills/Preacademic skills

Nigeria Self-assessment skills/Selfsufficiency skills

Social skills with peers/Language skills

Pre academic skills/Language skills

Pre-academic skills/lLanguage skills

Social skills with adults/Motor/physical skills

Social skills with peers/Selfassessment skills

Social skills with peers/Selfsufficiency skills Self-assessment skills/Preacademics skills

Self-expression skills/ Self assessment skills

Figure 9.1. Selected Findings for Four Countries (Neugebauer, 1999).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

China In China, parents or grandparents care for most young children. In urban areas 80% of young children attend early childhood programs, in rural areas, 20 percent do. Employers, educational institutions, and the government sponsor these programs. Employers are the main sponsors, and programs are often located at the workplace. The child-adult ratios run from 1:45 (urban) to 1:60 (rural). Early childhood teachers in China believe language skills and self-sufficiency skills are the most important, pre-academic skills least important, while parents named pre-academic skills most important, but also agreed with the importance of language skills. Nigeria Very few young children attend early childhood programs in Nigeria, and government support is minimal. Thus only people with considerable wealth can afford to pay for programs, which are almost totally supported through tuition. The average adult-child ratio is 1:21, with the maximum being 1:60. In Nigeria, in contrast to responses from almost all the other countries, both parents and teachers believe pre-academic skills are the most important (but note this is a very skewed sample - only wealthy families). Both parents and teachers also stated that self-sufficiency is the least important for preschool children, probably because by age 4 children in Nigeria are expected to be able to care for younger siblings and to help in selling the family’s farm produce. Finland A federal law in Finland guarantees child care for every child age 1 to 6 years old. Child care is available in programs and family day care homes, and is funded by the national and local governments. Government sponsored programs also allow parents to stay home to provide child care for preschool children. Ratios in early childhood programs in Finland are 1:3 to 1:9. Finland has a national training system for teachers who work with young children. Both teachers and parents believe social skills with peers and self-sufficiency are the most

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

200

Francis Wardle

important skills to learn at this age, while self-expression and pre-academic skills are the least important. In Finland academic pursuits are delayed until formal education, which begins at 6 years old (Neugebauer 2008). It is interesting to note that, according to the World Economic Forum (2008), Finland’s quality of primary education is rated number one in the world

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Programs in the United States In the United States programs are used for children so their parents can work, to provide young children with social experiences, and to prepare children for school entrance. Most children are cared for in center-based programs and family day care homes, as opposed to being cared for by their parents. The variety of options for parents is staggering, especially compared to the very few school-age choices, particularly for parents with limited income. Teacher-child ratios are 1:7 to 1:8, although many programs, including religious-sponsored, school-based and some community for-profit and not-for-profit programs, do not adhere to these ratios. Early childhood accreditation standards insist on small ratios as part of their quality criteria (NAEYC, 2005), and most state sponsored preKindergarten programs include similar ratios as part of their quality standards (Education Commission of the States, 2006). In the United States, early childhood teachers and parents agree that the two most important skills for preschoolers to learn are social skills with peers and language skills, while the least important are physical/motor skills (Neugebauer, 1999) This High/Scope Education Resource Foundation study gives us a glimpse into comparative data of early childhood program in a variety of countries around the globe. Below is another study comparing preKindergarten programs. I then describe early childhood and elementary education approaches in a variety of the nations. These descriptions are less comparative and descriptive than the studies, but hopefully provide the reader with a feel for the variety of child care, early childhood education, and early school programs, worldwide.

Comparing Chinese, Japanese and US Preschool Programs Another study was conducted to specifically compare preschool programs in China, Japan and the US (Tobin, Wu and Davidson, 1989). A variety of instruments were used in this study, including asking citizens in each country what they believe to be the purpose of preschool education. Not surprisingly, in the area of language development and the purpose of preschool, major differences were found.

Language In all three countries, helping children with language development is considered a very important task. However, this is where the similarities end. In Chinese programs children learn to recite stories and inspirational moral tales, and to sing and dance in large groups. They rehearse and recite long speeches and complex songs as a group. In Japan, two kinds of language occurs in the preschool: informal, personal social interaction between the children, and teacher – taught and modeled formal social graces, such as greetings, blessings, thanks and farewell. These are socially shared ideas, values and traditions taught to all students. In U.S. preschools language is viewed as the tool for cognitive development, individuality,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

201

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

problem solving and social interaction. American children are taught the rules of conversation, self-expression, and free speech (Tobin, et al., 1989).

Preschool as School In Japanese preschools, there is little emphasis on academic instruction. Only 2% of the Japanese respondents listed, “to give children a good start academically” as one of the top three reasons for society to have preschools (p. 191). In Japanese preschools children spend little time reading, writing and counting. This is a reaction against a society and individual families who place too much pressure and competition of their young children. Most Japanese children learn to read at home. The Japanese phonics sound system for reading is relatively easy to learn, compared to Chinese and English. But preschools also do not focus on teaching math. To prepare children to be successful in first grade and beyond, Japanese preschools teach the fundamental preacademic skills of perseverance, concentration and the ability to function as members of a group (Tobin et al., 1989). The Chinese, however, have a very different view. When asked the purpose of preschool for a society, 37% of the survey respondents replied, “to give children a good start academically”, as the top response (compared to 22% of US respondents). Further, 67% of Chinese surveyed listed academics as one of the top three purposes for preschools. Much of this view is part of the legacy of the Cultural Revolution, whereby preschool was designed to “discourage non-ideological, frivolous play, and to encourage the learning of skills needed to be a productive member of society – reading, writing, computation, memorization, and clear thinking” (p. 193). Also, many parents today focus on preschools as a vehicle to help their children get ahead, because the Cultural Revolution destroyed their own careers. However, especially in urban areas, there is a more balanced view of preschool – a social-skills and play-based preschool curriculum is gaining favor. College students in Chinese universities are being exposed to a more Western view of preschools. These graduates then work throughout China, bringing these new ideas with them. New play and educational materials, and scholarly papers, reflect this shift. But most of China’s 170,000 preschools are rural, slow to change and still very conservative – they are still largely large group babysitters (Tobin, et al., 1989). Box 9.1. Reflective Thinking: Teacher: Child Ratios In accreditation criteria (NAEYC 2006), and state early childhood quality standards (ECS, 2006) small adult-child ratios are viewed as critical quality indicators. In Finland the ratios are on average 1: 6 (Neugebauer, 1999). Further, in Brazil middle class parents have maids who care for 1-3 children. However, in some poor quality programs in the US, and in programs for the poor in Brazil and many other countries, there are very high child-teacher rations. Thus ratios would appear to be an issue of class as much as anything else. But in China ratios go up to 1:45 in urban communities, and up to 1: 60 in rural communities (Neugebauer, 1999). In China families are only allowed one child. Are ratios in China – and in other countries like Nigeria, where only the wealthy can afford organized care – more of a cultural issue than one of quality?

Value of Education In all three societies – Unities States, Japan and China, parents view education as the road to their children’s success. Thus preschool is viewed as the important entry point on his Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

202

Francis Wardle

long journey. “In general, academic instruction is stressed more in China, play is stressed more in Japan, and the picture is mixed in the United States” (Tobin et al., 1989, p. 195). (It should be noted, however, that this statement was written before the current focus in this country on outcomes, standards, and the federal No Child Left Behind act). But in all three countries preschool teachers experience pressure to prepare children for academic and economic success.

EARLY CHILDHOOD AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PROGRAMS IN BRAZIL I have studied Brazilian early childhood and education approaches since 1996 (Wardle, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003c, 2005b, 2005c). From these studies of Brazilian programs, I will describe the various ways Brazil cares for and educates her young children. This analysis shows how child care, early education, and elementary schools are embedded within the overall Brazilian society and culture. To use Bronfenbrenner’s philosophy, this is more of an ecological rather than comparative discussion (Berns, 2007).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Brazil’s Contradictions As in all countries, Brazil’s programs for young children reflect her culture, history, economic system, social structures and political arrangements. Brazil is a society that in many ways parallels the United States, and in other ways is totally unique. It’s land mass is larger than the contiguous United States (National Geographic, 1993). Brazil’s colonial history began when it was ‘discovered’ by Cabral in 1500, and includes slavery and the near genocide of Amerindians. Today Brazil’s population of 177 million people includes Amerindians, Afro Brazilians, Italians, Germans, Japanese, Spanish, Portuguese and Syrian and Lebanese (Ladle, Hennessy and Bell, 1999). Almost half of Brazilian people define themselves – as does the official government census – as some form of mixed-race (mostly a mixture of African, Amerindian and European)(Alves-Silva et. al, 2000). Since Brazil’s colonial history is Portuguese, a major instructional and cultural influence is Europe – more so than the United States (for example British as opposed to US English is taught in the schools)(Wardle, 2005). At one point Brazil was an empire, and France was its cultural icon (Page, 1995). Much of Brazil’s European influence is still French (Page, 1995). Religion (Catholic) plays a very significant role in all Brazilian institutions, including schools and early childhood programs. Brazil’s culture is rich with African and Indian themes, symbols, language, rhythms and dance forms, along with various examples of European classical art, architecture, literature and music, and an exciting amalgamation of all these influences. Brazil’s political history is a rich mixture of Portuguese colony, Brazilian Empire, French (Napoleonic) legal system, military dictatorships and various attempts at democracy. Today it has a democratically elected federal government, with each state having considerable sovereignty. As a developing country, Brazil has many challenges; the gap between rich and poor continues to be Brazil’s number one social problem (Wardle, 2005a).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

203

Different Programs

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

As in the United States, Brazil offers a variety of approaches to caring for and educating children before entry into formal school, and for formal education.

Infant and Preschool Programs Traditionally, the Brazilian wealthy and middle-class have used maids to care for their young children. Sometimes these maids live in the children’s home; others come everyday. Along with caring for the children, they cook and clean. They take children to local playgrounds and a variety of other children’s activities. These children then spend some of the day in organized private Kindergarten programs, which include international options such as Montessori and Waldorf, along with independent and chain Kindergartens, with their own unique philosophies (Wardle, 2001). In Brazil the word Kindergarten applies to private early childhood programs, usually from age 3 to 6, before entrance into public school. However, younger and younger children are attending these programs, in some cases starting at age one. Kindergartens are usually part-day, tuition-based early childhood programs. However, most families in Brazil are very poor. Children in these families attend a variety of creches operated by churches, industrial parks, universities, cities and various benevolent associations. A creche is a full-day program for poor children and orphans. Many of these programs serve infants and toddlers as well as preschool children. The word creche is similar to child care or day care. A third word is also used, Jardim da Infancia – Infant Garden. There are not enough creches for all the children who need them (Ferreira, I. D, 2004); for those who do attend programs, adequate space is always a problem. And children in these programs tend to sit at tables or small desks most of the time. Brazilian programs don’t have learning centers, reading corners, indoor gross-motor areas, and sand and water tables. Only programs for middle-class families have computers and playgrounds (Wardle, 2005). Children who cannot find a place in a local creche go with their mothers to work selling produce on the side of the road, washing clothes at the nearest water source, or tagging along as best they can. Elementary Schools For most children in Brazil, public school begins with first grade, at age 7 (the large state of Minas Gerais recently moved the age to 6 years old). The two main school options in Brazil are public schools for poor children, and private and religious schools for middle class and wealthy students. While all public schools must follow federal curricula, a variety of jurisdictions run these programs: municipality, state, and federal, the latter often in conjunction with a university. The municipal programs are the poorest and lowest quality; the federal schools the wealthiest. The former are very poorly equipped; the latter have many more resources, better trained teachers, and more educational options (Wardle, 2005b). The difference between public and private/religious school in Brazil is a sharp reminder of the two Brazils: rich and middle class; poor and very poor. In some municipalities such as Brasilia, magnet schools in languages, the arts, etc., provide intense enrichment programs for

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

204

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

students. The students attend the school from their regular programs; parents must pay an additional fee. School-age after-school care is provided by a variety of NGOs, funded by charities, local governments, and foundations. An NGO – non-government organization – is similar to what we call a community center in the United States, run by a city or not-for-profit organization. Because the average public school day is about 4 hours or less, there is a tremendous need for these programs. However, there are not enough programs to meet the need, and therefore many poor children walk the streets, sell drugs, and enter into prostitution at an early age (Ferreira, S. L. 2005).

Quality Cities are responsible for regulating all local creches –safety, health, ratios, etc., and do so with the typical bureaucratic and frustratingly slow pace of all things associated with Brazilian governments (Salgarello, 2004, personal communication). They also provide some of the funding – but its always inadequate. As is the case in the United States, there is tremendous variability in the quality of early childhood programs in Brazil. Some programs, such as the Centro de Desenvolvimento da Crianca, at the Federal University of Minas Gerais, provide free care for the children of faculty and students, and programs for employees in business centers, such as the large program for 2-6 year olds in an industrial park in Manaus, in Northern Brazil, are high quality programs with teachers, psychologists, nurses and people with degrees in pedagogy. Others, however, lack space, equipment, and trained staff. As already indicated, quality in public schools varies from state to state, and jurisdiction to jurisdiction. According to the World Forum report on the Quality of Primary Education (2008), Brazil’s elementary schools rated 119 on a list of 134 countries (with 134 being the lowest quality). In 2005 I visited a municipal elementary school in Uberlandia where a concrete slab outside constituted the gym, the lighting in the classrooms was so bad I could hardly make out the students, and there was not enough chalk for me to write on the blackboard. The school had no computer and one TV donated by the principal. Yet in the same town I also visited a federal public school associated with the local federal university. Here they had a nice library, playroom, and well-lit, well-equipped classrooms. Staffing Public schools and early childhood programs in Brazil have extremely high ratios compared to United States and European standards (Neugebauer, 2002). The law requires no more than 25 students per teacher, going up to 35 in upper grades. Private programs (child care, Kindergarten - private preschool programs, and schools) tend to have much lower ratios. And, as stated earlier, when children are with maids the ratios is anything from 1: 1 to 1: 4. The maids take the children to city parks, playgrounds, dance classes and music lessons, and part-day Kindergarten programs. Staff in most programs have a high school diploma, and possibly some specific post-high school training in education and psychology. In the state of Goias, for example, teachers in the public schools who teach children up to 5th grade only need a high school diploma with a specialization in teacher training, earned at the high school level. The exception is the head of the Kindergarten or creche, who must have a three-year degree in pedagogy. Like most workers in Brazil, teachers are extremely poorly paid.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

205

State certified teachers earn a three-year degree from a local university; however, the focus of this degree is educational philosophy and pedagogy, with little instruction in discipline, classroom management, or working with parents (Wardle, 2005c).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Curriculum Government regulated programs – all those for poor children – provide a curricular approach that includes physical development, socialization, and emotional and cognitive development, taught through a whole child, integrated approach. While these programs tend toward a constructivist philosophy, they also introduce the basics of letters and numbers at about age 4-5 years old. The approach of the federally run public schools, starting at first grade (6 or 7 years old) is very traditionally teacher-directed, didactic learning. Public schools are now mandated to teach English, and some are also teaching children with some specific disabilities. Some of the creches are beginning to adopt a more direct approach. The curriculum of private Kindergartens depends on their model – Piaget, Montessori, Waldorf, etc., although from my observations it appears that the overall educational philosophy in Brazil is very much a traditional, teacher-directed approach, with the curricular content being very Eurocentric (Wardle, 2005c). Probably a central reason for this approach is the very large student-teacher ratios in all these programs. Figure 9.2 describes a small, private elementary school in a favela (slum) in Maceio, Alagoas State. A few miles beyond the brilliant white beaches and cobalt blue ocean of Maceio, a popular tourist mecca on the Brazilian NE coast, is Escola Estrela do Mar (the Star Fish School). This storefront school sits next to a noisy local freight train that runs alongside the road. Huge, ancient tropical trees shade the road. Stretching up a steep bank behind the school is a motley collection of adobe shacks and dilapidated homes that make up this favela (slum or ghetto). The bright green banana palms, orange flowering trees, and colorful washing hanging out to dry, cast an elusive mask over the harshness and depravity of the poverty. Twenty-seven children, age 4 to 8 years, were attending the school when I visited last November. All the children come from local favela families. Most of Brazil’s huge metropolitan areas are surrounded by a number of favelas, which often hang precariously on steep hillsides and cascade right into the center of comfortable, middle-class neighborhoods. This is where the poor and disfranchised of society try to survive. While Brazil’s middle-class is slowly expanding with the country’s increasing economy, a huge percentage of the population still live in extreme poverty. All the families whose children attend the school are very poor; many have no fathers, and some lack both biological parents. Drug abuse, teen pregnancy, alcoholism, chronic unemployment and domestic violence are common. All the children are children of color - various shades of brown, with tight, curly hair - the girls in carefully woven braids. This school is the dream-child of David, from Washington DC, and his Sao Paolo wife, Claudia. Their dream is to provide an enriching, nurturing, quality education for local children, while at the same time proving to the Brazilian establishment – particularly the public education establishment – that low-income children of color can be educated and can become very successful. With this educational backdrop and the context of abject poverty and racism, David and Claudia are running their dream school. It’s not an idea, a pie-in-the-sky dream, or a utopian plan: it’s a three-going-on-four-year reality. On entering the school, I am greeted by heat and noise! The very small area reverberates with children’s voices, and reflects the heat of a NE Brazilian midday. The classrooms are small and

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

206

Francis Wardle

cramped. But the children are eagerly trying to follow the teachers and learn; the teachers are eager to teach. There are quick smiles, verbal and physical praise, and lots of encouragement “to try again!” I visit a computer lab, English language class, and a class on respecting and preserving the local ecology. The school also teaches math, science, Portuguese, history, swimming and character education. They will be adding art, music and dance. And the school provides three healthy meals each day. At the back of the school is a very small area for playing games – mostly the favorite of all young Brazilian children – futebol. New School Building Since my visit, the school has moved to a wonderful new building, which has a totally different feeling from the school I visited last year – large, open, serene, and nestled in a variety of trees and shrubs that provide a cool oasis among the buildings and disorder. Like most Brazilian schools and community centers, the center of the building is a large, outdoor courtyard. All classrooms, labs and other rooms feed into this open area, which is also the children’s playground. And, because of the wonderful Brazilian tropical weather, the courtyard play area can be incorporated into many of the lessons as children move comfortably from their classrooms to the outdoors. This new building has allowed the school to increase its enrollment. Now 110 children, age 3 to 9 years of age, attend the school for the entire day. The school will add a grade every year until the children graduate from high school. School Philosophy “We start with the basic belief that all children can achieve their unique potential if provided with the complete education necessary do to so, starting at an early age”, says David. A strong emphasis is placed on the personal, physical and emotional development of each child. Children learn self-respect and discipline; they learn to respect others and to create and maintain a safe and healthy environment where everyone can learn and grow. The activities and culture of the school are designed to facilitate children’s natural desire for learning – curiosity, creativity, playfulness and honesty. Thus learning and teaching focus on each child’s unique interests, experiences, developmental stages and learning styles. The teachers, volunteers and programs carefully nurture children’s intellectual, aesthetic, physical, and caring development. Parents are provided opportunities to volunteer in the school, and are taught ways to support and assist in their children’s learning. They can also learn basic computer skills themselves. The program is a comprehensive, whole-child approach: academics, English as a second language, computers, art, character education, ecology/environment, and nature studies. But the curriculum also includes a monthly field trip into the community and regular Professional Days. The purpose of the field trips is to expose students to the community and the vast number of professional and employment opportunities beyond their small world. The Professional Day is an opportunity to have students become familiar with potential jobs and professions that they can aspire to. It also models professional behaviors and attitudes to the children. Further, these visiting professionals expand the children’s general knowledge in a vast variety of areas and disciplines, from auto mechanic and medical technician to computer programmer and community organizer. Staff of the School The school is headed by a principal, who leads a variety of teachers - some full-time and some part-time – including a storyteller. The staff also includes volunteers, interns, student teachers, social workers, cooks and janitors. While the principal has the required government training and certification, the teachers are all in the process of training for a government-approved teaching degree. But the school believes that expectations, values, and behaviors are more important than training. The educational staff must deeply believe that every child, regardless or his/her

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

207

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

background and home environment, can succeed. Further, they must show this belief through modeling, effort, enthusiasm, commitment, and spirit. And they must let each child know, in a variety of personal and unique ways, that they believe in them and have faith that they can and will succeed. Also, because of the school’s unique philosophy, the teaching staff must also be willing to examine their own teaching approaches, and be open to new ideas, interactions, and ways of teaching children. The school is as much a laboratory for teachers as it is a positive environment for children. To this end the school has created an annual teaching conference, Congresso de Educacao do Instituto Estrela do Mar. School Finances The school receives no government support, either from the federal school administration or local agencies. The school also does not charge tuition. Support for the school comes from variety of personal, corporate and foundation sources (World Fund), along with volunteers, student teachers, and personal and financial commitments from Claudia and David. Much of their own money has gone into the school. (Wardle, 2008).

Figure 9.2 Escola Estrela do Mar.

Brazil’s Struggle While Brazil is committed to serve her youngest children, Brazil’s early childhood programs and early school grades suffer from a lack of space, too high adult-child ratios, very poorly paid teachers, inadequate government support (municipality, state and federal) and very poor equipment, including playgrounds. Even the best private programs that I observed were not nearly as well equipped as the average United States Head Start program and typical public school. However, many of Brazil’s early childhood programs and schools receive some

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

208

Francis Wardle

community support – if spotty – from churches, local governments, community leaders, individuals, university students fulfilling internship requirements of their educational programs, and a variety of service organizations (Wardle, 2005b, Wardle, 2005c).

PROGRAMS FOR YOUNG MAYA CHILDREN IN GUATEMALA

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

In Guatemala there are two fundamentally different populations: Maya Indians, who live in mountain villages and gravitate to the towns for work and to market their farm products and handiworks (mostly woven goods), and the minority Ladino (mixed-race) population who run the government and most businesses, and who live primary in the towns and cities. As in many developing countries, the early care and education provided in the rural areas is very different from the early care and education provided in the towns and cities.

Caring for and Educating the Young Children Young children in Panimasiguan stay with their mothers as they wash clothes, grind corn and coffee at home, weave beautiful native costumes, and cook meals over the open fire. Infants are carried on the backs of their mothers, older sisters and other female relatives, wrapped tightly in a woven blanket, as the women do their chores, including washing clothes in the stream. Next to them are other little ones – some imitating the washing of clothes, others splashing in the water and entertaining the even smaller ones. Even when mothers attend the very long village meetings, they bring their young children, who play on the dirt floor and eventually fall asleep. However, because the village is small and isolated physically and socially from outside influences, groups of children of different ages freely walk along the paths with no adult supervision. Sometimes they go off to join other children or visit their friends and families in their homes. On other occasions they assist adults in community activities, such as an all-day

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

209

fiesta on the soccer field in the middle of the village. Often I would encounter small groups of children as I walked from one village to another (see figure 9.4 for a description of the village).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

School in Panimasiguan After finishing their morning chores Mayan children 6 years and older walk to the school in Panimasiguan. The old school building was perched grandly on the hill, an impressive adobe building with tiled roof, ceramic floor, and heavy wooden doors, built with American aid. But, like all the large buildings in Panimasiguan, it ways destroyed by the earthquake of 1976. Now the school meets in the temporary town hall in the middle of the village, next to the soccer field where the community also celebrates fiestas. Children dressed in ragged clothes travel barefoot over the dirt paths, dwarfed by the high corn stalks that tower on each side. They carry their books in a large purse slung over their shoulders. The girls wear woven wrap-around skirts and tops, in colors of blue, green and red. The boys wear dark pants, white shirts, cloth belts, and their ever-present straw hats (Wardle, 1976).

Instruction The group of 30 children is taught by Silvestre Sophen, an ex-military man. The children range in age from 6 to 12 years of age, and the older children often teach the younger ones. In the morning they are taught academics, in the afternoon they cultivate a garden (see figure 9. 3), play soccer, and visit village activities such as our building project. In all these activities both the formal lessons and less formal activities in the afternoon - girls and boys stay in very

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

210

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

segregated groups. When the village celebrated an all day fiesta, the boys helped the men in collecting firewood and butchering the steer, the girls worked with the women in building the fires and cooking the meat (Wardle, 1976). When he teaches the students, Silvestre rigidly follows the national curriculum, sent to him from the Guatemalan Ministry of Education. The only materials he has are a chalkboard and the instruction books from the Ministry of Education. Silvestre teaches directly from these books, which are plain white pages with simple black print instructions and line illustrations. He makes no changes or creative interpretations, and uses a very teacher directed, rote memorization approach. According to Silvestre, he teaches math, social studies, natural science, aesthetic education, industrial arts, agriculture, and heath and sanitation (Wardle 1976). This latter subject area is, of course, very ironic, since these children lack any semblance of sanitation or basics of heath care. Many of their homes don’t even have outhouses, let alone running water! For the first year of school the children are taught in Cakchiquel, the Maya language used at home. After first grade, instruction is switched to Spanish, Guatemala’s official language – and the language of its ruling class. However, in the Maya villages only men actually speak Spanish, because they are the culture’s contact with the outside world. In their daily village life, their interaction with their children, and their socialization with other women at the weekly market, the women use Cakchiquel. Men switch between Spanish and Cakchiquel, depending on with whom they are talking. This afternoon class is growing vegetables in the school garden. The teacher demonstrates to the children how to prepare the soil, create straight lines for the rows of seeds, and then plant the seeds. Only boys are involved in this activity, as the girls are either simply watching or have gone home to help their mothers. The boys use the traditional Azidon to prepare the soil. They seem to have little problem handling the adult-size tool, which looks like a huge hoe, and is really the only tool used by these farmers to till their soil and weed their corn and beans. Then the teacher shows the children how to measure the distance between each row of seeds. He uses the ancient but traditional measure of elbow to fingertip, and thumb to tip of the little finger. Once the seeds are sown, the boys get water from the nearby stream and water their newly planted seeds with great satisfaction (Wardle, 1976). Figure 9.3. Growing Vegetables in a Maya School.

Teacher Preparation For Silvestre to qualify to teach in a government school, he first had to complete high school. Most Maya children in Guatemala do not complete high school, because all the high schools are private or religious, and therefore charge tuition. Thus Silvestre, like most teachers in Guatemala, is Ladino and not Maya. After graduation he then took two, onemonth classes in methods and techniques of teaching, taught by the head of Rural Education in Guatemala. Silvestre accepted the teaching position in Panimasiguan because no other teaching position was available close to his home or in a cities, which pay more and provide a much higher social status. He seems to love to be with the children, although, like the students, he clearly finds the academic instruction rather boring. He says he does not give any

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

211

tests, because he knows what each of his children can do; at completion of sixth grade he writes a certificate saying children have completed the 6th grade (Wardle, 1976).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Children Needed at Home The children in the family I stayed with during my earthquake relief work are Timotheo, Abraham, Maria and Samuel (see figure 9.4). While Timotheo and Abraham attend school most every day, Maria is usually needed at home to help her mother cook and care for Samuel. When Maria is home she is very serious, strong, demure to men, and diligent – seeming to take great pride in carrying the water, making the tortillas, and helping her mother. But, on the occasions when I observed her at school, she was laughing, teasing and playing with the other girls. In fact, it seems that the main function of the school in Panimasiguan is to allow the children to socialize with the other children, and to provide temporary relief from their extreme poverty and extremely hard work. In fact, the real learning for the children of Panimasiguan goes on outside of school: learning to weave, wash and mend clothes, grind coffee, butcher and prepare animals, irrigate and fertilize the precious corn and beans, build houses, and make baskets that can be sold at the weekly market. Maybe this is why Mr. Sophen seems more concerned that all his school children participate in village fiestas and other actives, than whether he follows the Minister of Education’s curriculum. Panimasiguan is a small village of less than 100 people who live in thatched and tile-covered adobe houses scattered along the floor of a one-mile section of a small valley, high in the Highlands of Guatemala. While it is possible to reach the outskirts of Panimasiguan by horse or jeep – and then scramble down the steep pathway to the village center – the local farmers walk the 10 kilometers to the nearest town, where they sell their wares at the weekly market, attend the local Catholic Church services, socialize, and buy needed supplies for the week. The average home in the small agricultural community is a two-room, adobe structure, with one room occupied by the open cooking fire and used for cooking and eating, and the other room for sleeping of the 4 to 8 family members. The floors are dry dirt, and the rooms spill out into an open courtyard, also with a mud floor. A small sweat lodge sits in one corner of the courtyard. The women and girls wear beautiful woven costumes, the men and boys ragged western dress, and everyone is barefoot. There is no electricity or plumbing – in many cases, not even outhouses. Winding paths connect these small homes; villages farther up the valley from Panimasiguan are only accessible by foot. I lived and worked in the village of Panimasiguan in 1976, right after the devastating earthquake that destroyed many homes in the Highlands and affected the Maya particularly hard. Two other American volunteers and I lived with a Maya family, as we helped rebuild their home. The family had four children: Juan, a teenage boy, Maria (12), Timotheo (8), Abraham (6), and the baby, Samuel. Juan helped his father, Margarito, in the fields and with the building; Maria helped her mother grind coffee and corn, wash clothes in the muddy stream, carry water, and care for Samuel, and the two boys attended school and played with the other children in the village. I sometimes joined them, especially in playing soccer on their waterlogged fiesta field (Wardle, 1976) Figure 9.4. A Mayan Village in the Highlands of Guatemala.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

212

Francis Wardle

Town Schools The elementary school in the town closest to Panimasiguan is quite different from the mountain school. This is a market town where all the local villages congregate on market day. Here the school is larger and more traditional, with same-age classes, desks in rows, and teachers who wear western clothing. But still the instruction of academics is totally teacher directed - using the blackboard and Ministry of Education workbooks in each content area. The government of Guatemala realizes that education of the majority Maya population is necessary to address the extreme poverty of most of the indigenous people. And, as figure 9.6 indicates, the UN has recognized that all children worldwide have a right to a free, elementary education. However, the relationship of school to their culture and later employment choices is very complex for the Maya children. Within these villages the caring of children before school age is a shared responsibility of the extended family and community; school is more of a social activity than any kind of preparation for later life, with maybe the exception of the boys learning Spanish and how to function in the greater society so that can get jobs away from home to supplement their meager existence.

PROGRAMS FOR YOUNG CHILDREN IN NEW ZEALAND Official school in New Zealand beings at 5 years of age. Before entry into school, eighty six percent of children under age 5 attend some form of child care or early childhood program (Oborn, 2002).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Different Program Options There is a diversity of organizations in New Zealand that care for and educate children under age 5. The most popular are called education and care centres, which serve from 6 to 50 children part or full day, and are either privately run, operated by religious organizations, or parent cooperatives (note in the Queen’s English center is spelled, centre). Many of these centres have names we are familiar with – Prodigy Centre, Children’s World, Kindercare, and are owned by local New Zealand residents. In 2002 there were 1,521 educational and care centres in New Zealand. There were also 592 playgroups, 600 Kindergartens, 542 playcentres, 583 Te Kohanga Reo, 127 Pacific Nests, and 180 home-based services (Oborn, 2002). In New Zealand, Kindergartens are based on the original Froebel Kindergartens, which were brought to New Zealand from Germany in 1889. Initially run by various churches, these programs have a holistic approach to education and strong parent involvement. They operate 3 hours a day, serve children age four to school entry (age 5), and belong to what is called the New Zealand Free Kindergarten Union. They are funded by the national government and parent donations, and are run by regional Kindergarten associations, which are not a direct part of the national government. Like their American (public school) counterparts, their teachers tend to be better trained that those in the other programs (Oborn, 2002).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

213

Playcentres During the Second World War, Playcentres were developed. These programs were developed in affluent areas of the country and are based on the ideas on Dr. Susan Isaacs. Susan Isaacs was a British educator who developed the Malting House School in England, and wrote two volumes on early childhood education: Intellectual Growth in Young Children, (1930/48), and Social Development in Young Children (1933/72). She combined the intellectual approach (Dewey) with the psychoanalytical approach in her philosophy, thus marrying cognitive and affective/social development. She also described the distinctive difference between the child therapist and the teacher of young children (Biber, 1984). Playcentres are run by mothers and focus on school readiness. They serve children in mixedage groups up to age five. Parents are expected to go through Playcentre training, serve on a variety of committees, and attend sessions each week with their children. These are truly parent cooperatives, where parents also serve as teachers (Oborn, 2002). Cleary these programs do not work for working parents or parents in education or training programs. Playcentres have provided early childhood education for many children and training and empowerment for many mothers, who often use their training to advance to important business and political positions within New Zealand (Oborn, 2002). While Playgroups have a similar name to Playcentres, they are more like the American mother’s-day-out programs, where parents meet with their children to provide them with important socialization activities before formal schooling. And home-based services In New Zealand are very similar to American licensed home-based family child care.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

According to the UN, all children worldwide have the right to a free, elementary education. Principle 7: Education The child is entitled to receive education, which shall be free and compulsory, at least in the elementary stages. He shall be given an education, which will promote his general culture and enable him, on a basis of equal opportunity, to develop his abilities, his individual judgment, and his sense of moral and social responsibility, and to become a useful member of society. The best interests of the child shall be the guiding principle of those responsible for his education and guidance; that responsibility lies in the first place with his parents. The child shall have full opportunity for play and recreation, which should be directed to the same purposes as education; society and the public authorities shall endeavor to promote the enjoyment of this right. (Resolution 1386 (XIV) of November 20, 1959). Figure 9.5. UN Declaration of the Rights of the Child.

Te Kohanga Reo and Pacific Island Nests Both Te Kohanga Reo and Pacific Island Nests are programs that serve children from specific cultural populations. Te Kohanga Reo (language nests) were started in 1982. They are funded by the Kohanga Reo Trust and the national government of New Zealand, are designed to preserve the language and culture of the Maori people and to provide Maori adults with training and empowerment. Today there are 500 of these centers (Oborn, 2002). Some students from these programs continue their education in the Maori public schools, while others go on to the normal public schools. An American comparison would be the tribal Head Start programs, whose graduates continue on in the local Bureau of Indiana Affairs

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

214

Francis Wardle

school on the reservation (funded by the US government), or go to the local public school off the reservation. Pacific Island Nests are centers set up by various immigrant groups in New Zealand to preserve their language and culture. These centers are actively supported by various immigrant churches – through donations of space, volunteers, other resources, and the involvement and support of minister’s wives (Oborn, 2002).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Early Childhood Curriculum Unlike the approach in the United States, New Zealand has a national approach to education, including early childhood education. The New Zealand Ministry of Education, which is responsible for early care and education in New Zealand, created the curriculum, Te Whaariki (the mat). This document is organized into 4 general areas: empowerment, holistic development, family and community, and relationships (Ministry of Education, 2002). Five strands of learning are taught through these sections – well-being, belonging, contribution, communication, and exploration. Because each of these concepts is designed in a generic, conceptual way, local educational programs can tailor and elaborate them to meet their unique program and curricular needs. Goals, outcomes, and experiences for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers are all listed as part of the curriculum (Oborn, 2002). The theoretical foundations for this document include Montessori, Howard Gardner, Reggio Emilia, and other perspectives. Extensive use of the outdoor environment is part of New Zealand’s culture, and thus an integral component of each child’s day. All programs are required to have well-equipped playgrounds; free movement of children from inside to outside is encouraged, and protection against too much sun is part of national child care safety requirements – as it is in Australia. For all early childhood programs in New Zealand there must be at least one Person Responsible on duty at all times children are present. This individual must hold a three-year Diploma of Teaching in ECE, or its equivalent. (It should be noted here that in many countries, including New Zealand, Brazil, and England, an undergraduate degree is 3 years in duration, and not the typical 4 years for students in the US). Currently there is a government proposal to increase this qualification to cover 50% of the staff in a New Zealand early childhood program (Oborn, 2002).

Conclusion Early childhood options in New Zealand include the traditional Kindergarten model, local applications of international for-profit programs, variations on mothers-day out, and programs dedicated to meet the specific needs of local Maori populations and new immigrant groups. However, as one would expect, these programs are all influenced by the politics and culture of New Zealand, which has a more whole-child and less academic approach to early childhood and elelemtray school curricula than is currency the reality in most US early childhood programs and elementary schools.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

215

ECOLE MATERNELLE: THE FRENCH APPROACH The French are very proud of ecole maternelle…. “there is an absolute and unquestioned acceptance of the ecole maternelle by the French as something that is part of the inviolable creed and culture” (French American Foundation, 1999, p.10). The ecole maternelle began as the salles d’asile (halls of refuge) set up in Paris in the 1820s and 1830s to shelter the children of working parents from the evils of the streets. By 1880, laws for French public education state that the ecole maternelle is the first step in public education (McMahan, 1992). Thus the ecole maternelle is the beginning of the overall French national curriculum, starting at age two and continuing with an overall clear scope and sequence through secondary education. It is universally available to all young children in France, and it is free. After attending ecole maternelle, children attend ecole elementaire through age ten, and then college preparation and general vocational and technical programs at the secondary level (Exbrayant and Poure, 2001). I recently visited two of my children who live in Paris. I was amazed to see all the ecole maternelle buildings nestled at the end of winding streets and next to pleasant parks. While they were obvious educational buildings, they fit comfortably into the neighborhoods and did not stick out like American child care and elementary school buildings. The mission of the ecole maternelle is to foster the child’s transition from the home to the primary school (McMahan, 1992). And, according to the Ministere de l’Education Nationale (1986), the three main objectives of ecole maternelle are:

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1. To help the child adjust to the setting and culture of the school, and to help them see what pleasures and enjoyment the school affords; 2. To awaken in the child a variety of interests that will be further studied in school – language, art, science, and physical activities; 3. To help children develop social relationships with other children. The curriculum focuses on play, discovery, and learning the French language. These early childhood years are considered an important, self-contained and unique early childhood period (Jacobsen, 2001a). Along with teaching French, the curriculum also focuses on exposing and immersing children in the French culture. This is particularly important due to the increasing diversity of the French population. In the ecole maternelle, academics are secondary, with the teaching of reading left for the elementary schools (Jacobson, 2001b). Children in ecole maternelle engage in risk-taking, long field trips, and learning the complex nature of French cultural dining habits. A high level of student independence is also expected (Hurless, 2004). At age six children enter ecole elementaire (elementary school) where they remain through age 10. Here they focus on the fundamentals of reading, composition, math and other school subjects (Hurless, 2004). While enrollment in ecole maternelle is not compulsory, almost 100% of 3-5 year olds attend a program. For the 2-year-olds, enrollment in 1989 was 36% (MEN, 1989), a result of increased availability of 2-year old classes (classes for two year olds are not available in every ecole maternelle), which is itself a result of increased parent demand. In France there are several other options for the younger children, including creche (infant-toddler programs) and family day care, both of which are fairly expensive compared to the free ecole maternelle.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

216

Francis Wardle Academy of Educational Development Aga Kahn Development Network. Arab Resources Coalition Asian Development Bank. Association for Childhood Education International Bernard van Leer Foundation Children’s Aid Society Children’s Rights Information Network Christian Children’s Fund The Consultative Group Defense for Children International European Children’s Trust Free the Children High/Scope Educational Research Foundation International Child Resource Institute International Step by Step Association Mercy Corp Mother/Child Educational Foundation Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Plan International

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Partners of the Americas International Save the Children Alliance UNESCO UNICEF Unitarian Universalist Service Committee World Bank World Forum: Child Care Information Exchange. World Vision International (Neugebauer, March/April, 2002; July/August 2002). Figure 9.6. Some International Children’s Organizations.

Teacher Preparation Early childhood teachers in France receive the same kind of preparation as K-12 teachers. They are viewed as professionals who earn the same salary and benefits as teachers who teach

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

217

older children, and have the same societal prestige. Benefits include regularly paid in-service training throughout their career. All teachers must first earn a bachelors degree in a major field, before then taking an entrance exam to be admitted to a teacher-training program. (As in Brazil, Japan, other European countries, and many ex-colonies, rigorous exams are used for college entrance and continual advancement). Teachers then complete an additional year of study and many months of onsite training. During the training they are paid by the national government. Once candidates have finished their training, they take a series of examinations, including the Professional Oral Examination. This is an oral defense of a thesis paper. Other exams include math, knowledge of the French language, content in specific areas, and demonstrating the application of educational theory and practice. Both the rigorous preparation of teachers, and their status and benefits in society, prepare teachers to be able to adapt the national curriculum to meet the unique needs of all students in these programs (French American Foundation, 1999, p. 15).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Staffing and the School Day Ecole maternelle is usually housed in a building separate from the local primary school, and each age-group has its own classroom. During 1988 – 1989, the average class size was 28, but it has fallen steadily since then (MEN, 1986). Because of training and compensation, staff turnover is extremely low. Most classes have a teacher (paid by the national government), and an aide (paid by the local municipality). The director of the program usually also teaches a class, and the program has access to physicians, psychologists and learning specialists. Typically, the school day runs from 8:30 to 11:30, and then continues from 1:30 to 4:30 (or 2-5 pm), four and one half days a week. Most children, particularly the 3-5 year olds, attend full day. During the lunch break the children eat lunch at the local school, and are then supervised by a school aide on the school playground. In many urban areas, children receive warp-around service from the local garderie – child care center, run by the municipality. This program cares for children 1 to 2 hours before school, and 2 to 2 ½ hours after school, and during school vacations. Some of these child care programs are free and some charge parents. Children are escorted from the ecole maternelle to the garderie, which is usually close by; children attending the garderie know each other from the maternelle.

Research Results on Ecole Maternelle In 1980 the French Ministry of Education identified a sample of students attending ecole maternelle who they followed through high school. Based on findings from this research they determined that each year of preschool experience increased the likelihood that a child would be promoted from 6th to 7th grade, and later through all the high school grades (McMahan, 1992). However, because at the time of the research middle and upper middle-income parents were more likely to use the ecole maternelle than poor children, SES may well be a factor in these results. Further, there is a debate in France as to whether children aged two are too young to ‘enter school’. Because of this concern there have been suggestions to change the

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

218

Francis Wardle

curriculum for 2 year olds. Parents, however, believe the social impact of starting school at age two produces children who talk more, express themselves better, and are more autonomous (McMahan, 1992).

Conclusion Ecole maternelle is a free, universal early childhood program for French children that has gained the utmost respect and confidence of French parents and the public in general. It is characterized by a national curriculum, a focus on play and immersing children in the French culture and language, rigorous and extensive teacher preparation, and full professional respect of teachers – salaries, training, benefits, and prestige.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Box 9.2. Reflective Thinking: Responsibility to Assist Developing Nations with Universal Education In 2000, 150 nations pledged at a meeting in Dakar, Senegal, to send every child in the world to school in the coming decade. In 2005, leaders of major industrial nations at a G8 Conference pledged to provide the financial support to make this happen. Education Week (April 19, 2006 (www.edweek.org) reported that the United Kingdom has pledged $15 billion — $1.5 billion per year for ten years — to give a major boost to the "Education for All" initiative. Currently, the United States commitment, $450 million in 2006, is less than 1/3 of the UK commitment, and far below what is needed to achieve Education for All goals. At the current level of support the initiative is receiving, Education Week reports, it will take another 150 years before the goal of education for all children becomes a reality in Africa. For example, the continent needs at least 15 million more teachers to fulfill the goal (Exchange Every Day, May 3, 2006, www. ccie.com) What responsibility do developed counties have in supporting free, public education in developing countries? Should the US provide more funds in this effort? What about the UN?

JAPANESE EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS Japanese Kindergarten, or yochien, covers a 3 year span, the last year being the equivalent of the American Kndergarten, the first two years being the same as our preschool years before Kindergarten.

Curriculum The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Guidelines provides the national curriculum used in these programs (1999). This curriculum approach to early childhood education focuses on five areas: • •

Promotion of community spirit in the classroom; Use of play in learning;

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education • • •

219

Development of children’s autonomy; Development of reflection skills in teachers and children; A whole child approach (Taylor, 2004).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Promotion of Community Spirit Children in the Japanese Kindergarten are expected to be energetic, social and active, so high levels of noise and activity are accepted in the classroom. Children are allowed to be themselves, and are accepted as members of the group by peers and teachers alike. However, the child is also expected to be kind, cooperative, and moral To help develop a sense of community spirit, the Japanese early childhood programs use the concept of the toban, and facilitate group rule making. A toban is the classroom leader (sometimes two children) for the day. Not only does this child function like the typical American “teacher’s helper” – help distribute materials, assists with setting up the table for lunch, and so on – he/she also helps with maintaining order in the classroom. This promotes a peer-based rather than teacher-based approach to self-regulation in the classroom. Each child has an opportunity to be a toban. According to the Japanese Minster of Education Guidelines, one of the goals of early childhood education is to develop high morals: sympathy, empathy, gentleness, social consciousness, and kindness (Taylor, 2004). The purpose of this goal is to enable the students to function effectively in a variety of social environments. One way this goal is achieved is through group meetings, called by students or the teacher to address classroom issues. In these meetings the teacher skillfully facilitates the process of clarifying the problem, creating potential solutions and then adopting a solution (Taylor, 2004). However, the ultimate agreement is a full class, cooperative effort. Use of Play, Reflection Skills, and a Whole Child Approach Japanese early childhood curricula mandate play-centered early childhood education (Ishigaki, 1991). Japanese teachers observe children at play and then scaffold ways to enhance and elaborate the children’s play. Play allows children to pursue their own unique interests, which is central to the Japanese early childhood approach. The Japanese guidelines recommend that teachers carefully reflect on how they interact with children, and how they assess children’s growth. And teachers help children engage in this same behaviors of reflection and introspection. Teachers help children learn to review, evaluate and critique past behaviors and then to decide how to improve their behaviors in the future. According to Taylor (2004), this idea of reflection and introspection is unique to the Japanese culture. Focus on the Whole Child Unlike many Western approaches to education, which focus on the development of intellectual skills, with emotional and psychological well-being sometimes added as somewhat of an afterthought, Japanese teachers are expected to help children develop healthy, safe and happy lives, and to develop healthy minds and bodies through play. Balancing the mind and body is considered to be very important. This belief comes from the Japanese view of the importance of living in harmony with nature (Taylor, 2004). This balance of mind and

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

220

Francis Wardle

body is achieved thorough the integration of play and nature within the early childhood curriculum.

CONCLUSION In this chapter I have just scratched the surface of some early childhood and elementary school models, worldwide. We have seen the low-key, casual approach used with Maya children in the Highlands of Guatemala, the highly organized and institutionalized elcole maternelle of France, and the assorted, different programs of Brazil, among others. While it is dangerous to view early childhood and education approaches around the globe from just a single US viewpoint, all approaches worldwide must address issues that we in the United States are all too familiar with. These include, financing the programs; the discrepancy between programs for the wealthy and middle-class, usually fee paying, and those for the poor, which are paid for by the government or another third party; the relationships between child care, early childhood education and the state’s public schools; staff training and compensation; standards, curriculum, teaching society’s values and morals; adult-child ratios, and whether the program should be nationally or locally funded and administered. In both early childhood and elementary schools, the issue of academics versus a more whole-child, balanced curriculum is an important issue to examine. While early childhood and elementary school programs will always reflect the unique realities of each society they serve, ever-increasing globalization will require early childhood and elementary school educators to take ever-more global views of our profession.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1. Find a foreign student in your college. Interview the student; then compare and contrast the student’s experience in their early education to those practiced in the United States. 2. Search to determine if there are any international programs in your area that serve young children from other countries, such as an international school. Visit the program and see how it compares to a typical American program. 3. The French view their programs for 2-5 year-olds as part of the overall national commitment to education. Since the United States does not have a central government approach to K-12 education, would such an approach even be possible in this country? How so? 4. The Japanese approach to early childhood curricula is deeply influenced by the Japanese culture. To what extent are American approaches influenced by the American culture? Are these good or bad? 5. The High/Scope Educational Foundation international study reported that in most countries both teachers and parents did not view preacademic skills as a priority. Given the United States’ recent push towards learning standards in early childhood and early elementary education, are we out of touch with the world, or visa versa?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Global Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education

221

RESOURCES Escola Estrela do Mar www.escolaestreladomar.org High/Scope Educational Research Foundation Ypsilanti, MI. USA, www.highscope.org Instituto Estrela do Mar, www.starfisheducationalinstitute.org Partners of the Americas Washington, DC. 20009 www.partners.net Partners of the Americas matches states in the U.S. with countries and states in Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central and S. America. Individual partnerships create and sustain a variety of activities, including activities in early childhood programs and schools. UNESCO Paris, France, www.unesco.org To promote peace and security in the world though education, science, culture and communication, worldwide.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

UNICEF New York, NY. USA www.unicef.org An arm of the United Nations, UNICEF is charged with advocating for the protection of children’s rights, to meet their basic needs and to enable them to reach their full potential. World Fund www.worldfund.org

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 10

EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION Educational services for children with special needs began in K-12 schools. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is based on the legal requirement to provide equal services guaranteed by the 14th Amendment (equal protection) of the U.S. Constitution. Since K-12 schools have been providing free education to children for much of our history, beginning in Colonial America in some cases, they are also required to provide this same service to children with disabilities. Services for exceptional children have moved into early childhood programs because of several factors. First, the federal government extended IDEA to include 3-5 year old children (but states are not required to provide services for infants-2 year olds); second, there are now more publicly funded (state, federal and local school district) early childhood programs for typically developing children, thus requiring programs for children with disabilities; and third, advocates who believe that school-age children with disabilities deserve equal educational opportunity, also believe these services should be provided for younger children. Finally, considerable research and theory suggests that early intervention of children with disabilities is almost always more effective than waiting until the child enters a K-12 school program. However, as with most things educational, the approach to severing children with special needs, 5 years old and younger, is substantially different from the approach used in K-12 programs. Even training for professionals differs, depending on whether the professional will work in K-12 schools or in early childhood special education programs. This chapter begins with a brief history of special education in the Untied States, covers the legal mandates for elementary schools and early childhood programs, and then describes in detail each part of the law, for each age-group of children The chapter continues by discussing the overall philosophy of early childhood and elementary special education, and then describes how this approach often differs markedly from approaches used with normally developing children. Twice exceptional children are discussed, and then a few ideas and techniques for working with children with various disabilities are detailed.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

224

Francis Wardle

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. Under what legal authority is the federal government empowered to compel states to serve the needs of children with disabilities? 2. Does the federal government describe in detail how states and local programs must meet the needs of children with disabilities? 3. What is a least restrictive environment? Why is it so important for children with disabilities? What are different ways that a least restrictive environment can be achieved? 4. What is the zero reject policy? Why is it important in educating children with disabilities? 5. To what extent do non-public schools and early childhood programs have to follow the mandates of IDEA?

BRIEF HISTORY AND LEGAL ISSUES The first American public schools did not serve children with disabilities. It was not until the middle part of the 20th Century that we began to examine the need to serve children with various disabilities, along with other excluded children, in our public schools.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Civil Rights Movement The civil rights movement of the late 1950s - early 1960s consolidated the basic beliefs set forth in the U.S. Declaration of Independence that all Americas are created equal and are entitled to equal access to the American way of life. While education is not covered in the U.S. Constitution (it is the responsibility of each state), by the 1950s all states in the Union provided free public education for children, grades one to 12. In 1954, the famous U.S. Supreme Court decision, Brown versus Board of Education of Topeka, along with other decisions, outlawed what was then the accepted view that a separate (racially) education was an equal education. While the Brown case applied specifically to racial equality, the decision also affected other areas of inequality, including the education of children with a variety of disabilities. Parents of children with disabilities went to court, demanding that their children be provided equal access to the same quality of education that other children were receiving. These cases resulted in the 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children’s Act (Allen and Cowdery, 2005). Before the 1975 act, school-age children with disabilities were truly second-class citizens. In some schools these children were warehoused all together in isolated rooms, and provided basic custodial care; in other programs they were housed in separate buildings, away from the other children. Children of different ages and disabilities were all housed together. No attempt was made to actually educate the children. Often children with disabilities of various kinds were simply denied access to the school, with school officials telling their parents that they were not educable. Before 1975, one million of the eight million school-age children with disabilities in this country were excluded from school; another three million

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Exceptional Children

225

were inappropriately served (Smith, 2009). (The idea that certain children could not benefit from state-supported education has a long history [Sears, 1975]). Before the 1975 law, this belief by local school districts was legally sufficient to keep these children out of free, public schools.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Federal Involvement in Education As has already been discussed in this book, unlike with most other countries, the laws, rules and polices regarding public education are contained within each individual state’s constitution, and are not the purview of the federal government. Each state then delegates the operation of the schools to locally elected school districts. Hawaii is the only state where there is just one district covering the entire state. Initially the federal government stayed completely out of the business of K-12 education in the United States. It was not until the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), that significant federal money began to be used to assist states and local districts. This act was a result of President Johnson’s Great Society Programs (as was Head Start), and was initially passed to improve the educational opportunities of low-income children in local public schools. Along with these federal monies came the authority of the federal government to determine how the money would be used. Another part of this act – one of its first amendments – was to provide money to help local school districts provide programs for children with disabilities. At that time these children were usually served in segregated programs, often away from the school. However, the education of children is the responsibility of states and local school districts, and therefore the federal government has no direct legal control over local education (Bowe, 2004). Thus, to enforce the Education for All Handicapped Children’s Act, that provided children with disabilities equal access to education, the 14th amendment of the U.S. Constitution was used (guaranteeing equal treatment of all citizens under any law) for children of school age. But, since at that time most states did not provide free education for children under age 6, this approach did not apply to children below school age. To address the needs of younger children with disabilities, the federal government used a different approach: they provided states with financial incentives. The federal government gave money to help states and local districts serve young children with disabilities, on the condition that they follow the federal law in exchange for the funds. Later, Title 1 funds were used for preschool children with disabilities. Finally, a 1986 amendment mandates that states provide special education services for preschool children (3-5), as a condition for accepting any federal funds to support education. As mentioned earlier, in 1975 the Education for All Handicapped Children’s Act (later renamed IDEA – Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) was passed. This act stipulated full equality under the law for all school-age children and youth with disabilities. But, again, it only affected children under age six in states where children that age were already served in the local schools. There have been many reauthorizations of IDEA, the last officially in 2004 (although the changes were not approved until 2006)(Smith, 2009). These changes will be discussed later in the chapter.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

226

Francis Wardle

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) In 1990 the Education for All Handicapped Children’s Act was changed to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This change of name reflected an overall change in the language used to describe children with disabilities. We now use terms with the word, ‘child’ first, such as children with disabilities; many offensive words, such as mental defects and mental retardation, have been replaced with the term developmentally delayed, and the word, handicapped, is now out of favor (Bowe, 2004). Since the passage of IDEA in 1990, the act has also progressed through a variety of amendments, modifying the act but keeping its major principles in place.

GENERAL PROVISIONS OF IDEA The original four purposes of Public Law 94-142 (which became IDEA) were to, •

• •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

Assure that all children with disabilities have available to them…..a free appropriate public education which emphasizes special education and related serves designed to meet their unique needs; Assure that the rights of children with disabilities and their parents…..are protected; Assist states and localities to provide for the education of all children with disabilities, and Assess and assure the effectiveness of the efforts to educate all children with disabilities (Smith, 2009, p. 27).

In general, IDEA provides certain guarantees for children and families of children with disabilities. These include: •

•

•

Zero reject. No child can be denied a free, appropriate education because of her disability, regardless of how severe it is. If, for some reason, the school cannot provide the services, they then must contract – and pay for – the services from a specialized provider. In some cases children spend some time in the school – with their peers – and some time receiving specialized services. The right to a free, appropriate public education. Local schools must provide students who have a disability a free, appropriate education. This applies to all children who the school serves. If the school provides full-day Kindergarten, a child with a disability also will receive full-day Kindergarten. If the school has a preschool program, they must provide services for preschool children with disabilities. The principle of least restrictive environment (LRE). This requirement has undergone considerable modifications and interpretations since the original law of 1975, and now is called, inclusion. Placement of children with disabilities must be appropriate to their educational needs, while inclusion with typically developing students must be encouraged. Children included with typically developing peers must nonetheless receive support and treatment for their specific disabilities. Thus a child in a community center who is diagnosed with a specific disability should, if at all

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Exceptional Children

possible, remain in that facility and receive the target services in the center. Sometimes children spend part of the day in an inclusive setting, and part of the day receiving targeted treatment. Have an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or an IFSP. As discussed elsewhere in this chapter, these documents must address specific requirements of the law, including a plan to meet goals, and the involvement of the child’s parents. The parent or legal guardian must be involved in developing and approving the plan. See Figure 10.1 Due process rights. The law not only stipulates parent approval and involvement throughout the planning and implementation process, but also articulates specific procedures a parent or guardian can follow to address any issues or complaints they might have with the school or early childhood program.

•

•

• • • • • • • • • • Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

227

•

•

• •

The child’s present level of educational performance in every area Goals of educational performance to be achieved by the end of the school year Short-term objectives that lead to achieving the annual goals (See changes in the 2004 reauthorization) The specific educational services needed, including the kind of program needed and any adaptations required – including assistive technology The length of time services will be required The extent to which the child will be involved in regular education programs A justification for the type of educational placement the child will receive Those individuals responsible for implementing the program A way to determine whether short-term objectives are being achieved (See changes in the 2004 reauthorization) Nondiscriminatory Assessment. Children are diagnosed with a developmental delay or a specific disability through the use of a variety of assessments and diagnostic tools. These must be in the child’s home language (with some exceptions), and not culturally biased; further, several assessments need to be conducted - use of just one instrument to make a diagnosis is not acceptable (Gargiulo and Kilgo, 2005) Parental participation. As has already been mentioned, parents are the center of this process for meeting the needs of children with disabilities. They must approve all steps in the process, including the initial screening of their child. Further, a parent can request their child be removed from the services at any point in the process. The law also allows for the provision of some parent training and assistance to help parents work with their childen (more parent support is provided for an IFSP) Child Find. Schools are required to locate children with disabilities and then initiate procedures to determine whether they are eligible for services and where they can receive these services Schools must provide related services – i.e. transportation and physical therapy – if these are necessary for the child to benefit from special education Funding. The federal government promised to pay school districts up to 40% of additional costs to serve children with disabilities. However, they have never come close to this, averaging less than 20% (Smith, 2009).

Figure 10.1 What Should be Included in an IEP (Wolery and Wilbers, 1994). Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

228

Francis Wardle

It should be noted that these stipulations cover all children, infancy to age 21 (with the exceptions of infants to 2-year-olds already discussed) and all families of these children. Thus children attending religious and private schools are also eligible for these free services.

Changes to IDEA 2004 As mentioned earlier, IDEA has gone through several reauthorizations, the last being in 2004. According to Smith (2009) these are some of the areas of significant change in the act, •

Highly qualified teachers. This is a requirement that aligns with the new requirement of NCLB. The qualifications of special education teachers used to be left to the states; now it is defined by the federal government. There are essentially two requirements, 1. The teacher must hold a state education certificate in special education for the grades they teach; 2. The teacher must be a content specialist in the content areas they teach, or the areas they are responsible for, just like regular teachers. Thus a special education teacher who teaches math must be licensed to teach math.

These new requirements have put considerable pressure on schools. For example, the Douglas County School District in Colorado received a waiver from the state department of education because they could not find enough teachers with these requirements.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

•

•

Funding. Up until now the federal government has paid 20% for the additional cost of educating each special education student (beyond the average cost to educate a child). In the 2004 reauthorization they promise to reimburse the states up to 40%. This is considered full funding. IEPs. Several attempts are made in the 2004 reauthorization to reduce the considerable paperwork required by local school districts. One such result is to remove the requirement of short-term objectives in the IEP except in a few specific instances. Changes also allow certain teachers not to attend the IEP (staffing) meetings. Due process changes. One change is that if parents refuse to consent to special education placement for their child, the child will not be considered as having a disability, and the school has no obligation to serve the child other than as a normal student. There also are provisions to prevent frivolous or unreasonable lawsuits against school districts (Smith, 2009). Expulsion and suspension. The 2004 reauthorization makes some changes regarding disciplining special education students. If the discipline infraction is not related to the student’s disability (which must be determined during the initial 10 days), the student is disciplined like any other student. However, they still must receive services in some form. If there is a relationship, then students cannot be suspended beyond the 10 days it takes to make the determination. However, if they are suspended for

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Exceptional Children

•

•

229

certain zero tolerance infractions – i.e. carrying a weapon, they can be suspended for up to 45 school days, without any hearing. Eligibility of students with learning disabilites. More than 50% of students identified with a disability are identified with a learning disability (one of the 13 federal categories). Many believe there is over-identification in this area (Smith, 2009). The traditional approach used to determine whether a student has a learning disability is to ascertain whether they have a discrepancy between IQ and performance in a specific area. Thus, if a 5th grade child has an IQ in the average range, but is reading at below the 5th grade level, then they are assumed to have a learning disability in reading (Wardle, 2003a). IDEA does not require this discrepancy approach; IDEA 2004 encourages districts to use the RTI method (see below) to reduce the number of children in this category (Smith, 2009). Other changes. Other changes involve including homeless children in Child Find, conducting evaluations in the language that produces the best results (not necessarily the child’s home language), and allowing for more flexibly in how states provide services for children under age two.

Programs for Infants and Toddlers Services for children with disabilities under 3 years of age is called discretionary legislation, because individual states are not required to serve children, infants to their third birthday, unless they are also serving typically developing children of the same age. However, the federal government provides states with funds to assist in serving these children. Guidelines for this program include,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • •

• •

Individuals to be served are infants and toddlers with developmental disabilities, and those at risk of experiencing delays if they do not receive early intervention; Young children do not have to be labeled with one of the 13 official disability categories used for older children (see below); An Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) is to be created to meet the needs of the child, and a multidisciplinary team is used to implement the plan. Parents are required to assist in the development of the IFSP; Part of the IFSP should be a plan to transition children from the infant/toddler program into a preschool program; The plan should include ways to assist the family in accessing services for their children, and in supporting the interventions recommend in the plan (Allen and Cowdery, 2005).

The funding for this program, along with the dearth of quality programs for normally developing infants and toddlers, posses problems for young children with disabilities and their families. What exaggerates this dilemma is the belief of many researches and specialists that the sooner intervention is initiated, the greater the chances are that the negative effects of the disability will be ameliorated (Allen and Cowdery, 2005). It is believed that if at all possible intervention should begin before formal schooling starts.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

230

Francis Wardle

Categories IDEA is a categorical system: funds from the federal government are sent to states and local districts based on the number of children identified with special needs. These children must be identified as having one or more of the specific categories of need determined by the

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Exceptional Children

231

law. Beyond the federal requirements, there are areas of specialization (i.e. speech therapists and occupational therapists), and the manual used by the mental health field, DSM IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition)(APA, 2000), which lists categories for a vast range of mental illnesses. However, because the issue of labeling children is, understandably, controversial, categorical labeling is not used for children under age six; rather, the inclusive label of developmental delay is provided (Allen and Cowdery, 2005); and some states will allow this broad category for students through age 9 (Gargiulo and Kilgo, 2005). The 13 IDEA categories are, speech or language impairments, deaf-blindness, hearing impairments, mental retardation, multiple disabilities, orthopedic impairments, other health impairments, visual impairments, emotional disturbance, specific learning disabilities, traumatic brain injury, autism, and developmental delay (Gargiulo, 2009). In 2007 the largest category for 6 - 21 year olds was specific learning disabilities, followed by speech or language impairments, and mental retardation (U.S. Department of Education, 2007); in Head Start the largest category by far is speech and language impairments (U. S. Health and Human Services, 2006). Professionals and advocates, but mostly parents, have objected to using the IDEA categories to label their children, because there is a tendency to treat a child only as a label, and not as a whole child with strengths, passions, abilities and dreams. Anyone who has had a child with a disability, or who has worked in schools or early childhood programs that serve these children and their families, knows how quickly and easily these labels become part of the normal, everyday conversation, and the temptation to discuss labels and categories rather than unique, individual children. As I mentioned, the umbrella term, developmental delay, is now used to cover the legal requirement to categorize children under age 6 (and age 9 in some cases) who need disability services. However, this is still a negative, deficit label. It is speculated that more work will be done in this area, as the law continues to be refined. It should also be noted that children with disabilities have a constitutional right to privacy that early childhood and education programs must, by law, protect. This means that only professional staff in a program who need to know a child’s disability status to perform their professional duties should be informed of the child’s disability. While it is sometimes obvious to other children and parents that a child has a disability, this information should never be casually discussed. Further, for children whose disability is not obvious, there is no need for children and parents (and staff who don’t work directly with the child) to be aware of their status. Box 10.1. Reflective Thinking IDEA is a categorical system, which means that for a child to receive services she needs to be identified, and then categorized – given a label. For young children this label is often developmental delay. Can this label have a negative impact on the child? Can this label cause the child be viewed by other children and teachers as a child with a delay (a disability), as opposed to being viewed as a competent child who can achieve many things? Does this place the focus on what the child cannot do? What can be done about this within your own program other programs?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

232

Francis Wardle

Identification of Children with Disabilities Because federal funds for children with disabilities are tied to identification – albeit developmental delays up to age six – children with disabilities need to be identified. Further, early identification of children with disabilities has been a priority for the federal government since 1967, partly because the importance of early, accurate identification of children at-risk for developmental delays and learning challenges is important: the sooner treatment starts, the better (Allen and Cowdery, 2005). Cohen and Spenciner have identified 5 steps to follow in the assessment of young children (1994) to determine appropriate education services,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1. Screening. This determines children who need a more thorough assessment. A screening tool as opposed to a diagnostic instrument along with the collection of additional data is used for this process. 2. Determining eligibility. To determine if the child and family are eligible for special education services, multiple assessments and other sources of data must be used. Various diagnostic tools need to be used. A single test is not practically sufficient or legal. 3. Planning the program. What services does the child need, and what community programs exist to provide these services that the family can access? 4. Monitoring progress.. Information is collected to determine how effective the program is, and to make adjustments to improve service delivery for the child and family. 5. Evaluating the program. Assessments of all aspects of the program, from activities to overall program effectiveness, are made (1994).

Screening Child Find conducts screening for early intervention of children not in public school programs. In public school programs – preK and beyond - special education specialists do the screening. For the screening and assessments to be nondiscriminatory – a requirement of the law – these safeguards should be followed (Barrera, 1994): • •

• • •

The assessment is conducted in the child’s home language (see revision in the 2004 law); The assessment itself must be in the child’s home language (again see the modification in the 2004 reauthorization). Simply translating from English is not adequate; The assessment should be conducted by someone who is sensitive to the child’s culture; Multiple forms of information should be collected, including work-samples and observations; Assessment items should address a child’s strengths as well as areas of weakness.

Various tools that can be used for the screening, including, • Observational checklists • Anecdotal notes

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Exceptional Children • • • •

233

Running records Logs, journals and diaries Language samples Portfolio assessments (Allen and Cowdery, 2005).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Parent and teacher/caregiver interviews should also be included. It is immediately clear from this list that these requirements pose considerable problems for programs, particularly programs that lack adequate resources. According to the US Department of Education, there are in excess of 400 different languages spoken in our schools and early childhood programs (2002). For programs to find people to conduct screenings who are compartment in the child’s home language, sensitive to the child’s culture, and proficient and qualified in giving these kinds of screenings, is well-neigh impossible!

Assessment After screening has determined the need for additional assessments, a more thorough evaluation of the child needs to be conducted. This process differs somewhat, depending on the child’s age. For the IFSP (under age 3), the process requires far more parent input and collaboration. However, the IEP also requires parent input and approval. The type of assessment depends on the results of the screening. Specialists in the various disciplines – nutritionist, nurse, physical therapist, school psychologist, and special education specialist, perform diagnostic assessments. Over the past 30 years, numerous assessment tools have been developed. These include, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Test of Early Language Development, Bailey Scales of Infant Development, Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development, Hawaii Early Learning Profiles (HELP), and the Trans Disciplinary Play Based Assessment (TPBA). All assessment tools and procedures should follow NAEYC’s Position Statement on Standardized Testing of Young Children, 3 to 8 Years of Age (1988). It is important that data be collected from a variety of sources: assessments, observations, medical records, teacher’s reports, parent interviews, etc. Once data is collected, the staffing meeting is conducted. At this meeting the IEP or IFSP is created and parents are asked to approve the plan. Figure 10.2 describes one family’s experience negotiating this entire process. By Francis Wardle My son struggled to learn to read. He was also very disorganized. At the time he was attending a private French/English school. Since I had also struggled to read as a child, his difficulties did not really surprise me. But when he was still struggling at age 8, my wife and I, with the support of his teachers, decided to see if he had a specific disability that was preventing him from learning to read. Since the private school did not provide these services, we contacted the district in which we lived. We arranged an appointment with the special education teacher. After meeting at length, it was decided to conduct a series of assessments on my son. Figure 10.2. Continued on next page.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

234

Francis Wardle

These included typical height, weight, hearing and sight tests; a variety of assessments focusing on learning disabilities and information processing, and interviews with us (his parents) and the teachers at the private school. Once all of the information was gathered we met at the local elementary school to discuss the results of the assessments. The staffing meeting included the school nurse, special education teacher, school psychologist, school social worker, my wife and I, the speech therapist, and a secretary to take notes. Results of the assessment determined that my son had a problem decoding sounds from the environment (auditory discrimination) and therefore could not hear the sounds needed to learn phonemic letter-sound combinations, and would not benefit from related phonemic reading and writing instruction. Further, he lacked basic organizational skills and an awareness of the need to organize information. An IEP was then developed, which set specific goals for reading and organization skills. One recommendation that we rejected was to remove him from the bilingual, French/English school. Implementing these plans required us (parents) to do certain things, and for his teachers to provide visual as opposed to auditory instructions and to write down his homework in his day-timer. Once a week he walked over to the elementary school to receive specific tutoring from the special education teacher. . My son continued to struggle with reading and organizational behavior throughout middle school and high school, although the assistance he received certainly helped a great deal. He remained in special education until high school, when at his request we removed him and placed him under 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. However, once he entered college he excelled and graduated. As of this writing he is living and working in Paris, France Figure 10.2. Negotiating the Process.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Response to Intervention (RTI) I have already mentioned that more special education students are labeled with a learning disability than are placed in any other of the 13 categories. Further, there is overall agreement that children of color are disproportionately represented in special education, especially in learning disabilities (Byrnes, 2009). Federal regulations have tried to address this over-representation, beginning with the IDEA 97 reauthorization, which requires states to collect racial and ethnic data on special education enrollments. Another attempt to address this disproportionately is RTI – Response to Intervention. This approach is particularly targeted to students who are suspected of having learning disabilities, but can be used with any students. States are encouraged to use RTI rather than the achievement - discrepancy model in labeling children, or potentially not labeling them at all. Response to Intervention is an approach that is much like it sounds: schools provide an intervention to a child struggling academically and then see how well the child responds. In other words, is he responsive to intense, direct instruction (Gargiulo, 2009)? The purpose is to see whether the child can improve academically without having to be placed into special education. Advantages of this approach, include, • •

Reduction in the number of inappropriate referrals to special education; Intervention linked to ongoing assessment (to monitor progress);

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Exceptional Children • •

235

Greater collaboration between special and general educators; Reduction of the number of students recognized as having a learning disability (Gargiulo, 2009).

However, as with many other special education approaches, there is little research evidence to support this approach. Further, while both NCLB and IDEA 2004 require “scientifically-based instruction in the area of specialization”, a solid body of knowledge for teaching children with special needs in specific targeted areas does not exist (Bowe, 2004). Finally, with the large number of students in many classrooms, one wonders how much special focus and attention the regular classroom teacher and other staff can provide these students (it should be noted here that school districts do not receive the additional federal funding for students who are not diagnosed and labeled with a specific disability). Most RTI approaches use a three-tiered model (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2005),

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1. Tier one, primary intervention (from 5 to 10 weeks). Preventive instruction in the general school classroom is provided, and may involve most of the class. The regular classroom teacher provides this instruction. 2. Tier 2, secondary intervention. Here more intensive, supplemental instruction focused on specific areas of need is provided. This may cover 20-30% of the class, and the instruction is provided by a combination of the classroom teacher and teacher who specializes in the content area (i.e math or reading). It can lasts up to 8 weeks. 3. Tier 3, tertiary prevention, is the most specialized instruction, which addresses specific needs in individual learners in specific content or skill areas, such as math or reading. This involves the least number of learners, and teachers who specialize in the content area, along with a special education teacher, provide the instruction. It can also take up to 8 weeks. For each tier assessments must be conducted to make sure all students – but particularly those targeted – are making adequate progress. If none of these approaches work, the students is assumed to have a disability in the targeted area that was addressed, and special education services will be initiated. Additional tests are not needed, because the student did not respond to intervention (RTI).

Other Applicable Laws While IDEA is the primary law that impacts the education of children with disabilities in our early childhood programs and schools, both ADA and 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 are also applicable in certain situations. Both are federal laws.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) In 1991 the Americans with Disabilities Act was passed, with the intent to prevent discrimination against people with disabilities in the areas of employment, transportation, use of public facilities, and telecommunications. Before the creation of this act people with disabilities were unable to attend concerts, participate in recreational programs, work at

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

236

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

certain occupations and companies, and even have a meal at a fancy restaurant. Ballgames, church services, and community college classrooms were also inaccessibly to many people with disabilities. This federal act applies to all Americans, including but not limited to children. In the act’s application to children, its most profound impact is on physical accessibility. Programs for children, such as school programs, museums, sports fields, camping, after-school programs, playgrounds, etc, must be accessible to children with a variety of disabilities, but particularly physical disabilities. These guidelines must be followed for all programs that serve the public, whether publicly funded or privately funded (with a few excerptions, largely based on size). For example, the U.S. Access Board’s Guide to ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Play Areas stipulates how new and remodeled playgrounds, in public parks, schools and early childhood facilities, must be designed and built to enable children in wheelchairs to be able to access the equipment (2001). Any program in a school district or early childhood agency that provides services to children must be available to children with disabilities. However, the child might have to be moved to another school that specializes in this service, or might need to be transported to a program that provides needed specialized services for part of the school day. Private and religious children’s programs are not required to make alternations to serve children with disabilities “beyond their normal scope of service”.

504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 This section of the Federal Rehabilitation Act requires that everyone with a disability “be given access to jobs, education, housing and public buildings” (Allen and Cowdery, p. 32). In 1977 the law was specifically applied to public school districts and other agencies that receive federal funds. These agencies, including schools and early childhood programs, must make sure that children with disabilities are not excluded from services or denied benefits that other children receive (Hooper and Umansky, 2004). The law requires the program provide reasonable accommodations, including assistive technology, special aides, and speech, occupational or physical therapy. The law also requires programs make accommodations for children who have disabilities but do not qualify for special education services. Many students with AD/HD are served under this act. Thus students who are not staffed and do not have a specific disability are still entitled to full educational access under 504. In recent years more and more parents have chosen to use the 504 option rather than IDEA (see Figure 10:3). To many parents this approach provides their children with needed accommodations without the stigma of the special education label and its resultant social isolation and harassment in some education programs.

APPROACHES TO WORKING WITH YOUNG CHILDREN WHO HAVE DISABILITIES Early Childhood Special Education (ECSE) is the collective name of the discipline that provides services to infants and children up to age 5 years old who have disabilities; special education is the term used for professionals who work with these children in the K-12 programs. While there are some strong differences between these two groups, both share a

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Exceptional Children

237

common view of the role and purpose of special education in the lives of young children. Some of these views are document here, •

• • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

Value and use an interdisciplinary approach for assessment, evaluation, and practice. Research indicates that an interdisciplinary approach to identifying family needs and priorities for children with disabilities is more accurate than one conducted by a single professional (Garshelis and McConnell, 1993); further, IDEA requires an interdisciplinary approach to assessment and evaluation; Define early intervention as starting at birth, or as soon as a disability is determined or diagnosed; Emphasize measurement and careful documentation of individual children’s progress; Focus on behavior modification approaches of intervention. The belief is that young children with disabilities need more structure, more intense teacher-directed involvement, and more behavior modification techniques than do typically developing children (Bowe, 2004). Further, this belief tends to produce a reductionist approach – breaking down all desired behaviors, skills, and academic concepts into their smallest possible units, and then teaching those specific units, using carefully developed behavioral methods. (This method is discussed in detail in chapter 15, Behavioral Approaches). Focus on pre-academic and academic skills, believing these to be essential to the child’s future success. In so doing, early childhood and elementary school special education teachers often ignore or short-change social, affective, physical and other developmental domains (Goodman, 1992). This is in direct contrast to the whole child, integrated approach of developmentally appropriate practice that used to be prevalent in early childhood programs and many elementary schools (Carta, Schwartz, Atwater and McConnell, 1991).

Specific Special Education Approaches with Young Children The above views held by educators who work with young children with disabilities have resulted in very specific beliefs in the field as to how to work with infants, toddlers, preschoolers and elementary school children who need special education services. As you will see, these approaches differ markedly from a variety of other approaches discussed throughout this text. According to Carta, Schwartz, Atwater and McConnell, special education in the early years is based on a deep belief that it is essential to provide intervention for children with special needs as early and as comprehensively as possible (1991). A delay in timing and intensity will prevent a child from gaining more complex skills, which the child needs for future academic and life success (Bricker, 1989). Thus this approach focuses on intervention, remediation, and compensatory processes, and is a method that progresses from teaching and conditioning simple, basic skills and behaviors, to teaching more complex and holistic skills, behaviors and learning (Bloom, 1964).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

238

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

According to Carta et al., programs that work with young children with disabilities should include these practices, 1. Young children with special needs should be provided a range of services, which vary in intensity, based on the child’s unique needs. Thus, more adult intervention and structure are often needed for children with special needs, than are needed for typically developing children. 2. Children with special needs must have specific individual plans (IEPs or IFSPs) created for them, based on the child’s strengths and weaknesses, and that articulate goals and objectives to help these children with future schools success. Thus specific skills and behaviors must be carefully targeted, reinforced and monitored. 3. A variety of assessments must be conducted on a regular basis and in a wide variety of settings to monitor the child’s progress on their program goals and objectives. This means that continual and careful measurement and assessment are central to any early childhood special education approach. 4. Teaching of children with special needs must be effective and efficient. According to Carta et al., skill acquisition and the most efficient use of instructional time is critical. This belief in efficiency and effectiveness requires instruction to focus on the instructional objectives written into the IEP and the IFSP. 5. Instructional methods and techniques chosen to work with children with special needs should include the active involvement and participation of the student. However, according to Carta et al., many students with special needs require specific adult instruction, direction and support to be able to fully become involved in their own learning. 6. Programs should focus on strengthening a family’s ability to support the child’s development and progress. Families should be provided with direct and indirect support and instruction in helping their child function effectively in the early childhood program, school and community. 7. Early childhood and school programs for children with special needs should be outcome-based, with timelines and strategies used to monitor progress and success. Children with special needs must, according to federal law, be provided services that are educationally beneficial, and programs that serve these children must be able to demonstrate to the federal government and others that these programs are, indeed, effective. According to Carta et al. (1991) this aspect of special education approach for young children is the area of greatest discrepancy between what is required in programs for children with disabilities, and overall guidelines used for programs serving typically developing children, i.e Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997). However, as discussed in detail in chapter 8, the standards approach to curriculum and instruction is moving the approach used with typically developing students closer to this special education approach. Fundamentally, the field of early childhood special education is based on the belief that, with intense and targeted environmental intervention, monitoring and assessment, a child’s development can be accelerated beyond the rate that would occur without intervention; and further, that children with special needs require and benefit from direct intervention targeted to their specific needs and disabilities (Odom and McEvoy, 1990; Peterson, 1987).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Exceptional Children

239

Box 10.2. Reflective Thinking According to Carta et al. (1991), the philosophical underpinnings of special education practices are very different from the overall approach used in programs for typically developing children – especially before formal schooling. When special education teachers and consultants must work closely together with classroom teachers to meet the needs of young children with disabilities in a least restrictive environment, how can these conflicts be overcome to work effectively with the child and his/her parents?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Barriers and Challenges to Serving Young Children with Disabilities For a variety of reasons, there are many barriers and challenges to serving young children with disabilities. One of the challenges is that the law for infants and children two years old differs markedly from the law that covers children, age three to 21. Secondly, programs that serve children through age five tend to be non-public school programs, while most of those that serve children older than 5 years old are public schools. Children (and families) who move from one of these age groups to another must have transition plans that are effectively implemented. Another dilemma is that special education programs for children over age 3 flow out of the local public school (LEA). While children in home-based care, home schools, and private and religious early childhood programs and schools have a right to these services, these programs must work very closely with the local public school to meet the needs of their students. Many private and religious schools are not used to doing this (some even have a somewhat antagonist relationship with the local public school). They must also work closely with their state’s department of education. All professional staff in K-12 programs are certified by the state, and must process a four year or higher college degree. This creates both a level of knowledge and expertise, and a particular attitude. Almost all professionals working in the early childhood field (up to age including age 5) lack college degrees and advanced college degrees. Further, there is a general death of early childhood professionals with expertise in special education. According to Allen and Crowdery (2005), many communities do not have enough quality early childhood programs for typically developing children - particularly infants and toddlers - in which to include children with disabilities for inclusion; further, many programs for young children are family-based homes that often cannot physically adapt their home environment for children with disabilities, and many religious child care programs choose not to work directly with any government agency, including the local public school (Neugebauer, 1999). Also, finding inclusive programs for young children with severe disabilities is particularly problematic (Bowe, 2004). In family-based child care programs the provider usually does not have the training to serve children with any severe challenges, and it is usually too costly to make changes to the facility for children with physical disabilities. Commercial early childhood programs legally do not have to serve children who require them to go beyond their normal services, and Head Start has historically served only those with the least severe disabilities (mostly speech and language [HHS, 2006]). While these realities are beginning to change, statistics show that IDEA is most effective with young children whose disabilities are not severe (Bowe, 2004).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

240

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Another huge challenge is that most early childhood teachers – both in K-12 programs and PreK programs – lack training to work effectively with children with disabilities. Finally, many programs that are not school-based do not have the expert support and advice needed to provide effective and safe services for children with a variety of disabilities (Allen and Cowdery, 2005). When I was a Head Start director, my program worked very closely with the local public school to provide services for our children with disabilities. We developed a contract with the school, which required the school’s special education teachers to help us diagnose Head Start children who failed our screening process. The public school special education teachers then provided services directly to these children in our Head Start classrooms, and taught our classroom teachers how to work individually with these children. In return, the local school used our children as part of their annual federal count (the number used by the federal government to reimburse local districts for services to children with disabilities). While this contract looked good on paper, we struggled to make it work effectively. Part of the reason for this struggle was the very different approaches used by the Head Start teachers and the public school special education teachers. Our Head Start used a comprehensive, whole-child approach to education, development and family support. Further, our program recently had adopted the High/Scope curriculum, which emphasizes student choice and developmentally appropriate practice (see chapter 3). The public school special education teachers working with the children in the classroom used a very teacher-directed approach, not only to teach the skills listed on the child’s IEP, but also to accomplish the general educational goals of the classroom. As the Head Start director I was very concerned about this situation, because these teachers were modeling an approach to teaching young children that we as a program had struggled long and hard to change and discourage. Before we adopted the High/Scope curricular approach, teachers used a highly teacherdirected, didactic model. Over several years we had dedicated considerable time, training and resources to educating our teachers to use a more child-initiated and child-directed approach. Because the special education teachers were certified public school teacher, they were very powerful role models for our Head Start teachers, who had little if any college training. Thus we had to work very hard to make sure the visiting public school teachers used a direct instructional approach only on the specific areas outlined in each child’s IEP, and to help our teachers understand that, while direct intervention is often the most effective method for teaching targeted skills and behaviors to children with disabilities, it was not our philosophy for all other areas of development, learning and growth. Figure 10.3. Head Start and Special Education.

Discrimination of Minority Children As mentioned earlier, a particularly disturbing aspect of serving exceptional children is that a disproportionate number of Native American, Black, and Latino children are diagnosed with various disabilities, particularly learning difficulties, and Asian American and European American children are underrepresented in the disability categories, while White and Asian children are overrepresented in programs for gifted and talented students (Heward and Cavanaugh, 2004). And we know that far more boys than girls are identified with a disability, especially AD/HD, autism, and behavior problems, which, when combined with their

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Exceptional Children

241

minority status means that minority boys are at a much higher risk of being diagnosed with some kind of disability than white and minority girls (Berger, 2009; Karnes and Johnson, 1989; Wardle, 2004). George Brantley, the head of a preschool program for gifted African American preschool children, has pointed out that minority parents, communities and professionals have accepted the idea that many of their children will be labeled with a disability, but have not embraced the idea that an equal amount of their children should be identified as gifted and talented (Wardle, 2003). One of the purposes of NCLB is to reduce the academic gap between White and Asian children on one side, and Hispanic, African American and Native American children on the other hand. However, many argue that one of the unintended results of NCLB is that more students are being placed in special education, and that more of these students are minority students (Losen and Orfield, 2009).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Twice Exceptional Children Twice exceptional children further challenge our early childhood programs and schools. Twice exceptional children are those children in our programs who are gifted and have special needs (often learning disabilities or AD/HD) or children with a specific disability who are also gifted (Wardle, 2003). Statistically there are as many gifted children with disabilities as non-gifted children, and as many children with disabilities who are gifted as typically developing children. Therfore there obviously are a significant number of these children in our early childhood programs and schools. These children challenge the deficit view many have of children with disabilities; they also require special education teachers and gifted/talented teachers/consultants to work together collaboratively in early childhood programs and schools. It is essential that programs do not assume that once a child has been diagnosed with a specific disability that they cannot also be gifted, or that children labeled as gifted may not also have a disability. This is particularly true of the students who are overrepresented in special education (boys and minorities). A growing number of children are twice exceptional, and early childhood and school programs need to find ways to serve the needs of these children (Allen and Cowdery, 2005).

Specific Practices for Working with Exceptional Children Working with exceptional young children and their families is a complex, comprehensive and multidimensional process. Further, our body of knowledge, procedures, and best practices are continually changing, based on research, case law, and state and federal mandates. Below are some specific ideas regarding how to work with young children with disabilities and their families, infants through elementary school, •

Always include the family, or the child’s guardian. While IDEA requires family involvement, especially in programs for children under age under age 3, early childhood programs must be very conscientious in implementing this requirement.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

242

Francis Wardle

•

•

•

•

•

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

This is particularly true for low-income, minority, and non-English speaking families. When a child is diagnosed with a disability, do everything possible to keep the child in her original program, even if only for a part of the day. This includes finding ways to keep children enrolled in private and religious programs. Be very careful when collecting information, both for children with suspected disabilities and for children you believe might be gifted and talented. The child’s privacy must be very carefully maintained. Also, understand that middle-class, white and Asian parents are more vocal in their beliefs about the giftedness of their children, than are minority parents (Wardle, 2003a). Give typically developing children opportunities to experience functioning in a world with a disability: spending a day in a wheelchair, doing activities blindfolded, listening to the teacher with earplugs, or using crutches during outside play or recess. Work hard to develop a team approach with specialists who work with the child. While specialists are very skilled at providing specific interventions, they may not see the value of play, affective activities, and student choice for children with disabilities (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). Teachers should be given a variety of opportunities to learn about working with children with disabilities; teachers in preparation programs should be required to take classes that focus on how to work with children with disabilities (see figure 10: 4). Teachers should be assisted in modifying the physical environment (indoors and outdoors), the curriculum and various activities (see figure 10:5) for children in their class who have a disability. Both physical adaptations, including assistive technology and adaptations in curricular expectations and activities, need to be made. All programs that serve children with disabilities must emphasize the need for differentiation, adaptation, and meeting the individual needs of all their children. Programs implementing standardized approaches must be particularly aware of this requirement.

According to researchers at the University of Michigan, student teachers who were placed in inclusive early childhood classrooms, mentored by expert teachers, and assisted in helping all the children in the classroom, including those with disabilities, resulted in teachers who, Include more children with special needs in their curriculum planning; Learn how to plan for groups of mixed-ability or mixed-age children; Learn new strategies for understanding and documenting learning in nonverbal children; Learn to use more open-ended and child-centered activities with a wide variety of materials; Increase their appreciation for the diversity that children and families bring to programs. Donegan, Hong, Trepanier-Street and Finkelstein, 2005. Figure 10.4. Preparing Teachers to Work with Children with Disabilities.

Avoid punishing a child who has a disability by taking away their favorite activities or special social time to provide interventions or therapy. Two practices should be avoided, 1) do not deny the child what they enjoy or are good at doing because they struggle in some other area (see a detailed discussion of this in chapter 15) , and 2) do not schedule therapists,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Exceptional Children

243

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

extra assistance, or interventions when the other children are playing on the playground, enjoying a field trip, or having fun in an art or music activity. Space

Time

Entrances and learning areas need to be wide enough for wheelchairs and walkers. Too small spaces cause aggressive behaviors; too large spaces reduce social interaction. Specific space alternatives might be needed for a specific child.

Children need enough time for learning episodes to develop. Some children need extra time to practice newly learned skills. Where appropriate, give the child with a disability the material first, or prepare him or her for going outside first. When children are deeply engrossed, the scheduled time should be adjusted. Many children with disabilities also require very specific transition approaches.

Materials

Directions

A large variety of materials are needed to encourage interaction with the environment. Graduated challenge is particularly important for children with disabilities. Materials that can be used in a variety of ways are very effective; materials that require cooperation between children encourage social play. Start with materials and activities the child enjoys playing with. Specially designed assistance

Most materials provide their own cues for how they should be used. However, some children with disabilities need assistance in using materials. To do so, the teacher should, a) get the child’s attention, b) use vocabulary the child can easily understand, c) break directions down into smaller steps, d) combine instructions with demonstrations (manipulation), e) ask questions to validate the child’s level of understanding, f) have the child repeat the directions, g) and physically assist the child but remove assistance once it is no longer needed.

Various assistance techniques should be used. Other ideas include modeling, verbal guidance, physical assistance (actually holding the part of the child’s body used to manipulate the material) and use of visual cues (i.e. a picture of a child using the material).

Special positioning and assistive technology Positioning involves where a child should be located for a task, and whether the child should be standing, lying, sitting, etc. Adaptive equipment helps children with motor impairments by facilitating movement and providing the best position to perform the activity. Various adaptations include adapted materials, computers and computer programs, adapted seats, mobility and standing devices, and various ways to assist the child’s communication.

Based on Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005. Figure 10.5. Modifying Activities for Children with Disabilities Depending on the Disability and Severity.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

244

Francis Wardle

CONCLUSION Meeting the needs of children with disabilities within our early childhood and elementary school programs is a natural and logical extension of our country’s commitment to equal educational opportunity. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (and its various amendments) is the central legal mandate for these programs, although other federal laws also sometimes apply. The law primarily covers children age 3 through 21 years old, but some services for infants to children age 3 are also provided in most states. While the law provides specific actions that must take place, such as the development and implementation of an IFSP or IEP, and requires that the inclusion of parents be central to the process, state departments of education, local school districts, and Child Find are left to interpret the major aspects of the law, such as what constitutes a least restrictive environment. Several challenges face programs serving young children with disabilities. These include a conflict between the need to categorize children and the belief by many that this approach can produce negative results; the need to use various assessments methods that must be linguistically and culturally responsive; and a philosophical conflict between developmentally appropriate practice and the overall approach used by early childhood and special education teachers, specialists and consultants. Finally, for young children (particularly infants and toddlers but also preschoolers), there is a dearth of programs with the expertise to serve these children, and programs with normally developing children in which these children can be included in a least restrictive environment. Teaching and caring for children with disabilities requires collaboration with families, adapting and changing the physical environment, and differentiating the curriculum and instruction to match the individual needs of each child.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1. Find a child, age infant to the end of elementary school, who has an identified disability. With the parent’s permission, conduct a mini-case study of the child. Describe the disability, interview the parents, determine when the disability was diagnosed, and describe the kinds of services the child and her family are receiving. 2. Visit a private child care or early childhood program (Montessori, Waldorf, community child care, or part of a child care chain). Interview the teacher or director regarding the kinds of services children with disabilities receive. At what point does the program tell parents that they don’t feel they can meet the special needs of their children? Do they work with Child Find? Do they have consultants who help them meet the needs of these children? Do they discourage the enrollment of children with disabilities? 3. Interview a foreign student in your college. Interview them regarding how their country’s educational system provides for the educational needs of children with disabilities. Ask them if they knew any children with disabilities while they were attending school. What services did they receive? Were these services provided in the public schools? How does this approach compare with the American approach?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Exceptional Children

245

4. Find the department in you college or university that assists students with disabilities. What laws govern these services? What support and assistance do they provide? How is a student’s right to privacy protected? 5. Using the website in the references, download the U.S. Access Board’s ADA Guideless for Public Play Areas. Using this document, evaluate a public playground (park or school), and determine whether it meets the requirements of ADA.

RESOURCES IDEA amendments www.ideapractices.org Regulations for IDEA 2004: http://www.ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/idea2004.html Division of Early Childhood (DEC) of the Council of Exceptional Children (CEC), 1920 Association Dr., Reston, VA. 22091 http://www.dec-sped.org DEC publications, at: http://www.sophiswest.com

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

U.S. Access Board (ADA playground guidelines) www.access-board.gov.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 11

MULTICULTURAL AND MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION As a logical outgrowth of the civil rights movement that culminated with the 1964 Civil Rights Act, multicultural education developed in K-12 public schools in the United States. First designed to address issues of racial and ethnic inequality, the movement soon spread to include gender, disabilities, and second language-learners. Later, immigrants, economic inequality and sexual orientation were added (Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004). Multicultural education attempts to teach children about the contributions of all Americans to the history and current reality of this country, and to provide all students, but especially those belonging to the aforementioned groups, with equal educational opportunities (Nieto, 2004). In 1989 the publication of the Anti-Bias Curriculum (Derman-Sparks et al.) brought multicultural education to the early childhood community. With the legal decision, Lou versus Nichols, language also became an issue of equal educational access, and is now an important contribution to early childhood and elementary school practice, starting in infancy (York, 2003). Over the last several years an increased number of non-English speaking immigrants and the need to teach English speaking American children a second language have fueled the debate about teaching multiple languages in American early childhood programs and schools. Many other countries teach a second (and third) language as a matter of course in their early education programs. This chapter examines a variety of multicultural and multilingual educational issues, models and approaches that impact young children.

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. What is the best approach to support the unique racial, national, ethnic, economic and gender differences of all children in our programs? 2. How do the needs of boys and girls differ in early education programs? 3. What is the best way to teach young children who do not speak a country’s official language? 4. What is the relationship between preserving a child’s home language and supporting the child’s healthy cultural identity?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

248

Francis Wardle 5. Do children who are learning English require a different approach from English speaking children learning a second language?

HISTORY OF MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Civil Rights Legislation The groundbreaking Civil Rights legislation of the early 1960s was a direct result of the mounting civil rights movement. The purpose of this movement was to eliminate discrimination in all public places. Before the legislation, Blacks and other minorities were legally and practically second-class citizens in the United States. Jim Crow laws and other legislation, along with several U.S. Supreme Count decisions, limited the rights and freedoms of African Americas, Native Americans, and Latinos, and various immigrant groups, including Japanese, Chinese, and Filipinos (Wardle and Cruz- Janzen, 2004). The end of the Second World War saw the integration of the United States armed forces, and after the war the landmark Brown versus Board of Education of Topeka decision declared that racially separate schools were never equal. But it took the momentous civil rights movement of the 1960s to finally produce positive change, culminating with the federal Civil Rights Law of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1985. In 1967, in the case of Loving versus Virginia, the Supreme Court outlawed state laws that prohibited interracial marriage (Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004). The new civil rights legislation and overall anti-war and counterculture atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s produced a variety of other liberation movements: the women’s movement, disability rights, Gray Panthers (seniors) – and a little later, with the Lou v. Nichols court decision, the educational rights of non-English speaking students. All these groups demanded equal access to the American dream through changing perceptions and biases, and passing specific laws, such as ADA, anti-discrimination in hiring and firing, voting rights, and busing for racial equality, etc. Because, as Horace Mann declared, education in this country is seen as the great equalizer (Katz, 1975), all these diverse equality movements soon found expression in our schools: reform of curriculum, hiring of more minorities, community control, and revision of textbooks to reflect the history, diversity and contributions of all the peoples who make-up this country (Banks and Banks, 2004). Multicultural education was one of these school reforms. It describes, “a wide variety of programs and practices related to educational equity, women, ethnic groups, language minorities, low-income groups, and people with disabilities” (Banks and Banks, 2004, p. 7). It began with efforts to include minority issues in schools; later women’s issues and issues of students with disabilities were added; more recently the areas of low-income students, immigrants, English language learners, and children of gay and lesbian homes were added. Most recently, sexual orientation has been also included. Books by James and Cherry Banks began a stream of publications for K-12 programs (all now published in later editions); for younger children the seminal book by Louis Derman-Sparks and the ABC Taskforce, The Anti-Bias Curriculum, published by NAEYC in 1989, was soon followed by other early childhood texts (Kendall, 1993; Ramsey 1987; York, 2003).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

249

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Traditional Approach to Multicultural Education The traditional approach to teaching multicultural education in our early childhood and education programs is what Banks terms the single-group studies approach (Banks and Banks (2004). This approach “seeks to raise the social status of the target group by helping young people examine how the group has been oppressed historically and what its capabilities and achievements have been” (pp. 67-68). This approach focuses on a specific group. Because the values, history, and laws of this country are based on Northern European cultures and traditions (especially from England and Germany), and because our schools and early childhood programs have historically reflected this view, a single-group approach provides students with knowledge about their group’s contributions to the American society, along with the group’s artistic, musical, literature and other cultural attributes. Most multicultural education approaches assume a single group approach: race, ethnicity, second language, gender, sexual orientation or disability. Thus, instead of studying all forms of diversity, this approach focuses on African Americans, Hispanics, or another single group. Further, it does so in isolation of both other diversity areas and the overall curriculum. Contemporary multicultural education is greatly influenced by sociology. According to Banks and Banks (2004), sociologists believe that individual behaviors are strongly influenced by group norms, and that the group an individual belongs to will provide the person with the social, physical and psychological ability to survive and prosper in the greater society. This is particularly true for members of minority groups (Tatum, 1999). Further, sociologists believe that groups have values, traditions and other important characteristics that go beyond simply a sum of the individuals who make up the group. Sociologist believe that knowing a group’s characteristics inform us about the behaviors of individual members of the group. In our discussion of diversity, these groups include racial, ethnic, gender, disability, religious affiliation, and social class. This view also places considerable importance on the individual’s identification and affiliation with specific racial, ethnic or other groups (Banks and Banks, 2004). It is also believed that group membership effects the way individual students learn: learning styles, interaction preferences, group/individual learning, and the way they view the world – the prism through which they behave and function (Bowman, 1994).

Race/Ethnicity The various groups that multicultural education addresses – gender, race, ethnicity, class, and exceptionality – are social categories (Berger and Luckman, 1967; Mannheim, 1936). This means that belonging to them is largely determined by individuals and society; further, that various characteristics used to determine belonging are defined by people within that group. Even gender, which is biologically determined, is socially and culturally defined by culture and society. For years race was defined as a biological category, based on certain physical traits. In the Unitized States, race was also defined by the one-drop rule. This meant that anyone with any amount of African American heritage was considered to be African American (Daniel, 1992). Today, race is viewed as a socially and political constructed way of grouping people,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

250

Francis Wardle

which differs from country to country and society to society (Wardle and Cruz-Janzen 2004). Ethnicity on the other hand is a shared cultural worldview and/or people with the same geographical origin. Members of ethnic groups, such as Latinos in the U.S., are joined together by the US-designated (census) category based on the region/countries of origin (Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004). In fact, in Brazil there is no Hispanic or Latino ethnic category – people with these backgrounds in Brazil are categorized under the European label (Alves-Silva et al., 2000). Over our history the US Census has used a variety of categories to label and sort the race and the ethnicity of its people. The current process comes from the civil rights legislation that requires the federal government to make sure resources are distributed equally to everyone, and that laws are implemented in a nondiscriminatory manner. The 2004 Census for the first time in many years provided the option for citizens to select more than one racial category (Nieto, 2004). This challenge to a singe-race approach is discussed later in the chapter.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Single-Group Curricular Approaches Racial/ethnic single-group multicultural approaches focus on curricula, materials, teaching methods, and sometimes the language of schools. A good example is the Visions for Childhood Curriculum, an Afro-centric curriculum for early childhood students developed by Janice Hale (1994). In this curriculum, each week a different African American hero is selected and profiled. These heroes are also used as a vehicle to introduce some of the curricular content. For example, Washington Carver provides an entry to a discussion of plants, Paul Robeson to songs, drama and social protest. Pictures of these images of African American heroes, especially women, are presented on the bulletin board (Hale, 1994). The curriculum reflects the group’s history and contribution to the world and to America, instilling in African American children a sense of racial and ethnic pride and cultural identification. In the single-group approach to race and ethnicity, the US Census categories are the groups addressed by the school. Further, since historically non-European groups were invisible in our schools – curricular content, celebrations, teaching methods, and teachers – their contributions are highlighted in multicultural education. One dilemma with the single-group approach is that race is a social and political construct that young children simply do not understand (Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004). Further, young children use physical descriptors to identify and label children – skin color, hair color and texture, eye shape, clothes that a child wears, etc. Thus, for young children the fact that a Hispanic child in their class may have darker skin than an African American child poses difficulties in racial identification (Aboud, 1987). For teachers of young children to be able to assist their children in developing a healthy racial and ethnic identity, they must understand the complex process of racial identity development in children, beginning in infancy. As I have already pointed out, racial identify development differs from society to society, depending on how the society categorizes race and ethnicity. Figure 11.1 outlines the process of children’s racial/ethnic identity development in the United States.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

251

Learning a sense of racial and ethnic identity is a complex developmental process. In the United States children progress through the following stages, Infancy. Infants can discriminate between dark and light stimuli, dark and light faces, but have no preferences. Ages 3-5. Children can recognize Black and White children, but not their racial or ethnic identity. Children are very interested in physical similarities and differences, such as hair color, skin color, and eye shape. Age 5-9. Children learn to recognize their own racial identity labels and develop beginning awareness of group affiliation. Awareness of group belonging comes after learning group similarities Age 7. Recognition by White children of a Black child, Black children of a White child, racially, if their physical characteristics are distinct. Age 8. Recognition by children of peers from other racial/ethnic groups (Native American, Asian, Hispanic). Apparently, the salient features of these groups are less clear to children than those of White and Black children. This is even more difficult for children who are mixed-race. Children use physical characteristics to discriminate racial/ethnic categories. Age 8-11. Development of racial and ethnic constancy and a stronger sense of group – belonging. A true understanding of the political and social construction of race and ethnicity does no occur until about age 11 or older (Aboud, 1987; Wardle, 2003a).

Figure 11.1. Development of Racial and Ethnic Identity in Children.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Gender The women’s movement of the 1960s was a continuation of the suffragette movement of the turn of the century that produced the woman’s right to vote. As with other liberation movements, the movement soon found its way into our schools. Initially, gender inequality in schools focused on late elementary, middle and high school and college programs. Studies revealed a climate in which girls and boys were treated unequally, as a result of curricular materials, instructional approaches and administration (Sadker and Sadker, 1994). •

Curricular Materials. Myra and David Sadker identified 6 forms of gender bias in curriculum material used in school. These biases should be considered when evaluating classroom and curricular materials: 1) linguistic bias, where male terms, such as cavemen, forefathers, mankind, and mailman, along with the use of the word ‘he’ are used to represent all people; 2) stereotyping, in which men and boys are represented as ingenious, creative, brave, and achieving, and girls and women are viewed as dependent, passive, fearful and docile; 3) invisibility, where women are often invisible; 4) imbalance, where textbooks do not provide as much coverage of important issues where females are involved, such as some books that give the history of fashion more coverage than the suffragette movement (Trecker, 1977); 5) unreality, in which materials avoid providing a realistic presentation of history and contemporary life, and 6) fragmentation, or tokenism, in which women’s

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

252

Francis Wardle

•

•

contribution are presented as diversions, rather than direct contributions to society (Sadker and Sadker, 1994). Instruction. While research has documented that, starting at about 4th grade, teaches tend to call on boys more than girls, and provide boys with more praise (Sadker, Sadker and Long 1997), there is growing evidence documenting that the only way younger boys can get a teacher’s attention is to be loud and to engage in aggressive and often disruptive behaviors (Wardle, 2004). School Administration. Ninety-seven percent of early childhood teachers are women and almost 70% of elementary school teachers in the United States are women (Cunningham and Dorsey, 2004), yet 70% of K-12 school administrators are men (Sadker, Sadker and Long 1997).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Gender and Young Children Early childhood programs and elementary schools tend to be a highly female culture. For example, in addition to the 97% of teachers of young children being women, 96% of child care directors are also women (Neugebauer, 1999). Infant girls tend to talk before boys, and their language continues to be more advanced throughout early childhood (Fenson et al., 1994; Leaper, Anderson and Sanders, 1998). More boys than girls are born with birth defects, and more young boys die of accidents, have learning disabilities, and are diagnosed with AD/HD and autism (Berk, 2006). In chapter 10, I discuss the disproportionate number of boys in special education in our schools. Girls are not only more advanced than boys in vocabulary, language, memory and perception, but also in sustained attention and emotional regulation (self-control)(Cornyer, Solomon and Trudel, 1998; Rothbart, 1989). And boys are more physical and active – a trend documented across cultures (Whiting and Edwards, 1988). Thus, in general programs serving young children (early childhood and elementary schools) favor girls, largely because they reflect a female culture, including, • • • • •

Women teachers tend to prefer female behaviors and interacting with girls; Book themes – especially in early readers - tend to reflect female themes of fantasy and topics of interest to girls; Women tend not to be as active and demonstrative as men, while boys are much more active than girls; Women’s teaching styles match girls’ advanced verbal ability and overall advanced social behaviors, because women tend to be more verbal and more social; Most early childhood dramatic play areas are rich with stereotypical female props, such as cooking furniture, dress-up clothes, dolls, cooking utensils, etc., but lack stereotypical male props (Wardle, 2004).

Further, as academic and behavioral expectations are pushed to younger and younger ages, boys, who as a group tend to be delayed in verbal and academic abilities, need more active learning and struggle with emotional regulation, will continue to be at a disadvantage. Figure 11.2 provides some suggestions to help programs that serve young children more effectively meet the needs of boys.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

253

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Many teachers expect boys to be good at science and math, and girls in art, dance, music and literacy. We must counteract these biases by being aware of our own behaviors and modeling: when we choose a child to demonstrate a math problem or a scientific concept, we need to choose girls as well as boys; when asking a child to read to the whole class, we must select boys as well as girls. However, developmentally children at this age are struggling to understand their gender, and society’s expectations for their gender. Thus they will use lots of specific gender terms (boy, girl, daddy, mommy, brother, sister), and young children often appear to think in very sexist ways (Berger, 2006). Add typical male props to the dramatic or fantasy play area, and encourage all students to play in these areas (I prefer to use the term dramatic or fantasy play area). Added props can include hard hats, tools, a toolbox, phone books, a briefcase, and car-fixing equipment and old wheels (clean). Add props to the block area to increase the variety and range of play. These might include dolls, animals, and miniature people to suggest miniature fantasy play, and art materials to encourage children to make doors, windows, store signs, and billboards. Project various backgrounds in various play areas to increase the type of play (Wurm, 2005). When weather permits, move some dramatic play props to the outdoor play area. Add lots of constructive play props – loose parts – to the outside play area. Help children select learning centers they usually avoid, for whatever reason. Train teachers in skills and approaches that boys prefer, such as woodworking skills, hands-on learning, physical activities, and play. Encourage all children to use all of the learning centers and to engage in a variety of activities. For example, if a girl wants to play in the block area, and a child says, “You can’t play there, that’s just for boys,” respond with something like, “No, it’s not – it’s for everyone, and I like to play with blocks, too.” Invite a reluctant boy to play with you in the dramatic-play area. Modeling works wonders! Include books, posters, artwork, and other curricular materials that challenge and contradict gender stereotypes. Include a vast variety of books that boys partially enjoy: science, construction, sports, howtos, books that include detailed drawings and graphics, etc. In selecting computer programs for the classroom, make sure they are of interest to both boys and girls. Challenge children’s own stereotypically thinking. “Only girls play in the housekeeping area” should produce a response, “That’s not true. My husband has great fun cooking in our kitchen.” Have a colleague chart your movements in the classroom. Do you spend as much time in the science, math and woodwork areas as you do in the art and literacy centers? Do you spend as much time on the ground as you do sitting in a chair by a table? (Wardle, 2003). Figure 11.2. Meeting the Needs of Boys in Early Childhood and Elementary School Programs.

Banks Curricular Approaches to Multicultural Education James Banks has described four different approaches to multicultural education, that progress from the superficial to analysis, critical thinking, and action.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

254

Francis Wardle

Contributions Approach This is the hero’s and holiday’s approach, also called the Tourist Approach, because it presents information about each group much like a tourist would experience it when visiting another country. Programs that focus on single-day celebrations, such as Cinco de Mayo, Martin Luther King Day, and Chinese New Year, and focus on food, dance and costumes, employ this approach. Since contributions from diverse groups are only covered in a superficial way, students don’t learn their significant contributions to our history, culture and society. Further, the approach teaches stereotypes: all Latinos dance and eat tacos, all African Americans are athletic and eat collard greens, and all Native Americans wear headdresses and do war dances, etc. Members of each group are viewed as experts of knowledge regarding everything there is to know about their group, and are expected to inform curious people from other groups.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Ethnic Additive Approach With the ethnic additive approach, content from various groups is added to the traditional curriculum. Thus, in studying Manifest Destiny and the western movement of Europeans across the United States, the plight of Indians, the role of Black cowboys, and the importance of Japanese and Chinese in building the railroad and mining gold, are added. African American and women composers are added to a study of classical music; folk art from Africa, Native American sand paintings, and Zimbabwe beadwork are included in a unit on art. However, the overall theme of the curricular unit is not fundamentally changed. Transformative Approach This approach begins to alter the overall focus of curricular themes and units, while also including significant contributions of people from non-European backgrounds. Thus Sacagawea’s involvement in the Lewis and Clark expedition is shown as critical to its ultimate success; the westward movement of white Americas is viewed from the viewpoint of its devastating impact on Native Americans and Mexican Americans. Loren Katz (2002) writes about Mary Fields, an African American woman who delivered United States mail and drove a stagecoach in Montana during the westward expansion. The inclusion of this biography shows the important role African Americans had in US history, and on the exploration and settling of the West. Decision Making and Social Action Approach Based on the critical pedagogy analysis of Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire (1970), this approach empowers students to systematically and critically think about issues of inequality and injustice in their schools and communities, while also gaining a basic education. Freire believed both could occur at the same time, and that each approach to education compliments each other. The purpose of this approach is to study and understand different groups and find ways to engage in actions of positive change at the same time. For example, a preschool class might take action to make the playground accessible to a classmate in a wheelchair; a 3rd grade class might pressure the school to reject the invitation of a celebrity because of his beliefs about women. Two aspects about this approach must be addressed. First, Freire was an adult educator who wrote about teaching adults, and not children. He focused on adult literacy both in Brazil and globally (with the UN). Secondly, as has already been discussed, young

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

255

children do not fully understand the complexities of inequality, prejudice, lack of representation, and disenfranchisement.

Multicultural Approaches for Young Children The anti-bias approach to multicultural education – also called culturally relevant, antibias education (York, 2003) – is the most popular of many approaches to multicultural education used with young children. It comes out of Bank’s decision-making and social action approach, and of the work of several early childhood educators (Derman-Sparks 1989; Kendall, 1993; and Ramsey 1987). According to York, (2003) this approach includes, • •

•

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

Teaching practices that compliment the parent’s style for caring for and educating their children; Classroom environments that reflect the children’s home cultures, use teaching strategies common within the children’s home cultures, incorporate children’s home languages into the life of the classroom, and implement activities that help each child learn more and gain greater appreciation of their home culture; Activities that help children learn about human diversity, gain respect and appreciation for diversity, learn to recognize and resist stereotypes and unfair behaviors, and learn to work together to stand up for oneself or to challenge bias in others; Is fully integrated and implemented throughout the curriculum, curricular materials, and classroom activities.

This approach is based on the belief that traditional schools and early childhood programs are institutions that perpetuate the interests of the European groups and discriminate against oppressed groups (York, 2003). The goals for the anti-bias approach to multicultural education are designed to offset this bias. These goals are presented in figure 11.3. Goal I Develop a positive, knowledgeable, and confident self-identity within a cultural context. This means a child should fully self-identify with the cultural group to which she belongs, use her home language in public, and demonstrate pride in her cultural group. Goal II Demonstrate comfortable, empathetic interaction with a diversity of people. Understand and appreciate cultural similarities and differences, and learn to appreciate the cultures of others in the classroom and who make up United States society and culture. Goal III Think critically about bias. This involves recognizing and doing something about unfair treatment, discrimination and prejudice, especially in the educational program or community, and enables children to learn about right and wrong, fair and unfair, and including and excluding. Goal IV Stand up for oneself and others in the face of bias. Act responsibly in the classroom and community, participate in group membership and decision-making, and defend ones-self and others who are wronged (based on York 2003). Figure 11.3. Four Curriculum Goals for Early Childhood and Elementary School Anti-Bias Education.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

256

Francis Wardle

Because the anti-bias approach heavily focuses on children’s identity groups, and is committed to changing the power relationships of groups in United States society, it is very much a single group approach to multicultural education (Banks and Bans, 2004).

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION AND MULTIETHNIC AND MULTIRACIAL CHILDREN The multicultural movement has always taken a single group approach to racial and ethnic diversity (Banks and Banks, 2004; Grant and Sleeter, 1998; Nieto, 2004; York, 2003). However, as Cortes suggests, “Schools that examine racial and ethnic diversity, yet avoid the theme of racial mixture, distort the American experience. Furthermore, such schools do serious if unintended injuries to students of all backgrounds who need to be weaned from their rigid reliance on the old categories when grappling with changing realities” (1999, p. 3). And, as the 2000 Census has shown, 6.8 million Americans identified with more than one race (Root and Kelly, 2004). Thus a single-group approach to multicultural education does not work for the increasing number of multiethnic and multiracial children and families in our programs.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

History of Multiethnic and Multiethnic Children There have always been multiracial and multiethnic children in the United States and the world. In the early days of colonial America, multiethnic and multiracial children were viewed as examples of ‘new Americans’: symbols of people who challenged the rigid racial and class lines of Europe (Spickard, 1989). However, European racism soon took over, and sexual relationships between people of different races became taboo. In other colonies of the New World, notably Brazil, interracial sexual relationships were encouraged, first between Portuguese and Indians, and later Portuguese and Blacks. Furthermore, children from these relationships were recognized as having a mixed-race heritage, and a variety of names were provided to describe their various racial mixtures (Fish 2002). As a result of the 1967 U.S. Supreme Court decision of Loving versus Virginia (prohibiting laws against interracial marriage), the civil rights movement, increased interaction between the races on college campuses and in the workplace, and increased immigration of people from other countries, interracial relationships and multiracial and multiethnic children have greatly increased (Root, 1996). This swelling of interracial families produced many support groups nationwide in the 1970s and 1980s (Brown and Douglass, 1996). The new multiracial community challenged many existing racial concepts in the United States, including the taboo against interracial marriage, and the concept of the one-drop rule.

Identity of Multiethnic and Multiracial Children For a variety of reasons, the issue of the racial and ethnic identity of multiethnic and multiracial children has been of great concern to researchers, educators and psychologists in

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

257

the United States (Bowles, 1993; Brandell, 1988; Root, 1996; Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004). The debate is whether children of mixed racial and ethnic backgrounds should be raised with a single minority identity, with no racial label, or with a proud multiracial and multiethnic identity (Daniel, 1992). The contemporary multiracial movement generally supports the position that these children should be raised with an identity and pride that embraces their full cultural and genetic heritage and background (Bowles, 1993; Brandell, 1988; Root, 1996). This view directly challenges the singe group approach of multicultural education. For programs that wish to fully support the racial and ethnic identity development of multiethnic and multiracial children, Wardle and Cruz-Janzen suggest these practices: • • • •

• •

Work closely with any multiracial and multiethnic families and staff in the program to determine how to meet the needs of their children; Utilize interracial support groups in the community for advice and support; Research all possible resources, including books and the many good Internet sites; Make sure that any diversity training, conference sessions, and educational activities include workshops that address issues important to multiethnic and multiracial children and their families; Advocate for the unique needs of these children and families with educational supply companies, book publishers, and to change federal school forms; Immediately address any biases or prejudice against these children or families, from staff, specialists, parents or other children (2004).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 11.4 lists some specific goals for serving multiethnic and multiracial children, beginning at birth. Explore his/her unique physical characteristics; Explore how they are alike and different from other children; Learn to talk about their full identities; Use terms when talking about their identities (biracial, multiethnic, brown, etc.); Read/view/listen to books that honor and celebrate interracial families and multiethnic and multiracial children and people; maybe create there own, since so view are available; Engage in a variety of creative activities to explore and express their own unique identities, including use of mirrors, dress-ups, narratives and pictures of their families; Be exposed to multiethnic and multiracial role models and biographies; Have a positive attitude about the diversity of their family; Be able to defend themselves against harassment from adults and children; Have a primitive understanding that their physical characteristics come from both parents, and both sets of grandparents (Wardle and Cruz-Jansen, 2004, p. 150). Figure 11.4. Goals for Meeting the Needs of Multiethnic and Multiracial Children in Early Childhood and Elementary School Programs.

The classroom must include visual images, books, dolls, miniature people, and so on, that reflect a range of multiethnic and multiracial families, and people of mixed-race heritage. Further, a variety of curricular content should be provided that convey to children the richness, normalcy and possibilities of mixing races, ethnicities, cultures, religions, languages

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

258

Francis Wardle

and national origins. Cortez (1999) further suggests programs should, 1) cover the racial and ethnic diversity that makes up the United States, including mixed-race people; 2) discuss the ethnic and racial diversity that comprises many other countries today, such as England, the Netherlands, Brazil, South Africa, Germany, Costa Rica, Mexico and so on; and, 3) include the concept that multiracial and multiethnic people have always existed both in this country and the world (1999).

A NEW APPROACH Multicultural education has progressed to the point where the traditional, single group approach – race, ethnicity, gender, disability, income, sexual orientation, language, and so on, can no longer accurately and honorably embrace each child’s rich diversity (Cortes, 2000; Root, 2003; Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004; West, 2001). We need an approach that celebrates each child as being made up of a complex interaction of diverse contexts, or groups, and that views each child as a unique person (Root, 2003; West, 2001). Adopting a new approach does not mean we should go back to a ‘color blind’ approach; it means that now we must view each child and each family in our program as an individual, with race, ethnicity, language, gender, disability, and culture as interlocking parts of their unique identity (West, 2001). Other reasons the old approach does not work, include,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

Increased numbers of immigrants. These new immigrant groups challenge our single group approach. For example, Mayas from Guatemala who have recently immigrated to places like Houston refuse to be lumped into the Latino category, because the Latino minority in Guatemala has historically oppressed them in their own country (Wardle, 1976). African immigrants from diverse countries in that huge continent – many from countries other than the West African countries of African American origins, and some who are white – do not fit within the African American category. And increased immigrant groups from Eastern Europe - Russia and the old iron curtain countries - have little, if any, connection and commonality with the past European immigrants, including even Irish and Italians. Further, many of today’s Europeans are people of color themselves. Diversity of diversity. We are finally acknowledging the tremendous diversity within traditional United States ethnic and racial groups (Zack, 2002). Maybe the broad Latino group is the best example, including conservative Cubans living in Florida, radical Chicanos from California and New Mexico, and Spanish Americas in northern New Mexico who view themselves as direct descendents from Castilian Spain (Wardle and Cruz-Jansen, 2004). But we also know of the diversity within other groups, such as the white group that includes Germans, English, Welsh, Italians, Russians, Slavs, etc., and Asians that include historical enemies such as Japan, Korea and China. The result of acknowledging this tremendously rich diversity within each of our large Census groups – not to mention within other groups, such as the disability community and women – is to view individuals in more complex and accurate ways.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education •

•

•

259

Challenging stereotypes. One result of a single group approach to diversity is that it fosters stereotyping – all black students, all students with disabilities, all girls, etc. Ironically, destroying stereotypes is one of the major goals of multicultural education (Banks and Banks, 2004). A single group approach to diversity tends to further stereotypes (West, 2001). The increased popularity of marriage of people across traditional groups destroys single group identity. More and more of our children do not come from a single racial/ethnic group, a single cultural group, a single religious group, or even from two distinct racial or ethnic groups. The ecological context of race, ethnicity, gender, disability and other single group identities is far more complex than once assumed. York suggests that, “in order to understand the development of children of color in the US we must understand and look at how systems of racism, prejudice, and discrimination impact their development” (2003; p 39). This is a view that comes from a sociological perspective; but it is far too simplistic. What does a white child experience in an allBlack school, a Jehovah Witness child in an all Catholic, Latino Head Start program, or a Korean-Crow Indian child growing up on the Crow reservation of S. Montana (Wardle and Cruz-Janzen, 2004)? As Bronfenbrenner has shown, the inner circle of his ecological model – family, early childhood program, school and community – has far more impact on the child than the wider circles of society, culture and institutional racism (1979; 1989).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Thus we need to view the development of children within their total experiential and ecological contexts. One model that describes this approach is the Anti-Bias and Ecological Model (Wardle, 1996) (see figure 11.4).

ANTI-BIAS AND ECOLOGICAL MODEL FOR MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION The Anti-Bias and Ecological Model for Multicultural Education proposes an approach to examining the various and complex experiences each child brings to the early education program. Seven distinctly different factors are presented: race/ethnicity, culture, gender, ability/disability, community, family and socio-economic status. The impact and influence of each of these factors differs and interacts uniquely to define each child we serve (West, 2001). For example, for some children family is the most important influence on their identity, for others its race or ethnicity, for others its gender and for still others its their disability. Further, the weight of these factors differs depending on a child’s age, and of course, all seven interact in different ways. But maybe most importantly, since children construct their own mental structures and create their own unique view of the world, each child will process each factor and their interrelationships in their own unique way (West, 2001).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

260

Francis Wardle

Race/Ethnicity

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

As has already be pointed out, racial and ethnic categories have no biological basis (Fish, 2002). Further, there are obvious overlaps, such as some Puerto Ricans who fit into both the Black and Latino category, and many Hispanics who are mestizo. The Hispanic/Latino category specifically emphasizes Spanish language and Latin American origin, yet almost 50% of South Americans reside in Brazil, whose language and culture are Portuguese (National Geographic, 1993). And, finally, there is no place in these broad groups for people of multiethnic and multiracial heritage. However, race and ethnicity are still a very powerful concepts in the 21st Century US and the world. The racial and ethnic group a family belongs to have a profound impact on a child’s experiences. These include a common history, including a history of persecution and oppression; a position within the country’s mainstream culture, and a specific government status, such as official membership in an Indian tribe. Further, belonging to a racial or ethnic group also includes certain expectations from within the group and from without it (Zack 2000).

Figure 11.5. The Seven Factors of the Anti-Bias and Ecological. At the end of the chapter.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

261

Culture

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Stacey York defines culture as, “The shared values, attitudes, beliefs, and rules for behavior of a group of people. It is who we are on the inside, and how we live our lives” (2003, p. 262). Culture defines how individuals see themselves and provides the values and rules we use in our daily lives. Having a separate cultural category in the anti-bias and ecological model allows for the distinction between American Blacks and first generation Blacks from specific tribes and countries in Africa and the Caribbean; Spanish-Americans living in the mountains of northern New Mexico, Puerto Rican immigrants in New York, first generation immigrants from Peru, and mestizos from Mexico; and third generation Chinese Americans and first generation Hmongs, Cambodians and Vietnamese. It also allows us to appreciate the rich differences in customs, religion, art, homes and languages of various Native American Nations in this country and throughout Central and South America, such as the Maya from Guatemala, Pueblo from S.W. United States, and Guarani Amerindians of Brazil (Sample, 1993). A central component of a child’s cultural experience is religion. Do they attend a synagogue, mosque or church regularly? Are their parents active members in their religious community, and do they attend a religious school or early childhood program? Culture really is about the way the child views the world. This includes the family’s child-rearing practices, ideas, expectations, beliefs, and different groups the family associates with, and the family’s involvement in local and national politics, etc. Talking to an Amish child about the importance of a college education will not be effective, because the Amish finish school at 8th grade. Trying to use rap and hip-hop music with a young gifted Black student studying cello at a local college may not work, either. It should be noted that culture is dynamic – ever changing; and that an individual’s identification with his/her culture can, and often does, also change.

Gender The gender category is obvious. What is not so obvious, but very powerful, is how in infant/toddler programs, preschools and elementary schools, parents, toy and book producers and marketers, and teachers respond differently to children based on their gender. The category is also very important in combination with other categories, such as ability/disability (more boys are in special education than girls), culture and family. A child’s sexual orientation is also included under this category.

Ability/Disability A child’s unique strengths and challenges are covered here. Strengths include artistic and musical abilities, excellence in dance and physical activity, specific academic strengths, and other unique abilities covered under Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (1983). A child might be learning ballet and gymnastics, be on a soccer or track team, or maybe in a school’s gifted and talented prgram. Challenges include diagnosed special needs, potential special needs, and behavioral and social problems that jeopardize the child’s success in school.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

262

Francis Wardle

Community The category of community includes small towns, suburbs, inner cities, Native American reservations, rural communities, segregated and integrated neighborhoods, ethnic sections of town, and religious communities like the Amish. The influence of community also includes mobility. For example, many low-income families move from one community to another within the school year. Some families, such as new Maya immigrants in Houston, recent Mexican immigrants, and third culture children, have two communities – in their native country, and in the United States (West, 2001). Communities include a variety of components that directly impact families: schools, early childhood programs, club activities and recreational centers; services and supports for the whole family, such as health clinics, book stores, and playgrounds, and, finally, a variety of different media outlets and services. And, of course, religious institutions are a vital part of each community. Both the availability and the quality of these community opportunities impact the child.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Family The family is the most critical influence on young children and the first influence in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model (1979; 1989). Family diversity includes two working parents, teen parents, adoptive parents, foster parents, single parents (male or female), blended families, interracial and interethnic families (including transracial adoption), families that combine different religious beliefs, grandparents raising grandchildren, gay and lesbian families, and the level of extended family support (Berns, 2007). Parenting styles – authoritative, authoritarian and permissive (Baumrind, 1971) and various forms of family struggles, such as alcoholism, domestic violence, and drug use, also influence a child’s family experience. And, of course, all these configurations interact and overlap with each other. For example, a child might come from a teen family with lots of extended family support, a permissive parenting style, and a hard-working, motivated single parent. The family component also includes media and computer use at home. Homes where TV is used primarily as a babysitter are very different from homes where the TV is carefully monitored, or where there is no TV at all. Homes that have computers and Internet access not only enable their school-age children to do sophisticated homework assignments, but these parents of often pressure early childhood and school programs to provide computers and Internet access.

Social-Economic Status Social-economic status has a powerful impact on the development of children. Lack of health insurance, poor food, homelessness, welfare, crime, and a lack of recreational choices are all results of poverty. Even the kind of child care programs and schools a child attends is largely a function of the income of the family. Poor families use subsidized non-profit programs, Head Start, relative care, or home-based care, and poor rural or inner city schools. Middle and upper-income children stay at home with a parent or a nanny, go to university early childhood programs, commercial programs, home-based programs, or tuition-based preschool programs, and attend suburban schools, schools attached to universities, or private

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

263

and religious schools (Neugebauer, 1999). A family’s early childhood and school choices are not just a function of tuition cost, but also of availability, location, transportation, hours of service, and whether the parents feel comfortable and welcome.

Using the Model as a Guide

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Using this model enables programs and schools to respond to the complexity and dynamic nature of each child’s full identity, family and background. Curricular materials, classroom activities, and community fieldtrips are used to teach children that diversity is normal, and that each child constructs his/her own unique identity (West, 2001). Of most importance, programs must start with the child and the child’s family, consider how each of these factors make the child a unique individual, and then determine how best to meet the child’s unique needs in the program. Figure 11.6 provides a case study of this model. Joao Meira, father of first grader Isabella, scheduled a conference with her teacher. He was concerned because Isabella had few friends at school, disliked her teacher, and was struggling with reading and math. Isabella complained that the teacher used her as an example when teaching some Spanish words, and expected her to be friends with the girls from the neighborhood. The teacher gave Isabella basic instructions in computer use, and seemed confused when she wanted to do a computer search for a project. Isabella couldn’t find books of interest to her in the classroom. She wanted books about female doctors, dentists and lawyers, but only found books about athletes, and African American and Hispanic heroes. And she got very upset when the teacher would no allow her to paint and draw until after she finished her reading and math. Here is a brief use of the model to explore this situation. Race/ethnicity. The teacher assumed Isabella was Hispanic; the reality is that she is Brazilian/Portuguese (mixed-race). Culture. The teacher assumed she was from a low-income, Hispanic background and spoke Spanish. The reality is that Isabella is from a professional Brazilian background and speaks Portuguese and English. Gender. The teacher assumed Isabella’s role models for women were mothers, aunts and older sisters who primarily care for children – an inaccurate assumption even for the other children in the class. Isabella comes from a home that expects girls to become professionals – preferably doctors or lawyers. Ability/disability. The teacher believed Isabella is not good at anything in particular, and knows she struggles with math and reading. In reality Isabella is quite competent in computer skills and is very gifted artistically. Unknown to the teacher, she has a significant learning disability that affects her ability to read. Community. Unlike her classmates, Isabella comes from a middle-class, integrated, professional community. Family. Isabella belongs to a professional family where education is stressed, and children are expected to go to college. Homework is an important expectation. Her family are also practicing Catholics. Socio-economic status. Isabella’s father is a doctor who recently immigrated to this country. He practices and teaches at the local university hospital. Cleary Isabella is going to continue to struggle in school, and may even drop out, if the teacher does not change her instruction, expectations, and approach (Wardle, 2003). Figure 11.6. Case Study of the Anti-Bias and Ecological Model.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

264

Francis Wardle

MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION IN AMERICA Brief History of Multilingual Education in America

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Before being colonized by English speaking peoples, Native Americas in the United States spoke a variety of Indian languages. This, of course, was also true in other New World countries, such as those conquered by Spain, Portugal and other European nations. Today in the United States there are 175 Native languages still being used (Krauss, 1995). Many of these languages are being written down and preserved for future generations; some are being taught and used in tribal schools. There is a major effort today to write down and preserve the native Hawaiian language. Successive groups of non-English immigrants to the United States brought their own native languages, such as French, German, Japanese, Spanish, Italian, Chinese, Philippine, etc., as they did to other counties around the world. Immigrants always bring with them to the new country their cultures, religions and languages. Gullah is a language spoken in South Carolina since the 1700s. It is derived from languages brought by slaves from West African countries. Gullah is structurally and linguistically different from English. Louisiana French Creole is another local language that came to Louisiana at the same time as Gullah, also via West African slaves (Ovando, 1997). Structurally it is similar to Gullah; linguistically it is like French. However, even though French is a formal part of the Louisiana school curriculum, French Creole is not taught (Ovando, 1997). Hawaiian Creole dates from the 19th century, and is an English dialect with Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese and Ilocano additions (Ovando, 1997). As with other languages in American schools, Hawaiian Creole was initially banned in state schools (Ovando, 1997).

Legal Issues In 1974, a class action suit on the part of Chinese children against the San Francisco School Board came before the United States Supreme Court. The parents of the Chinese students argued that the school board deprived children who could not speak English of equal educational opportunity, based on title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment of the US Constitution (Gollnick and Chinn, 1994). In Lau v. Nichols (1974), the Supreme Court agreed, and declared that schools must provide special language programs for non-English speaking students (Gollnick and Chinn, 1994). This decision triggered the beginning of the modern bilingual education movement in the United States. The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 (reauthorized in 1974, 1978 and 1984) provided federal funds to assist schools in implementing bilingual programs.

Reasons to Teach Multilingual Education Cleary there are a variety of reasons to teach second and third languages in early childhood programs and schools. Like multicultural education, multilingual education has

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

265

also become a worldwide phenomenon, driven by immigration, the increase of pubic education in many counties, and the ever-shrinking global marketplace.

Increasing Number of Non-English Speaking Young Children in America According to the 2000 U.S. Census, nearly 50 million people are non-English native language speakers (Synder and Hoffman, 2001). Further, the number of students with limited English proficiency in 2001-2002 was 4.7 million (9.8 % of the school population). In urban areas, language minority students make up 21% of the students (U.S. Department of Education, 2002), and there are over 400 different languages spoken by American students (Kindler, 2002). The current language diversity in the United Sates is a result of the increased number of students from Mexico, Central and South America, and immigrants from other non-English speaking countries, such as African countries, Eastern Europe and Russia (Wardle and Cruz-Jansen, 2004).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Global Marketplace Many American corporations are now global: Pepsi, Exxon/Mobil, Starbucks, McDonalds, major car companies, Microsoft, etc. To compete globally, these companies need to have employees who speak the local language. To remain competitive in the global marketplace, many developed countries and some of the developing countries teach a second, and sometimes a third, language in their public schools. American parents are beginning to see the need for their children to also learn a second language. And the early years are the best time to begin to teach a second language (Berger, 2009). Canada has accepted the need to provide second language learning to their young children. Starting at age 3, children in Alberta and other Western provinces learn French, while children in Quebec learn English (Met, 1993). Supporting Brain Development Brain research supports early second language learning in at least two areas: it demonstrates that young children have the brain capacity and neural flexibility to understand the challenging task of second language learning, and second language learning during the early childhood years (age two through the elementary grades) develops and creates new neural networks that increase the brain’s capacity for all sorts of future learning (Genesee, 2001). Soon after the onset of fast mapping, the language explosion that begins at about age two and continues through to about age 6, children can master extensive vocabularies and two distinctive grammars, using the proper word order, pauses and gestures for each language (Bates, Devescovi and Wulfeck, 2001; Mayberry and Nicoladis, 2000). Further, these early years are the best time to learn correct native language pronunciations. This is because during the early years neurons and dendrites adjust to the different pronunciations that children hear in their environment. Every year of maturation makes distinguishing and expressing pronunciations more difficult (Berger, 2009). Since the 2-6 year-old time period is a sensitive period for language acquisition – vocabulary, grammar and pronunciations are learned rapidly and easily - it is also an ideal time to learn a second or even third language (Berger, 2009).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

266

Francis Wardle

Recommendations of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

To assist early childhood processionals in addressing the language needs of the everincreasing number of children entering our programs who do not speak English, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) published Responding to Linguistic and Cultural Diversity – Recommendations for Effective Early Childhood Programs (1996). “For the optimal development and learning of all children, educators must accept the legitimacy of children’s home language, respect (hold in high regard) and value (esteem, appreciate) the home culture, and promote and encourage the active involvement and support of all families, including extended and nontraditional family units” (p. 5). While this document targets the early childhood years (up to age 8) it also applies to the elementary grades. Specifically this document recommends, 1. Recognize that all children are cognitively, linguistically, and emotionally connected to the language and culture of their home. 2. Acknowledge that children can demonstrate their knowledge and capabilities in many ways. 3. Understand that without comprehensive input, second–language learning can be difficult. 4. Actively involve parents and families in early learning programs and settings. Parent involvement should be encouraged, with parents being invited into the program. 5. Encourage and assist parents to understand the value of their children knowing more than one language, and help them preserve their home-language learning. 6. Recognize that parents and families must rely on caregivers and educators to support their children in the cultural values and norms of the home. 7. Provide early childhood educators with professional preparation and development in the areas of culture, language and diversity. 8. Recruit and support educators who are trained in languages other than English. 9. Recognize that children can and will acquire the use of English even when their home language is used and respected. 10. Support and preserve home language usage. The child’s home language should be used throughout the early childhood and school environment. 11. Develop and provide alternative and creative strategies for young children’s learning. Provide a variety of ways for children to learn and to demonstrate what they have learned (NAEYC, 1996).

APPROACHES TO TEACHING SECOND AND THIRD LANGUAGE LEARNERS According to York (2003), bilingual education programs are “programs designed to help English language learners acquire English and function at their grade level in all subject areas. Further, the overall category includes a variety of approaches” (p. 260). In this text we expand this definition to include more than two languages (multilingual), and to address all

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

267

children who have to learn the official language of their country’s public schools, be it English (United States), French (Quebec, Canada and France), Spanish (Guatemala), Portuguese (Brazil), etc. In many developed countries there are many students who do not speak the country’s formal language. Most of the children who do not speak their country’s official language also belong to a racial or ethnic minority group. Thus, from a multicultural perspective, a child’s home language is an integral and essential part of the child’s cultural identity. To weaken the home language will result in weakening the child’s cognitive, language and social abilities (York, 2003). Home language and racial/ethnic culture are, therefore, deeply intertwined (Nieto, 2004).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Additive and Subtractive Approaches The area of second and third language instruction is fraught with controversy and multiple terms. In general, all approaches are categorized under two broad labels, additive and subtractive (Nieto, 2004). According to Nieto, the additive approach builds the new language onto the child’s home language, while the subtractive approach teaches a second language at the expense of the child’s home language. Many approaches, of course, fall somewhere between these two opposite concepts. The additive approach is viewed as a preferential approach because it strengthens or compliments the child’s cognitive and social development, while continuing to support her first language (York, 2003). It is believed that learning a second language while supporting the child’s home language not only teaches cultural and ethnic dignity, but also enables the child to learn school-related skills and concepts in their home language, while learning the new language at the same time. In contrast, the subtractive approach both retards a child’s academic success, and produces a disconnect between the child and his home culture (Nieto, 2004). There is considerable evidence that second and third language acquisition transfers to and enhances overall cognitive development while also increasing proficiency in the child’s first language (Genesee, 2001). Multilingualism, it is believed, promotes all sorts of learning (Portes and Rumbant, 2001). Because early literacy has become the canon of the national educational effort in the United States, parents of non-English speaking children should continue to support their young children’s literacy development in their home language, while also supporting the learning of a second language (Snow, 1997). However, while teaching children who cannot speak English in American schools has always been a part of our history, the nature of bilingual instruction in early childhood programs and schools today has political ramifications and causes considerable emotional response by the public and educators alike (Nieto, 2004). In many countries worldwide, teaching a second language, beginning in preschool or the early grades, is the norm.

ESL or Submersion Approach According to York (2003) and Nieto (2004), ESL (English as a Second Language) or the submersion approach to learning English is a subtractive approach. In this approach, non-

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

268

Francis Wardle

English-speaking children are placed in classrooms where all the instruction, classroom routines, and peer interactions occur only in English. The goal is to learn the second language as quickly as possible. Sometimes the child’s first language is lost or suppressed, depending on whether it is supported at home or in the neighborhood, and whether the program values the child’s home language. While both Nieto and York believe this is a very destructive approach to teaching children English, Cazden (1990) believes it can be effective when teachers, 1. Engage children in lots and lots of one-on-one conversations; 2. Adapt their conversation to the child’s level of English language knowledge (within the child’s language ZPD); 3. Include children in structured activities with English speaking peers: rhymes, songs and finger plays, reading, picture-book reading and dramatic play; 4. Follow this sequence of acquisition: when their first languages does not work, the child simply guesses; they begin to communicate, using gestures and language approximations; they learn specific labels and phrases - “bathroom”, “good morning”, “how are you?” - and then try these phrases out with their peers. If these efforts at second language usage are supported and encouraged, the children will keep trying.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Also, teachers must work and communicate closely with parents, support each child’s home culture, and learn about each child’s unique background (Cazden, 1990). Several states in the Untied States have passed laws to move non-English speaking children into English speaking classroom as soon as possible. Some of these are transition programs, while others essentially use an ESL approach.

Pullout ESL Approach The pullout approach to teaching a second language is a variation of ESL. In this approach the non-English speaking child is taken out of the regular classroom to attend ESL classes. Direct language instruction is, of course, the traditional way a second language is taught in the United States and many other counties, albeit usually during the middle and high school years. This approach is also used in special education. As one might expect, this approach is considered a subtractive approach because students miss important academic content when they are pulled out of the classroom for their language instruction (York, 2003).

Immersion Approach The goal of the Immersion approach to language acquisition is for young children to learn basic concepts in two or more languages: to become fully bilingual and bicultural, or multilingual and multicultural (York, 2003). This approach is used to teach another language to children whose first language is English. Since these children are continually exposed to English at home, in their neighborhoods, and thorough the media, they do not lose their speaking ability and culture.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

269

Many believe total immersion is the most effective way to learn any new language. The model was pioneered in Canada, and is an approach in which the regular school curriculum is taught in the new, targeted language (Met, 1993). All schooling in the initial years is conducted in the targeted language, including reading and language arts. The school’s official language – i.e. English in the United States – is introduced usually in the second grade (usually at 20%), with increased instruction until a 50:50 balance is achieved in later elementary school. However, some programs maintain the 80:20 ratio (targeted language/official language), because students in these programs continue their mastery of the new language without any drop-off in the proficiency of their home language (Met, 1993). Most full immersion programs start in preschool, kindergarten, or first grade. Age 2 to 6 appears to be the ideal age to learn second and third languages. Students who attend these programs become fluent in the new, targeted language by grades two or three. While many educators, psychologists, and speech therapists in the United States deeply believe that learning the school’s curriculum in another language will limit the child’s English language learning and core subject proficiency, research continues to show students in full immersion programs do as well in core classes (Met, 1993; Swain and Lapkin, 1991). Apparently children who learn the grammar and vocabulary rules of one language then apply them to another language.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Transitional Approach Initially the child is taught in her home language, and also taught English as a second language. These children may also be integrated with the main school population for classes such as art, PE, and music. They are moved as quickly as possible into full English language learning, and once they pass a language proficiency test they are placed into the regular classroom. However, there is considerable research to show that the ability to succeed in academic instruction and learning requires more advanced knowledge of a language than conversational language (Nieto, 2004; York; 2003). Thus, many children are moved too quickly into English-only classrooms. The transitional approach is used in more and more public school programs, such as those in Colorado and California.

Maintenance Approach Children receive instruction both in content areas and specific language lessons in their home language and the school’s official language, thus increasing their language proficiency in both languages. Often pullout instruction in the targeted language is also included. Children continue to develop their native language proficiency, learn a new language, and also learn the school’s subject matter, content and skills in their native language. This additive approach allows children to maintain progress in school content areas, enhance their home language, and learn the official language of the school.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

270

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Dual Language Approach The dual language approach is used to teach children who do not know the school’s official language, and children who speak the official language. In the United States this approach is used most often to teach Spanish-speaking children English, and Englishspeaking children Spanish. Classes are taught in one language for half of the day and the second language for the other half of the day. Or two teachers are used, one teaching in English, and one teaching in the second language. This approach combines the immersion concept with promoting positive attitudes to culture and language (York, 2003). According to De Gaetano, Williams, and Volk (1998), there are 6 specific ways to implement the dual language approach. Figure 11.7 describes these six methods. Another dual language approach is called Los Campaneros, in which children are taught in English one week, and then in Spanish the next (this could be any two languages). Parents choose whether to enroll their children in these classes. The Chicago Public Schools have a dual language program in which children are immersed for at east 50% of the day in the target (new) language, The program has approximately 5,000 students, and is implemented from preK to 3rd grade (Soltero, 2001). The core curriculum is taught in both languages, and the two groups of children – English language learners and native English speakers learning a new language – interact together most of the day, because of the powerful impact of socialization on language learning (Soltero, 2001). While dual language immersion programs usually use a 50:50 model of instruction, some of the individual Chicago public schools immerse children in the target language 80% of the time, because they recognize that children’s language interactions outside school are almost totally in their home language. In the Chicago programs, students learn to read and write first in their native language, with formal literacy instruction in the second language beginning in second grade. There are, of course, a number of variations of dual language immersion programs, but in all programs the targeted language is used at least 50% of the time (Soltero, 2001). Translation. The teacher translates everything said in the classroom Preview-review. Each activity is introduced in the child’s home language, the activity is conducted in the official language (English in the US), and then the wrap-up is done again in the home language. Alternating days. On one day activities are conducted in the child’s home language, the next in the school’s official language. Second language instruction. Children who don’t know the official language (English in the US) are instructed in small groups; conversely, children who don’t speak the second language are taught in small groups in that language. Concurrent. The teacher – who must be fully bilingual – shifts comfortably between the two languages throughout the day, as needed. Sister Classrooms. Each classroom speaks one of the two languages; at different times students switch classrooms, thus being instructed in the second language. These classrooms also play and work together on some projects and cooperative activities (De Gaetano, et al., 1998). Figure 11.7. Six Ways to Implement a Dual Language Approach. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

271

TEACHING YOUNG SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS As has already been mentioned, there are two kinds of second language learners, those whose home language differs from the official language of the school, which they must learn, and those whose language is the same as the school, and thus they are learning a foreign language. However, it many European countries there are several official languages (i.e. Switzerland has three).

Teaching Children English A first step in providing a program that teaches children English while supporting the home language is the deep understanding and recognition that young children can acquire the use of English even when their home language is used and respected (Tabors, 1997). This fact is based on two important ideas, •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

Young children can and will learn a second language in a supportive social setting – language is social; Children do no have to give up their first language in order to learn a second one. Research is clear that typically developing children can successful acquire a second language in a preschool classroom, without ignoring their home language (Tabors, 1997).

According to Tabors (1997), while a child learning a second language will use cognitive structures and knowledge gained from the first language to learn the second one, learning the second language does not interfere with the development of the first. Tabors uses the model of multiple glasses to illustrate his point: “in this model the two glasses can continue to be filled depending on exposure to and use of the languages” (p. 181). Thus learning in either language does not negatively impact the other one. A major challenge for programs in providing multilingual education is the lack of teachers and other staff who speak the home languages of the children. This is a particular problem for programs that include children who speak a variety of languages. Thus, when York (2003) suggests that the emphasis of multilingual education in early childhood programs should be to establish a solid base for speaking, reading, and writing in the child’s home language, this is often extremely difficult to do. Use of the child’s home language does not just involve interactions with the students. It involves verbal and written communication with parents (brochures, suggestions for at-home learning, announcements for field trips, policies and procedures, parent handbooks, etc.), screening and test items and test administration, and a variety of books and other curricular materials. Further, if specialists are needed (i.e. special education) they also need to be able to speak the child’s home language. This dilemma is a particular challenge for small schools and early childhood programs. Strategies to support second and third language learners whose home language is not English, according to York (2003) include,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

272

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Work with Parents Encourage parents to use their home language with their child, read to them in their home language, and volunteer in the classroom in their home language (Tabors, 1997). Use questionnaires, conferences and informal methods to learn about the child’s family. Introduce parents who speak the same language to each other. Provide parent training about the critical importance of reading to their children and other methods parents can use to support literacy development at home.

Teacher-Child Communication For people who do not speak the child’s home language, listen carefully to the child, support the child’s efforts in their home language and the school’s language, use short, clear, simple sentences and many nonverbal cues when speaking, and correctly pronounce the child’s name. Child-Child Relationships Pair children who do not speak the second language together with children who do. Soto adds that children should be given many opportunities to try out their new language with other children without mistakes being corrected by the teacher or other students (1991). Play, of course, is ideal for this language activity. Use of graphics and picture cues are also effective methods to work with children who are learning a new language. Allow children multiple ways to construct their own knowledge, process information, and understand a topic, including using enactive (muscle) and iconic (pictures) representation (Tabors. 1997). Daily Routines Establish and maintain a daily routine so children don’t have to listen to directions they don’t understand every day. Schedules and classroom rules with icons and pictures to represent activities and rules are also very helpful.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

273

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Langauge-Rich Classroom The classroom should be a language-rich environment, with environmental print and visual labels in each of the languages spoken in the classroom. Each language should be color-coded. The classroom should provide areas for dramatic play, books, and tape-recorded stories in each language, and should be a place where culturally and linguistically diverse children all feel welcome. Small-Group Time Small group time allows for adult attention to individual children. Introduce new concepts/skills in the child’s home language, and use a variety of real objects and photographs of objects when teaching new words. Allow children to explore the new concepts through play, drawing, etc., and avoid drill and practice methods for learning either language. Language-Group Time For group time activities, group children who do not know the official language with children who do, use as many visual props as possible (pictures, concrete props, gestures, facial expressions), limit just verbal instructions, and incorporate the child’s home language into circle-time activities. Read some books, sing songs and do finger plays in the child’s home language. Curriculum Introduce new concepts within a context that makes sense to each child, and find ways to relate content to the child’s unique home experiences. Because language is both a social communicative skill and is context-specific, this is very important (Berger, 2009). Further, the curriculum should be a developmentally appropriate one, with lots and lots of opportunities for language usage in both languages (Soto, 1991; Tabors, 1997).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

274

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Observations/Assessments In using observations to assess a child’s progress, make sure that the child’s progress both in the second language and their home language is evaluated, along with their attitude towards both languages and their familiarity both with their home culture and the culture of the classroom. This is the home of the Denver International School – a 25-year-old French-English immersions school that is substantially subsidized by the French Ministry of Education. However, many non-French children also attend the school. Seven four-year olds are sitting around a large table in the middle of the room, working on Christmas cards and worksheets. There are two girls and five boys; one child is absent. Two of the children have French family backgrounds, and thus speak French at home; the rest do not. Vicky, a young French Canadian from Quebec City talks to the children in rapid, conversational French. Occasionally she switches to English, then back to French, but 90% of her conversation is in French. She provides feedback in French, gives instructions in French, and praises the children in French. One child asks in English to go to the bathroom, but, after modeling by the teacher, repeats his request in French before leaving the classroom. The room is a high-ceilinged old classroom, with high windows, old oak wood trim, and large blackboards at each end. Various learning centers radiate out from the central table. French songs, les regles de la classes (classroom rules), numbers and letters in French, days of the week and months of the year in French, are all displayed on the walls. There is a huge world map with the message, “Christmas Tour of the World (in French) and a les continents map. There are French tapes, books, and computer programs. The teacher comfortably switches between the children working at the table and different children rehearsing for the evening’s school-wide Christmas program. All the dialogue for the program is in French. Children converse with each other in French and English. While the teacher speaks primarily in French, she does not admonish the children when they speak in English. When they ask a question in English, she responds in French. Vicky tells the children its recess, so they hustle out into the hallway to retrieve their outdoor clothes. The whole class then leaves for the snow-covered playground, basking in the bright winter sun. (From Wardle, 2003) Figure 11.8. Denver International School.

Staffing and Staff Development Bilingual or multilingual teachers, paraprofessionals or volunteers should be used, if at all possible. (As indicated earlier, for many programs and schools this is a huge challenge). If the program or school has an ESL teacher, the classroom teacher should learn some simple words, songs, and phrases of the child’s home language from the teacher. Further, if the program or school teaches other languages, there should be interaction between the programs and staff. Children should not be rushed into learning a second language and individual differences in learning should be carefully considered and respected (Soto 1991).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education

275

It should be noted here that the above suggestions work best in a early childhood program or school with a flexible, developmentally appropriate approach; these ideas will not work in programs that use a rigid, standards-based approach to curriculum.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTING AN IMMERSION OR DUAL LANGUAGE PROGRAM Here are a few ideas for early childhood programs and schools considering implementing a full immersion or dual language program to teach a target language other than the children’s home language (Wardle, 2005b). •

•

• • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

• •

Poll parents to determine which second/third language you will teach. Since parents will have to support your program, their buy-in is essential. Also determine the resources the parents, school and the community can provide. Find creative ways to attract teachers who speak the target language. International students, foreign exchange programs, and language associations are all possibilities. Also use language associations in your community and local college student language associations for support and to organize community events. Educate parents that full immersion second/third language programs do not negatively affect a child’s learning of their first language and basic academics. Emphasize the culture(s) of the country(s) whose languages are being taught in the program. Optimally, start your second/third language immersion program in preschool or Kindergarten. If you have a dual language program, make sure children from each language group have ample opportunity to learn with each other – also informally, since social interaction is the heart of all language learning, including second language acquisition. If you have a dual language program, consider providing more than 50% of instruction in the target language, since this results in more effective acquisition of the second language, with no reduction of learning basic skills in the child’s first language. Work with educators to encourage and support second language immersion programs during the early years. Create a dual-language community in the classroom: posters, environmental print, books, classroom rules, literacy props in the dramatics play and block area, directions/instructions, puzzles, and workbooks that are in both languages, along with artifacts and pictures that represent the cultures of both languages. However, these do not need to be direct translations.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

276

Francis Wardle

CONCLUSION Multicultural and multilingual education grew out of the civil rights movement and legislation of the 1960s. The purpose of multicultural and multilingual education is to make sure that every child in the United States has equal opportunity to school success, and thus to the American dream. While there are several approaches to multicultural and multilingual education, the best approaches involve staring with the child and her family at the center, and providing instruction and learning that builds on each child’s unique identity, language, home and cultural background. Programs that wish to teach a second language, either because children’s home language is not the same as the school, or because they wish to teach a second language to English speaking students, should attempt to start these programs when the children are young.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1. Observe three different early childhood programs or elementary schools - one primary white, one primarily minority (Black, Hispanic or Asian) and one with a diverse population. Compare and contrast these programs on curricular content, teaching approaches, discipline techniques, and materials. 2. Interview the multicultural coordinator of a local public elementary school. Based on the interview, determine which of James Bank’s four approaches to multicultural education the school uses. 3. Select a child, 2 to 12 years old, and use the anti-bias and ecological model to determine the child’s identity. Based on this analysis, determine the child’s educational needs and the kind of program in which she would be most successful. 4. Visit an early childhood program or school with a significant number of non-English speaking students.. How is the program teaching these children English? Which of the approaches discussed in this chapter are they using? Does it appear to be effective? Could improvements be made? If so, what? 5. Seek out students in your college or university who are from a non-English speaking country. Interview them about their learning of English: when did they start to learn English; why did they learn English; and did they learn English in a public school?

RESOURCES Advocates for Language Learning American Council on Immersion Education (ACIE) Kansas City, MO 64111 www.carla.acad.umn.edu/ACIE.html Center for the Study for Biracial Children. www.csbchome.org

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Multicultural and Multilingual Education ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics (ERIC/CLL) 4646 40th Street, NW., Washington, DC 20016-1859 National Association for the Education of Young Children (Position statement on teaching second language learners) www.naeyc.org

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

US Census www.quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

277

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 12

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

BRAIN-BASED LEARNING Brain-based learning is not a specific approach to curricula, such as High/Scope, Bank Street, standards-based curriculum, or Montessori; rather it is an attempt to implement recent findings from brain research into our teaching and curricula approaches. As such, this approach does not focus on one age group; many of the approaches and techniques apply to all learning settings, and to people of all ages. True, the brain’s growth and development is concentrated at the beginning of development – especially the first 10 years (Shore, 1997), and thus many of the ideas and concepts discussed in this chapter focus on these early years. But the knowledge we have gained from recent brain research applies to education through the end of the elementary school years, and much of it applies to learning at any age. This chapter will briefly describe some of the revolutionarily results of the last twenty years of research on the human brain as it relates to learning; the next section will describe, in detail, some ways to apply this knowledge to approaches to teaching – the environment, curriculum design, and instruction; ways to adapt more traditional and standards-based approaches to utilize some of this new information will be discussed, and finally the relevance of brain research to learning a second language (either English or a foreign language) will be presented. The student will see that many of the ideas presents in this chapter match concepts covered in other chapters, such as Montessori’s uses of all the senses, Dewey’s focus on meaningful learning, and the importance of the whole-child learning that is central to Walfdorf and British Infant/Primary Programs. Much of this approach is also highly consistent with the Information Processing Theory of Learning (Klahr, and MacWhinney, (1998). a leaning model not directly covered in this book.

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. What is the reason for the sudden increase in our research knowledge about how the brain works? 2. To what extent has our newfound knowledge about how the brain functions impacted practices in early childhood and elementary education? 3. To what extent is/is not the standards-based approach to curriculum (age-specific skills and concepts that must be learned) compatible with the results of the brain research?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

280

Francis Wardle 4. Since brain-based research substantiates the critical importance of learning during the early years (birth – 10 years old), should professionals working with young children be highly compensated (salary and benefits)? 5. Are there ways to implement brain-based learning ideas in the home? If so, how should early childhood and school programs communicate these ideas to parents? 6. What do you consider the most important results of brain-based research? How should these be implemented in the curriculum?

REASONS FOR OUR NEW BRAIN-BASED KNOWLEDGE During the last 25 years tremendous research advances have been made in our understanding of how the human brain develops and functions (Shore, 1997). There are a variety of reasons for this recent, radical advancement in our understanding of the human brain.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

New Research Tools Previous studies of the human brain relied on animal studies; case studies of people with neurological disorders, and autopsies to gain knowledge about the human brain. Thus the focus of brain studies was on animals and dead people. Not surprisingly, the results and interpretations of these studies were often incorrect. But today we have new ways to study the brains of living people – methods that are noninvasive. An electroencephalogram (EEG) uses electrodes taped to the scalp to record the electrical activity of the brain, from sleep to high mental activity. Functional magnetic imagining (fMRI), provides a computerized 3D image of very specific brain activities, based on blood flow in the brain, which enables us to study the various parts of the brain that are activated by specific stimuli and brain experiences (Shore, 1997). Additionally we now use a technology called Position Emission Tomography (PET) scan. This enables scientists to observe the brain structure in great detail, but also to measure with considerable precisions the activity levels of various parts of the brain. A similar process is computerized axial tomography (CAT), which also provides computerized pictures of blood flow in the brain. By using these various tools on infants, toddlers and young children at various stages, scientists can determine which parts of the brain are undergoing intense development at specific ages. They can also study the impact of certain kinds of stimulation, the effects of stress, and the results of other environmental influences on children’s brains, as they grow, mature, and progress through their development. Another technological advancement that has influenced brain research is the computer and the overall advancement of technology in general. We now can process vast amounts of information in very short periods of times, create a variety of computer models, pictorially view the different information gained through fMRI, CAT and PET technology, and use predictive models to determine future brain development and change. Finally, the Human Genome Project (Berger, 2009) adds to our interest in understanding the brain, because it helps us determine brain-based abnormalities and imperfections that are

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Brain-Based Learning

281

genetically based, and those that are based on environmental input. This knowledge helps us understand mental health issues, provides knowledge about chidlren’s various learning disabilities, and is instrumental in developing approaches for teaching children with special needs.

The Context of Brain Research Another reason that ther has been such a rapid increase in our knowledge about the brain is because there are many areas of scholarship and practice that are very hungry for information about the brain, and how it develops and works. Some of this keen interest is because we can use this information to, • • • • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

Explore brain-based causes of various learning disabilities; Discover brain-based causes – and possible interventions – for various mental health illnesses; Determine the most effective intervention programs for children from at-risk backgrounds; Determine the optimal school-readiness activities and environments for children, age infants to 5 years old; Examine the relationship between genes and brain-based abnormalities (Shore, 1997); Use research-based approaches to inform our practice in early childhood and school activities. The federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) act and other mandates have resulted in an adoration of hard data to drive our practices with children (evidencebased instruction). While this approach is very limiting, and requires careful scrutiny, the use of brain-based research fits nicely within this current climate.

Early Childhood and Elementary Education A variety of disciplines are understandably fascinated with the contribution of brainbased research on their own body of knowledge. Some of these disciplines include, • • • • • • • • • • •

Education Early childhood education Child development Human services Developmental psychology Child and family therapy Anthropology Cultural psychology Social sciences Neurobiology Biology

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

282

Francis Wardle

Brain-based information is extremely important for early childhood and elementary education. It is important for two overall reasons: 1) during the first 10 years (but especially the first 5 years of life) the brain is undergoing a great deal of growth in synaptic connections and pruning, and 2) so many of the findings (see below) apply directly to learning and teaching (Gallagher, 2005; Genesee, 2001; Shore, 1997; Wardle, 2007; Willis, 2007).

What Do We Know? We have learned a vast amount of information from this extensive new brain research. It is not possible to cover everything here, and we continue to garner and analyze additional research results. Further, as pointed out above, what we have learned can be applied differently by different disciplines. What is most interesting is that much of what we have learned tends to contradict what we used to believe (and to teach!) about the brain, brain development, how the brain functions, and what occurs in the brain during the learning process. Figure 12.1 summarizes some of our new understanding as it applies to the development, learning and teaching of young children. Old Thinking: New Thinking

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Genes we are born with determine brain development. Experiences we have before age 3 have a limited impact on later cognitive development and functioning. Secure relationships between an infant and caregivers help to provide a favorable context for brain development. Brain development is linear. The development of brain capacity is a straight line from infancy to adulthood A toddler’s brain is much less active than the brain of a college student.

Brain development is the result of a complex interaction between the genes we are born with and individual experiences Early experiences have a profound impact on the development of our brain, and our cognitive capacities as an adult. Early human interaction not only provides a positive context for learning but also directly determines the way various parts of the brain are wired. Brain development is not linear. There are optimum times to learn certain skills and knowledge (i.e. critical and significant periods). The brain of a three year old is 2 ½ times as active as an adult’s brain. Brain activity begins to decline during adolescence.

Figure 12.1. Old Thinking and New Thinking Regarding Brain Development (based on Shore, 1997).

Shore (1997) summarizes some of this new knowledge, •

Human development is based on a sensitive, complex interaction between nature and nurture

While the brain’s hardware is in place at birth – from the genes we inherit – the software is determined by the environment, including the prenatal environment: nourishment, care, Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Brain-Based Learning

283

surroundings, stimulation and stress. Since all of us are exposed to different environmental inputs, each brain is highly idiosyncratic (Shore, 1997; Wardle, 2003; Willis, 2007). Brain development is a process of puning – the brain continually produces and eliminate synapses. During the first three years production of connections outpaces elimination; during the rest of the first decade production and elimination are balanced (Shore, 1997). Repeated activation of connection in the brain maintains these new pathways; no activation results in pruning. Thus we talk about the complex but critically important concept of “use it or lose it”. The central cortex is most vulnerable to the pruning process. •

Early care and nurturing have a decisive, long-term impact on brain development.

The nature of a young child’s relationship with a secure, responsive caregiver can, to a significant extent, determine a child’s ability to develop emotional regulation. Secure attachment at an early age is critical. It can create a protective biological shield to withstand and learn from life’s daily stresses (Shore, 1997). Thus the emotional stability of the child’s primary caregiver – both at home an in a child care center or preschool, is of utmost importance.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

The human brain has a remarkable capacity to change, but timing is critical.

The brain is not set at birth – it is to a large extent created and developed (neural connections and synapses) as a result of the child’s interaction with the social and physical environment. Two things are critical – the type of environmental stimulation, and the timing of that stimulation. For optimum brain development to occur we must consider both critical and significant periods of development and learning. A critical period is the concept that certain learning must occur at a specific time in a child’ development. For example, brain development during the first 8 weeks after conception is a critical period (Berger, 2009). A significant period is a time when growth and learning, while not essential, is still optimal. The developmental period for second language learning is a significant period (Wardle, 2003). •

Negative experiences or lack of positive ones can have a large impact on brain development at specific times in life.

Significant, early exposure of an infant to an unstable, depressed caregiver can have a significant negative impact on brain development. Further, as we know, teratogens such as alcohol, nicotine and cocaine have a very negative impact on prenatal brain development, especially during the first 8 weeks after conception. Risk factors become much greater when combined. Thus adding stress and family dysfunction to a depressed caregiver can have dramatic negative results. •

Evidence based on brain research shows the value of prevention and early intervention.

Study after study indicates the efficacy of intense, well-developed, timely intervention of children considered at risk can improve their prospects and quality of life – in social,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

284

Francis Wardle

emotional and cognitive areas (Ramey and Ramey, 1996). These results are most dramatic for children from families with the least amount of formal education, and it appears to be long lasting. However three cautions are in order here, •

•

•

These intervention programs must be of very high quality, focusing on care-giver benefits, pay and training. Yet almost all infant and early childhood programs, regardless of whether they are private or public (state supported) are staffed by caregivers and teachers who lack adequate pay and benefits, and who do not receive high quality, ongoing training. This is also true of preschool teachers who teach in public schools. We must ask ourselves, exactly which young children are at risk? In the 1960s the term culturally deprived was commonly used. But this term is now considered offensive. Are all children of color at risk? All poor children? Are all children who do not speak English at risk? While it is very clear that the first years of life (infancy to age 10) are critical for optimum brain development to occur, no amount of good infant and early childhood experiences can inoculate a child against poor quality K-12 educational programs. This country targets the bulk of its educational resources to K-12 programs, especially local and state resources. Even when we consider Head Start and state funded early childhood programs (see chapter 13), the cost per child is much higher for K-12 programs. Yet a significant number of at risk children receive very poor K12 experiences, for a whole host of reasons. While it is critical from the perspective of optimum brain development, to focus on the early childhood years, we must also renew our dedication to providng K-12 education that is also compatible with our newfound brain-based knowledge.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Box 12.1. Reflective Thinking According to brain research, the first 10 years of a person’s life are absolutely essential to optimum brain envelopment and learning (with the first 5 years being even more critical). Further, one of the most important influences during these early years is an emotionally stable and sensitive care-giver. Given these two facts, should not teachers of infants and young children receive the highest remuneration of all teachers, including college teachers?

Applying Brian-Based Knowledge to How we Teach Young Children The Caine Learning Institute (2006) has summarized the impact of brain-based research on learning and teaching into 12 general areas. I will use this listing to discuss how our new knowledge from brain-based research can be used to explore various ways we can begin to change the way we teach young children – the environment, curriculum and instruction.

1) All Learning Engages the Physiology The body and mind are totally interconnected – in fact, the brain is part of the body! Thus brain development precedes brain usage. This means that it is not possible to learn (and thus teach) a concept, skill, outcome or activity until the parts of the brain needed to learn these

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Brain-Based Learning

285

skills and concepts are fully developed. And, as we know, this development requires specific brain connections to be formed, and all these connections to be myelinated. Further, we know that the tasks, activities, behaviors and lessons a child pursues actually assist in developing connections in the brain. Thus what we do causes (and sometimes damages) brain development. If we wish to develop the artistic and creative parts of the brain, we must provide many artistic and creative activities for young children; if we want American workers to be problem-solvers, young children need opportunities to solve problems in their programs, and if we expect American citizens to be conscience and moral members of their communities, we must provide many opportunities for children to engage in cooperative and moral activities.

2) The Brain is Social Vygotsky (chapter 6) was correct: almost all learning occurs within social contexts. Humans are by nature social; thus learning that has a social value or function is the most effective. Many believe this is one reason that all children worldwide learn the highly complex skill of using their native language, with little if any direct instruction (Berger, 2009). This is also why many of us believe the young age is the best time to learn a second language (Wardle, 2003b). Some of the specific social factors that enhance the quality of teaching include,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • • •

Learning that provides a sense of belonging; Learning that involves important human relationships; Learning where the individual learner is recognized by others or by the group; Learning that provides acknowledgement of the child and the child’s identity, and Learning that provides sincere social feedback to the child – also from peers.

The social aspect of learning suggests that group and cooperative learning, peer choices, multiage grouping, looping, and considerable group rule and decision-making are all valid approach to teaching.

3) The Brain’s Search for Meaning is Innate We do not learn arbitrary information; even when we must learn things that make little sense, we try to find meaning in them, or find ways to make them personally meaningful. Our search for meaning is innate – we are born with this proclivity. John Dewey (chapter one) argued that all learning should be personally meaningful (1938), and we know that personally meaningful information is more easily learned and easier to retrieve from long-term memory (Berger, 2009). There are, of course, many ways to make learning meaningful. Some of these include, • • •

Attach new materials to a child’s unique personal experiences; Provide enough flexibility and choice so that each child can discover a personal relationship to each activity; Attach the new concept, skill or knowledge to something that child wants to achieve. For example, teens will learn the driver’s license manual because they want to drive (and thus be with their peers);

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

286

Francis Wardle • • •

Offer a variety of different opportunities to learn with peers; Provide modeling of the new concept by someone the child respects (Bandura, 1993), and Make sure the learner knows the reasons for learning a task, skill or concept, and how it helps them get closer to a goal they have set for themselves (but not set by the adults)(Willis, 2007).

4) The Brain Searches for Meaning Through Patterning Infants are preprogrammed to seek patterns in their world, from people’s faces to things that move (Berger, 2009). We like to identify, name, and organize elements that make up the world. Though experiences with the environment we modify our unique preprogrammed patterning preferences (Kelley et al., 2007). Bird and flower identification, collecting baseball cards, knowing the names of favorite artists, and arranging colored beads in a favorite pattern are all forms of patterning. Teachers can assist with this process by helping students understand how things relate to each other – shape, size, color, historical time, function, values, cultural patterns, idioms, words, things we like and things we dislike, etc. This means that anything we teach needs to be organized with the child’s exiting view of the world; further, that we need to focus our teaching on these relationships and patterns. One of my college teachers pointed out to me that in many languages the words for butterfly all have a rhythm or pattern that suggest the fluttering of wings: Papillion (French), Mariposas (Spanish), borboleta (Portuguese), Schmetterling (German) and butterfly.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

5) Emotions are Critical to Learning Powerful learning is enhanced by rich, positive emotional experiences. By the same token, negative emotional experiences can have a devastating impact on learning. After all, school phobia, dislike of math, and a deep belief that one is stupid, are all learned behaviors. We tend to remember things that we enjoy, activities in which we feel successful, and experiences that are fulfilling. This is one of the reasons that the arts should permeate a curriculum – they add personal meaning to learning. Positive emotions are produced in a variety of ways. Personal success, feelings of competence, achieving a difficult task, working closely with someone we like and trust, and simply enjoying an activity, setting or experience all elicit positive emotions. Maybe the best way to create positive learning is to develop a trusting relationship between a student and teacher (parent, volunteers, aide, etc). When my son had a positive relationship with a teacher he earned As and Bs; when he did not he earned Cs and Ds.

6) The Brain/Mind Processes Parts and Wholes Simultaneously Making sense of new experiences requires attending to both the big picture (the Gestalt), and the individual parts. However, its usually best to introduce students to the big picture first – like going on a field trip – before teachings the individual components – the concepts and content contained within the fieldtrip experience (Wardle, 2000). Another example would be to attend a concert before learning the names and sounds of each individual instrument.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Brain-Based Learning

287

Adding individual parts to create a whole is difficult to do without having the concepts of the whole. But both can – and should – be taught simultaneously. The need to make sense of the world and to seek patterns helps the child create a whole from the parts. But teachers must help with these interrelationships. How does the beautiful red paint fit into a picture of a sunset? How does the sound of the French horn change the sound of the entire musical piece? How does changing the sign before a number – from “ – “ to “+” affect the entire mathematical equation?

7) Learning Involves Both Focused Attention and Learning Contexts It is critically important for students to focus on what is being learned, and for teachers to explicitly tell students what this is: “Today we will be learning about the importance of good nutrition and exercise”. But contexts are also very important – they are a central component of the theory of information processing, and help describe how we store information in long term memory: “under what conditions did I learn this?” Teachers of young children are good at helping children understand these contexts, “Remember when we visited the zoo?” “Remember when you were in the hospital?” “Remember the last time we did this dance together?” Thus learning is field dependent (relies on context) and field independent (learned with little regard to context).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

8) Learning is Both Conscious and Unconscious Clearly we learn things deliberately, and we learn things vicariously. Further, many of the things learning unconsciously involve strong feelings (associations) – fear, joy, anticipation, etc. To use both these ideas to maximize learning, students must know themselves and how they learn best. Do they have deep-seated barriers that prevent learning in some areas? Do they avoid math? Writing? Other disciplines or skills? Metacognition must be developed in each student. In terms of curriculum, these two concepts – conscious and unconscious learning – can be conceptually matched with the formal curriculum (intentional) and the hidden curriculum (unconscious). It is well known that the hidden curriculum is often very powerful and can teach very strong and important values, such as prejudice, the superiority of athletes in many schools, the arbitrary nature of authority, etc (Wardle, 2003a). Teachers must be conscious of the hidden curriculum in their early childhood programs and schools, and make sure that the hidden curriculum aligns with the formal curriculum as much as possible. When it does not attempts must be made to rectify this situation.

9) There are at Least Two Approaches to Memory: Meaningful and Rote At the heart of all learning is memory: putting new information and skills into the brain and retrieving them when needed. While facts and procedures sometimes need to be memorized (i.e. math facts), rote learning is different from dynamic memory, where learners are more naturally and actively engaged as they sift through what they know and recognize to make decisions in new contexts. In dynamic learning the learner actively looks for patterns, relationships, contradictions and new associations. Brain-based learning minimizes rote approaches and maximizes dynamic, active, experiential learning.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

288

Francis Wardle

10) Learning is Developmental All learning builds on previous learning, which itself is accompanied by changes in the physiology of the brain. Development is both a result of maturity (age) and experience. Thus it is also highly idiosyncratic. The second edition of Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997) provides an extensive discussion of normative development and idiosyncratic variability. For our purposes in this chapter we must remember two fundamentals truth, 1) that the brain is continuing to develop through the connections that are made with experience and brain activity (and those that are being pruned), and 2) that each individual’s brain develops differently. For teachers this means we must both be aware of the normative developmental profiles (what the average 5 year old can do in math, for example), and vast individual differences (Matt is very accomplished in math for a 5 year old, but he also has a learning disability in reading). From a curriculum perspective this requires targeting activities to the developmental age of students in the class, while also differentiating for individual learning styles and learning differences.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

11) Complex Learning is Enhanced by Challenge and Inhibited by Stress Stress sabotages the most promising kinds of learning, including higher order thinking, so relaxed alertness is the ideal metal state for higher order brain functioning. While challenge, rigor and “intentional teaching” are bywords for quality early childhood and elementary education in today’s rhetoric, they cannot be associated with stress for learning to be effective. Stress is extremely detrimental both to brain development and brain functioning (Willis, 2007). Because many of the brain’s connections are being made at this young age (0-10 years of age), teachers must be vigilant to avoid any possible stressful situations. There are many ways to reduce stress within our classrooms and programs. Some of these ideas are discussed later in this chapter. What is important to remember here is the tremendously negative results that stress can produce both in overall brain development, and on various learning contexts and experiences. This does not mean, however, that all learning should be fun and easy; rather, it means that various environmental impacts that cause stress (fear, rote learning that has little or no personal meaning, experiences that do not match a child’s brain development, and so on) must be avoided. Children enjoy challenges that are appropriate for their age and their development; they also like to feel competent – and the bigger the challenge, the more competence they can achieve.

12) Each Brain is Uniquely Organized We used to believe that all educated brains were organized in the same way, and that the more educated a person was, the more orderly and systematic their brain organization. Brain research has shown this to be untrue. Einstein was a visual thinker who used inductive reasoning, while his contemporaries tended to be verbal and mathematical thinkers who used deductive reasoning. Einstein’s unique way of thinking and reasoning enabled him to revolutionize our view of the world and the universe (Isaacson, 2003). As I have already suggested, learning is at best idiosyncratic. To teach according to this knowledge, we should,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Brain-Based Learning • • • • • • •

289

Help students determine their own intelligences, according to Gardner (1983); Provide opportunities for students to use their unique intelligences optimally; Provide multi-sensory input for all learning; Help students understand and develop their unique metacognitive abilities; Provide many opportunities for students to explore their unique experiences, contexts, identities and backgrounds; Help students discover and master the kinds of learning they particularly enjoy; Provide opportunities for students to learn with students who think like they do, and to be mentored by like-thinking adults. Box 12.2. Reflective Thinking

Reflect on your own work setting (in a school or an early childhood program). If you are not currently working in one of these settings, reflect on your own elementary school experience. To what extent do these settings utilize the Caine Institute’s 12 ideas for teaching/learning based on the latest brain research, and to what extent do they not? Can you reflect on instances where your school experiences do not conform to these ideas?

Adapting Traditional Educational Approaches to be More Brain Friendly

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Judy Willis (2007) discusses at some length how to make learning and teaching more compatible with the findings of the new brain research. Many of her suggestions have to do with reducing stress and increasingly meaningful learning. All these ideas can be used with early childhood and elementary age children.

Reducing Stress Stress in learning is caused by a variety of stimuli from the home and school environment. Ways to reduce stress in learning settings, include, • • • • • • •

Reduce or eliminate competition; Allow students to create their own personal goals within a discipline (i.e. learning math facts), and then record their own progress toward these goals; Provide a variety of relaxed learning opportunities, from movement to painting, play and learning from nature; Help students learn strategies to enable them to learn relevant information, memorize needed information, and retrieve material that is needed (metacognitive activities); Provide breaks, such as art, music, physical activities, exploring nature, between intense learning; Make the classroom a positive learning environment where each student is accepted and treasured, and where emotional relationships and trust are valued; Do not call on children in front of the class when they do not know the information or are uncomfortable in front of their peers (Willis, 2007). One of my least favorite activities in school was the weekly spelling bee, because I was so bad at spelling. I still am! (Thus it did not work as a method to teach me how to spell).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

290

Francis Wardle •

Do not deny a student activities and experiences that they enjoy and are good at (i.e painting, use of the computer, playing outside, exploring nature) because they have not completed something they dislike and are not good at (i.e. math and reading skills).

Make Learning Meaningful According to Willis, studies show that boredom, confusion and low motivation can, particularly in combination, interfere with learning (2007). There are many ways to make learning relevant. Some of these include, • • • • • • • • • •

Proving all kinds of novelty: children love the new, different, and unusual; Engage in activities and experiences that develop pleasurable associations in students; Use existing pleasurable associations a student has (i.e. her love of animals) to teach new information, skills and concepts; Use the child’s immediate, concrete environment to learn the basics – i.e. environmental print, fieldtrips, nature, parent visitors to the classroom, etc; Engage in a variety of projects (see chapter 16); Find ways to make activities and experiences personally meaningful to each child; Find ways to tie new ideas and skills into existing knowledge and concepts; Help children know why they are doing what they are doing; Providing lots of real choices; Make learning joyful and satisfying (Willis, 2007).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

More Ideas Kathleen Gallagher, in an article in the journal Young Children (2005), provides some additional advice regarding brain-based care and learning, particularly for infants and toddlers, •

•

•

For young children, playpens, high chairs, and bouncy seats should be used sparingly. Static pieces of equipment limit a child’s movement in space, and retard the brain growth that occurs through these active, physical experiences. Young children need many varied sensory experiences - auditory, tactile and visual. A lack of sensory input increases neural pruning (Bruer, 2004). Teachers must create positive classroom environments and school climates. This includes everything from establishing and maintaining trust, a sense of belonging, and safety (Maslow, 1956) to immediately and proactively responding to bullying and other threats to physical and psychological safety (Olweus, 2004). Help children develop self-regulation. Self-regulation is the ability to control natural impulses and urges, from getting up out of your seat, to blurting out answers to a question. Self-regulation is particularly difficult for children under stress. These children should not be punished, controlled or expected to engage in behaviors they are not developmentally ready to do (due to immature brain development); rather, they need opportunities to express their anxieties and handle their stress. Teachers can help children understand and accept that strong emotions – fear, sadness, loss,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Brain-Based Learning

291

and so on – are a central part of being a person. Activities that enable children to come to terms with their stress include, o Using words and talking to teachers about their feelings; o Engaging in all forms of art activities; o Participating in music and dance activities; o Participating in all kinds of play (physical, social and dramatic play); o Exploring the outdoors and nature. Nature seems to have a very soothing effect on children under stress (Stephens, 2006).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Children respond differently to stress, based on gender, culture, genetics and their home background. In chapter 10, I discuss the overall reality that teachers (almost all female) in most of our early childhood and elementary school programs provide ample opportunities for girls to express and come to terms with their intense emotions (comfort, talking, hugs and quiet time) in culturally appropriate ways, while boys are often ignored, punished, and expected to regulate their own, culturally appropriate emotions (Wardle, 2003a). This is obviously unacceptable, and requires targeted training and supervision of teachers and volunteers.

BRAIN RESEARCH AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION In chapter 11, I discuss second language learning (for English speakers and non- English speakers alike). In the context of recent brain research results, it is important to consider whether we have any new information to help us make important decisions when we teach a

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

292

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

second language. Should our new knowledge of how the brain develops and functions change our views about teaching English to non-English speakers and of teaching a foreign languages to English speakers?

Language Software It was believed that each area of the brain has a specialized function that is set at birth – that it is genetic (Shore, 1997). Thus the brain has dedicated places where emotional regulation, language learning, visual learning, and so on, must occur. However, we now know that the brain is much more plastic and flexible than was once believed, and that the specialized functions of the brain are not fixed, but rather shaped by learning and experience (Genesee, 2001). Thus, while the hardware for language learning is set at birth, the software must be created from experienceswith language. Further, while we used to focus on right and left-brain teaching – focusing our instruction on each specialized area and side of the brain – we now believe that almost all learning involves both parts of the brain working together simultaneously (Berger, 2009. Learning is about making connections between various parts of the brain, including making connections between both sides of the brain. These connections are made both between adjacent neurons and between distant ones; connections are made from simple circuits to complex ones, and complex to simple ones (Genesee, 2001). As connections are formed in the auditory part of the brain as a result of language learning, other connections with visual, tactile, olfactory and even tastes related to

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Brain-Based Learning

293

the sounds of the word are also made. Thus a discussion about lemons will trigger development in the taste area of the brain, while learning words to describe a sunset will develop parts of the visual brain.

Encouraging Second Language Learning The results of the brain research suggest that second language learning (either English to non-English speakers, or a foreign language to English speakers) should consider some of these ideas to guide their best practices: • • • • • • • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• •

Begin second language learning in early childhood; Continue active second language learning throughout the K-12 school years; Embed second language learning within real-world experiences and each student’s social realities; Make second language learning as social as possible (both because learning is a social medium and because social learning is more meaningful); Use all five senses to teach a second languages, and do not focus just on listening; find ways to use multi-sensory experiences; Use as many of Gardner’s 8 intelligences in second language learning as possible, and do not focus only on verbal-linguistic learning:; Combine higher-order learning of a second language with lower order learning; Use complex ideas and concepts to teach more simple ideas and concepts (i.e. use children’s understanding of how to express complex emotions to teach simply vocabulary); Always try to make language learning personally meaningful to each child; Include each language’s culture, history, geography and other unique aspects that make the language more meaningful to learn. Box 12.3. Reflective Thinking

Traditionally in American schools we teach a second language, beginning in middle school. What are the arguments for beginning to teach a second language in preschool or Kindergarten? What are the arguments against this practice? If you have time visit a school (public or private) where English speaking students are taught a second language, beginning in preschool or Kindergarten. How is this accomplished in the school? Why is it a part of the curriculum? Do parents support it?

CONCLUSION Over the last 20-25 years, scientists have gained a tremendous amount of knowledge about the human brain: how it functions and how it develops. Much of this new knowledge has been achieved as a result of the development of new, noninvasive methods to study the brain. Further, computers enable research to process a great amount of new data, and the Human Genome Project has added to out interest and knowledge about how the brain works.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

294

Francis Wardle

This new knowledge has revolutionized both our understanding of the human brain and also our knowledge about all aspects of human learning, from sensory input and selective attention, to synapse mechanisms and the development of neural connections. A variety of disciplines, from psychology to education and research, are taking advantage of the results of this newfound research to improve and guide best practices and research. The fields of early childhood education and elementary education are particularly impacted by implications of the new research. Reasons for this include, 1) the critical importance of the early years in optimum brain development and learning, 2) the use of this research to inform and guide early intervention programs, 3) the application of the research to address and learn about various learning disabilities, and 4) the mandate from many directions, including the federal NCLB act, to base our best educational practice on researchbased knowledge. All professional fields tend to lag behind the research, and education and early childhood education are no exception. In fact, due its highly political nature and the fact that in many cases true educational professionals have been pushed into the background when it comes to educational policymaking, education and early childhood education tend to be highly resistant to good scientific research. At present the conflict between content standards (see chapter 8) and using brain research to inform practice is being convincingly won by advocates of content standards, both in K-12 and in early childhood education. Who know what the future holds?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PROJECTS/QUESTIONS 1. Download the ECE standards for your state. If your state has none, select another state. Based on the content of this chapter, rate these standards as to their compatibility with brain-based leaning. 2. Go to you state department of education’s website, and download the elementary standards for literacy, math or science. Using a scale of, supports brain research, doen’t support brain research, and, not clear, rate these standards. 3. Access a copy of the 2009 Developmentally Appropriate Practice, published by NAEYC. Determine to what extent brain-based research informs this document. In your opinion, is the level of the use of brain-based research in the document adequate? Why or why not? 4. Most discussions of early intervention for at-risk students focus on programs such as Head Start and Early Head Start. Yet parents and the home are the most important environments for children before they enter formal education programs. What are wayd that parents can provide for the optimum brain development of their young children? 5. Based on your reading of different program approaches to education and early childhood education covered in this book, which programs do you feel are most brain compatible, and which are least brain compatible? Justify your responses.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 13

FEDERAL AND STATE PROGRAMS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION After the advent of Sputnik (1957), the federal government started to become interested in becoming involved in the affairs of local school districts. Before that time, running local schools was strictly under the responsibility of the state and the local school district. Later the federal Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), was introduced. President Johnson’s Great Society’s massive federal initiative included a vast array of low-income programs, including Head Start and Follow Through. These federal educational efforts were based on the belief that education is the great equalizer, and that the federal government has a very important role to play in this endeavor. Further, their introduction at this time (1965) reflected the optimistic mood of the country that government intervention could produce positive change and thus is a moral imperative (Sears, 1975). Both Head Start and ESEA come from the same idea: direct federal involvement in improving the educational opportunity for low-income children at the local level. While direct federal support of local educational programs was a new idea, Head Start’s focus on children before official school age was a very radical concept. Both programs were initiated in 1965; the Elementary and Secondary Education Act includes Title 1, which provided monies to assist 5½ million low-income children through the local school. “Congress appropriated a billion dollars for education, 80% of which went to Title 1. The money was distributed on the basis of need” (Thernstrom and Thernstrom, 2003, p. 214). Unlike the Title I program, Head Start was conceived entirely outside the traditional educational establishment, with federal funds distributed primarily through local Community Action Programs (CAPs), and by the federal Health and Human Services administration and not the U.S. Department of Education. The initial Head Start Planning Committee was made up of “two early childhood educators, four physicians, a professor of nursing, an associate dean of social work, a nun who was a college president, a dean of a college of education, a clinical psycholinguist, and two research psychologists (Zigler and Muenchow, 1992, p. 8). Thus the Head Start philosophy focused on a comprehensive early childhood experience and parent empowerment, with health, mental health, parent involvement, and nutrition given equal importance to education. Framers of Head Start believed that low-income children could catch up to middle-class children through an intensive, one-year comprehensive approach (Zigler and Muenchow, 1992).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

296

Francis Wardle

As Head Start gained popular support over the years, it has expanded – in total annual budget, number of children served, cost-per-child, children with disabilities, and age-range of children served. Many states have also found a way to fund Head Start-type programs through the creation of state-funded efforts. Some of these state initiatives follow the comprehensive and parent empowerment focus of Head Start, such as Ohio’s program, while most others are more like traditional school-readiness preschool programs that focus only on teaching academic skills. This chapter examines Head Start, state-funded preschool programs, and the federal Title 1 program, which is now called No Child Left Behind. These programs are unique in their primary focus on low-income students and in their implementation of the federal and state governments’ view of early childhood education and education for at-risk students.

FOCUS QUESTIONS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1. Why did the federal government and later individual state governments become directly involved in early childhood programs? 2. Is the ever-increasing involvement of the federal government in local school affairs good or bad? 3. Should state-funded preschool programs be provided through the local public schools, through community-based early childhood programs, or both? 4. How did the Perry Preschool studies, conducted by the High/Scope Foundation, impact Head Start? Are the results of this study relevant today? 5. One of the hallmarks of Head Start is its emphasis on parent involvement, both in the education of their children and in running the local program. Why is this so?

HEAD START History of Head Start Two momentous events lead to the creation of Head Start. The first was the civil rights movement of the late 50s and early 1960s, which concluded with the passage of legislation by the U.S. Congress guaranteeing the rights and protections of minorities in this country. (Later legislation expanded to include women, the disabled, non-English speakers and age-bias, as discussed in detail in chapter 11). The second event was President Lyndon Johnson’s War on Poverty, which included the creation of a wide range of programs for the poor, including Job Corp, Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), Low Income Energy Assistance Program (LEAP), Community Action Programs (CAPs) and Head Start. Project Head Start is one of the few remaining War on Poverty programs, and considered by far its most successful. Project Head Start also benefited from a cadre of motivated civil rights workers and a willingness on the part of local communities to contribute a variety of local resources, including buildings, direct services, medical and dental experts, transportation, experts who participated on the local program governing boards, and educational materials (Greenberg, 1969). In the early sixties the United States was at the height of optimistic thinking. People

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs

297

believed that government could and should dramatically and positively address problems in this country and the world (the creation of the Peace Corp epitomized this idea). Education was viewed as a major vehicle for improving the lives of the poor, and many believed that quality, comprehensive education programs could quickly and easily remove ‘culturally deprived’ children from poverty and into the American mainstream (Sears, 1975). Specifically, Head Start grew out of a national advisory panel of experts convened by President John F. Kennedy to address the needs of children with mental disabilities. Its scope later expanded to include all low-income children who enter public school with disadvantages. The belief was that a high quality Head Start experience would prepare lowincome children to become successful in their local public school. Further, its creators were convinced that many local schools did an inadequate job of serving low-income children and their families. Because many of these children lacked medical and dental care, appropriate educational resources, and adequate language stimulation at home, the framers of the program designed a broad-based, comprehensive approach; further, they believed early childhood is a critical period that can provide the foundation for a successful K-12 school experience (Greenberg, 1969; Zigler and Muenchow, 1992). In the summer of 1965 the first program was launched. The program’s basic philosophy included, •

•

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

•

A comprehensive approach: educational, dental and medical services; family involvement; parent empowerment and training; and employment of low-income parents. A stress on social competence – the idea that a child should be able to learn new skills and develop the personal confidence to demonstrate those skills successfully in a variety of social settings. Local control. National guidelines and performance standards were written in such a way that local programs made important decisions, such as the choice of the educational curriculum and approval of the program’s budget. Parent involvement. The heart of each local program is the Policy Council. Made-up primarily of parents, this council also includes local volunteers, such as physicians, activists and local politicians, and has real power – for example they must approve the hiring and firing of all staff, adoption of the annual budget, and approval of each component plan. Community commitment. Local communities are required to contribute a significant amount of resources to help run the local program (buildings, medical services, legal and financial support, etc). 20% of the program budget must be direct or indirect local contributions, including volunteer hours.

The first national Head Start program was funded at a level of just over $96 million and served 561,000 children during the summer of 1965 (Head Start, 2000). By contrast, the 2005 program served just under 907,000 children for the entire school year at a cost of almost seven billion dollars. Since its inception, Head Start has served over 23 million children (ACF 2006). After the 1965 summer Head Start project, the Westinghouse Corporation funded a research study of the program conducted by Ohio University. Researchers used IQ tests given to Head Start students and a control group as the basis for their study. In the 1960s an

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

298

Francis Wardle

increase in a student’s IQ was the standard approach used to determine the success of an educational intervention program. Today we use a variety of different measures to determine success, but we never rely solely on IQ increases. Results of the Westinghouse study showed no difference between the two groups (Westinghouse Learning Corporation/Ohio University, 1969). The future of Head Start appeared dim until the results of the Perry Preschool Project was distributed (Schweinhart and Weikart, 1997). This study analyzed the success of a program similar in nature to Head Start that had been developed by the High/Scope Foundation in Ypsilanti, Michigan. While not a Head Start program, the program’s comprehensive nature, parent involvement, and educational philosophy were very similar to that of Head Start, as were its low-income, minority families. The High/Scope approach is discussed at length in chapter 3. The Perry Preschool Study was a well designed study with convincing results. These results showed that students who did not attend the Perry Preschool Program were more likely to need additional social, educational, and other government supported interventions throughout their school years, including special education, juvenile services, early pregnancy services, and other interventions (Schweinhart and Weikart, 1997). The research also showed a cost benefit of $7 for every $1 spent on the preschool program, because students who attended the Perry Preschool Program did not need costly additional services throughout their school years. (Later analysis has increased that figure to over a $17 dollar return). In the business of early childhood intervention, we call this a cost-benefit analysis. The Perry Preschool research provided a different way to measure the results of Head Start, and it had a profound impact on the initial continuation, expansion and success of the program (Zigler and Muenchow, 1992).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Comprehensive Approach Because the Head Start philosophy views the years before school as critical to later school success, local Head Start programs cover many areas, including family and community partnerships, child health and safety, education and early childhood development, child nutrition, and mental health.

Family Partnerships Parents are recognized as the first educators of their children. Head Start also recognizes that improvements in a child’s educational environment starts with improved parental behaviors and attitudes. Local programs are required to develop and implement approaches to involve parents: volunteers in the classroom; members of classroom, center and program policy committees; providing training to parents so that they can eventually be hired within the local program, and encouraging direct participation in program activities and community affairs. Head Start staff members are also required to visit homes regularly and to work closely with parents to help them meet their children’s needs. Parents and staff together create annual goals, both for themselves and for theirs children. Local Head Start programs have been very successful in using parents as classroom volunteers, training them, and then hiring them as full-time staff. Many current Head Start employees were originally parents of Head Start children (nationally 27% of current staff were parents of Head Start children [ACF 2006]). In the Head Start program that I directed,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs

299

my manager for family partnerships/transportation, Florence was originally a migrant worker employed in the fields of southern Colorado. A single parent, her children attended the Head Start program run by Otero Community College. She first volunteered in the program, then became a worker in the parent component. In that capacity she received the necessary training to provide services for other parents and families. After assisting the manager of the parent component, she eventually was hired as a manager in that capacity (and later also took on the role of transportation coordinator, when the two jobs were combined).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Community Partnerships Head Start works closely with community agencies to help meet the needs of local families. These agencies include food banks, the welfare office, local public schools, emergency clothing banks, hotels for the homeless, organizations that provide supplemental heating funds, employment and training agencies, mental health services and other safety – net programs. The intent is to coordinate all existing services, to break down barriers, and to empower low-income parents to be advocates for themselves and their children. For example in my program we developed a partnership with one of the five school districts we served. We jointly applied for money from the state of Colorado to run a summer program (operated at the Head Start site), and developed an agreement in which the district’s special education staff helped us identify students with disabilities, and then provided special education services within our classrooms. In return the district was able to use our students as part of their special education federal count. Nutrition Many low-income children have inadequate food and poor diets. All local Head Start programs receive USDA reimbursement for breakfast, lunch, and snacks, the same program that provides reimbursement to public schools for free and reduced lunches, and lunches for summer programs and camps. The nutrition component of the local Head Start program is charged with making sure these meals are balanced and nutritious, and with educating both parents and children about healthy food choices and habits. The program’s nutritionist works closely with the teachers to integrate nutritional information and activities into the curriculum, and with the family component to educate parents about healthy food choices, which are consistent and supportive of each family’s cultural food choices and traditions. Health and Safety Many low-income families do not have access to adequate health care, and children with health-care needs have more behavioral and academic difficulties in school. Further, children from low-income homes are at a higher risk of accidents than children from middle-class families (Berger, 2009). The program’s health component works closely with local clinics, doctors, dentists, and community agencies to address any chronic health issues before a child starts formal schooling. Further, the program assists families with access to services and to advocate for their children, so that when their children enter school they are ready to learn. Health and safely issues are also carefully integrated within the program’s curriculum. Childhood immunizations are another of the areas that this component addresses.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

300

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Mental Health Because of the pressures of poverty, lack of health insurance, substance abuse and dysfunctional families, many Head Start children must deal with a variety of mental health issues. Like the program’s approach to physical health, Head Start works closely with each family to find community resources, develop healthy behaviors, and address specific mental heath issues in the classroom curriculum. Local Head Start programs work very closely with Child Find to identify children with disabilities, develop inclusive programs for them, and ensure a smooth transition from Head Start into the local school’s special education program. Child Find is the local community agency charged with implementing the federal IDEA program for children before they formally enter schools (at Kindergarten or first grade). They coordinate screening in local communities and assist parents and programs to maximize services to children with disabilities. The law requires children with disabilities to be served in local, community programs such as Head Start, when at all possible (see chapter 10). Thirteen percent of Head Start enrollment consists of children with disabilities (U.S. Health and Human Services, 2002). Visiting special education consultants, who also train the classroom staff in different methods and techniques to meet the needs of children with disabilities in the classroom, provide some direct services to children who need them. Some children are dual enrolled – half day in Head Start, and half day in a specialized program, depending on the specify disability. Education and Early Childhood Development In Head Start programs education is provided through a variety of classroom options – either half-day or full day; however, some children attend home-based programs. In 2005, almost 49,000 Head Start children received home-based services (ACF 2006). I reviewed a home-based option deep in the Ozark Mountains of northern Arkansas. We drove miles and miles along narrow, twisting roads to visit houses tucked away at end of the valleys. One family lived in an old wood-frame house, which had been in the family for generations; another was a young family living in a new geodesic dome. The home-based option is for rural programs that simply cannot get the children to classrooms on a regular basis. Some predominantly center-based programs also provide some home-based options to extend their services to areas that are too scattered to enable them to provide centers. The home-based model includes all the components already mentioned, along with regularly scheduled opportunities for children to meet together for social activities. According to Polly Greenberg (1987) who was a very active participant in the founding Head Start effort, the original educational philosophy was taken directly from the Bank Street model. Central to this philosophy is the concept of social competence. According to Gordon and Brown, (2004), social competence is: • • •

Emotional regulation: the ability to regulate one’s impulses and emotional responses to match the environment; Social knowledge and understanding: knowing enough about language to understand how others operate, and to have empathy for others; Social skills: the ability to engage in the specific social skills needed to operate positively in a variety of social settings;

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs •

301

Social dispositions: habitual positive responses to a variety of social and learning situations.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Further, Head Start’s educational philosophy is a whole child approach that covers each domain - cognitive, language, affective, social, emotional and physical, in an integrated fashion, giving equal focus to each area. Traditional early childhood activities, including unit blocks, social-dramatic play, outdoor play, literacy, math and science, music and art, and fieldtrips are all included within the educational component. Head Start also emphasizes multicultural education and working with non-English speaking families. This latter area has become an increasing challenge as more and more languages are spoken by Head Start families, and because Head Start classroom staff often lack the essential training and skills needed to provide multilingual instruction. As I have already pointed out, the curriculum also includes health, safety and nutrition, and parents are trained in wyas to reinforce and enhance the curriculum at home.

Local Control Although Head Start is a federally funded program with national goals and performance standards, it has always had a very strong focus on local control. Federal funds for Head Start are transferred directly from the Department of Health and Human Services to the local agency that runs the program, thus avoiding the bureaucracy of state agencies and local school districts. Framers of Head Start were insistent that the programs operate outside of what they considered the limitations of the existing educational programs. Diverse agencies known as the grantee agency - run local programs, including city and country governments, community colleges, training institutions, public school districts, single-purpose agencies, regional governments, community agencies like the Cerebral Palsy Association and Catholic Charities, Indian tribes, and community child-care organizations. These agencies work with the federal government in writing the annual operating grants, providing required reports, upgrading services, responding to new initiatives, and providing direct services to children

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

302

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

and families. However, these grantees often overlap several school districts; the program I directed covered five different local school districts. It is easy to see how difficult this can become, and also to understand the desire of some school districts to have their own Head Start programs. The local communities are required to contribute directly to the operation of the program, and to make sure the community’s support of the program goes beyond simply receiving federal dollars. Parent volunteers, businesses, volunteer scouts, dentists, doctors, free or reduced classroom space, services from local schools, and the use of mental health professionals are just some of the ways the local community contributes to the local program (see figure 13.1 volunteers in Head Start). Head Start programs are also required to develop a variety of agreements to work collaboratively with other local community agencies. In the annual budgetary process each local Head Start is required to account for 20% of the total amount in local contributions, called the in-kind match or contribution. Ault, Colorado. On my way east from Taos, New Mexico, I stopped to visit a friend who had just started teaching a Head Start class in Ault, a tiny town outside of Greeley, Colorado. Keith’s class met in an old, two story building (only the first floor is used) that was remodeled with Head Start funds. It served the purpose. Outside, however, nothing was done. Only the joyful sounds of children-in-action that occasionally laced the air softened the barrenness of the dirt-covered area. Moreover, a dilapidated, green-and-white staircase to the second floor protruded in an unsafe and ungainly manner into the area – an open invitation to disaster. Keith and I were gloomily surveying the backyard one day, when one of the fathers joined us. I don’t know who came up with the idea, but before we separated we had determined that together we would put a little play into the playground. It was with high hopes, and very little money, that we set out to make the transformation. Our first step: to visit a number of other Head Start playgrounds in the area to get ideas. We saw a lot of ingenious equipment on our tour – swings and tunnels made from tires, homemade wooden platforms, and clever uses of rope, cement pipes and telephone poles. We were fortunate that a grandfather of one of the students owned a tractor sales and service shop that had a backyard full of discarded items: different sized timbers, telephone poles, tires, steering wheels, cable spools …you name it. After mulling over the possibilities for a day, we made our selections and began planning the playground. A few Saturdays later we set to work to build a playground for our Head Start children – Keith, myself, and a group of Head Start fathers and grandfathers. A dump truck delivers a huge tire from a road grader, which we fill with sand to make a sandbox; a group of fathers drops off several cable spools, and the rest of us diligently transform the unsafe fire escape into a slide with a big curve at the bottom. The stairs of the fire escape become the steps to the slide. With telephone poles and construction lumber we build a platform, which serves as an alternative entrance to the slide, a take-off point for the pulley run, and a climbing structure with rope net and ladders to climb. By the end of the day we have transformed the empty backyard into a fun playground for a group of Head Start children. Bolts and nails, Masonite for the slide, and paint were the only things we had to purchase. The labor was free. (Wardle, 1973). Figure 13.1. Volunteering in Head Start.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs

303

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Policy Council Every Head Start program must have a local policy council. This is a governing body made up of parents and community volunteers, which works with the local grantee agency to run the program. The policy council has specifically mandated responsibilities that must be met, such as approving the annual budget and approving all hiring and firing of Head Start staff. Memebers are also required to help develop the annual budget, coordinate the program’s three-year self-assessment, and approve the curriculum and all component plans developed by the staff. These federal requirements supercede the local grantee’s own rules and regulations, and often cause considerable conflict within an organization. However, requiring low-income participants to have real power and authority was viewed by the framers of Head Start as a critical component of the program (Greenberg, 1969; Zigler and Muenchow, 1992). The federal Head Start administration expects local programs to tailor their activities, approaches, staffing patterns, and skills to meet local needs, and to allocate resources in the best way to meet those needs, while still adhering to the overall program standards. To know how best to meet local needs, every program must conduct an extensive Community Needs Assessment every three years as part of the grant reapplication process. A community needs assessment is a complex collection of qualitative and quantitative data about the community the local programs serves. Data collected should include the number of young children in the area, the needs of families – including transportation, other early childhood programs in the area, medical, dental and mental health services, the languages of low-income families, etc. The intent of the needs assessment is to make sure the local program is not only serving the children and families that are most in need, but that everything in the program, from curriculum choice to hiring patterns, reflects the needs of the local community served by the program (HHS 1998).

Head Start Performance Standards Since its inception, Head Start has recognized the need for standards. Standards are crucial because many Head Start services are unique within the early childhood field, and therefore need their own quality indicators, and because the program emphasizes local solutions to local problems. Another reason standards are important is because there is a large variety of opinions regarding what constitutes a high-quality early childhood program, and how to provide such a program. The Head Start Performance Standards help to provide consistency of quality services across the country, from inner city to rural and Indian reservation programs. Head Start Performance Standards outline overall standards to be met in each component area, while requiring local programs to develop their own unique way to meet those standards (U.S. HHS, 1999). For example, under the education and child development component, programs are expected to have a well-articulated curriculum that specifically meets the needs of their children and families. One community might have a significant number of Spanish speaking families that require a strong bilingual or second language program; another program might need to work closely with the Hmong community to understand their culture and maximize the learning of the Hmong children, while a third program might decide they

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

304

Francis Wardle

need to address community problems of diabetes and obesity by focusing on a very strong nutrition component within the curriculum and parent activities. A required screening of all incoming Head Start children also provides needed information for planning the curriculum and designing specific educational activities. Results of this screening are also used to decide whether some children need additional diagnostic assessments for potential special education services (see chapter 10).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Accountability Every three years the federal government sends a team of professionals to evaluate every local program in the country, based on the performance standards and applicable laws (such as income guidelines, serving children with disabilities, and USDA regulations). Further, this team assesses the program’s overall management, fiscal controls, and response to the unique needs of the community. The program’s own self-assessment document is used as the starting point for this evaluation. The current process uses the PRISM instrument (Program Review Instrument for Systems Monitoring of Head Start and Early Head Start)(U.S. Health and Human Services, 2002), which includes a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to determine how well the program is meeting these standards, rules, and other requirements. The results of this evaluation are used to help improve the program or determine whether a new grantee should be sought to run the program more effectively. Each component area that was discussed under the section of this chapter, Comprehensive Approach, has its own requirements regarding the collection of data to document accountability. For example, the number and nature of community partnerships must be shown; and the progress of children diagnosed with special needs documented. For the educational component, each curriculum has its own unique method of documenting progress. This is usually accomplished through the use of checklists, authentic assessments, and parent reports. The PRISM evaluation process examines all these documents.

Four Federal Programs There are four separate federally funded Head Start programs: regular Head Start, Indian Head Start, Migrant and Seasonal Head Start, and Early Head Start. The regular Head Start program primarily serves 3-5 year olds and is by far the largest program. It is funded through a wide variety of grantees, which I have already discussed. The Indian programs are all administrated through the tribal councils of the various Indian Tribes, such as the Taos Pueblo in Taos, New Mexico, the Seminole program in Seminole, Oklahoma, and the Crow program in the Crow Indian Reservation in S. Montana. Migrant and Seasonal Programs serve Head Start families in communities with significant migrant and seasonal workers, including Florida, Wisconsin, Michigan, North and South Carolina, California, Arizona and Texas.Children may attend a southern program part for the year, and a northern program when their families move north with the crops. The East Coast Migrant Council, West Coast Migrant Counsel, Texas Migrant Council, and a variety of private notfor-profits run these programs.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs

305

Head Start is by far the largest federally funded preKindergarten program (Title I receives more federal dollars, but is not just a preschool program). For the 2006 financial year, Head Start’s allocation from the federal government was $6.785 771,000. Added to this amount is the 20% local match required of all grantees, which is usually provided through non-cash, in-kind contributions. Descriptive data for Head Start in 2005 gives a thumbnail sketch of the program (U.S. Health and Human Services, 2006): Total expenditure in 2005 Total number of children served in 2005 Average cost per child for 2005 Age breakdown (2005) Number of 5 year olds and older Number of 4 year olds Number of 3 year olds Number under 3 years of age

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Race/ethnic breakdown American Indian/Alaskan Native Black/African American White Asian Hawaiian/Pacific Islander Biracial/Multiracial Unspecified/other Hispanic/Latino

$6,842,348,000 906,993 children $7, 287 4% 52% 34% 10%

5.2% 31.1% 35.0% 1.9 % 8% 7.4% 18.6% 32.9%

Factoids from the 2005 Head Start program year 12.5 % of the Head Start enrollment consisted of children with disabilities – almost all with speech and language deficits. More than 49,000 children participated in home-based programs Over 1, 360,000 volunteers in their local program during the year. In fiscal year 2002, $653.7 million was used to support nearly 650 Early Head Start programs; these programs served 62,000 children. Since its inception in 1965, Head Start has served over 23 million children and their families. http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/hsb/research/2006.htm Figure 13.2. Head Start Statisitcs (2005).

The Early Head Start programs serve pregnant mothers and children, infants to 3 years of age. At age three years old the children in these programs generally enter the regular Head Start program, which is usually run by the same grantee. The Early Head Start program was stared in in 1994. Some reasons for the creation of this new initiative include, •

•

Recent brain research has further emphasized the importance of the early years, including the negative impact of poverty, poor nutrition, stress and poor parenting skills (Shore, 1997; Lally, 1998)(see chapter 16). There is an increased need for full-time, full-year child care for infants and toddlers, nationally.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

306

Francis Wardle •

The US public and many professionals increasingly accept high-quality, institutionalized infant and toddler care as an acceptable alternative to infants being cared for at home.

As I have already discussed, the original philosophy of Head Start is based on the belief that one-year of an intensive, comprehensive, high quality early childhood intervention can provide a foundation for children to be successful in their K-12 school experience. Research on Head Start students since its inception, however, has consistently shown that this one-year is simply not long enough. As a result, Head Start has developed its early Head Start initiative for children from infancy to age 3.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Recent Changes to Head Start As a result of the general move in American education toward academic standards and accountability, seen most clearly in the No Child Left Behind federal act, the Head Start program is gradually moving to more of a specific academic school readiness program. The 1998 Head Start reauthorization required the creation of specific “education performance standards to ensure school readiness of children participating in a Head Start program, on completion of the Head Start program and prior to entering school; and additional educational performance standards to ensure that children participating, at a minimum – develop phonemic, print, and numeracy awareness; understand and use language to communicate for various purposes; understand and use increasingly complex and varied vocabulary; develop and demonstrate an appreciation of books; and, in the case of non-English background children, progress toward acquisition of the English language” (HHS, 1998, p. 17). One example of this shift is the creation of the Head Start Outcomes (HH 2001). This document creates outcomes on “building blocks that are important for school success.” (p. 4). These outcomes are in each domain: language development, literacy, mathematics, science, creative arts, social and emotional development, approaches to learning, and physical development (HHS 2001). Local programs are then required to use an instrument of their own choice to “implement an appropriate child assessment system that aligns with their curriculum and gathers data on children’s progress in each of the 8 domains of learning and development” (p. 8). As one might expect, this focus on readiness skills and specific child outcomes has resulted in the creation of some national curricula that target these requirements. One such approach is the Galileo Preschool Curriculum. This curriculum grew out of the National Head Start Battery, an assessment funded by the Head Start Bureau that produced considerable controversy and concern from local programs when it was originally proposed (Wardle, 1984; 1986). Today, however, this curriculum meets the requirements of the new Head Start standards. According to the Assessment Technology Inc. (ATI) website (2005), the Galileo e Curriculum and its data collection components, include, • •

An effective way to manage information on learning, linking assessment to curriculum, child/family services, and the Program Information Report; A scientific approach in which decisions are based on empirical observations;

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs • • • •

• •

307

Reliable and valid data; An evidence-based early childhood curriculum designed to help teachers be efficient and resourceful when linking content, instruction and learning goals; A curriculum aligned with all eight Head Start domains; A full early childhood curriculum, including empirically-based scope and sequence, development and learning theory, interest areas and room preparation, and instructional content; Access to hundreds of classroom and home activities…based on curriculum goals; Access to Galileo lesson plans aligned to all 8 Head Start domains (2005). Box 13.1. Reflective Thinking: Local or National Curricula?

One of the foundations of Head Start since its inception has been an emphasis on local control. One manifestation of this local control was the requirement that the local program create or adopt a curriculum that meets the unique needs of the local program’s population (culture, language, community, etc). However, since the advent of the new Head Start Outcomes and the 1998 Head Start reauthorization, local programs have increasingly adopted national curricula such as High/Scope, Creative Curriculum, Core Knowledge Curriculum, and Galileo Preschool Curriculum.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

What are the advantages of using a national early childhood curriculum? What are possible disadvantages?

Galileo is a full service, computerized system that stores assessment data on each child, and then creates program reports required by the federal government. It also creates activities in each specific domain for each child, based on the child’s assessment results. Each local Head Start program is required to select its own curriculum, so long as it, “is consistent with the Head Start Performance Standards, and is based on sound child development principles about how children grow and learn.” (HHS 1999, p. 59). The Galileo e Curriculum has become quite popular in Florida and Arizona (where it was developed). Thus, Head Start has moved to a much more school-readiness approach in recent years (Meisels and Atkins-Burnett, 2004). While there are some local programs that have been able to integrate the new demands of the 1998 reauthorization act, including the Head Start Outcomes, there is considerable tension between the requirement of this act, and the original philosophy of Head Start, which is still reflected in original Head Start Performance Standards.

Teacher Qualifications The 1998 Head Start reauthorization act requires local Head Start programs to move toward requiring teachers to have an AA and eventually a Baccalaureate degree in early childhood, child development, or a related field. The baseline requirement used to be a Child Development Associate (CDA), a field-based certificate program that was originally developed for Head Start teachers and teacher aides (Wardle, 2003). This new requirement of a college degree is consistent with the requirements of the No Child Left Behind act for all teachers to be “highly qualified”.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

308

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Head Start National Reporting System Ever since the famous Westinghouse study of Head Start students (1969), the program has been subject to a vast amount of research. It is not sufficient to simply provide a quality early childhood program for poor children; but comprehensive programs that positively impact children, families, communities and staff must also be able to demonstrate definitively their lasting impact and cost effectiveness (Wardle 1986). Maybe this is simply one of the costs of a national program, especially one whose budget continues to increase. Because it is very difficult to quantitatively evaluate such a complex and comprehensive program, Head Start research has targeted children’s outcomes (mostly academic). In 1998 the National Reporting System (NRS) was mandated. According to the Head Start Bureau, the purpose of this test is, “1) to enhance local aggregation of child outcome data and local program self-assessment efforts, 2) to enable the Head Start Bureau and Administration for Children, Youth and Families (the federal agency that runs Head Start) to plan training and technical assistance efforts (based on the results), and 3) to incorporate child outcome information into future Head Start program monitoring reviews” (Meisels and Atkins-Burnett, 2004, p. 34).

Problems with the NRS While Head Start is a very comprehensive program, as I have detailed, the National Reporting System only evaluates math and literacy skills. Further, the purpose of Head Start is to help children succeed in school – a long journey of a minimum of 13 years to high school graduation after Head Start. It is not clear how success on discrete math and literacy items at age five translates into this success.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs

309

Samuel Meisels and Atkins-Burnett believe that one of the most dangerous aspects of the National Reporting System is that Head Start teachers “may consider the items on this test to be appropriate for all children to know and this may greatly distort the curriculum” (p. 35). Finally, this test reflects a single pedagogical model – one that encourages a passive transmission of knowledge, rather than one that develops problem solving, complex and higher order thinking, alternative solutions, creatively, expressiveness and active learning (Meisels and Atkins-Burnett, 2004).

Update Because of the criticism mentioned above, along with complaints about too much time devoted to assessment and paperwork, the National Reporting System has been discontinued by Head Start administration. However, as I discuss in detail in chapter 8, the standardized assessments in math and literacy required every year after 3rd grade by NCLB are very similar to thr National Reporting System’s approach. Further, it is clear that there will be many other attempts to evaluate Head Start outcomes using a similar standardized assessment tool.

Authentic Assessment of Head Start Students

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Local Head Start programs can and do collect a vast amount of documentation of children’s progress though the use of authentic and naturalistic methods. Teachers collect samples of children’s work, write anecdotal notes when children demonstrate certain outcomes, and regularly use checklists and other observational tools to ascertain children’s progress. Folders are kept in each classroom to document children’s progress in each area covered by the program outcomes. Further, teachers work closely with parents on a regular basis to assess their children’s progress and plan for future advancement.

Impact of Head Start Architects of Head Start viewed the program as a way to enable poor families to climb out of poverty. They believed children who received Head Start services would subsequently be successful in their public school experience, and eventually move into a middle-class lifestyle. As I pointed out at the beginning of the chapter, Head Start wes created at a time in American history when people were very optimistic about how the national government could improve the lives of individual citizens, especially the less fortunate (Zigler and Muenchow, 1992). This has not happened: today there are many Head Start families whose parents and grandparents are Head Start graduates. Low-income children still do not do well in K-12 schools – including those who attended Head Start programs, especially Black, Native American and Hispanic low-income children (Thernstrom and Thernstrom, 2003). We now know that reversing poverty is a much more complex task than simply attention a high quality early childhood program for one year (Hout, 2002). However, Head Start has had a tremendous impact on early childhood programs in this country. It is largely responsible for the public’s acceptance of publicly funded early childhood programs for low-income students; it established the idea of parent involvement for

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

310

Francis Wardle

all parents, including low-income, uneducated parents, and it championed the concept of a comprehensive early childhood approach. Because of the record of Head Start, many public schools – especially in low-income areas – have created their own early childhood programs. The current push for universal preschool in the United States can be attributed, to a large extent, on the political and social success of Head Start. Head Start has also been particularly successful in providing a range of services – medical, dental, nutrition, parent employment, and education – in areas of the country where access to these services is at best difficult, and often nonexistent – rural communities, extremely poor school districts, isolated Indian reservations, and communities that historically underserved their low-income and/or minority families (Wardle, 1986). Finally, Head Start greatly boosted the early childhood marketplace, spurring the development and success of a variety of companies that target the early childhood community: early childhood furniture and educational equipment, buildings for local programs, playground equipment, computer software, management services, and developers of assessments, curricula and curricular materials.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Criticism However, Head Start has its critics (Thernstrom and Thernstrom, 2003; Wardle, 1986; Zigler and Muenchow). Because entrance criteria are based on income (below poverty), except for children with disabilities, Head Start is a program that segregates children and parents by income, which many see as problematic. Another reason for criticism is that Head Start has not achieved some of its original, now admittedly too optimistic, goals. Another is that the program has been slow to adjust to the changing needs of poor families, especially the need for full-day, full-year services (Wardle, 1986). Head Start is attempting to address this problem by creating wraparound solutions. Many local Head Start programs develop agreements with community-based child care provides to provide these services; other Head Start grantees are themselves child care providers. In these programs the child attends the Head Start classroom part of the day, and the child care program for the remainder of the day. Many believe the comprehensive nature of Head Start requires local programs to achieve too much with too few resources. Mental health, education, multilingual education, serving children with disabilities, employment training, and health services all require skilled, welltrained specialists that cost a program a great deal of money. The community largesse of the 1960s and 1970s is, in many cases, no longer available. The comprehensive nature of the program also opens it to criticism from those who advocate the achievement of narrow academic outcomes (Hirsch, 2001). Politically, many state governments would like to have the federal Head Start funds to distribute to local schools. Throughout the history of Head Start there has been tension to move Head Start from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to the U.S. Department of Education – where many believe an early education program should reside. Currently there is also a growing movement for these federal funds to be distributed through block grants to the states, much as federal funds for subsidized child care are distributed. This would allow states the level of political control they want, and many believe they should have.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Federal and State Programs

311

The community center is located across from a neighborhood swimming pool that boasts a large mural with Aztec themes. The center is a modern building, housing a child-care program, several local community college classrooms, the Denver Housing Authority, and Aztlan Head Start Center. In the classroom are thirteen Hispanic Head Start children. Boys have neat crew cuts, girls have their straight and curly black hair flowing freely or held in a loose ponytail. The children are sitting on a carpet singing songs with the help of a recording. Songs alternate between Spanish and English. Children enthusiastically repeat phrases from “The Muffin Man” and then do big arm movements to a song about rainbows and “all kinds of people”. When the songs are finished the children select a variety of activities in different areas of the classroom. Three middle-aged Hispanic women comfortably move among the children. Two are teachers; one is a volunteer. The volunteer works with two children at a time, making paper clothes for paper cut-out dolls; one teacher works with children making a huge butcher-paper poster of children’s hand prints in purple, red and green, while the other teacher helps two children with simple English computer programs, assists children in washing their hands after they have done the handprint project, and responds to other issues. Two children are washing blocks, two are making art with stamps and ink prints, a little boy is building a house in the block area, and two girls wearing women’s clothes are involved in an elaborate dramatic play activity with telephones and message pads. The classroom is bright, airy, and clean, with windows, child-and adult-size sinks, and doors to the bathroom. The floor is a rubberized surface with fixed and loose carpet. The classroom is very well equipped, with two computers, a variety of books in Spanish and English, toys, learning materials, and classroom equipment in good condition. Learning centers include the computer area, dramatic play area, listening area (tapes and earphones), block area, and a reading area. There’s quite a hum in the room. Discussions between children are a comfortable mix of English and Spanish. The volunteer talks conversationally with the children, as they work on the doll’s clothes, “How was the weather when you came to school? Was it cold?” She switches between Spanish and English. The other two teachers speak primarily in English. Books, environmental print, classroom rules, and instructional posters - colors, numbers, months and days, and the classroom schedule (with pictures of various activities) - are in English and Spanish, but not always both. A child at the computer prints out his display, which already has his name printed on it. He then puts it carefully in his locker. Another child uses a felt pen to add detail to her doll’s clothes. A child washes his hands after making the handprints, and then decides to wash the sink. While an occasional conflict arises, for the most part the children are appropriately engaged. Teachers seem to anticipate potential friction and intercede calmly. I quietly excuse myself as the children busily pursue their individual activities. (Wardle, 2003). Figure 13.3. Rocky Mountain Aztlan Head Start Center.

STATE FUNDED EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS As I have mentioned earlier in this chapter, the success of Head Start has resulted in a variety of states funding similar programs. Additionally, the advent of the No Child Left Behind act, with its focus on age specific content standards, has led many to believe that America has a school readiness problem (Doggert, 2006). (It should be remembered that Goal

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

312

Francis Wardle

I of Goals 2000 expressed the belief that “every child will enter school ready to learn”). As a result, over the years many states have funded preschool initiates: Colorado’s program is funded from the state’s general fund, as part of the overall education budget; Georgia’s early childhood program is financed with lottery money. In fiscal year 1991-1992, states budgeted a total of $700 million for pre-kindergarten programs; in 1998-1999, almost $1.7 billion; and the 2000-2001 outlay was estimated to be $2.54 billion (Children’s Defense Fund {CDF} 1999). Forty-one states plus Washington, D. C. fund programs; twenty-six increased their funds for the 2006 budget year by over $600 million (Doggert, 2006). While most of these programs, like Head Start, have an income or ‘at risk’ criteria for admission (and New Mexico’s guidelines are based on at risk of not achieving NCLB goals), Florida, Georgia and Oklahoma offer free preschool for all 4-year olds, regardless of income.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Funding and Administration Funding runs from $150,000 for Nevada’s Classroom on Wheels program to $322 million for Texas’ Public School Pre-kindergarten Program (Education Commission of the States, 2006). Most of the state-funded programs serve 4-5 year-olds; eighteen states limit eligibility to one year, while thirty-one states limit it to two years, thus allowing the maximum number of children to benefit from the program (the original Head Start philosophy) (Schulman, Blank and Ewen, 1999). Most of the states that fund pre-kindergarten programs have imposed specific quality control requirements for the operation of these programs, particularly in the area of teacher-student ratios, teacher qualifications, and class size. The New Mexico pre-kindergarten program has split the funding and administration of their programs equally between the public schools (operated by the State Department of Public Instruction) and existing child care centers – both for-profit and not-for-profit (operated by New Mexico Children, Youth and Families Department). Each of these state departments has its own set of requirements and standards. Under this arrangement, the challenge for many traditional child care providers is to have enough qualified teachers; the challenge for many schools is to use teachers with specific preschool training and experience (Richard La Pen, personal communication). According to Libby Doggett (2006), this approach of diverse delivery and administration of state pre-kindergarten funds is the current trend. Of the states that provide pre-kindergarten programs, 29 states use both public schools and community-based programs, but governance, “remains a key dilemma” (Doggert, 2006, p. 8). Some states follow the lead of New York and Colorado, which places their state departments of education at the lead to administer their programs; others have created independent agencies to administer these programs, while still others follow the example of New Mexico. When Colorado developed their state pre-kindergarten program, there was considerable conflict between traditional child care centers and early childhood programs, and K-12 schools. The schools prevailed because the funding for the new program came from the general state K-12 budget. About 1/3 of the total of 740,000 preschool children who are funded by state programs are served in community – non school – settings (Doggerrt, 2006). In some states, such as New York and Georgia, more than 50% of students are in non-school settings. Using existing community centers has enabled many states to expand their services

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs

313

more quickly and efficiency, especially since these programs have, unlike many public schools, a history, staff expertise, and a track record of working with young children and their families (Doggert, 2006). State programs in Massachusetts and Connecticut provide money for facilities – building renovation, purchasing and maintenance. All other state programs funds only the program operation itself – teachers, administrators, and materials. The lack of financial support for buildings can cause major problems, especially for school districts whose increasing populations makes it difficult to house their K-12 student population, let alone additional preschool children. The Georgia program solved this dilemma by encouraging private child care providers to administer the program in their own centers. This solution also has the advantage of making it much easier to provide full-day, full-year wraparound child care than it is for schools and part-day Head Start programs, because child-care is the business of most of these commercial programs. Often children simply stay at the same center all day. The fact that many of these programs are funded through the state’s overall educational budget, and are dependent on free space in the local school, means that when state budgets are tight and the local district K-12 populations increases, these programs are the first to suffer from budgetary and space reductions.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Comprehensive Versus Academic Early Childhood Models Some of the state pre-kindergarten programs are specific, readiness academic programs, while others are based on the comprehensive Head Start model, and many fall somewhere in between. Fourteen of the state preschool programs have no provisions beyond a narrow, preacademic, kindergarten readiness program, which reflects a public-school curriculum concept that focuses on the scope and sequence of academic skill acquisition, rather than the wholechild philosophy that characterizes Head Start and many early childhood programs (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997)(although, as addressed in chapter 8, this too is changing). Unwittingly, Goal One of Goals 2000 has lead to some of these traditional preschool programs, as has the new emphasis on learning standards promoted by the No Child Left Behind act. Nevertheless, some state programs do include a variety of nonacademic components, including health screening, parent involvement, and full-day services. The scope and sequence approach of the traditional public school curriculum is based on the idea that each grade in school prepares a child for the next grade, and thus the content of each grade is carefully sequenced. Using this approach for preschool programs then requires the preschool curriculum to focus solely on preparing children for kindergarten entry (see chapter 8). The dilemma is that many children entering preschool are not ready for the curricular content that is selected to prepare the child for this next level, which, ironically is often why they are in the programs to begin with, and why these programs are designed for at-risk students. Further, as we increase academic expectations and learning standards for children in the early grades, this naturally changes the content and skills to be taught at the preschool level. Thus the scope (what is taught) and sequence (when it is taught) often produce curricula in public school preschool programs and standards-based early childhood programs that are not developmentally appropriate for many individual children, particularly at risk children (Wardle, 2003).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

314

Francis Wardle

Parent Involvement Although most of the state preschool programs call for parent involvement, parents are not full partners in many of them (Schulman, Black and Ewen, 1999). Parental involvement is another watershed difference between traditional school programs and many early childhood programs, and is also viewed by many as one of the indicators of program quality (Powell, 1998). While public schools profess to want parental involvement, and many have specific initiates to address this issue, they often struggle to implement parent involvement fully, especially in low-income and minority schools (Banks and Banks, 2004; Powell, 1998). The Georgia and Wisconsin state preschool programs provide grant funds specifically targeted for parent activities, involvement and training. State-funded early childhood programs implemented within the local public school can learn from Head Start’s long success in this area. Clearly, state-supported early childhood programs are here to stay. Still unclear are the particular curricular and programmatic forms they will take, and whether they will primarily exist in public schools or remain a mix of public and private providers. It is also not clear whether their philosophies will be determined by what the early childhood field views as best practices for preparing children to be ready for school entry, or will simply be a downward extension of the local school’s scope and sequence. Finally, as I address in several other chapters, the increase in free preschool services is placing severe challenges on many traditional for-profit and not-for-profit preschool programs, including religious ones.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Quality Standards The quality of state-funded early childhood programs varies a great deal, because there are no overall state or federal standards for schools (most public school standards are stateand district specific), and because public school standards do not apply well to young children (Wardle, 1989). For example, Kindergarten classrooms often contain twenty-five or more children, yet child care licensing for the same age requires much smaller groups and smaller ratios. States are, however, beginning to recognize that programs for children under age 5 need different standards than those of K-12, and are working to implement quality standards in their state-funded programs. These standards cover many areas, but tend to focus on teacher qualifications, teacher-student ratios, and group size (ECS, 2006) (see figure 13.4). Currently, 44 states have early learning standards, with the remaining 6 states working on theirs. Some states are even developing standards for infant and toddler programs (ScottLittle, Kagan and Frelow, 2006).

Early Learning Standards According to Scott-Little et al., early learning standards are, “documents that outline expectations for preschool age children’s learning and development” (page 27). These are the part of quality standards that focus specifically on the child’s development and learning, and are a junior version of the K-12 content standards. States have developed these standards for two specific reasons, 1) as a downward extension of the No Child Left Behind requirements for K-12 students, and 2) to provide teachers and parents with a framework that will help

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs

315

them prepare children for kindergarten (Scott-Little, et al., 2006). Both of these rationales, of course, reinforce the readiness view of pre-kindergarten programs (addressed in detail in several chapters, including chapter 8. Also in chapter 8 there is a detailed discussion of learning standards). The program standards for New Mexico’s Pre K program have these essential elements: Family and Community Collaboration; Professionalism; Health, Safety and Nutrition; Child Growth, Development and Learning; Developmentally Appropriate Content and Learning Environments and Curriculum Implementation; Assessment of Children; and Evaluation of Programs. Essential Element V: Developmentally Appropriate Content and Learning Environment and Curriculum Implementation V-a. The physical environment and furnishings are planned to support active engagement, learning, participation and membership of all children. The atmosphere of each classroom is child-oriented, inclusive, and comfortable for all children.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Indicators: All PreK classrooms will score at least 5 on the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS-R). Materials and equipment, such as books, dolls, toys, and wall displays represent diverse cultures, ethnic groups, gender roles, family configurations, and abilities. The physical environment includes an adequate amount of space for indoor and outdoor activities, for adult planning and management activities and adult privacy. Classroom environments have identified learning centers that are flexible and designed for child self-selection. Accommodations, modifications, and adaptations are evident as needed for individual children. V-b. Each program has curricula based upon sound child development/early childhood principles; the needs, interests, desires, and relevant life experiences of the children and families served; the language, home experiences, and cultural values of the children served; and the program’s goals and objectives. Indicators: Content is designed to achieve long-range goals for children in all domains - physical, motor, social emotional, language, and cognitive - and to help children prepare to function as fully contributing members of a democratic society. The Pre K curriculum is to be determined by each program based on the following criteria: Research based; Developmentally, culturally and linguistically appropriate; Inclusive of children with disabilities; Materials/experiences are linked to appropriate assessments; Figure 13.4. Continued on next page. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

316

Francis Wardle

Includes both child and teacher initiated activities; Input of families, and Linked to the community. Curricula build upon what children already know, are able to do, and show evidence of being ready to do. Content provides opportunities for each child to develop feelings of competence and a positive attitude to learning. Recommended Quality Indicators: Examples of appropriate published curricular are: The Creative Curriculum, Bank Street Curriculum, and High/Scope Curriculum. New Mexico Early Childhood Standards, Rough Draft, 03/28/06 Figure 13.4. Program Standards for New Mexico’s Pre K Programs.

Box 13.2. Reflective Thinking: Pros and Cons of Early Leaning Standards

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

According to Gronlund (2006), these are some of the pros and cons of early childhood learning standards. Do you agree? Can you add arguments to either side? Pros They can provide richness to our conversations about children’s growth and learning. We can match standards to what we are already doing They can be linked to primarily standards (K-12) so that we are indeed contributing to school readiness They help us identify the next steps and transitions They are a strategy for professionalizing our field They help us communicate across the grades, among ourselves, and with our public They help us to have higher expectations for children They result in authentic assessments tied to standards They provide accountability for us Cons They lead to teaching to the standards in a cookie-cutter style curriculum. Then the uniqueness of early childhood is lost They bring a pressure of accountability with the risk of a push-down curriculum and inappropriate expectations for younger children Direct instruction is assumed as the only way to guarantee that standards are addressed; children’s learning in self-directed, exploratory ways is not trusted They can contribute to a we/they mentality between preschool and elementary teachers They take time for early educators to learn and work though, to figure out how to integrate into good practices. There is a need for reflection and interaction among colleagues in order to do so. They can result in excessive testing and other inappropriate assessment methods being used There is little money to support education and training of early childhood educators in the standards and how best to use them (Gronlund, 2006, pp. 4-5)

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs

317

Scott-Little et al. conduced research on the specificc content included in these early learning standards. They analyzed the standards of 38 states, and discovered these standards varied dramatically from state to state. Of the five domains covered by these standards, language and communication (31%) and cognition and general knowledge (39%) were the most frequent, while the other three, physical (8.7%), social-emotional (21.1%) and approaches to learning (9.6%) were the least addressed (p. 29). Note that the important traditional content areas of art and music are not even mentioned! A breakdown of curricular content within each domain shows, 1) in the physical domain, motor skills and self-help skills were most often addressed; 2) in the social emotional area, social skills with peers and expressing emotions appropriately were the highest; 3) in approaches to learning, curiosity, reflection and interpretation were the most often addressed; 4) in language and communication, creative uses of language, vocabulary and print awareness were the highest, and 5) in cognition and general knowledge, logical-mathematical knowledge and knowledge of the physical world were most often covered (2006). Thus it is quite clear that these early learning standards focus on the readiness skills of emotional regulation, print awareness, vocabulary, and mathematical skills, at the expense of social maturity, comprehension, physical fitness and the arts.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

TITLE I PROGRAMS Initial legislation funding Title 1 programs was passed the same year as the first Head Start legislation, 1965, as a part of the Elementary and Secondary Act (ESEA). Title I is now a part of the federal NCLB legislation. The thinking was much the same: education can improve the chances of low-income children, and the federal government has a responsibility to support such education. The Title I program constitutes the largest single federal allocation to public schools, with a budget of more than $8 billion a year in 2000. The majority of Title I money is targeted for children from low-income families, “who are failing, or at risk of failing, to meet state academic standards” (Colorado Department of Education, 2000, p. 1). Schools whose enrollments include at least 50 percent of students from poor families are eligible for Title I funds for school-wide programs. These programs “provide additional academic support and learning opportunities to help low-income children master challenging curriculum and meet state standards in core academic subjects.” (Colorado Department of Education, 2000, p. 1). Examples are instruction in reading, math, science, and computers; preschool programs for targeted students; after-school programs, and summer programs. Title I serves children in preschool through twelfth grade. With the advent of the No Child Left Behind, outcomes and mandates from this legislation now apply to all schools and districts that receive any Title I funds. Although the vast majority of these funds go to public schools, parochial, charter, and private schools that serve a significant low-income population are also eligible for them. The federal government allocates the money to each state department of education, based on the poverty figures for each state. Then each state department of education reallocates funds to each district, which in turn provides money to schools with the most children from low-

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

318

Francis Wardle

income homes. These federal funds support programs for the entire school, not just the individual children in the school. While Title I funds are not just used to support preschool children and their families, as are Head Start funds (except for Early Head Start programs), a significant portion of these funds do assist children from preschool through grade three. Often Title I funds supplement a public school’s Head Start program and the local school’s special education programs for young children (both of which are funded separately). For example, these funds enable public school IDEA programs (for children with disabilities) to be included with children who are not diagnosed with developmental delays. Schools are finding more creative ways to mix and match these various funding sources to provide quality programs for young children. Some of the early childhood initiatives funded through Title I include, • • • • • • • • •

Smaller classes Additional teachers and paraprofessionals Extra training for school staff Supporting a variety of teaching methods and materials Counseling and mentoring Bilingual paraprofessionals Computers and computer training for staff Extra tutors for children who struggle in reading, math or science After-school programs

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONCLUSION In this chapter three tax-supported early childhood programs were covered – two federal programs, and state-supported pre-kindergarten programs. All three programs reflect the belief in and commitment to early childhood programs for low-come children by the federal government and individual state governments. Head Start and state-supported early childhood programs are exclusively early childhood programs; on the other hand Title I funds a variety of efforts within local public schools that support efforts to educate young children and K-12 students at risk of school failure. While it is clear each of these programs will continue to be funded and will probably expand, there is a great deal of uncertainty about the nature of these programs in the future. Beside the issue of how the funds will be distributed (especially in the case of Head Start), there is the question as to what extent these programs will provide comprehensives early childhood services to children and their families and follow the field’s best practices, and to what extent they will become focused exclusively on Kindergarten academic readiness, and NCLB-driven learning standards.

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1. Visit local examples of two of the three programs described in this chapter. Compare and contrast the two programs you visit.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Federal and State Programs

319

2. Interview a parent of a current Head Start student. Discuss with the parent what she likes about the program, and what she would like them to do differently. Does the parent volunteer in the program? 3. Access the National Head Start Association’s websites at the end of this chapter. Develop a report covering current statistics, current initiatives, and popular and political support of the program. 4. Visit a local public school that receives Title I money. Interview the Title I coordinator and ask her how much money the school receives from Title I, specific programs that are supported by the funds, the number of staff in the school paid through Title I, and the number of children who benefit. 5. Does your state have a separately funded preschool program? Find out as much as you can about the program, including funding, number of children served, and eligibility requirements.

RESOURCES Education Commission of the States. Lots of information on state-funded pre K programs http://www.esc.org Galileo e curriculum www.ati-online.comgalileoPreschool/overview/contnet.htm

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Head Start www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/hsb/research/2006.htm National Child Care Information Center (Federal). Lots of information on child care www.nccic.org/pubs/goodstart/index.html National Head Start Association http://www.nhsa.org

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 14

RELIGIOUS APPROACHES

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION Many of the original schools and early childhood programs throughout the world were based on deep religious beliefs. This is only logical, since families, communities and societies historically viewed schools as a place for their own religious values to be transmitted to their children. In the Untied States, while we have developed the legal belief in the separation of church and state in our public schools, many of our private school options, early childhood programs and before-and-after school choices are still religious programs. Further, many early childhood programs and schools in other countries are religiously based. The diversity of religious programs in the United States includes the Amish and Bruderhof (Christian Anabaptist religions), Catholic, Evangelical, Quaker and Southern Baptist, and Jewish, Muslim, Mormon, Buddhist, and a variety of lesser-known religious educational programs. And, while our public schools are still defined by the 1963 U.S. Supreme Court’s decision outlining how religion can and cannot be included in the classroom, we are seeing an increase of character education curricula in many public schools and early childhood programs. This chapter provides a brief history of religious education and child care in the United States, covers the current state of religious early care and education options, and then explores a variety of existing religious early childhood and educational approaches, including Catholic, Jewish, Lutheran, and Islamic programs. There are two general ideas that characterize religious early childhood and education programs in the US: 1) the transfer of spiritual values, traditions and sacraments of the program’s specific religion, and 2) providing services to members of the church, synagogue or mosque, and to the community in general. There is, of course, overlap between these two. These two ideas tie together this chapter’s discussion of religious child care, early childhood education and elementary school programs.

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. Why were public schools throughout the world originally religious schools? What are some examples of countries where over their history the public schools have

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

322

Francis Wardle

2. 3. 4. 5.

become nonreligious, and examples of countries that still have a strong religious emphasis in their public schools? Why are there these differences? Does the inclusion of character education in some public schools in the US threaten our doctrine of the separation of church and state? Is it possible to support families’ diverse religious beliefs in public early childhood programs and schools? If so, how can this be achieved? Is the use of religious early childhood programs in the U.S increasing or declining? Why? In what areas? Should religious early childhood programs and schools in the US be able to receive public funds for services to low-income children, such as child care and before-and after-school programs?

HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS EARLY CHILDHOOD AND SCHOOL PROGRAMS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Religious Public Schools and Services to Children Historically religious organizations have advocated for the needs of children, from running orphanages and supporting children’s hospitals, to advocating for the passage of child labor laws, providing programs for immigrant children, and advocating for the abolition of slavery – including supporting stations along the underground railroad (Gordon and Browne, 2008). This focus on the care and concern for children was adopted after the religious view of children changed from a concept of children being little adults whose negative behavior was the work of the devil, to a more enlightened view of children’s vulnerability and need for nurture and care (Sears, 1975). In many nations outside of the US, religious organizations still play a critical role in providing needed children’s services, care for children with disabilities, and programs for families with children. For example, in Namibia almost all the programs for young children are provided by the church, and in Uruguay, churches are among the most frequent providers of child care and early childhood education (Neugebauer, 2000). Creches (low income child care programs) in Brazil are usually run by the local Catholic parish (Salgarello, 2004), as are many NGOs for before-and-after school care. In most societies state supported schools reflect the official religious orientation of that nation’s government. Even today in countries like Brazil, the publicly supported early childhood programs and public elementary schools reflect a very strong Catholic orientation. And, of course, English public schools still include services of the Anglican Church – the state religion of England. Modern-day Netherlands actually publicly supports religious schools with a variety of beliefs, including Muslim schools. In this country, Massachusetts passed laws in 1642 and 1647, known as Ye Old Deluder Satan Acts, to publicly support elementary and grammar schools, with the specific educational intent of teaching children to read so they would be able to read the scriptures and thus, “ward off ye old deluder Satan” (Uphoff, 1997). These public religious schools became the model for many of the first public schools in other colonies. Initially for older boys, these schools eventually expanded to include girls and younger children, but remained focused on teaching reading and morality (Beatty, 1995).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

323

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

At the same time these public schools were being created, infant schools began to spread in various places in the colonies (Beatty, 1995). These were schools for very young children (usually under 5-6 years old). There were two kinds of schools – those for wealthy parents, and those run by chartable organizations for poor families. The major function of the latter was to teach children and their parents good moral behaviors (Beatty, 1995). In the early 1800s several of these infant programs became part of the public schools in New York City and Philadelphia. In Boston an evangelical group supported many infant schools, but could not convince the legislature to include them in the public schools (Beatty, 1995). In other colonies a diversity of religious schools developed, based on the religious preference of each colony – according to the beliefs of the immigrants who settled in the area. (Each colony tended to be settled by people with one general religious orientation; Pennsylvania was the exception). As additional immigrants came to this country, they brought more and more diverse religions and thus more diverse religious schools – Amish, Quaker, Catholic, Jewish, German Baptist, Mennonite, Lutheran, Hutterite, etc. Except for Jewish schools, all the other early religious schools subscribed to some form of Christianity. Naturally, even though all religions were Christian, they soon began to clash in the schools. For example, in schools in Ohio the King James version of the Bible was required reading – the preferred version used by Protestants. However, as one might expect, Catholic and Jewish parents, and parents with other religious beliefs, objected, resulting in what became known as the Cincinnati Bible War of 1869-70 (Uphoff, 1997). The increasing debate about how religion – and whose religion – should be taught in public schools escalated until it came to a head in the famous 1963 U.S. Supreme Court Decision, Abington v. Schempp and Murray (O’Hare) v. Curlett. This decision stipulated that the state (public schools) cannot favor any one religion over another, and cannot discriminate against any one religion. It did not, however, forbid the study of religion, religious content, or religious art and music in public schools (Uphoff, 1997).

Religious Orientation of Educational and Early Childhood Theorists Maria Montessori deeply believed that a central purpose of education is to nurture a child’s spiritual growth (Gordon and Browne, 2008). Further, Maria Montessori was a devout Catholic whose beliefs can be seen in her writing. She wrote, “ If education recognizes the intrinsic value of the child’s personality and provides an environment suited to spiritual growth, we have the revelation of an entirely new child whose astonishing characteristics can eventually contribute to the betterment of the world” (Gordon and Browne, 2008, p. 574). Rudolf Steiner’s Waldorf schools are based on the philosophy of anthroposophy, which includes some very strong religious elements (Steiner, 1926). Steiner focused on nurturing each child’s spiritual development and inner life, and each of the three progressive stages in his curriculum are based on this belief. Friedrich Froebel’s father and uncle were both Lutheran ministers; Froebel was raised by his uncle. Froebel, of course, is the father of the Kindergarten. W. T. Harris writes about Froebel, “Froebel is, in a peculiar sense, a religious teacher. All who read this book on the Education of Man will see that he is not only full of faith in God, but that his intellect is likewise illuminated by Theology. He sees the worlds of physical nature and human history as firmly established on a divine unity which to him is no abstraction but a creative might and

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

324

Francis Wardle

living Providence…Froebel sees better than other educators the true means of educating the feelings, and especially the religious feelings” (1905/2004, p. viii). Box 14.1. Reflective Thinking

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

According to Gordon and Browne (2008), spiritual development in early childhood and school programs includes the child’s deep experiences with the self and the world, with the mysterious and invisible, and with the joy and pain that real life offers (p. 574). Is it possible to help young children experience spiritual growth and development without engaging in religious instruction? What are ways to include spiritual experiences in public early childhood programs and schools in the United States (Head Start, state funded programs, and public school programs) without violating the doctrine of the separation of church and state?

Because of Froebel’s upbringing, much of his extensive writings on education are scattered with religious references. For example, under the section titled Aims of Education, in the Education of Man (1905/2004) he states, “Education should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself and in himself; to peace with nature and to unity with God; hence, it should lift him to a knowledge of himself and of mankind, to a knowledge of God and of nature, and to the pure and holy life to which such knowledge leads” (p. 5). Froebel also believed that children had within them a kind of purity, innocence and spirituality that should be nurtured and protected, somewhat like Steiner’s view of the spirit of young children (Beatty, 1995). When the Kindergarten movement came to the US (see chapter 8), Elizabeth Peabody was very committed to maintaining this spiritual aspect of the Kindergarten. In fact, she deeply believed that Kindergarten activities should be viewed as a religion, and not as a business. For this reason she opposed its inclusion in public schools, believing that this would take children from their parents and give them to the state. Institutionalizing Kindergarten, she believed, would destroy the Kindergarten as Froebel professed it to be (Beatty, 1995). At that time in our history, men ran the public schools, and Peabody deeply believed that women not only had gifts and talents that would be helpful to young children (an opinion she shared with Froebel), but that women should be encouraged to engage in important activities outside the home, a fairly radical idea at that time (Beatty, 1995). Cleary educational programs and institutions in non-Christian counties and societies also have a religious orientation. When I attended the First World School Health Conference in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, I distinctly remember the initial greeting where the Imam declared the religious responsibility of women to care for the young children, and the value of breastfeeding. The point is that raising young children has always been considered a priority for religious organizations, and many of the earlier pioneers of early childhood care and education had a religious focus. As we discussed in other parts of this book, the women who created the Bank Street program had a strong social orientation, as did the creators and original supporters of Head Start in the mid-sixties.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

325

CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOUS EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS Today there are two kinds of religious early childhood programs in the United States: religious private schools, with some downward extension to the early years, and early childhood programs and before-and-after school programs, run through churches, synagogues, and mosques.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Religious Child Care Centers According to Neugebauer (1999), nearly 1.5 million children attend early childhood programs housed in religious facilities. Today, nearly one in four early childhood centers in the United States is operated in a religious facility (Wilson Group, 2005). The largest growth in religious facilities is in various after-school programs (Lindner, 2001). The nation’s largest providers of childcare services are not Knowledge Learning Corporation, or La Petite, but the Roman Catholic Church and the Southern Baptist Convention. “Early childhood programs in religious buildings in the Untied States are becoming more prevalent, more organized, and more evangelical” Neugebauer, 2005, p. 79). Initially churches became involved in caring for young children because of local pressure from members and communities to meet an important service need. Still today the main purpose of these programs is the care and education of young children so their mothers can work or attend education or training; however, spiritual development is an increasingly important secondary goal for religious-housed programs (Neugebauer, 2005). Three out of five religious centers are operated directly as a ministry to their congregations – serving children of staff and employees of their congregations (Neugebauer, 1999). Some congregations run their programs through independent non-profit organizations, comprised of church and community leaders. Some churches also simply lease space to a variety of community programs, including Head Start. When I was a Head Start director in the mid 1980s, almost all my centers were initially housed in church facilities. However, like many other Head Start programs, I slowly found a way to move my centers to school buildings and buildings that my program owned. But still today there are many Head Start programs and other early childhood programs, along with before-and-after school programs that lease space from a variety of churches.

Purposes According to the Ecumenical Child Care Network (Hampton, 2002), religious programs hold one of these four purposes for providing early childhood care: • • • •

A service to families in the congregation; A service to families in the community; To teach young children religious beliefs and morals; An outreach to low-income families and children with special needs.

Many religious programs serve children for all four of these reasons. Today, parental concern about the need for spiritual education and moral and character development for their Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

326

Francis Wardle

children are becoming more important for many families, increasing the popularity of religious programs (Neugebauer, 1999). Most of these programs (98%) do not restrict attendance to children of church members or their employees. Further, many families who initially attend these child care programs eventually join the congregation (Neugebauer, 1999).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Congregation’s Support The facilities used by religious programs exist because each church, synagogue or mosque has a need for physical space for their weekly religious services for children (Sunday School, etc), and/or because they are part of the religious establishment’s existing school buildings. According to Neugebauer (1999), four out of five religious early childhood centers receive free or reduced rent from the congregation; many also receive help with janitorial services, maintenance and utility costs. Also, some congregations assist with providing health benefits for staff, but few supplement salaries, viewing the traditionally low pay as part of the commitment of working in service to the church (Neugebauer, 1999). Variety There is tremendous variety in religious-based programs, from small, neighborhood centers to large, institutional settings, with some programs devoted to infant and toddler care, while others focus more on before-and-after school-age programs – as I pointed out, the area of fastest growth today. Also, although some of the first programs to seek accreditation by the National Association for the Education of Young Children were religious programs, some of the lowest quality programs reported in the Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes in Child Care Centers’ study of 1995 were also religious programs (Neugebauer, 1999). Further, while many of the large national denominations such as the United Methodist Church support state licensing of child care and early childhood programs, charismatic Christian churches view state licensing as an unconstitutional imposition of the state on all things religious, and thus have strongly lobbied against it. Fourteen states do not require religious early childhood programs to meet basic state licensing requirements for space, staff and adult-child ratios. They argue that licensing, even for quality care, is a state function that religious programs should not be required to follow (Neugebauer, 2005). While many religious organizations provide child care and education as a service to their communities and constituents, and are even subsidized by the congregation, some use these programs as a means of generating income for other church programs (Naugebauer, 2005). Quality There are some very good religious programs and some very bad ones (Neugebauer, 2005). The range of quality in religious programs tends to reflect the same variability of quality in all programs nationwide, as documented in the Cost and Quality Study of 1995 (Neugebauer, 1999). These results of this study show child care in most centers in the United States to be poor to mediocre, states with more demanding standards have fewer poor quality programs, good quality services cost more, and program quality does not significantly differ between for-profit and not-for-profit sectors of the industry (Neugebauer, 1999). Religious programs that are not licensed by the state tend to have lower quality services (higher staff-

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

327

child ratios, and fewer staff with college degrees), as do programs in states with low licensing requirements (Clifford, 2002).

Challenges Many programs in religious facilities share space with the weekly worship services and other, more central church functions. Further, every time church leadership changes, the early childhood program must reestablish its position, support and priorities. When I was on the board of the Montview Community Preschool and Kindergarten, a well established and community supported nondenominational program housed in an old Presbyterian church in an upper middle-class, fully integrated urban neighborhood, we faced one of these challenges. At one of our board meetings the church’s new, very energetic youth minister proposed sending church-related information home with each of our students. This suggestion was strongly opposed by the teacher representative to the board, who was Jewish; I also disagreed with it, because I felt it was not appropriative for the many parents who were not Presbyterian and who did not attend the church. We did not approve the suggestion; later I was told the new youth minister developed a deeper understanding about the nondenominational nature of the program, and the critical need to keep the church’s youth program and the early childhood program separate.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Current Trends Over the past 25 years, several new trends have emerged in the area of religious early childhood education in the United States (Neugebauer, 2005). All of these trends reflect an increased involvement of religious organizations – nationally and locally – in the early childhood field. Below is a list of some of these trends reported by Neugebauer, (2005; 2008), 1. Denominations are becoming more proactive at the national level. This involvement includes designating specific people in the church’s national hierarchy to oversee early childhood education, development of national websites, and even creation of national curricula. Congregations are also increasing their early childhood offerings, because they are being encouraged to do so by their national offices, and because their vast facilities make them easy places to try to offset the lack of available child care in many communities (Lindner et al., 1984). The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Catholic Church, the Southern Baptist Convention, the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, and the United Methodist Church all have national initiatives supporting local child care services (Bogle, 2004). Many of these national offices are creating curricula and curricular guides for local program, all of which contain a significant component outlining the instruction of spiritual education. 2. Child care services in religious facilities are rapidly increasing. According to Neugebauer, from 1992 to 2008 there has been a 76.4 % increase in Protestant programs, 52.6 % increase in Catholic programs, and a 47.7% increase in Jewish programs (2008). These increases follow the overall spread of these damnations into new geographic areas of the country. The area of largest growth in religious organizations is in after-school programs (Lindner, 2001). 3. Religious organizations are becoming more active as operators of early childhood programs. Churches are leasing out less of their space to other entities, and directly

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

328

Francis Wardle

4.

5. 6. 7.

8.

operating more of their own programs, because they want the programs to reflect their religious philosophy and orientation. Religious early childhood programs are more than ever actively promoting spiritual development. While the traditional view of caring for children for love and worth, sharing and cooperation, and positive self-image, are still important in religious programs, many programs now also focus on spiritual development, through curricula and specific lesson activities. This is a direct result of the national leadership in early childhood education of the various congregations (Hampton, 2002). State pre-kindergarten programs pose a threat to religious program, just as they do to private and not-for-profit preschool programs, nationwide (see chapter 13). More religious programs are taking state subsidies – serving low-income students, which the state then pays for. During the last 10 years there has been an increase in the number of religious early childhood programs pursuing NAEYC accreditation. This is the hugest quality standard for early childhood programs, provided for by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Some national religious organizations, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of America, and the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, are developing their own accreditation systems (Neugebauer, 2005; 2008).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Box 14.2. Reflective Thinking According to Neugebauer (2005), more American families are using religious programs for their young children because they want them to have a foundation in religious and moral education. Is this a positive or negative trend? We have seen an increase in social strife in Europe and other areas of the world due to children being raised with radically different religious values. Could this happen in the US? Does this trend also suggest that maybe we need to find ways to include more spirituality and character education in tax-supported early childhood programs?

RELIGIOUS SCHOOLS Some years ago I visited an Amish school in Pennsylvania with my father, who has many Amish friends, and who is also a teacher. We observed children in the two-room schoolhouse. It was Christmas time, so the children performed their unaccompanied, old German Christmas songs for us (the word Dutch in Pennsylvania Dutch – another name for the Amish - is actually a corruption of the word Deutch, which is the German word for German). Later at recess the boys and girls played together an interesting game of jump the broom, competing to see who could jump the highest (Wardle, 1999). For the Amish, their educational approach is a true extension of their religion. One of their fundamental beliefs is that children should graduate from school at the end of 8th grade, because they don’t want their children to know ‘worldly’ information that is taught beyond eighth grade, in the belief that this information will tempt their children to leave the Amish religious way of life. Further, they believe eight years is enough time for their children to learn the skills and knowledge needed to be

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

329

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

productive members of their religious community. The U.S. Supreme Court has supported the right of the Amish to limit education of their children to the end of 8th grade. All religious schools have a philosophy that is a direct outgrowth of their particular religious beliefs and values. Figure 14.1 is an account of this author’s experience growing up in the early childhood programs and schools of the Bruderhof. By Francis Wardle, I was born on April 24, 1947. It had been a long and hard winter on an isolated English farm in the beautiful border country between England and Wales. The rest of the world was just beginning to experience the spring after the Second World War. I was born into one of the communities of the Society of Brothers, or Bruderhofs, and attended their infant, early childhood programs, and schools until age 14 years old. While the programs of the Bruderhof may be outside the experience of most Americans, my childhood reflects, to a greater or lesser degree, the experiences of many children who attend religious early childhood programs and schools, be they something as insular as Amish and some Jewish programs, or more familiar Catholic, Baptist or Mormon educational programs. Six weeks after my birth, I moved into the Children’s House, where I stayed with other children my age during the day (also part-day on Saturdays and Sundays), and where I was cared for by the mothers, single women, and teenage girls of the community. Even as early as the 1930s the community used communal child care, because they wanted mothers to be directly involved in the life of the community, they believed raising children was a community responsibility, and because they wanted to raise children in the religious and communal values of the community. As I grew older, I progressed into the preschool, Kindergarten, and then the school. The school day started as a gathering of all the students, where songs were sung and the day’s activities described; then academic subjects were pursued for the rest of the morning. In the afternoon non-academic subjects were followed in large blocks of time (usually the entire afternoon): gardening, woodwork, dancing, singing, games, and work on the farm. Saturday mornings were spent cleaning the school, Sunday mornings in various group activities, and Sunday afternoons at home. These supervised before-and-after school activities - including Saturday and Sunday - are an old German tradition known as Hort. The care and education of children in the Bruderhof is considered central to their mission. “So we concern ourselves in a special way with children, because they are not yet bound to the power of evil to such an extent as grown-ups; for good power lies latent in a child waiting to be awakened” (Arnold, 1976, p. 2). Even at this early age, value is placed in being part of a group. “Babies three to 4 months old will be in their cribs smiling at each other; soon after, when put on the floor together, they will respond to each other” (Shirkey and Zimmerman, 1975, p. 27). As children move into the preschool, Kindergarten, and first grades, the educational philosophy stresses unstructured risk-taking in the wild; knowledge, love and observation of nature; the importance of play; joy in creation; use of physical activities such as gardening, games, and hiking; and being involved in the vibrant life of the whole community (Wardle, 1995). The philosophy also stresses unselfishness, social justice, sharing, arts, crafts and music, caring for animals, and participating and supporting fully in the life of the community. Arts, music, crafts and nature are considered of equal value to academics, and specific, direct academic instruction is avoided until first grade. Figure 14.1. Continued on next page. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

330

Francis Wardle

I vividly remember my preschool, Kindergarten and early school experiences of painting, woodworking, gardening, singing, folk dancing, helping out on the farm, enjoying the flowers and birds of the beautiful Shropshire countryside, and experiencing the secure feeling of being part of a large group of people who all knew our names and cared for us in and out of school. I also have warm memories of walking through cold December nights with candles in our little hands to find the live tableaux of the birth of the Child; marveling at the explosion of flames and sparks of the Easter bonfire, and participating in the beautiful annual lantern procession (Francis Wardle, 1974). Figure 14.1. Attending a Religious Early Childhood Program.

Two things are clear in the brief discussion of Bruderhof’s early childhood education provided in figure 14.1. First, a religious educational philosophy is a direct implementation of the values and beliefs of the specific religion it represents, and second, these values tend to conflict, to a greater or lesser degree, with the values held and taught by public schools and state supported early childhood programs. Also, many families, including new immigrant families and minority families in the United States, are deeply religious and expect their child’s educational program to include their religious values and beliefs. For example, some parents from Moslem countries do not want their boys dressing up in women’s clothes and hats in the dramatic play area, and their girls playing in the block area. Other families believe in strict discipline and often severe punishment; still others do not wish their children to be exposed to concepts such as gay and lesbian relationships and families. All these values tend to challenge public early childhood programs and elementary schools. The school report card from the Bruderhof schools (see figure 14.2) is an example of how the religious values are reflected in the school’s policies and documents.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

New Meadow Run School, Farmington, PA. Name______________________Grade_______________________ Birth date___________________Year________________________ Teacher_________________________________________________ Guidelines for completing and interpreting report cards GRADE: The grade received in any subject is a combination of the child’s influence, effort and achievement. In our children’s community we feel that our children’s influence and effort are more important than their academic achievement. The grade is made up of three parts: Influence: This is the hardest part of the grade to evaluate, but perhaps the most important. It is an attempt to measure the child’s inner influence in our school. If the child remains childlike, he or she will be a good influence. Effort: This part of the child’s grade will reflect how hard the child works, regardless of what he or she may learn. Achievement: This is one third of the child’s grade. It is our assessment of the child’s grasp of the material being taught. Figure 14.2. Report Card of the Bruderhof Schools.

Each child’s grade is comprised of three components: influence, effort and achievement. Under influence, it states, “It is an attempt to measure the child’s inner influence in our Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

331

schools”. Under effort, the description is, “This part of the child’s grade will reflect how hard the child works, regardless of what he or she may learn” (New Meadow Run School, n.d.). Cleary the assessment approach of any religious school will reflect the school’s philosophy. In this case, learning to engage in hard work and develop an inner influence on others are important purposes of Bruderhof schools.

ROMAN CATHOLIC EARLY CHILDHOOD APPROACH According to Neugebauer (2000), there are 5002 Catholic early childhood facilities in the U.S. Many of these are part of well-established K-12 schools, while others are self-standing preschool programs. Like other religions in the United States, the Catholic Church administers educational program from early childhood to large universities, such as Notre Dame. In the Denver Archdiocese children must be five years old on or before September 15 to enter the Archdiocese’s Catholic Kindergarten programs. Thus preschool in the Archdiocese of Denver is for 2 ½ - 5 year olds (Archdiocese of Denver, 2003). The programs are usually in the same building, or the same building complex, as the local Catholic elementary school. The following discussion is about programs for these prekindergarten children, and is based on a document developed by the Denver Catholic Archdiocese, the Early Childhood Curriculum Guidelines (2003).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Educational Philosophy The philosophy of the Denver Catholic Archdiocese states, “personal-social development is the primary goal for the young child. A positive self-concept is essential to successful learning” (p. 12). The overall goals for Catholic preschoolers in the Denver areas are a mix of religious expectations, typical preschool academic preparation skills, and ways to assist parents with the development and education of their children. These goals include, • • • • • • • •

Assisting the child in developing a positive self-image in relationship to a loving God; Assisting the child in mastering expressive and receptive language skills that are necessary for the development of problem-solving and thinking abilities; Assisting the child in the development of sensory-perception skills; Assisting the child in developing gross and fine motor skills; Assisting the child in acquiring interpersonal skills necessary for learning about self and interacting effectively with peers and adults; Assisting the child in acquiring interpersonal skills necessary for achieving personal autonomy; Assisting the child to grow socially and emotionally; Assisting the parents in their role as the primary educators of their children (Archdiocese of Denver, 2003, p. 3).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

332

Francis Wardle

Figure 14.3 details specific objectives developed from these goals for Catholic preschools in Denver Catholic Archdiocese. • • • •

Language arts – to assist the child in mastering expressive and receptive language skills that are necessary for the development of problem solving and thinking skills; Sensory-perceptual skills – to assist the child in developing sensory-perceptual skills; Motor skills – to assist the child in developing both gross and fine motor skills; Interpersonal skills – to assist the child in acquiring interpersonal skills necessary for interacting effectively with peers and adults.

(Archdiocese of Denver, 2003) Figure 14.3. Specific Objectives for Catholic Preschool Programs in Denver.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

While the philosophy stresses interpersonal skills, language, motor skills, sensoryperceptual skills, and developing a positive self-image in relationship to God, the curricular objectives are divided into these content areas: art, literacy, math, music, science, health, safely and physical education, religion, and social studies. These curricula objectives reflect many ideas from the document, Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997), published by NAEYC. In fact, the introduction specifically acknowledges the use of “guidelines of the National Association for the Education of Young Children” (p. 2), in the preparation of the document. Further, the math objectives appear to come directly from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics’ Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (2000). And, in the sections both for 3-4 year olds, and 4-5 years olds, there is this indictment, in bold letters, “The use of worksheets on a regular basis is discouraged” (Archdiocese of Denver, 2003, pp. 26; 28).

Religious Education Cleary the one factor that separates religious early childhood programs from all other programs – with the possible exception of some federally funded, faith-based initiatives, is the open and deliberate teaching of a specific religious point of view – Jewish, Muslim, Amish, Catholic, etc. In this Catholic document, the religious goals are presented very much like a developmentally appropriate character education program that centers on God’s love of the child, respect/authority of parents, teachers and priests, and learning to understand and use the specific symbols and rituals of the church. According to the curriculum guidelines, preschool is a time to develop a readiness for future formal instruction in religion, which is created by developing a deep love of God through a warm atmosphere of love and acceptance provided by family and church. “Prayer and simple Paraliturgies prepare the child to participate in the worship and prayer life of the local church” (p. 42). The religious goals for setting this important foundation in 3-5 years olds are, •

Goal 1. Develop a relationship with our loving God and learn about God’s gifts. Under this goal the child will recognize their own goodness, learn to share and care

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

•

•

•

333

for others, recognize Jesus as a friend and role model, recognize God’s creation is good and that God makes him/her special, and learn to accept responsibility for his/her world and living things. Goal 2. Awareness of the Church as being the family of God. Under this goal the preschool child learns the symbols and behaviors of the church, the role of priests in the church, and the status of Mary and the school’s patron saint. They also begin to participate in the mass. Goal 3. The importance of prayer (spoken, sung, spontaneous, rote) and God’s Word in one’s life. The preschool child listens to various Bible stories, knows about the Old and New Testament, will recite simple prayers, and learns that prayer is listening to God. Goal 4. The child will discuss that each of us has feelings, and learn the appropriate ways to express those feelings, realize God loves and forgives us, practice ways to forgive others, and learn consequences for inappropriate behaviors (Archdiocese of Denver, 2003. p 42).

For the 4-5 year old, added goals require the child to demonstrate respect for authority of parents, teachers and community workers, and to demonstrate Christian attitudes of sharing, listening, helping, apologizing, and changing inappropriate behaviors (Catholic Diocese of Denver, 2003). Thus much of religious education for preschool Catholic children has basic elements found both in character education programs and in overall social skill objectives for preschool children in nonreligious programs (Wardle, 2003).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

JEWISH EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION Jewish early childhood education has existed throughout the ages. Today it includes preschools and child care centers that serve infants through Kindergarten children, K-12 schools, and a variety of after-school programs. It has also expanded its focus to the education of the whole family as well as young children. Many of the teachers in Jewish early childhood programs, similar to mothers-day out programs, historically used to be mothers of the preschool children; now, because of the need for both parents to work, and increased licensing requirements for teacher qualifications, many teachers in Jewish early childhood programs have little or no Jewish background, and little knowledge of or commitment to Jewish history and religion (Handelman, 2000). Recently there has been a national movement to increase the Jewish knowledge and content taught in Jewish early childhood programs, and in professionalizing the field of Jewish early childhood programs. In 1998 the Bureau of Jewish Education of Greater Los Angeles published Criteria for Accreditation in Jewish Education for Early Childhood Centers, to be used in collaboration with the National Association for the Education of Young Children’s Accreditation Criteria (2005). Two professional organizations, the National Association of Jewish Early Childhood Specialists, and the National Jewish Early Childhood Network, are devoted to improving Jewish early childhood programs nationwide (Handelman, 2000). According to Handelman, a major goal of Jewish early childhood education is, “to nurture in children the development of a strong, positive, warm Jewish identity and a love of

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

334

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Judaism. We strive to foster in them the desire and ability to grow into Jewish adults who are proud of their heritage and happy and able to participate in Jewish life” (p. 2).

Curriculum The overall goals of Jewish early childhood programs are similar to other early childhood programs, with the addition of giving the children the gift of their Jewish heritage – a love of

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

335

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Jewish learning, a fascination with Jewish holidays and life-cycle events, and a passion for approaching the world in a Jewish way (Handelman, 2000). Teachers must be able to integrate a wealth of secular and Jewish knowledge within the curriculum. According to Handelman, this integration of basic academic knowledge and Jewish concepts can never be presented in a fragmented manner. “An excellent Jewish education strives to make connections between Jewish events and everyday events”(p. 2). Jewish content that should be included in the curriculum includes holidays, biblical stories, and Jewish life-cycle events. To make sure these aspects of Jewish religion are fully integrated in the curriculum, Handelman recommends a webbing approach to curriculum development (2000). Figure 14.3 presents questions that a program can use to help them determine how well they are integrating Jewish content into their curriculum. 1. Can my classroom be immediately identified as a Jewish classroom by both children and their families? 2. Does my classroom atmosphere provide a safe, nurturing climate in which children are free to grow and develop? 3. Can children of all abilities participate in this acitivty and feel a sense of accomplishment? 4. Have I used my knowledge about how children learn to ensure that the activity is child-focused rather than teacher directed? 5. Have I incorporated Jewish values into the learning process and curriculum? Are Jewish elements integrated into the entire curriculum? 6. Are Jewish practices identified as such during the program? Are daily Jewish practices incorporated into the activity? 7. Have I provided the children with the opportunity to do projects, use materials, solve problems, explore and investigate? Have they had a rich variety of experiences that involve “hands-on” learning? 8. Do the activities, which are planned around this topic, include various curriculum areas (e.g., language arts, math, social studies, science, art, music, physical education)? 9. Have I emphasized sensory learning in the experience? 10. Have I provided for social skill development during the activity through opportunities for peer interaction? (Handelman 2000). Figure 14.3. Questions to Determine the Excellence of a Jewish Early Childhood Program.

Early Childhood Center, Robert E. Loup Jewish Community Center, Denver The Jewish Community Center’s Early Childhood Program was started in 1935 to serve Jewish families in the metro Denver area. The early childhood center now serves 240 children in a well-equipped facility and playground, all of which is contained within a large Jewish Community Center building complex in a historically Jewish section of town. The program provides preschool classes (2-5 year olds), toddler-parent day out, and summer camps. The program uses the community center’s swimming pool, kitchen, theater, and concert hall for activities beyond the classroom.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

336

Francis Wardle

The early childhood center at the Jewish Community Center is NAEYC accredited, and provides part and full-day, part-year and full-year programs. Parents select the length of time preschoolers attend, with some children attending from 7 am to 6 pm, 5 days a week. Toddlers and their parents come once a week for 1½ hours. According to Anne Ciner, current director of the early childhood program, 40 % of the children who attend the center are from non-Jewish families and many are new immigrant families, including Russian, Japanese and Hispanic immigrants; 16 of the students are identified with special needs (personal communication, 2004).

Philosophy/Curriculum “Our philosophy is designed to help develop the whole child – socially, intellectually, emotionally, and physically. We offer a warm, safe and nurturing atmosphere that encourages children to explore and make new discoveries” (Robert E. Loup Jewish Community Center, Early Childhood Center, n.d., p. 2). This philosophy encourages the child’s

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • • • • • •

Curiosity Creativity Imagination Independence Love of learning Self-esteem Learning to play cooperatively Building positive relationships with peers

The curriculum is hands-on, child-centered, and developmentally appropriate. Teachers assist children in achieving individual goals in a happy, relaxed environment. The play-based curriculum encourages children to make choices; activities are individual and in small groups. Teachers carefully arrange the environment, set up learning enters, and encourage selfinitiated learning and socialization. Through a theme-based approach, children have experiences in literature, math, science, art, music, cooking, sensory-motor table, constructions and various forms of play.

Religious Education “We celebrate Jewish heritage and traditions through the observation of Jewish holidays. Fridays include special celebrations of the Sabbath with a school-wide sing, concerts, snacks, and Shabbat guests” (p. 4). Jewish customs, values, symbols and traditions are incorporated in the daily activities such as art, songs, stories, and Jewish rituals. Further, since Jewish culture emphasizes respect and caring for one another, children engage in various community service actives, such as buying and creating gifts at Christmas for poor children. Each child is given a child’s name to make and buy gifts for (Ciner, 2004, personal communication). All meals are strictly Kosher, and all Jewish holidays are observed. Parent Involvement The early childhood center has tremendous parent involvement. Parents participate on a parent advisory committee, which coordinates the various community service activities for

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

337

the children, volunteer in the classroom, and make-up the Parent Education Committee. This committee provides a variety of learning opportunities for the parents, on parenting, child development, anti-violence, etc. Parents of children who attend the program - psychologists, child psychologists, educators, and doctors - provide many of these workshops.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONCORDIA LUTHERAN SCHOOL Concordia Lutheran School began in 1985 with 18 students. Today it serves 132 students, three to five-year-olds, in a 3 year old, 4 year old, transitional Kindergarten, and regular Kindergarten classes. The 3s attend Tuesdays and Thursdays (either in the morning or afternoon), the 4s Monday, Wednesday and Friday (again either in the morning or afternoon), the transition Kindergarten (for children of Kindergarten age whose parents believe they are not developmentally ready for full-day Kindergarten) half-day, five days a week, and regular Kindergarten, full day (8:45 to 2: 15), five days a week. The purpose of the school is, Concordia Lutheran School provides a Christ-centered learning experience, which will help each child build a positive relationship with God, with others, and with him/herself. The school provides a developmentally appropriate program where each child can grow spiritually, socially, emotionally, physically, and academically in a safe, secure environment. Kind, caring adults provide positive, loving role models of respect and morality. (Concordia Lutheran School, n.d, p. 2).

Financial Support The preschool is tuition based. However, church members pay only 50% of tuition, and children of teachers receive a 10% discount, as do siblings of a full-fee-paying child. Further, the church picks up the full cost of the space, utilities, insurance, maintenance, and janitorial

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

338

Francis Wardle

series. Trustees of the church also provide expert help in redesigning the playground and other needed practical and technical assistance. While tuition and fees cover salaries, benefits, and materials, the church obviously subsidizes these. Additionally there is also an independently supported scholarship fund, to assist needy students.

Curriculum There are really two curricula – the religious one, and everything else. The religious curriculum is based on daily scripture presentations (Old and New Testament). A Bible story is presented by the pastor in a format that is meaningful to the children, with the assistance of the flannel board, big books, and oral story telling. The children attend the chapel for 15 minutes every day (thus 2/3 times a week, except the Kindergarteners, who attend 5 times a week). This 15-minute service also includes prayers and singing. Children are taught to sing specific religious songs used in Lutheran services, and are taught the Lutheran approach and format to communal prayer. The story presented at the services is then extended and elaborated in the classroom through the use of craft activities, work sheets, big books and flannel boards. Prayer is also used before each snack in the classroom. Children select the prayer from a list of different prayers that they learned at the weekly service.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Non-Religious Curriculum Historically, the nonreligious curriculum has not been clearly defined or directly related to any one overall philosophy (i.e. DAP, Core Knowledge Curriculum, or any of the other approaches discussed throughout this text). The curriculum follows a theme of the week, the same year after year. Further, there are a lot of worksheets, crafts activities, and a letter of the week approach to literacy (L. C. Smith, personal communication, August 2006). Very few art and no science activities are included in the curriculum. However, the new director is working to make the new curriculum more child-directed and emergent, with more science, emergent literacy, math, art and cooking. Also, an approach to discipline that incorporates more conflict resolution and verbal negotiations is being implemented. Based on this author’s experience and observations, it seems that often religious programs are more teacher-directed and authoritarian than are many non-religious programs. The Kindergarten teacher uses the local district’s standards and framework as the structure for the Kindergarten curriculum.

Qualifications/Training The teachers must meet the state of Colorado’s requirement for child care (group leader qualified), and attend a specific number of classes or conferences every year. However, in the past these ongoing training requirements have been met by attending region-wide Lutheran education conferences and trainings. Again, the new director intends to expose the teachers to

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

339

ideas beyond Lutheran education, especially in the areas of emotional development and a less punitive approach to discipline.

Organizational Structure The church has an educational board comprised of volunteers, and the chairman of this board oversees all the educational enterprises of the church, including the preschool and Kindergarten. The educational board comes under the overall Parish Planning Council. The director of the preschool and Kindergarten revises polices and procedures, recommends staff hiring and firing, and proposes other major changes (i.e. classroom configurations, playground renovations), which then must be approved by the board. However, the director is fairly autonomous (L. C. Smith, personal communication, August 2006).

Student Population Although this is a Lutheran school, and all students attend the daily Bible Story, many of the children who attend are not Lutheran. These parents use the program because of the program’s reputation and small child-staff ratios (15 or less in each class). This aspect of the programs is particularly attractive to parents who choose the Kindergarten instead of the local public school Kindergarten program. Almost all students then go on to attend the local public school. As a suburban school, most of the children are White, although the program has had several cohorts of Bosnian refugees, and currently have some adopted girls from China.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Physical Space The program is located in rooms attached to the central church building. The four large classrooms all feed out from one large, communal classroom. Each of the four classrooms has a large window, and an exit directly onto the playground. The bathrooms are at one end of the large, communal room, and there is a kitchen to one side. Since children bring their own lunches (snacks are provided), the kitchen will be used in the future for cooking and science projects. The rooms are totally covered with carpet, which poses a problem regarding art projects and other messy activities. There are no sinks, drains or faucets in the classrooms. Further, these rooms are also used on Sundays for Sunday school, so projects and materials cannot be left out over the weekend. The large bulletin boards in the classroom are decorated with typical cutout, cartoon images for shapes, colors, concepts and activities. The director expressed a desire to help teachers include more student work and ideas into the bulletin boards. Further, to offset the dilemma regarding producing a mess in the classroom, science and art activities will be conducted on the playground.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

340

Francis Wardle

CRESCENT VIEW ACADEMY: ISLAMIC FOUNDATION FOR ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE Crescent View Academy is an unobtrusive building tucked away in an industrial area off a major highway. It’s a two-story building with classrooms, offices, computer labs and a library radiating out from a large, covered central inner courtyard that spans both stories. Dr Slham K. Elsegelny is the principal. Recently displaced from New Orleans, she grew up in Egypt, but received her college degrees in the U.S. She is very professional, but also very enthusiastic. She talks to me in her office, then shows me around the school. Currently 210 students, from age 4 years old to 6th grade, attend the school (eventually they will serve students through 8th grade). When students graduate, they enter the local public school, as there is no Islamic high school in the Denver metro area. The mission of the school is to provide an excellent academic education in a safe, Islamic environment. However, according to the principal, the mission is also about teaching the Islamic faith to students who need to be secure and comfortable in knowing they are American Muslims first and foremost (personnel communication, August 2006). Figure 14.4 lists Crescent View Academy’s Objectives. •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • •

Developing an Islamic personality and excellence in education though knowledge that is theoretically valid and practically useful. Promoting a keen love and respect for Islam, its meaning and purpose. Motivating our students to strive for excellence in all they do throughout their lives Enhancing the lives of our students through the practical application of Islamic education, academic character development and social awareness with a deep respect for intellectual and moral values appropriate to Muslims.

Figure 14. 4. Objectives of Crescent View Academy (Crescent View Academy, n.d.).

Curriculum The school uses the state standards for academic classes, and is accredited by the North Central Association. They purchase a McGraw Hill curriculum for K-6th grades: scope and sequence, books, assessments, activity guides, etc. The program also includes lesson plans, reporting protocols, and a vast variety of Internet resources. According to the principal, to attract and keep students, the school must provide better academic preparation than the local public school district. This is quite an order, since the district in which Crescent View Academy is located is Cherry Creek School District, the most highly regarded district in Colorado. The district provides the school with staff development training and assistance in identifying students with special needs, but does not provide any direct services for these special needs students, who usually leave and enter a local public school.

Hope Co-Op Online Learning Academy Many of the students enrolled in Crescent View Academy utilize the Hope Co-op program, a free Internet charter school that serves the entire state of Colorado. As part of this

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

341

program the state also provides a battery of computers to enable students to access the program, since it is all online. Hope is an innovative Colorado Charter school administrated through the tiny Vilas RE-5 School District. The school has just 100 on-site students, and over 2000 students online. It is funded by the state of Colorado as a charter school, and targets at-risk students, providing serveces from home or through a co-op site. Many students are home-schooled or attend small religious or private schools in Denver and throughout the state. Crescent View Academy is one such site. About 50% of the Crescent View Academy students are eligible for the program, which includes a curriculum that meets Colorado content standards, NCLB mandates, and the state ‘s standardized assessments. The program is delivered through: • • • • • •

Funding for each student A core curriculum Free computers Technical support Teaching information Individual learning plans and teacher and mentor support (What is Hope? 2006).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Religious Program The religious curriculum has two components: teaching the Arabic language and teaching Islamic Studies. All children take both classes, which are provided daily (45 minutes for each class). In the Arabic language classes students are grouped by ability and are instructed in the Arabic language – both oral and written. In the Islamic Studies classes students learn about the Holy Book (Quran), recite the daily prayers, and learn to correctly recite important passages from the Holy Book.

Teachers The 6th grade teacher is a young, redheaded American from the state of Washington. Some of the teachers are non-Muslim, and some are devoutly Muslim (and their dress and social greeting customs are quite obvious). In the pre-Kindergarten classroom the teacher is an American non-Muslim, while her aide is Muslim. Further, some of the parents are not Muslim, either. Some of the girls wear the heard coverings like the Muslim female teachers, while others do not. All teachers are certified by the state of Colorado, and the principal made it a point to let me know that the school follows all the state’s mandates and requirements.

Governance and Funding The school is controlled by a locally elected and appointed school board (four parents and three community leaders). The board makes all of the decisions, but delegates most decisions regarding the academic program to the principal. However, the board is totally independent, and is not connected to any mosque or external religious or other organization. Parents are

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

342

Francis Wardle

members of the PTO and classroom committees. Volunteering is strong, according to the principal. The school is totally funded through tuition and several large, annual fund-raisers, which must cover salaries, the McGraw Hill materials, and space/utilizes. However, the Hope program provides the computers and materials for students enrolled in that program.

Diversity and the Environment Because Muslims come from very diverse backgrounds throughout the world, the parent body of the school is very diverse, including having Asian, White, African (Black and White), Middle Eastern and Mediterranean backgrounds. Teachers have Black, White and Asian backgrounds. The environment is much like any typical private school, with posters, banners, flags, student work, and instruction materials on classroom walls, in the hallways and throughout the library. Some are in English; some in Arabic. There are also posters explaining important parts of the Muslim religion and culture to non-Muslims (in English and Arabic). I say goodbye to Dr. Elsegelny, who sticks out her hand and says, “I shake hands!” (It was somewhat embarrassing trying to figure out which people would and which people would not shake my hand. Some did and some demurely did not, which is quite difficult for a visitor)

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONCLUSION Cleary, a child’s family religion is a central part of her character and identity (see chapter 11). Religion is at the core of diversity. Much of a child’s cultural background is based on her family’s religious beliefs, traditions, child-rearing practices, and associations. To nurture each child’s unique personality, we must support her spiritual and religious identity. The first American public schools were religious. Montessori, Steiner (Waldorf), and Froebel were deeply religious educators whose religious beliefs are reflected in their early childhood and education philosophies. Today, public early childhood programs and schools in the United States - Head Start, public schools, and state-funded early childhood programs - cannot directly teach a single religious viewpoint, but many incorporate character education in their curricula, and include moral and ethical behavior expectations in their programs. Religious private schools, early childhood programs, child care and before-and-after school programs are thriving and increasing in the United States. These programs have a dual philosophy: to prepare children to be academically and socially successful, and to teach the values, traditions and rituals of their own particular religion. While some of these programs use curricula similar to local early childhood programs and schools, others are far more teacher-directed and authoritarian. And some, of course, have an interesting combination of religious instruction and secular curricula. Further, some are full partners with secular education programs when it comes to quality and accreditation, while others insist on keeping government out of their affairs.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Religious Approaches

343

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1. Visit a religious early childhood program or school. How does the program teach academic subjects? How does the program differ from typical early childhood programs in the community or the local public school? How does the program teach children the values, traditions and rituals of their faith? 2. Would you/have you placed a child in a religious program? Why/why not? What were/are the considerations for your choice? 3. Amish children complete their education at the end of 8th grade. Is this fair to these children? How can they legally do this in a country that requires children to attend school until at least age 16? 4. Should religious early childhood programs and schools be subject to government standards of safety, fire safety, child abuse/neglect reporting, educational qualifications of the teachers, adult/child ratios and other state licensing requirements? 5. Visit an elementary classroom that teaches a specific character education program. Based on your observations, do you believe this is a good idea (to have character programs in public schools), and do you think these programs violate the separation of church and state?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 15

BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION While there are few overall behavioral early childhood or elementary school curricular approaches like there are Montessori, Reggio Emilia, Core Knowledge Curriculum, or British Infant/Primary programs, almost all educational approaches use some aspects of behaviorism – except maybe free/alternative schools (see chapter 5). Behaviorism is divided into two broad categories: the classical conditioning (association) of Pavlov, Watson, and others, and operant conditioning of Skinner, Thorndike and modern behaviorists, including practitioners of applied behavior analysis. Generally, when we talk about behavioral approaches in education, we tend to be thinking of operant conditioning. However, classical conditioning must also be examined in this discussion, especially as we continue to add more and more standards and high-stakes assessments to the early school years, and place more and more expectations on children and teachers. (This chapter will not cover social learning theory, which originally was placed under the behavioral label, but now is considered to be a social-cognitive theory (Ormrod, 2008). First describing the fundamentals of classical conditioning and operant conditioning, this chapter then details ways both approaches are used in our early education programs. Specifically, I cover instructional objectives and mastery learning, the applied behavioral analysis (ABA) method, and the use of punishment in educational settings. Throughout the chapter there are also several discussions that address a variety of problems and controversies that surround the use of behaviorism in education programs.

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. Why is classical conditioning so powerful in shaping young children’s behaviors? 2. What are appropriate external reinforcers to use when working with young children in educational settings? 3. What are some of the difficulties of applying behavioral methods in educational settings? 4. Why is it important that a young child’s first school experiences be positive, warm, and affirmative?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

346

Francis Wardle 5. Should food, candy and activities that teach unhealthy eating habits be used for reinforcers of expected behaviors in schools and other children’s programs? 6. What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning? How do both approaches apply to teaching young children?

FUNDAMENTALS OF BEHAVIORISM Before discussing how behaviorism is used in a variety of early childhood and school settings, basic assumptions that underline behaviorism - both classical conditioning and operant conditioning - will be covered. These basic assumptions are listed in figure 15.1. Generally, behaviorism is broken into two overall categories, classical conditioning and operant conditioning (sometimes social learning theory is also including under the behaviorism definition). While we usually associate operant conditioning with education (especially when applied to discipline, shaping positive behaviors, and special education techniques), classical conditioning also has a powerful impact on learning and school success.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning occurs when two stimuli are presented at approximately the same time. One of these is an unconditioned stimulus (it already produces a response); the second stimulus, through its paring with the first one, becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces the same response as the first, unconditioned one (Ormrod, 2008). The classical example is, of course, Pavlov’s dog, which was conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell (replacing the sight and smell of the food). Watson’s experiment with Little Albert that conditioned him to be scared of white rats is another well-known example. However, classical conditioning does not end at this simply level. First, it can generalize – Albert, a boy Watson used in his experiments – not only became scared of white rats, but of all white, fuzzy things that moved. Secondly, it can continue to develop, such that the dog who salivates when hearing a bell can then be conditioned to salivate when a light is turned on, and so on. This is called higherorder conditioning. An entire chain of events can be classically conditioned, with the result that it is often extremely difficult to determine what the original, non-conditioned stimulus really was. My dog originally got ready to go for a run with me whenever I tied on her leach – she would pull and try to open the door (she loves to go on walks). Now she thinks we are going on a run every time I sit down. She is now conditioned to think I am putting on my running shoes each time I sit down! What makes classical conditioning so powerful is that it is, in general, involuntary – the individual is not aware of the chain of conditioning that has occurred. A person does not know why she is scared of the dark, why flowers give her a feeling of calm, and why she craves food every time she is depressed.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Behavioral Approaches

347

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Extinction Newly conditioned stimuli can be extinguished – in other words, if Pavlov’s dog never sees and smells food again at the same time he hears the bell, eventually he will no longer salivate at the sound of the bell. However, there are several limitations to this rule. First, there is the phenomena of spontaneous recovery, which is when the conditioned response remerges for no apparent reason (Ormrod,2008). The second problem is that people can end up providing the original unconditioned stimulus in their imagination. For example, when a child walks in the dark and nothing scary happens, their imagination can produce a scary stimulus – thus reinforcing the conditioned response – fear of the dark. Finally, people tend to avoid situations and events that they have learned to fear or dislike. So there is little opportunity for extinction to occur. 1. Principles of learning apply equally to different behaviors and different species of animals. Therefore research conducted on animals – i.e. rats, mice and pigeons – is then generalized to humans. 2. Learning can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on stimulus and response. Behaviorists are interested in objective study of behavior, and the two most objective things to observe are the stimulus and response. Therefore behaviorists look at the relationships between stimulus and response. 3. Internal cognitive processes are ignored from scientific study. Behaviorists are interested in what is observable; since we cannot observe what occurs within the child’s mind, behaviorists are not concerned with it. 4. Learning involves behavioral change. To behaviorists, learning only occurs if there is an observable change in behavior. 5. Organisms are born as blank slates. Other than some basic reflexes, all organisms are born as a “blank slate” (tabula rasa). All behavior is therefore learned. 6. Learning is largely a result of environmental events. Learning occurs as a result of the environmental impact on the organism. As such, the organism – the child – is largely a passive recipient of learning. 7. The most useful theories tend to be concise and simple. Behaviorist use a few simply concepts – primarily stimulus and reinforcement – to explain how we learn (Ormrod, 2008). Figure 15.1. Assumptions of Behaviorism.

What is Conditioned? All sorts of behavior can be classically conditioned. A young child who has a warm, loving teacher may be conditioned to believe all teachers are warm and loving. A child who hates tests because he does poorly and is ridiculed by his peers for doing so, may come to hate all school work, not just tests, due to generalization. And, finally, a child may learn to associate singing with camping, because every time she goes camping she sings songs. This may provide a positive or negative response to singing, depending on whether she enjoyed camping or not.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

348

Francis Wardle

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Operant Conditioning According to Skinner, a response followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and is therefore more likely to occur again (1938). Thus, from a behaviorist point of view, responses that are reinforced tend to increase in frequency. Reversing this definition, a reinforcer is something that increases the likelihood of behavior that it follows (Ormrod, 2008). It is important to note that reinforcers are different from rewards, in that a reinforcer only exists if it produces an increase in behavior. As all teachers know, what reinforces a behavior in one child may not work for another child. We will return to this idea of different reinforcers later. There are three kinds of operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. In education programs operant conditioning is used to increase desirable behaviors and to decrease undesirable ones. However, as we will see, this is quite difficult to do effectively, especially with large groups of children.

Positive Reinforcement A response that is followed by a reinforcer is strengthened, and therefore is more likely to occur again (Ormrod, 2008). Thus, reinforcement brings about learning. In early education programs a variety of reinforcers are used to strengthen learning – of desirable behaviors, social skills, and a vast array of general and specific school-related concepts. In special education reinforcers are used extensively to modify targeted behaviors. I discuss this use of behaviorism in more detail later in this chapter. Figure 15.2 lists some of the most common reinforcers used in educational programs. Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a response or behavior occurring through the removal of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus (Ormrod, 2008). In classical experiments, rats would learn to press a bar to terminate an electric shock. In the time out

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Behavioral Approaches

349

discipline method used in many educational programs, the child can leave the time out (an unpleasant experience) if they sit quietly and profess to the error of their ways (Wardle, 2003). Note, however, this changes the behavior in time out, not necessarily the targeted behavior for which the child was placed in time out (a problem addressed later, under punishment). •

•

•

•

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

Material reinforcers. A material reinforcer is an object, such as food, a toy, candy, and so on. These reinforcers, however, may be counterproductive, because they tend to distract students from the things that they should be doing in class (Ormrod, 2008). Social reinforcers. A social reinforcer is a gesture, facial expression, or a hug from one person to another, communicating approval. Teacher approval, attention, praise, and appreciation are quite effective, as is peer approval. When teachers and peers reinforce conflict, problems can arise. Activities. Activities children like to do can be used to reinforce those they would rather not do. Young children’ s passive and inactive behaviors - listening to a story, finishing an academic task or a worksheet - are reinforced by opportunities to go outside and play. A child will perform a less preferred task so that he can then engage in one that is more preferred (Ormrod, 2008). This is known as the Premack principle (Premack, 1959; Premack, 1963). Students can also select their own favorite activity as a reinforcer, such as using the computer, or playing in the block area. Intrinsic reinforcers. Intrinsic reinforcers are those that come from within – a sense of satisfaction, mastery, relief, pride, stimulation, lack of boredom, and so on. Positive feedback. Positive feedback occurs when a targeted behavior is being accomplished. A sprinter preparing for a race will use a stopwatch to record lap times and plot progress. These records will reinforce the runner’s training efforts (behavior). Feedback is especially likely to be effective when it communicates what students have and have not learned and when it gives them guidance about how to improve (Butler and Winne, 1995; Lhyle and Kulhavy, 1987).

Figure 15.2. Different Kinds of Reinforcers.

Punishment Punishment is likely to decrease a targeted behavior. There are two kinds of punishment: providing a negative stimulus after the undesirable behavior has occurred (scolding, spanking, time out); and taking away a pleasant stimulus – loss of privileges: for example, reduction of a weekly allowance, being kept inside when the other children go out to play. Thus children who are kept inside to work on math problems while the rest of the class goes out to play, or who are assigned to work on their reading while others are doing fun activities like art and music, are being punished. For some children it is not always clear why they are being punished. Is it because they did the problem incorrectly, or because they are just not good at math? Punishment can be effective in shaping behaviors when used appropriately (Martin and Pear, 2003). Punishment, while extremely popular in many education programs, is very problematic, as I will address later.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

350

Francis Wardle

Basics of Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning, as I have already stated, is based on the application of reinforcers to targeted behaviors. However, there are three important conditions that must exist for any reinforcer to be effective, which are explained in figure 15.3. There are also general factors that influence the effectiveness of using reinforcers. For a variety of reasons, these conditions and factors are often violated or compromised by teachers in early childhood and school programs.

Important Conditions for Operant Conditioning to be Effective

1. The reinforcer must follow the response. The reinforcer of a desired behavior or activity must always follow the desired behavior. 2. The reinforcer must follow immediately. A reinforcer reinforces the response that occurred just before it. When it is delayed, it tends to reinforce behaviors that occurred after the desired behavior, but before the reinforcement. 3. The reinforcer must be contingent on the response. A reinforcer must only be presented when the desired response has occurred. Any deviation to this concept reinforces the concept that rules can be broken.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Important Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Reinforcers

1. Timing. In most cases, the greater the delay between the behavior and reinforcer, the slower the learning. However, when immediate reinforcement is not possible, environmental cues can be used. 2. Size and appeal. The larger and more appealing the reinforcer, the faster the learning. However, it’s the relative magnitude and appeal that matters: if the size or appeal of the reward is reduced, it is less effective (Flaherty, 1985). For example, if an elementary school institutes a reading program where the winner “has lunch at McDonalds with the Principal”, and then changes it to “lunch in the lunch room with the V. Principal”, fewer books will be read. 3. Consistency. To learn a new behavior – or eliminate an existing one – continuous reinforcement is needed; to maintain the new behavior, a specific schedule of reinforcement is required. This poses a tremendous challenge for teachers, because it means the appropriate behaviors of the “good kids” must be rewarded, and cannot be ignored. Many teachers, naturally, focus their time and energy only on the difficult children. (Ormrod, 2008) Figure 15.3. Conditions and Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Reinforcers (Ormrod, 2008).

Terminal Behavior This is the level and frequency of the behavior required at the end of the program. Many behavioral objectives are written as terminal behaviors: “the child will sit quietly in his chair

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Behavioral Approaches

351

for ten minutes or more”. It is important to define the exact terminal behavior, and the duration and frequency of the behavior, ahead of instituting the program of reinforcement.

Establishing a Baseline A baseline is the level of the targeted behavior that occurs without the use of the specific reinforcement or a behavioral plan . For example, how often does Johnny provide appropriate behaviors in solving a problem with other students? Obviously, this differs from child to child – some children use appropriate behavior every time, and thus need no modification; others never use appropriate behavior, and therefore need shaping (see the next section).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Shaping We cannot reinforce nonexistent behaviors! Shaping is the means of teaching a behavior when a baseline is too low, or when the desired terminal behavior is incompatible with any of the child’s present behaviors (Ormrod, 2008). Shaping is established by breaking down the desired behavior into discrete units and a progressive sequence of units, and then by reinforcing these discrete behaviors, in order. Once each has been fully learned, the entire sequence is reinforced. Thus, when a young child is totally disruptive in the classroom, the teacher might begin by reinforcing walking (not running), later, talking in turn, and finally, engaging in experiences without interrupting other children’s activities. Extinction In classical conditioning, when the new, conditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the original, unconditioned stimulus, the new stimulus eventually disappears (with some exceptions already discussed). In operant conditioning, a non-reinforced behavior usually decreases and eventually returns to its baseline rate. Of course, this means desirable behaviors can also be extinguished, or returned to their baseline level, which poses considerable challenges for teachers to find ways to continually reinforce desired and appropriate behaviors in the classroom. Superstitious Behaviors Random reinforcement tends to increase whatever behavior occurred just before the reinforcement. Thus, the child believes the behavior reinforced is the desirable behavior – that they are somehow causally connected. This notion is the basis for people’s beliefs in many lucky charms, lucky clothes, and lucky rituals. In the classroom superstitious behaviors can occur when the reinforcer is not contingent on a specific behavior, or when the children do not know what is being reinforced or punished. The belief in a “teacher’s pet” or, “she doesn’t like me” attitude, can be learned this way. Thus it is critical that teachers communicate very clearly and specifically the behaviors they are reinforcing and those they are punishing. Chaining Children can learn a connected chain of responses through shaping. We can reinforce a chain of behaviors by breaking them into small units, by conditioning each unit separately, and finally by reinforcing larger and larger chains of these units. This is a very popular approach to teaching skills and behaviors in many special education programs (see chapter 10). This is also known as a reductionist approach – one that is also used in the phonics

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

352

Francis Wardle

approach to teaching early literacy. Complex sequences of behavior are often easier to teach one step at a time.

Problems and Criticisms of Behaviorism Before addressing the use of behavioral techniques in programs for young children (schools, early childhood programs, and other children’s programs), I will cover some of the problems with reinforcers. I once observed a 4-year-old boy who spent 75% of his day in time out. Shortly after being released from time out he would engage in a targeted behavior and immediately be put back into time out. Obviously time out was not working for him (Wardle, 1982). Figure 15.4 describes the difficulties faced by teachers and others when certain reinforcers don’t seem to work, and discusses why certain reinforcers don’t work. For teachers, the clear message is that, whatever you are doing to discipline children, if it is not working, change it! Figure 15:5 (later in the chapter) provides a discussion of some of the more common criticisms of using behaviorism with young children.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

It is critical for teachers to carefully examine when their use of operant conditioning is not effective. Here are some possible reasons why it may not be working.

1. The reinforcer doesn’t. Many teachers believe that the same reinforcer works for all children. What works for some children may not work for others, especially when gender, age and cultural differences are considered. Further, many reinforcers become ineffective over time. 2. Reinforcement is inconsistent. It is very difficult to reinforce a child’s behavior each time it occurs – especially in a large classroom where the behaviors of many children are being shaped and conditioned. 3. Change is not worth it. An individual may lose too much, or gain too little, by changing her behavior. Maybe the child who is expected to behave appropriately will lose the admiration of the other children. The behavior must be worth the effort to change. 4. Shaping proceeds too quickly. It usually takes a very long time to change a child’s behavior, especially if shaping the behavior is required first. Figure 15.4. When Reinforcement Doesn’t Work.

APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES WITH YOUNG CHILDREN Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are used extensively in programs for young children. While classical conditioning is usually unconsciously applied, operant conditioning approaches are very consciously and deliberately used in most programs, including elementary schools.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Behavioral Approaches

353

Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a very powerful way of creating associations – both positive and negative ones. Many believe that a major purpose of programs for young children is to develop a love of learning (Wardle, 2003). This is because attitudes about learning and education that develop at a young age can have a profound influence on a child’s later school experiences and school success. In classical conditioning parlance, this means we need to condition children to have positive and empowering feelings about a variety of school-related experiences and relationships – teachers, other children, learning, academic activities, classrooms and even school buildings.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Positive Classroom Experiences We need to help children feel positive about school and school-related activities. Students should experience academic learning in contexts that produce pleasant experiences: enjoyment, accomplishment, mastery, competence, excitement, happiness, warmth, security, safety, and so on. When children associate academic learning with positive feelings, they are more likely to pursue them on their own. For example, if a child’s early experience with books is pleasant, the child tends to read more often in their later school years (Baker, Scher and Mackler, 1997). Negative Associations School-related activities, people and environments, such as tests, teachers, and even buildings that are associated with anxiety, frustration, embarrassment or failure, often lead to dislike and avoidance. Tests, oral presentations, too difficult tasks, bullying and harassment, and too high standards, can all lead to children developing negative associations toward school, which is also termed learned helplessness. Teachers must be careful to make sure that no early school activities generate undue levels of anxiety, fear or a sense of failure (Ormrod, 2008). This does not mean children should not experience challenging and difficult tasks, or receive accurate feedback when they have not performed something correctly; it means these activities must be experienced in an empowering, positive and affirming manner. Many believe that because math and mathematics-related activities are taught too quickly, and many basic mathematical concepts are taught before children are developmentally able to understand them (see chapter 2 for a detailed discussion of this issue), children in United States learn at an early age to dislike math and come to believe that they are failures in math-related activities (Schliemann and Carraher, 1993). Focus on Success Especially in the early years, school-related activities should be ones where children experience more successes than failures, and where curricular expectations should be carefully tailored to meet the individual needs of every student. When students experience failure too frequently, either in schoolwork or their social relationships, school may soon become associated in their minds with fear, anxiety, and failure. Once conditioned in the child, these attitudes are very difficult to extinguish, and will affect that child’s later school experiences. These attitudes are particularly powerful for students who continue to struggle in

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

354

Francis Wardle

school. Many of these children eventually choose to drop out, thus totally avoiding these negative associations. Children who struggle in our early childhood programs and elementary schools are at-risk of developing this sense of failure – learned helplessness. In many programs these students are minority children (except Asians) and disproportionately boys (see chapter 11 for a further discussion of at-risk students). Many also have special needs and learning disabilities (Berger, 2009).

Operant Conditioning: Instructional Objectives, Mastery Learning and Contingency Contracts Operant conditioning is used in classrooms in a variety of ways, including instructional objectives, mastery learning, and contingency contracts.

Instructional Objectives Many early childhood and elementary school curricula use instructional objectives to stipulate the skills and concepts to be learned at the end of each unit, curriculum or lesson plan: the outcomes, if you will. These are often divided into domains (social, cognitive, language, physical, affective and so on). Ideally, these objectives or outcomes have three components (Mager, 1962; Schloss and Smith, 1994):

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • •

The outcome is stated in observable and measurable terms; The outcome specifies the condition under which the behavior should occur; The outcome includes the criteria for judging the acceptable level of performance..

Because these objectives must be observable, they tend to focus on low-level skills (Trachtenberg, 1974), which can be a real problem. Low-level skills are those that are at the bottom of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom et al., 1956). They are basic knowledge, words, and facts. For example, important objectives for young children to learn under the math domain (this is true of each domain) are not only counting, adding, subtracting and writing the numbers, but also include many more complex, underlying constructs, such as classification, one-to-one correspondence, patterning, sequencing, categorizing, greater and less than, and so on. These more fundamental outcomes can all be observed, but require more effort and care to do so. Research suggests the use of instructional objectives is not always effective (Meltan, 1978). While this behavioral approach helps teachers and students focus on what should be taught and learned, and how it should be taught and learned, the approach often misses the teaching of critically important areas, such as social skills and complex, creative constructs.

Mastery Leaning Mastery learning is very similar to the already discussed shaping approach: students must learn – master – one lesson well before proceeding to the next. Mastery learning usually includes these elements,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Behavioral Approaches • •

• • •

•

•

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

355

Small, discrete units. Each content area or skill is broken down into a number of separate units, items or sub-skills; A logical sequence. These units are ordered in a logical way, from simple to complex, easy to difficult, concrete to abstract, etc. This process – breaking down behaviors into their smallest components and determining the logical sequence – is known as task analysis. Demonstration of mastery of each unit. A student must demonstrate mastery of each unit or sub-skill before moving on. Concrete, observable criteria for mastery of each unity. The criteria used to determine success must be clearly defined. Additional remedial/compensatory help mastering many of these units or sub-skills is provided to students who need it. Operant conditioning ignores cognitive factors. Operant conditioning works when a child is developmentally ready to learn a task or skill. But if a child is not developmentally ready, or cannot learn the task or skill due to an injury or learning disability, this method is useless and can be counter-productive. A child who cannot visually discriminate the difference between the letters ‘b’, ‘d’ ‘p’ and ‘q’ (all identical in shape) cannot be conditioned to learn the labels for these letters. Reinforcement of predetermined behaviors can interfere with learning over the long run. Reinforcement of a specific task focuses the child’s attention on just completing that talks, often quickly and with minimum effort (Brophy, 1986; Clifford, 1990). When teachers want children to engage in higher-order thinking (i.e., higher levels in Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives)(Bloom et al., 1956), reinforcing the right answer is counter-productive (Brophy, 1986). For example, many college teachers have experienced difficulty in getting students to think beyond the facts of an assignment. Extrinsic reinforcement of a behavior that is being intrinsically reinforced already may actually reduce the behavior. Many researchers have shown that tasks children do because of a sense of accomplishment and mastery decrease once the added extrinsic reinforcer has been removed (Bates, 1979; Lepper and Hodell, 1989). Thus external reinforcers may actually reduce the power of an already existing intrinsic reinforcer. Maybe this is due to the student’s perceived distinction between play, a self-chosen activity, and work – an activity imposed by the teacher (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). Lack of acceptable rewards. With an increased concern for health, mental health, and dental health, rewards such as candy, cookies, parties, fast foods (eating at McDonalds with the principal) and playing video games, are becoming less acceptable. This is based on two arguments: 1), these rewards contribute to childhood obesity, tooth decay, and poor childhood diets and, 2) when used for rewards they become associated in the child’s mind (classical conditioning) with having a good time, rewarding oneself, and consequently needing to eat and party both to have a good time and to offset feelings of depression (Wardle and Winegarner, 1992).

Figure 15.5. Four Major Criticisms of Using Operant Conditioning with Young Children.

In using a mastery learning approach, teachers spend almost all of their time with students who struggle. In a classroom of 25-30 students it is extremely challenging for a teacher to track and monitor 25-30 students; with children in smaller classes, this is still quite difficult, because each child has many diverse areas in which learning is taking place

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

356

Francis Wardle

(Ormrod, 2008). Many individualized computer software programs use this approach to instruction. It is also an approach used a great deal with special education students, it is highly consistent with the scope and sequence approach preferred by many public school curricula, and is the foundation of learning standards that are so popular today. These last two approaches are discussed in detail in chapter 8.

Contingency Contracts The learning or behavior of a single student can be addressed using a contingency contract. This is an agreement between a student and teacher that stipulates certain terminal expectations for the student, and the consequences for meeting those expectations. Contingency contracts are effective both for desired academic expectations and desired social behaviors. It has even found some interesting applications in programs for gifted children, particularly when these children help develop their own contracts and the rubrics with which they will be evaluated (Clark, 1997).

Operant Conditioning: Applied Behavioral Analysis Applied behavioral analysis, ABA, is the most commonly used educational application of operant conditioning. Components of applied behavioral analysis include,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Present Behaviors and Desired Behaviors are Defined in Observable, Measurable Terms Applied behavioral analysis focuses on observable behaviors. Thus baseline behaviors and target behaviors must be carefully defined in behavioral and measurable terms. The behaviors to be increased or decreased are called target behaviors. An Effective Reinforcer is Identified In early childhood and school programs, social reinforcers (praise) and activity reinforcers (special privileges/choice of an activity) are often effective (Bates, 1979). Sometimes providing immediate and accurate feedback that the child did something correct is enough (Harris and Rosenthal, 1985). If material reinforcers are needed – because the others do not work – it usually works for parents to provide these at home (Miller and Kelley, 1994). However, delayed reinforcment does not work with young children, thus making this approach and token economies much less effective. But in many intense therapy programs such as the ones used with children who have autism spectrum disorder (discussed later in this chapter), parents give permission for therapists and instructors to use a vast array of material reinforcers. A Specific Treatment Plan is Developed A method of reinforcement must be developed. This may include simply reinforcing the correct behavior every time it occurs, and ignoring the inappropriate behavior. However, if the baseline for the desired behavior is very low at the time intervention is instituted, then shaping must be used. Extinction, differential reinforcement and stimulus control (changing the environment) can also be included.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Behavioral Approaches

357

The Behavior is Measured The target behavior must be measured both at the baseline level, and after treatment begins. This can be done in a variety of ways: frequency, rate, time sampling, and so on. Some behaviorists also believe that antecedent events (those events that trigger the targeted behaviors) and the results of the new behavior (intended and unintended reinforcers) should also be recorded (Rimm and Masters, 1974; Schloss and Smith, 1994).. Someone other than the teacher - at least two observers - should record these behaviors; and the observers must be as objective as possible. The Treatment is Monitored If the targeted behavior increases or decreases as expected, the treatment is on track. However, if the targeted behavior does not change, analysis and modification must be made to determine why the approach is not successful. It is critical not to continue a behavioral approach when it is not working, yet many teachers simply increase the reinforcers or punishments when the desired result is not achieved. Obviously, modification of the treatment plan that is not working must be carefully made, and then the new plan must be monitored. Newly Learned Behaviors are Generalized Efforts must be made to make sure the new behaviors, or the newly extinguished behaviors, generalize beyond the specific stimulus conditions of the treatment. This is because we want specific behaviors to occur, or specific behaviors not to occur, in a variety of settings and contexts, not just in the one setting or context where the behavior was taught. For example, if we are trying to change the behavior of a child who hits other children, we want the new behavior (not hitting) to occur in the classroom, on the playground, and even at home. Here are some methods to use to help generalize the new behaviors,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • •

•

Teach the desired behavior in a variety of different settings. If possible, teach it in the setting in which it naturally occurs (i.e. playground, block area, fieldtrip, etc). Teach a variety of versions of the target behavior – i.e., teach a variety of appropriate conflict resolution techniques, not just one. Teach the relationship between the behavior and the naturally occurring reinforcers in the natural contexts. For example, point out to the child that appropriate social skills leads peers to want to play with a child whom they shunned before because of his aggressive behaviors. Thus the other children will reinforce his newly learned behaviors. Reinforce the target behavior when it occurs spontaneously in a new setting, thus reinforcing generalization (Stokes and Baer, 1977).

Treatment is Phased Out after the Behavior is Learned Once the terminal behavior is reached, the behavioral program should be gradually phased out. In many situations the new behavior produces its own set of reinforcers. In other situations, intermittent reinforcement may be needed to maintain the new behavior, or to keep the old behavior from resurfacing.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

358

Francis Wardle

Using Applied Behavioral Analysis with Large Groups: Token Economy A token economy is the most common use of ABA in group settings. With this approach, individuals who have performed appropriately, according to their target behaviors, are rewarded with a token. The token can be exchanged later for objects or privileges chosen by the individual student. These might be free time, a preferred activity, a better position in the lunch line, and so on. Token economies work because they enable teachers with a large group of children to reward the target behavior immediately, and because children can select rewards that are personally meaningful to them. Most token economies include these components, • • •

•

A set of rules. These stipulate the behaviors that will be reinforced. Token reinforcers. Poker chips, check marks, play money, or points are used as the tokens. A variety of objects, activities and privileges. Things that have been shown to work as reinforcers include free time, participation in special events, and parent- awarded allowances (McKenzie, et al., 1968). A store. At this store the rewards can be purchased. Young children need one purchase opportunity each day; older children can handle one or two a week (Ormrod, 2008).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

As I have pointed out, however, many younger children cannot delay gratification for a whole day; other children from diverse backgrounds need immediate reinforcement. Thus, as with all behavioral techniques, any teacher using a token economy in their program must very carefully observe whether it works, and whether it works equally for all the children in the class. If not, the teacher needs to alter her approach. Box: 15.1. Reflective Thinking: Does Activity Reinforcement Deny Some Children Desperately Needed Opportunities to Succeed? Erik Erikson argues that children, ages 5½ to 12 years old, must develop mastery in a variety of areas. They need to learn to feel competent in things that peers their age can do (1963). Activity reinforcement uses a child’s preferred activity or activity choice to reinforce targeted behaviors. The question is, does this prevent the child whose behavior is being reinforced from excelling at maybe the only thing she is good at? Let’s suppose the child enjoys working on the computer. Many children who struggle in traditional school activities seem to have an affinity for computers. If access to the computer is denied the child, except when she achieves a targeted behavior – or an incremental step toward mastering that behavior – she doesn’t get to use the computer when she needs to feel a sense of success and power: what Erikson calls industry; what we usually refer to as competence. Her feelings of industry are always dependent on mastering something she is not good at. While other students can freely select the computer center as one of their learning choices, the child whose behavior is being modified, cannot. I have observed this dilemma many times regarding the use of the outdoor playground. Often a very active and disruptive child is punished for his inappropriate behavior in the classroom by being denied access to the playground at recess. It would seem that this child actually needs the playground activity more than the other children. What do you think?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Behavioral Approaches

359

Effectiveness of Applied Behavioral Analysis Applied behavioral analysis has been shown to be effective in increasing academic performance (Braukmann, Ramp and Wolf, 1981; McLaughlin and Williams, 1988), and in reducing negative behaviors (Frankel and Simmons, 1985). It is particularly effective for students who struggle to engage in appropriate social and academic behaviors, and is therefore used extensively in the education and therapy of children with learning difficulties and behavior problems (Braukmann et al., 1981; Haring, Roger, Lee, Been and Gaylord-Ross, 1986). It is also an increasingly popular intervention choice for working with children who are below grade level in specific areas such as reading, writing, and math. There is some question as to whether this approach is more effective with certain populations of chidlren, such as African American children (Trawick-Smith, 2003) (see figure 15.7). However, if this is true, teachers must carefully consider the types of reinforcers that will work in a classroom setting, as discussed earlier.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Use of ABA in Educational Settings As I discuss in the chapter on exceptional children (chapter 10), a variety of behavioral approaches are used extensively with children who have various disabilities, including language, cognitive, social, emotional and behavioral delays. I also discuss the considerable conflict that often exists between special education professionals, and regular classroom teachers who often question the use of some of the behavioral methods, and who support approaches that use redirection, natural and logical consequences, and verbal intervention – what many call guidance. However, it is important to recognize that behavioral approaches are being used with young children, both in regular classrooms, inclusive classrooms, and in intensive therapeutic settings. They are also being used with school-age children whose academic performance is below the standard for their age. Box 15.2. Reflective Thinking: Cultural Use of Punishment Many African American parents, along with social workers and other professionals, believe that physical punishment is part of African American’s cultural heritage (Wright, 2000). Further, studies show that African Americans tend to use physical discipline (punishment) to teach their children, particularly to teach them to follow the strict rules of a racist society and to protect them from racist oppression (Comer and Poussaint, 1992). Some educators, interested in being culturally relevant and responsive professionals, believe that minority children, particularly African American children, need much more strict disciple, including punishment, than do White children (although few support physical punishment)(Bowman, 2006; Lubeck, 1994). Should early childhood and elementary school programs that serve a majority of children of color use more strict discipline and more punishment, compared to programs of predominantly White and Asian children? Why/Why not?

ABA with Children who Have Autism Spectrum Disorder ABA is a behavioral approach that is being used extensively with children with a variety of disabilities, particularly children who have autism spectrum disorder. It is used, beginning Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

360

Francis Wardle

at age 15 months of age, in very intensive therapeutic interventions (Families for Early Autism Treatment, 2006). Dr Lovaas of the Lovaas Institute in Sacramento, California, has pioneered the use of intensive ABA therapy for the children for up to 40 hours a week. This approach is used to improve a child’s behaviors and skills in a variety of areas, including language, cognitive development, socialization and play, social language, self-help skills, and reduction of inappropriate behaviors (Families for Early Autism Treatment). Throughout the United States there are a variety of programs that provide direct ABA therapy for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, along with working closely with schools to train their staff in various techniques to implement the ABA approach in special education programs and classrooms (Families for Early Autism Treatment, 2006).

Use of Punishment in Educational Settings

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

As I have already suggested, the use of punishment is widespread in organized programs for children, from child care to K-12 schools (Sears, Macoby and Levin, 1976; Wielkiewicz, 1986). While we usually think of physical punishment, there are, of course, many other forms of punishment. Below are some examples of the more common uses of punishment as a discipline method in early childhood and elementary school classrooms. Figure 15.6 lists some potential problems associated with using these techniques.

Time Out In time out, the misbehaving student is placed in a stimulus-deprived environment away from her peers. Sometimes this location is a separate room in which the child cannot interact with other children. The timeout area should not be socially reinforcing (thus the director’s or principal’s office is not appropriate!), or frightening, as a dark closet would be (Walker and Shea, 1995). Short time outs – as little as 2 minutes for preschool children; no more than 10 minutes for any child – are sufficient. Release from time out must be contingent on the child eliminating the inappropriate behaviors and exhibiting the appropriate ones. (This, of course, creates a problem: what should the teacher do if the child does not exhibit the required behaviors within the short period of time assigned to time out?). Time out reduces a variety of disruptive, aggressive and inappropriate behaviors (Frankel and Simmons, 1985). Response Cost Response cost is the removal of a previously earned reinforcer, such as the child who has gained a token for an appropriate activity will then have that token taken away. Children who lose earned allowances are examples of this approach. This method works well to reduce negative behaviors (Rapport, Murphy and Bailey, 1982), and appears to work particularly well when combined with rewards for appropriate behaviors (Phillips, Phillips, Fixsen and Wolf, 1971). Verbal Reprimands Verbal reprimands – a scolding or admonishment – work as punishment for most children (O’leary, Kaufman, Kass and Drabman, 1970).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Behavioral Approaches

361

While punishment is used extensively in many children’s programs, there are some major problems associated with using punishment as a discipline method. Cleary these problems depend to some degree on the amount and severity of punishment used. Punishment can be effective when used appropriately (Martin and Pear, 2003). While many education professionals disapprove of these methods, they are approved by some religious and culture groups in the US, and are used extensively in some other countries (Trawick-Smith, 2003). Many parents use them, also. Some problems with using punishment to modify children’s behaviors are,

• A punished behavior is not eliminated. It often reappears when the punishment stops or the punisher leaves (teacher/parent).

• Punishment does not address the causes of the behavior. There are often extremely clear and •

•

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

•

•

•

salient reasons why a child behaves a specific way in a specific situation. Punishment does not attempt to determine these reasons, and does not address the causes of the behavior. Punishment may lead to an increase in the targeted behavior. The punishment may act as a reinforcer. First, the child might only get the desired attention for negative behaviors in the classrooms (true for many boys in our education programs) and thus these behaviors are being reinforced; second, sometimes punishment causes what is known as behavioral contrast – the heightened incidence of the undesirable behavior in a setting where it is not punished (i.e., the playground). This can also occur when parents are overly strict, and then their children “act out” in school. The opposite can also occur. Often children are not aware of the specific behavior being punished. A child who feels he is being punished for being a ‘bad boy’ will not change the specific, targeted behavior, because he won’t know what it is. Punishment often produces undesirable, yet natural responses, including avoidance and escape. The punishment may, through classical conditioning, become associated with the setting and/or the punisher (Skinner, 1938). Thus, a child continually punished by a teacher may learn to dislike all teachers and school in general. This child may then avoid interacting with all teachers, including those who want to provide extra help, and may refuse to stay after school for special tutorial programs. Eventually the child may avoid school altogether, and drop out. Punishment can lead to aggression. When punishment produces pain or embarrassment, it can result in anger and aggression, especially in certain children (Azrin, 1967; Walters and Grusec, 1977). Further, aggressive punishment provides a working model of an acceptable response to behaviors and people the child doesn’t like. Children who observe others being aggressive are more likely to be aggressive themselves (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1961). Aggressive children tend to come from homes where severe punishment is frequent (Welsh, 1967). Punishment does not show the child how to engage in the desirable behavior. Punishment only tells a child what not to do (Skinner, 1938). It teaches nothing. Often the child’s targeted behavior (say reducing being aggressive with other children) is the only way they know how to interact socially – a behavior that is reinforced at home and in the community. They need to be taught an appropriate behavior to replace the inappropriate one. Severe punishment can cause emotional and physical harm. Clearly a great amount of child abuse results from too aggressive punishment; many adults with low self-esteem received a constant barrage of putdowns and punishment when they were children (Berger, 2009). Parents who were abused as children are more likely to become abusers (Berger).

Figure 15.6. Disadvantages Associated with Punishment.

These reprimands act as punishment, provide feedback to students regarding acceptable classroom behaviors, and seem to enhance the value of praise as a positive reinforcer (Pfiffner Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

362

Francis Wardle

and O’Leary, 1987). Verbal reprimands seem to be more effective when accompanied by eye contact and when spoken in a soft voice (thus less likely to attract the attention of other students, which would be a reinforcer.) Also note that, just as reinforcers lose their effectiveness over time, so do verbal reprimands. Children who receive lots of verbal reprimands at home probably will not respond effectively to this approach in the classroom. Also note that children from some cultures do not engage in eye contact with adults. Finally, if a child is used to much harsher discipline at home, a soft verbal reprimand probably will not work at school.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Restitution and Overcorrection In educational parlance we call restitution, logical consequences (Wardle, 2003). In this case a child who has exhibited inappropriate behavior must return the environment to its original state of affairs. When my son broke his bedroom window, he and I purchased a piece of glass and some putty, and then repaired the window, together. While this was clearly restitution, my son and I also had some quality time together! In overcorrecting, the child repeats the negative behavior, but this time in its appropriate manner – a very common practice in many education programs. A child who runs across the room making a large disturbance will be told by the teacher to return and walk quietly across the room (often the classroom rule that applies is recited by the child, as a from of private speech). Some behaviorists believe both of these methods bring too much attention to the offending student, and are therefore, from a behavioral perspective, more reinforcing than punishing (Schloss and Smith, 1974). Cautions in Using Punishment Punishment is the quickest way of reducing or eliminating unacceptable behaviors (Ormrod, 2008). However, it is a very controversial approach with many potential shortcomings. What is most critical in the practice of using punishment as a discipline technique is that any punishment that does not suppress or eliminate the targeted behavior very quickly must be rejected for an alternative discipline method. However, many teachers persist in using the punishment long after a positive result should have occurred.

CONCLUSION Various forms of behaviorism are used in early childhood programs, elementary schools, and other children’s programs. While we usually associate operant conditioning with these programs, as a discipline method, approach to increasing specific prosocial behaviors and academic learning, and for special education students to help them meet goals of their IEPs and IEPs, classical conditioning also has a very powerful, if hidden, place in our children’s programs. Through classical conditioning children learn to associate certain attitudes with school and learning, depending on the nature of their early experiences: joy, achievement, warmth, a love of learning, empowerment, respect, fear, anxiety, dislike, avoidance, and so on. These conditioned stimuli – associations – often follow children throughout their entire school experience and life, and are very difficult to change and modify. As a college teacher I

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Behavioral Approaches

363

am continually faced with students who struggle with their studies because of some of these negative associations that they learned when they were young. Operant conditioning is used to reinforce (both through positive and negative reinforcement) appropriate and desirable behaviors and activates, and to ignore and punish undesirable behaviors. Positive and negative reinforcement involves increasing target behaviors through reinforcing the target behavior and reducing aversive stimuli to a behavior; punishment involves reducing a behavior through the use of unpleasant stimuli. Different things can act as reinforcers – some extrinsic, and others intrinsic. Effective reinforcers and aversive stimuli differ from child to child; further, there are a variety of conditions that must be met for operant conditioning to be effective. And, finally, repeated use of reinforcers and aversive stimuli reduce their effectiveness. Teachers must practice caution in applying classical conditioning and operant conditioning in their programs. The main concern regarding classical conditioning is that we create in young children positive, affirmative and hopeful associations with learning, school and academic success – teachers, activities, settings and overall experiences. With operant conditioning, two overall cautions must be considered, 1) that we do not replace the important intrinsic reinforcers of mastery, accomplishment and empowerment with teacher administered external reinforcers, and, 2) that punishment does not create in certain children a belief that they are failures and unable to achieve either socially and/or academically – or worse, that they come to believe they are simply bad children.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

QUESTIONS/PROJECTS 1. Observe an early childhood or elementary school program.. Observe the discipline procedures and techniques used by the teachers. Determine to what extent they follow principles of behaviorism, and to what extent they use other disciple and redirection approaches. At the end of the session, ask to examine the program’s discipline plan/policy. 2. Visit a program that includes children with special needs, particularly emotional and behavioral challenges. Observe the teachers and therapists working with these children; interview a teacher and a therapist. What components of behaviorism are they using in their intervention and treatment? Are they using these methods consistently, according to this chapter? Are they effective? 3. Through making some inquiries, select two early childhood or school programs, one that claims to not use behavioral approaches for discipline purposes, and one that asserts they do use these approaches. Compare and contrast these two programs. 4. Pick two children’s programs that serve essentially the same age children. Pick one that serves primarily middle-class White children, and one that overwhelmingly serves minority children (Black, Hispanics or Native America). Compare the discipline approaches of these two programs. Is one more behavioral than the other; does one use more punishment than the other? Why? Which approach seems to be most effective, at least in managing behavior? 5. If you are a parent, evaluate your discipline methods in light of content in this chapter. If you are not a parent, but expect to be one some day, examine your ideas

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

364

Francis Wardle about how you will discipline your future children, based on information discussed in this chapter. Will you change any of your approaches after reading the chapter? Why/why not? Further, do you believe most parents are “too soft” (don’t use punishment enough) or “too hard” (use too much punishment)?

RESOURCES

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Programs that serve young children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. www.feat.org/abaproviders.htm

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Chapter 16

THE PROJECT APPROACH TO LEARNING

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION One day my Kindergarten class was returning from a nature walk. It was a very cold winter day in rural SW Pennsylvania, and there was about 18” of snow on the ground. As we turned the corner on the crisp white pathway, a parade of children and teachers came towards us. The whole procession was lead by a bearded man dressed in a general’s uniform, riding high on the back of a beautiful, white horse. Warm, moist air from the horse and rider froze in the cold air. Behind was a rag-tag group of teachers and children, wrapped in warm clothes to ward off the bitter cold. “What’s going on?” I inquired. “We are retracing the route of General Braddock’s campaign against the Americans during the American revolution”, one of students responded. “It’s part of our project on the Revolutionary War”. The whole group then marched passed us, as my Kindergarteners gazed in amazement. Projects are a wonderful way to learn. Adults use them in real life all the time. They are such an effective learning approach because they involve real, concrete learning in a social context, they provide meaningful learning, and they allow children to learn a vast variety of information, skills and knowledge in a very integrated manner. However, in many early childhood programs and elementary schools, projects are used as thematic approaches that are often reduced to “dinosaurs in September and Indians in November”. True projects are often rare; they seem to be getting even rarer, largely due to the increased emphasis on standards, outcomes and assessments in our early childhood and elementary school programs. In this chapter I present the theoretical underpinning of the project approach, detail the current model as proposed by Helm and Katz (2001), and present ideas for how early childhood and elementary school programs can use the project approach.

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. What is the project approach? How does it differ from a thematic unit? 2. To what extent is the project in this approach child-initiated and to what extent teacher created?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

366

Francis Wardle 3. What is the educational value of using the project approach? In the current milieu of standards and assessments, can we afford to use this approach? 4. What are ways to encourage the use of the project approach in early childhood and elementary school programs? 5. Is the project approach a total curriculum approach, or is it more of an approach that can be embedded within other curricula?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

THE PROJECT APPROACH The project approach to learning comes out of the progressive education movement fathered by John Dewey, is a vital part of British Infant/Primary school approach, and was used excessively in the free/alternative schools of the 1960s and 1970s. It is still very much a part of British Infant/Primary programs, other school models such as expeditionary schools, and, of course, is a central component of the Reggio Emilia approach. According to Helm and Katz (2001), the term Project Approach means, “A project is an in-depth investigation of a topic worth learning more about. The investigation is usually undertaken by a small group of children within a class, sometimes by a whole class, and occasionally by an individual child. The key feature of a project is that it is a research effort deliberately focused on finding answers to questions about a topic posed either by the children, the teacher, or the teacher working with the children” (p. 1). Unlike a thematic curriculum, projects are technically not a curriculum at all, but rather a large activity or collection of activities embedded within a curriculum. They might be pursued on Monday and Wednesday morning, every Friday afternoon, or another logical and regular schedule, depending on availability of staff and parent volunteers, space, and the field site. One of the central goals of the project approach is to teach dispositions. According to Katz (1993), dispositions are habits of the mind that provide a variety of tendencies to interpret experiences – to help children learn. Helm and Katz believe that most young children naturally have these dispositions. Unfortunately, many early childhood and school programs unwittingly teach these dispositions out of children. So one of the goals of the project approach is to nurture, support and encourage the natural dispositions all children have to explore, learn, theorize, and order and reconstruct their knowledge. Some habits of the mind that support learning, include, • • • • • • • • • •

Make sense of experiences Theorize, analyze, hypothesize, and synthesize Predict and then check the accuracy of those predictions Find things out Strive for accuracy Be empirical Grasp the consequences of one’s actions Persist in seeking solutions to problems Speculate about cause-effect relationships Predict the wishes and feelings of others (Helm and Katz, 2001, p. 4).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Project Approach to Learning

367

While the project fits comfortably within a curriculum that provides a variety of other learning experiences, including learning centers, themes, field trips, and direct instruction, “unless the elements of child initiation, child decision making, and child engagement are present in a learning experience, it is not a project, and it is less likely to provide the unique benefits of project work” (Helm and Katz, p. 4). Thus, a legitimate project is an opportunity for children to direct and control a significant part of their learning.

The Value of Using Projects The project approach provides a lot of opportunities for young children to engage in a variety of rich learning experiences. Some of these experiences include child-initiated learning, meaningful learning, parent involvement, cognitive developmental and brain development, literacy learning, and problem solving opportunities.

Supporting Child-Initiated Learning Child-initiated learning is learning that starts with children’s interests, questions, knowledge and exploration. It is important, because, • •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• •

In many early childhood programs today we are moving to a more teacher-directed, whole group approach; Research suggests child-initiated learning by all young children, including lowincome, minority children, increases academic skill acquisition (Marcon, 1992; 1993; 1994; see also chapter three); Children learn to direct and structure their own learning, a positive disposition for later school and life success, especially in this age of technology; Children who spend significant amounts of time in early childhood programs and before- and after-school programs need opportunities to follow their interests, to acquire new interests, and to investigate a topic in-depth (Helm and Katz, 2001).

Supports Meaningful Learning Children need deep emotional involvement in their learning. Children have an inborn curiosity to learn, explore, and become emotionally involved in their own development (Berger, 2009), but often children in organized programs lack opportunities to fully explore of their own, unique personal interests (Wardle, 2005). Experiences in which learners take responsibility for their own work – engaged learning experiences – produce learners who take responsibility for their own learning: they are self-regulated, define their own goals and evaluate their own accomplishments (Jones, Valdez, Norakowski and Rasmussen, 1994). Thus, meaningful learning also helps develop emotional regulation and intentional learning, not to mention increasing on-task behavior. In the project approach children are engaged in investigations, initiation, and the pursuit of their own interests. This is why Helm and Katz call the children involved in these projects, young investigators (2001).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

368

Francis Wardle

Increase Parent Involvement There is no question that good early childhood programs explore a variety of ways to include parents (Epstein, 1995), that parent involvement has a positive impact on student achievement (Henderson and Berla, 1994), and that many programs – especially those serving low-income, minority children – struggle in this area. Even Head Start programs, which have a stellar history of involving parents, are constantly seeking ways to increase parent involvement in student learning. The project approach increases parent involvement in four areas, • • • •

Volunteering Learning at home School-home communication Parent-community collaborations (Helm and Katz, 2001).

Parents not only become co-learners with their children as they investigate, explore and implement a project, but they also observe the learning their children exhibit in these projects, and the techniques teachers use to explore, teach, scaffold, investigate and record children’s learning. Parents then can use and adapt these techniques at home. This is powerful modeling, especially for parents who believe all good instruction must be through direct, adult-tostudent teaching, with the adult as the expert and the student as the passive learner.

Supporting Cognitive Development and Brain Development According to Berk (2009), some of the specific cognitive skills that are being developed between age 2- 12, include,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

•

• • • •

A variety of ways to represent experiences, including language (written and oral), photographs, pictures, maps, and physical activities, such as finger plays, dance, and movement; Taking the perspective of others; Discriminating between animate and inanimate objects; Categorizing, classifying and ordering of items both according to their physical characteristics and by their function; Classifying objects hierarchically.

The project approach provides a myriad of opportunities for children to engage in these important activities. Further, a tremendous amount of brain development and brain growth occurs during the early years (Shore, 1997; see chapter 12). One of the most important kinds of cognitive experiences that must occur at this age are experiences that help children make connections between domains – what is called integrated learning (Catherwood, 1999). Projects do this well, by building on children’s current knowledge, increasing verbal communication, and providing many opportunities for learning and growth across and between a variety of domains.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Project Approach to Learning

369

The project approach is made up of a combination of ideas and concepts from other theorists and educational approaches, such as Dewey, Bruner, Reggio Emilia, Vygotsky, brain research, and Piaget. Based on your reading in this book, how many ideas from other chapters can you list that are contained in the project approach? Theorist/approach

Ideas/concepts

Figure 16.1. Reflective Thinking.

Supporting Literacy Development Literacy has become a curricular focus of many early childhood and elementary education programs throughout this country and much of the world. The project approach supports literacy development in a number of ways, including,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • • • • •

In-depth discussions between teachers and students; Discussions between students and parents; Discussions between students and students; Use of drawing and early writing to represent ideas; Creating representations through writing, block building, making signs for dramatic play, drawing plans, etc.; Attempting to read project webs; and Reading signs, environmental print, books, and pamphlets (and Internet documents) to find needed answers to questions.

Projects are particularly effective in supporting these forms of literacy learning because children have a sense of purpose and motivation to complete the project. Further, as Vygotsky and others have so convincingly pointed out, literacy – oral and written language – is a social activity; thus projects that use language socially are powerful literacy learning experiences (Berk and Winsler, 1995).

Supports Problem Solving A great amount of problem solving occurs while children are engaged in doing projects. Children must ask questions, collect data, and solve problems. They must plan, strategize, and hypothesize. They even must problem solve how to problem solve: “What information do I need so that I can solve this problem or answer this question?” and, “Where can I get this information?” Children also must solve important problems as they create models, design possibilities, and draw charts and diagrams. Children who wish to create a model of their project in the classroom must address problems of space, materials, other students’ needs, schedules, and so on (Helm and Katz, 2001).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

370

Francis Wardle

Another tremendous advantage of the project approach for problem solving is that these problems – and their solutions – change over the course of the project. Thus, students must learn to be flexible and innovative thinkers.

THE PROJECT APPROACH PROCESS While the project approach contains many ideas similar to emergent curriculum (Jones and Nimmo, 1994), it additionally includes a great deal of planning, structure and purpose. Its overall structure is divided into 3 phases, each of which is described below (Helm and Katz 2001).

Phase I: Getting Started

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Like the overall thematic approach to curriculum development, a general topic must be selected. However, the selection of the topic is a very critical part of the overall project approach process. The best topics are those that emerge from parent and child input, teacher observations of children’s interests, and teachers’ enthusiasm and expertise (Jones and Nimmo, 1994). The educational program should engage in an ongoing process of collecting information from parents, children, and staff about topics of interest (see figure 16.1). Provide a place on the registration form for parents to describe their child’s interests. Ask parents at regular conferences what their children like to at home, in the evening, on weekends, and during holidays. Send a message home to solicit ideas when you are planning to develop a project. When you are going to start a project, place a suggestion box in the classroom. Ask children on a regular basis what they are interested in learning. Document and record the results, and refer to them when you plan a project. Ask parents at parent meetings what they think their children would like to learn.. Carefully observe children in the classroom and record things they talk about, subjects they use for dramatic play, and ideas they bring up in group discussions, etc. Figure 16.1. Methods Used to Collect Informational About Children’s Interests.

Child-Initiated Topics Children often initiate their own projects. Sometimes a group of children will become interested with the same thing at the same time; at other times one child will have such a burning curiosity that he/she influences other children to also become interested. Sometimes a topic arises from a catalytic event – an event that causes a series of processes to begin. Many teachers have experienced an ongoing activity near the child care center that is one of these catalytic events, such as road paving, a neighborhood construction project, a Canada Goose nest, or part of the child care center being remodeled. Other catalytic events may be a momentous event for a single child (going to the hospital, moving) or a life-changing event for a parent (becoming a volunteer fire firefighter, becoming and EMT, etc.)

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Project Approach to Learning

371

The value of these child-initiated activities is that it is easier to move into the investigators’ stage, because children have a common set of experiences (Helm and Katz 2001).

Teacher – Initiated Topics Teachers who are aware of students’ interests and carefully observe student activities often select viable topics for projects. Further, teacher-initiated activities can also morph into student-initiated topics. In my experience, however, teachers must be very sensitive to the interests of children, and not simply assume that they know what children need and are interested in. Further, many teachers seem to be in a rut regarding topic selection – based on popular curriculum themes and topics that are used every year. So capitalizing on studentinitiated topics also forces teachers to expand their own vision and learning. As Helm and Katz have pointed out, a project approach involves an in-depth investigation of a topic worth learning more about (2001). Once the teachers have selected several potential topics, they need to be evaluated. After considering the developmental appropriateness of the project for all the children in group, class or school (depending on the size of the project), these questions should be used as criteria to evaluate the topic (Helm and Katz, 2001), •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • • •

•

•

Provide many opportunities for hands-on, concrete learning and direct experiences for children; Relate to children’s prior experiences; Include real physical sites near the program that children can visit multiple times; Allow children to do research with minimal adult supervision; Provide opportunities for children to represent what they are learning through a variety of representational activities and techniques that are appropriate to their developmental age – drawing, role playing, building with blocks, creating models on the woodwork bench, taking photographs, writing reports, replicating scientific ideas (growing plants, constructing a model), developing PowerPoint presentations, and so on; Align with the program’s overall goals and objectives. Often specific outcomes, objectives and even standards - literacy, math, science, and social studies - can easily be incorporated into a project; Directly relate to students’ home and community experiences, thus using Dewey’s idea of a child’s personal experiences as the foundation for learning (1938).

Anticipatory Teacher Planning Once the teacher(s) have selected a topic, they should create a variety of anticipatory webs to plan potential activities, ideas and ways to explore the topic. Trying out the topic in this manner, “not only assists a teacher in evaluating the worthiness and practicality of a topic, but also helps a teacher to integrate components of a curriculum” (p. 19). Questions that should be asked to help in this process include, •

Are there experts available (in the school, in the parent community, in the neighborhood) who might be available to interact with the children?

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

372

Francis Wardle • • •

Are there sites that can be safely visited several times, hopefully to see some kind of progress or development? How might parents respond to the topic – positively or negatively – and how can they become involved in the project? How might young investigators represent the findings of their investigation and the learning that results from it (Helm and Katz, 2001)?

Building Common Experiences If a topic is child-initiated, children will already have “a body of knowledge” about the topic; if it is teacher-initiated, the teacher needs to determine ways to build common experiences for the students around the topic: reading a book, introducing theme-related props into the dress-up area, talking to students about a topic, going on a field trip, or by watching a video. Sometimes called messing around with the topic, this allows children to develop a knowledge base about the topic, including ideas, concepts and a basic vocabulary.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Finding Out What Children Know Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development is the area between what a child knows and/or can do on her own, and what the child can know/do with assistance (Berk and Winsler, 1995). This develops into what is commonly known as the K-W-L strategy: Kwhat do we know, W- what do we want to know, and, finally, L what have we learned? Thus we need to know what children know and what they can do regarding the topic. Discussions with children can be used to create lists and a variety of webs; observing children in themebased dramatic play, asking children to draw what they know about the topic, having children write what they know, and building constructions with blocks about the topic, all provide invaluable information to help establish baseline knowledge. Records of these products, including photos of block construction and dramatic play, should be kept for documentation and communication. What do Children Want to Know? In the project approach process we can determine the top of each child’s zone of proximal development by asking students questions for investigations, such as, “What do you want to know about the topic? Would you like to know ‘x’ about the topic? What about this topic fascinates you?” Obviously this preliminary list will expand greatly as the project moves forward. Setting up the Environment The classroom – and the outdoors, if it is to be included in the project – need to be set up for the project. Obviously different areas of the program’s environment will be used, depending on the project. For all projects, however, certain areas or equipment are needed: • • •

A table and shelves to display artifacts, books, and other ongoing research on the topic; Bulletin board space to display webs, project word lists, time lines, photographs, children’s work, schedules of site visits, journal entries, etc; A large space where a construction or project-in-progress can be left undisturbed;

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Project Approach to Learning •

373

An area to display artifacts, examples, and items collected from the filed site (brochures, photographs, wood samples, plants, etc).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Sometimes traditional learning centers can be used; on other occasions a hallway or common space, or even part of the playground needs to be reserved for the project. Programs that don’t regularly use learning centers, student display areas, and dramatic play space will need to make radical changes to their environment.

Equipment and resources also need to be gathered. These include construction, art and literacy materials, including picture books, realistic books, and how-to books. Also, any brochures and posters that might relate to the project should to be gathered. Some projects are connected to famous people, so biographies, examples of their works, etc., must be collected. Specific project-related material include, • • • • • •

Clipboards with pencils attached with a string; Laundry baskets or other large baskets with handles to carry the clipboards; Individual journals; Individual storage space for children to keep their ongoing work; Recording tools. Classrooms with computers should invest in a good digital camera; Specific tools for a specific projects, be it magnifying glasses, binoculars, rain and wind gauges, tape measures, a tape recorder for interviews, video camera, regular camera, digital camera (Helm and Katz, 2001).

Daily Schedule Children need large blocks of time to pursue projects and to engage in meaningful learning (Wardle, 2005). Helms and Katz recommend time frames of a minimum of 45-60

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

374

Francis Wardle

minute blocks. The project can be assigned to just one block of time each day, several blocks of time, or different amounts of time during the week, depending on a variety of factors. For example, a day that includes a trip to the site might need more time than was originally allocated to the project.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Phase II Developing the Project Phase II of the Project Approach is divided into two sections: developing the project, and implementing the project. The development stage includes, reviewing the children’s web, revisiting the anticipatory planning web, involving parents, selecting a field site, preparing site personnel, preparing visiting experts, and introducing specific skills.

Reviewing Children’s Web Teachers review the original web they developed with the children that shows their initial list of questions and areas of interest. Teachers display these webs, and also attach photos and drawings to the words to help younger children understand them. They then expand on these questions, enabling children to think more in-depth about the topic. Revisiting the Anticipatory Planning Web Teachers revisit their planning webs, making them more concrete and focusing the topic more, based on input from the children. The teachers might also list some of the objects and items that can be collected from the site to represent various aspects of the topic in the classroom, such as pictures and artifacts. Involving Parents Now is the best time to actively include parents. Send a letter to parents describing the project and soliciting their help. Background information should be provided, along with a list

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Project Approach to Learning

375

of questions students are trying to answer about the topic. Also solicit resources, artifacts, and suggestions for field sites and classroom experts – including possible parent experts. At this time parents and siblings become interested and involved, and the students often become very enthusiastic about the project. Sometimes a student becomes the expert, teaching their parents and siblings.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Selecting a Field Site A field site allows for students to do field work, to investigate the site, and to become engaged in-depth with the topic. Here they attempt to answer many of their questions. And they borrow artifacts to sketch, photograph, study and display in the classroom. Thus the selection of the site is critical. For many reasons it is good to have a site that is easy to visit and that can be visited more than once. A teacher should also visit the site ahead of time. This gives the teacher real information about safety issues, space, customers on the site (if there are any), and legal issues, and also allows the teacher to prepare the experts at the site. Figure 16.2 lists questions that can be used to determine the appropriateness of a potential field site. Safety Is the site safe for young children to visit? Will it be difficult to monitor children as they explore the site? Will it be possible to shelter children from traffic, machinery, open water, or other potential dangers? Investigation Are there areas, processes, or equipment that children can investigate on their own, instead of just hearing someone talk about them? Can children climb on, get into, look through, or pull, push, lift, press buttons, or a make noise at the site? Are there any tools, machinery, vehicles or processes that might capture children’s interest and stimulate their curiosity? Concrete Objects Does this site have concrete objects with which children can interact? Can these things be touched, moved, tasted, smelled, and/or heard? Are there objects that can be sketched or studied closely by a small group of children? Can photographs be taken at the site? Experts Will there be a host or hostess who can serve as an expert and answer children’s questions? Does this person have experience working with young children? Artifacts Are there any artifacts (tools, equipment, products, and so forth) that can be borrowed and brought back to the classroom for future investigations? (Helm and Katz, 2001). Figure 16.2. Evaluating a Potential Site.

Preparing Site Personnel The teacher needs to prepare the expert at the site. Provide him/her with pointers about working with young children. It sometimes helps to give the expert questions students are working on ahead of time; also remind the expert that young investigators need to ask their

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

376

Francis Wardle

own questions, use experts as a resource, and get answers for themselves (Helm and Katz, 2001). The host should be informed if video recordings and still photos will be taken. Ask the host to select ahead of time items the students can use to observe and record, and potential items of special interest. Further, brainstorm possible artifacts that can be borrowed and taken to the classroom. When people know artifacts will be cared for and returned, they are more willing to lend complex equipment and materials.

Preparing Visiting Experts As any teacher who has invited volunteers to a classroom knows, these volunteers need to be well prepared ahead of time. If the volunteer is bringing items to the classroom, safety is an issue; also they need to understand young children learn more by holding, smelling and looking, than by just listening: the more senses that are used to investigate, the better. Librarians should be consulted to help get more in-depth and detailed books on the topic. Books with photos, diagrams and drawings are particularly useful. Introducing Specific Skills Young investigators need to learn specific skills to benefit from projects. Many of these skills can be introduced at this time. They include, •

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• •

• •

• •

How to pose a question. Repetition, role-playing and rehearsal can help develop this skill. How to graph or tally activities to record the number of things (see figure 16: 4). How to observe. Walk around the school or center and encourage students to recount to the teacher or record on paper what they hear and see. Teachers can ask specific questions to develop more accurate and detailed observational skills; checklists can also be developed ahead of time. How to make field sketches and observational drawings. Teachers can role model how this is done; items to be sketched can be selected and placed in the art area. How to take good photos. Young children can take photos with the assistance of the teacher; older children can do so on their own. A list of what can be photographed should be developed ahead of the site visit. Children’s dictations or descriptions can be added to the photos after they have been processed or down loaded, to create reports, newspapers, wall newspapers, and other documentation. How to create constructions and use art materials to create models. These materials can be placed in the art area. How to use clay to represent objects and items. Children need to have lots of opportunities to investigate and use clay before the investigation starts.

Phase II: Investigations In this stage the young investigators seek answers to their questions and explore the project topic in-depth. Activities during this time include visiting the field-site, interviewing experts, exploring artifacts close up, and using additional resources to expand on the topic. Students use drawings, writing and photography – still and video, constructions and role-

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Project Approach to Learning

377

playing, to represent what they have learned. Often the very nature of this exploration produces new, different and more in-depth questions to be answered.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Field Visits It is important to have several adults accompany students on field visits, including parents and other volunteers. These adults need to be prepared ahead of time, and they need to be given specific roles. These might include carrying the basket of clipboards, carrying the cameras and making sure the assigned photographs are taken, carrying recording devises (video cameras, etc) and helping to collect artifacts to bring back to the classroom. The initial fieldtrip is usually taken at the beginning of the project, while other visits are scattered throughout, as needed. Projects that require students to see progress over time – such as a construction and raising plants or animals - require visits spaced over a significant period of time. While the teacher should help students focus on various aspects of the visit, it should not be overly-structured, and the teacher must be open to spontaneous learning and individual student interests. Teachers should also be sensitive to non-verbal cues that indicate students’ interests: staying longer than expected at one place, touching or reaching out to an object, asking what something is called, or asking a question like, “Why do you need that? ” and ”What does that do?” On these visits children should also be encouraged to sketch things of interest. Young children are more able to sketch details and parts of things – like a tractor wheel – than the whole thing. Carefully studying objects enables children to provide much more accurate detail to their drawings and note taking (Helm and Katz, 2001). Teachers should assist children by modeling, helping them to start their drawings, and asking questions to help the child focus on observing objects accurately. Still photographs of various details also help children focus, both in their drawing and writing, on the aesthetics and pleasure of details: colors, shapes, textures, patterns, relationships, and so on (Wardle, 2003). Counting and Writing Children are fascinated with quantity: how many elephants, how many legs, how many children, how many houses, and how many bathrooms? Creating a simple chart is a great way to help students collect this kind of data (see figure 16.3). A column is provided for each visit. Cash registers Soda machines Tables Chairs Workers Customers Bathrooms Figure 16.3. A Simple Matrix to Count the Quantity of Items in a Restaurant.

And, of course, most projects are extremely rich in all sorts of environmental print. Students should be helped to recognize and record environmental print: rubbings, photos, copying, collecting artifacts (taking it back to the classroom), etc. Teachers or volunteers should also focus on recording some of the environment print to bring back to the classroom

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

378

Francis Wardle

– photos of numbers and labels, copying signs, picking up brochures and instruction sheets, and so on.

Debriefing On returning from the site visit, children should engage in a general classroom discussion about the visit, addressing these areas, • • • • • •

What they remember; What they liked; What surprised them; What caught their attention; What they discovered relating to their questions; and What they discovered that produced additional questions.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Other information is shared on bulletin boards, word walls, poster boards, personal and classroom journals, dictations, newsletters to parents, and so on. Photos are presented, videos shown to the class, and artifacts displayed in prominent and protected places. Teachers should also ask students to redraw their sketches to create a master drawing, and use their notes to write more complete and polished documents. Students use photos, artifacts, brochures and magazines, discussions and resources to add detail and richness to these drawings and to their writings. During the project children should be encouraged to redraw their sketches several times, often adding color and new materials (i.e a collage), which are then called, time I drawings, time 2 drawings, time 3 drawings (Helm and Katz, 2001). This process can also be used to revise written records of the outing.

Use of Play to Represent Learning Young children – both in early childhood and elementary school - often represent what they have recently experienced through play. Props and artifacts from the field-site can be used to create replica environments (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). Projecting slides of the field-site onto the wall can also create an instant environment. Young children like to create models of things from the field site, and then play in them. Large models made of cardboard boxes are favorites. Cardboard boxes, large sheets of cardboard, tape, paint and large brushes, and cardboard tubes are great materials to use. Children can learn how to make these models by observing other children, studying books, and looking at diagrams. Creating environments and constructions provides lots of problem-solving opportunities for young children. Teachers need to be adept at knowing when to let children solve their own problems, and when to intervene, including providing direct solutions to specific problems (Helm and Katz, 2001). Teachers can also provide new skills and knowledge by showing children how things can be done. Discussions “Throughout all of these experiences of processing information, the ability of the teacher to respond to children in discussions becomes a critical determination of how much children gain from the project experience” (Helm and Katz, 2001, p. 48). Teachers engage in discussions with individual students, small groups, and large groups. However, teachers must

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Project Approach to Learning

379

be very careful when engaging in group discussions. Often the teacher asks individual children in the group a question, and then expects the child to respond to them. Unfortunately this leaves all the other children out of the conversation. An alternative approach is for the teacher to assist children in talking to each other, and helping the children talk to the entire group of children, and not just to the teacher. While discussions should solicit maximum student input, there are also times when the teacher should provide direct instruction, suggestions, safety rules, and information (Helm and Katz, 2001).

Phase III: Concluding the Project Eventually a project runs out of steam, or it is time in the schedule to simply move on. This is the time to arrange for the culminating project. Phase III has three components:

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

• • •

Set up an event to share the project with parents and the community; Engage in the culminating activity; Review and assess the entire project.

“In the culminating activity, children begin to see themselves as learners and gain confidence in the ability to undertake investigations and solve problems. Teachers are able to see the results of the project and evaluate its effectiveness with respect to their goals for individual children and the whole group” (Helm and Katz, 2001, p. 51). The culminating activity must focus on what children have learned; the children must be involved in its selection and implementation. Teachers should ask students what they wish to share about the project; a web of “what we now know” can be made to assist the process. Use of products, artifacts, photos and other previously used documents will help remind students of what they did and what they have learned. Next the teacher should ask students how they can share what they have learned with parents and the community. Ideas for a culminating event include, • • • • • • • •

Create a book that documents the process; Create a bulletin board presentation of the project; Role play the event in the created environment; Create a web page that links to the school’s web site; Develop and present a slide show, video or PowerPoint presentation; Present a dance or dance performance; Create a museum tour for the parents and community; Stage an art exhibit.

For some projects, a more elaborate event is suitable. In planning events children need help identifying the intended audience: another class, the whole school, parents, or the whole community. The event can include the whole community, or at least the people from the field site (i.e., a display at a bank, the airport terminal, etc). In the project described in figure 16:4, the event was a dance performance presented for the entire community of Taos, New Mexico, including parents and friends of the school.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

380

Francis Wardle

This project developed during the school year at Da Nahazli School in Taos, NM. It is an informal example of the Project Approach. Phase I One of my roles at Da Nahazli School was teaching physical education. We had no equipment, and limited space – both indoors and out. And, since the school was a free school, we relied on emergent curricula and teacher and student-initiated ideas and projects. In learning about the families of my students and the surrounding community, I discovered a rich background in the arts – visual arts, ceramics, weaving, music, drama and dance. Children from the Lama Foundation enjoyed Sufi dancing, and many of the school children often attended the traditional dances of the various Pueblo Indian tribes in the area. On occasion a community organized folk dance activity would take place at Kit Carson Park, in the middle of town. I determined that we had a good record player and enough recordings of dance music, and that one of our classrooms was big enough for a small group of children to practice in. And, since teachers were encouraged to try anything we felt would work with the students, I started to teach folk dancing to a small group of students. After teaching these classes for a few weeks, more students joined in, and we decided to teach classes every week. (In free schools students select their own activities). By carefully observing the children when they danced, and listening to their conversations with each other, I learned about the dances they liked, and what they enjoyed about dancing.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Phase II During this phase the children learned a body of dances: Russian, Israeli, Croatian, English, German, Greek, Mexican, American, Scottish, and Bulgarian. A small group of dancers then decided they wanted to create a performance group, so with the help of several parents they researched various national costumes, purchased material, and sewed colorful skirts and sashes. For our field site we visited local schools – public and BIA schools (Bureau of Indian Affairs), and presented performances of the latest dances the students has learned. The dancers worked with their parents and community members to set up these engagements. The dancers decided on the program for each performance ahead of time. Two boys, who did not want to dance, set up and worked the sound system for each performance. I acted as the project’s expert. These site visits also provided a wonderful opportunity for the students, mostly White children from families living in the surrounding communes, to interact with children at the public schools and Indian schools, who were mostly Hispanic and Native American. After the performances the dancers played games and had fun with these students. Phase III As we learned more dances and the students became more proficient in their performances, the idea of presenting a final, culminating performance at the end of the year for parents and the rest of the community began to emerge. Then a great opportunity presented itself: the director of the new Taos Community Auditorium asked the school to present the inaugural performance. The dancers were very excited! Because they had been practicing and performing dances for the entire school year, all they had to do was select the dances, upgrade the costumes, and develop the program. Emmy, an older student (6th grade), researched and wrote the notes for each dance for the program, which was illustrated by other students. The notes included the history of the dance, and its significance to the country and culture of its origin. Students also expressed in the program what they particularly enjoyed about each dance. At the evening of the performance a slide show of photos leading up to the event was shown in the lobby. Children’s artwork from the school was also displayed. Da Nahazli Folk Dancers gave their culminating performance to parents, friends, and the entire Taos community.

Figure 16.4. Da Nahazli School’s Folk Dance Project.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Project Approach to Learning

381

A good culminating event includes student and parent involvement, careful planning, and continual documentation. Critically teachers must keep it meaningful to the children, and not simply a way to highlight the program to the community (Helm and Katz, 2001). The event must be student, and not adult driven! There are many benefits to a good culminating event. Some of these include, • • • • •

Creating a sense of pride and accomplishment on the part of the children; Communicating with important adults about the students’ achievements; Developing a sense of teamwork between parents, teachers and the community; Increasing center-community involvement and communication; Developing important skills in children: planning, creating and following a timeline, listing and procuring needed resources, working together as a team, assigning tasks, marketing to the target audience, documenting, learning basic skills, and so on.

Assessment

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

There are many reasons to carefully document the entire project. With the new emphasis on accountability in early childhood programs and schools, documentation becomes critical. According to Helm and Katz (2001), the most valuable use of documentation is to know what each child can do and has learned, and to be aware of the activities and materials needed to continue the child’s learning. Figure 16.5 lists various types of documentation. All of these examples fall under the construct of authentic assessment, which is, “assessment of learning that focuses on performance of skills or knowledge in a manner that is within an appropriate context” (Martin, 199, p. 350).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

382

Francis Wardle Types of Documentation Used During the Projcct Approach Individual portfolios: collection of individual student items during the entire process Writing samples Using number charts to solve problems Items that illustrate a child’s unique learning style Items that show a child’s personal interests Products made during the project Language as recorded on a tape recorder and/or anecdotal notes Written language – signs, letters, labels, greetings, child-made books Constructions such as play environments, models, Lego constructions, block structures, items made on the workbench, and so on Works of art – paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs Records of data collection: graphs, matrixes, etc. Musical presentations, such as songs, dances, jingles, musical games Observations made by the teachers Use of a developmental checklists or goals/outcomes to record progress Record of skills, dispositions and knowledge through anecdotal notes Record of affective learning: interests, dispositions, meaningful learning, focused attention, etc.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Children’s self-reflections: children’s own statements about their learning Children’s preferences for certain activities Enjoyment or interest in the content area, or specific skills/tasks Pride in their accomplishments Joy in learning Narratives of learning experiences: scripts about the learning process of individuals, small groups and the whole class Teachers’ journals Displays of projects and units Books and information sent to parents, and/or displayed for parents Books and stories for children (Based on Helm, Beneke and Steinheimer, 1998). Figure 16.5. Types of Documentation Used During the Project Approach.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

The Project Approach to Learning

383

Evaluating the Project All school activities benefit from a process to determine what worked and what did not work. This is called reflection and evaluation. One important focus of this activity is to determine the level of student engagement. Questions based on criteria established by Jones et al., (1994) can help in this process, • • • • • • •

Do children take responsibility for their own work or activity? Are children absorbed and engrossed in their work? Are children becoming strategic learners? Are the children becoming increasingly collaborative? Are the tasks in the project challenging and integrative? Is the children’s work on the project used by the children to access their own learning? Does the teacher facilitate and guide the children’s work?

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONCLUSION The project approach to instruction integrates a variety of ideas and theoretical perspectives, including Dewey’s concepts of using children’s experiences and meaningful learning, Vygotsky’s belief in learning as social activity, and the use of experts, classroom visitors, and the overall community as vehicles for learning. Further, the project approach uses webbing, documentation, concrete learning, integrated learning and parent involvement. But maybe its greatest asset is that it focuses on learning as a holistic, developmental process that is challenging, multifaceted, and, most importantly, meaningful to each individual child. In this chapter I have discussed the value of the project approach for young children, and described in detail each part of the process. While the project approach is not a self-contained curriculum, it has an important place in any early childhood and elementary school program – particularly today, as increased emphasis is being placed on teaching isolated, discrete, academic skills (Helm and Katz, 2001).

QUESTIONS AND PROJECTS 1. Reflect on your early education. Did you engage in any projects? If so, describe the one that comes closest to the project approach detailed in this chapter. 2. Examine any project you are currently engaged in at your college. Use the project approach structure described here to evaluate this project. 3. Visit a local public elementary school. Are they doing any projects? If so, how close do they match the project approach method? If not, ask the teacher or administrator to explain why projects are not being used. 4. Can the basics – literacy, math and science – be taught through the project approach? How? Explain. 5. Develop you own project for a group of children, pre-Kindergarten through the elementary grades. Determine the age (or mixed-age), the field site, how you would

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

384

Francis Wardle solicit ideas from children, parents and teachers, and some of the activities that children would engage in. Structure the activity using the three stages described in this chapter.

RESOURCES Early Childhood Research and Practice Journal (publishes articles on projects) www.ecrp.uiuc.edu Project Approach Website www.project-approach.com The Project Approach Popular web site, www.ericeece.org/project.html The power of projects. Meeting contemporary challenges in early childhood classrooms: Strategies and solutions, by Helm, H., and Beneke, S. (Eds.)(2003). New York: Teachers College Press.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The project approach catalogue by Helm, Judy Harris (Ed.)(2000). Available from ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, University of Illinois.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

GLOSSARY A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform. A report published in 1983 that criticized American public schools, negatively comparing them to schools in other developed nations. The impetus for Goals 2000 and standards. Abington v. Schempp and Murray (O’Hare) v. Curlett. The famous U.S. Supreme Court decision that clarified the role of religion and religious practices in public schools in the United States. Absorbent Mind The term Montessori used to describe the sensitive period between age 0 and 6, when she believed children were particularly open to multi-sensory input and learning.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Accommodation Half of adaptation: the process whereby the child takes in new information and changes her schemes to fit the new information, according to Piaget. Active Learning In the High/Scope philosophy, a specific belief in child-directed learning within each child’s developmental stage, interacting with materials and people. A general term describing chidlren’s active involvement in their leanring. ADA Americans with Disabilities Act. A federal law that prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities, including children. Its main components are physical access and workbased protections. However, it also guarantees access for children with disabilities in schools, classrooms, transportation, and playgrounds. Adaptation The combination of accommodation and assimilation – the dual means by which children learn, according to Piaget. Additive Approach to Bilingual Education An approach that adds the new or second/third language to the existing structure and foundation of the child’s first or home language.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

386

Francis Wardle

AfroBrazilians Descendents of African slaves in Brazil. Unlike in the US, people with some African heritage in Brazil are considered mulatto or mixed race, not AfroBrazilian. Amerindians Brazilian descendents of the native indigenous people; Brazilian Native Americans. Amish A religious Anabaptist group that is located in the eastern US and whose beliefs include pacifism, rejecting modern assistance (especially electricity), and wearing plain clothes. The Amish have their own individual property, but they join together in communal activities, such as barn raising. The Amish educate their children through 8th grade. Anthroposophy Rudolf Steiner’s philosophy, which means, wisdom of the human being, or the wisdom that knows what it means to be human. In other words, it’s a path to self-knowledge. It is the philosophical basis for Waldorf education. Applied Behavioral Analysis An operant conditioning technique popular in educational programs which is also known as behavior modification. ABA involves targeting a behavior and then developing a specific treatment plan that reinforces the desired behavior, and/or punishes the undesired behavior. Eventually, the modified behavior should occur without the reinforcer.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Artifacts Products borrowed from the field site and brought to the classroom to observe, draw, or use to create models and constructions. Part of the Project Approach. Assimilation Half of adaptation: the process whereby the child takes in new information and changes or morphs that information to fit already existing schemes, according to Piaget. At Risk A general term used in American educational circles to label students who have an increased chance of failing in school. A variety of risk factors are considered, including income, minority status, and disabilities. Atelier The name for the studio in Reggio Emilia programs used by the atelierista and teachers to work with students when creating projects and documentations. Atelierista A person in the Reggio Emilia curriculum approach with a background in the visual arts who helps teachers and children work with a vast variety of materials - wire, paint, clay, computers, media; she also helps in the creation and display of documentation.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

387

Authentic Assessment An approach to assessment that evaluates children’s development and learning within the child’s natural contexts: classroom, playground, family and community. This approach focuses on what children can do, and what children do in the course of their daily activities and interactions. Portfolios, observational checklists, anecdotal notes, pictures, photographs, recordings and oral reports at parent conferences, are all forms of authentic assessment. Autonomy versus Shame/Doubt The second of Erikson’s psychosocial stages. The task is for the toddler to develop autonomy from her parents and caregivers. Overprotective parents and caregivers develop a sense of shame and doubt in the child. Back-to-the-Basics Back-to-basics is a general educational movement that is a reaction against a variety of innovations in public school education in the United States, including new math, multicultural education, a whole language approach to reading, and cooperative learning. It is an approach that tends to teach skills and content in isolation, though repetition and rote learning.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Bank Street Developmental-Interaction Approach The educational model developed at Bank Street College by Lucy Mitchell, Harriet Johnson and later Caroline Pratt from the overall philosophy of John Dewey’s progressive education movement.. Behavioral Contrast The result of punishment in which a child transfers the punished behavior to a setting where the punishment is not used; i.e. a child severely punished at home uses disruptive behaviors at school, to compensate. Behaviorism A learning theory that includes classical conditioning and operant conditioning – positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. Behaviorists are only interested in observable behavior, and changes in observable behavior caused by the environment. Bilingual/Multilingual Education According to York (2003), bilingual education programs are, “programs designed to help non-English language learners acquire English and function at their grade level in all subject areas”. In other countries the official language is not English but rather Spanish (Central and South America), Portuguese (Brazil), Russian, French, etc. Brain-based Learning Learning and teaching that is compatible with the current knowledge about how the brain functions and develops.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

388

Francis Wardle

British Infant/Primary Schools A primary education approach that developed in Britain during the 1960s, which was then brought to the United States. The approach is characterized by mixed-age grouping, team teaching, and student-directed learning. Brown versus the Topeka Board of Education The famous 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision that declared ‘separate is not equal’. While this decision referred specifically to two separate public schools systems – one for White children, and one for Black children, it has had larger reverberations, including outlawing separate programs for children with disabilities and languages in US public schools. Bruderhof A communal, Anabaptist religious society formed in Germany between the two great wars. Today this organization is located in eastern USA, England, Germany and Australia, and produces Community Playthings. The care and education of young children has always been a central part of the communal life of the Bruderhof. Bureau of Educational Experiments Lucy Sprague Mitchell and others founded the Bureau of Educational Experiments in 1916, which later became the Bank Street College of Education (now part of Columbia Unvieristy). Cakchiquel One of many Maya dialects spoken in Guatemala, where the official language is Spanish.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Casa dei Bambini The early childhood program Maria Montessori established in the slums of Rome. Catalytic Events An event that causes a series of processes that begins the Project Approach. Chaining Connecting discrete events or behaviors, each reinforced separately, into one continuous activity or chain of events that is then reinforced as a total behavior. Charter Schools Charter schools are public schools that allow for more unique, individualized, and parentfriendly approaches to education. These public school choices are created in several states in the US, and thus the parameters under which they function differ from state to state. Child Find A community agency charged with identifying young children with disabilities, and then helping to find services for the children and their families. Child Find coordinates with other community programs, such as Head Start and school districts.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

389

Child Observation Record The authentic assessment method used by the High/Scope Curriculum approach to assess children’s learning and development Chronosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the historical contexts that affect a child’s development, such as childhood immunizations, acceptance of child care, and increased divorce rates, etc. Classical Conditioning Occurs when two stimuli are presented at approximately the same time. One of these is an unconditioned stimulus (it already produces a response), the second stimulus, through its paring with the first one, becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces the same response as the first, unconditioned one. Cognitive Oriented Curriculum The original name of the High/Scope Curriculum. Community In-kind Match All local Head Start programs are required to match the federal grant money with a 20% community match, which is usually in the form of volunteer hours, space, and free or reduced community services.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Community Needs Assessment A mandated assessment, conducted every three years, both of community resources and community needs, that allows local Head Start programs to tailor their services to meet the most important needs of children and families Comprehensive Approach The Head Start approach to early intervention that includes parent involvement and services, medical and dental care of students, and developing social competence, as well as traditional classroom experiences. Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT). One of several new methods used to observe brain functions and development. It takes X-rays of the entire brain, and then provides pictures of brain structures, injuries and abnormalities. Concrete Operations Stage The third of Piaget’s developmental stages, in which the child can think abstractly and logically about things they have personally experienced. Constructivist Math Approaches Elementary public school math curricula that rely heavily on the constructivist approach – creating knowledge – of people like Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

390

Francis Wardle

Contingency Contract A contract between the student and teacher that specifies the level of performance on a target behavior, and the contingent rewards for achieving that level of the behavior. Continuous Reinforcement Each time the target behavior is performed, it is rewarded. Continuous reinforcement is used in changing behavior. Core Knowledge Curriculum A curriculum developed by E.D. Hirsch, and now supported by the Core Knowledge Foundation. The curriculum encompasses ages preschool through grade eight. The approach is a highly structured one that is based on all children mastering the same knowledge, skills and information at the same grade level. It is very much a scope (content) and sequence (grade level) approach to education. Core Knowledge Preschool Sequence The scope and sequence of the Core Knowledge Curriculum for preschool children (3 - 5 years old). This core knowledge sequence sets the foundation for the child’s successful entry into Kindergarten

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Creche A nursery or day care in Brazil, usually for poor children. Programs for wealthy children are called Kindergartens. Programs in France for infants and toddlers, which are usually tuition-based. Critical Periods A time when a particular type of development or learning must occur. If this growth or learning does not occur during this period, it will never occur. Sensitive periods are not as absolute, but are preferential times for growth and learning to occur. Cultural Literacy A book written by E. D. Hirsch in 1987 that argues every culture has a body of knowledge, or intellectual capital, and that the responsibility of schools is to teach that body of knowledge. Further, people who have learned the culture’s intellectual capital will be far more successful than those who have not. Culturally Deprived A term common in the 1960s in the US, used to describe children who were not from a mainstream, middle-class background. A term that is no longer popular. Culturally Relevant, Anti-bias Multicultural Education An approach to multicultural education that focuses on programs matching each child’s home and community culture, and in using the program to help change society to be more fair and equitable.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

391

Daily Living/Practical life A central part of the Montessori curriculum that involves activities and materials which replicate daily life: sweeping the floor, wiping the table, setting the table for a meal, etc. Deductive Reasoning Reasoning that progresses from a general statement, premise or idea, through logical steps, to figure out – deduce – the specifics of an idea or construct. Developmental Delay The umbrella term used to determine that a child is eligible for special education services under IDEA. It allows young children to receive services without giving them a specific disability label; however, it is in its own way, a label. Disequilibrium The loss of balance in internal mental structures that causes the child to expand and change these internal structures, or schemes. Part of Piaget’s theory. Dispositions A concept developed by Lillian Katz, that means, “a positive habit of the mind”, which leads to the continuity of an activity or behavior, such as reading, enjoying math, or using the outdoors for physical exercise. Based on one of John Dewey’s fundamental concepts, which he called collateral learning.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Documentation The ongoing process of recording all the learning that occurs in the school, including products but not limited to products. In the Reggio Emilia approach the focus is on recording the activities, problem solving, and interactions that occur during the process of learning. DSM IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition) The document used by mental health professionals to diagnose their clients; it is used to diagnose some children with special needs. Dual Language Approach An approach designed to support the learning of the country’s official language (English in the U.S.) by children who do not speak that language, and the learning of a new, targeted language by English speaker children (in the U.S.). Dual Language Immersion Approach An approach to dual language learners where children are fully immersed in the target language for part for the day, then fully immersed in the second language for the other part of the day. Dynamic Memory A term used in brain learning and teaching to describe learning that is superior in quality due to its being consistent with our new brain research knowledge, including being associated with strong, positive emotions (Willis, 2007).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

392

Francis Wardle

Early Childhood Special Education Teachers and special education specialists who focus on the special needs of young children; the field of special education for young children, including research and college programs that prepare special education teachers Early Head Start U. S. Head Start programs that serve infants and their mothers from prenatal development to age 3. Ecological Theory of Human Development Bronfenbrenner’s theory of various expanding physical and social contexts in which a child develops and learns. Electroencephalogram (EEG) An approach that measures the electrical actively in the top layers of the brain – the cortex. Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) Passed in 1965, a U.S. federal program that provides funds to local schools to meet the needs of low-income students. Its main program is Title I. Funds are also available for private and religious schools. Its revised version is the No Child Left Behind act.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Engaged Learning Experiences Experiences in which learners take responsibility for their own learning. English as a Second Language (ESL). A systematic, direct instructional approach to teaching English to non-English-speaking students in the U.S. This approach often includes a pullout component, and is focused on teaching English as quickly as possible. Equilibrium/Equilibration The resolution of disequilibrium; the resolution of a conflict between a child’s schemes of the world (internal picture), and the environmental input. Assimilation and accommodation work in tandem to produce equilibrium, which in tern develops and modifies the child’s mental structures, according to Piaget. Eurythmy Whole body movement: creative dance. An activity used throughout the Waldorf curriculum to help integrate the mind, body and soul: the three components of education. Exosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the indirect contexts that impact children, such as the employment of their parents, or the budget of their school.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

393

Expeditionary Learning Outward Bound programs that include survival skills and group responsibilities as central components of the curriculum. A model used in several public schools and charter schools; based on Dewey’s idea of learning by doing. Extinction The disappearance of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus; in other words, the paring no longer takes place. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned behavior disappears due to lack of reinforcement. Federal Count Every October local school districts in the U.S. count the number of children they serve who have a documented disability. Based on this count, the federal government provides the district with money – through the state.. School districts will sometimes also count the children with disabilities in Head Starts and private school programs, since these programs cannot receive direct federal reimbursement. Field Dependent A cognitive processing style that is more in tune with the environment, particularly the social environment. Children who process information this way tend to focus on people and contexts (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005).

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Field Independent A cognitive processing style that is more dependent on individual objects and things rather than people and the overall environment. Children who process information this way focus on objects and tend to ignore the context (Johnson, Christie and Wardle, 2005). Field Site A site in the community that allows students to do field work, to investigate the site, and to become engaged in-depth in a topic. Used in the Project Approach. Formal Operations Stage The last of Piaget’s four major stages, in which a child can think logically and abstractly, including thinking about concepts and ideas that he has never actually experienced. Free, Appropriate Public Education Children with disabilities are guaranteed a free education, like all other children in the U.S., and an education that meets their individual needs. This education must be provided within the least restrictive environment. Froebel Kindergarten Early childhood programs that were started by Friedrich Froebel in Germany, and then brought to the U.S. in 1855. This model also spread to other counties, including England, Australia, New Zealand and Brazil. Today’s Kindergartens throughout the world have

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

394

Francis Wardle

changed considerably from Froebel’s initial philosophy. The American Kindergarten has little in common with the original programs. Froebel’s Gifts Specific educational materials to be used with Froebel’s Kindergarten, including blocks, balls, sets of matching units, mosaic tiles, etc. These were the first educational materials. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imagery( fMRI) A brain imagining technique that can show both brain structure and activity, requires no injections into the brain, and is accurate and quick. Garderie Child care programs in France, often used by parents in wrap-around arrangements with the ecole maternelle (public school). Generalization A concept in classical conditioning whereby a learner responds to other stimuli in the same way that they respond to the conditioned stimuli (Ormrod, 2008). Genetic Epistemology The name Piaget gave to his theory of mental development: a combination of two interrelated concepts: the biological nature of the predetermined stages that children’s cognition progresses through – what we usually call maturation, and the need for the organism – the child – to actively interact with the environment for this progression to occur.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Globalizing/Globalization The trend for ideals, methods, markets, and standards taking on a global uniformity and presence. Goals 2000 Six U.S. National Education Goals developed in 1988 to focus the purpose of American education as a reaction to the report, a Nation At Risk. These goals then promulgated standards and the current learning standards movement in elementary schools and early childhood programs. Grantee Agency The local agency that receives federal Head Start funds: a school district, community agency, not-for-profit, city or country government, community college or child care agency. Guided Participation The way a teacher or other expert assists a child to learn within the child’s zone of proximal development. Gullah A language spoken in South Carolina since the 1700s. It is derived from languages brought by slaves from W. African countries to the U.S. Gullah is structurally and linguistically different from American English.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

395

Habits of the Mind Habits and behaviors that support learning. These include, making sense of experiences, theorizing, analyzing, hypothesizing, synthesizing, predicting and checking the accuracy of these predictions, finding things out, striving for accuracy, being empirical, grasping the consequences of ones actions, persisting in seeking solutions to problems, and speculating about cause-effect relationships (Helm and Katz, 2001). Hawaiian Creole A language that dates from the 19th century, and is an English dialect with Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese and Ilocano influences (Ovando, 1997). Head Start A U.S. federally funded preschool program that was originally part of President Johnson’s Great Society Programs. The program is in every state and Puerto Rico, provides a compensative program, and works closely with parents and the local community. High/Scope Curriculum A curriculum developed in 1962, and refined several times since then, that emphasizes childdirected, whole-child learning, a plan-work-recall process, and teacher’s scaffolding and structuring learning opportunities.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

High/Scope Preschool Curriculum Comparison Study One of two longitudinal studies conducted by the High/Scope Foundation to determine the impact of a child-directed, teacher-facilitated curriculum approach to teaching young children, compared to a direct instruction curriculum. Higher Order Conditioning A form of classical conditioning that involves multiple parings of one set of stimuli with another. The first stimulus is unconditioned, but for the subsequent pairings each stimulus is conditioned. High-Stakes Testing Student assessments whose results are used in politically charged decisions and actions, such as teacher accountability and evaluations of the entire school. Human Genome Project An international effort to map the complete human genetic code. It was essentially completed in 2001. Hutterian Community A communal religious Anabaptist group that was formed during the Second Reformation (in opposition to Martin Luther). It was started in E. Europe, and is now mostly in Western Canada with a few colonies in S. Dakota.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

396

Francis Wardle

IDEA Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. The US federal law requires students with disabilities to be served in our schools and early childhood programs. It specifies the process of identifying and educating students within the least restrictive environment. First passed in 1975 (under a different name), it has morphed through several amendments and reauthorizations. Idiosyncratic Learning that is based on individual experiences, needs, leanings styles, and preferences. Immersion Approach Children are fully immersed in the second language for their entire school day. Many programs then slowly shift until the school day is 50% the target language and 50% their home language. Inclusion The concept in the U.S. educational system that children with dishabilles should be educated and cared for with peers their own age who do not have disabilities. The questions to address are whether the child with the disability can benefit (socially), and the extent to which the child’s presence negatively impacts the care and education of typically developing children. Parents can also choose a more segregated placement for their child.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Inclusive Setting An early childhood or school program that includes children with disabilities; a classroom with typically developing children and children with diagnosed disabilities. Indian Head Start The federal Head Start agency that runs Head Start programs through the local tribal council of each Indian tribe or nation. Indigenous People The native people of any nation. In Guatemala these are the Maya; in Brazil they are Amerindians, in the United States, Native Americans. Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) A plan that is mandated for every student, age 3-21, who has been diagnosed with a disability. The plan describes the child’s current level of functioning, and short and long-term goals. The pan is developed by a team and must be approved by the child’s parents. Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) The plan that details services for children, infant to 3 years old. It is written collaboratively with the child’s parents, and includes both improvement goals and ways to help the family provide and access needed services.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

397

Inductive Reasoning Reasoning that uses one or more facts or pieces of data to reach a general conclusion. This is the approach used by the scientific method. Opposite of deductive reasoning. Infant Schools Name used to describe British public educational programs that serve children, age 5 to age 7/8. Information Processing Theory of Learning A theory of learning that uses the computer as its model The theory describes the sequence of learning, beginning with the child’s sensory response to the environment, and ending with performance of what has been learned. Initiative versus Guilt The third of Erikson’s psychosocial stages. The child learns to initiate new activities and experiences, and develops new competencies. If the child is not able to do so she will develop a sense of guilt. Innate Existing or belonging to the individual at birth; genetically inherited; not based on experience.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Inner Discipline The concept used in the Montessori approach in which the child develops mental discipline and behaviors to engage in self-directed learning and emotional self-regulation. Instructional Objectives Learning outcomes that are observable and measurable. The conditions under which the behavior should be exhibited must be specified, and the criteria for judging the performance of the behavior, described. Intellectual Capital A term used by E. D. Hirsch to convey the body of knowledge of a culture, company, or country. It is the medium for success. Further, it is the content that should be taught in schools, according to Hirsch. Intentional Learning A learning process in which the learner is actively and consciously engaged in cognitive and metacognitive activities directed by thinking about learning something specific. The learner is directing their own learning (Ormord, 2008). Intentional Teaching “An intentional teacher aims at clearly defining learning objectives for children, employs instructional strategies likely to help the children achieve the objectives, and continually assess progress and adjusts strategies based on that assessment” (Epstein, 2007, p. 4).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

398

Francis Wardle

Intersubjectivity The teacher and child must constantly strive for a shared view of the situation or task, so that they can have a common view of the problem and the solution. This is required for effective scaffolding to occur. See also scaffolding. Intrinsic reinforcers Intrinsic reinforcers are reinforcers such as mastery, satisfaction, power and pleasure. They reinforce the child’s learning and behavior from within the child. Jardim da Infancia Infant Garden – another name along with creche for a child care center in Brazil Key Experiences The name used for the content of the High/Scope Curriculum: cognitive representation, initiative and social relations, movement, music, language and literacy, classification, seriation, number, space and time. Language Minority Students Students whose home language is not English or the official language of the country.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Learned Helplessness An attitude learned by children through constant conditioning. They believe they cannot achieve academically, and when they occasionally do, this is the result of luck. Further, they believe that their poor performance at school is fixed – it cannot be changed through motivation or effort (Berk, 2006) Learning/Content Standards The level of competency and mastery of specific content areas that children should demonstrate at points along the way, such as the end of third grade. Standards are not the same as curriculum, although they greatly influence the curriculum. Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) The most natural or normalized environment for a child with a disability in which her disability can none-the-less be effectively addressed. Usually this means having the child in an environment with same-age children who do not have a disability. Louisiana French Creole A local language that came to Louisiana at the same time as Gullah, via West African slaves (Ovando, 1997). Structurally it is similar to Gullah; linguistically it is like French. Machine Model of Education An approach to education similar to the assembly line. This approach is very similar to the traditional educational approach. It assumes that all children learn the same way, and all knowledge should be taught in the same manner and the same sequence. A scope and sequence approach to curriculum

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

399

Macrosequencing Sequencing of activities in the public school curriculum that follow overall children’s growth and development. Analogous to developmentally appropriate practice. Macrosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, broad factors such as cultural norms and values, the economy, and national politics toward child care and schools, that ultimately impacts the development of the child. Magnetic Resonance Imagery (MRI) A method to take pictures of the brain that shows its structure and abnormalities without using X-rays. It is different from fMRI, which is a more sophisticated method (see fMRI). Maintenance Approach An approach to learning a language that uses the student’s home language along with her second language for instruction. The goal is to have children be literate in both languages.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Mastery Learning Similar to chaining, mastery learning involves mastering a unit of a task or subject, before moving on to the next unit or task. This approach is also similar to the concept of sequence, in the scope and sequence approach to curriculum development. Material Reinforcers Objects such as candy, money, and so on, that are used to reinforce a desired behavior. The child must view these objects as desirable. Thus, using a cookie to reinforce the behavior of a child who dislikes cookies will not work; using a small amount of money for a child who gets lots of money won’t work, either. Mesosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the ecological construct that provides the relationships between the various microsystems; the linkages between systems. Messing Around with the Topic A concept used in the Project Approach to allow children to become familiar with new ideas and words. Metacognition People’s knowledge of their own learning and cognitive processing; the ability to regulate one’s learning processes to enhance learning, similar to the intentional learner. Microsequencing Sequencing in the public school curriculum that focuses on what is presumed to be the logical and best way to introduce and learn specific content and skills, such as from simple to complex.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

400

Francis Wardle

Microsystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the ecological level that provides the immediate contexts in which a child develops: family, early childhood program, community, etc. Migrant and Seasonal Head Start The federal (U.S.) Head Start agency that runs programs for migrant and seasonal families. Minas Gerais A large state in the interior of Brazil. Minas Gerais means general mines: it is a state with lots of mineral resources and a history of mining gold and crystals. Mixed-age Groups Classrooms that include children of different ages. Popular in Montessori programs and British Infant/Primary programs. Montessori Method (approach) The unique approach to early childhood education developed by Maria Montessori, which includes a prepared environment, mixed-age grouping of students, self-correcting materials, and a facilitator’s role for the teacher.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Multicultural Education A reform movement designed to change the total educational environment so that students from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds, genders, exceptional students, and students from a variety of social backgrounds can experience equal educational opportunities in early childhood programs, schools, colleges and universities (Banks and Banks, 2004). Myelinated The process by which axons are coated with myelin, a fatty substance, which speeds up the transmission of messages from neurons to neurons. Speeds up overall brain functioning. My Pedagogic Creed John Dewey’s personal declaration on education, first published in 1897. NAEYC Accreditation The process used by the National Association for the Education for Young Children (NAEYC) to assess and accredit quality early childhood programs. New Meadow Run Bruderhof School One of the schools of a religious, communal society with a rich history of child care and early education, based primarily on Froebel’s original philosophy. Makers of Community Playthings and Rifton Equipment. No Child Left Behind Act The extension of the federal ESEA act first passed by the U.S. Congress in 1965. Central changes to the original act include requiring the use of standardized assessments, use of a

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

401

standards-based approach to curriculum, and defining educational accountability in terms of test score improvements, exclusively. Nondiscriminatory Assessment The IDEA law stipulates that all assessments used to determine if a child is eligible for special education services must be free of cultural bias and in the child’s home language or the language that provides the best results of the assessment. One-Drop Rule The historical way U.S. society has defined race, which states that a person with any Black (or other minority) heritage must fully identify only with their minority heritage. If a person has more than one minority heritage, they must identify with the one of lowest social status. Ontogeny The developmental progression of the individual over time; maturation. Behaviors learned by individual children as they develop over time. Open/Free/Alternatvie Schools Schools that developed in the U.S. in the 1960s and 1970s as a reaction to the structured public schools, and as an outgrowth of the counter culture movement in the United States.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Operant Conditioning A behavioral method used to increase desirable behavior and learning, and to decrease undesirable behaviors, though ignoring or punishing the undesirable behavior. A response that is followed by a reinforcer is strengthened, and therefore more likely to occur again Pacific Island Nests Early childhood programs for immigrant ethnic children, from Asia, in New Zealand. Pedagogista An expert in educational methods, child psychology, and learning who works with staff in Reggio Emilia schools, and who is also a liaison between the school’s staff and the city’s education administration. Phylogeny The developmental progression shared by all members of a species, in this case, people; from caveman to civilized man. Physiology The study of the functions and activities of life or living matter, and of physical and chemical phenomena of living organisms; how living thinks work.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

402

Francis Wardle

Pink Tower One of the carefully designed pieces of learning equipment used in the Montessori approach. It is self-correcting, in that it is self-evident to the child when she has completed it correctly or incorrectly. Plan-Work-Recall A protocol used in the High/Scope Curriculum to develop in children a sense of planning, representation, and higher-order, complex thinking. Playcentres Parent cooperative early childhood programs in New Zealand Play School The school for young children created by Caroline Pratt in New York City. Policy Council The governing body made up of parents and community volunteers that has specific, mandated responsibilities for running a local Head Start program, including approval of the annual budget, selecting and approving the curriculum, and approving all hiring and firing.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Positive Feedback Information about the tasks being attempted that lets the individual know whether she is being successful, and where changes need to be made to improve. A behavioral technique. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) A technique that records activities in various parts of the brain. It uses a radioactive dye that must be injected into the brain. It can pinpoint accurately brain activity. Post-Modern A broad social and philosophical movement that questions the rationality of human action and the use of positive epistemology. It is a perspective that believes there are multiple, equally valid ways to address issues; and multiple, equally valid ways to view human behavior. Practical Life In the Montessori method (approach), the same as daily living, which is using familiar props such as brooms and mops to engage in typical household activities, such as sweeping and washing dishes. Premack Principle Performing a less desirable activity as a condition to being allowed to engage in a more desirable activity: a child who finishes reading a chapter is rewarded by being allowed to work on the computer.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

403

Preoperational Stage The second of Piaget’s broad stages, in which children can think representationally but not logically. At this age children have not reached conservation, so their thinking is egocentric and tends to focus on one idea at a time. Prepared Environment In the Montessori method (approach), the central role of the teacher is to prepare the environment to enhance each child’s possibility for learning, and to continually readjust and order the environment to make it attractive and enticing to the child. Private Speech Vygotsky’s concept of young children talking to themselves out loud to structure or scaffold their own learning. As children grow older, they internalize this process, which is then called self-talk Procedural Due Process The legal process parents of children with disabilities can pursue if they believe their child’s needs are not being fully met by their early childhood program or school.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Progettazione An approach to curriculum that occurs through the use of multilevel and complex projects used in the Reggio Emilia approach. Progressive Education An educational movement in America that began at the end of the ninetieth century, and focused on child-centered learning, teaching democratic processes, and the education of all, including poor children. It was a reaction againdt a conformist, anti-individual approach; preset, externally imposed curricula content, and an elitist view of education. Project Approach A project is an in-depth investigation of a topic worth learning more about. The investigation is usually undertaken by a small group of children within a class, sometimes by a whole class, and occasionally by an individual child. The key feature of a project is that it is a research effort deliberately focused on finding answers to questions about a topic posed either by the children, the teacher, or the teacher working with the children (Helm and Katz, 2001). Pruning The process of brain development that involves increasing synaptic connections and reducing connections, based on brain activity: use it or lose it. Pull-out Approach Children are pulled out of the classroom to receive instruction in English or the school’s main language. Similar to the pull-out approach for special education.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

404

Francis Wardle

Reductionist Approach Breaking down learning tasks and skills to their smallest units, teaching those units separately, and then putting them together to create more complex ideas and skills. An approach used in special education. Reggio Emilia A town in the area of Northern Italy where the Reggio Emilia early childhood philosophy and programs were developed. Reinforcer A stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response that it follows. If the behavior does not increase, then the reinforcer is not a reinforcer (Ormrod, 2008). Scaffolding A metaphor to describe the process of assisting children in learning how to learn. These are strategies, techniques and methods provided by a teacher or peer that help children learn within the zone of proximal development, which are eventually internalized by the child. Schedule of Reinforcement When reinforcement is not continuous. Different schedules are used, but the general idea is to decrease the frequency of reinforcement until it is no longer provided externally, but is either provided by the natural environment or is provided internally.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Scheme/Schemes The construction of knowledge that occurs as children hypothesize about the world; the smallest unit of thought, according to Piaget. In sensorimotor children these “thoughts” are sensorimotor combinations. Scope Scope is what is taught in the schools. It covers the content, the breadth of the curriculum. In public school curriculum development parlance it is paired with sequence to cover the curricular concept of scope and sequence. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. This is an anti-discrimination, federal law, which forbids any institution that receives federal money from discriminating agaisnt any of its clients. In schools, it means that a child with an disability (diagnosed or not) cannot be excluded from regular and extra-curricula activities. Some families prefer to use 504 because their child does not have to be labeled. Self-Correcting Materials Montessori materials designed to enable children to self-correct their learning without the need for adult input or assistance.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

405

Self-Regulation The ability to regulate ones own behaviors according to an external standard. According to Ormrod (2008), “self-regulation includes setting standards and goals, self-observation, self-evaluation and self-reflection” (p. 140). Sensitive Periods In the Montessori method this is the idea that at certain developmental ages, the child is more open to certain kinds of learning. Montessori called the sensitive period of preschool the absorbent mind, because she believed that the child’s mind at this age is particularly open to taking in information from the surrounding environment, using all of their five senses. In child psychology, a sensitive period is a time in which certain learning will occur more easily, such as language development when a child is young. Sensorimotor Stage The first of Piaget’s four major stages, in which the child processes information through external sensory input and physical movement. During this period the child progresses from reflexes to primitive thought. Sequence The time when certain skills, concepts and content are taught. Public school curricula development focuses on the order in which skills, concepts and content are to be taught; there is a general belief that there is a fundamental hierarchical logic to the sequences used. The second part of the curriculum concept known as scope and sequence.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Seriation A mathematical concept where a child orders items by one characteristic – size, length, color gradation, and so on, from smallest to largest, longest to shortest, etc. Shaping Shaping is a basic component of operant conditioning (behaviorism), and is used when the baseline of a targeted behavior is too low to be effectively conditioned. Shaping conditions the pre-requisite behaviors for the baseline to develop. Social Competence A concept used as the philosophical foundation of Head Start that involves developing in children the skills and personal confidence to learn successfully in a variety of social settings. It originally comes from the Bank Street curriculum approach. Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitve Theory A learning theory that combines operant conditioning through the use of vicarious reinforcement, with cognitive processing. Albert Bandura has developed an extensive body of knowledge around this idea; popularly known as modeling. Social Reinforcers Smiles, gestures and words of approval used to reinforce the targeted behavior.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

406

Francis Wardle

Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky’s theory of development and learning Spiral Curriculum A curricula approach that revisits the same concepts and content at different times during a child’s school experience, with each exposure becoming more complex, abstract, and challenging. Originally proposed by J. Bruner. Spontaneous Recovery Reappearance of a conditioned response after it has been extinguished. Sputnik The Russian satellite that challenged U.S. space exploration supremacy. As a result, the federal government funded a variety of programs to increase math and science education. Staffing Meeting A mandated component of IDEA in which experts, parents, the student’s teacher and others involved in the process, meet to determine whether a child has a disability, and then to develop the child’s IEP or IFSP.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Standards Movement The current emphasis on standards in public schools by the federal government and state departments of education. It is also being supported by NAEYC and many state sponsored pre-Kindergarten programs. Stimulus Generalization The response of individuals to other stimuli in the same way they respond to the conditioned stimulus. The closer a stimulus is to the conditioned one, the easier it is to generalize. Stimulus discrimination is required to prevent stimulus generalization. Structuralism A view of society based on the concept of distinct homogeneous groups, such as race and gender, and the hierarchical nature of these groups, such as Whites being on top and Blacks at the bottom. Submersion Language Approach An approach to teaching children whose home language differs from the school’s official language, by simply placing them with students who speak the official language, and expecting them to “sink or swim.” Subtractive Bilingualism An approach to teaching English, or the school’s official language if not English, to children who speak a language other than English, without supporting their home language (York, 2003).

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

407

Summerhill A school begun by A. S. Neill in England in 1921; name of the book, Summerhill describing the school, published in 1960, which was one of the foundations for the free school/alternative school movement of the 1960s-70s in the United States. Superstitious Behaviors The result of random reinforcement, whereby the individual associates a random reinforcer with a behavior or activity. This accounts for many sports-related superstitions and contributes to learned helplessness. Tabula Rasa Blank slate – the idea that a child enters the world with no preconceived behaviors and dispositions; all behavior is learned though conditioning from the environment after the child is born. Target Behavior The overall behavior being modified in a behavioral approach – the reduction of inappropriate social behaviors and the increase of appropriate, expected behaviors. Te Kohanga Reo Early childhood programs for Maori children and their families in New Zealand.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Terminal Behavior The behavior – its general nature and frequency – desired at the end of the reinforcement program, such as solving social conflicts in a positive manner. Thematic Approach A curriculum approach that integrates a variety of philosophies of learning, particularly Dewey, multi-age grouping, British Infant and Primary schools, and Reggio Emilia. Time I, time 2, time 3 drawings Drawings produced by children as part of the Project Approach; each time the drawing is a revision of the first drawing. Time Out An operant conditioning discipline approach that punishes unacceptable behavior by isolating the child in a stimulus free (boring) environment. Title I Programs Programs funded through the U.S.federal ESEA legislation. Passed in 1965 to provide assistance for needy children in the local schools, these programs provide supplemental support for needy children, including extras teachers, computers and after-school programs. Today these programs come under the NCLB umbrella.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

408

Francis Wardle

Toban A child-classroom leader in Japanese early childhood programs. This child has more authority than the typical teacher’s helper in American early childhood programs. Tourist Approach to Multicultural Education A multicultural approach that focuses on holidays, food and costumes, much like a tourist would experience when visiting another country. Traditional Approach to Education The traditional approach to education is the approach that most public schools worldwide use. It presumes that the teacher is the expert and disseminator of knowledge, and the student a passive receiver of skills and information. Further, it is predicated on the belief that there is an agreed-on body of knowledge to be taught. Tranformational Representation The track or trail left by a scientific phenomenon. A good example is the erosion caused by the flow of water. Transformations The process of change. The activity that occurs during change: the act of raining, the opening of an evening primrose at dusk.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Transitional Approach An approach to teaching language in which children are initially taught in their home language, with instruction in the school’s official language then accelerated to be able to transition into full English instruction. Trust versus Mistrust The first of Erikson’s psychosocial stages. The task is for the infant to learn to trust the world around her, so that she can progress to the next stage: to learn to trust people. Typical Public School Curricular Approach The typical public school approach in the U.S. is one that focuses on scope (content) and sequence (when content is taught), single-age classrooms, and one teacher (maybe with an aide) in each classroom. At the early childhood level children are taught within selfcontained classrooms, and art, music and other “extra curricular” subjects are brought to them by specialists. Special education, multicultural education, and other elements are added – through a variety of approaches, depending on the population of the classroom and the school’s mission and values. Waldorf Schools Schools developed by Rudolf Steiner in 1919 in Europe, based on his anthroposophy philosophy. These schools are now world-wide.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Glossary

409

Westinghouse Head Start Study Study conducted by Ohio University on Head Start’s first summer program. The results showed no IQ increase in program participants compared to non-participants. Whole Child Learner An approach to education that believes optimum education only occurs when the child’s entire development – physical, social, emotional, affective, moral and cognitive – is developed at the same time, and that all the child’s faculties are used in learning new concepts and skills. Ye Old Deluder Satan Acts Acts passed in the Massachusetts colony that taxed local citizens to support public schools. These schools focused on teaching children how to read, so that they could read the Bible, and thus “delude Satan”. Yochien The three years of early childhood care before formal schooling begins in Japan. Young Investigators Students involved in projects in the Project Approach.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Zero Reject Part of the IDEA federal law that stipulates local public schools cannot reject a child – or refuse to serve a child – because of the child’s disability, however severe or difficult to treat. Zone of Proximal Development According to Vygotsky, this is the range between what children can do on their own (independently), and what they can achieve with expert assistance from another child, teacher, parent or volunteer. It exists within any concept, skill or task a child is learning.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES Aboud, F. E. (1987). The development of ethnic self-determination and attitudes. In. J. S. Phinney and J. Rotheram (Eds.), Children’s ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development (pp. 29-55). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Ainsworth, M., Salter, S, Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., and Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the stranger situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Allen, K. E., and Cowdery, G. E. (2005). The exceptional child. Inclusion in early childhood education. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning. Alves-Silva, J., Santos, M. S., Guimaras, P. E. M., Ferreira, A. C. S., Bandelt, H.J., Pena, S. D. J., and Parado, V. M. (2000). The ancestry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages. American Journal of Human Genetics, 67, 444-461. American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.)(Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Antler, J. (1987). Lucy Sprague Mitchell: The making of a modern woman. New Haven: Yale University Press. Archdiocese of Denver, Office of Catholic Schools. (2003). Early childhood curriculum guidelines. Denver, CO: Author. Arnold, E. (1976)(original, 1927). Why we live in community. Rifton, NY: Plough Publishing House. Arnold, H., and Arnold, A. (1974). Living in community. Rifton, NY: Plough Publishing House. Azrin, N. H. (1967, May). Pain and aggression. Psychology Today, 1, 27-33. Bagley, W. (1934). Education and emergent man: A theory of education with particular application to public school education in the Untied States. New York: Nelson. Baker, L. Scher, D and Mackler, K. (1997). Home and family influences on motivations for reading. Educational Psychology, 32, 69-82. Bamford, C., and Utne, E. (n.d.). An emerging culture: Rudolf Steiner’s continuing impact on the world. Red Oak, IA: Utne Publisher. Bandura, A., Ross, D., and Ross, S. A. (1961). Imitation of film mediated models. Journal of abnormal and social psychology, 66, 3-11. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Banks, J. A. (2001). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum, and teaching. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Banks, J. A., and Banks, C. A. M. (2004)(Eds.) Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (5th ed). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

412

Francis Wardle

Barnes, H. (n.d.). Waldorf education……..an introduction. Retrieved1/21/001 from www.waldorfeducation.org/waldorf/hb_intro.htm Barrera, I (1994). Thoughts on the assessment of young children whose socio-cultural background is unfamiliar to the assessor. Zero to Three, 14 (6), 9-13. Bates, E., Devescovi, A., and Wulfeck, B. (2001). Psycholinguistics: A cross-language perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52 (369-396). Bates, J. A. (1979). Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation: A review with implications for the classroom. Review of Educational Research, 49, 557-576. Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monograph, 4 (#1, pt. 2) Beatty, B. (1995). Preschool education in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University press. Behrend, D. A., Rosengren, K. S., and Perlmutter, M. (1992). The relationship between private speech and parental interactive style. In R. M. Diaz and L. E. Berk (Eds.), Private speech: From social interaction to self-regulation, (pp. 85-100). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bereiter, C., and Engelmann, S. (1966). Teaching the disadvantaged child in the preschool. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Berger, K. S. (2009). The developing person: Through childhood and adolescence (8th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. Berger, P. L. and Luckman, T. (1967). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. New York: Doubleday and Co. Berk, L. (2006). Child development (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Berk, L. E., and Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Berns, R. M. (2007). Child. Family. School. Community: Socialization and support. (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Biber, B. and Franklin, M. (1967). The relevance of developmental and psychodynamic concepts on the education of the preschool child. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 6 (1), 5-24. Biber, B. (1984). Early education and psychological development. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Biber, B., Shapiro, E., and Wickins, D. (1977). Promoting cognitive growth: A developmental interaction point of view (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Bishop, J. (1998). Do curriculum-based external exit exams enhance student achievement? Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education. Bloom, B. (1964). Stability and change in human characteristics. New York: Wiley. Bloom, B., S., Englehart, M. B., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., and Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. The classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: Longmans Green. Bodrova, E., and Leong, D. J. (1996). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall/Merrill. Bogle, M. (2004). The involvement of religious congregations in early care and education in the U.S. Paper prepared for the Brookings Institution. Boulder Journey School (n.d.). Boulder Journey School (Brochure). Boulder, CO: Author Bowe, F. G. (2004). Early childhood special education. Birth to eight (3rd ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

References

413

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss, Vol 1. New York: Basic Books. Bowles, D. D. (1993). Biracial identity: Children born to African American and White couples. Clinical Social Work Journal, 21 (4) 417-428. Bowman, B. (1994). The challenge of diversity. Phi Delta Kappan, 76 (3), 218-25. Bowman, B. (2006). Standards at the heart of educational equity. Young Children, 61 (5), 4248. Brainerd, C. J. (1978). Piaget’s theory of intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Brandell, J. R. (1988, Oct.). Treatment of the biracial child. Theoretical and clinical issues. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 16, 176-186. Braukmann, C. J., Ramp, K. K., and Wolf, M. M. (1981). Behavioral treatment of juvenile delinquency. In S. W. Bijou and R. Ruiz (Eds.) Behavior modification: Contributions to education. Hillsdale: NJ: Erlbaum. Bredekamp, S., and Copple, S. (2009)(Eds.). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children, birth to age 8 (3rd ed.), Washington, DC: NAEYC. Bredekamp, S. and Copple, C. (1997)(Eds.). Developmentally appropriate practice (Rev. ed.), Washington, DC: NAEYC. Brederkamp, S. (1987)(Ed.). Developmentally appropriate practice. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Bricker, D. D. (1989). Early intervention for at risk and handicapped infants, toddlers, and preschool children. Palo Alto, CA: VORT. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979a). Context of child rearing: Problems and prospects. American Psychologist, 34, 844-850. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979b). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989a). Ecological systems theory. In, R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development (Vol. 6). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989b). The developing ecology of human development. Paper presented at the biannual meeting of the Society for Research in Child development, Kansas City, MO. Bronfenbrenneer, U. (1995). Developmental ecology through space and time: A future perspective. In P. Moen, G. H. Elder, and K. Lucher (Eds.), Examining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Bronfenbrenner, U., and Morris, P.A. (1998). The ecology of developmental process. In W. Damon (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (5th ed., Vol. 1). New York: Wiley. Brophy, J. E. (1986). On motivating students. Occasional paper # 101, Institute for Research on Teaching, Michigan State University, East Lansing. MI. Brown, N. G., and Douglass, R. E. (1996). Making the invisible visible: The growth of community network organizations. In M. P. P. Root (Ed.), The multiracial experience: Racial borders as the new frontier, (pp.323-341). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bruce, T. (1987). Early childhood education. London: Hodder and Sloughton, Ltd. Bruer, J. T. (2004). The brain and child development. Time for some critical thinking. In, the Head Start debates, E. Zigler and S. J. Styfco (Eds.), 423-34. Baltimore: Brookes./Cole Publishing Co. Bruner, J. (1962). On knowing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

414

Francis Wardle

Butler, D. L and Winne, P. H. (1995). Feedback and self-regulation learning: A theoretical synthesis. Review of educational research, 65, 245-281. Byrnes, J. P. (2001). Cognitive development and learning in instructional contexts.(2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Byrnes, M. A. (Ed.).(2009). Taking sides: Clashing views in Special Education (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Cadwell, L. B. (1997). Bringing Reggio Emilia home. An innovative approach to early childhood education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Caine, R. and Caine, N. (2006). The way we learn. Educational Leadership, V. 64, #1. Carta, J., Schwartz, I, Atwater, J., and McConnell, S. (1991). Developmentally appropriate practice: Appraising its usefulness for young children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 11(1), 1-20. Catherwood, D. (1999). New views on the young brain: Offerings from developmental psychology to early childhood education. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood Education, 1 (1), University College, Worcester, UK. Cazden, C. B. (1990). Cultural capital in the preschool: Teacher education for language and literacy. Presentation at the annual meeting of the National Association of Early Childhood Teacher Education. Washington, DC. Charlesworth, R. (2004). Understanding child development (6th ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Publishing Company. Children’s Defense Fund. (1999). Seeds of success: State pre-Kindergarten initiates 19981999. Washington, DC: Author Children’s Defense Fund. (2001). The state of America’s children: Yearbook 2001. Washington, DC: Author. Christie, J. and Wardle, F. (1992). How much time is needed for play? Young Children, 47 (3), 28-32. Ciner, personal communication. (June, 2004). Director, Robert E. Loup Jewish Community Center, Child Care Center, Denver, CO. Clark, B. (1997). Growing up gifted. (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Clifford, M. M. (1990). Students need challenge, not easy success. Educational Leadership, 48 (1) 22-26. Clifford, R. et al. (Spring, 2002). Demographic characteristics of early childhood teachers and structural elements of early care and education in the United States. Early Childhood Research and Practice. Cochran, M., and Henderson, C. R. (1986). Family matters: Evaluation of the parent empowerment program. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University (ED 262862). Cohen, L. G., and Spenciner, L. J. (1994). Assessment of young children. New York, NY: Longman. Cole, M. (1990). Cognitive development and formal schooling: The evidence from crosscultural research. In, L. C. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education (pp. 89-110). New York: Cambridge University Press. Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Colorado Department of Education (2000). Title I, part A (Formally Chapter 1): Improving basic programs operated by local education agencies. Denver, CO: Author.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

References

415

Colorado Department of Education. (1991). Colorado 2000: A plan for achieving the national educational goals in our communities. Denver, Colorado: Author. Combs, A. W. (1962)(Ed.). Perceiving, behaving, becoming. 1962 Yearbook. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Comer, J, and Poussaint, A. (1992). Raising black children. New York: Plume. Concordia Lutheran School (n.d.) Preschool, prekindergarten, kindergarten, ready-set-go (Brochure). Lakewood, CO. Cornerstone Montessori (n.d.). Cornerstone Montessori parent handbook. Golden, CO: Author. Cornerstone Montessori (n.d.). Cornerstone Montessori School developmental skills checklist. Golden, CO: Author. Cornerstone Montessori (n.d.). Mission statement. Parents’ guide to a Montessori classroom. Golden, CO: Author Cornoyer, M., Solomon, C. R., and Trudel, M. (1998). I speak then I expect: Language and self-control in the young child at home. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 30 (6981). Cortes, C. E. (1999). Mixed-race children: Building bridges to new identities. Reaching Today’s Youth, 3 (2), 28-31. Cortes, C. E. (2000). The diversity within: Intermarriage, identity, and campus community. About Campus, 5 (1), 5-10. Cost, Quality and Child Outcomes Study (1995). Cost, quality and child outcomes in child care centers, executive summary (2nd ed.). Denver: Education Department, University of Colorado/Denver. Cremin, L. A. (1964). The transformation of the school. New York: Vintage Books. Crescent View Academy (n.d.) Crescent View Academy: Islamic foundation for academic excellence. Aurora, CO: Author. Cronin, S, Derman-Sparks, L., Henry, S., Olatunji, C, and York. S. (1998). Future vision, present work. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press. Cuffar, H. K., Nager, N., and Shapiro, E. K. (2005). The developmental-interaction approach at Bank Street College of education. In, Roopnarine , J. I., and Johnson, J. E. (Eds.) Approaches to early childhood education (4th ed.) (pp. 263-276). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Cunningham, B, and Dorsey, B. (2004). Out of site but not out of mind. The harmful absence of men. Child Care Information Exchange, 165, 42- 43. Curry, N. E. and Johnson, C. N. (1990). Beyond self-esteem: Developing a genuine sense of human value. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Daniel, G. R. (1992). Passers and pluralists: Subverting the racial divide. In M. P. P. Root (Ed.), Racially mixed people in America. Newbury Park: Sage. Darcy, R. B. (2004. March/April). The wisdom of Waldorf. Mothering Magazine, (123). Dateline childcare. (2000). State funding for preschool programs. Child Care Information Exchange, 135, 82-84. DeGaetano, Y., Williams, L, and Volk, D. (1998). Kaleidoscope: A multicultural approach for the primary school classroom. Upper Saddle-River, NJ: Pearson. Department of Education, City of Reggio Emilia (1990). Cenni de Storia, Reggio Emilia, Italy: Center for Educational Research.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

416

Francis Wardle

Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Taskforce. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum: Tools for empowering young children. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Derman-Sparks, L., and Ramsey, P. C. (2002). A framework for culturally relevant, multicultural, and anti-bias education in the 21st century. In, Roopnarine, J. L., and Johnson, J. E. (Eds.), Approaches to early childhood education (3rd ed.),(pp 379-404). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. DeVries, R. (1986). Children’s conceptions of shadow phenomena. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 122 (4), 479-530. DeVries, R., Zan, B., Edmiaston, R. and Wohlwend, K. (2002), in, R. DeVries, B. Zan, C. Hildebrandt, R. Edmiaston, and C. Sales, Developing constructivist early childhood curriculum: Practical principles and activities, (pp. 77-99). New York: Teachers College Press. Dewey, J. (1997/1938). Experience and education. New York: Touchstone Press. Dewey, J. (1934). Art as experience. New York: Capricorn. Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston, MA: Heath. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan Free Press. Dewey, J. (1899). School and society. Chicago. University of Chicago Press. Dewey, J. (1897). My pedagogic creed. Washington, DC: The Progressive Education Association. Doggert, L. (March/April, 2006). Bad news or good news for existing providers. Child Care Information Exchange, (168), 6-8. Donegan, M., Hong, S. B., Trepanier-Street, M., and Finkelstein (2005). Exploring how project work enhances student teachers’ understanding of children with special needs. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 26 (1), 37-46. Duckworth, E. (1964). Piaget rediscovered. In, R. E. Ripple and V. N. Rockcastle (Eds.), Piaget rediscovered. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Education Commission of the States. (2006). State funded pre-K programs. State funds and the number of children served. www.ecs.org Retrieved May 15, 2006. Education Commission of the States (2006). State-funded Pre-Kindergarten programs. Teacher to student ratios and maximum allowable class size. www.ecs.org. Retrieved May 15, 2006. Edwards, C., Gandini, L. and Foreman, G. (Ed.).(1993). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Elkind, D. (1998). Computers for infants and young children. Child Care Information Exchange, (123) 44-46. Engel, B. (1995). Considering children’s art. Why and how to value their work. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/family/community partnerships. Caring for the children we share. Phi Delta Kappan, 76 (9), 701-712. Epstein, J. L. (1983). Longitudinal effects of family-school-person interactions in student outcomes. In, J. L. Epstein (Ed.), Research in sociology of education and socialization. (Vol. 4). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Epstein, J. L. and Dauber, S. L.(1991). School programs and teacher practices of parent involvement in inner city elementary and middle schools. The Elementary School Journal, 91 (3) 288-305.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

References

417

Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton. Evans, E. D. (1975). Contemporary influences in early childhood education (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Evergreen Country Day School (n.d.). Evergreen Country Day School pre-kindergarten Core Knowledge Curriculum. Evergreen, CO: Author. Exbrayant, M., and Poure, N. (2001). Passeport. Paris: Hachette Livre. Exchange Every Day (May 3, 2006). US support of global education lagging. www. ccie.com. Families for Early Autism Treatment (2006). http://www.feat.org/abaproviders.htm. Retrieved July 5th, 2006. Featherstone, J (1967). The primary school revolution in Britain. The New Republic (August 10, Sept, 2, Sept. 9), 2-16. Fenson, L., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J.S., Bates, E., Thal, D.J., and Pethick, S. J. (1994). Variability in early childhood communicative development. Monographs of the Society of Research in Child Development, 59 (Serial # 242). Ferreira, I. D (2004). Projecto Romeiro. Uberlandia, MG, Brazil: Unpublished manuscript. Ferriera, S. (2005). Interview in, F. Wardle, Trip report. Washington, DC: Partners of the Americas (pp. 16-17). Fish, J. M. (2002) (Ed.). Race and intelligence: Separating science from myth. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Flaherty, C. F. (1985). Animal learning and cognition. New York: Alfred Knopf. Flavell J. H. and Elkind, E. (Eds.).(1969). Studies in cognitive development. New York: Oxford University Press. Flavell, J. H. (1963). The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand and Company. Foreman, G. E., and Hill, D. F. (1984). Constructive play: Applying Piaget to preschool. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. Frankel, F., and Simmons, J. Q. (1985). Behavioral treatment approaches to pathological unsocialized physical aggression in young children. Journal of Child Psychiatry, 26, 525551. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press. French American Foundation. (1999). Ready to learn: The French system of early education and care offers lessons for the United States. New York: French American Foundation.. Froebel, F. (1905/2004). The education of man Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific. Fuchs, D., and Fuchs, L. (2005). Responsiveness to-intervention: A blueprint for practitioners, policy makers and parents. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38 (1) 57-59. Gallagher, K. C. (2005). Brain research and early childhood development: A primer for developmentally appropriate practice. Young Children, 60 (4) 12-18 (20). Galileo Curriculum (n.d.). Retrieved Jan, 2009, from ati-online.com/galileoPreschool/index/Preschool.html Gandini, L. (1993). Fundamentals of the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. Young Children, 49 (1), 4-8. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gargiula, R. (2009). Special education in contemporary society. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

418

Francis Wardle

Gargiulo, R., and Kilgo, J. (2005). Young children with special needs (2nd ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar learning. Garshelis, J. A. and McConnell. J. S. (1993). Comparison of family needs assessed by mother, individual professionals, and a interdisciplinary team. Journal of Early Intervention, 17 (1), 36-49. Genesee, F. (2001). Brain research: Implications for second language learning. ACIE Newsletter, 5 (1). Retrieved from http://carla.acad.umn.edu/ACIEarticles/ Nov2001_BrainResearch.html Genesee, F. (2001). Brain research: Implications for second language learning. The ACIE Newsletter, 5(1). Gillingham, K. M., and Berk, L. E. (1995). The role of private speech in the development of young children’s focused attention during play. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, March, Indianapolis. Gollnick, D. M., and Chinn, P. C. (1994). Multicultural education in a pluralistic society (4th ed.). Upper Saddle river, NJ: Merrill. Goodlad, J. I. (1963). Planning and organizing for teaching. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Goodman, J. (1992). When slow is fast enough. Educating the delayed preschool child. New York: Guilford Press. Gordon, A. M. and Browne, K. W. (2008). Beginnings and beyond (7th ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning. Grant, C.A., and Sleeter, C. E. (1998). Turning on learning: Five approaches for multicultural teaching plans for race, class, gender, and disability (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Grazzini, C. (1996). The four planes of development. The NAMTA Journal, 21 (2), 208-241. Gredler, M. E. (2005). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (5th ed.). Upper Saddle, River, NJ: Prentice Hall/Pearson. Greeberg, P. (1969). The devil has slippery shoes. A biased biography of the Child Development Group of Mississippi - a story of maximum feasible poor parent participation. Washington, DC: Youth Policy Institute. Greenberg, P. (1987). Lucy Sprague Mitchell: A major missing link between early childhood education in the 1980s and progressive education in the 1890s-1930s. Young Children (July), 70-84. Gronlund, G. (2006). Make early learning standards come alive. Connecting your practice and curriculum to state guidelines. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Gullo, D. F. (2006).(Ed.). K Toda: Teaching and learning in the kindergarten year. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Hailmann, W. N. (1905/2004). Editor’s preface. The education of man. Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific. Hakuta, K., and Garcia, E. (1989). Bilingualism and education. Americans Psychologist, 44 (2) 374-97. Hale, J. (1994). Unbank the fire. Visions for the education of African American children. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Hall, E. T. (1969). The hidden dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Hall, G. S. (1893). The content of children’s minds on entering school. New York: Kellogg.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

References

419

Hampton, D. (April, 2002). Speech delivered to Delaware Valley Child Care Council, Philadelphia, PA. Handelman, M. S. (2000). Jewish every day. The complete handbook for early childhood teachers. Denver, CO: A.R.E. Publishing, Inc. Haring, T. G. Roger, B., Lee, M., Been, C., and Gaylord-Ross, R. (1986). Teaching social language to moderately handicapped students. Journal of Applied behavior Analysis, 19, 159-171. Harms, T., and Clifford, R. M. (1989). Early childhood environment rating scale. New York: NY: Teachers College Press. Harms, T., Cryer, D., and Clifford, M. (2006). Infant/toddler environment rating scale (Rev. ed.). New York: Teachers College Press Harris, M. J., and Rosenthal, R. (1985). Mediation of interpersonal expectancy effects: 31 meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 363 – 386. Harrison, E. (1905). A study of child-nature. Chicago: The Chicago Kindergarten College. Hatch, A., Bowman, B., Jor’dan, J. Lopez Morgan, C., Hart, L. Diaz Soto, J., Lubeck, S., and Hyson, M. (2002). Developmentally appropriate practices: Continuing the dialogue. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 3, 439-57. Haugland, S. (1999a). What role should technology play in young children’s learning. Young Children, 54 (9), 26-30. Haugland, S. (1999b). The newest software that meets the developmental needs of young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 26 (4), 245-254. Helburn, S, el al. (1995). Cost, Quality and Outcomes in Child Care Centers. Denver, CO: Economics Department, University of Colorado/Denver. Helm, J. H. Beneke, S., and Steinheimer, K (1998). Windows on learning: Documenting young children’s work. New York: Teachers College Press. Helm, J. H., and Katz, L. (2001) Young investigators: The project approach in the early years. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Henderson, A. T. and Berla, N. (1994). A new generation of evidence: The family is critical to student achievement. Washington, DC: National Committee for Citizens in Education. Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. (1967). Children and their primary schools. A report of the Central Advisory Counsel for Education (The Plowden Report), Volume I and Volume II. London, England: Author. Heubert, J. P. and Hauser, R. M. (1999) (Eds.) High stakes: Testing for tracking, promotion, and graduation. Board on Testing and Assessment, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Heward, W. L., and Cavanaugh, R. A. (2004). Educational equality for students with disabilities. In. J. A. Banks and C. A. M. Banks, (Eds.), Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (5th ed.)(pp. 317-349). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Hewes, D. (1993). On doing history. In, A. Gordon and K. W. Browne (Eds.), Beginnings and beyond (3rd ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning. High/Scope Education Foundation (2006). The High Scope Web Site. http://www.highscope.org High/Scope Press. High/Scope Child Observation Record. (1992). Ypsilanti, MI: Author. Hirsch, E. D. (1987). Cultural literacy: What every American needs to know. Boston. MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

420

Francis Wardle

Hirsch, E. D. (1996). The schools we need, and why we don’t have them. New York: Anchor Books. Hirsch, E.D. (2000). The tests we need and why we don’t quite have them. Common Knowledge, 13 (1) 1-8. Hirsch, E. D. (2001). Ideas, convictions and courage: People tell the story of Core Knowledge. Common Knowledge, 14 (2), 1-6. Hohmann, M., and Weikart, D. P. (1995). Educating young children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press. Hooper, S. R. and Umansky, W. (2004). Young children with special needs (4th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Hout, M. (2002). Test scores, education and poverty. In, J. F. Fish (Ed). Race and intelligence: Separating science from myth (pp.329-354). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. Hunt, McVicker, J. (1961). Intelligence and experience. New York: Ronald Press. Hurless, B. R. (2004). Early childhood education in France. A personal perspective. Young Children on the Web, Sept. (retrieved Jan. 2005). Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J. (1964). The early growth of logic in the child. London: Routledge and Kagan Paul. Isaacs, S. (1930/48). Intellectual growth in young children. London: Routledge Isaacs, S. (1933/72). Social development in young children. London: Routledge. Reissued, New York: Schochen books, 1972. Isaacson, W. (2007). Einstein: His life and universe. New York: Simon and Schuster. Ishigaki, E. (1991). The historical stream of early childhood pedagogy concepts in Japan. Early Childhood Development and Care, 75: 121-159. Jacobs, J. H. (1992). Identity development in biracial children. In. M. P. P. Root (Ed.), Racially mixed people in America (pp. 190-206). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Jacobson, L. (2001a). Preschool perspectives en François. Education Week 20 (42), 40-46. Jacobson, L. (2001b). Looking to France. Education Week 20 (42), 20-21. Johnson, J. E, Christie, J. F, and Wardle, F. (2005). Play, development and early education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Johnson, J. E. and McChesney-Johnson, K. (1992). Clarifying the developmental perspective in response to Carta, Swartz, Atwater, and McConnell. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 12 (4) 439-457. Jones, E., and Nimmo, J. (1994). Emergent curriculum. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Jones, E., Valdez, G., Norakowski, J., and Rasmussen, C. (1994). Designing learning and technology for educational reform. Oakbrook, Ill: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Kagan, S. L., Carroll, J., Comer, J. P., and Scott-Little, C. (2006). Alignment: A missing link in early childhood transitions? Young Children, 61 (5), 26-32. Kahn, D. (Ed.). (1995). What is Montessori preschool? Cleveland, OH: North American Montessori Teachers’ Association Kamii, C. (1973). Pedagogical principles derived from Piaget’s theory: Relevance for educational practice. In, M. Schwebel and J. Raph (Eds.), Piaget in the classroom. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

References

421

Kamii, C. K. and DeClark, G. (1985). Young children reinvent arithmetic. Implications of Piaget’s theory. New York; Teachers College Press. Karnes, M., and Johnson, L. (1989). An imperative: Programming for young gifted/talented. Journal for the Education of the Gifted,10 (3), 195-214. Katz, L. (1998). The benefits of the mix. Child Care Information Exchange, 124, 46-49. Katz, L. G., Evangelou, D., and Hartman, J. A. (1990). The case for mixed-age grouping in early education. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Katz, L., and Chard, S. C. (2000). Engaging children’s minds: The project approach (2nd ed.). Stanford, CT: Ablex.. Katz, M. B. (1975). Class, bureaucracy, and the schools: The illusion of educational change in America. New York: Praeger. Katz, W. L. (2002). Know your roots. Raising Black and Biracial Children, 7 (1) 32-33. Kelley, D. J., Quinn, P.C., Slater, A. M., Lee, K., Gibson, A., Smith, M., el al. (2007, Dec.). The other race effect develops through infancy. Psychological Science, 1084-1089. Kendall, F. (1993.) Diversity in the classroom: New approaches to the education of young children. New York: Teachers College Press. Kindler, A. (2002, May). Survey of the states’ limited English proficient students and available educational programs and services. 1999-2000 summary report (Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement for Limited English Speaking Students (NCLEA). Klahr, D and MacWhinney, B. (1998). Information processing. In D. Kuhn and R. S. Siegler (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology, Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and language (5th ed.), (pp. 631-678). New York: Wiley. Kohlberg, L and Mayer, R. (1972). Development as the aim of education. Harvard Education Review 42, (4), 449-96. Kohlberg, L., Yaeger, J., and Hjertholm, E. (1968). Private speech: Four studies and a review of theories. Child Development 39, 691-736. Krauss, M. (1995, Feb.). Keynote address: Endangered language: Current issues and future prospects. Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH. Ladie, J., Hennessy, H., and Bell, B. (1999).(Eds.). Insight guide Brazil. Maspeth, NY: Langenscheidt Publishers, Inc. Lally, J. R. (1998). Brain research, infant learning, and child care curriculum. Child Care Information Exchange, 121, 47-48. Lally, J. R., Griffin, A., Fenichel, E., Segal, M., Szanton, E., and Weissbound, B. (1997). Development in the first three years of life. In, S. Bredekamp, and C. Copple (Eds.), Developmentally appropriate practice. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Lally, J., Griffin, A., Fenichel, E., Segal, M., Stanton, E., and Weissbourd, B. (1995). Caring for infants and toddlers in groups. Arlington, VA: Zero to Three. LaParo, K. M., and Pianta, R. C. (2000). Predicting children’s competencies in the early school years. A meta-analytic review. Review of Educational Research 70 (4) 443-84. Leaper, C., Anderson, K., and Sanders, P. (1998). Moderators of gender effects on parents’ talk to their children: a meta analysis. Developmental Psychology, 34, 3-27. Lepper, M. R., and Hodell, M. (1989). Intrinsic motivation in the classroom. In C. Ames and R. Ames (Eds.), Research in motivation in education: Vol 3. Goals and conditions. San Diego: Academic Press.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

422

Francis Wardle

Lhyle, K. G., and Kulhavy, R. W. (1987). Feedback processing and error correction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 320-322. Lickona, T. (1991). Educating for character. New York: Bantam Books. Lillard, A. S. (2005). Montessori: The science behind the genius. New York: Oxford University Press. Lindner, E. W. (2001). The role of faith-based organizations in child care. Keynote speech for, Sacred Purposes, Civic Purposes. Brookings Institution Seminar. (www.brook.edu). Lindner, E. W. (1984). When churches mind the children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press. Longstreet, W. S., and Shane, H. G. (1993). Curriculum for the new millennium. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Losen, D. J., and Orfield, G. (2009). Racial inequality in special education. In, M. A. Byrnes (Ed.), Taking sides: Clashing views in special education (4th ed.). New York: McGrawHill, pp. 53-67. Lubeck, S. (1994). The politics of developmentally appropriate practice: Exploring issues of culture, class and curriculum. In, B. Mallory and R. New (Eds.), Diversity and developmentally appropriate practices, (pp. 17-43). New York: Teachers College Press. Lubeck, S. (1998). Is developmentally appropriate practice for everyone? Childhood Education, 74 (5) 283-92. MacMahan, I. D. (1992). Public preschool from the age of two: The eclole maternelle in France. Young children, 47 (5), 22-28. Mager, R. F. (1962). Preparing instructional objectives. Belmont, CA: Fearon. . Maher, Alison. (Personal communication).(July, 2006) Director, Boulder Journey School Mahler, M., Pine, P., and Bergman, A. (1975). The Psychological birth of the human infant. New York: Basic Books. Mannheim, K. (1936). Ideology and utopia: An introduction to the sociology of knowledge. New York: Harcourt Brace. Marcon, R. A. (1990). Early learning and early identification: Final report of the three-year longitudinal study. Washington, DC: District of Columbia Public schools. ERIC # ED 331-934. Marcon, R. A. (1992). Differential effects of three preschool models on inner-city 4-yearolds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7 (4), 517-530. Marcon, R. A. (1993). Socio-emotional versus academic emphasis: Impact on kindergartener’s development and achievement. Early Child Development and Care, 96, 81-91. Marcon, R.A. (1994). Doing the right thing for children: Linking research and policy reform in the District of Columbia Public Schools. Young Children, 50 (1), 8-20. Maria Montessori: A brief biography. NAMTA www.montessori-namta.org. August 30th, 2005. Martin, G. and Pear, J. (2003). Behavior modification: What it is, and how to do it ( 7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Martin, S, (1999). Take a look: Observation and portfolio assessment in early childhood (2nd ed.). Don Mills, Ontario, Canada: Addison Wesley. Maslow, A. (1959). New knowledge in human values. New York: Harper and Row. Mayberry, R. I., and Nicoladis, E. (2000). Gesture reflects language development. Evidence from bilingual children. Current Directions in Psychological science, 9, 192-196.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

References

423

McKenzie, H. S., Clark, M., Wolf, M. M., Kothera, R., and Benson, C. (1968). Behavior modification of children with learning disabilities using grades as token and allowances as back up reinforcers. Exceptional Children, 34, 745-752. McLaughlin, T, F., and Williams, R. L. (1988). The token economy. In, J. C. Witt, S. N. Elliott, and F. M. Gresham (Eds.), Handbook of behavior therapy in education. New York: Plenum Press. Meisels, S. J., and Atkins-Burnett, S. (2004). The Head Start National Reporting System. Children and Families, XV111 (1) 32-35. Melton, R. F. (1978). Resolution of conflicting claims concerning the effect of behavioral objectives on student learning. Review of Educational Research, 48, 291-302.. Met, M. (1993, November). Foreign language immersion programs. ERIC Digest # ED363141. Meyer, R. J. (2005). Taking a stand: Strategies for activism. Young Children, 60 (3), 80-85. Miller, D. L. and Kelley, M. L. (1994). The use of goal setting and contingency contracting for improving children’s homework performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 73-84. Minister of Education. (1996). Te Waaeiki. Wellington, NZ: Learning Media. Ministere de l’Education Nationale. (1986). L’ecole maternelle: Sonrole/ses missions. Paris: Centre Nationale de Documentation Pedagogique. Ministre del’Education Nationale (1989). Reperes et references statistique sur les enseignements et la formation. Paris: Documentation Pedagogique. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Government of Japan. (1999). Kindergarten educational guidelines/day care guidelines, revised. Tokyo, Japanese Association of Training Schools for Nursery teachers. Mitchell, A., and David, J. (1992)(Eds.). Explorations with young children: A curriculum guide from the Bank Street College of Education. New York: Teachers College Press. Mitchell, L. S. (1950). Our children and our schools. New York: Simon and Schuster. Moll, L. C. (1990). Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of socio-historical psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press. Montessori, M. (1912/64). The Montessori method. New York: Schocken. Montessori, M. (1948/67). To educate the human potential. Madras, India: Kalakshetra. Montessori, M. (1949/1967). The absorbent mind. New York: Dell. (Original work published in 1949). Montessori, M. (1966). The secret of childhood. Notre Dame, IN: Fides. Montessori, M. (1967). The absorbent mind. New York: Henry Holt. Montessori, M. (1989). The child, society and the world. Unpublished speeches and writings. Oxford, UK: Clio. Mooney, C. G. (2004). Theories of childhood. An introduction of Dewey, Montessori, Erikson, Piaget and Vygotsky. St Paul, MN: Redleaf Press. Mosteller, F. (1995). The Tennessee study of class size in early school grades. The Future of Children 5 (2), 113-127. Myer, C. (1992). The British Primary School approach to learning. Denver, CO: Stanley British Primary School. NAEYC (2005). Accreditation criteria. Washington, DC: Author. NAEYC (2005). NAEYC early childhood program standards and accreditation criteria. Washington, DC: Author.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

424

Francis Wardle

NAEYC (1999). Position statement on technology and young children – ages three through eight. Young Children, 51 (6) 11-16. NAEYC (1996). NAEYC position statement: Responding to linguistic and cultural diversity – recommendations for effective early childhood education. Young Children, 51 (2), 412. NAEYC (1988). Position statement on standardized testing of young children 3 through 8 years of age. Young Children, 43 (3). NAEYC/NAECS/SDE (1991). Guidelines for appropriate curriculum content and assessment in programs serving children ages 3 through 8. Young Children, 46 (3), 21-38. National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. National Committee of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. National Geographic Society. (1993). Our world. Washington, DC: Author. National Head Start Association. (2004). Position paper: Our view of the national Reporting System. Alexandra, VA: Author. National Head Start Association (n.d.). National Reporting System Update. Retrieved May 10, 2006, from, http://222.nhas.org/research/research nrs.htm Neito, S. (2004). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Neugebauer, R. (1999). Early childhood worldwide – More alike than different (an interview with David Weikart.) In, R. Neugebauer, (Ed.), Inside child care: Trend report. Redmond, WA: Exchange Press, pp 31-35. Neugebauer, R. (1999). Inside child care: Trend 2000 report. Redmond, WA: Child Care Information Exchange Press. Neugebauer, R. (2000, May/June). Religious organizations taking proactive role in child care. Child Care Information Exchange, 18-20. Neugebauer, R. (2002, March/April). International organizations serving young children – part one of a directory. Child Care Information Exchange, 144, 79-80. Neugebauer, R. (2002, July/August) ). International organizations serving young children – part two of a directory. Child Care Information Exchange, 146. Neugebauer, R. (2005, Sept/October). Trends in religious-affiliated child care. Child Care Information Exchange, # 165, 79-80. Neugebauer, R. (2008). Early childhood education tend report. Exchange CD Books. Redmond, WA: Exchange Press. New Mexico State Government. (2006). Program standards for New Mexico’s Pre-K program. Santa Fe, NM: Author. Oborn, G. (2002, March/April). Early childhood services in New Zealand. Child Care Information Exchange, 144, 32-26. Odom, S. L. and McEvoy, M. A. (1990). Mainstreaming at the preschool level: Potential barriers and tasks for the field. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 10 (2), 4861. O’leary, K. D., Kaufman, K. F., Kass R. E. and Drabman, R. S. (1970). The effects of loud and soft reprimands on the behavior of disruptive students. Exceptional children, 37, 145155. Oliva, P. F. (2001). Developing the curriculum (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Longman Publishers.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

References

425

Olweus, D. (2003). A profile of bullying at school. Educational Leadership (March). 12-17. Orlosky. D. E., and Smith, B. O. (1978). Curriculum development: Issues and insights. Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Co. Ormrod, J. E. (2008). Human learning (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Ovando, C. J. (1997). Language diversity and education. In, J. A. Banks and C. A. M. Banks, Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (3rd ed.), pp. 289 - 314. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Page, J. A. (1995). The Brazilians. New York, NY: Perseus Books Group. Pearson, J. L., Hunter, A. G., Ensminger, M. E., and Kellam, S. G. (1990). Black grandmothers in multigenerational households: Diversity in family structure and parenting involvement in the Woodlawn community. Child Development, 61, 434-442. Perlmutter, M, Behrend, S. D., Huo, F., and Muller, A. (1989). Social influences on children’s problem solving. Developmental Psychology 25, 744 - 754. Perrone, V. (1972). Open education: Promise and problems. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappan Education Foundation. Peterson, N. (1987). Early intervention for handicapped and at-risk children. Denver, CO: Love. Pfiffner, L. J., and O’Leary, S. G. (1987). The efficacy of all positive management as a function of the prior use of negative consequences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 265-271. Pfiffner, L. J., and O’Leary, S. G. (1987). The efficacy of all positive management as a function of the prior use of negative consequences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 265-271. Phillips, E. L., Phillips, E. A., Fixsen and Wolf, M. M. (1971). Achievement place: Modification of the behaviors of pre-delinquent boys within a token economy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 45-59. Phillips, E. L., Phillips, E. A., Fixsen, D. L. and Wolf, M. M. (1971). Achievement place: Modification of the behaviors of pre-delinquent boys within a token economy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 45-59. Piaget, J. (1970). Paiget’s theory. In Paul H Mussen, (Ed.), Carmichael’s manual of child psychology (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons. Piaget, J (1962). The language and thought of the child. London: Kagan Paul. Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams and imagination in childhood. New York: Norton. (Originally published in 1945). Piaget, J. (1960). The child’s conception of physical causality. Paterson, NJ: Littlefield, Adams (originally published in 1927). Piaget, J. (1952a). The child’s conception of number. New York: Humanities. Piaget, J. (1952b). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: Wiley. Piaget, J. and Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books (originally published in French as LaPsychologies de L’Enfant. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France). Plowden, Lady Bridget (Chairperson). (1967). Children and their primary schools: A report of the central Advisory Council for education in England. Vol. 1. London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. Portes, A., and Rumbaut, R. G. (2001). The story of the immigrant second generation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

426

Francis Wardle

Powell, D. R. (1998). Reweaving parents into the fabric of early childhood programs. Young Children, 53 (5), 60-67. Premack, D. (1963). Rate differential reinforcement in monkey manipulation. Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 6, 81-89. Premack, D. (1959). Toward empirical behavioral laws: 1. Positive Reinforcement. Psychological Review, 66, 219-225. Price-Williams, D. R., Gordon, W., and Ramirez, M. (1969). Skill and conservation. Developmental Psychology 1, 769. Ramey, C. T. and Ramey, S. L. (1996) Perception of intellectual disabilities: Early intervention to improve cognitive development. Birmingham, AL: University of Alabama Civitan International Research Center. Ramsey, P. (1998). Teaching and learning in a diverse world: Multicultural education for young children (2nd ed.). NewYork: Teachers College Press. Rapport, M., D., Murphy, M. A., and Bailey, J. S. (1982). Ritalin vs. response cost in the control of hyperactive children: A within-subject comparison. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 205-216. Renaissance Children’s Center Presents (2000). Lakewood, CO: Colorado Commission for the Homeless. Rinaldi, C. (1992). Corso d’aggiornamenti per nuovi insegnanti. Address presented at Seminars for new teachers. Reggio Emilia, Italy. Rinaldi, C. (1999). The image of the child. Lecture presented at the British Study Tour, Reggio Emilia, Italy. Robert E. Loup Jewish Community Center. Our philosophy and goals (n.d.) (Brochure). Denver, CO: Author. Rogoff, B. (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. New York: Oxford University Press. Root, M. P. P. (2003). Five mixed-race identities: From relic to revolution. In, L. I. Winters, and H. L. DeBose (Eds.), New faces in a changing America. Multiracial identity in the 21st century (pp. 3-21). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Root, M. P. P (Ed.).(1996). The multiracial experience: Racial borders as the new frontier. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Root, M. P. P. (Ed.).(1992). Racially mixed people in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Root. M. P. P. and Kelley, M. (Eds.).(2005). Multiracial child resource book. Living complex identities. Seattle, WA: Mavin Foundation. Rothbart, M. K. (1989). Temperament and development. In G. A. Kohnstramm, J.A. Bates, and M. K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperaments in childhood (pp.59-73). New York: Wiley. Ryan , S, and Greishaber, S. (2004). It’s more than child development: Critical theories, research, and teaching young children. Young children, 59 (6), 44-52. Sadker, D., Sadker, M. and Long, L. (1997). Gender and educational equality. In, J. A. Banks, and C.A.M. Banks (Eds.), Multicultural education: Issues and Perspectives (3rd ed.), (pp. 131-149). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon Sadker, D., and Sadker, M. (1994). Failing at fairness: How Americana’s schools cheat girls. New York: Scribners. Salgarello, A. (2004). Personal communication: Partner’s visit to Denver. Sample, S. (1993 March/April). The American Indian child. Child Care Information Exchange, 90.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

References

427

Saylor, J. G., and Alexander, W. M. (1954). Curriculum planning for better teaching and learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Schliemann, A. D. and Carraher, D. W. (1993). Proportional reasoning in and out of school. In P. Light and G. Butterworth (Eds.), Context and cognition: Ways of learning and knowing. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Schloss, P. J., and Smith, M. A. (1994). .Applied behavior analysis in the classroom. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Schulman, K., Blank, H. H., and Ewen, D. (1999). State pre-kindergarten initiatives: A varied picture of state’s decisions affecting availability, quality and access. Young Children, 54 (5) 38-41. Schweinhart, L. J, and Weikart, P. (1998, March). Why curriculum matters in early childhood education. Educational Leadership, 57-60. Schweinhart, L. J. and Weikart, D. P. (1997). Lasting differences: The High/Scope curriculum comparison study through age 23. (Monograph of High/Scope Education Research Foundation, 12). Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press. Schweinhart, L. J., Burnes, H. V., and Weikart, D. P. (1993). Significant benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study through age 27. (Monograph of the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, 10). Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press. Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C. R., and Nores, M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study through age 40. Ypsilianti, MI: High/Scope Press. Schweinhart, L. J., Weikart, D. B. and Larner, M. B. (1986). Consequences of three preschool models through age 15. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 1, 15-45. Scott-Little, C., Kagan, S.L. and Frelow, V. S. (2006, March/April). State standards for children’s learning. What do they mean for child care providers? Child Care Information Exchange, 168, 27-34. Scott-Little, C., Kagan, S. L. and Frelow, V. S. (2005). Inside the content: The breadth and depth of early learning standards. Greensboro, NC: the Regional Educational Laboratory at SERVE, www.serve.org (Products). Sears, R. (1975). Your ancients revisited: A history of child development Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press. Sears, R. R., Maccoby, E. E., and Levin, H.(1957). Patterns of child rearing. Evanston, Ill. Row Peterson. Shepard, L. A., Kagan, S. L. and Wurtz, E. (Eds.). (1998) Principles and recommendations for early childhood assessments. Prepared for the National Education Goals Panel by Goal 1 Early Childhood Assessment Group. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Shirkey, L. and Zimmerman, S. (1975). Our youngest. In: Society of Brothers (Eds.), Children in community (45-46). Rifton, NY: Plough Publishing House. Shore, R. (1997). Rethinking the brain. New insights into early development. New York: Families and Work Institute.. Short, P. M., and Greer, J. T. (2002). Leadership in empowered schools: Themes from innovative efforts (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. Siegel, R. S. and Alibali, M. W. (2005). Children’s thinking (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

428

Francis Wardle

Sigel, I. E. (1969). The Piaget system and the world of education. In D. Elkind and J. H. Flavell, (Eds.), Studies in cognitive development. New York: Oxford Unvierity Press. Sigel, I. E, McGillicuddy-Delisi, A. V., and Johnson, J. (1980). Parental distancing, beliefs, and children’s representational competence within the family context. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Silva, D.Y., and Johnson, J. E. (1999). Principals’ preference for the N-3 certificate. Pennsylvania Educational Leadership, 18 (2), 71-81. Skinner, B. F., (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall. Smilansky, S. (1968). The effects of sociodramatic play on disadvantaged preschool children. New York: Wiley. Smith, T. E. C. (2009). IDEA 2004: Another round in the reauthorization process. In M. A. Byrnes (Ed.), Taking Sides: Clashing views in special education (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Snow, C. (1997). The myths around bilingual education. NABE News, 21 (4), 197-200. Snyder, T. D., and Moffman, C. H. (2001) Digest of Educational Statistics. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Soltero, S. W. (2000). Dual language immersion: Profile of Chicago’s early childhood. The ACIE Newsletter, 4 (1). Soto, L. D. (1991). Research in review: Understanding bilingual/bicultural young children. Young Children, 46 (2), 30-36. Spickard, P. (1989). Mixed blood. Intermarriage and ethnic identity in twentieth century America. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. Stables, Elisa. (August 3, 2006) (Director, Evergreen Country Day Core Knowledge Preschool. Evergreen, Colorado). Stanley British Primary School. (2000). Stanley British Primary School: Kindergarten through 8th grade. Denver, CO: Author. Steiner, R. (1926). The essentials of education. London: Anthroposophical Publishing Co. Steiner, R. (2001). Addresses and Articles 1915-1921, from the Threefold Social Order, quoted in Learning to Learn: Waldorf Alumni Reflections. Marianne Alsop and Kay Skonieczny, (Eds.). Fair Oaks, CA: AWSNA publications. Stephens, K. (2006). Support resilience by connecting children with nature. In, B. Neugebauer, (Ed.), Child development: A beginnings workshop book, (pp. 84-88). Redmond, WA: Exchange Press. Stokes, T. F. and Baer, D. M. (1977). An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349-367. Stone, C. A. (1993). What is missing in the metaphor of scaffolding? In, E. F. Foreman, N. Minnick, and C. A. Stone (Eds.), Contexts for learning: Sociocultural dynamics in children’s development. New York: Oxford University Press. (19-42). Strayer, J. (1986). Current research in affective development. In, Nancy E. Curry (Ed.), The feeling child: Affective development reconsidered, (pp. 37-55). New York: The Haworth Press. Sutterby, J., and Frost, J. (2002). Making playgrounds fit for children, and children fit for playgrounds. Young Children, 57 (3) 36-41. Swain, M., and Lapkin, S. (1985.) Evaluating bilingual education: A Canadian case study. Clivedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

References

429

Tabors, P. T. (1997). One child, two languages. Baltimore, MD: Paul Brookes Publishing Co. Taylor, S. I. (2004). Let it be! Japanese preschoolers rule the classroom. Young Children, 59 (5). 20-25. The Denver Waldorf School. (n.d.). Give your child the Waldorf advantage. Denver, Colorado: Author. Thernstrom, A., and Thernstrom, S. (2003). No Excuses: Closing the racial gap in learning. New York; Simon and Schuster. Tobin, J. J, Wu., D. Y. H., and Davidson, D. H. (1989). Preschool in three cultures: Japan, China and the Unities States. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Toffler, A. (1970). Future Shock. New York: Random House. Toole, W. (2003). Honoring the imagination of the children. Teaching in a Waldorf first grade. Renewal: Journal of Waldorf Education, 12 (1), 5-7. Torrence, M., and Chattin - McNichols, J. (2005). Montessori today, in Roopnarine, J. L. and Johnson, J. E. (Eds.), Approaches to early childhood education (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Trachtenberg, D. (1974). Student tasks in text material. What cognitive skills do they tap? Peabody Journal of Education, 52, 54-57. Trecker, J. L. (1977). Women in U.S. history high school textbooks. In J. Pottker and A Fishel (Eds.), Sex bias in the schools: The research evidence (pp. 146-161). Cranbury, CT: Associated University Presses. Trostli, R. (1998). The Waldorf Kindergarten. The world of the young child. Anthroposophical Press. Retrieved 9, 8, 2004. From, www. waldorfearlychildhood.org U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Educational Statistics (1995). Kindergarten teacher survey on student readiness. Washington, DC: Author U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board. (2001, May). Guide to ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Play Areas. Washington, DC: Author. US Department of Education. (2007). IDEA data. Available at http://www.ideadata.org/ PartBResport.asp U.S. Department of Education. (2002). US Department of Education survey of state’s limited English proficiency students and available educational programs and services, 1989-90 through 2001-2002 summer reports. Washington, DC: Author. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children, Youth and Families, Head Start Bureau. (2001). Head Start fact sheet: Fiscal year 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Head Start Bureau. (1998). Head Start Act (as amended October 27, 1998). Washington, DC: Author. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Head Start Bureau. (1999). Head Start Program Performance Standard and Other Regulations. Washington, DC: Author. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children, and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Head Start Bureau. (2001). The Head Start Path to Positive Outcomes. Washington, DC: Author. U.S. Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Head Start Bureau (2001). Fiscal year 2001 fact sheet. Washington, DC: Author.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

430

Francis Wardle

U.S. Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Head Start Bureau (2006). Fiscal year 2005 fact sheet. Washington, DC: Author. University of Chicago School of Mathematics Project. (2004) Everyday mathematics. Chicago IL: Wright Group McGraw-Hill. Uphoff, J. K. (1997). Religious diversity and education. In, J. A. Banks and C. A. M. Banks (Eds.), Multicultural education. Issues and perspectives (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Valentine, M. (1999). The Reggio Emilia approach to early years education. learning and teaching. Scotland: Scottish Consultive Council on the Curriculum. Van der Veer, R. and Valsiner, J. (1991). Understanding Vygotsky: A quest for synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Vance, E., and Weaver, P. J. (2002). Class meetings. Young children solve problems together. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Vygotsky, L. (1934, 1962). Thought and language. E. Hanfmann and G. Vakar (Eds. and trans.) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1934/1987). Thinking and speech. In, R. Rieber and A. S. Carton (Eds.), The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky. Vol. 1, problems of general psychology, (trans . N. Minick). New York: Plenum. Vygotsky, L. S. [1930-1935] 1978. Mind in society: The development of higher mental processes, In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scriber, and E. Souberman (Eds. and translation). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Walker, J. E., and Shea, T. M. (1995). Behavior management: A practical approach for educators (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Walters, G. C., and Grusec, J. E. (1977). Punishment. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. Wardle, D. (n.d.) Throw out the computers! Position statement on computers. Elka Park, NY: Plough Publishing House. Wardle, F. (1973, May.). Put a little play into a playground. Early Years. A magazine for teachers of preschool through grade 3. 32-35. Wardle, F. (1974a). My first ½: Autobiographical musings. Greeley, CO: Unpublished manuscript. Wardle, F. (1974b). Early childhood programs in Bruderhof communities. Child Welfare 53 (6), 360-65. Wardle, F. (1975). A day in the life of a free school. Kansas City, MO: Unpublished manuscript. Wardle, F (1976, Nov.). A first look at education of Guatemalan Indians in post earthquake Guatemala. New Schools Exchange Newsletter, 136, 12-15. Wardle, F. (1982). Study of timeout in a childcare setting. Unpublished manuscript: Kansas City, MO. Wardle, F. (1984). Position paper on the Head Start Measures Battery. Denver, CO: Colorado/Wyoming Head Start Director’s Association. Wardle, F. (1985). PACERS Model. Urbana, Ill. ERIC Clearinghouse Elementary and Early Childhood. Wardle, F. (1986, fall). Commentary on Project Head Start. Day Care and Early Education, 32-35.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

References

431

Wardle, F. (1989a). Case against public school early childhood programs. Urbana, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse for Early Childhood Education, ED 310846. Wardle, F. (1989b). Of labels, skills and concepts. ERIC Educational Resources Information Center, ED 402022. Wardle, F. (1995). Alternatives…Bruderhof education: Outdoor school. Young Children, 50 (3), 68-73. Wardle, F. (1996). Proposal: An anti-bias and ecological model for multicultural education. Childhood Education, 72 (3), 152-156. Wardle, F. (1999). The story of a playground. Child Care Information Exchange, 128, 28-30. Wardle, F. (2000a). Building a safe playground in Brazil. In M. Christiansen (Ed.), Playground safety: 1999 conference proceedings. State College, PA: Penn State University. Wardle, F. (2000b). Field trips: Essential learning. How children learn. Children and Families, 14 (3), 68-70. Wardle, F. (2000c). The order in mess: How children learn. Children and Families, 14 (4), 82-83. Wardle, F. (2001a). Multiracial children and developmentally appropriate practice in Brazil: Some preliminary observations. ERIC Clearing House for Early Childhood Education, ED 445 144 Wardle, F. (2001b). Developmentally appropriate math: How children learn. Children and Families. 15(2), 14-15. Wardle, F. (2003a, Sept.). Of race and racism in Brazil. Interracial Voice e-Magazine. Wardle, F. (2003b). Introduction to early childhood education: A multidimensional approach to child-centered care and learning. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Wardle, (2003c, Oct). Language immersion programs for young children. Child Care Information Exchange, 54-57. Wardle, F. (2004). The challenge of boys in our early childhood programs. Early Childhood News, 16 (1), 16-21. Wardle, F. (2005a). Trip Report. Washington, DC: Partners of the Americas International. Wardle, F. (2005b, Sept/Oct). Language immersion programs for young children. Child Care Information Exchange. 54-57. Wardle, F. (2005c). Notes from Brazil: Brazilian schools. New People E Magazine. http://www.newpeoplemagazine.com. Retrieved Dec, 2005. Wardle, F. (2005d). Rethinking early childhood practices. Early Childhood News, 17 (1), 1219. Wardle, F. (2007). How children learn: Learning that is compatible with brain research. Children and Families, 21 (2) 36-37. Wardle, F. (2008a) Escola Estrela do Mar. Collage/Community Playthings Collage. http//:www.comunityplaythings.com/resources Wardle, F. (2008b). Connecting children to their cultures and communities. Collage/Community Plaything. http//:www.comunityplaythings.com/resources Wardle, F. (n.d.). Thanksgiving - Bicentennial. Kansas City, MO: Unpublished manuscript. Wardle, F., and Cruz-Janzen, M. I. (2004). Meeting the needs of multiethnic and multiracial children in schools. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Wardle, F. and Winegarner, N. (1992). Nutrition and Head Start. Children Today, Jan/Feb.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

432

Francis Wardle

Weikart, D. P., Bond, J. T., and McNeil, J. T. (1978). The Ypsilanti Perry Preschool Project. Monograph of the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, #3. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press. Welsh, G. J. (1976). Contingency contacting with a delinquent and his family. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychology, 16, 253-259. West, W. M. (2001). Teaching the third culture child. Young Children, 56 (6), 27-32. Westinghouse Learning Corporation, Ohio University. (1969). The impact of Head Start in children’s cognition and affective development. Washington, DC: U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity. Whaley, K, L. (2005). Programs for Infants and Toddlers .(2005). In, J. I. Roopnarine and J. E. Johnson (Eds.), Approaches to early childhood education (4th ed.)(pp. 263-276). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. What is Core Knowledge? (2005).http://ww.coreknowledge.org?CK/about/index.html. Retrieved Nov 4, 2005. Whiting, B., and Edwards, C. P. (1988). A cross-cultural analysis of sex differences in the behavior of children aged 3 through 11. In G. Handle (Ed.), Childhood socialization (pp. 281-297). New York: Aldine de Gruyter. Wiekiewicz, R. M. (1986). Behavior management in schools: Principles and procedures. New York: Pergamon Press. Wiles, J, and Bondi, J. (2002). Curriculum development. A guide to practice (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Willis, J. (2007, Summer). Engaging the whole child. The neuroscience of joyful education. Educational Leadership, 64, 1-5. Winsler, A. (1994). The social origins and self-regulatory quality of private speech in hyperactive and normal children. PhD dissertation. Palo Alto, CA: Standard University. Wolery, M., and Wilbers, J. S. (Eds.).(1994). Including children with special needs in early childhood programs. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Wood, D. J. (1989). Social interaction as tutoring. In, M. H. Borstein and J. S. Bruner (Eds.), Interaction in human development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Wood, D. J., Bruner, J and Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 17: 89-100. Word Economic Forum. (2008). The global competitiveness report, 2008-2009. http://www.weforum.org/documents/gcr0809/index.html. Wright, M. A. (2000). I’m Chocolate, you’re vanilla. Raising healthy black and biracial children in a race-conscious world. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Wurm, J. P. (2005). Working in the Reggio Way. A beginner’s guide for American teachers. Washington, DC: NAEYC. York, S. (2003). Roots and wings: Affirming culture in early childhood programs (Rev. ed.). St Paul, MN: Redleaf Press. Zack, (2002). American mixed-race: The U.S. 2000 census and related issues. Guest editorial, Interracial Voice E magazine. http://wwwInterracialvoice.com. Retrieved June 22, 2002. Zigler, E., and Muenchow, S. (1992). Head Start: The inside story of America’s most successful educational experiment. New York: Basic Books.

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

INDEX

1 14th Amendment, 223, 264

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A ABC, 248, 416 abnormalities, 280, 281, 389, 399 Abu Dhabi, 324 academic difficulties, 299 academic growth, 83 academic performance, 118, 120, 122, 359 academic progress, 90, 185 academic success, 267, 363 academic tasks, 101 academics, 23, 25, 38, 41, 97, 100, 106, 113, 121, 199, 201, 206, 209, 212, 215, 220, 275, 329 accessibility, 236 accidents, 150, 252, 299 accommodation, 15, 26, 28, 36, 37, 385, 392 accountability, 16, 22, 69, 71, 123, 169, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 304, 306, 316, 381, 395, 401 accreditation, 64, 85, 86, 120, 159, 177, 180, 200, 201, 326, 328, 342, 423 accuracy, 366, 395 ACF, 297, 298, 300 achievement, 26, 27, 66, 70, 105, 177, 234, 310, 330, 362, 422 achievement test, 66 acquisitions, 77 activation, 283 activism, 423 activity level, 280 ADA, 235, 236, 245, 248, 385, 429 Adams, 12, 129, 425 adaptation, 158, 242, 385, 386

administration, 110, 207, 251, 271, 295, 303, 309, 312, 401 administrators, 44, 48, 105, 147, 252, 313 adolescence, 76, 97, 100, 110, 282, 412 adolescents, 42 adult literacy, 254 adulthood, 5, 282 advocacy, 130 aesthetics, 77, 79, 80, 82, 84, 377 Africa, 73, 196, 197, 218, 254, 258, 261, 264 African American, 9, 67, 69, 126, 170, 241, 249, 250, 254, 258, 263, 305, 359, 413, 418 African Americans, 9, 170, 249, 254, 359 afternoon, 12, 87, 111, 152, 209, 210, 329, 337, 366 after-school, 13, 71, 119, 120, 204, 236, 317, 322, 325, 327, 333, 367, 407 agents, 11, 12, 123 aggregation, 308 aggression, 361, 411 aggressive behavior, 243, 357 agility, 198 agricultural, 170, 197, 211 agriculture, 144, 210 aid, 100, 209 air, 87, 130, 149, 150, 187, 302, 365 Alabama, 426 Alaskan Native, 305 Alberta, 265 alcohol, 283 alcoholism, 205, 262 alertness, 288 Alps, 144 alternative, 1, 20, 62, 91, 104, 109, 112, 130, 190, 266, 302, 306, 309, 345, 362, 366, 379, 407 alternatives, 62, 75, 95, 243 amendments, 225, 226, 244, 245, 396 America’s children, 414 American culture, 10, 125, 152, 170, 220 American Indian, 305, 426

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

434

Index

American Psychological Association, 411, 413 American Revolution, xiii Americans with Disabilities Act, 235, 385 AMS, 73, 85, 92 anger, 361 animal studies, 280 animals, 8, 84, 113, 176, 191, 211, 253, 280, 290, 329, 347, 377 antagonist, 239 anther, 162 anthropology, 43 anxiety, 125, 353, 362 APA, 231 apples, 3 application, xiv, 24, 38, 124, 197, 217, 236, 294, 340, 350, 356, 411 argument, 71, 105, 183 arithmetic, 198, 421 Arizona, 304, 307 Arkansas, 300 armed forces, 248 artery, 63 articulation, 90 artistic, 19, 98, 249, 261, 285 ash, 211 Asia, 401 Asian, 10, 192, 216, 240, 242, 251, 276, 305, 342, 359 Asian American, 240 assessment, 16, 21, 43, 47, 49, 61, 62, 70, 87, 88, 90, 108, 125, 144, 156, 158, 161, 166, 180, 181, 182, 188, 189, 199, 232, 233, 234, 237, 238, 303, 306, 307, 309, 316, 330, 331, 381, 387, 389, 397, 401, 412, 424 assessment tools, 233 assignment, 152, 355 assimilation, 15, 26, 28, 36, 37, 121, 123, 385 assistive technology, 227, 236, 242, 243 assumptions, 38, 346 athletes, 263, 287 atmosphere, 248, 315, 332, 335, 336 attachment, 283, 411 attitudes, 3, 68, 100, 174, 206, 261, 298, 333, 353, 362, 411 Aurora, 415 Australia, 73, 106, 125, 144, 171, 195, 214, 388, 393 authority, 16, 66, 128, 178, 224, 225, 287, 303, 332, 333, 408, 412 autism, 231, 240, 252, 356, 359 autonomy, 44, 51, 52, 83, 186, 219, 331, 387 availability, 122, 215, 262, 263, 366, 427 averaging, 227 avoidance, 353, 361, 362

awareness, 20, 27, 28, 43, 102, 234, 251, 306, 317, 340 axons, 400

B baby boomers, 119 back, 8, 23, 32, 39, 51, 95, 110, 111, 113, 138, 171, 182, 183, 186, 192, 206, 258, 274, 352, 365, 375, 377, 423 baking, xiii, 99, 101 banks, 299 barrier, 53 barriers, 122, 144, 239, 287, 299, 424 basic needs, 25, 221 basic rights, 147 battery, 341 beaches, 205 BEE, 12 behavior, 7, 9, 10, 15, 16, 28, 87, 89, 134, 138, 152, 234, 237, 240, 261, 322, 342, 345, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362, 363, 367, 386, 387, 388, 390, 391, 393, 397, 398, 399, 401, 404, 405, 407, 419, 423, 424, 427, 428, 432 Behavior modification, 237, 386, 413, 422, 423 behavior of children, 432 behavior therapy, 423 behavioral change, 347 behaviorism, 23, 25, 44, 45, 345, 346, 348, 352, 362, 363, 405 Behaviorism, 345, 346, 347, 352, 387 behaviorists, 345, 347, 357, 362 Belgium, 144 beliefs, xiv, 9, 11, 35, 48, 97, 145, 224, 237, 242, 254, 261, 262, 321, 322, 323, 325, 328, 329, 330, 342, 351, 386, 428 bell, 346, 347 benefits, 69, 120, 122, 141, 216, 217, 218, 236, 280, 284, 326, 338, 367, 381, 421, 427 bias, 189, 251, 255, 256, 261, 276, 296, 390, 401, 416, 429, 431 Bible, 170, 323, 333, 338, 339, 409 bilingual, 123, 125, 141, 234, 264, 266, 267, 268, 270, 303, 387, 422, 428 Bilingual Education Act, 264 Bill of Rights, 163 biological parents, 205 birds, 8, 67, 84, 139, 330 birth, 28, 126, 128, 162, 237, 252, 257, 280, 282, 283, 292, 329, 330, 397, 413, 422 Blacks, 248, 256, 261, 406 blindness, 231

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

435

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index block grants, 310 blocks, 16, 36, 51, 56, 62, 84, 86, 98, 105, 108, 128, 138, 139, 172, 176, 253, 301, 311, 329, 371, 372, 373, 394 blood, 280, 428 blood flow, 280 boats, 111 Bolivia, 144 boredom, 290, 349 Bosnian, 339 Boston, 171, 323, 411, 412, 414, 416, 419, 420, 424, 425, 426, 427, 430, 431 boys, 9, 111, 124, 127, 136, 150, 195, 209, 210, 211, 212, 240, 241, 247, 251, 252, 253, 261, 274, 291, 322, 328, 330, 354, 361, 380, 425, 431 braids, 205 brain, xi, xiv, 3, 18, 42, 45, 78, 79, 122, 128, 265, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 305, 367, 368, 369, 387, 389, 391, 392, 394, 399, 400, 402, 403, 413, 414, 427, 431 brain activity, 288, 402, 403 brain development, 42, 45, 280, 282, 283, 284, 285, 288, 290, 294, 367, 368, 403 brain functioning, 288, 400 brain functions, 279, 282, 387, 389 brain growth, 290, 368 brain injury, 231 brain structure, 280, 389, 394 brass, 103 Brazil, vii, 73, 113, 123, 144, 149, 151, 171, 195, 196, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 207, 214, 217, 220, 250, 254, 256, 258, 260, 261, 267, 322, 386, 387, 390, 393, 396, 398, 400, 417, 421, 431 Brazilian, vii, 124, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 254, 263, 386, 411, 431 breakdown, 133, 305, 317 breakfast, 299 breastfeeding, 324 Britain, 104, 109, 388, 417 Bronfenbrenner, ix, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121, 125, 131, 140, 259, 413 Buddhist, 321 budget cuts, 118 building blocks, 27, 50, 51, 188, 306 buildings, 17, 37, 86, 112, 130, 138, 148, 149, 165, 206, 209, 215, 224, 236, 296, 297, 310, 313, 325, 326, 353 bullying, 19, 124, 290, 353, 425 bureaucracy, 301, 421 burning, 370 bushes, 86 butterfly, 25, 139, 286

buttons, 139, 375

C cache, 85 Cambodians, 261 campaigns, 129 Canada, 73, 125, 144, 265, 267, 269, 370, 395, 422 candidates, 217 car accidents, 30 cardboard, 378 caregiver, 18, 20, 51, 233, 283 caregivers, 266, 282, 387 Caribbean, 221, 261 case law, 241 case study, 244, 263, 428 cast, 205 CAT, 180, 280, 389 category b, 231, 250 Catholic, 63, 202, 211, 259, 301, 321, 322, 323, 325, 327, 329, 331, 332, 333, 411 Catholic Church, 211, 325, 327, 331 Catholics, 263 cats, 176 causality, 425 cave, xiii CDA, 307 CEC, 245 cement, 302 Census, 113, 126, 250, 256, 258, 265, 277 Census Bureau, 113 ceramic, 209 ceramics, 380 certificate, xiii, 211, 228, 307, 428 certification, 85, 92, 178, 206 certifications, 85, 196 channels, 20 chaos, 87 charities, 204 Chicanos, 258 chicken, 8 chickens, 7, 8 chicks, 7, 8 child abuse, 343, 361 child care centers, 121, 312, 333, 415 child development, 18, 23, 31, 117, 130, 131, 143, 145, 195, 303, 307, 315, 337, 413, 414, 426, 427 child labor, 322 child rearing, 413, 427 childcare, 13, 22, 45, 325, 415, 430 child-centered, 12, 66, 242, 336, 403, 431 child-rearing practices, 261, 342 Children’s Fund, 216

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

436

Index

children’s lives, 53 Chile, 144 China, 144, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 258, 339, 429 chocolate, xiii Christianity, 112, 323 Christmas, 274, 328, 336 Cincinnati, 73, 323 citizens, 6, 9, 121, 123, 125, 144, 151, 165, 171, 181, 183, 200, 224, 225, 248, 250, 285, 309, 409 citizenship, 70, 177 civil rights, 184, 224, 247, 248, 250, 256, 276, 296 Civil Rights, 123, 224, 247, 248, 264 class size, 217, 312, 416, 423 classes, 75, 105, 118, 127, 132, 151, 173, 176, 192, 204, 210, 212, 215, 217, 242, 268, 269, 270, 274, 318, 335, 337, 338, 340, 341, 355, 380 classical, 35, 84, 202, 254, 345, 346, 348, 351, 352, 353, 355, 361, 362, 363, 387, 394, 395 classical conditioning, 345, 346, 351, 352, 353, 355, 361, 362, 363, 387, 394, 395 classification, 61, 187, 354, 398, 412 classroom activity, 136 classroom environment, 53, 64, 82, 290 classroom management, 197, 205 classroom teachers, 239, 240, 359 classrooms, 21, 40, 41, 47, 64, 69, 70, 76, 83, 86, 87, 91, 107, 136, 141, 149, 162, 163, 165, 171, 192, 204, 205, 206, 235, 236, 240, 242, 268, 269, 270, 288, 299, 300, 311, 314, 315, 339, 340, 353, 354, 359, 360, 361, 380, 384, 385, 408 clay, 44, 84, 100, 165, 192, 376, 386 cleaning, 11, 82, 86, 88, 101, 110, 150, 329 cleanup, 56 clients, 391, 404 clinics, 129, 262, 299 clusters, 106 Co, 147, 216, 340, 412, 413, 425, 428, 429 coal, xiii cobalt, 205 cocaine, 283 coffee, 208, 211 cognition, 24, 25, 130, 132, 178, 181, 317, 394, 417, 427, 432 cognitive abilities, 102 cognitive capacities, 130, 282 cognitive development, 3, 14, 15, 24, 25, 26, 30, 38, 42, 44, 45, 65, 81, 88, 130, 138, 180, 181, 200, 205, 267, 282, 360, 367, 417, 426, 428 cognitive dissonance, 33 cognitive function, 25 cognitive level, 25, 31, 33 cognitive processing, 135, 393, 399, 405 cohort, 103

collaboration, 131, 132, 138, 141, 163, 233, 235, 244, 333 Collaboration, 138, 160, 315 collateral, 391 college campuses, 256 colleges, 301, 400 Colorado, 63, 71, 123, 143, 162, 163, 174, 177, 180, 181, 184, 192, 228, 269, 299, 302, 312, 317, 340, 341, 414, 415, 419, 426, 428, 429, 430 colors, 35, 40, 52, 53, 81, 83, 100, 150, 209, 311, 339, 377 Columbia, 2, 73, 388, 422 Columbia University, 2 commercialization, 129 commercials, 129 communication, 17, 20, 62, 65, 83, 91, 119, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 145, 148, 155, 164, 165, 192, 204, 214, 221, 243, 271, 312, 317, 336, 338, 339, 340, 368, 372, 381, 414, 422, 426 communities, 95, 125, 129, 141, 145, 201, 239, 241, 254, 262, 285, 296, 297, 300, 302, 304, 308, 310, 321, 325, 326, 327, 329, 415, 430, 431 community service, 129, 336, 389 community support, 129, 208, 327 compassion, 87 compatibility, 294 compensation, 217, 220 competence, 63, 105, 118, 174, 286, 288, 300, 316, 353, 358, 428 competency, 177, 189, 398 competition, 44, 187, 201, 289 competitiveness, 432 complement, 103 complexity, 15, 98, 139, 263 components, 2, 12, 49, 69, 71, 98, 143, 144, 188, 262, 286, 300, 306, 313, 330, 341, 354, 355, 358, 363, 371, 379, 385, 392, 393 composition, 37, 215 comprehension, 181, 317 computation, 201 computer labs, 124, 340 computer skills, 206, 263 computer software, 310, 356 computer use, 262, 263 concentration, 82, 98, 99, 201 conception, 283, 425 conceptual model, 116 concrete, xiii, 17, 27, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42, 49, 80, 83, 100, 111, 134, 138, 139, 140, 176, 191, 204, 273, 290, 355, 365, 371, 374, 375, 383 conditioned response, 347, 393, 406 conditioned stimulus, 346, 351, 389, 393, 406

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

437

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index conditioning, 237, 345, 346, 348, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 361, 362, 363, 386, 387, 393, 394, 395, 398, 405, 407 confidence, 51, 89, 218, 297, 379, 405 configuration, 39 conflict, 15, 16, 19, 25, 31, 33, 35, 37, 38, 42, 45, 49, 54, 112, 121, 124, 157, 244, 294, 303, 311, 312, 330, 338, 349, 357, 359, 392 conflict resolution, 16, 19, 31, 112, 124, 338, 357 confusion, 177, 290 Congress, 182, 295, 296, 400 Connecticut, 313 consciousness, 219 consensus, xiv, 137, 186, 192 consent, 228 conservation, 27, 28, 30, 35, 44, 403, 426 consolidation, 36 Constitution, 223, 224, 225, 264 constraints, 126 construction, 8, 54, 87, 138, 139, 149, 150, 155, 253, 302, 370, 372, 373, 377, 404 constructivist, xiii, 23, 34, 38, 40, 44, 49, 205, 389, 416 consultants, 7, 239, 241, 244, 300 consulting, 150 context cultures, 116, 118, 131 contingency, 354, 356, 423 continuity, 16, 120, 150, 151, 391 continuous reinforcement, 350 contractions, 40 contracts, 354, 356 control, 11, 36, 43, 49, 51, 52, 57, 65, 67, 89, 105, 110, 120, 133, 134, 135, 151, 158, 225, 248, 290, 297, 301, 307, 310, 356, 367, 426 control group, 67, 297 controlled studies, 47 convergence, 172 cooking, 5, 99, 101, 107, 111, 139, 210, 211, 252, 253, 336, 338, 339 cooperative learning, 14, 285, 387 COR, 21, 62, 63 corn, 208, 209, 210, 211 corporations, 265 correlation, 45 corruption, 328 cortex, 283, 392 cost effectiveness, 308 Costa Rica, 144, 258 cost-benefit analysis, 67, 298 costs, 124, 227, 308, 326 couples, 413 covering, xiv, 225, 319 cows, 176

creationism, 123 creativity, 62, 100, 101, 107, 198, 206 credentialing, 85 credentials, 73 credibility, 85 crime, 66, 67, 68, 262 crimes, 66, 68 critical period, 283, 297 critical thinking, 157, 253, 413 critical thinking skills, 157 criticism, 42, 44, 180, 309, 310 crops, 304 cross-cultural, 55, 117, 414, 432 crossing over, 84 crying, 51 crystals, 400 Cuba, 144 cues, 81, 243, 272, 350, 377 cultivation, 2 cultural artifacts, 17 cultural differences, 352 cultural factors, 15, 196 cultural heritage, 174, 183, 359 cultural identity, 247, 267 cultural influence, xiii, 123, 202 cultural literacy, 183 cultural norms, 399 cultural perspective, 44 Cultural Revolution, 201 cultural values, 266, 315 curiosity, 15, 84, 102, 147, 206, 317, 367, 370, 375 currency, 183, 214 curricular materials, 34, 80, 136, 251, 253, 255, 271, 310 curriculum choice, 303 curriculum development, 10, 48, 335, 370, 399, 404 customers, 375 cycling, 43

D daily living, 74, 80, 402 dances, 111, 113, 133, 254, 380, 382 danger, 87, 158 Darcy, 97, 98, 101, 104, 415 Dartmouth College, 421 data collection, 306, 382 death, 239 debates, 413 decay, 355 decision makers, 57, 109 decision making, 367

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

438

Index

decisions, 21, 31, 51, 54, 55, 57, 110, 112, 159, 162, 224, 248, 287, 291, 297, 306, 341, 395, 427 Declaration of Independence, 224 decoding, 234 deconstruction, 109 deductive reasoning, 288, 397 deep-sea, 287 defects, 226, 252 defense, 217 deficit, 183, 197, 231, 241 deficits, 184, 305 definition, 109, 266, 346, 348 Delaware, 419 delivery, 232, 312 democracy, 1, 9, 11, 22, 118, 123, 170, 182, 183, 202 demographic characteristics, 69 demographics, 92 dendrites, 78, 265 Denmark, 144 dentists, 129, 263, 299, 302 Department of Education, 21, 144, 174, 177, 179, 193, 231, 233, 265, 295, 310, 317, 414, 415, 421, 429 Department of Health and Human Services, 301, 310, 429 depressed, 283, 346 depression, 119, 355 deprivation, 35 designers, 120 developed countries, xi, xiv, 45, 119, 122, 265, 267 developed nations, 385 developing countries, xi, xiv, 119, 208, 218, 265 developmental delay, 227, 231, 232, 318 developmental disabilities, 229 developmental process, 251, 383, 413 developmental psychology, 414, 417 developmental theories, 30 deviation, 350 diabetes, 304 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 231, 391 dichotomy, 105 dictatorship, 123 Dienes, 16 diets, 299, 355 differentiation, 15, 60, 242 dignity, 9, 267 directives, 135 disabled, 9, 296 disaster, 302 discipline, 2, 4, 78, 79, 98, 174, 197, 205, 206, 228, 236, 276, 289, 330, 338, 339, 346, 349, 352, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 397, 407, 414

discontinuity, 119 discourse, 136 Discover, 139, 281 Discovery, 32, 75, 129 discretionary, 229 discrimination, 20, 234, 235, 248, 255, 259, 385, 404, 406 disequilibrium, 25, 392 disorder, 87, 206, 356, 359 disposition, 367 disseminate, 12 District of Columbia, 422 diversity, 17, 20, 33, 41, 75, 107, 121, 123, 192, 195, 212, 215, 242, 248, 249, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 262, 263, 265, 266, 321, 323, 342, 411, 413, 415, 424, 425, 430 division, 83 divorce, 5, 66, 122, 126, 389 divorce rates, 66, 389 doctors, 73, 170, 263, 299, 302, 337 dogs, 176 domestic violence, 205, 262 dominance, 89 donations, 124, 212, 214 doors, 209, 253, 311 download, 245, 294 drainage, 20, 37 dream, 205, 248, 276 driver’s license, 285 drug use, 67, 262 drugs, 68, 177, 204 DSM, 231, 391 duration, 60, 214, 351 duties, 231

E earnings, 68 ears, 124, 268, 279 earthquake, 209, 211, 430 Eastern Europe, 96, 117, 258, 265 eating, 52, 87, 149, 152, 211, 346, 355 ecological, 115, 116, 117, 119, 122, 125, 126, 127, 140, 202, 259, 261, 262, 276, 389, 392, 399, 400, 431 ecological systems, 115, 117, 119, 122, 140 ecology, 19, 20, 116, 119, 125, 206, 413 economic status, 259, 262, 263 Education for All, 218, 224, 225, 226 educational institutions, 199 educational objective, 105, 175, 354, 412 educational policy, 294 educational process, 2, 5, 110

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index educational programs, 42, 125, 208, 214, 284, 295, 301, 321, 324, 329, 348, 349, 386, 421, 429 educational psychology, 125 educational qualifications, 343 educational research, 127, 414 educational services, 227 educational settings, 345 educational system, 158, 244, 396 educators, 1, 5, 6, 10, 11, 14, 23, 38, 48, 52, 55, 69, 70, 73, 85, 96, 112, 116, 120, 143, 144, 156, 162, 163, 166, 178, 186, 193, 220, 235, 237, 255, 256, 266, 267, 269, 275, 295, 298, 316, 324, 331, 337, 342, 359, 430 EEG, 280, 392 egg, 8, 139 ego, 33 egocentrism, 15, 28 Egypt, 340 elbow, 210 elders, 44 electricity, 211, 386 electrodes, 280 electroencephalogram, 280 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 177, 225, 295, 392 elementary school, xi, xiv, 10, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 31, 36, 38, 45, 47, 49, 71, 73, 77, 80, 98, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 116, 124, 135, 141, 144, 154, 157, 166, 169, 175, 181, 182, 184, 186, 190, 192, 193, 202, 204, 205, 212, 214, 215, 220, 223, 234, 237, 241, 244, 247, 252, 261, 269, 276, 279, 289, 291, 321, 322, 330, 331, 345, 350, 352, 354, 359, 360, 362, 363, 365, 366, 378, 383, 394 elementary students, 17 elementary teachers, 120, 316 elephants, 39, 377 emotional, 1, 3, 6, 11, 14, 15, 19, 49, 51, 63, 64, 66, 70, 71, 79, 97, 106, 107, 134, 140, 178, 180, 181, 205, 206, 219, 231, 252, 267, 283, 284, 286, 289, 292, 300, 301, 306, 315, 317, 339, 359, 361, 363, 367, 397, 409, 422 emotional experience, 286 emotional responses, 300 emotional stability, 283 emotions, 82, 102, 103, 130, 286, 290, 291, 293, 317 empathy, 51, 219, 300 employees, 204, 265, 298, 325, 326 employment, 118, 121, 177, 206, 212, 235, 297, 299, 310, 392 empowered, 87, 224, 427 empowerment, 71, 157, 213, 214, 295, 296, 297, 362, 363, 414 encouragement, 19, 51, 133, 206

439

energy, 25, 37, 41, 100, 350 engagement, 19, 53, 98, 315, 367, 383 England, xiii, 37, 104, 109, 152, 171, 213, 214, 249, 258, 322, 329, 388, 393, 407, 419, 425, 428 English as a second language, 206, 269 English Language, 421 enrollment, 206, 215, 244, 300, 305 enthusiasm, 102, 108, 158, 188, 207, 370 environmental impact, 288, 347 environmental influences, 280 epigenetic, 42 epistemology, 24, 402 equality, 13, 121, 123, 184, 224, 225, 248, 419, 426 equilibrium, 15, 25, 26, 89, 392 equity, 123, 248, 413 ERIC, 277, 384, 422, 423, 430, 431 erosion, 38, 408 ESL, 267, 268, 274, 392 ethnic background, 257, 400 ethnic culture, 267 ethnic data, 234 ethnic diversity, 121, 192, 256, 258 ethnic groups, 118, 248, 250, 251, 259, 315 ethnic minority, 267 ethnicity, 92, 115, 179, 184, 249, 250, 251, 258, 259, 260, 263 Eurocentric, 69, 205 Europe, 11, 23, 24, 44, 75, 96, 112, 125, 145, 151, 171, 195, 196, 202, 256, 328, 395, 408 Europeans, 1, 195, 254, 258 evaporation, 38 evening, 370, 380, 408 evil, 329 evolution, 99 evolutionary process, 99 examinations, 217 excuse, 311 exercise, 177, 287 exosystem, 117, 118, 119, 392 expert teacher, 137, 242 expertise, 19, 239, 244, 313, 370 exposure, 25, 35, 271, 283, 406 external environment, 24, 99 extinction, 347, 393 extra help, 361 extreme poverty, 205, 211, 212 Exxon, 265 eye, 89, 157, 250, 251, 362 eye contact, 362 eyes, 87

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

440

Index

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

F fabric, 426 facial expression, 119, 273, 349 failure, 21, 124, 179, 353, 354 fairness, 30, 426 fairy tale, 103 faith, 1, 207, 323, 332, 340, 343, 422 family, 8, 17, 18, 20, 41, 43, 73, 92, 103, 105, 109, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 125, 126, 128, 129, 140, 147, 152, 158, 176, 191, 196, 199, 200, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 229, 232, 237, 239, 240, 241, 244, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 266, 272, 274, 276, 281, 283, 297, 298, 299, 300, 306, 315, 332, 333, 342, 387, 396, 400, 411, 416, 418, 419, 425, 428, 432 family members, 121, 211 family relationships, 120 family structure, 17, 425 family support, 240, 262 family therapy, 281 family units, 266 farmers, 210, 211 farming, 103 farms, 9 fast food, 355 fatherhood, 127 fear, 287, 288, 290, 347, 353, 362 federal funds, 179, 225, 232, 236, 264, 295, 310, 318 federal government, 121, 123, 202, 223, 224, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 238, 240, 250, 295, 296, 301, 304, 305, 307, 317, 318, 393, 406 federal grants, 124 federal law, 199, 225, 235, 238, 244, 385, 396, 404, 409 fee, 173, 204, 220, 337 feedback, 164, 274, 285, 349, 353, 356, 361 feeding, 7, 8 feelings, 5, 6, 51, 54, 63, 65, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 105, 198, 286, 287, 291, 316, 324, 333, 353, 355, 358, 366 fees, 338 felony, 66 females, 67, 251 fibers, 163 film, 411 financial support, 218, 297, 313 financing, 220 Finland, 144, 196, 198, 199, 201 fire, 129, 157, 208, 211, 302, 343, 370, 418 fires, 210 firewood, 210 first generation, 261

first language, 179, 267, 268, 271, 275 First World, 324 fitness, 43, 181, 317 fixation, 95 flavor, 70 flexibility, 105, 179, 265, 285 float, 26, 50, 111 floating, 26, 87 flow, 20, 149, 161, 172, 239, 280, 408 fluid, 152 fMRI, 280, 394, 399 focusing, 54, 65, 83, 179, 180, 234, 284, 292, 304, 374 food, 8, 17, 25, 53, 102, 129, 254, 262, 299, 346, 347, 349, 408 foreign exchange, 275 foreign language, 98, 103, 109, 135, 174, 271, 279, 292, 293 formal education, 9, 73, 92, 183, 184, 196, 198, 200, 203, 284, 294 fragmentation, 251 France, 28, 144, 196, 202, 215, 216, 217, 220, 221, 234, 267, 390, 394, 420, 422, 425 free choice, 80, 112 free education, 145, 223, 225, 393 freedom, 34, 51, 79, 109, 112, 151, 248 freight, 205 Freud, 11, 14 friction, 311 Friday, 111, 337, 366 fruits, 87 frustration, 124, 125, 353 funding, 47, 122, 166, 193, 204, 228, 229, 235, 311, 312, 317, 318, 319, 415 funds, 122, 144, 179, 218, 225, 229, 230, 299, 301, 302, 310, 312, 313, 314, 317, 318, 319, 322, 392, 394, 416 furniture, 76, 77, 82, 87, 91, 100, 150, 252, 310

G G8, 218 Galileo, 69, 306, 307, 319, 417 games, 33, 36, 37, 43, 53, 58, 60, 99, 103, 123, 128, 130, 149, 155, 187, 206, 329, 355, 380, 382 gender, 20, 123, 155, 247, 249, 251, 253, 258, 259, 261, 291, 315, 352, 406, 418, 421 gender differences, 247 gender effects, 421 gender equity, 123 gender identity, 20 gender inequality, 251 gender role, 155, 315

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

441

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index general education, 240, 387 general fund, 312 general knowledge, 181, 188, 206, 317 generalization, 347, 357, 428 generation, 2, 97, 261, 419 generativity, 50 genes, 281, 282 genetic code, 395 genetics, 42, 291 genocide, 202 genome, 42, 45 geography, 4, 84, 177, 185, 293 Georgia, 312, 313, 314 German education, xiii Germany, 9, 12, 73, 96, 97, 144, 171, 212, 249, 258, 388, 393 Gestalt, 6, 34, 286 gestation, 139 gestures, 99, 265, 268, 273, 405 gift, 334 gifted, 3, 5, 31, 34, 60, 240, 241, 242, 261, 263, 356, 414, 421 giftedness, 242 gifts, 13, 29, 324, 332, 336 girls, 9, 127, 136, 150, 205, 209, 210, 211, 240, 247, 251, 252, 253, 259, 261, 263, 274, 291, 311, 322, 328, 330, 339, 341, 426 glass, 75, 80, 362 glasses, 271, 373 global economy, 177, 197 global education, 417 globalization, xi, xiv, 123, 125, 195, 220 Globalization, 125, 394 goal setting, 134, 423 goal-directed, 28 goals, 2, 5, 21, 25, 54, 65, 90, 107, 109, 124, 127, 147, 177, 196, 218, 219, 227, 234, 238, 240, 255, 257, 259, 289, 298, 301, 307, 310, 312, 315, 331, 332, 333, 334, 336, 362, 366, 367, 371, 379, 382, 394, 396, 405, 412, 415, 426 God, 323, 324, 331, 332, 333, 337 going to school, 9 gold, 254, 400 governance, 11, 112, 312 government, 5, 17, 47, 70, 75, 104, 121, 123, 141, 144, 145, 166, 171, 174, 185, 199, 202, 204, 206, 207, 208, 210, 212, 213, 214, 217, 220, 223, 224, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 238, 239, 240, 250, 260, 295, 296, 297, 298, 301, 304, 305, 307, 309, 310, 317, 318, 322, 342, 343, 393, 394, 406 government intervention, 70, 295

grades, xiv, 18, 38, 66, 70, 98, 103, 177, 178, 179, 182, 184, 189, 204, 207, 224, 228, 265, 266, 267, 269, 313, 316, 329, 340, 383, 423 grading, 189 grain, xiii grandparents, 199, 257, 262, 309 grants, 124, 131, 180, 301, 310 graph, 8, 138, 376 grass, xiii, 53, 110, 192 Great Society, 225, 295, 395 Great War, 9, 97 Greece, 8 Greenland, 144 group activities, 17, 52, 60, 65, 86, 90, 136, 141, 329 group identity, 119, 259 group membership, 249, 255 group size, 314 grouping, 38, 85, 106, 112, 138, 141, 152, 249, 285, 388, 400, 407, 421 groups, 20, 33, 60, 66, 69, 77, 82, 87, 90, 91, 108, 117, 118, 119, 129, 130, 136, 137, 138, 148, 150, 179, 181, 188, 191, 197, 200, 208, 210, 213, 214, 236, 239, 242, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 264, 270, 298, 314, 315, 336, 348, 361, 378, 382, 406, 421 growth, 11, 15, 25, 33, 38, 63, 83, 96, 98, 100, 103, 109, 124, 138, 139, 140, 145, 147, 156, 158, 164, 165, 171, 175, 177, 190, 219, 240, 279, 282, 283, 290, 316, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 368, 390, 399, 412, 413, 420 guardian, 227, 241 Guatemala, 113, 144, 196, 208, 210, 211, 212, 220, 258, 261, 267, 388, 396, 430 guidance, 20, 75, 100, 108, 132, 213, 243, 349, 359 guidelines, 20, 52, 55, 124, 173, 188, 219, 236, 238, 245, 297, 304, 312, 332, 411, 418, 423 guiding principles, 160 guilt, 51, 83, 397 guns, 112 gymnastics, 103, 261

H handicapped, 226, 413, 419, 425 handling, 210 hands, 14, 28, 31, 32, 36, 97, 98, 111, 113, 172, 197, 253, 311, 330, 335, 336, 342, 371 hanging, 36, 163, 205, 356 happiness, 353 harassment, 236, 257, 353 harm, 98, 99, 126, 219, 361 harmony, 98, 99, 126, 219 Harvard, 413, 414, 421, 430

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

442

Index

harvesting, xiii, 99 hate, 347 Hawaii, 225, 233, 417, 418 health, 43, 70, 100, 126, 130, 204, 231, 262, 295, 298, 299, 300, 301, 310, 313, 326, 332, 355 Health and Human Services, 231, 295, 300, 301, 304, 305, 310, 429, 430 health care, 126, 299 health clinics, 262 health insurance, 262, 300 health services, 64, 299, 303, 310 hearing, 229, 231, 234, 346, 375 hearing impairment, 231 heart, 18, 47, 57, 62, 63, 97, 132, 135, 149, 275, 287, 297, 413 Heart, 17 heat, 205 heating, 20, 299 Hebrew, 327 height, 41, 234, 296 heroin, 68 HHS, 239, 303, 306, 307 hidden curriculum, 287 high school, 67, 73, 75, 129, 173, 177, 204, 206, 210, 217, 234, 251, 268, 308, 340, 429 higher-order thinking, 35, 355 high-level, 134 hips, 256, 261 hiring, 112, 120, 248, 297, 298, 303, 339, 402 Hispanic, 241, 250, 251, 260, 263, 276, 305, 309, 311, 336, 380 Hispanics, 170, 249, 260, 363 Hmong, 303 holistic, 6, 15, 19, 21, 22, 62, 172, 212, 214, 237, 383 holistic approach, 212 Holland, 75, 144 home culture, 255, 266, 267, 268, 274 home ownership, 67 homeless, 63, 64, 65, 71, 229, 299 homelessness, 262 homework, 172, 190, 234, 262, 423 honesty, 87, 206 Hong Kong, 144, 196 horses, 112, 144, 365 hospital, 129, 263, 287, 370 hospitals, 322 host, 284, 375, 376 hotels, 299 House, 75, 87, 213, 329, 411, 427, 429, 430, 431 household, 80, 117, 402 households, 122, 126, 425 housing, 63, 161, 236, 311

human, 15, 17, 31, 49, 50, 96, 97, 99, 100, 116, 117, 125, 130, 141, 161, 255, 279, 280, 282, 283, 285, 293, 323, 386, 395, 402, 412, 413, 415, 422, 423, 432 human behavior, 117, 402 human brain, 279, 280, 283, 293 human development, 100, 116, 413, 432 Human Genome Project, 280, 293, 395 human interactions, 15, 141 human values, 422 humans, 117, 347 husband, 253 hygiene, 151 hypothesis, 26

I id, 30, 113, 220, 224, 233, 244 IDEA, 170, 173, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236, 237, 239, 241, 244, 245, 300, 318, 391, 396, 401, 406, 409, 428, 429 identification, 229, 232, 249, 250, 261, 286, 422 identity, 20, 119, 155, 157, 171, 247, 250, 251, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 263, 267, 276, 285, 333, 342, 413, 415, 426, 428 ideology, 121 idiosyncratic, 23, 177, 283, 288 Illinois, 384 illusion, 421 images, 250, 257, 339 imagination, 80, 83, 87, 97, 100, 102, 103, 181, 347, 425, 429 imitation, 97, 99, 100, 103 immersion, 269, 270, 275, 423, 428, 431 immigrants, 5, 9, 10, 121, 123, 125, 170, 171, 247, 248, 258, 261, 262, 264, 265, 323, 336 immigration, 17, 123, 125, 256, 265 immunization, 119 impairments, 66, 231, 243 implementation, 52, 70, 141, 227, 244, 296, 330, 379 imports, 113 impulsive, 65 in situ, 50 inactive, 349 incendiary, 180 incentive, 178 incentives, 225 incidence, 361 inclusion, 6, 26, 38, 91, 123, 161, 186, 226, 239, 244, 254, 322, 324 income, xiv, 35, 41, 47, 48, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 92, 96, 120, 124, 126, 127, 173, 179, 184, 186, 200, 205, 217, 225, 242, 248, 258, 262, 263,

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 303, 304, 309, 310, 312, 314, 317, 322, 325, 326, 328, 367, 368, 386, 392 independence, 15, 51, 79, 82, 84, 87, 215 India, 73, 75, 144, 423 Indian, 112, 113, 202, 259, 260, 264, 301, 303, 304, 305, 310, 380, 396, 426 Indiana, 213 Indians, 113, 208, 254, 256, 365, 430 indication, 124 indicators, 66, 67, 68, 201, 303, 314 indigenous, 113, 212, 386 Indigenous, 396 indigenous peoples, 113 individual development, 10, 99 individual differences, 274, 288 individual students, 249, 378 individuality, 2, 10, 44, 119, 200 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 122, 223, 225, 226, 244, 396 industrial, 43, 170, 203, 204, 210, 218, 340 industry, 83, 163, 326, 358 inequality, 172, 224, 247, 254, 422 infancy, xi, xiv, 22, 51, 76, 77, 78, 99, 110, 169, 228, 247, 250, 282, 284, 306, 421 infants, xiv, 16, 20, 33, 41, 42, 45, 64, 65, 126, 129, 133, 135, 136, 137, 145, 161, 181, 203, 214, 223, 228, 229, 236, 237, 239, 241, 244, 280, 281, 284, 290, 305, 306, 333, 390, 392, 413, 416, 421 Infants, 17, 27, 208, 229, 251, 286, 432 inferiority, 83 inflation, 37, 68 information age, 170 information processing, 3, 131, 234, 287 inherited, 397 initiation, 367 injections, 394 injuries, 256, 389 injury, 231, 355 injustice, 254 innate capacity, 165 innocence, 324 inoculation, 184 insight, 30 instinct, 3, 82 institutions, 17, 73, 92, 109, 118, 119, 198, 199, 202, 255, 262, 301, 324 instruction, 7, 9, 16, 22, 25, 34, 38, 65, 66, 69, 70, 75, 97, 98, 104, 108, 124, 133, 174, 176, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 188, 201, 202, 205, 210, 212, 234, 235, 238, 244, 263, 267, 268, 269, 270, 275, 276, 279, 281, 284, 285, 292, 301, 307, 316, 317, 324, 327, 329, 332, 342, 356, 367, 368, 378, 379, 383, 395, 399, 403, 408, 418

443

instructional methods, 177 instructional time, 238 instructors, 356 instruments, 21, 42, 55, 84, 103, 200 insurance, 337 integrated unit, 109 integration, 15, 18, 20, 26, 27, 53, 184, 220, 248, 335 integrity, 2, 97 intellect, 19, 102, 323 intellectual capital, 183, 186, 188, 390 intellectual development, 49 intellectual disabilities, 426 intellectual skills, 219 intelligence, 117, 130, 413, 417, 420, 425 intentions, 51, 57 interaction, 13, 14, 16, 19, 20, 26, 27, 40, 49, 51, 53, 58, 62, 107, 117, 120, 128, 131, 132, 135, 136, 137, 147, 155, 200, 210, 243, 249, 255, 256, 258, 274, 275, 282, 283, 316, 335, 412, 415, 432 interactions, 13, 15, 16, 17, 20, 28, 33, 49, 50, 56, 58, 60, 63, 71, 117, 128, 130, 131, 132, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 147, 148, 155, 157, 159, 165, 207, 268, 270, 271, 387, 391, 416 interdependence, 147 interdisciplinary, 237, 418 internalization, 38, 132, 134 internalizing, 20, 132 International Baccalaureate, 130 Internet, xi, xiv, 124, 257, 262, 340, 369 internship, 208 interpersonal skills, 331, 332 interrelationships, 259, 287 intervention, 35, 68, 69, 70, 82, 120, 133, 148, 151, 155, 173, 223, 229, 232, 234, 235, 237, 238, 240, 281, 283, 284, 294, 295, 298, 306, 356, 359, 363, 389, 413, 417, 425, 426 interview, xv, 22, 193, 244, 276, 363, 424 interviews, 233, 234, 373 intravenous, 36 intrinsic, 20, 79, 150, 323, 355, 363, 412 intrinsic motivation, 79, 412 intrinsic value, 323 introspection, 219 intuition, 119 invasive, 280 inventions, 152 Investigations, 376 investment, 67, 68, 123 IQ, 35, 68, 69, 229, 297, 409 Ireland, 114, 196 iron, 80, 258 irrigation, 37 Islam, 340

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

444

Index

Islamic, 321, 340, 341, 415 isolation, 22, 102, 236, 249, 387 Israel, 144 Italy, 73, 74, 75, 143, 144, 145, 149, 152, 162, 165, 196, 404, 415, 426

J Japan, 73, 96, 144, 196, 200, 201, 217, 258, 409, 420, 423, 429 Japanese, 170, 200, 201, 202, 218, 219, 220, 248, 254, 264, 336, 395, 408, 423, 429 Jefferson, 182 Jerome Bruner, 23 Jewish Community, 335, 336, 414, 426 jobs, 92, 111, 206, 212, 236, 299 Judaism, 334 judgment, 157, 213 jumping, 82, 197 jurisdiction, 204 jurisdictions, 203 justice, 329 justification, 227 juvenile delinquency, 413

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

K K-12, xi, xiv, 1, 2, 13, 22, 42, 95, 122, 125, 169, 174, 175, 176, 178, 180, 181, 184, 190, 192, 216, 220, 223, 225, 236, 239, 240, 247, 248, 252, 284, 293, 294, 297, 306, 309, 312, 313, 314, 316, 318, 331, 333, 360 kindergarten, 7, 8, 12, 13, 16, 42, 70, 71, 73, 86, 171, 172, 178, 269, 312, 313, 315, 318, 328, 415, 417, 418, 427 kindergartens, 11, 13 kinesthetic, 81, 106 King, 254, 323 Korea, 73, 144, 258 Korean, 259

L labeling, 137, 231, 234 labor, 302 lack of opportunities, 92 land, 37, 202 language acquisition, 137, 265, 267, 268 language development, 83, 100, 136, 178, 200, 306, 405, 422 language diversity, 265 language impairment, 231

language proficiency, 269 language skills, 197, 198, 199, 200, 331, 332 laptop, 158 later life, 212 Latin America, 260 Latino, 240, 250, 258, 259, 260, 305 Latinos, 248, 250, 254 laughing, 211 law, 70, 145, 199, 204, 223, 225, 226, 227, 231, 232, 235, 236, 238, 239, 241, 244, 300, 385, 396, 401, 404, 409 laws, 4, 170, 215, 225, 235, 244, 245, 248, 249, 250, 256, 268, 304, 322, 426 lawsuits, 228 lawyers, 73, 170, 263 LEA, 239 leach, 346 leadership, 61, 327, 328 learned helplessness, 353, 354, 407 learners, 6, 34, 121, 135, 161, 162, 175, 177, 184, 190, 235, 247, 248, 266, 270, 271, 277, 287, 367, 368, 379, 383, 387, 391, 392 learning difficulties, 240, 359 learning disabilities, 124, 231, 234, 241, 252, 281, 294, 354, 423 learning environment, 49, 52, 77, 79, 80, 107, 138, 289 learning process, 51, 62, 107, 161, 282, 335, 382, 397, 399 learning styles, 83, 106, 177, 206, 249, 288 learning task, 176, 404 legal issues, 375 legislation, 45, 229, 248, 250, 276, 296, 317, 407 leisure, 80 leisure time, 80 lesson plan, 60, 307, 340, 354 liberation, 22, 248, 251 liberty, 174 licenses, 192 licensing, 192, 314, 326, 327, 333, 343 life experiences, 82, 155, 315 life-cycle, 335 lifestyle, 43, 309 lift, 324, 375 likelihood, 217, 348 limitation, 174 limitations, 301, 347 linear, 26, 27, 30, 81, 83, 153, 154, 282 linguistic, 3, 131, 136, 251, 293, 424 linguistically, 31, 130, 244, 264, 266, 273, 315, 394, 398 links, 118, 121, 379 liquids, 33, 34

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Index listening, 16, 59, 137, 242, 293, 311, 333, 349, 376, 380 literacy, 16, 18, 21, 43, 45, 52, 53, 54, 55, 61, 63, 65, 86, 100, 105, 123, 128, 135, 137, 155, 170, 173, 175, 178, 180, 181, 182, 187, 192, 253, 267, 270, 272, 275, 294, 301, 306, 308, 309, 332, 338, 352, 367, 369, 371, 373, 383, 398, 414, 419 lobby, 380 local community, 130, 300, 302, 303, 311, 395 local educators, 70 local government, 145, 199, 204, 208 location, 39, 43, 60, 61, 114, 263, 360 London, xiii, 75, 413, 419, 420, 425, 428 long period, 105 longitudinal studies, 395 longitudinal study, 422 long-term impact, 283 long-term memory, 285 Los Angeles, 333, 417 loss of control, 120 Louisiana, 264, 398 love, 25, 37, 51, 102, 103, 210, 290, 328, 329, 332, 333, 334, 340, 353, 362 low-income, 35, 41, 47, 48, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74, 96, 120, 124, 126, 127, 173, 184, 186, 205, 225, 242, 248, 262, 263, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 303, 309, 310, 314, 317, 322, 325, 328, 367, 368, 392 low-level, 354 lying, 243

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

M machinery, 375 machines, 377 macrosystem, 117, 118, 121, 122, 123, 399 Madison, 428 magazines, 150, 378 magnet, 75, 203 magnetic, 280 mainstream, 125, 260, 297, 390 maintenance, 124, 313, 326, 337 Maintenance, 269, 399 Malaysia, 144 males, 68, 197 management, 197, 205, 304, 310, 315, 425, 430, 432 mandates, 91, 179, 192, 193, 223, 224, 225, 241, 281, 317, 341 manipulation, 26, 34, 83, 140, 243, 426 man-made, 99 manufacturing, 195 Maori, 196, 213, 214, 407 mapping, 265 marches, 110

445

marijuana, 68 market, 208, 210, 211, 212 marketing, 381 marketplace, 125, 265, 310 markets, xi, xiv, 11, 394 marriage, 248, 256, 259 marriages, 67 Marxist, 131 mask, 205 Massachusetts, 313, 322, 409 mastery, 33, 36, 70, 77, 82, 98, 105, 107, 179, 269, 345, 349, 353, 354, 355, 358, 363, 398, 399 mathematical knowledge, 317 mathematical skills, 317 mathematics, 82, 83, 102, 177, 185, 186, 306, 353, 424, 430 maturation, 13, 15, 24, 265, 394, 401 Maya, 113, 196, 208, 210, 211, 212, 220, 261, 262, 388, 396 McGillicuddy, 133, 428 meals, 206, 208, 299, 336 meanings, 59, 113, 119, 162 measurement, 68, 81, 83, 237, 238 measures, 68, 180, 298, 373, 392 meat, 210 media, 128, 156, 262, 268, 386 median, 68 mediation, 112, 132 medical services, 297 Mediterranean, 342 melody, 55 membership, 10, 61, 260, 315 memory, 3, 78, 102, 108, 252, 285, 287 men, 67, 68, 113, 195, 210, 211, 251, 252, 324, 415 mental activity, 50, 280 mental development, 40, 394 mental disorder, 411 mental health, 64, 65, 231, 281, 295, 298, 299, 300, 302, 303, 355, 391 mental health professionals, 302, 391 mental illness, 231 mental impairment, 67 mental processes, 130, 430 mental retardation, 226, 231 mental state, 15 mentor, 11, 163, 341 mentoring, 318 mesosystem, 117, 118, 119, 120, 129, 399 messages, 60, 155, 400 meta analysis, 421 metabolism, 128 metamorphosis, 25, 102, 139 metaphor, 404, 428

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

446

Index

metric, 82 metropolitan area, 205 Mexican, 63, 254, 262, 380 Mexican Americans, 254 Mexico, 10, 44, 73, 112, 144, 151, 221, 258, 261, 265, 302, 304, 312, 316, 379, 424 mice, 347 Microsoft, 265 microsystem, 117, 118, 119, 400 middle class, 74, 201, 203 Middle East, 96, 342 middle schools, 416 middle-aged, 311 middle-class families, 73, 75, 92, 119, 127, 164, 173, 203, 299 migrant, 299, 304, 400 migration, xiii military, 123, 202, 209 military dictatorship, 123, 202 milk, 35, 36 mineral resources, 400 mines, 400 mining, 254, 400 Ministry of Education, 210, 212, 214, 217, 218, 274, 423 minorities, 241, 248, 296 minority, xiv, 9, 10, 41, 47, 48, 69, 70, 71, 121, 126, 127, 184, 186, 208, 241, 242, 248, 249, 257, 258, 265, 267, 276, 298, 310, 314, 330, 354, 359, 363, 367, 368, 386, 401 minority groups, 249 minority students, 47, 69, 70, 184, 186, 241, 265 missions, 423 Mississippi, 418 Missouri, 10, 110, 328 misunderstanding, 32 MIT, 430 mixing, 35, 257 mobility, 243, 262 modeling, 15, 20, 32, 65, 117, 128, 207, 240, 243, 253, 274, 286, 368, 377, 405 models, 13, 51, 62, 65, 70, 74, 76, 85, 95, 96, 106, 136, 156, 188, 206, 220, 240, 247, 257, 263, 280, 337, 366, 369, 371, 376, 378, 382, 386, 411, 422, 427 mold, 163 money, 79, 114, 144, 145, 178, 207, 225, 295, 299, 302, 310, 312, 313, 316, 317, 319, 358, 389, 393, 399, 404 Montana, 254, 259, 304 mood, 295 moral behavior, 7, 323 moral reasoning, 31

moral training, 7 morality, 322, 337 morals, 219, 220, 325 morning, 7, 52, 87, 98, 110, 111, 153, 209, 268, 329, 337, 366 mosaic, 394 Moscow, 117, 130 motels, 63 mothers, 112, 117, 119, 126, 197, 203, 208, 210, 213, 214, 263, 305, 325, 329, 333, 392 motion, 83 motivation, 15, 20, 50, 74, 77, 79, 85, 89, 91, 106, 145, 290, 369, 398, 412, 421 motor area, 203 motor skills, 187, 197, 200, 317, 331, 332 motor task, 43 mountains, 63, 84, 261 mouth, 27, 28 movement, 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 16, 22, 36, 43, 52, 55, 60, 61, 78, 81, 88, 89, 95, 98, 100, 103, 104, 109, 122, 123, 124, 150, 166, 181, 184, 186, 187, 214, 224, 243, 247, 248, 251, 254, 256, 257, 264, 276, 289, 290, 296, 310, 324, 333, 366, 368, 387, 392, 394, 398, 400, 401, 402, 403, 405, 407 MRI, 399 mtDNA, 411 multicultural, 10, 123, 125, 247, 249, 250, 253, 255, 256, 257, 259, 264, 267, 268, 276, 301, 387, 390, 408, 415, 416, 418, 424, 431 multicultural education, 10, 123, 125, 247, 249, 250, 253, 255, 256, 257, 259, 264, 276, 301, 387, 390, 408, 424, 431 multidimensional, 241, 431 multidisciplinary, 229 multiplication, 38 muscle, 198, 272 muscles, 83 music, 1, 9, 35, 36, 44, 52, 53, 60, 61, 70, 80, 84, 91, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 139, 148, 158, 172, 174, 175, 181, 182, 185, 186, 192, 198, 202, 204, 206, 243, 253, 254, 261, 269, 289, 291, 301, 317, 323, 329, 332, 335, 336, 349, 380, 398, 408 musicians, 35 Muslim, 321, 322, 332, 341, 342 Muslims, 340, 342 mutual respect, 131 myelin, 400

N NAEYC, 21, 64, 120, 122, 125, 177, 180, 189, 200, 201, 248, 266, 294, 328, 332, 336, 400, 406, 412, 413, 415, 416, 418, 421, 423, 424, 430, 432

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

447

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index Namibia, 322 narratives, 257 nation, 109, 113, 170, 174, 180, 181, 196, 396, 424 National Association for the Education of Young Children, 266, 277, 326, 328, 332, 333, 412, 416, 420 National Center for Education Statistics, 428 national curricula, 306, 307, 327 National Education Association, 75, 418 national origin, 258 National Research Council, 419 Native American, 9, 112, 113, 170, 240, 248, 251, 254, 261, 262, 309, 380, 386, 396 Native Americans, 9, 112, 113, 170, 248, 254, 386, 396 natural, 12, 13, 20, 21, 42, 52, 65, 79, 84, 86, 91, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 125, 144, 149, 157, 165, 172, 206, 210, 244, 290, 357, 359, 361, 366, 387, 398, 404 natural environment, 21, 172, 404 natural science, 210 NCLB, 10, 178, 179, 180, 182, 192, 228, 235, 241, 281, 294, 309, 312, 317, 318, 341, 407 negative consequences, 425 negative reinforcement, 348, 363, 387 negative stimulus, 349 neglect, 343 negotiating, 233 neon, 86 Nepal, 144 nesting, 7 Netherlands, 258, 322 network, 144, 162, 413 neural connection, 283, 294 neural networks, 265 neurological disorder, 280 neurons, 265, 292, 400 neuroscience, 432 New Mexico, 10, 112, 258, 261, 302, 304, 312, 315, 316, 379, 424 New Orleans, 340 New World, 256, 264 New York, xiii, 2, 12, 92, 96, 117, 166, 221, 261, 312, 323, 384, 402, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 432 New Zealand, 73, 106, 125, 144, 171, 195, 196, 212, 213, 214, 393, 401, 402, 407, 424 newsletters, 41, 378 newspapers, 135, 376 NGO, 204 NGOs, 204, 322 nickel, 29

nicotine, 283 Nigeria, 197, 198, 199, 201 No Child Left Behind, xi, xiv, 21, 42, 45, 70, 122, 123, 169, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 202, 281, 296, 306, 307, 311, 313, 314, 317, 392, 400 noise, 205, 219, 375 non-English speaking, 179, 242, 247, 248, 264, 265, 267, 268, 276, 301 non-invasive, 280 non-Muslims, 342 non-profit, 169, 182, 196, 262, 325 nonverbal, 16, 20, 242, 272 nonverbal cues, 272 normal, 117, 189, 213, 228, 231, 236, 239, 263, 432 normal children, 432 normal curve, 189 norms, 91, 249, 266, 399 North America, 24, 92, 96, 112, 114, 143, 162, 163, 420 Norway, 124, 144 not-for-profit, 73, 120, 200, 204, 304, 312, 314, 326, 328, 394 Notre Dame, 331, 423 novelty, 53, 290 nurse, 28, 233, 234 nursery school, 14, 66 nurses, 204 nursing, 295 nutrition, 43, 126, 129, 287, 295, 298, 299, 301, 304, 305, 310

O obesity, 124, 128, 304, 355 object permanence, 33 obligation, 228 observable behavior, 356, 387 observations, 39, 55, 58, 60, 62, 63, 147, 155, 166, 191, 205, 232, 233, 274, 306, 338, 343, 370, 431 occupational, 231, 236 oceans, 84 Ohio, 68, 297, 323, 409, 432 Oklahoma, 304, 312 olfactory, 292 online, 319, 341, 417 ontogenesis, 131 openness, 86 operant conditioning, 345, 346, 348, 351, 352, 356, 362, 363, 386, 387, 393, 405, 407 opposition, 10, 75, 395 oppression, 260, 359 oral, 17, 83, 102, 103, 137, 185, 217, 338, 341, 353, 368, 369, 387

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

448

Index

oral presentations, 353 organic, 2, 157, 163 organism, 16, 347, 394 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 216 organizational behavior, 234 orientation, 2, 24, 186, 322, 323, 324, 328 ownership, 163

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

P Pacific, 75, 212, 213, 214, 305, 401, 417, 418 Pacific Islander, 305 pacifism, 386 pacing, 99 pain, 25, 324, 361 paints, 35, 86 Panama, 75 Paraguay, 144 parent involvement, 117, 120, 127, 128, 212, 295, 296, 298, 309, 313, 314, 336, 367, 368, 381, 383, 389, 416 parental authority, 412 parental involvement, 314 parenting, 126, 127, 129, 262, 305, 337, 425 Paris, 215, 221, 234, 417, 423, 425 Parliament, xiii partnership, 135, 160, 299 partnerships, 58, 106, 148, 160, 221, 298, 299, 304, 416 passive, 3, 9, 108, 251, 309, 347, 349, 368, 408 pathways, 37, 283 patriotism, 121 patterning, 83, 286, 354 pedagogical, 44, 45, 145, 184, 309 pedagogy, 23, 204, 205, 254, 420 pediatric, 129 peer, 17, 33, 60, 79, 91, 107, 112, 118, 138, 139, 155, 219, 268, 285, 335, 349, 404 peer relationship, 155 peers, 33, 34, 49, 51, 56, 61, 89, 115, 117, 124, 125, 132, 134, 137, 138, 181, 197, 198, 199, 200, 219, 226, 251, 268, 285, 286, 289, 317, 331, 332, 336, 347, 349, 357, 358, 360, 396 pendulum, 23, 95, 182 Penn State University, 431 Pennsylvania, xiii, 7, 323, 328, 365, 428 percentile, 180 perception, 6, 29, 34, 48, 102, 172, 252, 331, 421 perceptions, 33, 248 periodic, xiii, 85, 90 perseverance, 62, 201 personal autonomy, 331

personal communication, 65, 91, 164, 165, 192, 204, 312, 336, 338, 339, 414 personal control, 71 personal goals, 289 personal relations, 285 personal relationship, 285 personal responsibility, 187 personality, 11, 107, 323, 340, 342 Peru, 261 PET, 280, 402 pets, 8 Philadelphia, 323, 412, 419 Philippines, 144 philosophical, xi, xiv, 22, 47, 71, 91, 110, 113, 125, 144, 145, 239, 244, 386, 402, 405 philosophy, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 22, 23, 44, 47, 55, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 85, 91, 92, 96, 97, 98, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 118, 143, 144, 148, 150, 155, 157, 158, 159, 160, 163, 166, 171, 172, 173, 174, 181, 183, 184, 188, 192, 202, 205, 207, 213, 223, 240, 295, 297, 298, 300, 301, 306, 307, 312, 313, 323, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 336, 338, 342, 385, 386, 387, 394, 400, 404, 408, 426 phobia, 286 phone, 36, 253 photographs, 148, 153, 156, 158, 164, 273, 368, 371, 372, 373, 375, 377, 382, 387 phylogeny, 99 physical activity, 27, 31, 261 physical aggression, 417 physical education, 1, 70, 118, 172, 174, 175, 181, 182, 192, 332, 335, 380 physical environment, 15, 17, 19, 49, 242, 244, 283, 315 physical exercise, 391 physical fitness, 181, 317 physical health, 183, 300 physical therapy, 227, 236 physical well-being, 181 physical world, 15, 19, 37, 84, 99, 317 physicians, 217, 295, 297 physics, 102 physiological, 102 physiology, 288 Piagetian, 24, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 43, 45 pigs, 176 pitch, 134 planning, 50, 54, 57, 58, 105, 130, 138, 140, 147, 154, 159, 160, 164, 190, 227, 242, 302, 304, 315, 370, 374, 379, 381, 402, 427 plants, xiii, 80, 83, 84, 86, 99, 111, 134, 149, 163, 165, 172, 250, 371, 373, 377

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index plastic, 292 platforms, 302 play activity, 140, 311 pleasure, 377, 398 pluralistic, 173, 418 policy makers, 417 policy reform, 422 polio, 119 politicians, 6, 10, 44, 85, 178, 297 politics, 214, 261, 399, 422 pond, 26 pools, 111 poor, 5, 9, 10, 12, 22, 71, 73, 74, 75, 79, 80, 91, 120, 126, 129, 176, 195, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 207, 217, 220, 262, 284, 296, 297, 299, 305, 308, 309, 310, 317, 323, 326, 336, 355, 390, 398, 403, 418 poor performance, 398 poor relationships, 120 population, 104, 183, 192, 195, 202, 205, 208, 212, 215, 265, 269, 276, 307, 313, 317, 408 portfolio, 63, 87, 88, 422 portfolio assessment, 422 portfolios, 21, 108, 158, 382 Portugal, 144, 196, 264 positive attitudes, 270 positive behaviors, 346 positive emotions, 286, 391 positive reinforcement, 65, 348 positive relation, 20, 118, 286, 336, 337 positive relationship, 20, 118, 286, 336, 337 poverty, 65, 205, 211, 212, 262, 297, 300, 305, 309, 310, 317, 420 power, 3, 4, 25, 102, 147, 148, 256, 297, 303, 329, 355, 358, 384, 398 power relations, 256 powers, 3, 4 prayer, 332, 333, 338 predictive model, 280 predictive models, 280 preference, 323, 428 pregnancy, 205, 298 pregnant, 30, 305 prejudice, 255, 257, 259, 287 preoperational stage, 27, 33, 49, 78 preschool children, 69, 70, 71, 190, 192, 196, 199, 203, 225, 226, 241, 312, 313, 318, 333, 360, 390, 413, 428 preschoolers, 16, 65, 71, 200, 214, 237, 244, 331, 336, 429 prescription drugs, 68 president, 75, 295 press, 348, 375, 412

449

pressure, 75, 91, 125, 201, 202, 228, 254, 262, 316, 325 prestige, 217, 218 prevention, 235, 283 primary care, 283 primary school, 104, 105, 106, 183, 215, 217, 415, 417, 419, 425 PRISM, 180, 304 privacy, 165, 231, 242, 245, 315 private, 22, 45, 47, 52, 71, 73, 75, 85, 91, 92, 96, 104, 106, 113, 120, 132, 134, 135, 138, 145, 147, 149, 150, 151, 166, 169, 179, 182, 190, 192, 196, 203, 204, 205, 207, 210, 228, 233, 239, 242, 244, 262, 284, 293, 304, 313, 314, 317, 321, 325, 328, 341, 342, 362, 392, 393, 412, 418, 432 private education, 91 private property, 151 private schools, 104, 106, 179, 182, 228, 317, 325, 341, 342 proactive, 327, 424 problem solving, 14, 50, 51, 58, 61, 78, 105, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 147, 148, 156, 201, 309, 332, 367, 369, 370, 391, 425, 432 problem-solver, 285 problem-solving, 2, 52, 135, 137, 331, 378 producers, 261 production, 283 productivity, 188 professional development, 178 professional duties, 231 professions, 206 profit, 73, 120, 169, 182, 196, 200, 204, 214, 262, 312, 314, 325, 326, 328, 394 profits, 304 program outcomes, 309 programming, 24, 129 projector, 150 property, 66, 68, 151, 386 property crimes, 66 prosocial behavior, 362 prostitution, 204 protection, 19, 51, 214, 221, 223, 264 Protestants, 323 protocol, 71, 340, 402 prototype, 1, 24 pruning, 282, 283, 290 psychiatrist, 74 psychological development, 412 psychological well-being, 219 psychologist, 117, 233, 234 psychology, 14, 23, 44, 75, 131, 204, 281, 294, 401, 405, 413, 414, 421, 423, 425, 430 psychosocial development, 51

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

450

Index

PTO, 342 puberty, 97, 102 public domain, 151 public education, 6, 9, 10, 12, 95, 106, 124, 170, 171, 177, 182, 205, 215, 218, 224, 225, 226, 397 public funds, 322 public investment, 67 public schools, 2, 10, 11, 12, 13, 48, 69, 70, 104, 106, 118, 123, 124, 145, 170, 171, 172, 173, 175, 178, 179, 181, 183, 184, 193, 196, 203, 204, 205, 213, 220, 224, 225, 239, 244, 247, 265, 267, 270, 284, 296, 299, 310, 312, 313, 314, 317, 318, 321, 322, 323, 324, 330, 342, 343, 380, 385, 388, 393, 401, 406, 408, 409 publishers, 178, 257 Puerto Rican, 260, 261 Puerto Rico, 144, 395 punishment, 11, 25, 330, 345, 348, 349, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 387 punitive, 339 pupils, 173, 176

Q

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

qualifications, 69, 112, 120, 160, 177, 192, 196, 228, 312, 314, 333 quality control, 312 quality of life, 162, 283 Quebec, 265, 267, 274 questioning, 137 questionnaires, 272

R race, 9, 92, 115, 179, 184, 192, 202, 208, 249, 250, 251, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263, 349, 386, 401, 406, 415, 418, 421, 426, 431, 432 racial groups, 118, 258 racism, 128, 205, 256, 259, 431 rain, 7, 37, 373 rainwater, 37 random, 407 range, xi, xiv, 7, 16, 31, 33, 61, 65, 107, 128, 130, 140, 169, 172, 173, 209, 229, 231, 238, 253, 257, 296, 310, 315, 326, 409 rating scale, 120, 419 rationality, 118, 402 rats, 346, 347, 348 reading, xiv, 4, 16, 22, 31, 55, 65, 70, 83, 84, 86, 90, 103, 105, 107, 108, 128, 135, 137, 139, 154, 173, 179, 180, 198, 201, 203, 215, 229, 234, 235, 263, 268, 269, 271, 272, 288, 290, 294, 311, 317, 318,

322, 323, 349, 350, 359, 364, 369, 372, 387, 391, 402, 411 reading assessment, 90 reading skills, 290 reality, 15, 26, 30, 36, 40, 49, 80, 99, 132, 151, 205, 214, 218, 247, 263, 291, 412 reasoning, 31, 39, 288, 397, 427 recall, 56, 57, 58, 59, 65, 71, 395 recalling, 57 recognition, 271 reconstruction, 3 recreation, 13, 118, 127, 213 recreational, 235, 262 reflection, 50, 74, 98, 157, 196, 219, 316, 317, 383 reflexes, 27, 28, 347, 405 reforms, 248 refugees, 215, 339 regional, 212, 301 regression, 154 regular, 41, 57, 60, 67, 155, 157, 204, 206, 227, 228, 235, 238, 268, 269, 300, 304, 305, 309, 332, 337, 359, 366, 370, 373, 404 regulation, 15, 71, 79, 105, 133, 134, 140, 219, 252, 283, 290, 292, 300, 317, 367, 397, 405, 412, 414 regulations, 20, 30, 74, 85, 159, 166, 234, 303, 304 Rehabilitation Act, 234, 235, 236, 404 rehearsing, 274 reimbursement, 299, 393 reinforcement, 65, 117, 347, 348, 350, 351, 355, 356, 357, 358, 363, 387, 390, 393, 404, 405, 407, 426 reinforcers, 345, 346, 348, 349, 350, 352, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 362, 363, 398, 423 relatives, 208 relaxation, 187 relevance, xiv, 2, 24, 279, 412 religion, 109, 123, 196, 261, 321, 322, 323, 324, 328, 330, 332, 333, 335, 342, 385 religions, 118, 257, 264, 321, 323, 331 religious belief, 262, 321, 322, 323, 325, 329, 342 religious beliefs, 262, 321, 322, 323, 325, 329, 342 remediation, 184, 237 Renaissance, 47, 63, 64, 65, 71, 426 rent, 326 repetitions, 139 replication, 159 reproduction, 139 reputation, 339 reservation, 214, 259, 303 reserves, 176 resilience, 428 resistance, 10, 176 resolution, 16, 19, 31, 51, 112, 124, 338, 357, 392

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index resources, 19, 35, 122, 124, 144, 148, 155, 203, 214, 233, 240, 250, 257, 275, 284, 296, 297, 300, 303, 310, 340, 373, 375, 376, 378, 381, 389, 400, 431 responsibilities, 84, 105, 177, 303, 393, 402 responsiveness, 133, 135 restaurant, 63, 236 restitution, 362 retardation, 231 retention, 67 returns, 82, 351 revolt, 14, 22 rewards, 17, 79, 91, 105, 348, 355, 358, 360, 390, 412 rhetoric, 288 rhythm, 84, 98, 99, 286 rhythms, 78, 87, 99, 147, 202 rings, 140 risk, 17, 24, 31, 47, 48, 71, 122, 133, 136, 173, 215, 229, 232, 241, 281, 283, 284, 294, 296, 299, 312, 313, 316, 317, 318, 329, 341, 354, 386, 413, 424, 425 risk factors, 386 risk-taking, 24, 136, 215, 329 Rocky Mountain National Park, 161 rods, 16, 83 role-playing, 54, 97, 376, 377 Romania, 196 Rome, 74, 75, 79, 91, 152, 388 rote learning, 38, 188, 287, 288, 387 routines, 47, 49, 50, 55, 56, 87, 181, 268 RTI, 229, 234, 235 rubber, 37 rubrics, 356 rural, 86, 118, 124, 199, 201, 208, 262, 300, 303, 310, 365 rural areas, 124, 199, 208 rural communities, 201, 262, 310 Russia, 73, 116, 123, 130, 131, 258, 265 Russian, 38, 110, 116, 117, 130, 131, 140, 336, 380, 387, 406 rye grass, xiii

S sadness, 290 safeguards, 232 safety, 53, 195, 204, 214, 290, 298, 299, 301, 343, 353, 375, 376, 379, 431 salaries, 69, 160, 218, 326, 338, 342 salary, 216, 280 sales, 302 sample, 199, 217 sampling, 357

451

sand, 16, 33, 52, 53, 192, 203, 254, 302 sanitation, 210 satellite, 406 satisfaction, 82, 84, 89, 111, 210, 349, 398 Saturday, 329 savings, 68 savings account, 68 scaffold, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 140, 149, 219, 368, 403 scaffolding, 59, 65, 74, 132, 133, 135, 138, 140, 147, 395, 398, 428 scaffolds, 58, 136 scalp, 280 scheduling, 16 scholarship, 42, 281, 338 scholarships, 92 school achievement, 67 school activities, 110, 281, 329, 353, 358, 383 school climate, 290 school community, 4, 14, 17, 156, 161, 162 school failure, 318 school performance, 122 school work, 147, 347 schooling, 109, 213, 229, 239, 269, 299, 409, 414 science education, 406 scientific method, 24, 397 scores, 66, 70, 179, 180, 189, 420 scripts, 140, 155, 382 search, 162, 173, 263, 285 Seattle, 426 second generation, 425 second language, 103, 104, 125, 206, 247, 248, 249, 265, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276, 277, 279, 283, 285, 291, 293, 303, 391, 396, 399, 418 Second World, 96, 213, 248, 329 Second World War, 96, 213, 248, 329 secondary education, 215 second-class citizens, 224, 248 secret, 423 secular, 335, 342 security, 101, 117, 163, 221, 353 sedentary, 128, 172 seeds, 210 selecting, 60, 80, 106, 173, 174, 253, 374, 402 selective attention, 294 Self, 15, 32, 51, 78, 89, 154, 155, 198, 199, 290, 336, 404, 405 self-assessment, 198, 303, 304, 308 self-concept, 174, 331 self-confidence, 51, 57, 97, 126, 198 self-contained classrooms, 408 self-control, 252, 415

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

452

Index

self-discipline, 98 self-discovery, 32 self-esteem, 361, 415 self-expression, 84, 197, 200, 201 self-help, 317, 360 self-identity, 255 self-image, 328, 331, 332 self-knowledge, 96, 386 self-observation, 405 self-reflection, 165, 382, 405 self-regulation, 79, 133, 134, 219, 290, 397, 405, 412, 414 self-talk, 134, 403 self-worth, 15 Senegal, 144, 218 sensations, 3, 80 sensitivity, 98, 135 sensory experience, 83, 290, 293 sentences, 84, 272 separation, 20, 123, 126, 321, 322, 324, 343 sequencing, 18, 38, 173, 176, 354 series, 25, 54, 75, 104, 163, 184, 217, 233, 338, 370, 388 services,64, 68, 118, 120, 127, 144, 145, 189, 192, 211, 212, 213, 223, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 244, 245, 262, 281, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 303, 304, 306, 309, 310, 312, 313, 314, 318, 321, 322, 325, 326, 327, 338, 340, 388, 389, 391, 396, 401, 421, 424, 429 SES, 217 severity, 361 sex, 25, 432 sex differences, 432 sexism, 128 sexual orientation, 247, 248, 249, 258, 261 shade, 20, 34, 165, 192, 205 shame, 51, 83, 387 shape, 25, 38, 39, 40, 57, 132, 138, 191, 250, 251, 286, 355 shaping, 13, 345, 346, 349, 351, 352, 354, 356 shares, 76 sharing, 89, 160, 197, 328, 329, 333 sheep, 7 shelter, 215, 375 shock, 348 short period, 150, 280, 360 short-term, 155, 227, 228 Short-term, 227 shoulders, 209 shrubs, 53, 86, 165, 206 siblings, 117, 119, 199, 337, 375 sign, 4, 111, 287

signs, 53, 132, 253, 369, 378, 382 Singapore, 144 single test, 232 sites, 257, 371, 372, 375 skill acquisition, 238, 313, 367 skin, 250, 251 Skinner, B. F., 428 slavery, 202, 322 slaves, 264, 386, 394, 398 sleep, 280 slums, 74, 75, 79, 91, 152, 388 smallpox, 112 smiles, 206 soccer, 36, 130, 209, 211, 261 social activities, 152, 174, 300 social awareness, 340 social behavior, 138, 252, 356, 407 social change, 1, 11, 12, 14 social class, 118, 183, 249 social competence, 18, 174, 182, 297, 300, 389 social conflicts, 52, 407 social construct, 251, 412 social context, 6, 7, 14, 18, 49, 119, 130, 135, 285, 365, 392, 426 social development, 137, 198, 213, 267, 331 social environment, 6, 15, 51, 62, 133, 174, 219, 393 social factors, 285 social group, 7, 181 social isolation, 236 social justice, 329 social learning, 293, 345, 346 social learning theory, 345, 346 social life, 4 social movements, 131 social order, 97 social problems, 261 social psychology, 411 social relations, 34, 54, 58, 61, 82, 215, 353, 398 social relationships, 34, 58, 215, 353 social responsibility, 213 social services, 68, 144, 145 social skills, 138, 174, 180, 186, 198, 199, 200, 300, 317, 348, 354, 357 social status, 210, 249, 401 social structure, 6, 17, 202 social support, 51, 144 social systems, 17 social units, 17, 18 social work, 206, 234, 295, 359 socialist, 116 socialization, 121, 205, 210, 213, 270, 336, 360, 411, 416, 432 sociocultural, 115, 130, 131, 134, 140

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index sociocultural contexts, 130, 134 socioeconomic, 107 socioemotional, 70 sociological, 259 sociologists, 249 sociology, 125, 249, 412, 416, 422 software, 282, 292, 419 soil, 210 sorting, 55 sounds, 29, 54, 78, 90, 150, 187, 234, 286, 293, 302 South Africa, 73, 197, 258 South America, 96, 152, 196, 260, 261, 265, 387 South Carolina, 264, 304, 394 South Korea, 96 Southern Baptist Convention, 325, 327 sovereignty, 202 Soviet Union, 131, 183 space exploration, 406 Spain, 75, 144, 258, 264 spatial, 55 special education, 122, 173, 179, 180, 189, 223, 225, 226, 227, 228, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 244, 252, 261, 268, 271, 298, 299, 300, 304, 318, 346, 348, 351, 356, 359, 360, 362, 391, 392, 401, 403, 404, 412, 422, 428 specialization, 204, 231, 235 species, 24, 347, 401 specific knowledge, 190 spectrum, 356, 359 speech, 90, 98, 100, 132, 134, 135, 138, 183, 201, 231, 234, 236, 239, 269, 305, 362, 412, 418, 421, 422, 430, 432 speed, 37 spelling, 55, 70, 289 spelunking, xiii spiritual, 96, 99, 100, 172, 321, 323, 324, 325, 327, 328, 342 spirituality, 324, 328 sponsor, 156, 199 spontaneous recovery, 347 sports, 185, 236, 253, 407 spouse, 66 Sputnik, 23, 38, 110, 123, 171, 295, 406 stability, 79, 126, 127, 283 staff development, 160, 340 staffing, 228, 233, 234, 303 stages, 15, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 33, 36, 38, 39, 40, 42, 51, 74, 76, 77, 78, 83, 97, 98, 100, 136, 206, 213, 251, 280, 323, 384, 387, 389, 393, 394, 397, 403, 405, 408 stakeholders, 123 standardized testing, 424

453

Standards, ix, 42, 43, 123, 124, 169, 177, 178, 181, 303, 307, 314, 316, 332, 398, 406, 413 State Department, 312 state laws, 248 state schools, 264 statistics, 180, 239, 319 stereotypes, 112, 253, 254, 255, 259 stereotypical, 252 stereotyping, 251, 259 stigma, 236 stimulus, 11, 346, 347, 348, 349, 351, 356, 357, 360, 389, 393, 395, 404, 406, 407 stimulus generalization, 406 storage, 52, 53, 76, 192, 373 strain, 124, 125 strategies, 6, 20, 43, 60, 131, 137, 162, 190, 238, 242, 255, 266, 289, 397, 404 strength, 43, 89, 130 stress, 20, 80, 92, 106, 122, 141, 280, 283, 288, 289, 290, 291, 297, 305 strokes, 191 structuring, 395 student achievement, 368, 412, 419 student teacher, 206, 207, 242, 416 subsidies, 328 substance abuse, 300 subtraction, 38, 83, 187 suburban, 86, 118, 190, 262, 339 suburbs, 262 summer, 297, 299, 317, 335, 409, 429 Sunday, 326, 329, 339 superiority, 112, 287 superstitious, 351 supervision, 53, 57, 128, 208, 291, 371 supervisor, 110 supplemental, 235, 299, 407 supply, 257 Supreme Court, 123, 170, 224, 248, 256, 264, 321, 323, 329, 385, 388 surprise, 188, 233 survival, 393 sweat, 211 Sweden, 144 swelling, 256 Switzerland, 144, 271 symbolic, 28, 36, 37, 58, 63, 113, 135, 136, 139, 140 symbolic systems, 135 symbols, 28, 34, 90, 140, 155, 191, 202, 256, 332, 333, 336 sympathetic, 4 sympathy, 219 symptoms, 4 synapse, 294

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

454

Index

synapses, 78, 283 synthesis, 414, 430

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

T Taiwan, 73, 144 Tanzania, 73, 144 target behavior, 356, 357, 358, 363, 390 targets, 266, 284, 341 taste, 27, 83, 293 taxes, 68 taxonomy, 175, 354 teacher instruction, 38, 69, 105, 174, 193 teacher preparation, 218 teacher support, 139 teacher training, 75, 85, 104, 124, 163, 171, 204 teacher-student ratio, 312, 314 teacher-student relationship, 47 teaching experience, xiii teaching strategies, 255 technical assistance, 308, 338 technician, 206 technological advancement, 280 teenage girls, 329 teens, 285 teeth, 102 telecommunications, 235 telephone, 302 temporal, 43, 99 tenants, 40 Tennessee, 423 tension, 170, 307, 310 teratogens, 283 test items, 271 test scores, 180 Texas, 304 textbooks, 180, 248, 251, 429 textiles, 84 Thailand, 96, 144, 196 therapeutic interventions, 360 therapists, 231, 242, 269, 356, 363 therapy, 242, 356, 359, 360 thinking, 6, 13, 14, 23, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 39, 50, 58, 59, 65, 70, 78, 97, 100, 105, 115, 130, 131, 132, 134, 156, 159, 162, 165, 166, 175, 201, 253, 288, 289, 296, 309, 317, 331, 332, 345, 393, 397, 402, 403, 416, 426, 427 third party, 220 threat, 328 threatening, 20 threats, 290 Tier 3, 235 time frame, xi, 373

time-frame, 84 timetable, 172 timing, 237, 283 title, 170, 264 toddlers, 16, 17, 20, 33, 65, 135, 137, 145, 181, 192, 203, 214, 229, 237, 239, 244, 280, 290, 305, 390, 413, 421 tokenism, 251 Tokyo, 423 tolerance, 124, 229 totalitarian, 183 tourism, 144 tourist, 205, 254, 408 toys, 13, 49, 53, 100, 163, 311, 315 Toys, 100, 129 tracking, 419 trade, 9 tradition, 12, 66, 91, 106, 186, 329 traditional views, 44 traffic, 20, 375 training, xiii, 4, 7, 22, 55, 64, 73, 75, 85, 91, 92, 104, 120, 121, 123, 124, 127, 159, 160, 163, 171, 177, 196, 197, 199, 204, 206, 213, 217, 218, 220, 223, 227, 239, 240, 257, 272, 284, 291, 297, 298, 299, 301, 308, 310, 312, 314, 316, 318, 325, 338, 340, 349 training programs, 104, 213 traits, 249 trajectory, 105 trans, 270, 308, 430 transactions, 109 transcripts, 148 transfer, 34, 37, 136, 321 transformation, 31, 37, 302, 415 transition, 90, 145, 164, 215, 229, 239, 243, 268, 300, 337, 408 transitions, 20, 316, 420 translation, 430 transmission, 6, 10, 97, 309, 400 transportation, 17, 179, 227, 235, 263, 296, 299, 303, 385 transracial, 262 traumatic brain injury, 231 travel, 113, 209 trees, 53, 83, 86, 150, 161, 165, 205, 206 trial, 24, 28, 34 trial and error, 24, 28, 34 tribal, 213, 264, 304, 396 tribes, 113, 261, 301, 380 trucks, 144 trust, 51, 87, 117, 286, 289, 290, 408 tuberculosis, 130

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

455

Index tuition, 166, 172, 173, 199, 203, 207, 210, 262, 337, 342, 390 turbulent, 116 turnover, 120, 217 tutoring, 234, 432 two-way, 133

U

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

U.S. history, 429 UN, 212, 213, 218, 254 uncertainty, 318 unconditioned, 346, 347, 351, 389, 393, 395 undergraduate, 214 unemployment, 205 UNESCO, 216, 221 UNICEF, 216, 221 uniform, 365 United Arab Emirates, 195, 324 United Kingdom, 144, 218 United Nations, 221 universe, 96, 176, 288, 420 universities, 201, 203, 262, 331, 400 university students, xiv, 208 updating, 85, 165 urban areas, 199, 201, 217, 265 Uruguay, 322 USDA, 299, 304 utility costs, 326

V Valdez, 367, 420 validity, 24, 55 values, 3, 4, 6, 10, 30, 44, 97, 115, 120, 121, 123, 132, 134, 154, 162, 170, 171, 200, 206, 220, 249, 261, 266, 268, 286, 287, 315, 321, 328, 329, 330, 335, 336, 340, 342, 343, 399, 408, 422 variability, 31, 42, 204, 288, 326 variables, 40 variation, 268 variety of domains, 368 vegetables, 36, 210 vehicles, 102, 164, 375, 383 Vermont, 2 video games, 123, 128, 355 Vietnamese, 261 village, 115, 208, 209, 210, 211 violence, 123, 124, 128, 177, 337 violent, 68 violent crime, 68 visa, 220

visible, 98, 156, 413 vision, 10, 371, 415 visual images, 257 visual memory, 102 vocabulary, 83, 84, 90, 184, 188, 191, 243, 252, 265, 269, 293, 306, 317, 372 vocational, 171, 215 voice, 119, 134, 191, 362 volunteer work, 66, 311 Volunteers, 296 voting, 248 Voting Rights Act, 248 vulnerability, 322 Vygotsky, ix, 14, 23, 24, 30, 34, 41, 96, 115, 116, 130, 131, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 143, 145, 165, 183, 285, 369, 389, 409, 412, 414, 423, 430

W wages, 120, 122 Wales, 329 walking, 100, 129, 191, 330, 351 war, 96, 113, 121, 144, 145, 248, 254 water, 7, 16, 20, 23, 26, 33, 35, 44, 50, 52, 53, 84, 86, 88, 103, 134, 163, 187, 192, 203, 208, 210, 211, 375, 408 water table, 33, 192, 203 watershed, 314 weakness, 164, 232 wealth, 55, 84, 199, 335 wear, 209, 211, 212, 254, 341 web, 154, 374, 379, 384 websites, 319, 327 welfare, 68, 122, 127, 147, 262, 299 well-being, 17, 49, 181, 214, 219 West Africa, 258, 264, 398 Westinghouse, 68, 297, 308, 409, 432 wheelchair, 242, 254 wind, 373 windows, 86, 87, 88, 139, 149, 253, 274, 311 winter, 20, 99, 274, 329, 365 Wisconsin, 171, 304, 314, 428 wisdom, 96, 386, 415 wives, 214 women, 1, 11, 12, 22, 67, 113, 121, 122, 172, 195, 208, 210, 211, 248, 250, 251, 252, 254, 258, 263, 296, 311, 324, 329 women’s issues, 248 wood, 8, 16, 26, 50, 86, 100, 111, 163, 274, 300, 373 wool, 100 workers, 96, 121, 129, 204, 206, 285, 296, 304, 333 workplace, 199, 256

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,

456

Index

World Bank, 216 World Economic Forum, 200 World War, 96, 144, 213, 248, 329 worldview, 250 worry, 119 writing, 4, 16, 18, 22, 52, 55, 65, 83, 84, 97, 103, 107, 108, 109, 111, 135, 137, 140, 158, 173, 183, 191, 198, 201, 234, 271, 301, 323, 354, 359, 369, 371, 376, 377 written records, 378 Wyoming, 430

X X-rays, 389, 399

Y younger children, 95, 96, 111, 203, 215, 223, 225, 248, 316, 322, 358, 374

Z

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Zimbabwe, 254 zoology, 103

Wardle, Francis. Approaches to Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,