Handbook of Early Childhood Education [1 ed.] 9781624173585, 9781613241547

Citation preview

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

HANDBOOK OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD Additional books in this series can be found on Nova‘s website under the Series tab.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Additional E-books in this series can be found on Nova‘s website under the E-books tab.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

HANDBOOK OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

MICHAEL F. SHAUGHNESSY AND

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

KINSEY KLEYN EDITORS

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‘ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of early childhood education / Michael F. Shaughnessy, Kinsey Kleyn. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN: H%RRN 1. Early childhood education--United States. 2. Child care--United States. 3. development--United States. I. Shaughnessy, Michael F. II. Kleyn, Kinsey. LB1139.25.H34 2011 372.210973--dc22 2011009066

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.  New York Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Child

CONTENTS Preface

vii

Introduction

xiii

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Michael F. Shaughnessy and Kinsey Kleyn Chapter 1

The Importance of Early Childhood Education Michael F. Shaughnessy and Kinsey Kleyn

Chapter 2

Supportive Reading Strategies for Young Children Who Have Difficulty Learning to Read Barbara H. Redd

1

9

Chapter 3

Literacy in Early Childhood Tammy-Lynne Moore

25

Chapter 4

Early Identification in Exceptionally Gifted Children Nicole Smith, Michael F. Shaughnessy and Dan Greathouse

33

Chapter 5

Creating Early Literacy Opportunities for Children with Complex Communication Needs Janet L. Dodd

43

Chapter 6

Addressing Challenging Behavior in Early Childhood Settings Mandy Rispoli, Wendy Machalicek and Síglia Höher Camargo

55

Chapter 7

Early Intervention Services and Part C of IDEA N. Jennella Couch - Freudenburg

71

Chapter 8

The Obesity Epidemic among Young Children Mary Jane Miller, Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin

85

Chapter 9

Pre-Kindergarten to Kindergarten Health Leslie D. Paternoster and Rebecca Trujillo

Chapter 10

A Meta-Analytic Assessment of Recent Pediatric Cognitive Rehabilitation Efficacy Research Rick Parente, Rekha Tiwari and Anju Vaidya

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

103

117

vi

Contents

Chapter 11

Occupational Therapy and Early Intervention Autumn L. Latham and Bethany J. Luke

127

Chapter 12

A Children Centered Principal Charles R. Waggoner

139

Chapter 13

Preschool Curriculum: The Issues and Concerns Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

157

Chapter 14

The Administration of Pre-School Programs Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

175

Chapter 15

Motor Skills and Physical Play Sarah J. Wall

187

Chapter 16

The Journey: Early Education for All Young Children Robin A. Wells

197

Chapter 17

Early Childhood Education and Head Start: A Summary and Review Michael F. Shaughnessy

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

209 211

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PREFACE At this time in our nation‘s history, the establishment of a solid foundation upon which to build a student‘s educational framework and basic skills is imperative. Teachers, parents, administrators and policy makers are all focusing on test scores, standardized measurement of growth, annual yearly progress and ―value added‖ issues. While education begins in the home, it is the early educational environment in which children are exposed to licensed certified professionals whose charge is to provide students with exposure to the basics and to identify those with developmental needs, special needs, and assist in the early intervention process. This book provides an overview of the field of early childhood education as well as ancillary issues that permeate the field. Chapter 1 - This paper will provide an overview of the importance of early childhood education. It will investigate the importance of providing young children with a safe, nurturing environment as well as the stimulation needed to prepare them for the transition to the early grades. Several additional domains will be explored such as early identification, socialization, language and cognitive development as well as social/emotional development. It is imperative that society at large understand the importance of early childhood education and establishing a sound educational foundation for the children of our country. For many years, in many countries, there has been some form of early childhood education. There have been many names ascribed to it- kindergarten, nursery school, pre-school, ―Head Start‖ and other names. Early childhood education has become a vital integral robust part of American education and literally around the world. This chapter will serve as a preliminary starting point for following chapters in this book and provide an overview as to the importance of early childhood education. The domains served and the services rendered will be explored. Both manifest and latent functions of early childhood education will be examined. Basically, all sane, rational reasonable parents want their child to do well in school and in life. However, not all parents are knowledgeable in early childhood growth and development, not all parents are aware of the importance of play and early stimulation and not all parents have the skills needed to recognize if there is a developmental delay, an audiological, or speech or language problem or a vision or gross or fine motor problem. Thus, it is fortunate that there are early childhood centers and Head Start facilities in the United States and around the world. The importance of these centers will be discussed along with the various functions that they serve. Many parents, as is well known, use the kindergarten classroom as a way to provide enrichment for their children. Their definition of ―enrichment‖ varies from parent to parent, and the administration of stimulation and enrichment varies from teacher to teacher and school to school. However, basically, authors in early childhood education want to teach the

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

viii

Michael F. Shaughnessy and Kinsey Kleyn

child the letters, numbers, colors, shapes and forms as well as teach them to interact with other children. There is an attempt to encourage language, discussion, give and take and develop some preliminary social skills. Early childhood professionals provide a clean, neat, well lit environment, with snacks, often breakfast, and a secure sense of safety and nurturance. This supplements what parents attempt to provide in the home environment. Chapter 2 - As a teacher of elementary grades, supportive reading, and English as a Second Language (ESL), and as a supervisor of student teachers for over twenty years, authors have observed in classrooms that children who have difficulty learning to read often seem to spend the majority of their reading periods in phonemic awareness and phonics activities that involve breaking words into component parts: letters and sounds. These students rarely get an opportunity to experience the joy of reading books, except in large group situations where the teacher is reading to the class. Even then, perhaps because of vocabulary and experience deficits, these children‘s attention may drift, and they may be the ones who misbehave in large group situations. It is possible that they have difficulty visualizing what is taking place in the story, perhaps because of limited background knowledge. These children are often those who, for one reason or another, have had little experience with books at home. Pinnell (1999) has noted that some young children entering school ―have only vague ideas about how oral language, even written language read aloud, is connected to print...others can recognize meaningful print in the environment but have little experience in moving through books.‖ Chapter 3 - The act of reading and writing abstract symbols used to communicate thoughts and ideas has existed for thousands of years. As early as 8,000 B.C., merchants used clay tokens with symbols of commodities engraved into their surfaces to keep track of inventory, and evidence of script as a means of communication dates back at least as far as 3,000 B.C. from Sumerian tablets. Sumerians initially used a form of written language as a means of keeping business ledgers, much like the Uruk peoples (3,500 B.C.); however, they did progress to a script called Cuneiform. Archaeologists have found several tablets containing poetry, myths, and records of history. Likewise, there is evidence of writing in Egyptian history, dating back to the period of The Old Kingdom (3200-2260 B.C.) ―The Pyramid Texts,‖ discovered in 1881 in Egypt, were incantations ―carved on the walls of the sarcophagus chambers of the pyramids at Saqqara‖. The invention of the Phoenicians‘ alphabet, which was the first known system of symbols representing isolated sounds or sound clusters, rather than abstract ideas, single words, or objects, was eventually adapted by the Greeks and Romans, and is the foundation for western language. Chapter 4 - Recognizing giftedness in young children is very important. By not responding to their educational needs early, parents and educators can diminish their intellectual development. It is important that we nurture their intellectual development by identifying their needs early so that they may grow and develop to their fullest ability. This paper will take a closer look at the identification methods that are used to assess young gifted children and their intellectual development. Chapter 5 - Literacy, the ability to read and write, affords us many opportunities. Early literacy provides a cornerstone for continual development of communication and language. ―Children combine what they know about speaking and listening with what they know about print and become ready to learn to read and write‖. It is well known that children with delays in language are at risk for developing literacy skills. In fact, for many children with complex communication needs (CCN) as a result of profound delays in the areas language, the role of

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preface

ix

literacy in supporting the development of a functional communication system is often underestimated. Chapter 6 - Children with autism and other developmental disabilities often engage in challenging behaviors such as tantrums, elopement (i.e., leaving a designated area without adult supervision), aggression, and self-injury. While some of these behaviors are common to young typically developing children, they tend to disappear as the child grows and develops language. Unfortunately, these same behaviors tend to linger longer in children with developmental disabilities. Such behaviors may lead to decreased instructional time, placement in more restrictive settings, such as self-contained classrooms or residential placements, and loss of opportunities for social. Chapter 7 - The IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) is a federal law that was passed to provide states and territories with federal requirements for providing services to children who meet specific eligibility criteria. Both Part B and Part C of IDEA specify requirements for states to refer, screen, evaluate, and identify children who are eligible for services. Part B requires states to have policies and procedures in place to ―ensure that all children with disabilities, regardless of the severity of their disability, are identified, located, and evaluated. Part C requires each state to implement a comprehensive ―child find system‖ in order to find children ages birth to age three as early as possible. This comprehensive system must address 6 essential components, according to NECTAC (2007): (1) the definition of eligibility for that state, (2) the public awareness program, (3) a central directory, (4) screening and referral process, (5) timelines for agencies to act on those referrals, and (6) evaluation and assessment (p. 1); or 7 major elements, according to Child Find: (1) definition of target population, (2) public awareness program, (3) referral and intake, (4) screening and identification of young children who may be eligible, (5) eligibility determination, (6) tracking, and (7) interagency. Chapter 8 - Obesity rates around the globe have skyrocketed. Statistical data bear out the fact that there is truly an obesity epidemic and probably an obesity pandemic. In the last few decades, health related obesity ailments have multiplied dramatically among all age groups and have become commonplace even among our very youngest children. This paper discusses numerous health related issues resulting from overweight and obesity, some of the causes of excessive weight gain and how these issues can affect young children and their success in school. It highlights the role of diet and exercise as preventive measures and a sizeable section is devoted to the benefits of breastfeeding infants as an early preventive measure. Finally, the paper offers several recommendations to aid in the prevention or reduction of excessive weight gain among young children. Chapter 9 - Growth and development is an essential concept when trying to understand children‘s growth patterns. Each child is unique in development and maturity. Although each child displays a unique maturational pattern, the skill performance develops in a sequential pattern and is uniform among children. This is due to the growth patterns of the child. Skill development develops through two body processes, from the head down and from the center of the body outward. The development from the head downward is termed cephalocaudal development and the growth from the center outward is termed proximodistal development. In cephalocaudal development, the child can hold up his head before he can hold a toy. The same concept exists with the proximodistal development, the child is able to control the trunk before the arms and then the fingers.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

x

Michael F. Shaughnessy and Kinsey Kleyn

Chapter 10 - Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can produce a dramatic decrement in a child‘s cognition that may last a lifetime Slomine and Locascio (2009). Unfortunately, the development of effective treatments for TBI sequelae has not kept pace with the prevalence of the disorder. Although most published research on cognitive rehabilitation therapy with pediatric patients shows some improvement in one or more aspects of cognitive functioning that results from treatment, there are no systematic evaluations that have assessed how much of this treatment effect would have normally occurred anyway with the simple passage of time or that have investigated treatment effect sizes that occur with and without CRT intervention. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to summarize the recent research on this issue, (since the year 2000) and to document, wherever possible, the size of the effects that result from treatments that extend beyond those that occur normally without treatment. Chapter 11 - Occupational therapy is a broad field which attempts to make it possible for individuals facing physical, cognitive, or psychosocial challenges to engage in meaningful activities and meet the demands and responsibilities of everyday life to support health, wellness, and participation across the lifespan. Though the scope of practice of occupational therapy is vast, the goals of all interventions focus on a similar outcome; for each individual to live life to its most fulfilling extent possible. Chapter 12 - Thankfully, very few principals suffer from misopedia to the extent that comedian W.C. Fields did as he made a career out of such humorous statements as ―I love children. Yes, if properly cooked.‖ Chapter 13 - In 2007-2008 more than 52% of all 3-year-olds and 80% of all 4-year-olds attended a preschool program. Approximately 25% attended state funded pre-k programs, 25% attended Head Start or special education, and about 50% attended private preschool programs. During Fiscal Year 2010, when most state legislatures faced extreme budget deficits, 27 of 38 states with existing pre-K programs and the District of Columbia chose to increase or preserve current spending for pre-K programs. Additionally, two states, Alaska and Rhode Island, offered pre-K programs for the first time. A belief that high quality preschool programs are an investment in development and learning resulted in a record-high funding for pre-K programs of $5.3 billion. The phrase, high-quality preschool programs, is synonymous with school readiness- the preparedness of children to learn what schools expect, or want them to learn. School readiness is a cornerstone to today's education reforms, which include the push for preschool. Like it or not, when public dollars, state or federal, are spent and/or increased to support programs, the question of accountability must be addressed to stakeholders. In most recent times, teachers and schools are being held responsible for demonstrating that the public is getting what it paid for. Especially with shortfalls in budgets, accountability is not expected to go away anytime soon. Chapter 14 - This chapter discusses curriculum for preschool programs and its relationship to accountability, standards and learning outcomes, and provides the foundation for K-12 education. The principles of an effective Pre-K program are discussed and how they support the five domains of school readiness: physical well-being and motor development, social and emotional development, approaches toward learning, language development, and cognitive and general knowledge, identified by the National Education Goals Panel in 2004. Chapter 15 - What is this chapter doing here? You‘re an early childhood teacher and your day is consumed with developing creative and fun learning experiences for the children within your classroom. You schedule three or four outdoor play sessions a day – plenty of free play time for the children to run and jump and be ‗crazy‘ without adult intervention

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Preface

xi

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

(Davies, 1997). You enjoy the downtime outside which allows you to rebuild energy levels and go over plans for the classroom activities you have scheduled. Why then, are we asking you to organize some playground time to include planned/structured physical activity experiences? Chapter 16 - Education in the United States was initially provided to young children deemed to be ―school age‖ which was from six through 18 years of age (accepted school age was eight in Texas). The accepted notion at the time was that children younger than six years of age were not able to learn the skills required of them until these identified ages. Schooling was linked to the betterment of a civilized society and therefore provided a commonality of information to all who attended. The goal was to have a society that could read, write, and obey the laws of the land. Education or programs for those who were younger than six years of age did not have beginnings until the mid-1800s when influences from Europe regarding early learning approaches found their way to America. Chapter 17 - This book has attempted to review the main realms of early childhood education. Increasingly, educators, parents, principals, and other related professionals have discussed the importance and the need for a quality early childhood experience. The various chapters in this text attest to the commitment of a number of professionals who seek to enrich the early childhood experience. Many head start facilities, as well as developmental centers, pre-schools and nursery schools do a robust job attempting to provide a rich, safe environment, while also stimulating the child and providing an appropriate, developmentally sound, curriculum. Some individuals emphasize a cognitive model, while others employ direct instruction, group work and still others employ behavioral techniques to reinforce children and facilitate and expedite their learning.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

INTRODUCTION

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Michael F. Shaughnessy and Kinsey Kleyn At this time in our nation‘s history, the establishment of a solid foundation upon which to build a student‘s educational framework and basic skills is imperative. The year is currently 2011 and we are approaching a decade of increased emphasis on education on many levels. Teachers, parents, administrators and policy makers are all focusing on test scores, standardized measurement of growth, annual yearly progress and ―value added‖ issues. While education begins in the home, it is the early educational environment in which children are exposed to licensed certified professionals whose charge is to provide students with exposure to the basics and to identify those with developmental needs, and assist in the intervention process. This book provides an overview of the field of early childhood education as well as ancillary issues that permeate the field. The book begins with an introduction as to the critical importance of early childhood education, and begins to discuss the many domains that need to be scrutinized in terms of growth and development and age appropriate intervention. The first few chapters address the crucial area of literacy- and explore supportive reading strategies for young children who have difficulty learning to read, as well as assisting with the provision of early literacy opportunities for children with complex communication needs. An entire chapter is devoted to addressing challenging behaviors in early childhood settings. This is imperative for the child‘s later development and transition to elementary education. It is followed by an exploration of early intervention services and Part C of IDEA. Health needs and concerns are addressed in two separate chapters. Early childhood provides an opportunity for early habits in terms of ―Sound mind in a sound body‖ Medical and health issues are also explored. A chapter is devoted to those children who may have suffered an open or closed head injury. This is becoming increasingly common and the authors provide an overview of ―recent cognitive rehabilitation‖ research. Occupational therapy and early intervention services are also examined as well as motor skills development. An administrative perspective is provided with an overview of pre-school curriculum and the overall administration of a pre-school program.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

xiv

Michael F. Shaughnessy and Kinsey Kleyn

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The issues of inclusion and transition and the necessity for including all children and their parents in this process are lastly examined. Sadly, there have been some issues that have not been addressed due to the highly specialized nature. As a field, early education has to embrace children with specific medical needs, and specific developmental needs. Teacher training programs need to be much more comprehensive- both in terms of theory, and practice. Accountability and supervision are imperative.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

THE IMPORTANCE OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION Michael F. Shaughnessy*1, and Kinsey Kleyn2 1

Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, US 2 Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, US

ABSTRACT

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

This paper will provide an overview of the importance of early childhood education. It will investigate the importance of providing young children with a safe, nurturing environment as well as the stimulation needed to prepare them for the transition to the early grades. Several additional domains will be explored such as early identification, socialization, language and cognitive development as well as social/emotional development. It is imperative that society at large understand the importance of early childhood education and establishing a sound educational foundation for the children of our country. For many years, in many countries, there has been some form of early childhood education. There have been many names ascribed to it- kindergarten, nursery school, pre-school, ―Head Start‖ and other names. Early childhood education has become a vital integral robust part of American education and literally around the world. This chapter will serve as a preliminary starting point for following chapters in this book and provide an overview as to the importance of early childhood education. The domains served and the services rendered will be explored. Both manifest and latent functions of early childhood education will be examined. Basically, all sane, rational reasonable parents want their child to do well in school and in life. However, not all parents are knowledgeable in early childhood growth and development, not all parents are aware of the importance of play and early stimulation and not all parents have the skills needed to recognize if there is a developmental delay, an audiological, or speech or language problem or a vision or gross or fine motor problem. Thus, it is fortunate that there are early childhood centers and Head Start

*

Michael F. Shaughnessy is Professor of Special Education at Eastern New Mexico University in Portales, New Mexico. Kinsey Kleyn recently received her master‘s degree from Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas and currently teaches in Texas.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

2

Michael F. Shaughnessy and Kinsey Kleyn facilities in the United States and around the world. The importance of these centers will be discussed along with the various functions that they serve. Many parents, as is well known, use the kindergarten classroom as a way to provide enrichment for their children. Their definition of ―enrichment‖ varies from parent to parent, and the administration of stimulation and enrichment varies from teacher to teacher and school to school. However, basically, we in early childhood education want to teach the child the letters, numbers, colors, shapes and forms as well as teach them to interact with other children. There is an attempt to encourage language, discussion, give and take and develop some preliminary social skills. Early childhood professionals provide a clean, neat, well lit environment, with snacks, often breakfast, and a secure sense of safety and nurturance. This supplements what parents attempt to provide in the home environment.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

IDENTIFICATION The early childhood environment provides an opportunity to ensure that all children begin school ―ready to learn ―. In this regard, kindergarten teachers and pre-school teachers are trained to listen for speech language defects, problems, stuttering, articulation disorders and slurred speech. The child is then referred to a speech language pathologist or an audiologist for screening and evaluation. It is well documented that early intervention assists in the child‘s growth and development. Thus, the sooner the child can receive services the better the prognosis. In many cities and states, graduate students in speech language pathology and audiology conduct routine screenings of all children enrolled in a pre-school environment. This enables these graduate students to receive some supervision and training in early childhood assessment and enhances their consultation and collaboration skills and prepares them for later practice. Many of these individuals assess both expressive and receptive language skills and do preliminary screening of speech and language as well as an examination of the oral cavity. This early documentation provides a foundational baseline for ascertaining if the child is improving in their vocabulary and language skills and if intervention has been fruitful. Although difficult in terms of a final diagnosis, the early childhood teacher is often the first to notice developmental delays. There may be such significant delays that the teacher begins to suspect mental retardation, but there is hesitancy about the finality of such a diagnosis or labeling at this time. The school psychologist or diagnostician should be contacted in order to administer a WPPSI (Wechsler Pre-School or Primary Scale of Intelligence) or a Stanford Binet 5 or some other reputable reliable, valid cognitive instrument. At that time a Bender Gestalt II or Visual Motor Test should be administered, as a foundational measure, as well as supplementary tests such as the K-SEALS (Kaufman Survey of Early Academic Levels) Adaptive Behavior Scales should also be administered to ascertain the child‘s present level of performance and for the establishment of a later IFSP (Individual Family Service Plan) In terms of later screening for first grade and transition, the DIAL-3 (Diagnostic Indicators of Language Acquisition) is a suitable screening instrument. The Brigance Scales are also excellent instruments for assessment of growth and development as well as beginning documentation and monitoring of growth and progress. In terms of vision, the early childhood educator may notice difficulties in eye hand coordination, the child bumping into things, difficulty grasping, fine motor problems,

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Importance of Early Childhood Education

3

conjunctivitis. In severe cases a pediatric opthamologist would be consulted regarding problems with the child‘s vision. Information may be procured from the parents regarding various factors and variables that could be operative in the visual realm. Head Injury is a difficulty which is receiving increasing attention of late. Traumatic Brain Injury is a preventable problem and all caretakers and parents should be made aware of the need for supervising their child at all times. Head injuries can be either open or closed and the resultant problems can affect the child for the rest of their lives, depending upon a number of variables or factors. As early childhood students are energetic, they are expected to run, jump, and play, but they need to be made aware of the dangers of falling and striking their heads. Riding bicycles and engaging in aggressive play can present an opportunity for concussion and other brain injury. Caregivers and teachers also need to be aware of any odd shapes on the skull, contusions, and black and blue marks on the frontalis or front of the skull. Although it is probably quite too early to formally diagnose any learning problems, children that have difficulty responding to commands, repeating phrases, or responding to questions may have some type of processing problem or hearing difficulty. As above, the appropriate documentation and referral should be made.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

THE AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS As has been documented, there seems to be a significant increase in the number of children with autism. This may be due to better identification and tracking or it could be due to other factors with which we are not familiar. Early childhood teachers are the first to notice various behaviors which could be indicative of autism- or some variant thereof. There may be self- stimulatory behavior, there could be self-injurious behavior, perseveration, rocking, echolalia and other bizarre or strange behaviors. There are various rating scales such as the CARS (Childhood Autism Rating Scale) and the Gilliam Rating Scales. These preliminary rating scales should provide at least adequate beginning documentation for consultation regarding the possibility of autism or Asberger‘s or Rhett‘s. Obviously, early childhood teachers need to be sensitive to other language issues, and cultural and racial aspects involved.

MEDICAL ISSUES Children in their early developmental years are prone to inner and outer ear infections as well as the typical colds, flu, fever and other early childhood difficulties such as measles and mumps, chicken pox and the like. The early childhood center is a place where such illnesses can be monitored, and documented as to the recurrent nature of the problem. The immunization records should be kept and carefully documented for future reference. The school nurse can do a visual examination for cerebral palsy and refer for a more comprehensive in depth examination as well as continue documentation. There is a separate chapter in this text regarding health and medical issues.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

4

Michael F. Shaughnessy and Kinsey Kleyn

SOCIALIZATION Part of the early childhood curriculum is to prepare children to play, interact with and engage in age appropriate developmental activities that would assist with their later socialization process. Courtesy, appropriate behavior, ―give and take‖ and learning the rules of various childhood games should all be emphasized. There are some schools that have specific curriculums, and others are more informal in their approach. Often, parents, and colleagues may have some concerns about the child‘s social and emotional development. Wiig (2008) has developed a Social Emotional Evaluation process which includes a social emotional questionnaire as well as standardized materials and a manual. This instrument assesses a number of social domains, as well as the child‘s sensitivity to various cues and clues in the environment. This norm referenced test provides z- scores, percentile ranks and is for children ages 6:00 and above. It could be attempted with younger children who might be suspected of being gifted, or having social or emotional difficulties . More information is available at www.superduperinc.com/see.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PLAY AND IT’S IMPORTANCE Piaget extensively documented the importance of play, the stages of play and how play contributes to the child‘s understanding of the world. The pre-school environment provides a rich, robust domain for the child to engage in play of various sorts, with materials that may not be present in the home, with toys that parents may not possess and with children that may encourage them in terms of future growth. The active aspects of play are more important than the passive receiving of stimulation from various cartoons on the television. There are different views about different types of play- parallel play, practice play, solitary play, pretend or symbolic play, construction play, game play, and playing with other children‘s toys play! Mosiman & Mosiman (2009) have indicated that there are various methods to enhance play- and indicated a plethora of possible avenues for parents, teachers to examine. Often play will just occur between children and that should be encouraged also.

FINE AND GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT The early childhood specialist is keenly aware of eye hand coordination, and both gross and fine motor coordination. Games, materials, activities and other events assist in the development of fine and gross motor skills and eye hand coordination. Parents often are not sensitive to these areas or do not have the time to devote to these domains. The Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development contains sections on preambulatory motor skills and behaviors, gross motor skills and behaviors, and fine motor skills and behaviors.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Importance of Early Childhood Education

5

PRE-ACADEMICS The early childhood environment hopefully fosters a robust introduction to the basic skills that will be needed for entry into first grade. Letters, numbers, colors, shapes, forms, and other basic pre-academics should be integrated into a rich, colorful environment that assists the child in mastery of these basic skills. There are certainly a number of curricular possibilities that some pre-school programs already use, and teachers should examine and explore these programs. The teacher then must assure that these programs are developmentally appropriate for the students involved. Basic information such as the child‘s name, home address, and the like as well as body parts and names of specific objects encountered in the environment are needed. Some early childhood programs focus on the teaching of basic concepts such as up, down, right, left, under, beneath, between, within and so forth. There are also assessment measures for children who seem to lack these skills for whatever reason. Follow up is certainly indicated with these children. The WABC (Wiig Assessment of Basic Concepts) can be used for children ages 2:6- 7:11 and testing time is a mere 10-15 minutes. This is a norm referenced test providing standard scores , percentile ranks and age equivalents. More information can be found at www.superduperinc.com/wabc

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

EXPRESSIVE AND RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE Although this is generally the realm of the speech language pathologist, teachers need to be keenly aware of speech, language, articulation, and stuttering problems as well as expressive and receptive language. A New measure developed by Montgomery (2008) provides information relative to the child‘s expressive vocabulary as well as their receptive vocabulary and this is for ages 3:0—12:00 and takes about 30-40 minutes for both assessments. This is a norm referenced test and standard scores, percentile ranks and age equivalents are provided. Test-retest, inter-rater reliability and concurrent validity are over.90 This test examines a child‘s knowledge and understanding of basic words (tier one) high frequency (tier two) and curriculum based (tier three) words. The test is in full color and is easy to administer and score. While many children in early childhood environments are shy, teachers should be making a concerted effort to get a language sample and hear the child articulate. Teachers should also be endeavoring to assess the child‘s receptive language also. More information can be procured at www.superduperinc.com/mava In terms of screening, The Developmental Assessment of Young Children (DAYC) is a Pro-Ed assessment designed for children from birth up through age five years, eleven months. The DAYC consists of the following five batteries or subtests: cognitive, communication, social-emotional, physical development, and adaptive behavior. Each subtest can be completed in ten to twenty minutes, and a general development quotient, which is standard score, can be calculated from these five subtest standard scores. Items on all DAYC subtests are scored either as a ―pass‖ or ―not passed‖ with ones or zeros respectively. The subtests are completed through any combination of observation,

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

6

Michael F. Shaughnessy and Kinsey Kleyn

interview, or direct assessment, which should always be conducted by individual administration. Examiners who conduct and interpret the DAYC should demonstrate an indepth understanding of psychometrics and good test administration techniques, including the understanding of basal and ceiling rules as described by test authors. The examiner should be adequately prepared to administer the DAYC, and ageappropriate materials will need to be gathered and organized prior to direct assessment, as no materials are included with the test kit. Materials for the cognitive subtest include some of the following specific items, which should be easy to find most daycare or preschool centers: blocks, circle shapes, square shapes, triangle shapes, various toys that can be sorted into categories by shape, color, or category, three pictures to put into a sequence, and other items mentioned on the subtest scoring form. Scoring forms for each of the subtests include raw score, age equivalent, percentile, standard score, and rating, which ranges from ―very poor‖ up through ―very superior.‖ Scoring forms also include places for the examiner to note the administration conditions, including the number of sessions to complete the subtest, administration time, testing location, environmental characteristics, personal or physical characteristics affecting test results, and description of administration (i.e. individual, arena, observation, interview, and/or direct). The DAYC test kit includes an early childhood development chart with incremental developmental milestones from 0-3 months up through 72-84 months for all five areas assessed by the five batteries.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

EXPOSURE TO TECHNOLOGY For some students that may not have access to a computer or the Internet at home, early childhood education provides an ample opportunity to at least be exposed to computer games, learning devices, and other aspects of technology. Some early childhood classrooms have ipod and ipads and introduce students to these devices. This is imperative for children from poverty stricken homes and environments so that they are able to compete with their peers upon entry to school. If all children should ―start school ready to learn ―, it is imperative that they be able to use the latest tools and educational technologies that they will encounter in the classroom. Teachers tend to take ― computer skills ― for granted, believing that all students have the ability to turn a computer on and off, that all students can use search engines, that all students may have the ability to use e-mail and attach documents to an e-mail message or even text message a question or concern.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION In today‘s world and in today‘s society, early childhood education, assessment and if needed, intervention and documentation is imperative to ensure success. Students must be monitored closely in terms of progress to assure a smooth transition to first grade and elementary education.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Importance of Early Childhood Education

7

Our society needs students that are prepared for first grade, and who have the academic, fine and gross motor skills as well as the social skills to facilitate and expedite their success in school. If special needs exist (vision, speech, hearing, language) these areas must be documented. There are adequate psychometric instruments of adequate validity and reliability available, many of which can be administered by the early childhood teacher. It is hope that this text will provide information for teachers, administrators, parents and counselors to assist in this process.

REFERENCES

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Brigance, A. (1991) Revised Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development Curriculum Associates. North Ballerica MA. Montgomery, J. (2008) Montgomery Assessment of Vocabulary Acquisition. Superduper Publishers. Greenville, S.C. Mosiman, R & Mosiman, M. (2009) The smarter preschooler: Unlocking Your Child‘s Intellectual Potential. Wiig, E. (2004) Wiig Assessment of Basic Concepts Super Duper Publishers. Greenville S.C. Wiig, E. (2008) Social Emotional Evaluation Super Duper Publishers Greenville, SC.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

SUPPORTIVE READING STRATEGIES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN WHO HAVE DIFFICULTY LEARNING TO READ Barbara H. Redd*

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

College of Santa Fe, Santa Fe, New Mexico, US

As a teacher of elementary grades, supportive reading, and English as a Second Language (ESL), and as a supervisor of student teachers for over twenty years, I have observed in classrooms that children who have difficulty learning to read often seem to spend the majority of their reading periods in phonemic awareness and phonics activities that involve breaking words into component parts: letters and sounds. These students rarely get an opportunity to experience the joy of reading books, except in large group situations where the teacher is reading to the class. Even then, perhaps because of vocabulary and experience deficits, these children‘s attention may drift, and they may be the ones who misbehave in large group situations. It is possible that they have difficulty visualizing what is taking place in the story, perhaps because of limited background knowledge. These children are often those who, for one reason or another, have had little experience with books at home. Pinnell (1999) has noted that some young children entering school ―have only vague ideas about how oral language, even written language read aloud, is connected to print...others can recognize meaningful print in the environment but have little experience in moving through books.‖ (p. 2) During phonics drills, students who have difficulty may be having trouble matching the ―sounds‖ of the letters to the written form, or relating them to words in their vocabulary. This may be because of language or dialect differences between them and the teacher, minimal auditory perception deficits, or even minimum hearing loss. Think of the variation in the pronunciation of the word ―pen‖: In everyday speech, a student from West Texas may pronounce it as ―pin,‖ for example. In phonics lessons the e is isolated, pronounced by the *

Barbara Redd is Professor of Education, Emerita, College of Santa Fe, Santa Fe, New Mexico. She has been involved with reading and literacy for more than thirty years and serves on the Editorial Board of the New Mexico Journal of Reading.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

10

Barbara H. Redd

teacher in a standard way, and identified as a ―short e‖. Moreover, even the standard pronunciation of a ―short e‖ sound is only minimally different from the ―short i‖. So there may be confusion. Phonics-emphasis programs have been shown to be quite successful for the majority of students. Lyon and Chhabra, (2004) cite the National Reading Panel‘s finding that ―systematic phonics instruction produced significant benefits for K-6 students and for those having difficulty learning to read.‖ (p. 15) However, children who not disabled, but are struggling in spite of the opportunity to learn in solid phonics-based programs may have other types of problems. It may be that their difficulty with the auditory aspects of phonics has caused them to be ―stalled‖ in the progress of their reading skills. It is possible that phonics drills are meaningless for them because they fail to grasp that they are working toward actually enjoying the activity of reading. Often, unfortunately, children who have difficulty have very little exposure to whole text. Many are still stuck trying to master basic phonics, and remediation has focused on the skills with which they have the most difficulty. Therefore, much of their time is spent in working on the letter ―sounds,‖ rather than on the actual act of reading. If students are working on the very beginning reading skills in late first grade, or in second or third grade, it may be time to change the instructional approach. Certain students may be helped if they spend more time in reading experience activities, with additional work on visual memory, and less time with phonics activities. It should be noted that Yatvin, et al. (2003) pointed out that the National Reading Panel ―did not find that ….phonics must be taught first, before children begin to read and write.‖ (p. 29) The instructional suggestions presented here are partly based on those strategies I observed in a study of the sequencing of reading instruction in Japanese first grades. (Redd, 1991) I subsequently developed and applied these methods to the teaching of second and third grades students in a supportive reading program and an English as a Second Language program in Connecticut. In Japan, a country with an extremely high literacy rate (Redd, 1991), I observed an instructional sequence that differed greatly from that which I had previously used in my own first grade classes in the United States. Lessons that I observed, in classes of up to thirty-five students in Japan, were carried out with the whole class, and were designed to be sure that all students could understand and read the text. Instruction in the observed Japanese classrooms generally progressed in a ―top down‖ fashion—from the general to the specific. There was a discussion of the selection, and then the teacher‘s reading of the text, then the whole class echoing her, next the students practicing the text softly out loud on their own, and finally individuals reading aloud in turn. The study of one story usually took place over three or four days. There was also often a dramatization or song or art activity. Sentences from the text were written on the board, so that new words might be emphasized. This might take place the following day. Worksheets were used to give the students opportunities to write some of the new words in the text. There was generally a re-reading of the story. Only after whole-text, comprehension-driven activities was any work done on the details of the written text. At the very end of the sequence was work on new Chinese characters that had appeared in the story. I asked one teacher about why she read the story to the students ahead of time. She expressed surprise, commenting with a smile, ―How do the students know how to read it if you don‘t read it to them?‖ I was struck by the Japanese teacher‘s response, and began to using some of the Japanese classroom sequencing in my supportive reading program and in my program for students

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Supportive Reading Strategies for Young Children …

11

learning English as a Second Language (ESL). The sequence I applied involved an emphasis on comprehension in the initial encounter with the text, plus model reading and echo-reading. In my supportive program, I also developed additional teaching strategies. These were designed especially those students for whom a heavily phonics-based program had not been successful. I used language experience techniques, especially student dictation of text, to teach both reading and writing. I employed a great many ―sight word‖ games, including not only high frequency words, but also interesting content words. I continued to develop students‘ phonics skills, but as a brief, regular, carefully-sequenced strand in their program, rather than as the central feature of instruction. I included writing activities in very short lessons to reinforce phonics instruction. The program I developed related to the balanced approach of whole-part-whole instruction advocated by Strickland (e.g., 1998). She stressed literacy teaching that “(1) is grounded in fundamental understandings about whole texts such as stories, informational books, and poems; (2) allows for in-depth focus on specific skills; and (3) includes planned practice within the context of meaningful reading and writing.‖ (p. 7) The following are suggestions I have offered to student teachers and veteran teachers who wish to help students who have difficulty learning to read. They are designed to be implemented in a group of second, or third grade students—typically between three and eight in number. Methods described reflect the strategies used in my supportive programs. They primarily focus on comprehension. The major goal is to give the students the actual experience of reading. Another goal is for the students to enjoy the activity of reading. A wide range of reading also may be expected to expand students‘ background knowledge Pinnell (1999) pointed out that ―reading material expands children‘s knowledge base.‖ (p. 4). Increased vocabulary and background knowledge may, in turn, enable students who have been struggling to make more speedy progress in reading skills. The amount of the students‘ contact with meaningful text is emphasized in the suggested supportive program. The strategies: pre-reading activities, model reading, echo reading, guiding questions, child-centered response activities, lightning-quick skill lessons, and fastpaced games are designed to maximize student engagement. These supportive strategies are categorized as Whole-text Reading, Language Experiences, and a Broad Word Recognition Program. A final section on Supportive Reading Games is added at the end of this chapter. This final section makes available the necessary details for game play.

WHOLE-TEXT READING Book Reading Texts can be either trade books or basals. Whatever the materials, they must be appealing, and have substantial real content and natural language. Books with phoneticallyregular contorted language are not appropriate. Books need not be on the students‘ ―level‖, in terms of a phonics sequence, since in many cases, students may be stuck in the very beginning stages. However, they should be within reach of the students‘ listening comprehension level. Texts should have pictures that clearly show action. The amount of text should vary with the students‘ age, but it should be enough to reflect normal language, not

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

12

Barbara H. Redd

just fragmentary labeling. Each student should have his or her own book in most cases. A whole selection should be completed in one session, if possible. This policy is to allow exposure to as many different texts as possible. It is important for slower students to get through a great many stories and informational texts, in order to maintain their interest and increase their exposure to a great deal of vocabulary and background information. The following sections are suggestions for teachers. Pre-reading. Have the students look at the pictures for the first few pages, and glance briefly at the title and the text. Ask, ―What can we tell about this story from looking at the pictures?‖ Then call on children at random. Then ask ―What do we know about [this topic]? Be sure that the students include not only personal knowledge but also knowledge gained from other reading. Note that many students have extremely limited background knowledge. Pinnell (1994) pointed out that as young children enter school, teachers need to help them expand the knowledge they bring from their earlier experiences. It is important not to ask ―Who knows?‖ questions, especially at the beginning of a lesson. Questions beginning with ―Who knows‖ invite participation from the most knowledgeable students and squelch the thinking of less-privileged children. Keep the prereading part of the lesson very short, particularly if only a few children have knowledge of the topic. Avoid letting children go into long stories. Stay focused on the text you are about to read with the children. Note, however, that if they do have stories they would like to tell, they can do so in a writing activity later in the lesson. Write on a large chart or board several content words generated by the children. For example, if you were doing a story about the circus, the content words might be circus, clown, lion, tent, band, acrobat, and elephant. As a teacher, I have noticed that content words clustered around a topic seem to be much more engaging and easily read and comprehended than are a random set of short phonetically-regular words. It is obviously easier for children to see the difference between, for example, elephant and lion than between sat and set. Have the children pronounce the words after you in unison. Then call on students to read words individually. Model reading. Read the whole text to the children, pausing briefly as needed (only a few seconds) to clarify the content, call attention to the pictures, or to be sure the students are visualizing the action. If the story has a pattern or a ―chorus‖ encourage the children to join in. Guillaume (1998) found that ―an adult‘s enthusiastic oral reading can have a mighty influence on children in developing a listening vocabulary, a recognition for the cadence of the language, and an appreciation for the powerful meanings that print can convey.‖ (p. 479). Echo-reading. Go back to the beginning of the selection, and have the children echo-read each part. Read a paragraph or short page, then have individual students in turn read the same page, pointing to the words. If you think the text will be difficult for individuals you may want to echo-read with the whole group responding in unison before you echo-read with individuals. Avoid at all costs having children slogging through oral reading at a very slow pace. This interferes greatly with comprehension, and bores others in the group. If necessary, model read individual sentences or paragraphs, and then have the children echo your words. Assessment. Ask a few brief questions to assess the children‘s understanding of the story. Ask for opinions and inferences, as well as literal facts. Call on children at random. Response activity. Keep response activities short. There is no time to waste when children are already lagging in their reading skills. Focus again on the content of the story: Choose to emphasize one element: e.g., character, feelings, setting. Your choice will depend on the age

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Supportive Reading Strategies for Young Children …

13

of the children and the content of the story. Have the students respond to this story element. They can, for example, draw their favorite circus animal and label it. They can use the words on the board or ask for your assistance if necessary. If students request words that are not on the board, write them on a piece of scrap paper and supply them to students to copy. Avoid getting involved in ―sounding out‖ words, or a lot of discussion. Students could then explain to the group why they chose that animal. This should take no more than five minutes or so. Do not use hands-on activities that require a lot of time and special materials, particularly with struggling students. This practice robs actual reading time. Re-reading. Have the students read the entire selection orally in unison, then in turns. Ask all students to follow along the words with their fingers. Do this only when students are ready to read fluently. If individual students have difficulty with an individual word, give them the word after only a couple of seconds. Do not have students give each other the words, because asking ―Who can help…?‖ slows down the story. The students‘ focus should always be on the story content. Follow-up activities: For example, create a card game right away, with the students, using the vocabulary words on the board. Ask them to read the words to you, and you write them on index cards, using chart markers. Make two copies of each word. Details about game preparation and play are in the Reading Games section later in this chapter. Related materials: If possible, read several books on a given topic in the group. Repetition of vocabulary is very helpful, particularly for second language speakers, children with limited background knowledge, and those who struggle with reading. Provide a browsing table for students with a number of picture books on the same topic. Be sure to include the books the group has read in class. Encourage students to re-read these books to each other.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Chart or Board Reading Having a text, for example a poem, written ahead of time on a chart or board allows for both whole text experiences and word recognition activities. Using a pre-selected text, as Strickland (1998) suggests, the teacher can first provide whole-text activities such as shared re-reading and then highlight specific features of certain words. Short poems may be presented weekly and read daily. Choose those that are easily comprehended by the children in terms of vocabulary and language. When first introducing a poem, read the whole text to the students first, and then begin a discussion of the content of the poem. Ask, ―What is this poem about, in general?‖ Call on two or three students. Ask them to explain their answers if you can do so without taking too much time. Call the students‘ attention to new vocabulary words. However, avoid pointing to a word and asking ―Who knows what this word means?‖ You will get a response from one or two children, and most likely a very unclear definition. If a student defines it incorrectly, other students will be confused. Instead, ask, ―Who sees a word that might be a bit difficult to understand? Ask a student to point to the word. Pronounce the word, and then quickly and clearly explain it. Have the students echo-read the poem with you in unison, line by line. Then have them read the whole poem in unison. Begin looking at particular words and patterns. Call the students‘ attention to the fact that many words start with the same letter, for example. Or that certain words rhyme. Students will begin to memorize the text. Then they can practice reading the

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Barbara H. Redd

14

poem to each other, using a ruler as a pointer. You can copy the new vocabulary words from the poem to use for various games and activities.

LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE Sylvia Ashton-Warner (1986), who published a ground-breaking memoir, Teacher, in 1963, worked with Maori students in New Zealand who had great difficulty in school. She developed a method of teaching beginning reading using the students‘ own language to generate text. This strategy has come to be known as the Language Experience approach (e.g., Nessel and Dixon, 2008). Students dictate words and sentences to the teacher, who writes them down, on a chalkboard, chart, or paper. This text becomes the reading material for the beginning readers. The students‘ words can then be copied onto cards, collected, and used later for lessons. The Language Experience approach can be used in individual tutoring sessions, in small groups, and even in whole class settings of up to ten or fifteen students. Teachers may find that the Language Experience approach works for beginning readers when no other method will. The great advantage is that comprehension is automatic, since the text and the vocabulary come from the students. Also, examples of high-frequency words are automatically generated in the course of natural speech. Students begin to recognize these high frequency words at sight. The following are language experience activities which I have used very successfully with groups of young children from various language backgrounds who were struggling with reading.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Shared Experience Stories After students have had a shared experience, such as a big storm, a special assembly program or a classroom speaker, have them create text about it. Have students dictate information about the experience. Call on students at random. Do not wait for raised hands, since this often leads to just a few students making contributions. Calling on all students delivers a powerful message that all are expected to participate and to learn. Write down on a chalkboard or chart the information that students give you, moving fairly quickly to create a small paragraph. Try to write down exactly what the students say. If necessary, make very minor changes as you go along, so that the text is in correct English form, but stay as close as possible to the wording children offer, and maintain their word order. Students who have had a visit from a policeman might dictate: ―He didn‟t have no gun, though.‖ This, corrected only slightly, becomes “He didn‟t have a gun, though,‖ preserving nearly all of the students‘ words and word order. Don‘t belabor the change. Just write it. Keep the focus on the content of the story. If ESL students give you only one or two words, you can make them into a complete short sentence. For example, to get them going you could ask, ―Who came to our class?‖ If you call on a student who answers, ―A police‖, you can write, ―A policeman came.‖ Again, keep it short, so as not to stray too far from what the student has given you. It should be noted that most people who advocate the language experience approach (Nessel and Dixon, 2008) believe that the students‘ words should be written down exactly. However, I found that writing grammatically correct sentences seemed to make the whole text read more

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Supportive Reading Strategies for Young Children …

15

like a book, and therefore, make the subsequent reading easier, and more likely to help students transition to actual books. After the class has generated a text, read it back to them, pointing to the words. Then do echo reading. Then have the students read the text in unison. Finally, call on children to read sentences individually. If they have difficulty, do unison reading again. Never torture a group by having them have to sit and listen while someone struggles word by word through a text. All oral reading should be reasonably fluent. After the students are thoroughly comfortable with reading the text, begin to ―mine‖ the text for word recognition activities. For example, take the word gun and generate a list of words with a similar pattern (e.g., fun, run, sun) using the Reading Teacher‟s Book of Lists (Fry and Kress, 2006). Write these on the board, and have the children practice reading them in unison and individually. You can also call students‘ attention to elements such as capitals and punctuation. For example, ask, ―When we wrote, “His name is Captain Lopez,” why did we use a capital letter here (pointing to the L)? Ask all students to respond to this kind of question in unison, or ask a particularly shy student to answer. Often students who don‘t participate easily will respond to very clear questions that need a very short answer. If the text includes a lot of ―high frequency‖ words, which it typically will, make a game with those words, making duplicate cards for each word, and using these for games of ―Snap‖ or ―Concentration‖ in small groups (please see the section on Supportive Reading Games at the end of this chapter).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Individual Dictation Activities If you have an individual student in a regular classroom who has great difficulty with reading and writing, you or a volunteer can work with him individually while the rest of the class is working on a writing assignment. Ask the student to do an illustration of an appropriate topic. Then have him dictate to you some information about the illustration. This may be a story, like ―The Crazy Monster‖ or may be an essay like, ―Why I Like my Dog‖. The text should be the same general topic as that assigned to the rest of the class. Write the text in student-sized print, on lined paper, skipping lines. Read the story back to the student, have him read it aloud to you, and then have him copy your writing directly under the words you have printed. It is important to note that this is not only a writing activity, but also a reading activity—one that can be used for students of any age. You can generate word lists from the individual student‘s own texts to use for skill lessons. You can also use the dictation techniques for tasks that call for the practical use of writing—an invitation or thank you note, for example. Be sure to use the student‘s own words, not yours. In a small group setting—a group of four or five-- students can each have a blank notebook in which they put their stories or journal material. While students draw their ideas, you can go from one to the other to print the text they dictate. They will copy your writing. They can go back and read their own stories to each other. Because students will finish the drawing, coloring, writing, and copying activities at different rates, you can buy time to work with individuals. If you have a student who has limited English vocabulary but is able to give you oneword answers, you can ask her guiding questions, e.g., ―What‘s this?‖ If the student says, ―Cat,‖ you can ask, ―Is it your cat?‖ using hand gestures as necessary. If she nods, you can

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

16

Barbara H. Redd

write, ―This is my cat,‖ then read the sentence to the child. You can ask subsequent questions that can be answered in single words, e.g., ―Is it a big cat or a little cat?‖ After about three sentences have been generated, read the whole text to the student, then have her echo read it back to you, pointing to the words. She can subsequently read it to the group during sharing time.

A BROAD WORD RECOGNITION PROGRAM Multiple Strategies for Word Recognition

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Proficient readers use a number of strategies for identifying words. Most of the time they simply think about the meaning of the text because they recognize almost every word automatically (Wilson, Hall, Leu, and Kinzer, 2001). The primary strategy employed in proficient reading is sight recognition, looking at whole words and reading them effortlessly and immediately. A very large proportion of time proficient readers recognize words at sight, because they have seen nearly all of the words in a given text a great many times. The more experience students have with reading, the more words they can read at sight. Improving sight recognition vocabulary may, therefore, accelerate reading skills in general. Also used by proficient readers is the skill of using context to read words. The context may be just a few words, or a sentence, or the whole selection. Children‘s‘ skills in the use of context are improved with exposure to many different kinds of literature. The third major category of word identification strategies is word analysis, which consists of phonics and structural analysis. All of these strategies are important. The emphasis in the broad word recognition program presented here is on the use of games to strengthen students‘ skills in a pleasant, non-threatening, supportive environment.

Sight Games can be used to help students to develop a powerful sight vocabulary. Some examples of the types of words which can be taught as sight words through games are environmental print (useful words for school), interesting content words, and high frequency words. Note that high frequency words, or “Instant Words”(Fry and Kress,2006) are often referred to as ―sight‖ words. However, they represent only one category of the words students should be taught to recognize at sight. Many of these words, particularly the first one hundred, are short ―function‖ words: prepositions and conjunctions, for example. Children may actually find recognizing long words easier. Environmental print. Children need to learn to read important information in the school environment very early. This aspect of reading is particularly important for English language learners, who can learn speaking vocabulary along with the reading of many words at sight. A first step in teaching environmental print might be to make index cards with names of objects around the room. Also prepare a duplicate set of cards that you will use later. Use chart paper markers that won‘t soak through to the back of the cards. Tape the cards onto the various objects: desk, chair, pencil sharpener, pencil, paper, construction paper, bookshelf, books,

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Supportive Reading Strategies for Young Children …

17

door, lunch ticket, etc. Point to each word, pronounce it, and ask the students to pronounce it with you together. Then ask the students one by one to go to an object of their choosing, take the card off the object and bring it back to the group, saying the word. Shuffle the stack of cards and distribute them to different students. Have them replace the cards on the proper objects. The next day, ask students to read the cards again in unison. Then, using the duplicate set of cards play a matching game, such as Concentration or Snap (see the section on Reading Games at the end of this chapter) Interesting content words. Create quick word games (Go Fish, Snap, Concentration), using content words that the children select from a story they have read. Don‘t avoid long words. They will be easily recognized, even by children who have great difficulty with reading. High frequency words. Create word games using high frequency words, such as the list of ―Instant Words‖ (Fry and Kress, 2006). These are the most common words in English written language. Wilson et al. (2001) note that ―We seek to expand children‘s sight word knowledge because knowing only 200 of the most common words by sight will enable them to recognize about 50% of all the words they encounter while reading.‖ (p. 4). This is powerful fact that is too often ignored in reading programs. Therefore, time spent reinforcing and automatizing sight word recognition is very rewarding. Sight words are made to order for reading games.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Context As opportunities arise in guided reading, model the use of context to aid word recognition. Students need to be taught how to use context and how to decide which word makes sense in a given location. Context is often used in conjunction with a limited knowledge of phonics, especially beginning letters. In your supportive group, read aloud to the children from big books that have a repeating pattern, for example, and have the children chime in, or have them ―fill in the blanks‖ orally using the initial consonant of the word that makes sense in the story. Rhyming books are particularly useful for ―fill in the blanks‖ activities. Gunning (2000) recommends stopping before the last word in a rhyming line and having children supply the rhyming word. Fowler (1998) described her teaching of context skills to first graders, using chart paper with a ―message of the day‖. Before class, she prepared the message with a few words masked or with letters omitted. She had the children first read through the message silently, and then aloud, with the children and teacher working out together what the missing parts could be. She noted that the discussion helps the children understand the processes underlying their reading. Context strategies can be modeled during guided reading sessions. Sometimes, readers can read unfamiliar words by looking at the words and sentences that come after it. (Wilson, et al., 2001) So we teach children to read to the end of the sentence to figure out a word.

Word Analysis Phonics. When working with children who have difficulty with reading, teach phonics as a continuous and regular strand in your supportive program. However, if children find

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

18

Barbara H. Redd

phonics difficult, greatly decrease the proportion of phonics in the program, and increase the time spent in contact with whole words and whole text. It is important to emphasize, as Lyon and Chhabra (2004) noted, that the National Reading Panel found that ―systematic phonics instruction was most effective when provided within the context of a comprehensive reading program that also addressed phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension strategies.‖ (p. 15) Spend no more than about 15 minutes a day in direct instruction of phonics. When teaching phonics, in the beginning stress the mastery of initial consonant sounds, plus consonant blends and digraphs, then progress immediately to ―word families‖. Start with initial consonants that are not easily confused. See the ―Suggested Phonic Teaching Order List‖ in The Reading Teacher‟s Book of Lists (Fry & Kress, 2006, p. 9). Be sure to provide lots of examples, through pictures, etc., of familiar words that begin with a given sound. Introduce blends and digraphs early, because many very common words begin with these letter combinations. When several consonants or letter combinations have been introduced, play phonics games to reinforce skills. Don‘t let this initial phase of teaching consonants go on too long. In most supportive classes, this will be review. Work on two, three or more letters or letter combinations a day, so that skills build quickly. Have students write a little in phonics lessons. For example, if you have been teaching the sounds /n/ and /t/, you can do a brief assessment by pronouncing words beginning with those letters, in random order, and having the students write an n or a t on each line of their paper, in ―spelling test‖ fashion. Obviously, for students who already know some consonants, you can do more letters per lesson. Later, you will have them write whole words. Have them work in notebooks, so that they can go back and read the words later. When teaching phonics in this suggested supportive program, do not pronounce sounds in isolation or require children to do so. Do not dwell on vowel sounds, which can be very ―slippery‖ in spoken language, and hard for students to discriminate. After all, if your students were able to learn from a synthetic, individual sound-isolating approach to phonics, they would have succeeded in the regular program and would not be in need of support. Begin the study of ―word families‖ early. Johnston (1999) noted that the ―ability to hear, see, and use the rime as a reliable cue for reading new words that sound alike offers students a powerful insight into how English spelling works.‖ (p. 64) She defined a rime as ―the vowel and what follows in the syllable,‖ while the onset is the initial consonant or cluster before the vowel‖ (p. 64) . She pointed out that research has shown that students are ―more successful at breaking apart the onset and rime in a word …than in breaking the word into individual phonemes‖ (p. 66). Use The Reading Teacher‟s Book of Lists (Fry and Kress, 2006) for an organized list of the most common Phonograms (p. 45). Be sure to keep instruction moving. Do a word family a day, not a word family a week. Check off the ones you have done, so that you cover as many as possible. However, be careful not to mix children up by doing too many similar word families in one lesson. Try not to do review in the beginning of a lesson, for this reason. When you have studied a large ―family‖ such as ―…ay‖ with twenty words or so, you can create a game, such as ―Concentration‖ using matching pairs of cards. (Please see the section on Reading Games, below) If possible, link the phonics lesson to the story students have read. For example, if in previewing the circus story, you notice ahead of time the word spin you can generate a list of words with the in pattern. Do not ask the children to think of words that have that pattern

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Supportive Reading Strategies for Young Children …

19

(takes too much time and can generate wrong words) You write the first word on the board and say: ―We saw this word in the story—the lady acrobat could spin on the rope. If you can read spin, you can certainly read in (write on the board). Write each word in a list of seven or eight ―…in‖ words and have the students pronounce them in unison, then in turn, with your pointing to words at random. Structural analysis. Teach the analysis of word parts (syllables, prefixes, roots, suffixes ) as practical supportive strategies for second and third graders. As children gain experience with stories, call attention to high-frequency word endings, such as the suffix ―…ed‖ . Teach each suffix, one at a time, as it is encountered in in literature. Choose a story that has a lot of action, and, after reading, write on the board a word from the story. Read the word to the students: (e.g., jumped), and have them pronounce it after you. Then write several words ending in the suffix ―…ed‖. Read the words to the students. Ask a student, ―What do you notice about these words?‖ Then underline the suffix in each word. Then have all students in the group read the words in unison and then individually. You can do similar literature-based lessons with ―…ing‖ words, for example. Later, when students have gained some confidence in reading, call the children‘s attention to words with prefixes. Generate lists from stories the children have read. Be sure that the prefixes in a given lesson are identical. Don‘t mix up words with the ―un…‖ prefix and those with the ―re…‖ prefix, for example, in a given lesson. It will be easier for students to learn if they simply see a pattern, rather than having to grasp the abstract concept of ―prefix‖. Teach compound words like lunchbox fairly early on. This will help students to see that they can take a word apart to help with recognition. Again, let the reading of stories be your source for generating the beginning of the lesson. Then see the Reading Teacher‟s Book of Lists (Fry and Kress, 2006) for more examples. Stick to words that are in the students‘ vocabulary, like notebook , raincoat, and homework in the early stages of teaching the structural analysis skill of reading compound words. A few cautions: Keep lessons on structural analysis very short—no more than five minutes or so. And don‘t begin a lesson by asking ―Who knows what this part of the word is called?‖ or, worse, ―Who can tell me what a prefix is?‖ In my experience, the eyes of children who really struggle with reading tend to glaze over when the talk turns to terminology. At best, they will sit back and let one or two of the students in the group answer the questions. At worst, they will start to misbehave in very creative ways. After students have had a good deal more experience and success with reading (perhaps when they are reading on a solid second grade level), you can begin to introduce some language terminology.

SUPPORTIVE READING GAMES One of my ESL students, a third grade boy from Vietnam, often burst into my supportive reading classroom at group time with a big smile on his face, asking, ―Today game?‖ I have observed that young struggling readers particularly enjoy playing games. Moreover, it is safe to say that various types of games can be characterized as an essential part of childhood around the world. In my program in a typical supportive session of about one and one half

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

20

Barbara H. Redd

hours, approximately one-third was spent in skill instruction, and most of that time was spent in reading games. Games can be a central part of a word recognition program for students who struggle with reading. They are particularly appropriate for developing the rapid sight recognition of high frequency vocabulary that leads to fluency. Games should always be fast moving and focused, and should be played in small enough groups that all students are engaged to the greatest extent possible. To qualify as a game, an activity has to have a mixture of chance and skill. I might add that there have to be a few laughs, a few ―yay!‖s and a few ―oh, no!s‖. Holding up flash cards and asking children to read words in turn is not a game, and the children know it. No matter what you call it, it is a test. And every test contains the possibility of failure. Children who struggle with reading have had plenty of testing, and plenty of failure. In a game, there may be failure by chance, as when a board game player lands on a space marked ―Go back 5 spaces‖. But that‘s an ―Oh, no!‖ not an indication of the individual student‘s worth. The games I found most useful for my supportive classes are ones that can be implemented easily and quickly in a regular or a supportive reading classroom, without a great deal of preparation or special materials. They are ―table‖ games that I found to be particularly efficient in developing skills. Another category of games, not covered here, would be those which involve physical activities—relay races and bean-bag toss games, for example, that can be developed to reinforce, e.g., phonic skills. However, these tend to take a great deal of time, set-up, etc., and may involve taking the group out to the playground. The amount of effort and time required to take the children to another location must be weighed against the skills gained. The games I outline here require only a package of blank unlined multicolored index cards, some chart markers (specifically designed not to bleed through paper), a few sheets of light cardboard or oak tag, plus some leftover tiny children‘s toys for game pieces. Nearly all of these games involve cards. The words on the cards are generated either from books the children are reading, or from the Reading Teacher‟s Book of Lists (Fry & Kress, 2006) Described below are the types of cards that can be used, and then, several of the games that I found particularly useful on a day-to-day basis in my supportive programs.

Types of Game Cards Identical pairs. Making a pack of identical pairs of cards is a basic configuration that can be used over and over again with different categories of words and various games. Cards may represent, for example, twenty-five of the First One Hundred ―Instant Words‖ from the Reading Teacher‟s Book of Lists (Fry & Kress, 2006). Creating pairs would produce fifty cards that could be used to play many different games. After students learn the first twenty-five, you can, of course, use the next twenty-five and the next, through the Second and Third One Hundred (Fry & Kress, 2006). Another category of words that is particularly useful for ESL students very early on, as mentioned earlier in this chapter, is environmental print—useful words for school. Identical pairs of words like crayon, jacket, chair, desk, table can be used for games to reinforce vocabulary introduced in class with a labeling activity.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Supportive Reading Strategies for Young Children …

21

Interesting words from a reading selection can be chosen and written on cards for a paired card activity. You can generate a list with the students after reading a selection. With a pack of cards in front of you, simply ask the children, ―What were some of the interesting words we read in this book? The students will typically dictate to you characters or things in the book, e.g., brontosaurus, mother, car, traffic jam. Write their suggestions –no teacher vetoes allowed here—on pairs of cards as they watch you. The words will be of various lengths, and this is not a concern, as word length will actually help students identify the words during the game. You could have second or third grade students write their own card pairs, if their writing is clear enough for others to read. If you plan to use a particular category of words, e.g., a selection of action words in the story, just go ahead and prepare the cards before class, rather than trying to have the students try to read your mind and select the proper words. Note that if you ask the students go back to the story to find the action words it will take a great deal of time and you will get a lot of wrong contributions. This is because their reading is very slow and they probably have not developed skimming skills. You will have to decide whether to accept students‘ suggestions (making for wrong information) or tell them they are wrong, discouraging future suggestions. You can, however ask the group a very clear question, based on their memory of a selection, like, ―What were the animals that were in the story?‖ and make the cards based on their listing. Even better, tell them before they read that they will be making a game based on the names of all the animals in the story, and that they should be paying particular attention to the animal names. Word and picture. (e.g., pencil and picture, house and picture) If you can do simple line drawings, you can make pairs of cards with the name of an object on one card and its picture on another. You can also paste on pictures you obtain by cutting up an old workbook, but this takes a lot of time. Pictures are particularly helpful to ESL students. Associated Words. You can make non-identical pairs that are associated in some way. For younger children you can make non-identical pairs of antonyms (up/down, happy/sad). For second graders, you might do pairs of contractions with the two words (e.g., do not) on one card and the contraction on (don‟t) on the other. If, for example you have third graders reading on a second grade level, they may be ready to work with homophones, words that are pronounced alike but are spelled differently and have different meanings. (e.g., rain/reign ) English language learners might benefit from associated object cards ( hammer and nail, paint and paintbrush, etc.) Single cards. Create a batch of perhaps thirty cards with words that are related to each other in some way. For example, you might select content words from a science unit, or words that start with the consonant letters th. You can also use the lists of ―Instant Words‖ (Fry & Kress, 2006). You will normally use single cards for board games.

Types of Games In this chapter I have often mentioned the use of games to reinforce skills. There are any number of reading games that can be used in a small group setting. Those designed to reinforce phonics skills are widely available. The following word games are ones that I have found particularly useful with children of various ages in supportive reading groups of between four and seven students. They are the ones that students seemed to enjoy over and

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

22

Barbara H. Redd

over, with different types of words. They give everyone a chance to win, regardless of skill level, but they do require the children‘s attention and skill. An important aspect of the game procedures is the teacher‘s introducing of the words in the lesson ahead of time. Otherwise, the games become just another test. Card games are very easy and quick to prepare. Using a package of colored index cards and chart markers, create a set of from fifteen to twenty pairs of cards. You may wish to cut the cards in half to make a convenient size. Use a single color for a given set of cards, except for the game of Concentration. If you wish Concentration to go faster and make it easier, select two colors, and do each pair in the two different colors. Snap. (This is the quickest game you can play, and it involves every student throughout the whole game) With the deck of cards still arranged in pairs, deal one card of each pair to yourself, and one to a student, going around the group. As you deal the cards, pronounce the words. Each student will end up with five or six cards arranged in front of him. Ask the students to read their own words to themselves silently. Shuffle your pack of cards (you have one of each pair). Then begin to play your deck: Put a card face up in the center of the table. The student who has the matching card snaps her card down, pronouncing the word. She takes the two cards. You continue to play your cards until one student has no cards left. Then that student becomes the ―teacher‖, and plays your pack of cards. When another student goes out, he becomes the ―teacher‖. Typically at this point the other students go ―out‖ in rapid succession. Concentration (sometimes called ―Memory‖). This game works best in a group of no more than three or four children, because all have to see the cards. Prepare a set of pairs— perhaps thirty or forty cards in all, using chart markers, so that the writing does not show through the backs of the cards. Shuffle the set, so the pairs are mixed up. Place all cards face down in rows flat on the table, making a square arrangement. In turns, students turn over two cards, and try to find the pairs. They have to remember where the words are, in order to find the matching cards. If they do not find a matching pair, they replace the cards face down in exactly the same places. If they do find a pair, they keep it. They will soon develop strategies like turning over an unknown card first, rather than a known one. A student who gets a pair gets another turn. The winner is the student with the most pairs. Be sure the students keep the face-down cards in the original arrangement as the game proceeds. This is important because otherwise it is impossible to remember which card is which. An attractive aspect of Concentration is that it starts out slowly but rapidly picks up the pace because, with fewer cards on the table, and with more cards having been turned over, the students‘ odds of succeeding are improved. Note: you can make this game easier and faster by using two-color pairs, so that the students know they have to turn, for example, one pink card and one green card in order to make a matched pair. Their odds of success are greatly enhanced! Go Fish! Prepare about twenty-five card pairs so that the words can be read when the cards are in a vertical position. Shuffle the deck and deal five cards to each player. The players fan the cards out in their hands, without showing them to anyone else. Put the remaining cards in the center of the table. The player to the left of the dealer begins, trying to make a match by asking another student if he has a particular card, e.g., ―Michael, do you have the word ―jump?‖ If Michael has it, he hands it to the first player, who keeps the pair at her place. Play proceeds to the next player, who asks someone else, e.g., ―Nina, do you have the word ―play?‖ If Nina does not have the card, she says, ―Go fish‖ and the student has to draw a card from the deck in the center of the table. Play proceeds around the table. Students

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Supportive Reading Strategies for Young Children …

23

listen to determine who asks for what card, so that in turn, they can ask for that card. The first student to use all the cards in his or her deck is the winner. At this point the deck is shuffled again and another round proceeds. Student engagement in this game is good because they have to listen carefully in order to succeed. Board games: Prepare a square game board about a foot and a half on each side. Use stiff cardboard or oak tag and colorful markers: Draw a winding double-sided track or parallel race tracks, with lines every inch and a half or so. Label one end ―Start‖ and the other ―Finish.‖ Get little plastic figures about an inch or so high, (e.g., zoo animals, race cars, or dinosaurs), plus either dice or a spinner. Decorate the board with something that represents a theme that ties in with your literature. If you can do simple line drawings, you can decorate the board using colored markers to draw simple cars, trees, etc. Or you can paste pictures from an old workbook or children‘s magazine to make the board colorful. On the board, in several spaces, put, e.g., ―go back 3 spaces‖ or ―Good luck! Jump up 4 spaces‖ Use about thirty single copies of vocabulary words on cards, for example the ―Instant Words‖ (Fry & Kress, 2008). Put the cards in a special space on the board. Students in turn read one word, then shake one die or spin to determine how many jumps they get. If they have trouble reading the word, you can pronounce it for them, then have them say it. The winner is the one who gets to the finish line first. Typically the game will go pretty quickly, and you will be able to play several rounds, shuffling the cards between rounds. So children who couldn‘t read certain words in the first round will read them easily in the second.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

SUMMARY The program presented in this chapter, for children in second and third grade classes who have difficulty learning to read, has emphasized literature, language experience, and games. A de-emphasis on phonics has been recommended for certain students: Those for whom a phonics-emphasis program has not been successful. Of course, there are other students who might benefit from a phonics-emphasis program. Valencia and Buly (2004), in a study of 108 fourth-grade students who had scored below standard on a state test, determined that the students failed the reading tests for a variety of reasons, and that placing all struggling students in the same type of program would be inappropriate. They emphasize that struggling students benefit from customized diagnostic testing, and from small group instruction with students who have similar difficulties grouped together. There are many problems with English phonics: There are different letters that make the same sound, there are the same letters that make different sounds, there are combinations of letters that make a single sound, there are single letters that make more than one sound, and there are silent letters. If students have learned to read in another language, matters are really complicated, since the phonics rules are different in English. So the teaching of phonics is difficult. And understanding phonics is excruciatingly difficult for some children. The suggestions in this chapter are meant for children who have such difficulty with traditional phonics-based programs that they are stalled in their reading progress. However, teaching the details of phonics to children should not be ignored. An understanding of phonics is vital even for proficient readers, for decoding a few unknown words in the course of reading a text. Moreover, knowing the spelling rules for English--doubling a consonant before adding ...ing,

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

24

Barbara H. Redd

for example-- are extremely important. I have heard many adults say, ―I‘m a terrible speller. I never learned phonics.‖ Children who have great difficulty with reading can eventually learn the more difficult skills in phonics, in the context of spelling and writing activities, once they have begun to make solid progress in reading.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES Ashton-Warner, S. (1986) Teacher. New York: Touchstone Editions, Simon and Schuster. (Original work published in 1963). Fowler, D.J. (1998). Balanced reading instruction in practice. Educational Leadership, 11-12. Fry, E.B. & Kress, J.E. (2006). Reading teacher‟s book of lists, 5th. Edition, Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley and Sons. Guillaume, A.M. (1998). Learning with text in the primary grades. The Reading Teacher, 51, 6, 476-484. Gunning, T.G. (2000). Phonological awareness and primary phonics. New York: Allyn and Bacon. Johnston, F.R. (1999). The timing and teaching of word families. The Reading Teacher, 53, 1, 64-75. Lyon, G.R. & Chhabra, V. (2004) The science of reading research. Educational Leadership, 12-17. Nessel, D.D. & Dixon, C.N. (2008) Using the language experience approach with English language learners: Strategies for engaging students and developing literacy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Pinnell, G.S. (1994). Children‘s early literacy learning. Scholastic Literacy Research Paper, Jefferson City: Scholastic. Redd, B.H. (1991). A descriptive study of reading instruction in three first grade classrooms in Japan, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Teacher‘s College, Columbia University, New York. Strickland, D.S. (1998). What‘s basic in beginning reading? Educational Leadership, 6-10. Valencia, S.W. & Buly, M.R. (2004) . Behind test scores: What struggling readers really need. The Reading Teacher, 57, 6,520-531. Wilson, R.M., Hall, M.A. Leu, D.J. , & Kinzer, C.K. (2001) phonics, phonemic awareness, and word analysis for teachers: An interactive tutorial. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill, Prentice-Hall. Yatvin, J., Weaver, C. & Garan, E. (2003) Reading First: Cautions and recommendations. Language Arts, 81, 1, 28-33.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

LITERACY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Tammy-Lynne Moore* Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, US

ABSTRACT The following contains a brief history of literacy, the theories of learning acquisition, phonics and whole language instruction, as well as factors that influence children‘s success with literacy.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF LITERACY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION The act of reading and writing abstract symbols used to communicate thoughts and ideas has existed for thousands of years. As early as 8,000 B.C., merchants used clay tokens with symbols of commodities engraved into their surfaces to keep track of inventory, and evidence of script as a means of communication dates back at least as far as 3,000 B.C. from Sumerian tablets. Sumerians initially used a form of written language as a means of keeping business ledgers, much like the Uruk peoples (3,500 B.C.); however, they did progress to a script called Cuneiform (Rogers, 2011; Frankforter & Spellman, 2009; Aaron & Joshi, 2006; Schmandt-Besserat, 1992). Archaeologists have found several tablets containing poetry, myths, and records of history. Likewise, there is evidence of writing in Egyptian history, dating back to the period of The Old Kingdom (3200-2260 B.C.) ―The Pyramid Texts,‖ discovered in 1881 in Egypt, were incantations ―carved on the walls of the sarcophagus chambers of the pyramids at Saqqara‖ (Rogers, 2011, p. 15). The invention of the Phoenicians‘ alphabet, which was the first known system of symbols representing isolated sounds or sound clusters, rather than abstract ideas, single words, or objects, was eventually *

Tammy -Lynne Moore holds a master‘s degree from Eastern New Mexico University and has published and presented extensively on a number of topics in education and psychology.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

26

Tammy-Lynne Moore

adapted by the Greeks and Romans, and is the foundation for western language today (Frankforter & Spellman, 2009; Gardner, 1991). Until the 1700s, noblemen and priests, primarily, learned how to read and write. The need to create jobs for adults by pulling children out of the factories, as well as desires to diminish church power led to an increasing desire for public education. In 1716, Prussia made local schooling compulsory (Chambers, Hanawalt, Rabb, Woloch, & Grew, 2003). In 1791, the French Constitution contained verbiage laying the groundwork for public education, and by 1792, the state had taken control of education, abolishing church-operated schools (Gutek, 1995). By the 1830s, elementary schools were in full swing from Spain to Russia, and by 1848, 75% of the school-aged children in France were receiving some instruction. Around this same time, Friedrich Froebel‘s concept of kindergarten had not only taken off in Germany, but was coming to the United States, via German immigrants. Until this point, any formal early childhood education really did not exist in the U.S. According to Gutek (1995), the kindergarten movement was successful because people of influence, including Elizabeth Palmer Peabody (sister-in-law of the secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education); Henry Barnard (the first U.S. Commissioner of Education); and Margarethe Meyer Schurz (German kindergarten teacher, and wife of U.S. Senator, Carl Schurz) largely supported it. As a result, by the end of the 1800s, kindergartens ―were often a part of the education services offered by urban settlement houses,‖ and in several public school systems, ―became the first step in the American educational ladder‖ (p. 266). It is worth noting that the Froebel model was also adapted in several other countries including Prussia, England, France, the Netherlands, and Italy. In Froebel‘s model of kindergarten, passive, rather than prescriptive education was emphasized; this meant allowing children to learn through discovery. In addition, Froebel promoted socialization, selfdevelopment, and activity through play materials of multiple textures and shapes, as well as through songs, stories, and games. Thus, this model encouraged children to use their imaginations. On the one hand, literacy, in the sense of learning to read and write letters, words, and sentences, was not emphasized. However, literacy also involves speaking and listening, which children would have had through the stories and songs. In 1913, another influence on the early childhood education movement came to the United States: Maria Montessori. Born in Italy, Montessori was the first woman to study medicine and experimental psychology, and receive a doctorate in medicine from the University of Rome in 1896. She went on to teach students who had intellectual disabilities so successfully that they were able to pass the exams that non-disabled children took (Gutek, 1995). As a result, Montessori postulated that children will pay attention if they are interested in what they are doing; they prefer order and find that doing things they have already mastered enjoyable; they would rather work than play and choose educational materials over toys; they are intrinsically motivated; and children have a fragile, yet deep sense of personal dignity. In this model, children were responsible for their own learning, and could self-select activities, although the teacher provided an environment conducive to learning, and still acted as the authority figure. Both Montessori and Froebel to a certain degree, promoted children‘s discovery in learning, as well as learning through activities that were similar to real-world tasks. Some of Froebel‘s activities included basket-making, weaving, whittling, woodcutting, and caring for animals. In Montessori‘s curriculum, children might set the table, wash dishes, or serve a meal. While Montessori rejected Froebel‘s use of myths and fables as a means of stimulating imagination, she believed in using science to invoke imagination. Montessori also

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Literacy in Early Childhood

27

took literacy a step further, by including kinesthetic activities with writing letters and words. Only after children learned to write were they taught to read. Unlike Froebel‘s method, Montessori‘s model did not take off until nearly 40 years later (Gutek, 1995).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

LITERACY IN RELATION TO LANGUAGE ACQUISITION When people hear the word ‗literacy,‘ images of a person with a book open in front of them come to mind. Most people associate literacy with reading and writing. But reading is much more than being able to call out the words on the page. It is true that reading does involve word recognition and making meaning, as well as gaining new information, and/or insight. However, one must remember that reading is another form of communication and involves language acquisition. Literacy not only involves reading, but also writing, listening, and speaking. Although there are many theories as to how humans develop language, most theorists agree that between birth and five years of age, children acquire language at exceptionally faster rates than in later years (Eggen & Kauchak, 1999). Behaviorists theorize that as children interact with other humans, some sounds are reinforced, while others are not. Through this process of reinforcement, a child‘s language develops. The social cognitive theory expands on the behaviorists‘ perspective by adding in a few additional components. Social cognitive theorists postulate that parents (and other caregivers the child interacts with) act as role models, the child imitates the role models, and then modifies his/her language patterns based on reinforcement and corrective feedback (Eggen & Kauchak, 1999). Psycholinguistic theorists, such as Noam Chomsky (1976), assert that humans have a genetically driven, innate language acquisition device (LAD). Recent brain-based imaging research may help to explain how the LAD works by using ―computational strategies… to [discover] phonemes and words‖ (Kuhl, 2004, p. 831). Upon studying the brain patterns of both English and non-English infants between birth and 12 months, Kuhl found infants‘ brain patterns, until 6 months old, could distinguish between sound patterns of their native language, as well as those of another language. However, after six months, infants‘ discrimination of non-native sounds began to decrease, while their discrimination of native sounds, increased. Imaging showed that essentially, the brain uses computational strategies to categorizes and analyze the statistical distributions of the sounds. Although there are several separate theories as to how humans acquire language, most developmental psychologists do not believe that the LAD can be solely responsible for language development. Rather, they see language acquisition resulting from both genetic and environmental factors, such as interaction with other human beings. The more exposure children have to language, the more they are going to learn. Until the mid-1800s, children were taught how to read and write primarily through phonics. However, beginning around the 1850s, a new approach to reading called the ‗whole language method‘ emerged (Pressley, Allington, Wharton-McDonald, Block, & Morrow, 2001). As mentioned earlier, the Phoenicians gave us the principle of an alphabet - symbols for sounds and sound clusters. When children learn their ABC‘s, they are in the very beginning stages of learning what is known as phonics. Under the phonics principle, letters symbolize

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

28

Tammy-Lynne Moore

sounds, and these sounds, when blended together, make words. In the English language, the alphabet is divided into two types of letters – vowels, and consonants. Most consonants make a single sound (i.e. ‗b,‘ ‗d,‘ ‗j,‘). There are some exceptions, such as ‗c,‘ and ‗g,‘ which can either make a hard sound or a soft sound. In the word ‗cat,‘ the ‗c‘ makes a hard, ‗cuh‘ sound, whereas in ‗city,‘ the ‗c‘ is a soft ‗c,‘ which means it has an ‗s‘ sound. The ‗g‘ in ‗get‘ is hard, making a ‗guh‘ sound, while the ‗g‘ in ‗orange‘ is soft, making the same sound as ‗j.‘ The other main group of letters is vowels (‗a,‘ ‗e,‘ ‗i,‘ ‗o,‘ and ‗u‘). Depending on its function in a word, the letter ‗y,‘ may be used as a vowel. For example, the ‗y‘ in ―my‖ makes the long ‗i‘ sound wheras as in the word ‗yellow,‘ ‗y‘ is making a ‗yuh‘ sound because it is functioning as a consonant. Vowels each make two sounds – a long sound, where the vowel says its name, as in ‗old,‘ ‗ace,‘ ‗eager,‘ – and a short sound, as in ‗can,‘ ‗hit,‘ ‗nod,‘ or ‗net.‘ As children learn to read using phonics, they discover that certain letter combinations, or clusters, also produce certain sounds. For example, ‗sh‘ together creates the ‗shuh‘ sound, as in ‗shutter.‘ Letter combinations such as ‗sh,‘ ‗ph,‘ ‗gh,‘ ‗th,‘ ‗ch,‘ and ‗ng,‘ are called consonant digraphs because there are ―two consonants representing a sound unlike that of either of the individual consonants‖ (Strickland, 1998, p. 95). Other letter combinations include consonant blends, where the regular sounds of two consonants go together as partners. For example, ‗bl,‘ sp,‘ and, ‗tr,‘ are consonant blends tha are found in words such as ‗blast,‘ ‗spider,‘ and ‗tray‘ (Strickland, 1998). Children who are just beginning to read (emergent readers), after learning the alphabet, focus on certain letters and begin to look at two and three letter words, using their phonemic awareness to sound out the letters and then blend them together to read the word. Thus, an emergent reader might work with words from the –at word family (at, bat, cat, hat, mat, sat). The letters ‗at‘ appear at the end of each word, and make the same sounds each time. The beginning consonant is the only thing that changes. Notice that there are no consonant blends or digraphs with this set. It is easier for children to start off simple and then move to the more complex. Once they have mastered this word family, they may move onto another word family, such as –ot (bot, cot, dot, hot, jot, lot, not, etc.). While knowing the sounds of the letters is important, it is not the only component to phonics. Listening and speaking are fundamentals for most children to be able to learn how to read and write. By hearing the language spoken, children begin picking up semantic (meaning) and syntactic (grammar) cues (Strickland, 1998). In addition, emergent readers will use their past experiences, their knowledge of oral language, and cues to help them identify, or decode, words and make meaning of those words. There are several types of cues emergent readers use to decode words. Environmental cues are those stimuli found in everyday surroundings, such as traffic signs and fast food restaurant signs. Sometimes, the unusual shape of the word, often created by a double consonant, or perhaps a rarely used letter, such as ‗x,‘ can help an emergent reader. Illustrations are another type of cue that young readers often rely on. Seeing what is happening in the picture can help them make meaning of the words. The ‗whole-language‘ reading method was first introduced to the United States in the 1800s, by Horace Mann (Strickland, 1998). Whole language focuses on students recognizing words by sight, rather than breaking words down into their sound parts. Teachers, who were dissatisfied with phonics because of its lack of emphasis on comprehension, welcomed the new technique. By the 1930s, most schools were using basal readers to teach reading, which contained stories with repetitive sight words, such as in the Dick and Jane series. In addition, a movement for silent reading as a means of teaching reading, where oral assessment and

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Literacy in Early Childhood

29

instruction were virtually thrown out, emerged. Until the 1900s, studies on the effectiveness of strategies for teaching reading were scarce. The introduction of standardized testing showed a wide range of reading abilities, and as educators found that whole-language was not necessarily the one-size fits all solution, they began moving back towards phonics instruction (Strickland, 1998). Thousands of studies have been conducted in the past century concerning effective reading techniques. There are still many educators and researchers who feel that either whole-language or phonics is the only effective method, even though there has never been any conclusive evidence that one strategy works for all children. Phonics is still the method that most schools turn to when working with struggling readers. However, there is a relatively new movement for ‗balanced literacy,‘ which blends both whole language and phonics instruction into reading instruction( Heydon, Hibbert & Iannaci, 2004).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE EARLY CHILDHOOD LITERACY In 2004, Finland made global news as it rated number one in literacy, compared with 31 other countries (Alvarez, 2004). Some might argue that Finland‘s status must largely be a result of the fact that most Finns are prosperous and that the country has a relatively homogenous population – 97.9% Finnish, 2.1% other nationalities (Statistics Finland, 2010, March). And while these are no doubt, contributing factors, Finland is not exempt from having students who are not proficient in literacy. A study conducted by Linnakaylä and Malin (2004) showed that seven percent of Finnish students still do not meet proficiency in literacy. The study found that the same factors we in the United States consider as contributors to a lack of proficiency, seems to also affect Finnish students. Linnakaylä and Malin found that students coming from households where family members had low levels of education, low socioeconomic status, and did not put a high value on education were more likely to score lower in literacy than other students. These results are consistent with findings in other countries as well, including the United States. The U.S. has one of the most diverse populations in the world. According the United States Census Bureau (2010, December), between 2005-2009, 224,469,780 people (74.5% of the population) were White; 37,264,679 (12.4%) of the people living in the United States were African American; 39,727,074 people (10.9%) were another race, with an additional 6,668,680 (2.2%) claiming to belong to two or more races. Separately, 45,476,938 Hispanics or Latinos (of any race) make up 15.1% of the total population of the United States. In addition to being culturally diverse, children come from a wide range of economic statuses. Millions of families live below the poverty line, with singlemother households being the highest, regardless of ethnicity (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). When it was announced that Finland was the top country for education, heads turned internationally to see what they were doing differently. Although they do offer a free public education to their children, as well as private education, their children do not begin school until the age of seven. ―Preschool, at the age of six is optional, but most children attend… Since most women work outside the home in Finland, children usually go to daycare after they turn one‖ (Alvarez, 2004, p. 2). In addition, the Finnish treat teaching as a very highly respected career, so much so that it is the number one career choice of teens surveyed. Teachers must have a Master‘s degree in order to teach, and there are more teacher-education

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

30

Tammy-Lynne Moore

graduates than there are positions open, creating a job situation of high supply-low demand, thus making the market all that more competitive. In the United States, on the other hand, a bachelor‘s degree is the minimum certification most school districts require. While there seems to be a trend, at least in the state of New Mexico, of districts requiring teachers have their Master‘s, there is no national legislation requiring said degree. American children start pre-school as early as age three, but the quality of the school again, varies greatly. The International Reading Association (IRA) (2005) has published a position statement promoting the benefits of preschool for children of all ages and backgrounds, but there is little national legislation to require children attend preschool. There is no question that preschool can be very beneficial in laying the foundations for successful literacy. A longitudinal study conducted by Missall, Reschly, Betts, McConnell, Heistad, Pickart, et al. (2007) investigated the effects of literacy development at the preschool level on later literacy. The researchers found that any type of exposure to literacy development before formal schooling created positive shifts in literacy achievement at the end of kindergarten and at the end of first grade. The IRA (2005) states that ―children who attend high-quality preschools are less likely to be retained in the primary grades, have higher graduation rates from high school, and have fewer behavioral problems (Barnett, 1995, 2001; Fuerst and Fuerst, 1993; Schweinhart, Barnes, Weikart, Barnett, and Epstein, 1993)‖ (p. 2). In addition, students coming from low socioeconomic statuses tend to benefit most from some form of preschool, including attending Head Start (see Chapter 15). The United States has been trying to increase children‘s success in literacy through the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). There have been many changes to educational requirements of both teachers and students, one of which has been an increased emphasis on mastering early literacy in kindergarten. According to the IRA (2008), children who are able to recognize letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and sounds, and who have had multiple exposures to literacy through print, conversation, and storytelling by the time they enter school, will be more successful in learning to read and write, than those children who lack these skills. Research has repeatedly shown that parents who show they value literacy also increase their child‘s chances for success in reading (IRA, 2008; IRA, 2005; Shin & Krashen, 2008; Pressley, et al., 2001; Strickland, 1998; Swick, 2009). It is not enough to simply have books, magazines, and other print sources in the home. Researchers have found that when children have a large selection of texts that they find interesting available, and when parents read for pleasure, as well as read with their children, youngsters learn the value of literacy and develop a true enjoyment of it (Shin & Krashen, 2008; Swick, 2009). In addition, when family literacy activities link closely with activities at preschools and/or regular schools, children again find more success in reading (IRA, 2005; Swick, 2009). Other activities that promote literacy include regular visits to the public library, participating in summer library programs, pointing out public signs, labels, and logos, reading aloud, and sustained silent reading (IRA, 2008; Shin & Krashen, 2008).

SUMMARY Literacy has been taught for thousands of years, and involves not only reading and writing, but speaking and listening as well. Until the 1700s, aristocracy primarily learned how

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Literacy in Early Childhood

31

to read and write. However, public education became more and more predominant, eventually allowing most children the opportunity to become literate. Kindergarten in the 1800s focused more on socialization and learning through play, whereas today, there is a much greater emphasis on reading, writing, and math preparation for future learning. There are several theories as to how humans acquire language, and there are likely several combinations of genetic and environmental factors that contribute to the ability to learn language. Some children learn to read better under the phonics method, which emphasizes letter sounds that blend to make words, as well as prior knowledge, experiences, and cues. Others are successful learning through the whole-language method. Many educators now promote a system of balanced literacy, which incorporates aspects of both methods of reading instruction. The value placed on education, teacher preparation expectations, and economic status are all factors that influence literacy. Some countries have children start school later, but often these children have already learned to read at home. Preschool, daycare, and multiple exposures to text also influence children‘s reading. By being active role models, who read for pleasure and who regularly participate in literacy activities with their children, parents can have a profound effect on their child‘s learning and later academic success.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES Aaron, P. G., & Joshi, R. M. (2006). Written language as natural as spoken language: A biolinguistic perspective. Reading Psychology, 27, 263-311. Chomsky, N. (1976). Reflections on language. London: Temple Smith. Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (1999). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms. 4th ed. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Frankforter, A. D., & Spellman, W. M. (2009). The west: A narrative history. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach. New York: Basic Books. Gutek, G. L. (1995). A history of the western educational experience. 2nd ed. Long Grove, IL: Waveland, Press. Heydon, R. Hibbert, K., & Iannacci, L. (2004/2005) .Strategies to support balanced literacy approaches in pre- and inservice teacher education. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 48 (4), 312-319. International Reading Association (IRA). (2005). Literacy development in the preschool years: A position statement of the International Reading Association [Brochure]. Newark, DE: Author. International Reading Association (IRA). (2008). Getting your child ready to read [Brochure]. Newark, DE: Author. Missall, K., Reschly, A., Betts, J., McConnell, S., Heistad, D., & Pickart, M., et al. (2007). Examination of predictive validity of preschool early literacy skills. School Psychology Review, 36(3), 433-452.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

32

Tammy-Lynne Moore

Pressley, M., Allington, R. L., Wharton-McDonald, R., Block, C. C., and Morrow, L. M. (2001). Learning to read: Lessons from exemplary first-grade classrooms. New York: The Guilford Press. Rogers, P. M. (2011). Aspects of western civilization: Problems and sources in history. 7th ed. Boston: Prentice Hall. Schmandt-Besserat, D. (1992). Before writing: From counting to Cuneiform. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Shin, F. H., & Krashen, S. D. (2008). Summer reading: Program and evidence. Boston: Pearson. Swick, K. J. (2009). Promoting school and life success through early childhood family literacy. Early Childhood Education Journal, 36, 403-406. U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). S1702. Poverty status in the past 12 months of families. 20052009 American community survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved December 10, 2010 from Fact Finder, from U.S. Census Bureau Online: http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ STTable?_bm=yand-geo_id=01000USand-qr_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_S1702andds_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_ Alvarez, L. (2004, April 9). Educators flocking to Finland, land of literate children. New York Times. Retrieved November 29, 2010, from http://www.dcmp.org/caai/nadh172.pdf. Statistics Finland. (2010, March). Nationality according to age and gender by region 1990 – 2009. Retrieved December 7, 2010 from Statistic Finland‘s PX-Web databases. http://pxweb2.stat.fi/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=020_vaerak_tau_101_enandti=Nationality+ac cording+to+age+and+gender+by+region+1990+%2D+2009andpath=../Database/StatFin/ vrm/vaerak/andlang=1andmultilang=en U.S. Census Bureau. (2010, December). 2005-2009 American community survey 5-year estimates: Data profile highlights. Retrieved December 9, 2010 from Fact Finder – Fact Sheet, from U.S. Census Bureau Online:http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ ACSSAFFFacts?_event=andgeo_id=01000USand_geoContext=01000USand_street=and _county=and_cityTown=and_state=and_zip=and_lang=enand_sse=onandActiveGeoDiv= and_useEV=andpctxt=fphandpgsl=010and_submenuId=factsheet_1andds_name=DEC_2 000_SAFFand_ci_nbr=nullandqr_name=nullandreg=null%3Anulland_keyword=and_ind ustry=

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 4

EARLY IDENTIFICATION IN EXCEPTIONALLY GIFTED CHILDREN Nicole Smith*, Michael F. Shaughnessy and Dan Greathouse Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, US

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ABSTRACT Recognizing giftedness in young children is very important. By not responding to their educational needs early, parents and educators can diminish their intellectual development. It is important that we nurture their intellectual development by identifying their needs early so that they may grow and develop to their fullest ability. This paper will take a closer look at the identification methods that are used to assess young gifted children and their intellectual development.

INTRODUCTION Many educators and parents are facing a continuing controversy regarding the intellectual development and educational placement of young gifted children. It is imperative that young gifted children are identified early and that the appropriate services be implemented soon after identification. There have been many recent advances in early identification and more assessments have been constructed that assess early intellectual development. But, before looking closely at the different identification methods used to assess young gifted children, one must form a broader perspective regarding the nature of giftedness and the concepts behind it.

*

Nicole Smith is a graduate student in Special Education at Eastern New Mexico University in Portales, New Mexico. Michael F. Shaughnessy is Professor in the Educational Studies Department and Dan Greathouse holds a master‘s degree from Eastern New Mexico University as well as post graduate work in Head Injury from George Washington University. He is also a licensed Diagnostician and has published and presented extensively on testing, evaluation and assessment issues.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

34

Nicole Smith, Michael F. Shaughnessy and Dan Greathouse

DEFINING GIFTED According to the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act of 1988 (PL 100-297), gifted is defined as: Children and youth with outstanding talent perform or show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment. These children and youth exhibit high performance capability in intellectual, creative, and/or artistic areas, possess an unusual leadership capacity, or excel in specific academic fields. They require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the schools. Outstanding talents are present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavor (Smith, 2004).

In this current federal definition, the word gifted is not included. It does, however, include the concepts of out-standing talent and the capability for high performance. Many states have changed the definitions they use in order to better identify and qualify students for gifted education. Yet, the majority of the states still use a version of the 1978 federal definition. The definition is as follows:

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The term ―gifted and talented children‖ means children and, whenever applicable, youth, who are identified at the preschool, elementary, or secondary level as possessing demonstrated or potential abilities that give evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, specific academic or leadership ability or in the performing and visual arts and who by reason thereof require services to activities not ordinarily provided by the school (Smith, 2004).

Note, that this definition does include the term gifted. The United States Government and many state educational programs recognize five general categories in which a child may exhibit special ability. They are: 1. General intellectual ability –The child seems very intellectual in a lot of areas and the most obvious skills are memorizing facts, developing, and applying concepts. 2. Specific academic aptitude – The child focuses on one or two specific areas of endeavor. He/she may be adept at science but inept at writing. Those that chose prime factoring license plates as a hobby are said to have a specific aptitude. 3. Creative or productive thinking – This child often wonders if he/she is from another planet. They possess a higher order of creative thinking skills. 4. Leadership ability – This child can convince almost anyone to do almost anything. It is important to remember that those who possess leadership skills won‘t always, lead their peers in the direction most favored by teachers and parents. 5. Ability in the visual and/or performing art – This is the child who loves to dance, sing, draw or paint, play a musical instrument, and/or act. In early years, this was viewed as a passion or a skill, but now, accepted as an ability of the highly gifted and creative. (Saunders & Espeland, 1986).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Early Identification in Exceptionally Gifted Children

35

Many educators also recognize a sixth category. This category is referred to as the psychomotor aptitude. A child with this ability is an expert at manipulating his/her body in time and space. Many children with this particular gift surpass physical milestones very early in their lives. But who, then, are the gifted? Lewis Terman considered children gifted if they scored over 140 on an intelligence (IQ) test but his definition only reflected a narrow view in which a high intelligence is associated with high academic achievement (Smith, 2004). Many educators also define giftedness by a score of 130 or higher on those ever relentless paper and pencil tests or by school performance in the top 95% or above (Winner, 1996). However, most definitions do not include the precise and correct criteria to determine identification and eligibility, so many educators and professionals rely on IQ tests to define and determine eligibility for students. As, popular as they are, these traditional methods only identify about 3 to 5 percent of the school population as gifted (Renzulli and Reis, 2009) and approximately, 1 in every 100 children, once identified, will qualify for special services (Smith, 2004). More inclusive approaches, similar to those of Joseph Runzulli, increase the percentage to somewhere between 10 and 15 percent but less than 3 percent of these children actually receive gifted educational services (Smith, 2004). The reason, gifted education is inconsistently offered across the nation. Why? Only 25 out of the 50 states mandate that gifted education be offered to those students who qualify (Smith, 2004) and ironic, as it may seem, educational services for gifted students are neither mandated nor funded by the Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act (IDEA). In most states, these services are considered part of special education and the basic principles of special education apply. These traditional methods, however, often over look and exclude many talented youngsters. They identify good test takers or high scorers who may or may not be original thinkers and frequently eliminate gifted children who do not excel in traditional ways (Vail, 1987). They also exclude many diverse children who would qualify if more flexible criteria were applied (Smith, 2004) and this is precisely why, early childhood developmental screening and identification are necessary. The earlier a child‘s special needs are identified, the better it is for their development (Smutny, Walker, & Meckstroth, 1997).

THE NEED FOR EARLY IDENTIFICATION Recognizing giftedness in young children is very important. If young children don‘t receive appropriate recognition and responses to their educational needs early, their potential skills may deteriorate (Smutny, Walker, & Meckstroth, 1997). Recognizing and rewarding their giftedness will help to develop their self-esteem, their confidence, and their enthusiasm for learning. When young gifted children are encouraged to use their special abilities, their intellectual development will flourish. Those that receive challenging and stimulating schoolwork will show substantial gains in achievement, motivation, and self-concept. Without early identification, many gifted children learn to hide their abilities. They will often hide or deny their abilities, so as to fit in better with other children (Roedell, 1990). They will underachieve, fail particular tasks, or even give up on certain projects simply to gain the acceptance of their peers. Gifted children may also develop behavioral problems and

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Nicole Smith, Michael F. Shaughnessy and Dan Greathouse

36

psychosomatic symptoms (Roedell, 1990). They can become physical and aggressive with their peers and even throw tantrums. They may suddenly acquire stomachaches and/or headaches. Young gifted children have often acquired skills far beyond those of their peers. However, their physical and social development is that of a normal preschooler or kindergartener (Roedell, 1990). Their abilities have developed unevenly, and we often find that their advanced intellectual development out performs their physical and social development. Their motor skills, especially fine-motor, often lag behind their cognitive conceptual abilities, particularly in young gifted children (Webb, 1994). Without early identification and treatment, young gifted students with mild motor weaknesses can end with major, school generated disabilities (Vail, 1987). Now, that a need for early identification has been established, let‘s take a closer look at the different identification methods used to assess young gifted children.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

EARLY IDENTIFICATION METHODS In order to identify young gifted children, many educational professionals administer early childhood developmental screenings. These brief assessments are designed to identify children who may need further evaluation and/or educational interventions in order to develop and achieve maximum potential. A developmental screening will assess a child‘s abilities in areas such as language functioning, reasoning, gross motor and/or fine motor, and personalsocial development (Meisels, 1997). The Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning - Revised (DIAL-R) is a multidimensional screening test that is widely used across the country. It assesses children from ages 2 to 5 years and evaluates three developmental areas: motor, concepts, and language. It grew out of the Learning Disabilities/Early Childhood Research Project funded by the State of Illinois (Lichtenstein & Ireton, 1984). The test designates six basic applications:      

the identification of children with potential development problems who are in need of further assessment or special education. the identification of potentially advanced children who are in need of further assessment or special education. the identification of children who may be ―at risk‖ for environmental reasons and who would profit from programs designed to prevent school failure. a curriculum for identifying a child‘s strengths and weaknesses in order to plan instruction appropriate for individual needs. psychometric training, particularly in courses for undergraduate students or paraprofessionals research on preschool and kindergarten children (Shaughnessy & Greathouse, 1997).

The DIAL–R is individually administered and usually takes 20 - 30 minutes to administer. The test can potentially identify children who are at risk for academic failure as well as those who are academically intelligent.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Early Identification in Exceptionally Gifted Children

37

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE EARLY IDENTIFICATION IN EXCEPTIONALLY GIFTED CHILDREN The Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning is now in its third edition and is just commonly referred to as the DIAL-3. The age range covered by this instrument is 3-0 to 6-11. The administration time is about 30 minutes, and a shorter version, the Speed DIAL, only takes about 15 minutes. The subtests cover five domains: physical, cognitive, communication, social or emotional, and adaptive. Rating scales are included to screen the child‘s social-emotional behavior as well as intelligibility (Mardell-Czudnowski & Goldenberg, 1998). This developmental screening test is typically used to identify children in need of further testing for developmental delays; however, it is important to note that most developmentally delayed programs also utilize peer role models. Some parents bring their children to screenings for the possibility of such placements, while the majority of parents are concerned about developmental delays, especially speech/language issues, with articulation difficulties being the most predominant issue. Although the scoring is typically used to determine if a child is exhibiting potential developmental delays or if the child is developing satisfactorily, this screening is frequently the first encounter a child might have with educational diagnostic assessment with the schools. Even though standard scores that indicate cognitive abilities in the gifted range are not derived from this instrument, a well-trained professional could utilize this screening opportunity to observe precocious behaviors and cognitive tendencies that might warrant further investigation for giftedness. Another screening instrument that can be utilized in the search for children gifted children would include the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, Second Edition (KBIT-2). The KBIT-2 takes approximately 20 minutes to administer and provides standard scores and percentile ranks by age for Crystallized (Verbal), Fluid (Nonverbal), and IQ Composite. The screening can be used to obtain a quick estimate of intelligence only for children at age 4 years up through adults at the age of 90 years old (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004). The colorful stimuli pages and brevity of administration make this screening instrument very appealing, especially when working with younger children; however, further formal assessments would most likely be needed in order to determine any cognitive gifted requirements. The Developmental Profile-3 is typically used to screen for developmental delays and is used with children from the ages of birth through 12 years, 11 months. The administration time is approximately 20 to 40 minutes, and the format is an interview or parent/caregiver checklist. Norm-based standard scores, percentiles, stanines, age equivalents, and descriptive ranges can be provided in neatly appearing computer-generated report. Developmental strengths and weaknesses early in a child‘s life can be provided by the use of this instrument. (Alpern, 2007). Again, much like the DIAL-3, the DP-3 is typically used for the identification of developmental delays, but because standard scores can be obtained in the cognitive domain, there is a potential use for gifted screening with this instrument. However, the DP-3 interpretive report cautions the user to not make final diagnostic or treatment decisions solely on this instrument without confirming information from other sources. Consequently, further

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

38

Nicole Smith, Michael F. Shaughnessy and Dan Greathouse

more formal cognitive assessments would be required should a significantly high cognitive score be obtained from the DP-3. The Oral and Written Language Scales (OWLS) is an assessment of oral and written language (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). The OWLS has three subtests: Listening Comprehension, Oral Expression, and Written Expression. The Listening Comprehension and the Oral Expression Scales are intended for children and young adults ages 3 through 21. The Written Expression Scale is intended for children ages 5 through 21. The OWLS measures vocabulary, syntax, pragmatics, and higher order thinking that includes interpretation of figurative language, inference, and synthesizing information. The three subtests are individually administered and usually take around 15 to 25 minutes to administer. OWLS was standardized between April of 1992 and August of 1993. The three scales of OWLS were co-normed on a standardization sample based on 1,985 individuals who represented strata of age, gender, race, ethnic group, geographic region, and economic status (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). The Preschool Language Scale - 4 (PLS-4) screening instrument measures language acquisition and pre-language skills in children ages birth through 6 years 11 months (Cohen, & Spenciner, 2007). The assessment has two subscales that test for auditory comprehension and expressive communication that include preverbal communication skills. The PLS-4 also has a Spanish version that is designed to assess receptive and expressive language skills in Spanish. The Spanish version addresses common Spanish dialects and is useful for children who come from different geographic regions. Both versions use the same materials and usually takes 20-30 minutes to administer. The norming sample is based on the 2000 U. S. Census (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). The Kaufman Survey of Early Academic and Language Skills (K-SEALS) is a screening instruments used to assess language skills. K-SEALS is designed to assess expressive and receptive language skills, pre-academic skills, and articulation. It is intended for use with children birth through age 3 and children ages 6 through 11(Shaughnessy & Greathouse, 1997). This test is well suited for those educational professionals involved with preschool, kindergarten, elementary schools, speech and language clinics, medical agencies, and head start facilities. K-SEALS is easy to administer and it is published by the American Guidance Service (Shaughnessy & Greathouse, 1997). The Preschool Screening System is a complete screening program package. The package includes the Preschool Screening System (PSS) screening test that assesses body awareness, visual perceptual motor, and language skills, a parent developmental questionnaire, and a step by step guide to screening program development and implementation (Lichtenstein & Ireton, 1984). The PSS screening test is designed for children ages 2 through 6 and 5 through 9. It consists of 15 subtests with 3 to 11 items. The test is subdivided into three areas of four subtests each. The PSS screening test is individually administered and usually takes 15-20 minutes to administer. When the screening test is combined with the parent questionnaire, the system can better identify a child‘s needs through curriculum development (Gullo, 1994). The McCarthy Screening Test (MST) is an instrument created from the McCarthy Scales of Children‘s Abilities (MSCA) by the Psychological Corporation (Lichtenstein & Ireton, 1984). It assesses right-left orientation, verbal memory, draw a design, numerical memory, conceptual grouping, and leg coordination. The MST consists of six subtests. These subtests were taken from the original 18 of the MCSA (Gullo, 1994). The MST is designed for

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Early Identification in Exceptionally Gifted Children

39

children ages 4 through 6 ½ years. It is administered individually and takes approximately 2030 minutes to administer. The test‘s scores are norm referenced by age. An early childhood developmental screening may not be sufficient for detecting young gifted children, more additional testing may be necessary. It may be necessary to administer a test that measures cognitive development. Educational professionals refer to these tests as intelligence tests. General intelligence tests usually consist of items arranged by difficulty level and/or sets of short subtests which are combined into a single score (Tollefson, 1975). They are used to measure various areas including vocabulary, motor behavior, memory, abstract reasoning, comprehension, sequencing, detail recognition, induction, discrimination, generalization, analogies, and pattern completion (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II) assesses the intelligence and achievement of children ages 3 through 18. The test consists of 18 subtests that measure a range of abilities including sequential and simultaneous processing, learning reasoning, and crystallized ability that are relevant to understanding children and adolescents from a variety of backgrounds (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). The test has a unique feature that allows items on many subtest to be explained, demonstrated, administered a second time, and taught to the students. A Spanish translation is available. Yet, the test is not intended to be administered in Spanish. The test usually takes around 30 to 75 minutes to administer. The KABC-II is designed for use in both the clinical and academic settings (Gullo, 1994). The standardization sample consisted of 3,025 individuals and was conducted from September 2001 through January 2003 (Cohen, and Spenciner, 2007). The Bayley Scales of Infant Development measures the developmental progress of children ages birth through 2 ½ years. The assessment contains both a Mental and a Motor Scale. The Mental Scale assesses sensory and perceptual acuity/discrimination; object permanence and memory; vocalization and communication; and early generalization and classification abilities. The Motor Scale assesses body control and small and large muscle coordination. This test should be administered by individuals who have had the appropriate training (Gullo, 2004). The McCarthy Scales of Children‘s Abilities (MSCA) is an instrument used to diagnose children with learning difficulties or other exceptional conditions. It consists of 18 subtests that are divided into six scales: verbal, perceptual performance, quantitative, general cognitive, memory, and fine motor (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1990). It is designed to test children ages 2 ½ through 6 ½. The MCSA is a norm-referenced assessment that is intended to be individually administered. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Fifth Edition assesses cognitive abilities in individuals ages 2 through 85. The original edition was developed by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon and introduced to the United States by Lewis Terman in 1916 (Cohen, and Spenciner, 2007). The fifth edition measures general intellectual and cognitive abilities in five broad areas: fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative processing, visual spatial processing, and working memory (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). This edition consists of 10 subtests that assess verbal and nonverbal abilities. Administration time is usually 1 to 2 hours and specific subtests depend upon the age of the individual taking the assessment. The Stanford-Binet should only be administered and interpreted by individuals who have had extensive training in psychometric and psychological procedures (Gullo, 1994). The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-R) is an intelligence test designed for children ages 3 through 7. The WPPSI-R includes a verbal scale

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

40

Nicole Smith, Michael F. Shaughnessy and Dan Greathouse

that focuses on information, comprehension, arithmetic, vocabulary, similarities, and sentences. The performance scale focuses on object assembly, geometric design, block design, mazes, picture completion, and animal pegs. The test yields a Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, and a Full Scale IQ (Gullo, 1994). The WPSSI-R should only be administered and interpreted by individuals who have had extensive training in psychometric assessment procedures and k Undoubtedly, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence— Third Edition (WPPSI-III) is a very useful formal cognitive instrument that can be utilized in the determination of very superior cognitive abilities in young children, ages 2-6 up through 7-3. The completion time for children ages 2-6 through 3-11 is 30 to 45 minutes, while the completion time for children ages 4-0 and up is 60 minutes. Scaled scores by age as well as IQ scores are derived from this instrument. Revisions with the third edition have included the age range being lowered to 2 years 6 months to allow for earlier testing, including earlier identification of very superior cognitive abilities (Wechsler, 2002). The verbal scale of the WPSII-III is comprised of the following subtests: information, vocabulary, word reasoning, comprehension, and similarities. The performance scale consists of the following subtests: block design, matrix reasoning, picture concepts, picture completion, and object assembly. Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ scores can be obtained from the administration of this well-known formal cognitive assessment instrument.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

This paper has cursorily tried to address the importance of early identification of children who might be later considered gifted, talented or creative. Some of the most commonly used assessment and screening instruments were discussed and relevant issues reviewed in detail.

REFERENCES Cohen, L. G., & Spenciner, L. J. (2007). Assessment of children and youth with special needs (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson. Gullo, D. F., (1994). Understanding assessment and evaluation in early childhood education. New York: Teachers College Press. Kaufman, Alan S. & Kaufman, Nadeen L. (2004) KBIT-2. American Guidance Service, Inc., 4201 Woodland Road, Circle Pines, Minnesota. Lichtenstein, R. & Ireton, H. (1984). Preschool screening: Identifying young children with developmental and educational problems. Orlando: Grune and Stratton, Inc. Mardell-Czudnowski, Carol Ph.D. & Goldenberg, Dorothea S. Ed.D. (1998) Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning—Third Edition (DIAL-3). American Guidance Service, Inc., 4201 Woodland Road, Circle Pines, Minnesota. Meisels, S. J., (1977). Developmental screening in early childhood: A guide. Washington, D. C: The National Association for the Education of Young Children. Renzulli, J., Reis, S., & Thompson, A. (2009). Light up your child‘s mind. New York: Little, Brown, and Company.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Early Identification in Exceptionally Gifted Children

41

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Reynolds, C. R. & Kamphaus, R. W. (Eds.). (1990). Handbook of psychological and educational Assessment of children. New York: The Guilford Press. Roedell, W. C. (1990). Nurturing Giftedness in Young Children. Washington D.C: National Association for Gifted Children. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. E487). March 4, 2010, from http://www.nagc.org/index.aspx?id=322. Suanders, J. & Espeland, P. (1986). Bringing out the best: A resource guide for parents of young gifted children. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing. Shaughnessy, M. F. & Greathouse D. (1997). Early childhood assessment: recent advances. Early Child Development and Care, 130, 31-39. Smith, D. D. (2004). Introduction to special education: Teaching in an age of opportunity (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Smutny, J. F, Walker, S. Y., and Meckstroth, E. A. (1997). Teaching young gifted children In the regular classroom: Identifying, nurturing, and challenging ages 4-9. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing. Tollefson, N. F. (1975). Testing and assessment in elementary school guidance programs. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Vail, P. L. (1987). Smart kids with school problems: Things to know and ways to help. New York: E.P. Dutton. Wechsler, D (2002). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Third Edition. The Psychological Corporation, 19500 Bulverde Road, San Antonio, Texas. Webb, J. T. (1994). Nurturing Social-Emotional Development of Gifted Children. Washington D.C: National Association for Gifted Children. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. E527). March 11, 2010, from http://www.nagc.org/index.aspx ?id=322. Winner, E. (1996). Gifted children: Myths and realities. New York: BasicBooks.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

CREATING EARLY LITERACY OPPORTUNITIES FOR CHILDREN WITH COMPLEX COMMUNICATION NEEDS Janet L. Dodd

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Chapman University, Orange, California, US

Literacy, the ability to read and write, affords us many opportunities. Early literacy provides a cornerstone for continual development of communication and language. ―Children combine what they know about speaking and listening with what they know about print and become ready to learn to read and write‖ (Roth, Paul, & Pierotti, 2006, para. 1). It is well known that children with delays in language are at risk for developing literacy skills. In fact, for many children with complex communication needs (CCN) as a result of profound delays in the areas language, the role of literacy in supporting the development of a functional communication system is often underestimated. Who are children with CCN? Children with CCN are not children with a specific diagnosed disorder but rather a cluster of children whose disabilities significantly impair their ability to access communication via traditional means (i.e., oral language). It is not a single disability but a variety of disabilities with one thing in common; an absence of functional communication. Children with CCN may have a diagnosis of autism, Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, or intellectual impairment. In addition to experiencing significant delays related to receptive(understanding) and expressive language skills these children often experience cognitive deficits and/or physical impairments as well. Each child‘s individual challenges hinder their ability to develop functional communication. The education of a child with CCN generally focuses on developing a functional communication system either through the acquisition of oral language, the use of an alternative form of communication (e.g., PECS, communication boards, speech generating devices), or a combination of the two with limited attention attributed to developing literacy skills. There is a misconception that if a child is exposed to an alternative form of communication, such as a communication book consisting of pictures, that we have in some manner abandoned the pursuit of oral language. The opposite is actually true with alternative forms of communication actually supporting the development of oral language (Harris and

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Janet L. Dodd

44

Reichle, 2004; Romski & Sevcik, 1996). In addition to difficulty producing oral language, many of these children have difficulty comprehending spoken language. It is not that they do not hear the words but rather what they hear does not translate into a form of language they can understand. Children with CCN develop a communication system by learning to associate pictures and/or symbols to represent various forms of language. In addition to having fewer exposures to literary experiences, children with CCN do not participate in the same types of interactive book sharing experiences as typically developing children (Light, Binger, and Kelford Smith, 1994; Light, & Kelford Smith, 1993). Additionally, some children with CCN experience challenges associated with impairments in motor skills which hinder their ability to independently select a book off a shelf, position the book to the correct orientation, manipulate the pages, or grasp a crayon. The purpose of this chapter is to present a strategy to make literacy accessible to children with CCN and to discuss how literacy can be used as a tool to facilitate the development of communication and language. In this chapter we will explore a variety of terms and their relationship to literacy specific for these children. We will then identify and discuss one specific approach to making books accessible to children with CCN.

DEFINING BASIC CONCEPTS AND TERMS

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Augmentative and Alternative Communication Many children with CCN will inevitably rely on augmentative or alternative forms of communication (AAC) at some point in their life to either support their development of oral language, supplement their oral language, or as a their primary means of communication. The International Society for Augmentative and Alternative Communication (ISAAC) describes AAC as ―the words used to describe extra ways of helping people who find it hard to communicate by speech or writing‖ (para. 1). Communication boards, electronic speech generating devices (SGDs), gestures and sign language are all examples of AAC. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) describes AAC as All forms of communication (other than oral speech) that are used to express thoughts, needs, wants, and ideas. We all use AAC when we make facial expressions or gestures, use symbols or pictures, or write. People with severe speech or language problems rely on AAC to supplement existing speech or replace speech that is not functional. Special augmentative aids, such as picture and symbol communication boards and electronic devices, are available to help people express themselves. This may increase social interaction, school performance, and feelings of self-worth. AAC users should not stop using speech if they are able to do so. The AAC aids and devices are used to enhance their communication. (para. 1)

Symbols Individuals who use AAC rely on symbols rather than spoken words to communicate their needs, express their thoughts, and engage in conversation. A symbol is ―something used to represent another thing or concept‖ (Blischak, Lloyd, & Fuller, 1997, p. 39). Symbols

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Creating Early Literacy Opportunities for Children …

45

represent words for individuals who use AAC. Photographs, manual signs, colored pictures, and black and white drawings along with real objects are examples of some of the symbols frequently used. One widely used picture symbol set is Mayer-Johnson‘s Picture Communication System (PCS). If you do not have access to this program you can download a free 30-day trial version (yes free!) from their website (www.mayer-johnson.com).

Aided Language Stimulation Aided language stimulation (ALS) is a language stimulation technique in which a communication partner (e.g., teacher) pairs oral language with picture symbols. The communication partner models the use of picture symbols used for communication by pointing to picture symbols either directly on a child‘s communication system or to other available pictures while talking. ALS which is also referred to as ―augmented input‖ was initially introduced by Carol Goosens in 1989 and has demonstrated positive effects in increasing a child‘s use of pictorial symbols along with supporting their understanding of spoken language. This approach teaches a child through modeling how to use picture symbols as a form of communication.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Core Vocabulary Eighty-five percent of the words we use to communicate on a daily basis consist of only a few hundred words (ASHA). Core vocabulary is the term used to describe these words that are used across a variety of environments to convey an array of messages for a range of communicative functions. The earliest set of core vocabulary demonstrated in young children consists of pronouns (e.g., I), demonstratives (e.g., that), verbs (e.g., want) and prepositions (e.g., on, out) but no nouns. There is a tendency to avoid these words in the development of early communication boards because they are generally difficult to represent in pictorial form. However, it is possible to teach children word-symbol association through modeling (e.g., ALS) the picture meaning within the appropriate communication context. As Banajee, DiCarlo, & Buras-Stricklin (2003) determined there is a preponderance by early communicators to use core vocabulary. As their study demonstrated, 25 of the most frequently occurring words used by preschoolers represented over 40% of the total different words used. The following is a list of those words in order of prevalence. 1. I 2. No 3. Yes/yeah 4. Want 5. It

6. That 7. My 8. You 9. More 10. Mine

11. The 12. Is 13. On 14. In 15. Here

16. Out 17. Off 18. A 19. Go 20. What

21. Some 22. Help 23. All 24. done 25. finished

Other core vocabulary words that are frequently exhibited in early communicators include like, play, turn, eat, drink, happy, sad, come, do, make, and read. Additional examples of core vocabulary are provided throughout this chapter. For an expanded list of core

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Janet L. Dodd

46

vocabulary including strategies to extend vocabulary to 300+ words, readers are referred to Van Tatenhove (2005).

Fringe Vocabulary Fringe vocabulary, sometimes referred to as content words or extended vocabulary (Hill, & Romich, 2004), are specific to activities and environments. For example, the terms ―crayons‖ and ―scissors‖ may be specific to craft activities whereas the terms ―stir‖ and ―bowl‖ are specific to cooking related activities. Fringe words are individualized based on the communication needs of the AAC user. The following is a list of categories of fringe words that may be appropriate for a young child: common household objects (e.g., cup), preferred items (e.g., bubbles), places (e.g., park), colors, classroom materials (e.g., book), and body parts that can be used to communicate injury or illness.

Communicative Functions

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

This refers to the purposes for which we use language. We use language for communicative functions that serve to control our environment (e.g. requesting preferred objects or actions, protesting) as well as for social interactive purposes (e.g., commenting, requesting information) (Wetherby & Prutting, 1984). Children with CCN are routinely taught to communicate for purposes of requesting preferred objects or desired food items but the challenge lies in expanding the use of their communication systems for more social communicative purposes.

MISMATCH BETWEEN COMMUNICATION GOALS AND OPPORTUNITIES What we want children to accomplish does not always match the opportunities we provide them. To illustrate this mismatch let‘s examine the goal of a child to indicate ―all done‖ upon completion of a task. This is a communication goal which is routinely written into individualized education programs (IEPs) for children who are beginning to use AAC. It has been well proven that ―children learn to comprehend and produce words that are frequently spoken to them‖ (Harris & Reichle, 2004, p. 155). As we examine the environment of a child who is acquiring language in the form of AAC we ponder the question of how often do we provide the child with opportunities to see ―all done‖ (and other symbols for that matter) used (or modeled) throughout his/her day. Unfortunately, in many cases the answer is not often enough when we recognize the relationship between the number of times a child must experience a form of language before actually using it. For the specific example of ―all done,‖ affixing the picture symbol for ―all done‖ at the end of stories is one way to increase the number of opportunities a child is exposed to this concept. If our goal is for a child to communicate using picture symbols then we need to stimulate their language development by providing multiple opportunities for them to experience the

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Creating Early Literacy Opportunities for Children …

47

symbols of their language. ALS, modeling the use of picture symbols, is an example of a strategy that can be used to stimulate symbol use in AAC users. As we know for typically developing children, books provide great opportunities to expand their knowledge of language and communication. Applying the principles of ALS we can use books to support the development of language and communication in children with CCN in a similar manner.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

MAKING BOOKS ACCESSIBLE FOR CHILDREN WITH COMPLEX COMMUNICATION NEEDS Imagine if you were expected to listen to a story that was presented in a language other than your own. For children with CCN that is what it is like listening to a book read to them without the use of picture symbols to support their understanding. As we adapt stories to make them more accessible to children with CCN we are making them more understandable as well. Exposing children to their language system (i.e., picture symbols) within the context of stories provides language rich models similar to those experienced by typically developing children. As you read through the suggested steps you may be thinking we are ―throwing away‖ valuable opportunities to expose children to rich vocabulary. As the child with CCN gains greater mastery of the core vocabulary, we can expand their understanding of fringe vocabulary taking into consideration the communication needs of the individual. It is important to remind ourselves that we are talking about a select group of children for whom developing the most fundamental aspects of communication poses a significant challenge. In addition to the goals discussed, our overreaching goal is to give these children repeated exposure to the symbols that comprise their language. Mastery of a strategically select set of words (i.e., core and pertinent fringe vocabulary) can provide them with a means to communicate countless messages. Remember, many of these children are emergent communicators and may remain so for an extended period of time. Their language skills are consistent with a child at the one to three word level in terms of the length of their utterances. Adapting children‘s literature utilizing core vocabulary based on the strategies of ALS….     

Provides the child multiple exposures to key vocabulary to support the acquisition of these terms into their own communication system; Increases the child‘s comprehension and familiarity with the symbols that comprise their language (Harris & Reichle, 2004); Supports the child‘s understanding of spoken language (Goossens, 1989); Increases or improves the child‘s ability to use oral language (Harris and Reichle, 2004; Romski & Sevcik, 1996); Provides the child with greater communication opportunities (Cafiero, 1998).

Multiple exposures to key vocabulary: It has been well established that children begin to use words only after ―hearing‖ the word multiple times in everyday interactions. Adapted stories provide additional opportunities for children with CCN to experience their vocabulary within the context of more naturalistic exchanges, in this case within the context of book sharing events.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Janet L. Dodd

48

Increase comprehension and familiarity with symbols: What makes core vocabulary so adaptable is that a single word can mean many different things depending on how it is used or paired with other words/symbols. Within the context of a story a child learns to use symbols to convey a variety of messages for a variety of communicative functions (e.g., to request, comment, direct the behavior of another person). For example, the child may use the term ―turn‖ to request an opportunity to request a turn (―my turn‖), the physical action of turning the page (―I want to turn page‖), requesting someone to physically turn them (―turn me‖).. The following is a list of additional examples of how a single word can be used to convey different messages serving different communicative functions. Turn Like Feel

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Go

my turn (request), turn page (direct behavior of another person) I like that (comment), like me (comment), Do you like? (ask question) I feel bad (express physical or emotional state), feel that (direct behavior), I want feel (request) You go (directing behavior), I go (request), Go away (direct behavior)

Increase Comprehension: Many children with CCN find it difficult to understand spoken language, the manner in which stories are typically presented. The approach to be described can support understanding of stories in two ways. First of all, picture symbols provide necessary visual cues that make oral language more comprehensible to the child with CCN. In addition, the manner in which we adapt the story text based on the language abilities of the child makes the language more manageable for the child to understand. It is in these ways we are able to increase a child‘s understanding of a story. Increase Oral Language: In many instances picture symbols cue children to use spoken language. For a group of children who are functionally non-verbal the visual cues of picture symbols support their output of oral language. With repetitive practice, picture symbols are gradually faded as the child uses increasingly more oral language. In cases such as these, we are able to methodically expand core vocabulary and introduce additional fringe vocabulary to expand the child‘s language system. Communicative Opportunities: Now that a story is presented in a language that is familiar to the child, meaningful opportunities to participate are now available. Step 5 provides specific examples of how to create interactive opportunities for the child to participate in book sharing experiences.

Suggested Steps Step 1: Select a Book Although most children‘s picture stories are easily adapted, it has been this author‘s experience that a story with a repetitive phrase or theme lends itself to multiple exposures of targeted vocabulary. A story that contains a repetitive phrase provides children with multiple models to see, hear, and use target vocabulary (i.e., core and fringe vocabulary specific to the story). Table 1 lists examples of popular children‘s stories that have repetitive phrases and how they are easily adapted using core vocabulary.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Creating Early Literacy Opportunities for Children …

49

Table 1. Examples of Stories with Repetitive Phrases Adapted Using Core Vocabulary Story

Repetitive Phrase

Core Vocabulary

Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown

Goodnight kittens.

Go to sleep kittens.

Who Stole the Cookie from the Cookie Jar?

Who stole the cookie from the cookie jar? Not me? Then Who? What do you see? I see purple cat looking at me. He was still hungry.

Who took the cookie? Not me? Who?

Where‘s Spot? By Eric Hill

Where‘s Spot. Not here.

Where is Spot? Not here!

From Head to Toe by Eric Carle

You do it!

You do it!

Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What do you see? By Eric Carle The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle

What do you see? I see purple cat looking at me. He feel hungry. He wanted more food.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

*Examples of core vocabulary are underlined.

Tip: Whenever possible purchase the board book version of your story as these are more sturdy and do not require much (if any) adaptations to make them accessible for children who have fine and gross motor impairments that make physically handling a book challenging. Tip: In order to ensure that your books (paperback or hard cover bound) will withstand repetitive use you may want to laminate the story pages after you reinforce them with cardstock. In order to accomplsh this you will need to purchase two copies of your story. Purchasing used versions of your story from amazon.com will keep your costs down. The Scholastic Store (scholastic.com) frequently offers popular children‘s stories at a low rate (sometimes as low as a $1).

Step 2: Write Your Story For each page or couple of pages, adapt the story using core vocabulary limiting the number of fringe vocabulary you introduce in each story. Understand that some stories may require more fringe vocabulary than others. Table 2 provides specific examples of how to adapt story text using core vocabulary. At first you may have concerns that we are limiting children‘s exposure to novel vocabulary but it is important to remember that our goal is to provide children with CCN multiple opportunities to see, hear and use core vocabulary and pertinent fringe vocabulary in multiple contexts. Tip: Grab the sticky notes! Put sticky notes on each page you want to include in your story. When you go to make your picture symbols to match the story you created it is easy to turn to each page in your story and see the picture symbols you need Tip: Don‘t forget to include ―all done‖ at the end of your story. We want to provide multiple opportunities for children to see the concept of ―all done.‖

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Janet L. Dodd

50

Table 2. Specific examples of how to adapt story text Picture Description Story Text Where is Maisy? by Lucy Cousins Text only Is Maisy hiding in the house? Picture of a house Not here Text only Is Maisy hiding in the boat? Picture of a boat Not here The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle Caterpillar looking for some food He started to look for some food. One apple

On Monday he ate through one apple but he was still hungry

Picture of chocolate cake

On Saturday he ate through one piece of cake, one ice cream cone, one pickle, one slice of swiss cheese, one slice of salami…..That night he had a stomachache!

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

From Head to Toe by Eric Carle Picture of penguin

I am a penguin and I turn my head. Can you do it?

Picture of boy

I can do it!

Picture of a giraffe‘s body

I am a giraffe and I bend my neck. Can you do it?

Giraffe‘s head and boy

I can do it!

Good Night Gorilla by Peggy Rathman Picture of Gorilla stealing keys Good night, Gorilla from security guard Picture of Gorilla using the key Good night, Lion to let the lion out of his cage. Security guard walking away

Adapted Text Where is Maisy? Not here! Where is Maisy? Not here! Caterpillar feels hungry Caterpillar wants to eat Caterpillar eats one apple Caterpillar wants more food Caterpillar feels hungry Caterpillar wants to eat more food Caterpillar feels bad

Turn my head. You do it? (or Can you do it?) I do it! (or I can do it!) Or My Turn! Bend my neck You do it? (or Can you do it?) I do it! (or I can do it!) Or My Turn! I get that! Come out, Don‘t tell

*Examples of core vocabulary are underlined.

Step 3: Select Your Picture Symbols It is important that each word is represented by its own symbol. Avoid using a single symbol to represent a phrase. ―My turn‖ is depicted with the picture symbol ―my‖ and the picture symbol representing ―turn‖ situated side by side. The reason for this is to insure that the child learns the individual identity of each word/symbol and how words can be combined with others words to convey different meanings (e.g., ―my turn‖ ―turn me‖).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Creating Early Literacy Opportunities for Children …

51

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Tip: The only exceptions to this rule are the phrases ―all done‖ and ―thank you‖ which can each be represented using a single picture symbol.

Step 4: Attach Symbols to Your Story Once you have printed out your picture symbols affix them to the pages in your story. Tip: No time to laminate? Clear packing tape works great to adhere the pictures to the pages and protects them from continual use. Be sure to leave at least a ¼ inch border around your symbols so they do not peel up. Tip: Page turners and fluffers make turning pages easier for little hands that have difficulty grasping the pages due to fine and gross motor challenges. Page turners provide children with something to grasp. Paper clips and Popsicle sticks work great for this purpose. A dot of glue from a hot glue gun or a fluff ball are examples of page fluffers that can be used to create a space between pages making it easier for the child to slip their hands in between the pages in order to turn them (Musselwhite & King-DeBaun, 1997). Step 5: Make Your Story Interactive: There are a variety of strategies that can be used to encourage children to participate in shared reading experiences. One strategy that is frequently employed by adults is to pause from time to time encouraging children to complete a sentence or recall a repetitive phrase that occurs throughout the story. This is a challenge for a child with CCN. A single message output device (e.g., BIGmack Communicator available from www.enablemart.com or www.ablenetinc.com) that is pre-recorded with the key phrase or word that frequently occurs during the story provides children with CCN a means to participate in this manner. Every time the child sees a designated picture symbol he or she activates the pre-recorded message. Another strategy used to facilitate children‘s participation in stories is asking them to identify pictures in the story or predict what a character might say or do. This too proves a challenge for children with CCN. The PenFriend (available from a variety websites including www.indepedentliving.com and www.augresources.com) is an example of a voice labeling system in which messages are pre-recorded onto self-adhesive labels that can be strategically affixed to various pages throughout the story. As appropriate, the child can be prompted to activate the message by touching the tip of the PenFriend to the label. Strategies such us these provide children with CCN opportunities to use communication in interactive types of experiences. Step 6: “Reading” the Story Once the story has been adapted to meet the needs of the child with CCN it is time to read the story to the child. It is important to remember that as we read the story to the child we point to the picture symbols and take opportunities to expand the use of language. This can be accomplished a variety of ways including modeling how to use their own

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Janet L. Dodd

52

communication system (e.g., communication boards, electronic speech generating devices, communication books) to ask and respond to questions as well as make comments among other communicative purposes appropriate to a shared reading experience. Tip: Be sure to have the story available for the child to ―read‖ on their own. Tip: Read the story multiple times. Although we as adults may get bored with reading the same story over and over children love a familiar story, The child with CCN will demonstrate greater participation in the story as their familiarity increases. Don‘t be afraid to use the same story all week or for two weeks for that matter and be sure to revisit the same story at a later date.

MORE THAN ONE WAY TO EXPRESS A SINGLE THOUGHT The communication opportunities are boundless for a child who has access to core vocabulary. There is more than one way for a child to express the desire to have a story read to them. The following are examples of how children can express their enthusiasm for stories using core vocabulary. Read to me I want read Read that to me Read it again

I like read More read Don‘t stop read(ing) Come read to me

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (n.d.). Augmentative and alternative communication. Retrieved from http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/AAC/# what_is. Banajee, M., DiCarlo, C., & Buras-Stricklin, S. (2003). Core vocabulary determination for toddlers. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 19(2), 67-73. Beukelman, D. R., & Mirenda, P. (2005). Augmentative and alternative communication: Supporting children and adults with complex communication needs. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Blischak, D. M., Lloyd, L. L., and Fuller, D. R. (1997) Terminology Issues. In L. L. Lloyd, D. R. Fuller, & H. H. Arvidson (Eds.), Augmentative and alternative communication: A handbook of principles and practices (pp. 38-47). Needham Heights, MS: Allyn and Bacon. Cafiero, J. (1998). Communication power for individuals with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 13, 113-121. Carle, E. (1969). The very hungry caterpillar. New York, NY: Philomel Books. Carle, E. (1997). From head to toe. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers. Cousins, L. (1999). Where is Maisy? Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. Goosens, C. (1989). Aided communication intervention before assessment: A case study of a child with cerebral palsy. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 5, 14-26.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Creating Early Literacy Opportunities for Children …

53

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

.

Harris, M. & Reichle, J. (2004). The impact of aided language stimulation on symbol comprehension and production in children with moderate cognitive disabilities. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 13, 155-167. Hill, E. (1980). Where‟s Spot? New York, NY: G. P. Putnam‘s Sons. Hill, K., & Romich, B. (n.d.) Core vocabulary and the AAC performance report. Augmentaitve and Alternatice Communication Institute. Retrieved from http://www. aacinstitute.org/Resources/ProductsandServices/PeRT/CoreVocabularyAndTheAACPerf ormanceReport.html. International Society for Augmentative and Alternative Communication (n.d.). What is AAC? Retrieved from http://www.isaac-online.org/en/aac/what_is.html. Light, J., Binger, C., & Kelford Smith, A. (1994). Story reading interactions between preschoolers who use AAC and their mothers. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 10, 255-268. Light, J., & Kelford-Smith, A. (1993). The home literacy experiences of preschoolers who use augmentative communication systems and their nondisabled peers. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 9, 10-25. Martin, B. (1967). Brown bear, brown bear, what do you see? New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company. Musselwhite & King-DeBaun (1997) Emergent literacy success, merging technology and whole language. Park City, UT: Creative Communicating Resources. Rathman, P. (1994). Good night, gorilla. New York, NY: G. P. Putman‘s Sons. Romski, M., A., & Sevcik, R., A. (1996). Breaking the speech barrier. Baltimore, MD:Brookes. Roth, F. P., Paul, D. R., & Pierotti, A. (2006). Emergent literacy: Early reading and writing development. Let‟s Talk. Retrieved from http://www.asha.org/public/speech/emergentliteracy.htm. Van Tatenhoven, G. M. (2005). Language functions and early generative language production. Retrieved from http://homepage.mac.com/terryjohnmick/jafw/docs/aac_docs/ NLDAAC.PDF. Wang, M. (2005). Who stole the cookie from the cookie jar? Inglewood, CA; Piggy Toes Press. Wetherby, A. M., & Prutting, C. A. (1984). Profiles of communicative and cognitive-social abilities in autistic children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 27, 364-377. Wise-Brown, M. (1947). Goodnight moon. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishing.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 6

ADDRESSING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOR IN EARLY CHILDHOOD SETTINGS Mandy Rispoli1, Wendy Machalicek1,2 and Síglia Höher Camargo1 1

2

Texas A and M University, College Station, Texas, US University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, US

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION Children with autism and other developmental disabilities often engage in challenging behaviors such as tantrums, elopement (i.e., leaving a designated area without adult supervision), aggression, and self-injury (Baghdadli, Pascal, Grisli, and Aussiloux, 2003; Conroy, Dunlap, Clarke, and Alter, 2005; Horner, Carr, Strain, Todd, and Reed, 2002; McClintock, Hall, and Oliver, 2003). While some of these behaviors are common to young typically developing children, they tend to disappear as the child grows and develops language. Unfortunately, these same behaviors tend to linger longer in children with developmental disabilities. Such behaviors may lead to decreased instructional time, placement in more restrictive settings, such as self-contained classrooms or residential placements, and loss of opportunities for social interaction (Horner, Albin, Sprague, and Todd, 2000). Historically, several hypotheses have evolved to explain why challenging behaviors occur (Emerson, 2001). One hypothesis is that challenging behaviors occur due to physiological causes, such as illness, lack of sleep, or hunger. Another hypothesis, derived from behavioral psychology, is that challenging behaviors are a form of communication and serve specific purposes, or communicative functions. Challenging behaviors are believed to be communicative in that the child communicates a desire to access something (toy or other item, activity, attention, or sensory stimulation) or a desire to avoid something (toy or other item, activity, attention, or sensory stimulation). For example, Katy is a 3-year-old girl with 1

Corresponding author: Wendy Machalicek Department of Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education. 1000 Bascom Mall, Room 415. Madison, WI 53706-1326. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: 608-320-6028.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

56

Mandy Rispoli, Wendy Machalicek and Síglia Höher Camargo

Down syndrome who attends an inclusive preschool. At the end of free play the teacher sings a transitional clean up song to prompt the children to put away their toys. Instead of cleaning up, Katy cries and drops to the floor. From a behavioral perspective, the teacher would develop a hypothesis for what Katy is communicating with her challenging behavior. In this situation, the teacher might hypothesize that Katy is communicating that she wants to keep playing with her toys. Based on this hypothesis, the teacher can develop a plan for preventing or reducing Katy‘s challenging behavior. This functional perspective of challenging behavior is the perspective that guides the research described in this chapter. For most children class wide strategies and interventions are effective in preventing and addressing challenging behaviors. Teachers may use basic classroom management strategies such as establishing and explicitly teaching children clear behavioral expectations (e.g., keep hands to self, quiet voice indoors), rewarding desired appropriate behaviors, building relationships with and among students, or teaching students age appropriate problem solving skills (Fox, Dunlap, Hemmetter, Joseph, and Strain, 2003; Stormont, Lewis, and Beckner, 2005). However, such class wide interventions may not be sufficient to reduce the serious and chronic challenging behaviors that may be exhibited by children with developmental disabilities. For this population of students individualized and often more time intensive behavior interventions based on the principles of applied behavior analysis are needed. To effectively address challenging behaviors in this population, teachers and service providers should first conduct a functional behavior assessment (FBA; Lewis and Sugai, 1999; Sugai et al., 2000). A FBA is comprised of smaller assessments designed to gather information in order to determine why a particular challenging behavior is occurring. An FBA consists of three components: (a) indirect assessments such as parent/teacher interviews and rating scales, (b) direct assessments such as observing the child during problematic and successful situations and collecting antecedent-behavior-consequence, or ABC data, and in some cases, (c) an experimental functional analysis may be conducted by a professional (board certified behavior analyst; BCBA, or licensed school psychologist) with extensive training in this procedure. (O‘Neill et al., 1997; O‘Neill, Vaughn, & Dunlap, 1998). Once an FBA is completed, the results are used to inform the development of an individualized behavior intervention plan (BIP). The BIP should contain measureable goals specifying what the child will learn to do. These goals should be written to focus on the positive (what we want the child to do) instead of the negative (what we don‘t want a child to do). The BIP should also contain specific strategies for preventing challenging behaviors as well as detailed procedures for what to do in the case that challenging behavior does occur. Finally, procedures for monitoring the child‘s progress and teacher‘s implementation of the plan should be specified. Although a thorough discussion of FBA procedures and the development of an individualized BIP are beyond the scope of this chapter, a number of excellent resources exist for further information about the development of individualized BIPs (Bambera and Kern, 2005; Knoster and McCurdy, 2002; Lucyshyn, Homer, and Dunlap, 2002; Sigafoos, Arthur, and O‘Reilly, 2003). The purpose of the remainder of this chapter is to familiarize the reader with classroom-based strategies for addressing challenging behavior that necessitates the development of an individualized BIP.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Addressing Challenging Behavior in Early Childhood Settings

57

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTERVENTIONS TO DECREASE CHALLENGING BEHAVIOR IN EARLY CHILDHOOD SETTINGS In this section we provide a selective review of the different types of intervention strategies that have been used to decrease challenging behavior for children with developmental disabilities in early childhood settings. In order to identify research-based practices, we reviewed studies published between1995 and 2010 using systematic searches of three electronic databases: Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), Medline, and PsychINFO. In all three databases, combinations of the terms ―early childhood‖, ―disability,‖ ―autism,‖ ―developmental disability,‖ ―problem behavior‖ and, ―challenging behavior‖ were inserted into the Keywords fields. To be included in this review, each study had to meet the following five criteria: (a) publication in a peer reviewed journal between 1995 and 2010; (b) include at least one participant ages 2–9 years of age with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder, developmental disability, or intellectual disability; (c) utilize a single-subject research design; (d) apply an intervention in an effort to reduce challenging behavior; and (e) take place within the context of a classroom. Although social stories and video modeling are commonly utilized strategies to teach social skills and reduce challenging behavior, studies implementing these strategies were not included in the current review due to recent comprehensive reviews of this literature (see Ali & Frederickson, 2006; Reynhout & Carter, 2006). Four general categories of intervention were identified in our review of the literature. These categories include antecedent interventions, functional communication training, instruction, and reinforcement procedures. The 33 studies reviewed are grouped according to these four intervention categories in Table 1. Certainty of evidence provided by each study was described as either inconclusive or conclusive according to procedures described by Millar, Light, and Schlosser (2006). In the following sub-sections we describe in detail each of these four general types of interventions, but the reader may find it helpful to refer back to Table 1 for additional information.

Antecedent Interventions Antecedent interventions focus on the prevention of challenging behaviors. Some examples of antecedent interventions include altering the environment to remove triggers for challenging behavior, reducing the child‘s motivation to engage in such behaviors, or altering routines/schedules to prevent challenging behavior from occurring (Bambera and Kern, 2005). Antecedent interventions include using visual cues to signal when the child may and may not engage in a specific behavior (e.g., Rapp et al., 2009), and activity schedules/transition cues (e.g., Massey & Wheeler, 2000). Visual cues capitalize on the influence that environmental stimuli have on behaviors. Visual cues are all around us. Consider airplane passengers who look to the light above their seat to notify them when they may unfasten their seatbelt. The lighted picture of the unfastened seatbelt is a visual cue to passengers that they may engage in a specific behavior (i.e., unfastening their seatbelt). Visual cues can also be used in the classroom to remind children of behavioral expectations, thus increasing the likelihood of appropriate behavior and decreasing challenging behavior

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

58

Mandy Rispoli, Wendy Machalicek and Síglia Höher Camargo

For example, a teacher may hold her finger to her lips to signal that it is time for students to be quiet. Visual cues may be appealing to teachers because they usually require only minor adjustments to classroom routines or instruction (Conroy et al., 2005). Another means of reducing challenging behavior is through the use of activity schedules. Activity schedules are visual representations of events or activities, similar to a to-do list. In early childhood settings, activity schedules usually consist of pictures (either photographs or line drawings) representing various activities. However, actual objects or parts of objects may take the place of pictures or be added to pictures for children with visual impairments. To promote literacy awareness, activity schedules should read from left to right. A child may be directed to his or her personal activity schedule and told what activity will take place next, or asked to state the next activity themselves. The child then manipulates the schedule by removing the picture of the activity just completed and placing it in a ―finished‖ section or by removing the first or next picture and taking the picture with them to that activity (e.g., Dooley et al., 2001; Machalicek, Shogren, Lang, Rispoli, O‘Reilly, Franco, & Sigafoos, 2009). Of the articles reviewed for this chapter, ten implemented antecedent interventions (Cale, Carr, Blakeley-Smith, & Owen-DeSchryver, 2009; Conroy, Asmus, Sellers, and Ladwig, 2005; Dooley, Wilczenski, & Torem, 2001; Frea, Arnold, Vittimberga, and Koegel, 2001; Machalicek et al., 2009; Massey & Wheeler, 2000; Prupas and Reid, 2001; Rapp, Patel, Ghezzi, O'Flaherty, & Titterington, 2009; Reichle, Johnson, Monn, & Harris, 2010; Schmit, Alper, Raschke, & Ryndak, 2000).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Example from Research Machalicek et al. (2009) taught classroom teachers to implement an activity schedule on the playground with two boys with autism. The boys were ages 6 and 7 years of age and engaged in challenging behaviors such as throwing rocks, screaming, hand flapping, eating pebbles on the ground, and elopement (running out of the supervised playground area) during recess. To create the activity schedule, the teachers took color photographs of eight playground activities (e.g., slide, monkey bars, swings). One large photograph of the playground activity was attached to the corresponding playground equipment. The activity schedule consisted of a portable clipboard containing smaller photographs of each playground activity and 4 outlined square labeled 1 through 4 on the bottom of the clipboard. Prior to recess, the teacher placed 4 photographs of playground activities on each child‘s clipboard. At the beginning of recess, the teacher called the each of the participants over one at a time and asked them to review their schedule. The teacher asked each child, ―What are you going to play today?‖. Using graduated guidance, the teacher prompted the child to point to and say each playground activity, reading from left to right. The child was then prompted to remove the photograph of the first activity, match it to the corresponding larger picture attached to that piece of playground equipment, and play in the designated area. After 2-min of playing, the teacher praised the child and delivered a small edible. Then the teacher prompted the child to check his schedule. The child then selected the next picture on the schedule, matched it to the corresponding playground equipment picture and began playing on that equipment. These procedures were repeated until the child had played for 2-min on each piece of equipment according to his activity schedule. Results showed that the children

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Addressing Challenging Behavior in Early Childhood Settings

59

engaged in less challenging behavior and more appropriate recess play when the activity schedule intervention was in place. Activity schedules may be especially helpful for children since a common trigger for challenging behavior in children with developmental disabilities is the cessation of a preferred activity or a change in routine (e.g., Doss & Reichle, 1991; Schreibman, 1988). Activity schedules provide children with foreshadowing of events in the near future, thus decreasing the potential for challenging behavior occasioned by the abrupt interruption of a favorite activity. Such transitions may be especially problematic for children with autism spectrum disorders (American Psychiatric Association, DSM-IV). Additionally, antecedent interventions such as visual cues and activity schedules focus on the prevention of challenging behavior and not on punishment procedures. This prevention focus may be especially important since the use of punishment has been linked to several negative side effects including increased aggression and worsened mental health outcomes for children (Gershoff, 2002; Taylor, Manganello, Lee, & Rice, 2010).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Functional Communication Training One intervention category with substantial research support for children with developmental disabilities is functional communication training (FCT) (Durand & Merges, 2001; Mancil, 2006; Tiger, Hanley, & Bruzek, 2008). FCT involves a two-step process consisting of a functional behavior assessment (FBA) followed by selecting and teaching a socially appropriate replacement communication behavior (Carr & Durand, 1985). First, an FBA is completed to determine the purpose, or function of the child‘s challenging behavior. For example, the behavior may occur to obtain attention, escape task demands, or to obtain a preferred object. Once the behavior‘s function is determined the child is taught a socially appropriate communication response that matches the function of the challenging behavior. In other words, the alternative communication response produces the same consequence, or reinforcement, as that obtained by the challenging behavior (Durand & Carr, 1992). The socially appropriate alternative communication response can take a variety of forms including vocalizations, manual sign, communication boards, words or picture cards, gestures, or speech generating devices. Consider a child with limited communication skills who hits his or her peers to obtain teacher attention. A socially appropriate replacement behavior might be to hand teachers a picture card that reads ―Come play with me.‖ For the child to communicate using the alternative response, this response must be at least as efficient and effective as the challenging behavior (e.g., Richman, Wacker, & Winborn, 2001). If the replacement behavior requires more effort, results in less reinforcement, or less immediate reinforcement than the challenging behavior, then the child will likely continue using the challenging behavior (e.g., Horner & Day, 1991; Peck et al., 1996). Selecting the replacement communication response should be based on the child‘s ability to engage in this response, the ease of teaching the response, and the likelihood that the response will lead to reinforcement (Dunlap & Duda, 2005; Horner & Day, 1001; Mancil, 2006). FCT interventions typically involve several behavior change strategies. First the child must be taught to use the alternative communication response. This is typically accomplished by prompting, modeling, and reinforcement contingent on use of the alternative

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

60

Mandy Rispoli, Wendy Machalicek and Síglia Höher Camargo

communication response. Next, additional strategies to decrease the challenging behavior, such as extinction or response blocking may be implemented (e.g., Jarmolowicz, et al. 2009). Extinction involves withholding reinforcement for challenging behavior while response blocking involves physically preventing the child from engaging in the challenging behavior. If a child‘s behavior were maintained by access to attention, then extinction would consist of ensuring that the child does not receive attention following challenging behavior. Response blocking may involve a teacher standing in a doorway to prevent a child from running out the door during instructional activities. Of the studies reviewed here, ten implemented FCT (Blair, Umbreit, Dunlap, and Gilsoon, 2007; Buckley & Newchok, 2005; Braithwaite & Richdale, 2000; Davis et al., 2009; Durand, 1999; Gibson, Pennington, Stenhoff, & Hopper, 2010; Langdon & Carr, 2008; Schindler & Horner, 2005; Sigafoos & Meikle, 1996; Volkert, Lerman, Call, & Trosclair-Lasserre, 2009).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Example from Research Braithwaite and Richdale (2000) evaluated the use of FCT on self-injury and aggression for a 7-year-old boy diagnosed with autism and intellectual disability. A prior FBA suggested that the child‘s challenging behaviors were maintained by access to preferred toys and escape from difficult tasks. These behaviors occurred during one-on-one teaching sessions in the child‘s self-contained early childhood classroom and in an inclusive classroom setting. Because the child‘s behavior was maintained by two functions (i.e., access to toys and escape from difficult tasks) FCT was implemented for each function. First, the child was taught to use a phrase ―I want (toy name), please‖ as an alternative to challenging behavior. During training, the therapist provided the child with praise and access to the requested toy following his use of the target phrase. If he engaged in challenging behavior, the therapist did not praise him or give him access to the toy, but instead modeled the correct phrase. In the last phase of the study the child was taught to tolerate a 5 s. delay between using the target phrase and accessing the toy. FCT training sessions to match the escape function of the child‘s challenging behavior consisted of the same procedures, but the child was taught to use the phrase ―I need help, please‖ when presented with a difficult task. Results showed that the child‘s use of the target phrase for both access and escape functions increased from 0% to a mean of 96% of trials while his challenging behavior decreased from 94% to 0% of trials by the end of the study. In both the access and escape interventions, the child was able to tolerate a brief delay to reinforcement without engaging in challenging behavior. This study demonstrates that FCT can be used for different functions of behavior simultaneously and can be combined with building in tolerance for delay to reinforcement. FCT may be an especially valuable tool for early childhood educators of students with autism and related developmental disabilities. Children with developmental disabilities frequently have deficits in appropriate communication skills and as a result may be likely to communicate using inappropriate, or challenging behaviors (Baker, Blacher, Crnic, & Edelbrock, 2002). Since FCT relies on careful assessment of the reasons or function of a child‘s challenging behavior and ensures that a child is still obtaining highly preferred reinforcement (e.g., access to adult attention) by asking in a socially appropriate way, reductions in challenging behavior are more likely to maintain over time. Moreover, by

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Addressing Challenging Behavior in Early Childhood Settings

61

teaching an appropriate alternative communication response, teachers may both improve a child‘s communication skills and reduce challenging behavior.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Instruction A common reason that children engage in challenging behavior is to escape from an instructional task. For this reason, FBAs seek to identify circumstances associated with the occurrence and nonoccurrence of challenging behavior. Intervention strategies to address escape maintained challenging behavior often focus on changing the instructional context that is associated with instances of challenging behavior and incorporating instruction during times associated with low levels of challenging behavior (Wolery and Winterling, 1997). Teachers have several options for changing the instructional context including (a) altering the instructional task by modifying materials, curriculum, or allowing the child to choose when, how, where, or with whom they complete the task, (b) altering the way in which instruction is delivered, or (c) teaching the child new skills that will allow them to participate in instructional activities with less difficulty. By modifying materials and or curriculum, teachers may temporarily improve child interest and lesson the difficulty of the task, thus improving the child‘s motivation to participate in instructional activities and to engage in appropriate behaviors. Similarly, teachers may decrease child resistance to participating in instruction by incorporating child preferences (e.g., if a child loves dinosaurs, incorporate this interest into activities that usually occasion challenging behavior). Teachers may also allow the child to choose some aspect of how instruction will be completed (e.g., Schilling and Schwartz, 2004). For instance, a teacher may allow a child to choose where instruction will take place (e.g., Time to read. Do you want to sit at your desk or in the reading corner?), what materials they will use (e.g., Do you want to write with a pencil or a marker?), when they will complete activity (e.g., I need you to complete the math activity. Before or after lunch?), or with whom they will work (e.g., Do you want to work on handwriting with me or Ms. Jones?). Teachers may also change instructional grouping to increase or decrease teacher to student ratio (e.g., Graff et al., 1998) or simply change physical aspects of the environment such as the amount of ambient noise (e.g., Luiselli et al., 2005), or providing the child with alternative seating (Schilling & Schwartz, 2004). Teachers may also alter the manner in which instruction is delivered to decrease task difficulty and thus decrease a child‘s motivation to engage in challenging behavior to escape the task. For instance, if a FBA indicates that challenging behavior is more likely when difficult tasks are presented in quick succession, a teacher might embed difficult tasks in between mastered skills or during a highly preferred activity instead (e.g., Machalicek et al., 2009). Over time the teacher may systematically reintroduce more difficult tasks. A teacher may also decrease the difficulty of a task by providing additional materials, prompts or other supports (e.g., Heckaman et al., 1998; McComas et al., 2000). To implement this strategy, a teacher must first identify what aspects of instructional situations trigger challenging behavior. Then, he or she can focus on ways in which the particular aspect can be altered to reduce the difficulty or aversiveness of the task. The benefits of modifying instruction is that such strategies often require little preparation time, can be easily incorporated throughout the school day, and provide the child with continued opportunities to participate in instruction. Alternatively, teachers should also

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

62

Mandy Rispoli, Wendy Machalicek and Síglia Höher Camargo

consider the possibility that a child may not be aware of the appropriate response and teaching the child the correct response may be necessary to reduce challenging behavior (cf., Ricciardi et al., 2003). By teaching the child a new behavior, teachers will expand the number of appropriate behaviors in a child‘s repertoire that may elicit reinforcement and the child may be less motivated to engage in challenging behavior to obtain reinforcement. In the current review, eight studies were identified that taught new skills or modified existing instruction in an effort to decrease challenging behavior (Blakeley-Smith et al., 2009; Graff et al., 1998; Heckaman et al., 1998; Luiselli et al., 2007; Machalicek et al., 2009; McComas et al., 2000; Ricciardi et al., 2003; Schilling and Schwartz, 2004).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Example from Research Blakeley-Smith and colleagues (2009) evaluated the effects of individualized curricular modifications on the challenging behavior and completion of motor and academic tasks for 3 preschool age children with autism spectrum disorders. Based on occupational therapist, school psychologist, teacher, and parent reports, a difficult motor task (i.e., handwriting) was selected for each child to complete during baseline and intervention phases of the study. During baseline assessment, the interventionist verbally prompted the child to complete the first or next step (e.g., Write the letter b) of the targeted handwriting task (e.g., writing their first name), but did not provide the child with additional assistance or prompts. The interventionist continued to prompt the child to complete the first or next step once every 60 s. until the child had completed the step, engaged in challenging behavior, or 5 min. had passed since the initial verbal prompt. During baseline, each child engaged in challenging behavior and demonstrated difficulty writing one or more letters. Based on prior task analysis to identify the particular steps that required environmental modification, each child‘s handwriting task was modified (i.e., dotted out individual letters to trace) to decrease task difficulty. Results indicated that the simple curricular modifications decreased challenging behavior during handwriting for all three children and the percentage of steps completed correctly improved.

Reinforcement Procedures Another commonly used and effective strategy for decreasing challenging behavior is to modify the consequences that are delivered when children engage in challenging behavior or appropriate behavior (e.g., praise for sitting quietly during church, parent ignores tantrum on way through check out line at grocery store). Scolding a child or removing a demanding task often inadvertently reinforces challenging behavior. One way of altering consequences to decrease challenging behavior is to differentially reinforce appropriate behavior while not responding to challenging behavior. For example, if a child engages in hand flapping, an appropriate differential reinforcement intervention would be as follows: Teacher provides periodic (e.g., once every minute) attention in the form of verbal praise (―You are playing so nicely!‖) and positive touch (e.g., a brief hug) when child is playing or working appropriately. If challenging behavior occurs, the teacher would turn away briefly, but does not otherwise respond to challenging behavior. Such interventions often seek to differentially reinforce

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Addressing Challenging Behavior in Early Childhood Settings

63

appropriate behavior that is incompatible with challenging behavior. Sometimes this requires teaching the child a new, socially appropriate way to obtain enjoyment and teacher attention, such as age-appropriate play skills. Rather than paying attention to a child when they flap their hands, a teacher might instead reinforce the child for playing with toys or coloring in a coloring book, because these activities cannot be completed at the same time that the child is engaging in hand flapping (e.g., Nuzzolo-Gomez et al., 2002). Differential reinforcement is often more effective in reducing challenging behavior if reinforcement is provided in the form of the social consequence (e.g., attention, preferred item or activity, escape from demands, sensory stimulation) that maintains the child‘s challenging behavior (e.g., Lang et al., 2010). Consider the child who screams to obtain teacher attention. An effective intervention may include providing the child with regular teacher attention throughout the day, but withholding attention if the child screams. In this review, five studies implementing reinforcement procedures to decrease challenging behavior were identified (Buckley, Strunck, and Newchok, 2005; Lang et al. 2010; Nuzzolo-Gomez, Leonard, Ortiz, Rivera, and Greer, 2002; Perrin, Perrin, Hill, and DiNovi, 2008; Taylor, Hoch, and Weissman, 2005).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Example from Research Taylor and colleagues (2005) compared the effects of two types of reinforcement schedules on the automatically reinforced vocal stereotypy of a 6 year old girl with autism. Prior to intervention, Mary engaged in high rates of vocal stereotypy (e.g., humming, delayed echolalia) that disrupted teacher attempts at instruction and her ability to interact with peers. An experimental functional analysis was implemented to determine the social consequences maintaining her challenging behavior and a preference assessment was implemented to identify toys that could be used as reinforcers for appropriate vocalizations. Additionally, the researchers implemented an antecedent analysis to determine whether vocal stereotypy was more prevalent when noise-making toys (e.g., electronic keyboard) were freely available. The results of the functional analysis and antecedent analysis indicated that Mary‘s vocal stereotypy was maintained by access to sensory stimulation and that vocal stereotypy was more prevalent when she was playing with non-auditory toys and did not have access to toys that made noise. Following assessment, two treatments (i.e., fixed time reinforcement and differential reinforcement of other behavior; DRO) were implemented in an alternating fashion to determine which treatment was most effective at decreasing vocal stereotypy. During fixed time reinforcement Mary was free to play with an assortment of non-auditory toys, but a timer was set at the beginning of each session to mark the delivery of reinforcement by the researcher. Once every minute, the researcher provided Mary with brief (30 s.) access to noise-making toys. At the end of the 30 s., the researcher removed the noise-making toys and told her to play with the non-auditory toys. During sessions, the researcher did not respond to any instances of vocal stereotypy. These procedures were repeated throughout the 10 min. intervention session. Similarly, during the 10 min. DRO treatment Mary could play with the non-auditory toys, but at the beginning of each session, the researcher said, ―If you play quietly, when the timer rings, you can play with the music toys‖. A card with the word ―Quiet‖ on it was placed on the timer where Mary could see it and the timer was set to ring once every minute. If Mary

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

64

Mandy Rispoli, Wendy Machalicek and Síglia Höher Camargo

engaged in vocal stereotypy during the 1 min. interval, the researcher corrected her (i.e., No, that‟s not quiet, I have to reset your timer) and reset the timer. If Mary did not engage in vocal stereotypy during the entire 1 min. interval, the researcher praised her and provided Mary with brief (30 s.) access to noise-making toys. This process was repeated throughout the intervention session. Eventually, the interval was increased by 1 min. intervals and paired with a token economy until Mary was playing quietly for 5 min. at a time before gaining access to the noise-making toys. For each minute of quiet play Mary earned 1 sticker for her token board and when she had earned all required tokens she was given access to the noisemaking toys for 30 s. Once Mary had reached 5 min. of quiet play the same DRO schedule was implemented during regular instructional activities. The results indicated that the fixed time reinforcement schedule was not effective, but the DRO schedule was effective in reducing vocal stereotypy in the classroom.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

SUMMARY The purpose of this chapter was to orient practitioners to various research-based strategies to reduce challenging behavior for young children with disabilities. Four research based intervention categories were reviewed: antecedent interventions, FCT, instruction, and reinforcement procedures. Although each type of intervention strategy may result in reduced challenging behavior and improved adaptive skills, there are several issues that teachers and other service providers should take into consideration when implementing any intervention strategy to decrease challenging behavior. First, before a teacher can select the most appropriate intervention, the child‘s behavior must be assessed using a FBA. A FBA can help determine the behavior‘s function and what events or aspects of the environment might trigger challenging behavior. A completed FBA will assist the teacher in determining the best ways to alter the environment to remove or reduce the effects these triggers. Intervention strategies are more effective in reducing challenging behavior when they are based on a prior FBA and address the function of a child‘s challenging behavior. Second, while each intervention category was described separately in this chapter, it is important to note that in some cases, a child‘s challenging behavior may necessitate the combined use of strategies (e.g. reinforcement procedures and an activity schedule) Finally, since challenging behavior is often a serious and persistent problem for children with developmental disabilities, teachers may find that the efficacy of intervention strategies may decrease over time as the child grows older, and/or variables in the environment change. To effectively address challenging behavior, additional assessment and re-evaluation of behavior support plans may be needed on an ongoing basis.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Addressing Challenging Behavior in Early Childhood Settings

65

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES Ali, S., and Frederickson, N. (2006). Investigating the evidence base of social stories. Educational Psychology in Practice, 22, 355-377. Baghdadli, A., Pascal, C., Grisli, S., and Aussiloux, C. (2003). Risk factors for self-injurious behaviours among 222 young children with autistic disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47, 622-627. Baker, B. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K. A, and Edelbrock, C. (2002). Behavior problems and parenting stress in families of three-year-old children with and without developmental delays. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 107, 433-444. Bambera, L., and Kern, L. (2005). Individualized Supports for Students with Problem Behaviors. NY: The Guilford Press. Blair, K., Umbreit, J., Dunlap, G., and Gilsoon, J. (2007). Promoting inclusion and peer participation through assessment-based intervention. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27(3), 134-147 Blakeley-Smith, A., Carr, E. G., Cale, S. I., and Owen-DeSchryver, J. S. (2009). Environmental fit: A model for assessing and treating problem behavior associated with curricular difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 24(3), 131-145. Braithwaite, K., and Richdale, A. (2000). Functional communication training to replace challenging behaviors across two behavioral outcomes. Behavioral Interventions, 15 (1), 21-36. Buckley, S., Strunck, P., and Newchok, D. (2005). A comparison of two multicomponent procedures to increase food consumption. Behavioral Interventions, 20(2), 139-146. Buckley, S.D., and Newchok, D. K (2005). Differential impact of response effort within a response chain on use of mands in a student with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 26(1), 77-85. Cale, S. I., Carr, E.G., Blakeley-Smith, A., and Owen-DeSchryver, J.S. (2009). Context-based assessment and intervention for problem behavior in children with autism spectrum disorder. Behavior Modification, 33(6), 707-742. Carr, E. G., and Durand, V. M. (1985). Reducing behavior problems through functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 111–126. Conroy, M., Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., and Alter, P. (2005). A descriptive analysis of positive behavior intervention research with young children with challenging behavior. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 25, 157-166. Davis, T. N., O‘Reilly, M. F., Kang, S., Rispoli, R., Lang, R. B., Machalicek, W., Chan, J. M., Lancioni, G., and Sigafoos, J. (2009). Impact of presession access to toys maintaining challenging behavior on functional communication training: A single case study. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 21, 515–521. Dooley, P., Wilczenski, F., and Torem, C. (2001). Using an activity schedule to smooth school transitions. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3(1), 57–61. Doss, L. S., and Reichle, J. (1991). Replacing excess behavior with an initial communicative repertoire. In J. Reichle, J. York, and J. Sigafoos (Eds). Implementing Augmentative and Alternative Communication:Strategies for Learners with Severe Disabilities (pp. 215– 237). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

66

Mandy Rispoli, Wendy Machalicek and Síglia Höher Camargo

Dunlap, G., and Duda, M. (2005). Using functional communication training to replace challenging behavior. What Works Brief. Retrieved March 10, 2005, from http://www. csefel.uiuc.edu/whatworks.html. Durand, M., and Merges, E. (2001). Functional communication training: A contemporary behavior analytic intervention for problem behaviors. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16(2), 110-119. Durand, M. (1999). Functional communication training using assistive devices: Recruiting natural communities of reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3(3), 247– 267. Durand, V. M., and Carr, E. G. (1992). An analysis of maintenance following functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(4), 777-794. Emerson, E. (2001). Challenging Behaviour: Analysis and Intervention in People with Severe Intellectual Disabilities. (2nd ed). London: Cambridge University Press. Frea, W., Arnold, C., Vittimberga, G., and Koegel, R. (2001). A demonstration of the effects of augmentative communication on the extreme aggressive behavior of a child with autism within an integrated preschool setting. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3(4), 194-198. Fox, L., Dunlap, G., Hemmeter, M. L., Joseph, G. E., and Strain, P. S. (2003). The teaching pyramid: A model for supporting social competence and preventing challenging behavior in young children. Young Children, 58, 48–52. Gershoff, E.T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 539579. Gibson, J. L., Pennington, R. C., Stenhoff, D. M., and Hopper, J. S. (2010). Using desktop videoconferencing to deliver interventions to a preschool student with autism. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 29 (4), 214 -225 Graff, R., Green, G., and Libby, M. (1998). Effects of two levels of treatment intensity on a young child with severe disabilities. Behavioral Interventions, 13(1), 21-41. Heckaman, K., Alber, S., Hooper, S., and Heward,W. (1998). A comparison of least-to-most prompts and progressive time delay on the disruptive behavior of students with autism. Journal of Behavioral Education, 8(2), 171–201. Horner, R. H., Albin, R. W., Sprague, J. R., and Todd, A. W. (2000). Positive behavior support. In M. E. Snell and F. Brown (Eds.), Instruction of Students with Severe Disabilities (5th ed) (pp. 207-243). Upper Saddle River: NJ: Merrill. Horner, R., Carr, E., Strain, P., Todd, A., and Reed, H. (2002). Problem behavior interventions for young children with autism: A research synthesis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 423-446. Jarmolowicz, D., DeLeon, I., and Kuhn, S. (2009). Functional communication during signaled reinforcement and/or extinction. Behavioral Interventions, 24(4), 265-273. Kozlowski, A., Wood, L., Gilligan, K., and Luiselli, J. K. (2009). Effects of nonverbal social disapproval on attention-maintained spitting and disruptive vocalizing in a child with autism. Clinical Case Studies, 8(4), 309-316. Knoster, T., and McCurdy, B. (2002). Best practices in functional behavioral assessment for designing individualized student programs. In A. Thomas and J. Grimes (Eds.), Best Practices in School Psychology IV (pp. 1007-1028). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Addressing Challenging Behavior in Early Childhood Settings

67

Lang, R. B., Davis, T.N., O‘Reilly, M.F., Machalicek, W., Rispoli, M. J., Sigafoos, J., Lancioni, G., and Regester, A. (2010). Functional analysis and treatment of elopement across two school settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(1), 113-118. Langdon, N. A, and Carr, E. G. (2008). Functional analysis of precursors for serious problem behavior and related intervention. Behavior Modification, 32(6), 804-827. Lewis, T. J., and Sugai, G. (1999). Effective behavior support: A systems approach to proactive schoolwide management. Focus on Exceptional Children, 31, 1–24. Loftin, R., Odom, S., and Lantz, J. (2008). Social interaction and repetitive motor behaviors. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(6), 1124-1135. Lucyshyn, J. M., Homer, R. H., and Dunlap, G. (2002). Families and Positive Behavior Support: Addressing Problem Behavior in Family Contexts. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. Luiselli, J. K., Cochran, M. L., and Huber, S. A. (2005). Effects of otitis media on a child with autism receiving behavioral intervention for self-injury. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 27 (2), 51 -56. Machalicek, W. et al. (2009). Using videoconferencing to conduct functional analysis of challenging behavior and develop classroom behavioral support plans for students with autism. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 4 (2), 207-217. Machalicek, W., Shogren, K., Lang, R., Rispoli, M, O‘ Reilly, M. F., Franco, J. H., and Sigafoos, J. (2009). Increasing play and decreasing the challenging behavior of children with autism during recess with activity schedules and task correspondence training. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 3 (2), 547-555. Mancil, G.R. (2006). Functional communication training: A review of the literature related to children with autism. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 41, 213224. Massey, N., and Wheeler, J. (2000). Acquisition and generalization of activity schedules and their effects on task engagement in a young child with autism in an inclusive pre-school classroom. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 35 (3), 326–333. McClintock, K., Hall, S., and Oliver, C. (2003). Risk markers associated with challenging behaviors in people with intellectual disabilities: A meta-analytic study. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47, 405-416. McComas, J., Hoch, H., Paone, D., and El-Roy, D. (2000). Escape behavior during academic tasks: a preliminary analysis of idiosyncratic establishing operations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33 (4), 479-93. Millar, D.C., Light, J.C., and Schlosser, R.W. (2006). The impact of augmentative and alternative communication intervention on the speech production of individuals with developmental disabilities: A research review. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49, 248-264. Mirenda, P. (1997). Supporting individuals with challenging behavior through functional communication training and AAC: Research review. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 13, 207-225. Mruzek, D., Cohen, C., and Smith, T. (2007). Contingency contracting with students with autism spectrum disorders in a public school setting. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 19 (2), 103-114.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

68

Mandy Rispoli, Wendy Machalicek and Síglia Höher Camargo

Nuzzolo-Gomez, R., Leonard, M., Ortiz, E., Rivera, C.,and Greer, D. (2002). Teaching children with autism to prefer books or toys over stereotypy or passivity. Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions, 4 (2), 80–87. O‘Neill, R. E., Horner, R. H., Albin, R.W., Storey, K., Sprague, J. R., and Newton, J. S. (1997). Functional Assessment of Problem Behavior: A Practical Assessment Guide. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. O‘Neill, R. E., Vaughn, B. J., and Dunlap, G. (1998). Comprehensive behavioral support: Assessment issues and strategies. In A. M.Wetherby, S. F.Warren, and J. Reichle (Eds.), Transitions in Prelinguistic Communication. (pp. 313–341). Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.. O'Reilly, M., Lang, R., Davis, T., Rispoli, M., Machalicek, W., Sigafoos, J., Lancioni, G., and Didden, R. (2009). A systematic examination of different parameters of presession exposure to tangible stimuli that maintain problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42 (4), 773-783. Peck, S. M., Wacker, D. P., Berg, W. K., Cooper, L. J., Brown, K. A., Richman, D., et al. (1996). Choicemaking treatment of young children‘s severe behavior problems. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 263–290. Perrin, C., Perrin, S., Hill, E., and DiNovi, K. (2008). Brief functional analysis and treatment of elopement in preschoolers with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 23 (2), 87-95. Prupas, A., and Reid, G. (2001). Effects of exercise frequency on stereotypic behaviors of children with developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 36 (2), 196-206. Rapp, J., Patel, M., Ghezzi, P., O'Flaherty, C., and Titterington, C. (2009). Establishing stimulus control of vocal stereotypy displayed by young children with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 24 (2), 85-105. Reichle, J., Johnson, L., Monn, E., and Harris, M. (2010). Task engagement and escape maintained challenging behavior: Differential effects of general and explicit cues when implementing a signaled delay in the delivery of reinforcement. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40 (6), 709 -720. Reynhout, G., and Carter, M. (2006). Social stories™ for children with disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 445-469. Ricciardi, J.N., Luiselli, J. K., Terrill, S., and Reardon, K. (2003). Alternative response training with contingent practice as intervention for pica in a school setting. Behavioral Interventions, 18 (3), 219-226. Richman, D. M., Wacker, D. P., and Winborn, L. (2001). Response efficiency during functional communication training: Effects of effort on response allocation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 73–76. Schilling, D., and Schwartz, I. (2004). Alternative seating for young children with autism spectrum disorder: Effects on classroom behavior. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34 (4), 423–432. Schindler, H. R., and Horner, R. H. (2005). Generalized reduction of problem behavior of young children with autism: building trans- situational interventions. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 110 (1), 36-47. Schmit, J., Alper, S., Raschke, D., and Ryndak, D. (2000). Effects of using a photographic cueing package during routine school transitions with a child who has autism. Mental Retardation, 38 (2), 131–137.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Addressing Challenging Behavior in Early Childhood Settings

69

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Schreibman, L. E. (1988). Autism. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Sigafoos, J., Arthur, M., and O‘Reilly, M.F. (2003). Challenging Behavior and Developmental Disability. Philadelphia: Whurr Publishers. Sigafoos, J., and Meikle, B. (1996). Functional communication training for the treatment of multiply determined challenging behavior in two boys with autism. Behavior Modification, 20 (1), 60-84. Stormont, M., Lewis, T. J., and Beckner, R. (2005). Positive behavior support systems: Applying key features in preschool settings. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(6), 42– 49. Sugai, G., Horner, R. H., Dunlap, G., Hieneman, M., Lewis, T. J., Nelson, C. M., et al. (2000). Applying positive behavior support and functional behavioral assessment in schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2, 131–143. Taylor, C.A., Manganello, J.A., Lee, S.J., and Rice, J.C. (2010). Mothers‘ spanking of 3-yearold children and subsequent risk of children‘s aggressive behavior. Pediatrics, 125, 10571065. Taylor, B., Hoch, H., and Weissman, M. (2005). The analysis and treatment of vocal stereotypy in a child with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 20 (4), 239-253. Tiger, J.H., Hanley, G.P., and Bruzek, J. (2008). Functional communication training: A review and practical guide. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1(1), 16-23. Wacker, D. P., Berg, W. K., Harding, J. W., Derby, K. M., Asmus, J. M., and Healy, A. (1998). Evaluation and long-term treatment of aberrant behavior displayed by young children with disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 19, 260– 266. Wolery, M., and Winterling, V. (1997). Curricular approaches to controlling severe behavior problems. (pp. 87-120). In Prevention and Treatment of Severe Behavior Problems: Models and Methods in Developmental Disabilities. N.N. Singh (Ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brookes/Cole Publishing Co.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 7

EARLY INTERVENTION SERVICES AND PART C OF IDEA N. Jennella Couch - Freudenburg* Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, US

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The education of all children, regardless of background or disability . . . must always be a national priority President George W. Bush, Executive Order 13227

The IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) is a federal law that was passed to provide states and territories with federal requirements for providing services to children who meet specific eligibility criteria. Both Part B and Part C of IDEA specify requirements for states to refer, screen, evaluate, and identify children who are eligible for services. Part B requires states to have policies and procedures in place to ―ensure that all children with disabilities, regardless of the severity of their disability, are identified, located, and evaluated‖ (NECTAC, 2007, p. 1). Part C requires each state to implement a comprehensive ―child find system‖ in order to find children ages birth to age three as early as possible. This comprehensive system must address 6 essential components, according to NECTAC (2007): (1) the definition of eligibility for that state, (2) the public awareness program, (3) a central directory, (4) screening and referral process, (5) timelines for agencies to act on those referrals, and (6) evaluation and assessment (p. 1); or 7 major elements, according to Child Find: (1) definition of target population, (2) public awareness program, (3) referral and intake, (4) screening and identification of young children who may be eligible, (5) eligibility determination, (6) tracking, and (7) interagency coordination (Bourland and Harbin, 1987). Child Find ―is a continuous process of public awareness activities, screening and evaluation designed to locate, identify, and refer as early as possible all young children with *

N. Jennella Crouch-Freudenberg is a licensed diagnostician with more than 20 years experience in evaluating children and adolescents. She holds a master‘s degree and post graduate work from Eastern New Mexico University in Portales, New Mexico and has published and presented extensively on testing and evaluation issues.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

72

N. Jennella Couch - Freudenburg

disabilities and their families who are in need of Early Intervention Services (under Part C) or Preschool Special Education (Part B § 619) of the IDEA‖ (Bourland and Harbin, 1987, p. 1). The developmental assessment of infants and toddlers enrolled in Early Head Start (EHS) programs ―is a process designed to deepen understanding of a child‘s competencies and recourses, and of the caregiving and learning environments most likely to help a child make fullest use of his or her developmental potential‖ (Greenspan and Meisels, 1996, p. 11). Early intervention services (EIS) refer to the range of services that are designed ―to enhance the development of infants and toddlers with disabilities or at risk of developmental delay. … Early intervention services should also enhance the capacity of families to meet the needs of their infants and toddlers with disabilities. Services may include but are not limited to: speech and language therapy, physical and/or occupational therapy, special education, and a range of family support services‖ (Early Head Start National Resource Center, 2004, p. 16).

DEFINITION OF THE TARGET POPULATION

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The population that is to be identified must first be defined, described, and then identified. In order to identify children who may have health problems and/or developmental issues as early as possible, there must be a broad range of programs and services in coordination with various agencies. Specific criteria for developmental delay are unique to each State‘s definition. Infants and children who have a diagnosed physical, behavioral, or mental condition, or who are identified as experiencing developmental delay, are considered to be eligible for early intervention services.

PUBLIC AWARENESS PROGRAM Agencies, schools, daycare centers, health care facilities, and other early intervention systems must target public awareness opportunities that provide parents and families information about early intervention services, though mass media and other forms of communication throughout the community, the county, and the state, on a regular basis.

REFERRAL PROCESSES A broad range of referral sources must exist with a large means to keep the public informed about accessing them. When the public agency receives a referral, then a services coordinator is appointed to oversee the referral. Referrals can come from any number of sources, from individual family members, preschool providers and staff members, health care providers, church staff, community workers, a variety of related agencies such as Children Youth and Families, Medicaid Services, Public Welfare Assistance, and various parent support groups.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Early Intervention Services and Part C of IDEA

73

SCREENING, EVALUATION, AND IDENTIFICATION Each statewide system must develop procedures for screening the health and development of each child that is referred. A developmental screening must be brief, yet global. The screening process can actually aid in refining and individualizing goals for a child‘s development and learning, and can identify the context for how the curriculum is implemented, by considering characteristics of the environment, such as providing special supports or manipulatives, and changes to the environment, such as light exposure and sources of stimulation (Early Head Start National Resource Center, 2004, p. 10). Informal methods are used, such as developmental checklists, observations, report of developmental milestones, and screening instruments, as well as formal, standardized assessment measures, administered in both natural settings and more formal settings. Screenings are also required under EPSDT (Early Periodic Screening, Diagnosis and Treatment) mandates, performed by pediatric health care providers. Within the Early Head Start (EHS) program, all enrolled children receive a developmental screening within 45 days of their entry. ―The screening process is only the initial step of ongoing observations about the needs and resources of the child and family. . . . Based on the results of the screening, it is always in the child‘s best interests to obtain a more in-depth evaluation if parents or staff have a concern‖ (Early Head Start National Resource Center, 2004, p. 2). The Guidance materials (Early Head Start National Resource Center) support the use of a developmental screening approach that should:

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.









Be systematic – The approach should include a method for documenting observations; a process for planning when, where, and how screenings will be accomplished; a system for communicating the results of the screening to parents and other professionals; and a process for tracking change over time and outcomes of referrals. Include observation of children‘s behavior and actions – This process should include the observations of parents, EHS staff, child care providers, and others who regularly interact with the child. Incorporate health and developmental history – Through this process, information should be gathered about prenatal care and childbirth, timelines of when the child reached developmental milestones, and past and current health issues. Consider family characteristics – The approach should provide a description of the nature of the relationships between child and parents, the social and emotional support systems of the child and family, and other environmental or situational factors, such as safe housing, employment, and quality child care (Early Head Start National Resource Center, p. 4).

The Head Start Program Performance Standards and supporting Guidance materials delineate four major principles of appropriate screening, assessment, and evaluation: 

Developmental evaluation should follow a certain sequence. The steps in this process are:

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

74

N. Jennella Couch - Freudenburg 1. Build an alliance with the parent/caregiver and discuss issues and concerns of the family; 2. Obtain developmental case history and current family experience(s); 3. Observe the child in the context of spontaneous play [in natural environments] with parents and or family caregivers; 4. If appropriate, observe the interaction between the child and the evaluator/ clinician; 5. Conduct specific assessments of individual functions, as needed; and use a developmental model as a framework to integrate all of the data to create a picture of the whole child and convey evaluation findings in the context of an alliance with the family.  Screening, assessment, and evaluation must be based on an integrated model of child development. This integrated model includes the range of developmental domains (motor, cognitive, sensory, social and emotional) as well as how the child organizes and uses his or her skills. An effort must be made to understand and observe the child in relation to his or her family, community and culture, and to examine how the child relates to the world around him or her, in order to reveal the child‘s optimal level of functioning.  Screening, assessment, and evaluation should emphasize attention to the child‘s level and pattern of organizing experience and to the child‘s functional capacities, which represent an integration of emotional and cognitive functioning. It is not just a question of whether or not particular skills exist, but how the environment supports the child‘s developmental functioning. These capacities include such skills as ability to pay attention, relating to and engaging with others, reciprocal or back-and-forth communication, and symbolic thinking.  The screening, assessment, and evaluation process should identify current competencies and strengths, as well as identify the next step(s) in the developmental sequence in order to facilitate growth. A working knowledge of typical child developmental sequences and the progression of developmental skills help inform how to best support the child‘s emerging capacities and build on what the child can do (Early Head Start National Resource Center, 2004, p. 9).

All States have certain screening programs of newborns, such as blood spot screening that reveals the number of children who are born with metabolic conditions such as PKU, hypothyroidism and hypothyroidism, and the CDC also helps States build a data system to track these types of children. States can also use Medicaid and hospital systems in order to gather information about the number of children who have at risk conditions. However, the challenge is for States to access and use ―all types of data sources . . . that will indicate the percentage of children in need of services‖ (Boyle, 2000, p. 1). The following three steps for determining an estimate of the number of infants and children who may be in need of early intervention services are outlined by Boyle (200), with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention:

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Early Intervention Services and Part C of IDEA

75

Step 1: Estimate the Number of Children with Diagnosed Conditions A. Ask the birth defects programs in your State for the prevalence rate of different disabilities such as central nervous system defects, congenital infections, and chromosomal anomalies. B. Apply the birth prevalence (the prevalence rate of the condition to the total birth cohort) to determine the number of children eligible for services based on diagnosed conditions. C. Repeat this procedure for other diagnosed conditions and sum all of the results. This system will provide a reasonable minimum estimate of children needing services who have diagnosed conditions.

Step 2: Estimate the Number of Children with Developmental Delay Estimating the number of children who will need services because of developmental delay is more challenging. This challenge arises because developmental delay is not a specific diagnosis. Additionally, data sources for this disability are few. However, States can still develop a scheme to garner a minimum estimate.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A. Determine the rate of developmental disabilities in older children (ages 3 through 9). You can use national data on developmental disability published by the CDC (Centers for Disease Control). B. Subtract the rate of children with diagnosed conditions. (You are already counting them in Step 1.) C. The resulting rate will provide a minimum number of infants and toddlers estimated to have developmental delay.

Step 3: Estimate the Number of Children at Risk of Developmental Delay If States can access data on birth weight distribution and follow up very low birth weight infants (those weighing less than 1000 grams) with developmental disability surveillance data, States can computer the percentage of those very low birth weight infants who developed developmental delay by age three. This percentage can then be applied to the birth cohort in order to determine how many children are at risk for developmental delay in that cohort. (Boyle, 2000, p. 2). The States can determine prevalence rates for diagnosed conditions, developmental delay, and children who are at risk for developmental delay, and they can also determine the total prevalence for disabilities among a birth cohort. Such a determination will indicate the minimum number of children that the State should anticipate serving under Part C (Boyle, 2000, p. 2).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

76

N. Jennella Couch - Freudenburg

ELIGIBILITY DETERMINATION Each State has developed eligibility criteria for early intervention services that is consistent with the federal regulations. Some States also have elected to serve young children who are at risk of developmental disability. Various professionals and para-professionals may be involved in the evaluation and eligibility determination procedures. The term ―informed clinical opinion‖ is a term that appears in Part C of the IDEA, Subpart D, § 303.300 State eligibility criteria and procedures, and § 303.322 Evaluation and assessment. Informed clinical opinion is used by early intervention professionals in the evaluation and assessment process in order to make a recommendation as to the initial and continuing eligibility for services under Part C and as a basis for planning services to meet child and family needs. Informed clinical opinion makes use of qualitative and quantitative information to assist in forming a determination regarding difficult-to-measure aspects of current developmental status and the potential need for early intervention. ... Informed clinical opinion should be taken into account at both the individual and team levels. ... The informed clinical opinion should reflect a meaningful assessment of the individual child‘s development and family resources, priorities, and concerns, and suggest areas that may require further evaluation (Shackelford, 2002, 1-3).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

TRACKING AND COORDINATION Each State must implement a tracking system to identify and determine which children are eligible for receiving early intervention services and to ensure that follow-up procedures are in place. All Child Find activities and services must be coordinated across local, regional, and state agencies and must be made available to all eligible children and their families through those agencies that serve them. For example, the State of Oregon ―maintains close linkages between all programs serving young children at the community level. Every county has an early childhood team. These interagency connections facilitate contact with families and assure that the needs of children and families are addressed through screening and home visit procedures. Local Part C staff has worked with schools in ―working poor‖ neighborhoods to contact parents regarding concerns about children younger than school age. Oregon has two county-level study groups focusing on the characteristics of hardto-reach populations, including those who are non-native English speakers. Training in Spanish for sign language interpreters is currently a state priority (Project Forum, NASDSE, 2005, pp. 5-6; TRACE).

DEVELOPMENTAL DELAY IDEA was amended in 1986 to include the developmental delay (DD) eligibility category for children ages birth through 2 years, and in 1991 IDEA was again amended to allow states to add the DD eligibility category for children ages three through five years. Part C of the IDEA reauthorization covers early intervention services for infants and toddlers with

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Early Intervention Services and Part C of IDEA

77

disabilities, ages birth through two years. The U.S. Congress established the Part C Program in 1986 in order to:    

enhance the development of infants and toddlers with disabilities; reduce educational costs by minimizing the need for special education through early intervention; minimize the likelihood of institutionalization and maximize independent living; and enhance the capacity of families to meet their child‘s needs (National Early Childhood Technical Center, 2007, p. 1).

When IDEA was reauthorized in 1997, those regulations specified that:

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

(1) A State that adopts the term developmental delay . . . determines whether it applies to children ages 3 through 9, or to a subset of that age range (e.g., ages 3 through 5). (2) A State may not require an LEA (local education agency) to adopt and use the term developmental delay for any children within its jurisdiction. (3) If an LEA uses the term developmental delay . . . the LEA must conform to both the State‘s definition of that term and to the age range that has been adopted by the State (Federal Register, Part II, 20 U.S.C. 1401). The regulations also stated ―A State may adopt a common definition of developmental delay for use in programs under Part B and Part C of the Act‖ (Federal Register, Part II, 20 U.S.C. 1401). The 2003 reauthorization of the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) required States to refer victims of abuse and neglect up to age 3 for developmental assessments under Part C of the IDEA. ―Each year, 3.5 million children are investigated for abuse with close to a million cases being confirmed. Most of these children are younger than four years of age‖ (Scarborough, 2008, p. 1). The key findings of a report by the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services were as follows: 



Abused children are at higher risk for developmental delays. Fifty-five percent of children under the age of three who have suffered abuse have at least five risk factors associated with poorer developmental outcomes. However, few (only 3 percent) had a diagnosed medical condition as described in IDEA (e.g., Down syndrome, blindness, cerebral palsy) that would make them automatically eligible for Part C services. Children in the study had the following risk factors that may be associated with poorer developmental outcomes: o o o o o o

Minority Status Single caregiver Poverty Domestic Violence Caregiver Substance Abuse Caregiver Mental Health Problem

58% 48% 46% 40% 39% 30%

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

N. Jennella Couch - Freudenburg

78 o o o o 



Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.



Low Caregiver Education Biomedical Risk Condition Teen-aged Caregiver 4 or more children in the home

29% 22% 19% 14%

All children involved in child welfare have an increased likelihood of being eligible for early intervention services. The Child Abuse and Prevention Treatment Act (CAPTA) requirements apply only to children whose cases of maltreatment have been substantiated. However, in cases where the investigation did not result in substantiation of maltreatment, children faced many of the same risk factors and low scores on developmental measures as those children with substantiated cases. Maltreated children between 2 and 3 years of age have relatively high levels of behavior problems reported by their caregivers. It is not clear whether maltreating caregivers experience their children‘s age-expected behavior as more problematic or whether the children have, in fact, more problematic behavior. Research suggests that behavior problems are more common in toddlers who have been maltreated compared to the general population. This is important because behavior and development are strongly related. For example, research has shown that more than 40 percent of children between 4 and 18 years of age with mild intellectual disability have an emotional or behavioral disorder as well. Early interventionists—many of whom are speech-language therapists, occupational therapists and physical therapists—may not have experience or training in working with children who have been abused. In addition, because early intervention services typically are voluntary, court-ordered services are not part of their culture. On the flipside, court-ordered involvement may cause parents or caregivers to be suspicious of or hostile toward a service provider. Last, early interventionists focus on providing services to children with disabilities and their families, as opposed to Child Welfare Services, which focuses on protecting the child‘s safety and dealing with the perpetrator (Scarborough, 2008, p. 2).

Part C of the IDEA Amendments of 2004 require states to provide services to any child ―under 3 years of age who needs early intervention services‖ (IDEA 2004, § 632(5)(A)) because the child: (i) is experiencing developmental delays, as measured by appropriate diagnostic instruments and procedures in one or more of the areas of cognitive development, physicial development, communication development, social or emotional development, and adaptive development; or (ii) has a diagnosed physical or mental condition which has a high probability of resulting in developmental delay (IDEA 2004, , § 632(5)(A)). State eligibility definitions under Part C vary, but generally express the criteria for delay in quantitative measures such as: ―(a) the difference between chronological age and actual performance level, expressed as a percentage of chronological age, (b) delay expressed as performance at a certain number of months below chronological age, or

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Early Intervention Services and Part C of IDEA

79

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

(c) delay as indicated by standard deviation below the mean on a norm-referenced instrument‖ (Shackelford, 2006, p. 2). The Developmental Delay disability category is most often used as a deferred diagnosis, when a more specific disability category cannot be determined. However, the child ―should be identified within a specific category whenever possible. The developmental delay classification should be used only when the problem cannot be diagnosed easily‖ (Project FORUM, NASDSE, 2000, p. 13). For those children who are then no longer eligible, more studies are needed to explore what happens to them once they are returned to regular education, as well as a more coordinated transition process. Part C of IDEA is a federal grant program developed to assist states and territories in developing and operating a comprehensive, interdisciplinary program of early intervention services for infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families. Each state must ensure that early intervention services will be made available to every eligible child and its family (National Early Childhood Technical Center, 2007, p. 4). Each governor must designate a ―lead agency‖ in order to receive the federal grant and operate the program, appoint an Interagency Coordinating Council (ICC) that includes parents of young children with disabilities. The ICC serves as an advisory panel that assists the lead agency. As of 2009, all 50 states and eligible territories were participating in the Part C Program for Infants and Toddlers. The annual funding for this program is based upon each state‘s census figures of the number of children, ages birth through 2, in the general population. The U.S. Census is being conducted in April 2010, which may reveal a more accurate picture of U.S. population growth overall, as well as each state‘s population. Part C stipulates requirements the states have to meet, such as the minimum components of each state‘s comprehensive early intervention program. Each State has some discretion in setting eligibility criteria for early intervention services, ―including whether or not to serve at risk children‖ (National Early Childhood Technical Center, 2007, p. 4). Therefore, the definitions and criteria for eligibility may differ significantly among the 50 States. The States may also differ according to which ―lead agency‖ is designated to operate the Part C Program. The percentage of infants and toddlers receiving early intervention services (excluding at risk children) is divided by the total birth through age 2 populations for each state. According to figures reported by the U. S. Bureau of the Census for 2007, Massachusetts was serving the highest number of infants and toddlers – 6.49 percent of their birth through age 2 population, with Rhode Island and Wyoming a distant second and third – 4.61 percent and 4.38 percent, respectively – and the District of Columbia ranking last, at 1.19 percent (U.S. Department of Education, 2007).

EARLY INTERVENTION SERVICES: AN OVERVIEW AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES Early intervention services for infants and toddlers are those services that are designed to identify and meet children‘s needs in five developmental areas: physical development, cognitive development, communication, social-emotional development, and adaptive skills development (NICHCY, 2005). The National Research Council report found that early screening and effective intervention services could prevent many disabilities. The

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

80

N. Jennella Couch - Freudenburg

Commission on Excellence in Special Education, created by President Bush on October 2, 2001, ―recommends that states be given the flexibility to use IDEA funds to support early intervention programs and to combine IDEA funds with other sources of federal support for these programs‖ (2002, p. 23). The Commission‘s three major recommendations were as follows: (1) Focus on results – not on process. (2) Embrace a model of prevention not a model of failure. (3) Consider children with disabilities as general education children first. (U. S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, 2002, p. 9.) The Commission also recommended that IDEA ―ensure a seamless system for infants, toddlers, children and youth with disabilities, birth through 21, drawing together the most effective aspects of Part C (infants and toddlers), Section 619 (pre-school) and Part B (school-age).‖ However, more research is needed that will identify effective intervention programs that make a real difference in serving the needs of these children. Computer management data-base systems used for record-keeping play a critical role in the assessment process. All States must submit electronic versions of the completed data forms to OSEP. OSEP will provide electronic data transmission spreadsheets (DTS) in Microsoft Excel format to facilitate this process with a valid OMB Control Number (Office of Special Education Programs, U. S. Department of Education, 2009). The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Head Start Bureau (1996), has identified the following ―seven key principles and practices‖ for providing early intervention services, which support all work with children with disabilities and their families:

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1. Infants and toddlers learn best through every day experiences and interactions with familiar people in familiar contexts.  Learning activities and opportunities must be functional, based on child and family interests and enjoyment.  Learning is relationship-based.  Learning should provide opportunities to practice and build upon previously mastered skills.  Learning occurs through participation in a variety of enjoyable activities. 2. All families, with the necessary supports and resources, can enhance their children‘s learning and development.  All means ALL (income levels, racial and cultural backgrounds, educational levels, skills levels, living with varied levels of stress and resources).  The consistent adults in a child‘s life have the greatest influence on learning and development – not EIS providers.  All families have strengths and capabilities that can be used to help their child.  All families are resourceful, but all families do not have equal access to resources,

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Early Intervention Services and Part C of IDEA

81

 Supports (informal and formal) need to build on strengths and reduce stressors so that families are able to engage with their children in mutually enjoyable interactions and activities. 3. The primary role of the service provider in early intervention is to work with and support the family members and caregivers in a child‘s life.  EIS providers engage with the adults to enhance confidence and competence in their inherent role as the people who teach and foster the child‘s development.  Families are equal partners in the relationship with EIS providers.  Mutual trust, respect, honesty and open communication characterize the familyprovider relationship.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

4. The early intervention process, from initial contacts through transition, must be dynamic and individualized to reflect the child‘s and family members‘ preferences, learning styles, and cultural beliefs.  Families are active participants in all aspects of services.  Families are the ultimate decision makers in the amount, type of assistance, and the support they recelive.  Child and family needs, interests, and skills change; the IFSP (Individualized Family Service Plan) must be fluid and be revised accordingly.  The adults in a child‘s life each have their own preferred learning styles; interactions must be sensitive and responsive to individuals.  Each family‘s culture, spiritual beliefs and activities, values and traditions will be different from the service provider‘s; EIS providers should seek to understand, not judge.  Family ―ways‖ are more important than provider comfort and beliefs (excluding abuse/neglect issues). 5. IFSP outcomes must be functional and based on children‘s and families‘ needs and priorities.  Functional outcomes improve participation in meaningful activities.  Functional outcomes build on natural motivations to learn and do; fit what‘s important to families; strengthen naturally occurring routines; enhance natural learning opportunities.  The family understands that strategies are worth working on because they lead to practical improvements in child and family life.  Functional outcomes keep the team focused on what‘s meaningful to the family in their day to day activities. 6. The family‘s priorities, needs and interests are addressed most appropriately by a primary provider who represents and receives team and community support.  The team can include friends, relatives, and community support people, as well as specialized EIS providers. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

N. Jennella Couch - Freudenburg

82

 Good teaming practices are used.  One consistent person needs to understand and keep abreast of the changing circumstances, needs, interests, strengths, and demands in a family‘s life.  The primary EIS provider brings in other services and supports as needed, assuring outcomes, activities and advice are compatible with family life and won‘t overwhelm or confuse family members. 7. Interventions with young children and family members must be based on explicit principles, validated practices, best available research and relevant laws and regulations.      

Practices must be based on and consistent with explicit principles. EIS providers should be able to provide a rationale for practice decisions. Research is ongoing and informs evolving practices. Practice decisions must be data-based and ongoing evaluation is essential. Practices must fit with relevant laws and regulations. As research and practice evolve, laws and regulations must also be amended accordingly. (Head Start Bureau, 1996, pp. 2-9).

COMMUNITY OUTREACH AND PARENT CONTACTS

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Parents who may be concerned about their child‘s development may seek help and advice through contacting various agencies and/or professionals such as:              

the child‘s pediatrician or family physician; the local community hospital, clinic or medical center; Child Find; HeadStart; Department of Health; Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Indian Education Programs; Department of Defense Education Activity; State Department of Education; NICHCY (National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities); Division for Early Childhood Council for Exceptional Children; NECTAC (National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center; ZERO TO THREE: National Center for Infants, Toddlers and Families; U.S. Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP); and/or Child Welfare Services / Children Youth and Families.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Early Intervention Services and Part C of IDEA

83

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES Bourland, B., and Harbin, G. (1987). START resource packet: Child Find. Early Head Start National Resource Center. Developmental screening, assessment, and evaluation: Key elements for individualizing curricula in early head start programs. Technical Assistance Paper No. 4, 1-24. Greenspan, S. I., and Meisels, S. J. (1996). Toward a new vision of developmental assessment of infants and young children. In S. J. Meisels and E. Fenichel (Eds.), New visions for the developmental assessment of infants and young children, 11-26. Washington, D.C.: ZERO TO THREE. National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center (NECTAC). (2007.) Early intervention program for infants and toddlers with Disabilities (Part C of IDEA). www.nectac.org/partc, 3/29/10, 1-4. National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center. (2007.) Overview to early identification and Child Find systems. www.nectac.org/topics/earlyid/idoverview. Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). (March 11, 2008.) Workgroup on principles and practices in natural environments. Seven key principles: Looks like / doesn‘t look like. OSEP Technical Assistance Community of Practice – Part C Settings, 1-9. http://www.nectac.org/topics/families/families.asp. Project Forum, NASDSE. (August 2005.) Part C Underserved Populations: State Outreach Efforts. 1-10. Scarborough, A. (August 2008.) After abuse: Early intervention services for infants and toddlers, FPG Snapshot, 54, 1-3. FPG Child Development Institute. Shackelford, J. (May 2002.) NECTAC Notes. Informed clinical opinion, 10, Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute, National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center, 1-4. Shackelford, J. (July 2006.) NECTAC Notes. State and jurisdictional eligibility definitions for infants and toddlers with disabilities under IDEA, 21, Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute, National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center, 1-16. TRACE: Tracking, Referral and Assessment Center for Excellence, at http://www. tracecenter.info/. U.S. Census Bureau. (2007.) http://www.census.gov. U.S. Congress, 105th Session. (June 4, 1997.) Public Law 105-17: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997. Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, D.C. U.S. Congress, 107th Session. (January 8, 2001.) Public Law 107-110: No Child Left Behind (NCLB). Amendment to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965. Washington, D.C. U.S. Congress, 108th Session. (December 3, 2004.) Public Law 108-446: Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA). Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, Data Analysis System. (2007.) Report of infants and toddlers receiving early intervention services in accordance with Part C. Washington, D. C.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

84

N. Jennella Couch - Freudenburg

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. (July 1, 2002.) A new era: Revitalizing special education for children and their families. Washington, D. C. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Head Start Bureau. (1996). Revised Head Start Program Performance Standards and Guidelines Materials. Washington, D. C. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). (2009). Report of children receiving early intervention services in accordance with Part C, 1-6. Washington, D. C.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 8

THE OBESITY EPIDEMIC AMONG YOUNG CHILDREN Mary Jane Miller*1, Michelle La Brunda2 and Naushad Amin2 1

University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam 2 Melbourne, Florida, US

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ABSTRACT Obesity rates around the globe have skyrocketed. Statistical data bear out the fact that there is truly an obesity epidemic and probably an obesity pandemic. In the last few decades, health related obesity ailments have multiplied dramatically among all age groups and have become commonplace even among our very youngest children. This paper discusses numerous health related issues resulting from overweight and obesity, some of the causes of excessive weight gain and how these issues can affect young children and their success in school. It highlights the role of diet and exercise as preventive measures and a sizeable section is devoted to the benefits of breastfeeding infants as an early preventive measure. Finally, the paper offers several recommendations to aid in the prevention or reduction of excessive weight gain among young children.

INTRODUCTION The undisputed leader among childhood health issues in the United States today is that of obesity. This issue headlines TV shows and news magazines, vexes the health care community, and stirs grave concerns among parents of young children and adolescents alike. In spite of mounting concern and heightened awareness, the now commonly-heard term ―obesity epidemic,‖ has quietly and steadily spread worldwide and moved into the realm of ―obesity pandemic.‖ More than a billion people are affected by obesity, along with its numerous and serious health related problems (Kimm, 2004). The term pandemic may soon

*

Mary Jane Miller is a faculty member at the University of Guam. Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin are pediatricians.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

86

Mary Jane Miller, Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

be the most often used description of this global trend toward too much food and too little physical activity. Of greatest concern is the alarming rise in obesity even among the very youngest children. Data from the International Obesity Task Force indicate that 22 million of the world‘s children under 5 years of age are overweight or obese (Dietel, 2002). Obesity has even replaced malnutrition as the greatest nutritional problem in many parts of Africa where overweight and obesity have become four times more common than malnutrition (du Toit, 2003). Childhood obesity is of particular concern among developed nations, and in the United States it is manifest not just among school age children and adolescents, but among toddlers and infants as well. The U. S. Surgeon General‘s 2001 Call to Action recognized that weight related behaviors begin in childhood and that early childhood obesity is a problem of increasing prevalence in the United States (Hodges, 2003). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that results from its 2007-2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey show that the rate of obesity among pre-school age children between the ages of 2 and 5 years doubled between 1980 and 2008 from 5% to 10.4%. (CDC, 2010). Furthermore, obesity rates in young children have tripled during the past 20 years (Taras, 2005). A recent study by Ogden highlights the seriousness of the problem indicating that 9.5% of infants and toddlers (children under 2 years of age) were at or above the 95th percentile on the weight-for-recumbent-length growth charts. More worrisome still, in children over 2 years of age, 11.9% were at or above the 97th percentile of the Body Mass Index (BMI)-for-age growth charts, 16.9% were at or above the 95th percentile, and 31% were at or above the 85th percentile (Ogden, 2010). Overall, more than 30% of young children in the United States are overweight (Fox, 2003).

DEFINITION Childhood obesity can be defined most simply as an excessive accumulation of body fat (Summerfield, 1990). There is no specific consensus on a cutoff point for excess fat in children, but children are generally considered obese when 25 percent or more of the total body weight in boys is fat and more than 32 percent of total bodyweight in girls is fat (Williams, 1992).

HEALTH ISSUES RELATED TO OBESITY IN CHILDREN Although significant differences in the prevalence of obesity exist between age groups and ethnic groups, there are numerous reasons why obesity among our youngest children is of such great concern. One reason is that rapid weight gain in the first 4 months of life has been associated with an increased risk of overweight at 7 years old. Furthermore, there is evidence that 77% of those with a body mass index greater than the 95th percentile as children continued to be obese as adults (Hodges, 2003).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Obesity Epidemic among Young Children

87

Of course, not all obese infants will become obese children and not all obese children will become obese adults, but overweight children in general are much more likely to become obese as adults. Fully 25% of overweight adults were overly heavy as children and if the overweight began before 8 years of age, obesity in adulthood was likely to be more severe (CDC, 2010). Obesity is a significant risk factor for asthma, kidney failure, gallbladder disease, urinary incontinence, and osteoarthritis and childhood obesity even threatens to reverse the trend of reduced deaths from cardiovascular disease that has been achieved in recent decades (Miller, 2004). Our children today are the first generation in America not predicted to outlive their parents (Katz, 2004). Children who are obese are presented with numerous potential health problems. Excessive fat in childhood not only increases the risk of obesity as an adult but it is also associated with Type 2 diabetes mellitus, increases in the risk for coronary heart disease, and increases in stress on the weight-bearing joints (Summerfield, 1990). Overweight is the leading cause of pediatric hypertension. Sixty percent of obese children 6 years of age and older have at least one factor for heart disease, and one in four also has impaired glucose tolerance potentially leading to diabetes (Miller, 2004). Diabetes is a major cause of kidney failure, limb amputation, and acquired blindness. In the past doctors had considered Type 2 diabetes to be primarily an adult disease, however there has been a sharp rise in its onset in childhood, concurrent with the childhood obesity epidemic. It is estimated that at least one in three children who were born in 2000 will develop Type 2 diabetes unless the obesity epidemic is reversed (McConnaughty,2003).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

COSTS Obesity related pediatric hospital costs have tripled during the past 20 years and continue to rise (Goran, 2003). Medical complications also rise from the increased frequency and severity of childhood obesity and resultant costs keep pace. In 2000, the costs of obesity in the United States were estimated at $117 billion. This includes $61 million due to direct healthcare costs such as preventive, diagnostic, and treatment services for obesity and related diseases. Additionally, $56 million were incurred in indirect costs which include wages lost because of illness or disability, and future earnings lost because of premature death (USDHS, 2001). Among children and adolescents, the annual cost of treating obesity-related diseases has increased from $35 million in 1979-1981, to $127 million in 1997-1999 (Goran, 2003).

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL ISSUES Obesity is a health issue, an emotional issue, and a social issue. The consequences of excess weight at all ages affect not only the overweight individuals themselves, but those who love them and society in general. Overweight and obesity in childhood are known to have significant impact on both physical and psychological health (Dehghan, 2005). In 1975 Hilde Bruch wrote, ―There is no doubt that obesity is an undesirable state of existence in a child,‖ and in a 2004 study, Janssen et al confirmed an association of childhood overweight and

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

88

Mary Jane Miller, Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

obesity with metabolic health risks. The study, however, further identifies significant problems in social interactions and personal relationships (Janssen, 2004). Not only do overweight children have to deal with increases in health risks, but they also become targets for ridicule and ostracism (Snowman, 2009). Overweight kids experience intense social stigmatization, particularly among adolescent Caucasian girls, Hispanic girls, and boys of all races. Childhood overweight is associated with lower self-esteem, a tendency to withdraw from others, increased loneliness, sadness, and nervousness, and increased use of alcohol and tobacco. It detracts from children‘s self confidence, lowers self esteem and affects interactions with peers. Some authorities believe that social and psychological problems are the most significant consequences of obesity in children (Summerfield, 1992). The very youngest children seem to be less affected by social and emotional issues related to body image and obesity than are school age children, but self recognition and the formation of self concept begins very early (O‘Donnell, 2007) and the judgments of others do have an effect. Children seek information about themselves through comparison to others approximately the same age and gender (O‘Donnell, 2007). A common need of children, even preschoolers and those in primary grades, is the need for approval and a desire for the acceptance and positive opinion of others (Ormrod, 2006). Children who are overweight may receive fewer judgments of approval and acceptance. They often find themselves less able to perform physical tasks than other children and may conclude they are less worthy. Obesity can contribute to emotional disorders if a child‘s negative feelings about body-image and overweight lower self esteem (Powers, 2006). Severely overweight children are more than five times more likely than their companions with a healthy weight to have a lower health-related quality of life. This includes their ability to move around, play sports, and perform in school, but it goes further to include their levels of fear and sadness, and the quality of their relationships with peers (Schwimmer, 2003).

CAUSES AND CONTRIBUTORS TO OVERWEIGHT AND OBESITY Childhood obesity has numerous interrelated causes. Understanding that 30% of children in the United States are overweight and 11% are obese is not sufficient. The underlying causes of obesity also need to be understood. Obesity in children most likely results from various interactions of nutritional, psychological, familial and physiological factors. The overall cause centers around an imbalance between the calories obtained from food and the calories expended in basal metabolic rate and physical activity (Summerfield, 1992).

Lifestyle, Food and Exercise In general, overweight and obesity are thought to be the results of poor diet, an increase in caloric and fat intake and reduced physical activity. There is supporting evidence that excessive sugar from soft drink consumption, a significant increase in average portion sizes, and steadily declining physical activity among children all play a major role in the increasing rates of obesity (Dehghan, 2005). Consuming more calories than we expend in physical activities is the cause of weight gain in people of any age.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Obesity Epidemic among Young Children

89

Changes in nutrition and a more sedentary lifestyle are significant factors in the current obesity epidemic in the United States. Over the last century we have continued to take in about the same number of calories, but the level of energy expenditure has decreased significantly. This decrease can be at least partially attributed to major changes in transportation, work environment, type of work performed, modern household appliances, and differences in the use of leisure time (Bouchard, 1990). Today, children ride in automobiles everywhere they go and use elevators and escalators rather than walking or climbing stairs. Children do homework, play video games, catch up on their social networking, surf the Internet, or watch television and recorded movies after school rather than playing active games with friends outside. The amount of time that children spend playing outside is less than it was even ten years ago. In addition, physical education programs in schools seem to be the first to be reduced and eliminated when education budgets suffer cuts (Livingston, 2003).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Physical Activity and Technology As most would predict, lack of activity is associated with obesity. Inactivity is not a stand-alone problem and there are numerous social and economic factors that can make the less active alternatives preferable to children and easier for parents. Children who are not physically active are typically engaged in sedentary activities and a large proportion of these activities are driven by technology. Technology has provided enormously diverse outlets for the imaginations and leisure time of children. While some video games have taken steps to actively engage children physically, participation is generally less calorie consuming than normal outdoor play. Television, popular movies on demand, social networking and video games are just some of the ways technology can keep our children highly entertained, but inactive. Technology in its myriad forms can provide affordable babysitting for busy parents - with their children‘s thanks and approval. The average child watches nearly 3 hours of television per day. This figure does not include time spent watching videotapes or playing video games (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001). A study in 1999 found that children spend an average of 6 hours and 32 minutes per day with various media combined (Roberts, 1999). Watching television may have a greater impact on children‘s weight than other technologies do because, not only does it require little energy expenditure, but while watching television there may be increased opportunities for snacking. Frequent and lengthy exposure to television commercials promoting the consumption of high-energy foods and sugarcontaining beverages may also have an effect. Even young children tend to be over-engaged in television, video games and other sedentary technology related activities. Time that children would otherwise spend engaged in physically active pursuits or playing with friends is too often spent with a keyboard and a monitor or a game console and a plasma screen. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children under two years of age should not watch television and that children over age two should watch no more than two hours per day (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001). Worldwide, children who watch the most hours of television are the fattest (Kuriyan, et al. 2007). Lack of activity seems to be a more important risk factor in the development of

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

90

Mary Jane Miller, Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin

early childhood obesity than even a poor diet (Jago, et al., 2005). Additionally, childhood television viewing time has been shown to be a stronger predictor of adult obesity and poor fitness than is the viewing time of the adult (Landhuis et al., 2008). There is also increasing evidence that some children engage in these activities until they are sleep deprived. Sleep deprivation is another risk factor for the development of obesity (Kuriyan et al, 2007).

Sleep

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Every living creature needs sleep. Sleep is especially important for children as it directly impacts mental and physical development. A number of studies have shown a link between lack of sleep in childhood and an increase in the incidence of childhood obesity. According to a review of 17 studies on sleep and childhood obesity by Youfa Wang, getting more sleep could help children avoid becoming overweight or obese. The reviewed studies ranged from Europe to the U.S. to Asia, and around the world, the pattern was the same: Kids who didn't sleep enough were more likely to be overweight or obese (Hitti, 2008). Research findings indicate that young children who sleep less than twelve hours per day are at increased risk of being overweight (Locard et al., 1992; Taveras et al., 2008). The reasons for this are not completely clear. It may be that young children who sleep less are fed more often. It is possible that parents comfort fussy babies and toddlers by offering them food so those who wake more often are fed more often. If this is the case, the trend could continue into early childhood. Also, if data from adults is extrapolated to children, people who sleep less have lower levels of leptin and have a higher levels of ghrelin. Leptin is a peptide, sort of a first cousin to protein, which prevents weight gain, and ghrelin is a hormone which stimulates appetite (Spiegel et al, 2004). Low leptin and increased ghrelin are frequently associated with weight gain.

Working Parents and Day Care As mentioned earlier, the lifestyles and habits of families in the United States have changed drastically since the advent of the 20th century and even more so in the last 30 years. Most families now have both parents or the single parent working outside the home. This frequently results in non-parental caregivers for children after school. These caregivers can range from grandparents and relatives to paid babysitters to after school programs designed specifically for children of working parents. In general, after school caregivers provide the supervision and attention necessary for health and safety of young children. Caregivers may not, however, have a parent‘s level of concern for outdoor exercise, proper nutrition or attention to calorie content of foods. Less expensive snacks containing more calories are likely to be provided and the use of television or DVD movies as a calm, group activity is common. Some researchers have hypothesized that day care may be associated with increased weight in early childhood. The studies have shown mixed results. One study done with children in the United Kingdom found a correlation between informal childcare, such as that provided by grandparents, associated with increased risk of obesity (Pearce et al., 2010). It is unclear how day care influences the development of obesity. It is likely that day care in and of

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Obesity Epidemic among Young Children

91

itself is not linked to obesity but the activities in which the day care children are engaged may promote or reduce the incidence of obesity. Also, disciplinary systems within the day care system and nutritional beliefs of the day care faculty are also likely to determine the effect of day care on childhood weight. Some children remain home alone after school without benefit of a caregiver due to costs of more desirable supervision. Parents of these children may fear allowing children to play outside without adult supervision and often caution children to stay inside after school where they spend more time watching television or playing computer games rather than exercising (Saelens, 2002 in CB Miller).

PRENATAL FACTORS Genetics

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Although lifestyle changes for all family members plays a major role in potential weight gain, there are many other factors to consider as well. Environment and genetics can play major roles in the development of obesity. However, neither environment nor genetics alone can be blamed for the increased incidence of childhood obesity; it is likely that both causes play an important role. There is an elevated risk of becoming obese among children who have two parents who are obese (Dietz, 1983 CB Eric). This could be due either to strong genetic factors or the effects of parental modeling in both eating and in exercise habits could have an effect. At least half of parents of elementary school children never exercise vigorously (Ross, 1987).

Weight Gain during Pregnancy Expectant mothers who gain large amounts of weight tend to give birth to heavier babies. These infants are at higher risk for obesity later in life. While no study has proven that this tendency for overweight later in life specifically results from the maternal weight gain itself rather than from genetic or other factors that mother and baby might share, there is increasing evidence that the weight problems often start in the womb, when women gain more weight than is needed to produce a healthy, full-size baby (Fliestler, 2010). Recent findings show that excessive weight gain in pregnancy can result in bigger than average babies who are prenatally programmed to become overweight children (Fliestler, 2010). Women who gained more than 53 pounds during a full-term pregnancy with one baby were more than twice as likely to have babies who weighed 9 or more pounds at birth than were women who gained only 18 to 22 pounds. For each kilogram (2.2 pounds) of weight gained by the pregnant mother, the baby‘s birth weight increased by 7.35 grams (one-fourth of an ounce). Because birth weight tends to predict body mass index later in life, the findings from this study suggest that mothers who gain excessive weight during pregnancy could raise the long term risk of obesity-related disease in their offspring (Ludwig, 2010). Animal studies suggest that excess maternal weight or excess weight gain during pregnancy affects the uterine environment, producing changes in the hypothalamus,

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

92

Mary Jane Miller, Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin

pancreatic islet cells, fat tissue and other systems that regulate body weight. "Hormones and metabolic pathways, and even the structure of tissues and organs that play a role in body weight maintenance are affected" (Ludwig, 2010). Excessive weight gain during pregnancy is a risk factor for the development of infant and early childhood obesity (McCormick, Sarpong, Jordan, Ray and Jain, 2010). The reasons for this are not completely clear. Possibly maternal hormones such as gherelin are able to cross the placenta influencing fetal growth and development.

Maternal Smoking Numerous studies were done in the early 2000‘s looking at the link between maternal habits and the development of obesity. Maternal smoking during pregnancy is a know factor for the development of low birth weight newborns and ironically, childhood obesity (Power and Jefferis, 2002; Toschke et al., 2002; Toschke et al. 2003; Mizutani et al., 2007). It is unclear exactly how maternal smoking, particularly during early pregnancy could lead to childhood obesity. It is known that smoking leads to delay in fetal growth. Delayed fetal growth alone is a risk factor for obesity (Ravelli, Stein and Susser, 1976). Possibly development of obesity relates to ―catch up‖ growth that happens later on in development.

THE ROLE OF INFANT FEEDING AND HOME ENVIRONMENT

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Breast Feeding Since the early 1980s studies have suggested that prolonged breast-feeding is protective against the development of obesity later in the life, but the precise role of breast feeding in the development of childhood obesity is controversial. Some studies have shown a relationship between early cessation of breastfeeding and development of obesity, while others have yielded other conclusions. Review of the cumulative data on the role of breast feeding suggest that breast feeding and longer periods of breast feeding are protective against obesity later in life when compared to formula feeding (Dewy, 2003). One study showed a 20% reduction in obesity when babies were breast fed to seven months of age versus three months (Dietz, 2001). Ongoing studies are being done to examine the role of breastfeeding in preventing obesity. One of the factors in the development of obesity is the number of calories consumed. Bottle fed infants tend to be fed at more regular intervals and more consistent amounts suggesting that the parents are driving food intake rather than the infant‘s hunger drive. Breast fed infants are more able to self-regulate input (Wright, Fawcett and Crow, 1980). Infants who are constantly fed until the bottle is empty are also at higher risk for obesity. They are likely consuming more calories since their caloric intake is regulated by their parents rather than by intrinsic metabolic needs. Breast fed infants, consumes less non-milk food product as compared to bottle fed infants at age six-to-nine months (Dewy et al., 1991). This means that breast fed infants consume less calories than formula fed infants.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Obesity Epidemic among Young Children

93

Another possible reason for the increased incidence of obesity in bottle fed infants the difference in composition of cows‘ milk and human breast milk. Infant formulas are usually derived from cows‘ milk. Both have a complex composition consisting of hundreds of elements. Human breast milk is higher in lactose and cholesterol which supports growth of CNS. Cow milk is high in proteins and minerals which support increased size (Paul et al., 2009). Higher protein intake during infancy leads to elevated blood insulin and insulin-like growth factor levels, which induces increased generation of fat cells predisposing the infant to obesity. Breast milk also contains growth factors and hormones that act to regulate growth. One notable component is leptin. Leptin levels are inversely associated with weight gain. Breast fed infants have higher leptin levels (Savino et al., 2005) which may relate to their lower weight. Obestatins, another hormone found in breast milk, is associated with reduced caloric intake, improved memory, reduce anxiety and sleep regulation. It was first described in 2005 and its role in infant growth and development is not well understood. Eighty to ninety percent of the breast milk is consumed by a feeding infant in the first four minutes of breast feeding. The milk first obtained from the breast contains fewer calories. The remaining milk, is more calorie-dense, and is consumed slowly over the next 10 to 15 minutes of feeding. Infants receiving formula receive a continual supply of heterogeneous milk. This difference in calorie density may result in formula fed infants receiving more calories and thus gaining more weight than their breast fed counterparts.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Breast Feeding and the Gastrointestinal Microbiota When a baby is born, the gastrointestinal tract is essential devoid of microbiotia. Gut flora are essential to the functioning of the gastrointestinal system and are normally transmitted maternally. New evidence suggests that the composition of the microbiotia can influence the development of obesity. A higher concentration than average of the bacteria, Bacteroides has been associated with an increase ability to process and store energy leading to obesity (Backhed et al., 2004). Another study showed that higher number of bacteria from the Bifidobacterium genus and fewer Staphylococcus aureus are associated with lower incidence of obesity (Kalliomaki et al., 2008). It is thought that the primary way in which an infant acquires Bifidobacterium is through breastfeeding. The study of the composition and role of gut flora in humans is just beginning and not well understood.

Parent Infant Interactions One of the most important determinants in the development of early childhood obesity is parent-infant-interactions. Infants depend on their parents for everything and learn their early behaviors from their parents. Parental preference determine which foods are first introduced, how often children are fed and may even use food as punishment and reward. The most important predictor of childhood obesity is parental obesity (Whitaker et al.., 1997). Parents who are overweight tend to be less active and tend to engage in sedentary activities. This preference for sedentary activities is taught to their children. Parents are often unable to recognize obesity in their own children, and frequently have a different definition of

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

94

Mary Jane Miller, Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin

obese than that of health care providers (Eckstein et al., 2006). Overweight in infants and young children is thought by many to be a sign of health. The inability to recognize obesity in young children is particularly problematic particularly in ethnic minorities and families with scare financial resources (Paul et al 2010). Parents frequently perceive their children as picky eaters even when they gaining weight normally (Birch and Fisher, 1998). This may lead the parents to encourage their children to eat more than they need.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Transition from Breast Milk to Adult Diet Milk alone provides adequate nutritional support until the age of four to six months of age. The transition to adult food should start at four to six months of age months of age and toddles typically acquire a modified adult diet by age three. Many parents start adding cereal to milk early believing that it promotes sleep at night. Despite this common belief, studies have not supported a relationship between cereal and improved nocturnal sleep duration, but have show an association between initiation of early cereal in the diet and increased weight gain (Kim and Peterson, 2008). Infants naturally like salty and sweet foods. Most infants have to acquire a taste for foods that are neither salty nor sweet such as vegetables and cereals. These foods have to be introduced slowly and repetitively if the infant is to acquire a taste for them. Also, sweet and salty foods should be avoided as infants will show a strong preference for these foods. Sweetened beverages should be minimized. One of the common sources of sugar given to young children is fruit juice. Fruit juice is perceived by many parents as healthy and provided in abundance to young children. According to the American Dietetic Association, children should not drink more than six ounces of fruit juice per day. Often parents introduce new foods too quickly and are too fast to discard the new food if the infant does not take an immediate like it. New healthy foods need to be introduced slowly and repetitively over a number of days until an infant becomes accustomed to the new foods. Excessive indulgence in sweet and fatty foods and also the parent‘s desire to see their children eat often lead to over-nourishment of young children. The typical infant and toddler in the United States exceeds their energy requirement by 20-30% (Devaney et al., 2004).

Parents Attitudes towards Foods/Eating Parents‘ attitude toward food plays an enormous role in the development of eating habits. It is common for parents to use food as a way to sooth crying babies. Later food may used to reward or punish children. Rewarding children with food is associated with weight gain (Puhl and Schwartz, 2003). Also parents who sooth themselves with food, may pass this coping mechanism on to their children through example. Maternal obesity is associated with a number of chronic medical conditions in their offspring. The strongest correlation is with childhood obesity (Van Cleave, Gortmaker and Perrin, 2010).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Obesity Epidemic among Young Children

95

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

OBESITY AND LEARNING Worldwide, the prevalence of both obesity and learning disabilities is increasing among our schoolchildren. There is growing evidence to suggest that these two conditions may be linked (Ells et al., 2006). The link may be physiological or more likely, a connection between self-esteem and learning. Being overweight may lower children‘s self esteem, making it more difficult for them to concentrate in class and have positive learning experiences, and as a result they may learn less. Health problems with obese children may affect attendance at school which in turn, can affect school performance (Kellow, 2009). Many studies show that excess weight in children can lead to Type 2 diabetes. Recent studies now show that the human brain is a site of numerous potential complications among children with Type 2 diabetes and these complications can result in learning disabilities (Henderson, 2010). In this study a total of 18 overweight children, some with obesity related diabetes, others without diabetes, underwent extensive testing. The children with diabetes performed worse on memory and spelling tasks, as well as on tests of their overall intellectual functioning. In addition, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans showed changes in the white matter of the brains of the obese children with diabetes. The study showed that brains of the obese children with diabetes are not working as effectively as they should be and their ability to do well in school is impaired (Henderson, 2010). Researchers have also observed a link that connects obesity in children with emotional and psychological problems like depression, anxiety and the tendency to develop obsessivecompulsive disorder. The problem becomes especially difficult as children enter school and face the normal pressures of peer acceptance (Riley, 2010). Absenteeism and attendance do play a large role in children‘s success in school and the psychological and sometimes physiological issues associated with obesity may result in poor school attendance. Some researchers say that although many school children may be too young to experience the numerous health issues resulting from obesity, the emotional issues can keep them home from school and have far reaching effects. Children are aware of the social stigma associated with obesity even a young age and the resulting bullying often adds to the burden (Riley, 2010). Few studies show a direct physiological correlation between obesity and cognitive learning - the ability to think, process and store information. In fact, in the studies that do show a link, the association does not seem to be a direct connection. Overweight children are not automatically less likely to learn than those at a healthy weight. The physiological hindrance to children‘s learning, tends to be a result of issues related to or caused by obesity such as unbalanced blood sugar, tiredness and just plain physical discomfort (Riley, 2010). A recent study monitored the weights of thousands of American school children (about 7000) from when they first entered kindergarten (about age 5) until the end of their third grade year (about age 8). The researchers assessed how well each child did at school by measuring their mathematic and reading ability as well as social skills. They also recorded any behavioral problems and absences from school (Kellow, 2009). The researchers discovered that girls who started school at a normal weight but were overweight by the end of the third grade performed less well on reading and math tests and had lower ratings for social skills. However, boys who became overweight had more absences from school (Kellow, 2009).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

96

Mary Jane Miller, Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin

Surprisingly, there was little difference in tested ability among those children who were already overweight when they began their school years and remained overweight at the end of third grade. This suggests that becoming overweight during the first four years in school is a significant risk factor for poor school outcomes, more so than just being overweight, especially amongst girls (Kellow, 2009). Another study based on results from data collected on more than 12,500 third grade students showed there was a positive relationship between students‘ Body Mass Index (BMI), physical activity, and their academic achievement levels. Students who maintained a higher level of physical activity and who were a normal weight maintained higher grades and learned at a faster rate than those students who were less physically active. A negative relationship was observed between obesity, as rated by the BMI, and academic achievement. Students who were obese performed below their more physically fit counterparts regarding academic achievement (Byrd, 2007). Schools that have reduced or eliminated recess times for students should look further into their stance on such a critical issue. Opportunity for physical activity has been shown to improve students‘ chances of achieving higher scores on academic tests. Schools should be keenly aware of any policies and practices that limit opportunities for students to engage in physical activities (Byrd, 2007).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION There are no simple solutions to stem the obesity pandemic in children. The only way to prevent weight gain is to either reduce calories consumed or increase physical activity - or both (Bouchard, 1990). Almost all researchers agree that prevention could be the key strategy for controlling obesity. Although it is true that about 50% of adults in many countries are overweight, it is also true that it is very difficult to reduce the excess weight once it becomes established, so children should be the priority population for intervention strategies (Dehghan, 2005). Over the last few decades, food has become more affordable to a larger number of people and as the price of food has diminished it has changed from a source of nourishment into a source of pleasure and a sign of a particular lifestyle. It is highly unlikely that a child can offset by physical activity an accumulation of high fat, low nutrition meals. From one to two hours of extremely vigorous physical activity is required to counteract the calories consumed in just one large sized children‘s meal from a fast food restaurant (Styne, 2005). Approaching weight problems in children from a physical fitness and overall health stance rather than from a weight reduction point of view is a better choice with more long lasting benefits. Even the term ―physical fitness‖ has a more positive connotation for children who may generate images of professional sports figures and Olympic champions rather than thoughts of broccoli, unbuttered toast, and no ice cream with the birthday cake. Researchers first became troubled about the physical fitness level of children in America in the 1950s when fitness levels were tested and comparisons were made with European children. This resulted in greater stress on exercise to improve physical fitness and more emphasis on physical education in the schools (Powers, 2006). Further concern was sounded when the link was established connecting physical fitness in childhood with heart disease,

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Obesity Epidemic among Young Children

97

hypertension, and diabetes in adulthood. Children as young as 8 years were reported by the American Academy of Pediatrics to have risk factors for coronary disease (Olson, 1990 in total Fitness). Today, childhood obesity has reached epidemic proportions and the focus is on children‘s lack of physical activity and poor dietary habits that have lead to such overweight (Powers, 2006).

CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATION

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

It is clear that the United States, along with much of the industrialized world, is facing an epidemic from a devious source: obesity. The prevalence of obesity is worldwide and most people understand at least some of the consequences of excess weight and obesity. Yet, almost of us fall easy prey to the enemy‘s bait – fried food, potato chips, hamburgers, ice cream, sugared beverages, soft couches, elevators, high definition television, computer consoles, and on and on. The obesity epidemic is pervasive among all age groups from infants to the aged. It affects not only each individual, but society in general. The health, social, emotional, and psychological consequences as well as the cost in dollars of obesity-related disorders are borne by us all. There are many social and economic reasons why adults often model less than optimal behaviors that influence their children‘s eating and exercise habits and fail to lead them to healthy lifestyle choices, so there is no single, simple solution to the problem. There are, however, steps that can be taken to improve. The following strategies to prevent or intervene in the development of obesity can help. They target the child‘s environment, physical activity, and diet. These basic strategies and more may be implemented in homes, in preschool institutions, public and private schools and after-school programs.

In the Home    

  

Parent, or a pediatrician, should calculate each child‘s BMI once a year and then use any changes in BMI to watch for instances of excessive weight gain. Encourage breastfeeding among new mothers. Educate parents, especially new parents, on how to promote healthy lifestyles within their families. Healthy eating patterns should be encouraged from a very young age. Providing a variety of nutritious meals and snacks that include vegetables and fruits, low fat dairy foods and whole grain breads can establish healthy preferences and initiate good, lifelong eating habits. Encourage children to self-regulate food intake and to recognize appropriate portion size. Routinely promote and join in physical exercise and active games, both structured and unstructured. Limit time spent watching television, playing computer games and social networking to two hours per day.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Mary Jane Miller, Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin

98

In the Community  



Work with schools to decrease the availability of high calorie, low nutrition foods and beverages from vending machines, snack bars and school stores. Encourage schools, day care centers and after school programs to support physical education programs, to promote lifelong fitness, and to increase the amount of time children are engaged in physical activities. Parents, teachers, medical professionals and community members should model positive diet, exercise, and lifestyle habits.

All too soon young children outgrow the supervision of their parents and caregivers and go out to begin their own families, their lifelong habits and preferences quite permanently established. If we are to safeguard the health and the futures of our children and our children‘s children, if the obesity epidemic is to be conquered, we must more aggressively promote healthy lifestyles among even our youngest children.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES American Academy of Pediatrics . (2001). Children adolescents and television. Pediatrics, 107(2), 423 - 426. Backhed, F., Ding, H., Wang, T., Hooper, L.V, Koh, G.Y., Nagy, A., Semenkovich, C.F., & Gordon, J.I., (2004). The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. 101:15718-15723. Baughcum, A.E., Powers, S.W., Johnson, S.B., Chamberlin, L.A., Deeks, C.M., Jain, A., and Whitaker R.C. (2001). Maternal feeding practices and beliefs and their relationships to overweight in early childhood. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. 22:391-408. Birch, L.L., & Fisher, J.O. (1998). Development of eating behaviors among children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 101:539-549. Bouchard, C., Tremblay, A., and Despres, J. (1990). The Response to long-term overfeeding in identical twins. The New England Journal of Medicine, 322, 1477-1482. Bruch, H. (1975). Emotional aspects of obesity in children. Pediatrics Annual, 4:91-99. Centers for Disease Control. (2010, March 31). Childhood overweight and obesity. Retrieved from http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/449670. Deghan, M., Akhtar-Danesh, N., & Merchant, A. (2005). Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention. Nutrition Journal, 4(24), 1-11. Devancy, B., Ziegler, P., Pac, S., Karwe, V., & Barr, S.I. (2004). Nutrient intakes of infants and toddlers. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 104:s14-21. Deitel, M. (2002). The International obesity task force and ―obesity.‖ Obesity Surgery, 12:613-614. Dewey, K.G., Heining, M.J., Nommsen, L.A., and Lonnerdal, B. (1991). Adequacy of energy intake among breast-fed infants in the DARLING study: relationships to growth velocity, morbidity, and activity levels. Journal of Pediatrics. 119:538-547.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Obesity Epidemic among Young Children

99

Dewey, K.G. (2003). Is breastfeeding protective against child obesity? Journal of Human Lactation. 19:9-18. Dietz, William. (2001). Breastfeeding may prevent childhood overweight. Journal of the American Medical Association. 285:2506-2507. duToit, G., and van der Merwe, M.T. (2003). The Epidemic of childhood obesity. South Africa Medical Journal, (93), 49-50. Diamanti-Kandarakis, E., Bourguignon, J.P., Giudice, L.S., Hauser, R., Prins, G.S., Soto, S.M., Zoeller, R.T., & Gore, A.C. (2009). Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: And Endocrine Society Scientific Statement. Endocrine Reviews. 30(4):293-342. Eckstein, K.C., Mikhail, L.M., Ariza, A.J., Thomson, J.S., Millard S.C., & Binns, H.J. (2006). Parents‘ perceptions of their child‘s weight and health. Pediatrics. 117:681-690. Ells, L.J., R. Lang, J.P.L. Shield, J.R. Wilkinson, & J.S.M. Lidstone. (November 2006). Obesity and Disability. Wiley Online Library 7.4 (2006): 341-345. Retrieved from http://www.onelibrary.wiley.com . Fliestler, N. (2010, August 5). Excess maternal weight gain increases birth weight. Harvard Science: Medicine and Health, Retrieved from http://harvardscience.harvard.edu/ medicine-health/articles/excess-maternal-weight-gain-increases-birth-weight-study-finds. Fox, R. (2003). Overweight children. Circulation, 108:e9071 (Editorial). Goran, M.I., Ball, G.D., & Cruz, M.L. (2003). Obesity and risk of type 2 diabetes in early adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. International Journal of Obesity Related Metabolic Disorders, (88), 1417-1427. Henderson, T. (2010, August 4). Does obesity and diabetes equal learning disabilitiey?. Parent Dish, Retrieved from http://www.parentdish.com/2010/08/04/does-obesity-plusdiabetes-equal-learning-disability/. Hitti, M. (February, 2008). More Sleep, less childhood obesity. WebMD, Retrieved from http://children.webmd.com/news/20080212/more-sleep-less-childhood-obesity. Hodges, E. (2003). A primer on early childhood obesity and parental influence. Pediatric Nursing, 29(1), www.medscape.com/viewarticle/449670;meddomainjsession=KYLnMS GNLzpMg29nW. Jago, R., Baranowski. T., Baranowski, J.C., Thompson, D., and Greaves, K.I. (2005). BMI from 3-6 y of age is predicted by TV viewing and physical activity, not diet. International Journal of Obesity. 29:557-564. Janssen, I., Craig, W. M., Boyce, W. F., and Pickett, W. (2004, May). Associations between overweight and obesity with bullying behaviors in school-aged children. Pediatrics, 113(5), 1187-1194. Kalliomaki, M., Collado, M.C., Salminen S., and Isolauri, E., (2008). Early differences in fecal microbiota composition in children may predict overweight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 87:534-538. Katz, D. (2004). How we grew so big. Time Magazine,163,23. Kellow, Initials. (2009, April 08). Obesity affecting education. Weight Loss Resources, Retrieved from http://www.weightlossresources.co.uk/children/obesity-affectingeducation.htm. Kim, J. and Peterson, K.E. (2008). Association of infant child care with infant feeding practices and weight gain among US infants. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 162:627-633.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

100

Mary Jane Miller, Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin

Kimm, S. Y. Obarzanek, E. (2002). Childhood obesity: a new pandemic of the new millennium. Pediatrics, 110:1003-1007. Kuczmarski, R. (1992). Prevalence of overweight and weight gain in the United States. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 55, 495s-502s. Kuriyan, R., Bhat, S., Thomas T., Vaz, M., and Kurpad, A.V. (2007). Television viewing and sleep are associated with overweight among urban and semi-urban South Indian children. Nutrition Journal. 6:25. Landhuis, C.E., Poulton, R., Welch, D. and Hancox, R.S. (2008). Programming obesity and poor fitness: the long term impact of childhood television. Obesity. 16(6):1457-1459. Livingstone, M.B., Robson, P.J., Wallace, J.M., and McKinley, M.C. (2003). How Active are we? levels of routine physical activity in children and adults. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia, (62), 681-701. Locard, E., Mamelle, N., Billette, A., Miginiac, M., Munoz, F., and Rey, S. (1992). Risk factors of obesity in a five year old population. Parental versus envitonmental factors. International Journal of Obesity and other Related Metabolic Disorders. 16:721-729. Ludwig, D., and Currie, J. (Aug 2010). The Association between pregnancy weight gain and birthweight: a within-family comparison. The Lancet Online, Retrieved from http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2810%29607519/fulltext doi: doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60751-9. McConnaughey, J. (2003, June 16). CDC diabetes warning for children. Associated Press. McCormick, D.P., Sarpong, K., Jordan, L., Ray, L.A.,and Jain, S. (2010). Infant obesity. Are we ready to make this diagnosis? Journal of Pediatrics. E-publication ahead of print March 23. Miller, J., Rosenbloom, A., Silverstein, J. (2004). Childhood obesity. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 89, 1:4211-4218. Mizutani, T., Suzuki, K., Londo, N., and Yamagata, Z. (2007). Association of maternal lifestyles including smoking during pregnancy with childhood Obesity. Obesity. 15(12):3133-3139. O'Donnell, A. M., Reeve, J., and Smith, J. K. (2007). Educational psychology: reflection for action. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Ogden, C., Carroll, M., Curtin, L., Lamb, M., and Flegal, K. (2010). Prevalence of high body mass index in us children and adolescents, 2007-2008. Journal of the American medical Association, 303(3), Retrieved from http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/303/3 /242?ijkey=ImvVl7s. Olsen, E. (1990, May). ‗A‘ is for active. American Health. 73-80. Ormrod, J. E. (2006). Educational psychology: developing learners. Upper Saddle River. NJ: Pearson. Pearce, A., Li, L., Abbas, J., Ferguson, B., Graham, H., and Law, C. (2010). Is childcare associated with the risk of overweight and obesity in the early years? Findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study. International Journal of Obesity. E publication Feb 9. Power, C, and Jefferis B.J. (2002). Fetal environment and subsequent obesity: a study of maternal smoking. International Journal of Epidemiology. 32:413-419. Paul, I.M., Bartok, C.J., Sowns, D.S., Stifter, C.A., Ventura, A.K., and Birch, L.L. (2009). Opportunities for the primary prevention of obesity during infancy. Advances in Pediatrics. 56(1):107-133.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Obesity Epidemic among Young Children

101

Ravelli, G.P., Stein, A.Z., and Susser, M.W. (1976). Obesity in young men after famine exposure in utero and early infancy. New England Journal of Medicine. 295:349-353, Toschke, A.M., Loletzko, B., Slikker, W. Jr., Hermann, M., and von Dries, R. (2002). Childhood obesity is associated with maternal smoking in pregnancy. European Journal of Pediatrics. 161:445-448. Perir, M., Nezu, A., and Viegner, B. (1992). Improving the Long-term Management and Treatment of Obesity. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Powers, S., Dodd, S. L., and Noland, V. J. (2006). Total fitness and wellness. San Francisco: Pearson. Riley, R.W. (2010, Spetember 21). How obesity affects children in school. Walden University. Retrieved from http://connected.waldenu.edu/issues-in-education/schoolhealth-and-safety/item/1158-how-obesity-affects-children-school. Roberts DF, Foehr UG, Rideout VJ, Brodie, M. (1999). Kids and Media at the New Millennium: A Comprehensive National Analysis of Children's Media Use. Menlo Park, CA: The Henry J Kaiser Family Foundation Report. Ross, J.G., and Pate, R.R. (1987). The National children and youth fitness studyii: a summary of findings. Journal of Physical Education, 58(9), Retrieved from ERICDigest.org doi: EJ364 411. Savino, F., Fissore, M.F., Grassino, E.C., Nanni, G.E., Oggero, R., and Silvestro, L. (2005). Ghrelin, leptin and IGF-I levels in breast-fed infants and formula-fed infants in the first years of life. Acta Paediatica. 94:531-537. Schwimmer, J. B., Burwinkle, T., M., and J. W. Varni (2003 April). Health-related quality of life of severely obese children and adolescents. Journal of the American Medical Association, 289 (14), 1813-1819. Snowman, J., McCown, R., and Biehler, R. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. 12 ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. Spiegel., K., Tasali, E., Penev, P., and Van Cauter, E. (2004). Sleep curtailment in healthy young men is associated with decreased leptin levels, elevated ghrelin levels and increased hunger and appetite. Annals of Internal Medicine. 141:846-850. Styne, D.M. (2005). Obesity in childhood: what's activity got to do with it?. American Journal of clinical nutrition, (81), 337-338. Summerfield, L. (1990). Childhood obesity. ERIC Digest, Retrieved from ERICDigests.org doi: ED328556. Taras., H, and Potts-Datema, W. Obesity and student performance at school. Journal of School Health 2005;75(8):291–295. Taveras, E.M., Rifas-Shiman, S.L., Oken, E., Gunderson, E.P., and Gillman, M.W. (2008). Short sleep duration in infancy and risk of childhood overweight. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 162:305-311. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2001). The Surgeon General's call to action to prevent and decrease overweight and obesity. [Rockville, MD]: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General. Available from: US GPO, Washington. [WWW document] www.surgeongeneral.gov/ topics/ obesity/calltoaction/CalltoAction.pd. Van Cleave, J., Gortmaker, S.L., and Perrin, J.M. (2010). Dynamics of obesity and chronic health conditions among children and youth. Journal of the American Medical Assoication. 303(7): 623-630.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

102

Mary Jane Miller, Michelle La Brunda and Naushad Amin

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Whitaker, R.C., Wright, J.A., Pepe, M.S., Seidel, K.D., and Dietz, W.H. (1997). Predicting obesity in young adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. New England Journal of Medicine. 337:869-873. Williams D.P., Going S.B., Lohman T.G., Harsha D.W., Srinivasan S.R., Webber L.S., Berenson G.S. (1992). Body fatness and risk for elevated blood pressure, total cholesterol, and serum lipoprotien ratios in children and adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, (82), 358-363. World Health Organization. (1998). Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, WHO/NUT/NCD/98.1.1998. Wright, P., Fawcett, J., and Crow, R. (1980). The development of differences in the feeding behavior of bottla dn breast fed human infants from birth to two months. Behavioural Processes. 5:1-20. Zoeller, R.T., Bansai, R., and Parris, C. (2005). Bisphenol-A, and environmental contaminant that acts as a thyroid hormone receptor antagonist in vitro, increases serium thyroxine and alters RC3/neurogranin expression in the developing rat brain. Endocrinology. 146(2):505-612.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 9

PRE-KINDERGARTEN TO KINDERGARTEN HEALTH Leslie D. Paternoster*1 and Rebecca Trujillo2 1

2

Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, US New Mexico Department of Health, Albuquerque, New Mexico, US

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Growth and development is an essential concept when trying to understand children‘s growth patterns. Each child is unique in development and maturity. Although each child displays a unique maturational pattern, the skill performance develops in a sequential pattern and is uniform among children (Ball and Binder, 1995). This is due to the growth patterns of the child. Skill development develops through two body processes, from the head down and from the center of the body outward (Ball and Binder). The development from the head downward is termed cephalocaudal development and the growth from the center outward is termed proximodistal development. In cephalocaudal development, the child can hold up his head before he can hold a toy. The same concept exists with the proximodistal development, the child is able to control the trunk before the arms and then the fingers (Ball and Binder).

Physiological Development of the Toddler – 1-3 Years When children become toddlers, generally referred to as ages 1-3 years, the physiological changes occur in a fairly predictable manner; however, it is important to remember that each child reaches milestones in their own time. Generally this does not mean one child is more advanced than another, simply they are maturing at their own pace. In toddlerhood, physical growth slows down from the rapid growth of the infant. The average weight gain is 5 pounds a year with height increases averaging 3 inches per year (Potts and Mandleco, 2007). Because of the slowed growth patterns, toddlers eating habits become more erratic. *

Leslie Paternoster holds an Ed.D. a Master‘s of Science in Nursing and is a Registered Nurse. Rebecca Trujillo holds a Master‘s Degree of Science in Nursing and is a Registered Nurse.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Leslie. D. Paternoster and Rebecca Trujillo

104

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Toddlers become pickier of the foods they eat, and sometimes parents worry they are not getting enough nutrition. It is important for parents to understand that this is part of normal development and not force the child to eat, but to offer frequent healthy snacks throughout the day. The neurological system of the toddler begins reflecting central and peripheral nervous system maturation. The growth of the brain continues slowly, and corresponds to the increasing intellectual skills shown by age two. The more children walk, jump, climb, and increase hand-eye coordination, the more the brain and spinal cord are maturing. The child‘s musculoskeletal system matures as well, with muscle maturation, bone length increases, and muscle strength increases. All of this musculoskeletal maturation enables toddlers to develop autonomy (Potts and Mandleco, 2007). The gastrointestinal and genitourinary system on the toddler continues to mature. Bladder and bowel control is typically achieved and the child‘s stomach enlarges which allows children to consume more. All of the deciduous teeth will have erupted by age 30 months, allowing the child to eat more foods. It is important for parents to understand that even though a child can eat more, there is a period of time known as physiologic anorexia where the child may eat less than expected. This time of decreased appetite will change over time, but it is important to offer foods with specific nutrients. These include low-fat milk, lean meats, and low-fat products (cheese). These foods contain vital nutrients, particularly calcium, phosphorus, and iron, needed for bone and muscle growth (Potts and Mandleco, 2007). The five senses of the child mature allowing the child to explore his/her surroundings, become more autonomous, and more independent. It is important to be aware of sight or hearing problems. If a child fails to develop language, has unusual responses to loud noises, or falls frequently, it could mean a serious problem that needs to be looked at by a health care practitioner (Potts and Mandleco, 2007).

Psychosocial Development of the Toddler The three major psychological tasks are gaining self-control, developing autonomy, and increasing independence (Potts and Mandleco, 2007). The mastery of these tasks can be judged through these interventions outlined by Pottsand Mandleco (2007):      

Tolerating separation from caregiver (stays with sitter or in day care without prolonged crying or distress) Withstanding delayed gratification (waits, without a temper tantrum, until a toy is removed from a box to play) Increased control over bowel and bladder function (maintains dryness for more than 2 hours) Utilizing socially acceptable behavior and language (controls temper tantrums and biting behaviors) Walking well and seeking new experiences in the environment Interacting with others in a less id-centric or egocentric manner (shares toys more willingly (p. 244).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Pre-Kindergarten to Kindergarten Health

105

Cognitive Development of the Toddler Language ability progresses rapidly during the toddler years, however it is dependent on parental encouragement and participation. It is highly encouraged that parents play with their children, and encourage them to develop language skills. Cognitively, the toddler is able to recognize objects of varying sizes and shapes, but they are only beginning to process this. A child will fill a pail with soil and dump it out, but also see a pail of mopping water and will dump it out. It takes time before the toddler will be able to distinguish the difference in usage of the pails and other sorts of containers (Potts and Mandleco, 2007).

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESCHOOLER AGE 3-6 YEARS Physiological Development of the Preschooler

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The rate of physical growth decreases during the preschool years. Generally, children will gain about 5 lbs per year and grow 3 inches in height yearly. Body systems continue to mature and stabilize. All of the senses mature with visual acuity reaching 20/20 and intact color vision. By the end of the preschool years, the permanent teeth should be erupting. This time in a preschooler‘s life is when they have refined motor movement and eye-hand coordination. Walking, running, and jumping are well established. Fine motor skills develop allowing the child to stack blocks, copy a circle, or draw a stick figure. All of these refinements in sense and motor skills allow the child to become more independent and able to express themselves clearer, which leads them into their school years (Potts and Mandleco, 2007).

Psychosocial Development of the Preschooler This is the time in a child‘s life where they begin to decipher right and wrong. The child generally doesn‘t understand the difference, but understands when something is acceptable or not. A feeling of conflict may arise as the child realizes his actions were inappropriate. Feelings of guilt may perpetrate as the child undergoes this moral development. In this age group, verbal reminders of limits are effective. Telling a child to not talk to strangers is one they will understand. It is important for parents and teachers to communicate with the child to help them inderstand the difference between right and wrong. This will allow the child to develop a strong moral code and not suffer from guilt (Potts and Mandleco, 2007).

Play The toddler plays side by side with another child, but in the preschool years, the preschool child will begin interacting with other children during play. The preschooler has increased motor dexterity and is able to use pencils and crayons, as well as manipulate blocks

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

106

Leslie. D. Paternoster and Rebecca Trujillo

into buildings. The child‘s increased motor ability allows them to swing , ride a tricycle, or throw a ball. It is at this time in their life that paper, pens, scissors, glue and other objects should be made available. Fantasy life is very powerful at this age and allowing the child to have dramatic play is important. Dramatic play is when the child acts out the drama of human life (Ball and Bindler, 1995).

Nutrition The diet of preschool children is similar to the toddler diet but mealtime is a more social event. This is a time to allow the child to help with meal preparation and table setting. Although the rate of growth is slowed during the preschool years, the child will have periods of eating a few foods for several days or weeks. This is a time for parents to offer snacks and 3 meals a day. As this is the norm, if food is refused, it should not be given other food in between these meal times (Ball and Bindler, 1995).

Communication

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Language skills blossom during the preschool years. The vocabulary grows to over 2000 words. The child speaks in full sentences. They practice this newfound language by talking endlessly and asking questions. Although the preschool child uses lots of words, they do not grasp the meaning. They hear the literal meaning of words, without understanding the true meaning. An example would be telling the child that she will get a little stick in the arm for and immunization and she literally thinks about a tree branch sticking in her arm (Potts and Mandleco, 2007).

PREVENTION ISSUES FOR CHILDREN When we become parents, our worlds become filled with prevention. From safety locks on cabinets, to child safety restraints we are always on the look out for danger. Our main goal as a parent is to raise healthy children in a safe environment. Parents have an opportunity to learn about immunizations and other screenings from their child‘s primary care provider when they visit for well child check ups.

Screenings Well child visits remain important even for the pre-kindergartener and up. The general rule is even if your child has not been ill a well child check-up needs to be done on a yearly basis starting at age 2. Topics providers may review with parents include the child‘s immunization history, height, weight, blood pressure, growth and development, and feeding and sleep habits. Providers use a growth chart to plot the child‘s height weight and BMI percentile. The American Academy of Pediatrics suggests doing a yearly BMI percentile to

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Pre-Kindergarten to Kindergarten Health

107

determine if a child is at risk for obesity. Growth charts are available with instructions on the internet. Many parents are keeping growth charts at home so they have an understanding of their child‘s growth percentile. Growth charts over time give a visual perspective of the child‘s growth both to the provider and the child‘s parents. Clinicians and parents can download growth charts at http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

School Nurse Another place a pre-kindergartener may be screened is at school by the school nurse. Most school nurses do height, weight vision, hearing, dental and immunization screenings on preschool and kindergarten children. ―The school nurse‘s primary role is to support student learning by acting as an advocate and liaison between the home, the school and the medical community regarding concerns that may affect a student‘s ability to learn‖(NASN, 2005). As technology advances school nurses are charged with case management of children with complex daily health needs, as well as intermittent on-site medical treatments. The school nurse supports the physical, emotional, mental, and social health of each child which with their success in the learning process. The National Association of School Nurses (2007) recommends there be a minimum of 1 nurse per 750 children. If the children have special health needs the recommendation is 1 nurse per 250 children (NASN, 2005). In schools vision screening programs, the school nurse is looking for amblyopia or lazy eye, near vision, far vision, depth perception and color vision. Amblyopia (lazy eye) is one of the most important early childhood vision screenings. Amblyopia is the leading cause of decreased vision in children. Amblyopia is a condition which usually occurs because one eye is stronger than the other. Amblyopia if left untreated can cause permanent blindness in the effected eye. Usually conservative treatments through the use of exercises and patching the stronger eye can correct the weakness. In extreme cases surgical intervention may be an option (Mayo Clinic.com).

Immunizations As children start Preschool, their immune systems are being exposed to lots of new things. Immunizations are one way to protect our children from vaccine preventable diseases. All fifty states in the United States now require immunizations before school entry. Each state has a list of immunizations a child must receive before they can attend school. Some states have a religious exemption or conscientious objector form which may be filled out and presented to the school allowing the child to attend without getting the required vaccinations (Lewis and Bear, 2009). Parents who exempt their children from required vaccinations are relying on herd immunity to protect their children. For example if you are able to vaccinate 75% of the herd or school age children then the 25% of the herd or children not vaccinated will not get the disease because so many children are immune. Most parents have only heard of the diseases which children are vaccinated against. Young parents especially and even young physicians have never seen these diseases. This lack of personal knowledge makes it very important for parents to know and understand why vaccinations are so important (Lewis and Bear, 2009).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

108

Leslie. D. Paternoster and Rebecca Trujillo

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

DIPHTHERIA, TETANUS, AND ACELLULAR PERTUSSIS (DTAP) Diphtheria was once a major cause of illness and death among children. In England and Wales during the 1930‘s diphtheria was the 3rd leading cause of death in children less than 15 years of age. Diphtheria is spread person to person usually through respiratory droplets. Diphtheria can attach any mucous membrane but usually involves the nose and throat. In the United States there were only 5 documented cases since the year 2000. However diphtheria continues to occur in other parts of the world where routine immunizations are not required (Iannelli, 2009). Tetanus is an acute, often fatal, disease which causes the muscles to contract and become stiff. The muscle stiffness usually involves the jaw first and is referred to as lockjaw. It then moves throughout the body. Tetanus is the only vaccine-preventable disease that is not passed person to person. Tetanus is an organism which lives in the soil and the intestines of animals and humans. Transmission is primarily through a contaminated wound whether major or minor. Minor wounds are more likely to be the cause of tetanus because of poor wound management. Tetanus continues to occur throughout the world and in almost all cases it occurs in unvaccinated individuals or adults who have not had a tetanus booster in the last 10 years (Iannelli, 2009). Pertussis also known as whooping cough is a highly contagious acute infectious disease passed from person to person through respiratory droplets. Pertussis cough lasts 8-12 weeks and many times death is related to a secondary bacterial pneumonia. Before vaccine became available pertussis was a common cause of illness among children resulting in 5,000-10,000 deaths a year in the United States. Pertussis is most dangerous to infants who are too young to be vaccinated (CDC). In the United States, only the combination of Diphtheria, Tetanus and acellular Pertussis is available. For children with severe allergy to pertussis vaccine, Diphtheria and Tetanus (DT) combination may also be available. Primary doses of DTaP are given at 2, 4, 6 months of age with a booster dose at 12-18 months and another dose at 4 years of age. In most states DTaP is a required vaccination for school entry (Lewis and Bear, 2009).

POLIOMYELITIS Poliomyelitis commonly called polio is caused by the polio virus. Polio virus enters through the mouth from the feces of an infected individual. Many infected individuals do not know they are infected with the polio virus. It is estimated that 1 in 50 to 1 in 1000 infected individuals will have the paralytic version of polio. The last known case of wild polio virus in the United States was in 1979. However, until 2000 live attenuated oral virus vaccine called OPV was the primary mode of administering polio vaccine. One of the rare adverse reactions of oral vaccine is vaccine-associated paralytic polio caused by using live virus. The paralytic condition mimics that of wild polio virus and can be permanent. For this reason the United States discontinued its use in 2000 and now only uses inactivated polio vaccine (IPV). Due to a worldwide polio eradication program polio is now only seen in 4 countries in the world. In 2008 there were only 1655 documented cases worldwide. Primary doses of polio are generally at 2, 4, 6 months and a booster dose at 4 years of age (Lewis and Bear, 2009).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Pre-Kindergarten to Kindergarten Health

109

HEPATITIS B Hepatitis B virus is estimated to infect 2 billion persons worldwide. More than 350 million people have lifelong, chronic infections causing acute and chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver. The world health organization (WHO) estimated that in 2002 more that 600,000 person died from hepatitis B related complications such as cirrhosis and cancer. Hepatitis B is found in the blood and body fluids of infected individuals and can be passed from mother to baby through the placenta, person to person through sexual intercourse, or exposure to blood. Hepatitis B has been a reportable disease since the 1970‘s. In the mid 1980‘s the incidence of Hepatitis B peaked at 26,000 cases in the United States. From 19902004 the incidence of Hepatitis B declined by 75% mainly because of an aggressive Hepatitis B vaccination campaign. In 2007 there were only 4519 cases in the US. A comprehensive campaign to eliminate the spread of Hepatitis B began in 1991 with the testing of expected mothers, vaccination of house hold contacts, infants and children. Most new born infants receive their first dose of Hepatitis B before leaving the hospital, with subsequent doses at 2 months and 6 months (CDC).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

MEASLES, MUMPS AND RUBELLA Measles is an acute viral infectious disease. Measles is primarily transmitted person to person by respiratory droplet. However, the virus can remain airborne and infectious for up to 2 hours in an enclosed space. The infected individuals will run a high fever usually 103-105 followed by a cough, runny nose and eye infection. The appearances of blue-white spots appear in the mouth on the inside of the cheeks along with a rash that starts at the hairline and gradually spreads over the body to include the hands and feet. Before vaccine became available in 1963, infection with measles virus was nearly universal during childhood with 90% of 15 year olds having a lifelong immunity. Annually there were an estimated 3-4 million cases of measles with about 500 deaths documented each year (CDC). After vaccine became widely used the incidence of measles decreased by 98%. In 2008 there was a large upturn in the amount of measles reported in the United States 91% of these cases were in unvaccinated individuals. One individual traveled outside the United States and imported a case of measles into a population of individuals who had never been vaccinated. Measles still occurs throughout the world and is the leading cause of blindness in African children. However, disruption of the spread of measles has been achieved in the United States and other areas of the Western Hemisphere (Ianneli, 2009). Mumps is an acute viral infection which spreads person to person by respiratory droplets. The virus spreads to multiple tissues including the brain and glands such as the salivary, parotid, pancreas, testes and ovaries. Complications from mumps can include neurologic involvement, sterility, deafness and death. From 1989 to 2004 mumps had declined from 5712 cases to 258 cases. In 2006 there was a multistate outbreak that resulted in 6,000 reported cases. Most of these cases were among college students who had been vaccinated as children (CDC). Rubella is a virus which is only moderately contagious. The virus is characterized by a the onset of a low grade fever, upper respiratory and flu like symptoms followed by a light

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

110

Leslie. D. Paternoster and Rebecca Trujillo

rash that starts on the face and works its way down the body from head to foot. The rash lasts about 3 days and may be more apparent after a hot bath or shower. Prevention of congenital rubella syndrome is the main reason for vaccination programs in the US. Fifty percent of cases of rubella have no symptoms. If a pregnant woman is exposed to rubella and she has no immunity, depending on her gestational age, can cause devastating congenital defects. In 1964-1965 the US had a rubella epidemic resulting in 12.5 million cases of rubella infection and 20,000 cases of congenital rubella syndrome. Many rashes can mimic rubella infection so the only reliable diagnosis is by viral culture. In 2004 an expert panel, after carefully looking at available data, determined that rubella infection is no longer endemic to the US. The only known cases since 2004 have been imported into the US by unvaccinated individuals (Iannelli, 2009). Because Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) still occur outside the United States it is important to maintain immunization rates to protect unvaccinated populations. Infants cannot be vaccinated for MMR until they are 12 months old. This is their primary dose with their secondary dose occurring at age 4. Most schools and colleges in the US require documentation of MMR vaccination for school entry (Lewis and bear, 2009).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

VARICELLA Varicella, also known as chickenpox, is an acute infectious disease caused by the varicella zoster virus which enters the body through the respiratory tract and eyes from an infected individual. Varicella vaccine was first licensed in the US in 1995. Prior to vaccination the rate of disease equaled the birth rate in the US. Chickenpox is highly contagious and 9 out of 10 household contacts to the disease would become infected. Although acute the disease tends to be mild and self limiting however secondary bacterial wound infections became common and contributed to a high rate of hospitalizations. Individuals who have had chickenpox as children, are also at risk for developing herpes zoster or shingles as they get older. It is estimated that 50% of individuals who had chickenpox will develop shingles in their senior years. The primary dose of varicella is given at 12 months with the secondary vaccination at age 4. Most schools in the US require varicella vaccination for school entry (National Association of School Nursing, 2002).

HEPATITIS A Hepatitis A formally known as infectious hepatitis is cause by the hepatitis A virus. Hepatitis A is acquired through fecal oral route. Historically children 2-18 years of age accounted for the high rates of hepatitis A. Fifty percent of cases in the US occurred in western states (Arizona, Alaska, Oregon, New Mexico, Utah, Washington, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Idaho, Nevada, and California) which only accounted for 22% of the population. In late 1990‘s aggressive immunization programs started in these states have lowered the incidence to that of the rest of the country. Primary vaccination for Hepatitis A begins at 12 months with a second dose 6 months later (Iannelli, 2009).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Pre-Kindergarten to Kindergarten Health

111

INFLUENZA Influenza (flu) vaccine is the only vaccine which varies year to year. New recommendations for flu year 2010-2011 have children 6 months to19 years old as part of the primary high risk group. Each year the World Health Organization, CDC, and FDA utilize data collected by sentinel labs throughout the world to decide what influenza strains are included in the coming flu year. They also decide who the high risk groups will be according to what age groups had the most illness the prior year. Children have become part of the high risk group for several reasons. In 2009-2010 H1N1 pandemic saw a large population of children affected by the newly circulating virus. Also healthy children convert immunity at a rate of 70-90% as opposed to individuals who are immune compromised. Primary dose of influenza is at 6 months with a second dose 1 month later. In subsequent years the child will only need 1 yearly dose (CDC).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PNEUMOCOCCAL DISEASE Pneumococcal disease is caused by streptococcus pneumonia bacteria. Prior to vaccine this bacteria caused over 700 cases of meningitis, 13,000 blood infections, over 5 million ear infections and over 200 deaths annually, in children 5 and younger in the US. The first conjugate pneumococcal vaccine known as PCV7 was licensed in 2000. The FDA in 2010 licensed PCV13 which protects children against 13 of the most severe pneumonia bacteria. A lot of streptococcus pneumonia bacteria have become resistant to many antibiotics used to fight the disease. This makes vaccinating children under 5 with PCV13 even more important. Prior to PVC13, PCV7 was used which protected children under 5 from 7 severe pneumonia bacteria. Since 2000 there has been an 80% drop in severe bacterial pneumonia. The primary doses should be given at 2, 4, and 6 months with the last dose given at 12-18 months (Center for Disease Control and Prevention). Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) is a bacterium which is usually spread from person to person through respiratory droplets. Most infected individuals have the bacteria in their noses and are unaware they are infected. When a child under 5 comes in contact with the bacteria they are usually unaffected unless the bacterium moves into the lungs or blood stream of the child. Hib is the number one cause of bacterial meningitis in children under 5. Meningitis is an infection of the brain and spinal cord which could lead to permanent brain damage and deafness. Hib is recommended at 2, 4, 6, months with a 4th dose at 12-18 months (Center for Disease Control and Prevention).

Injury Prevention and School Safety Injury prevention and school safety programs should address issues such as environment, unintentional injuries, school violence, and suicide prevention. Passive injury prevention can consist of installing soft surfaces under playground equipment to fencing around school grounds. The school setting offers the unique opportunity to incorporate safety curricula to reinforce and model safety behaviors. Curricula should include car safety, seat belt safety,

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

112

Leslie. D. Paternoster and Rebecca Trujillo

bike safety, and helmet usage to name a few (Natsiopoulou, Vidali-Laloumi, Zachopoupou, and Trevlas, 2010).

COMMON CHILDHOOD INFECTIONS Cold Sores Cold sores, also called fever blister, caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) is usually acquired in childhood before age 5. The virus usually involves the face, oral cavity, and lips. Care should be taken to keep the child from touching the sore as it can be spread to other areas such as hands, eyes or genitals. If HSV-1 is spread to the eyes it can cause herpetic keratitis which is a known cause of blindness. In severe cases an antiviral medication may be required (Lewis and Bear, 2009).

Common Colds

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Common colds known as upper respiratory infection (URI) involve the nose and pharynx, and usually last 5-7 days. These URI‘s, caused by one of more than 200 known viruses, occurs more frequently in fall and winter. They are the most commonly occurring infectious disease in the US, accounting for the highest number student and teacher absences from school and visits to the doctor. While the disease is self-limiting in healthy children, high risk children are at risk of a secondary bacterial infection. The child is contagious before symptoms occur so excluding form school is of little use unless the child has a fever greater than or equal to100.4 or feels too bad to be able to concentrate on school (Lewis and Bear, 2009).

Diarrhea Diarrhea is the passage of liquid stool and electrolytes. This can be acute or chronic. Chronic is characterized by the condition occurring for 2 weeks or longer. There are 5 known causes of diarrhea they include inflammation, motility disorders, viral and bacterial infections, secretory diarrhea, and osmotic diarrhea. The child will probably not be excluded for 1or 2 loose stools however if the child has a fever greater than or equal to 100.4 they should go home until they are fever-free for 24 hours and if diarrhea persists, evaluated for viral, bacterial or parasitic condition (Guerrant, Oria, Moore, Oria, and Lima, 2008).

Head Lice Head Lice known as pediculosis capitis is an infestation of lice on the scalp and facial hair. There are three types of human lice, head, body and pubic. They all have similar life cycles however, head and pubic lice spend their life on the human body, and body lice live in

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Pre-Kindergarten to Kindergarten Health

113

clothing coming to the skin to feed. Head lice usually cannot live longer than 24 hours without a human host where nits, their egg, may survive up to a week or until it hatches. Lice do not jump, fly or live on animals. Diagnosis is confirmed by the presence of live louse and not by the presence of nits. It is difficult with the naked eye to determine an empty nit from a nit which has not hatched. Nits greater than a half inch from the scalp generally do not indicate an active infestation. Nits can resemble dandruff and sometimes dandruff is mistaken for nits. Nits are difficult to remove with fingernails. Parents should be educated regarding prevention, transmission, detection, and treatment. A student should only be excluded from school until the hair has been properly treated (Lewis and Bear, 2009).

Impetigo Impetigo is a highly contagious skin infection. It is seen primarily in infants and children, transmitted by direct contact. Lesions are most commonly found on face and extremities and can be a secondary infection from an insect bite, abrasion, chickenpox, scabies, burns or any break of the skin. Exclusion depends on the child‘s age and ability to practice good personal hygiene. Without medical treatment the child should remain at home until lesions are dry (Lewis and Bear, 2009).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Fever Fever is defined as an elevation in the normal body temperature of 96.8-99.5 when taken orally. When taken anxillary add one degree to the measurement. When taking rectal temperature subtract one degree from the measurement. A low grade fever is classified as 100-102 degrees orally. A moderate-grade fever is classified by an oral temperature of 102104 degrees. A high-grade temperature is an oral temperature of greater than or equal to 104 degrees. A fever develops as a response to a disruption in the body‘s normal homeostatic balance. A temporary change in temperature can be caused by age, physical activity, ovulation and emotional stress. It generally believed that a temperature of 100.4 is related to the body mounting a response to a viral or bacterial infection. Check your school district health policies and procedures as to when a child should be sent home with a fever (Lewis and Bear, 2009).

A HEALTHY CHILDHOOD AND LIFE Obesity is becoming an epidemic in our children. It has been shown that unhealthy nutritional habits, a sedentary lifestyle and poor hygiene are major contributors to unhealthy children . Nutrition, hygiene, and physical exercise are considered the foundation to keep children healthy. In most developed countries health education is considered an essential element in preschool programs (Natsiopoulou, et al. 2008). Due to the rapid growth of the brain and the high metabolic rate, a proper diet is important in the development of cognition and behavior of children (Benton, 2008). ―The human brain develops rapidly during the last

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Leslie. D. Paternoster and Rebecca Trujillo

114

third of pregnancy and the first 2 years of life‖ (Benton, 2008, p. 26). What can parents do to ensure their children have good cognitive development and do not develop obesity? Breakfast is the most important meal of the day. After a night‘s sleep, the brain needs energy so children can concentrate and perform in school. Having a breakfast that is rich in whole grains, fiber and protein and low in added sugar is the key to a productive morning. The Nemours Foundation (1995-2010) stated a balanced breakfast includes carbohydrates, protein, and fiber:   

Carbohydrates: whole grain cereals, brown rice, whole-grain breads and muffins, fruits, and vegetables Protein: low-fat or non-fat dairy products, lean meats, eggs, nits (including nut butters), seeds, and cooked dried beans Fiber: whole-grain breads, waffles, cereals; brown rice, bran, and other grains; fruits, vegetables, beans, and nuts (Para. 5)

Here are some specific suggestions for a health breakfast:      

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.



Whole-grain cereal topped with fruit and a cup of yogurt Whole-grain waffles topped with peanut butter, fruit, or ricotta cheese Whole-grain pita stuffed with sliced hard-cooked eggs Hot cereal topped with cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, or cloves Peanut butter on a whole-grain bagel with fresh fruit Breakfast smoothie (low-fat milk or yogurt, fruit, and a teaspoon of bran whirled in a blender Shredded cheese on a whole wheat tortilla, folded on half and microwaved for 20 seconds (The Nemours Foundation, para 7)

Noting the trends, the most nutritional foods are those that are whole grains, lean meats, low fat dairy, fresh fruits and vegetables. If fresh fruits and vegetables cannot be found, frozen foods have less sodium; likewise, there are canned fruits and vegetables that are now made without preservatives and salt. The goal is to focus on three meals a day with snacks. For younger children a healthful snack between meals is considered healthy as long as it is not sweets or processed foods. The evidence is mounting that ―eating breakfast as opposed to fasting, eating meals of a different nutritional makeup and the consumption of snacks can influence the cognitive functioning of children‖ (Benton, 2008, p. 35). The optimum time to teach the principles of nutrition, physical activity, and hygiene is during the preschool years (Natsiopoulou et al., 2010).

REFERENCES Ball, J. & Bindler, R. (1995). Pediatric nursing: Caring for children. Norwalk, CT: Appleton and Lange. Benton, D. (2008). The influence of children‘s diet on their cognition and behavior. European Journal of Nutrition, 47(3), 25-37.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Pre-Kindergarten to Kindergarten Health

115

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine: What you need to know. Retrieved August 16, 2010, from. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/vis/ downloads/vis-pcv.pdf. Guerrant, R.L., Oria, R.B., Moore, S.R., Oria, M.O, & Lima, A.M. (2008). Malnutrition as an enteric infectious disease with long-term effects on child development. Nutrition Reviews, 66(9), 487-505. Iannelli, V., (2009). Herd immunity. Retrieved August16, 2010, from. http://pediatrics.about. com/od/pediatricsglossary/g/herd_immunity.htm. Lewis, K. D., & Bear, B. J., (2009). Manual of school health: A handbook for school nurses, educator, and health professionals (3rd ed.). St. Louis, Mo: Saunders. Mayo Clinic.Com. Lazy eye (amblyopia). Retrieved August 16, 2010, from http://www. mayoclinic.com/health/lazy-eye/DS00887. National Association of School Nursing, (2007). School nursing, scope andsStandards of practice, (3rd ed.). Silver Springs, MD: Nursesbooks.org. Natsiopoulou, T., Vidali-Laloumi, E., Zachopoupou, E., Trevlas, and Research Group of Archimeded Project. (2010). An innovative preschool health education program. Health Science Journal, 4, (2), 110-117. Nemours Foundation. (1995-2010). Breakfast basics. In KidsHealth. Retrieved July 26, 2010, From http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn=KidsHealthandlic=107andcat_id148 and article. Nemours Foundation. (1995-2010). Carbohydrates, sugar, and your child. In Kids Health. Retrieved July 26, 2010, from http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn= KidsHealth andlic=107andcat_id148andarticle. Potts, N.L. and Mandleco, B.L. (2007). Pediatric nursing (2nd.ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 10

A META-ANALYTIC ASSESSMENT OF RECENT PEDIATRIC COGNITIVE REHABILITATION EFFICACY RESEARCH Rick Parente*, Rekha Tiwari and Anju Vaidya

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

College of St. Rose, Albany, New York, US

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can produce a dramatic decrement in a child‘s cognition that may last a lifetime Slomine and Locascio (2009). Unfortunately, the development of effective treatments for TBI sequelae has not kept pace with the prevalence of the disorder. Although most published research on cognitive rehabilitation therapy with pediatric patients shows some improvement in one or more aspects of cognitive functioning that results from treatment, there are no systematic evaluations that have assessed how much of this treatment effect would have normally occurred anyway with the simple passage of time or that have investigated treatment effect sizes that occur with and without CRT intervention (Rohling, et al. 2009). Therefore, the purpose of this review is to summarize the recent research on this issue, (since the year 2000) and to document, wherever possible, the size of the effects that result from treatments that extend beyond those that occur normally without treatment. Several reviews of Cognitive Rehabilitation Therapy (CRT) efficacy with adults have been published (Cicerone et al., 2000,2005; Kennedy et al., 2008; Rohling et al., 2009). There are some CRT efficacy studies with children but none that are comparable in terms of their methodological precision (Hagberg-Van‘t Hooft, 2005; Laatsch et al., 2007;Limond and Leeke, 2005; Slomine and Locascio, 2009). What is available does not generally provide strong evidence for pediatric CRT efficacy (Limond and Leeke, 2005). There is, however, cause for hope. For example, although a recent review (Laatsch et al., 2007) did not conclude that there was indisputable evidence for CRT efficacy; these authors did conclude that there was enough evidence to warrant continued research and the development of practice guidelines. Therefore, our goal was to further evaluate the existing evidence from recently published efficacy studies and to assess if there is evidence to suggest that pediatric CRT *

Rick Parente is a faculty member on the staff of the College of St. Rose in Albany, New York, and Rekha Tiwari and Anju Vaidya-Thurlow M.Ed. are graduate students at College of St. Rose.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

118

Rick Parente, Rekha Tiwari and Anju Vaidya

produces a treatment effect that is greater than one would attribute to the passage of time alone. Therefore, we begin this chapter with a brief discussion of meta-analytic procedures and continue with a classification taxonomy of recent research evidence along with a breakdown of studies into these categories. We go onto discuss the various types of studies that are prevalent in the pediatric CRT literature. We then describe recent follow-up research dealing with various predictors of recovery such as severity of injury at the time the injury occurred. These studies shed light on which demographic and injury variables predict recovery. However, because these studies did not involve an intervention, they also permit and estimate of effect size that occurred without intervention over follow-up intervals of various lengths. This type of study is therefore one source of evidence regarding the change in functional status that occurs after pediatric brain injury that occurs with the passage of time. Next we delve into effect sizes that result from a diversity of treatment programs that are discussed in published literature. The chapter ends with a discussion of the current state of pediatric CRT and suggestions for improving treatment to this vulnerable group.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

META-ANALYTIC INVESTIGATIONS Meta-analysis (MA) is a technique for synthesizing research findings in a specific area of research interest. The purpose of the MA is to select a sampling of studies in a certain content area and to estimate the effect sizes (ES) that occur across this sampling of studies. In addition, most MAs record the various characteristics of the studies and to use these to determine which characteristics predict the ESs. The value of the meta-analysis is that it provides a quantitative overview of the information in a research area that cannot be gleaned from a simple verbal review and discussion of the literature. Most MAs begin by discussing the manner in which articles were selected however; the selection criteria may differ markedly from one MA to the next. In this MA, we selected articles from peer-reviewed journals that have been published since the year 2000. We chose this timeframe because a higher percentage of these articles involved larger samples and better research methodologies. We did not include small sample or single case designs in our search nor did we include review articles that did not involve some quantitative evaluation of participants. This is not to say that the excluded articles were inadequate or inconsequential. Our selection criteria was chosen to ensure that the results were based on a selection of recent studies with larger sample sizes, more rigorous experimental designs, and appropriate statistical analyses.

A TAXONOMY FOR SELECTING PEDIATRIC CRT INVESTGATIONS Slomine and Locascio (2009) provided an excellent classification of studies of pediatric CRT that divided the existing research into four main groupings that differ primarily in terms of their experimental rigor. After reviewing the studies presented here, we decided to expand this taxonomy. Although similar to the one provided by Slomine and Locascio (2009), this one includes an additional category, and is somewhat more specific concerning the characteristics of the classification.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

A Meta-Analytic Assessment of Recent Pediatric Cognitive Rehabilitation …

119

We used the schema in Table 1 to classify the various articles discussed below. Generally, most of them fall into Class III and IV. We could not locate any Class 1 studies or Class II studies; Class V studies were not included in this review. A review of the dates for our selection of studies suggest that there has been, on average, one or two published studies of pediatric CRT efficacy on average per year since 2000 (Laatsh, et al, (2007; Limond and Leeke, 2005). Very few of the articles included an effect size in the report and most of the articles did not contain enough statistical data to extract more than a rough estimate of effect size. There was also a great variety of participant, treatment, and dependent measures which made it difficult to compare the results. However, most of them did include a verbal endorsement of pediatric cognitive rehabilitation therapy efficacy.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Table 1. Classification of Pediatric CRT studies Class I: Clinical trial studies in which the participants are randomly assigned to treatment and control conditions and the researchers and participants are blinded to the purpose of the experiment. The sample of participants represent a larger population and the results clearly generalize to that population. The outcome measures, criteria for inclusion and exclusion, and the method for dealing with dropouts, significant covariates, and any other methods for equating groups are clearly defined and incorporated into the design. The authors justify their sample size with a power analysis, interpret results based on appropriate statistical analysis, and demonstrate equivalent baseline performance where appropriate. Class II: Studies of a representative sample with random assignment of participants to conditions and a control condition that does not receive treatment. These include repeated measures studies of groups (not single subject designs) in which each participant serves as his or her own control (ABA design), there is a baseline measurement (A), an intervention (B), and a return to baseline or a removal of the intervention followed by a return to baseline (BA or BABA). One or more of the Class 1 characteristics are not included in the design. The authors justify their sample size with a power analysis and the results are based upon an appropriate statistical analysis Class III: All other treatment and control group comparisons in which the treatment group and control group are generally selected from the same population of participants but not necessarily at random (e.g., waitlist control group). One or more of the remaining Class 1 characteristics are not included in the design. Class IV: Repeated measure studies that involve a baseline measurement and an intervention comparison, but not return to baseline, and that are done with groups of participants. All single case experimental designs. Class V: All other uncontrolled studies, case series, case reports, or expert opinion.

CATEGORIES OF PEDIATRIC TBI EFFICACY RESEARCH Most of the recent studies of pediatric TBI can be classified into two broad categories. The first type is the longitudinal follow-up study that identifies different predictors of recovery. Most of these studies (e.g., since 2000) use correlational designs which do not permit causal generalizations. Nevertheless, these studies do permit evaluation of recovery over time that could not be attributed to an intervention. We therefore used these studies to assess how much recovery would occur without intervention. However, it is important to point out one drawback to this type of assessment, that is, the the timeframe for these studies ranged from months to several years which allows only a rough estimate of recovery over time. Also, most of these studies did not provide enough information to compute a precise

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Rick Parente, Rekha Tiwari and Anju Vaidya

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

120

estimate of the effect size. For example, most reported means and standard deviations for a pre- and post-test but did not include the correlation between the two measures. If was often necessary to estimate the ESs from p values alone or from conversions of reported statistics like t or F. Consequently, the ES estimates obtained are the best that could be derived given the available information. The second class of studies involves Class III investigations, many of which include a randomized control/treatment designs. However, most studies in this category were done in clinical environments where the pragmatics of providing therapy took precedence over the rigors of experimental methodology. They generally did not include sufficient description of the interventions to permit an exact replication of the study. Nevertheless, this type of study included a control group that permitted evaluation of recovery without intervention during roughly the same timeframe that occurred in the intervention condition. Table 2 summarizes six recent studies that predicted recovery after TBI from patient characteristics. Each study was selected because of its sample size and because it concerned patients who fell within an age range generally associated with childhood or early adolescence. These studies documented several predictors of recovery from pediatric brain injury. Each of them included some statistical information that permitted an estimate of change in cognitive status over time from which one could extract an estimate of ES that was due to temporal factors alone. Again, most of these estimates were based on published means and standard deviations or p values and should therefore be considered crude estimates. Nevertheless, they do offer some useful information concerning the size of the temporal effect in this type of study that has not been available in previous publications. The average effect size measured in d units was .31 (p < .05) which indicates a small but significant change in functional status over time. Because these ESs were estimated from studies that did not involve an intervention, the recovery was due to change in functioning that could not be attributed to any particular treatment. The Predictors column in Table 2 indicates that two studies identify Age at injury as the best predictor of long-term deficit. Two studies identify family variables as a significant predictor of persistent deficit. Table 2. Studies Predictive of Recovery after Pediatric Brain Injury Study Muscara et al. (2008) Prasad et al. (2002)

N 36 60

Age 8-12 LT6

Slomine et al., (2002)

68

7-15

Van Heugten et al. (2006)

31

12

Nedabaum et al. (2007)

54

1-7

Anderson et al. (2002)

124

3-12

Predictors Injury Severity # of Brain Lesions Pupilary Abnormalities Inflicted Injury # of Lesions Age at Injury Verbal IQ Lower Education Family Functioning Injury Severity Family Functioning Prior Skills Learning Age at injury

Outcome Executive Dysfunction Glasgow Coma Scores

Executive Functioning

Intellectual Functioning Executive Functioning

Intellectual Functioning

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

A Meta-Analytic Assessment of Recent Pediatric Cognitive Rehabilitation …

121

Two studies indentified Injury Severity and Number of Lesions, as significant predictors of deficit. Regarding the outcomes, three of the studies assessed some aspect of executive functioning and the remainder investigated different measures of cognitive functioning. Each of these studies reported that the measure of recovery could be predicted by the combination of variables listed in Table 2. Several other studies identified a variety of additional variables that may predict recovery from brain injury. However, these results have not been systematically replicated. For example, Reeves, et al (2009) reported that ―Slow Cognitive Tempo‖ also predicted recovery from brain injury. Prasad et al. (2002) reported that the duration of impaired consciousness accounted for a significant amount of the variance on the Glasgow Coma Scale ratings as the child recovered from brain injury. Whether or not the brain injury was inflicted also predicted worse cognitive outcomes. Pupillary abnormalities predicted poor motor skill recovery.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

TREATMENT EFFICACY Table 3 summarizes several studies with adequate sample sizes and at least a Class III experimental design that were published within the last decade. Each study assessed the effects of treatment programs that targeted various aspects of cognitive functioning in pediatric patients. For those studies where at least means and standard deviations were available to estimate an effect size, the average ES overall was d= .71 (p < .05). An exclusion sensitivity analysis indicated that none of the studies could be considered outliers and that these effect sizes were generally homogeneous (Q = 3.38, p > .05). Because this ES was statistically significant it is tempting to conclude that providing treatment did increase cognitive function after brain injury with pediatric patients. However, the question remains whether this ES is substantially larger than the one estimated in studies in which the participants were simply followed and the ES was attributable largely to the passage of time (See Table 2) or relative to control conditions where a group of participants was tested pre and post without the corresponding intervention. The studies in Table 2 simply followed children for varying lengths of time after their injuries. The effect size of .31 represents the change that occurred in the children‘s cognitive status over time. Table 3. Recent Studies of Cognitive Rehabilitation Effectiveness Study Butler et al. (2008) Butler & Copeland (2002) Van‘t Hooft et al. (2005) Wilson et al. (2001) Braga et al. (2005) Ponford, et al. (2001) Wade et al. (2006) Wade et al. (2008)

N 161 31 38 12 72 119 32 9

Age Range 6-17 6-22 9-17 8 5-12 6-15 5-16 11-18

McCauley, et al. (2010)

58

58

Therapy CRT Attention Attention Memory Family Informational Brochures Problem Solving Web-based Problem Solving Incentive

Outcome Attention/Academics Attention/Academics Attention/Memory Memory Cognitive/Functional Stress/symptoms Anxiety/depressions Parental Report Prospective Memory

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

122

Rick Parente, Rekha Tiwari and Anju Vaidya

Although the time intervals reported in Table 2 were longer and more variable than those reported in the studies in Table 3, both comparisons suggest that the effect of treatment is significantly larger than that which results from temporal factors. The ESs for participants in available control conditions in the Table 2 studies was .45 which was significantly lower than the average effect size in the treatment condition. The difference between the ES from the treatment conditions versus that which derives from the control suggests that a substantial change occurs that cannot be attributed to the time interval between measurements alone. It is therefore reasonable to dissect the pediatric CRT literature further to assess which types of treatment have proven most effective. Generally, cognitive rehabilitation after pediatric TBI has focused on three aspects of cognition: Attention, memory, and executive functions. We will discuss these areas individually below.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Attention Regarding attention, Butler and Copland, (2002) provided Attention Process Training (Sohlberg and Mateer,) memory, and metacognitive strategy training and mnemonics to 21 pediatric TBI patients for two hours per week for six months. The training produced improvement in measures of attention but there was no corresponding change in measures of academic functioning. Van‘t Hooft et al. (2005) studied 38 children who received attention training for 17 weeks. The participants improved their performance on tests of sustained and selective attention. Butler et al. (2008) provided 20 sessions of training to 161 children which produced significant improvement in their academic achievement but no discernable changes in measures of focused attention or vigilance. These studies generally indicate that pediatric attention training does produce a significant improvement but it is questionable whether the effect persists after therapy ends or how well the effect generalizes to other aspects of the child‘s daily living.

Memory Table 3 presents two recent studies with adequate sample sizes and research designs to qualify as class III studies. Wilson, et al. (2001) taught participants how to use a prosthetic memory paging device for 7 weeks after which the majority of them showed improved memory with the pager. Van‘t Hooft et al (2005) also measured memory with 38 children after 17 weeks of attention training which produced improved word memory. McCauley, et al., (2010) reported significant improvement in event-based prospective memory with a group of children who were given monetary incentives to perform relative to a matched group who were not offered incentives. In general, these studies together with those from the attention literature suggest that therapies involving attention training, using prosthetic devices, or that involve some tangible reward are good candidates for development of efficacious treatment after pediatric TBI.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

A Meta-Analytic Assessment of Recent Pediatric Cognitive Rehabilitation …

123

Executive Functioning

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A consistent theme in several recent publications concerns evaluation of persistent executive function deficits. Selma, et al (2008) reported that between as many as 38% of children experience persistent executive difficulties during the first year after a brain injury and these deficits either created or exacerbated pre-morbid problems with behavior and learning. Nedabaum (2007) also reported persistent executive difficulties after severe TBI, however skills that had developed early rather than later were less affected. Muscara, Catroppa, and Anderson (2008) also reported that adolescents and young adults who suffered a more severe TBI during childhood showed a higher degree of executive dysfunction. Slomine et al (2002) reported an inverse relationship between age and preservative errors on the Wisconsin Card Sort Task which measures cognitive flexibility. In general, these reports document persistent executive dysfunction resulting from brain injury. Severity of injury and age at the time of injury are perhaps the best predictors of persistent executive difficulties. Our literature review did not reveal any recent intervention studies that that met the Class III criteria and that were designed to evaluate treatment of executive dysfunction. Most of the recently published studies of executive skill intervention involve small samples or single case designs. For example, Selznick and Savage, (2000) studied three adolescents who were instructed to self-monitor their attention. The instruction improved their ability to remain on task during a math test. Feeney and Ylvisaker (2003) studied the effectiveness of structured routines with two children who were disruptive. They reported that the treatment reduced the children‘s aggression and disinhibited behavior. In general, these studies provide mild support for intervention efficacy directed towards improving executive functioning. There is, however, no consistent body of recent Class III or above studies that document the efficacy of executive functioning training after pediatric TBI.

DISCUSSION The research regarding pediatric CRT presents a mixed picture. On the positive side, although the studies reviewed here differ regarding their outcome measures, most studies report significant improvement in cognitive functioning with treatment. This meta-analysis provides evidence that pediatric CRT produces more improvement relative to studies of children where recovery occurs simply due to the passage of time. Several predictors of return of function have been identified and replicated. For example, age at injury, family related variables, injury severity, and number of lesions the person sustains have all been implicated as useful predictors of return of functioning. There are several recent studies with adequate sample sizes and randomized control procedures the results of which are generally consistent with those reported from earlier small sample or single case designs. Several therapies have been identified that produce significant effects or that show promise for treating attention (Sohlberg and Mateer, 1989), memory (McCauley, et al., 2010), and executive function deficits after pediatric TBI. On the negative side, we could not find a single Class II or Class I published study that we could include in this review. The vast majority of published research in this area involves single case or small sample quasi-experimental procedures. There are few published studies

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

124

Rick Parente, Rekha Tiwari and Anju Vaidya

that deal with very young children. Statistical effect sizes are typically not reported nor is the statistical data sufficient to make more than a rough guess at the effect sizes. There is a great deal of variation in the intervention methods. Standardized treatment protocols do not exist nor is it usually possible to replicate most published treatment protocols from the descriptions that are provided in the articles. Interventions are seldom comparable nor are classifications of injury severity, the age of the participants, or the lesion sites. Outcome measures are seldom the same and many studies use self-report measures or constructed measures with questionable, reliability and validity.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

DIRECTIONS Our review of the pediatric CRT literature has exposed several areas in need of research and development. First, there is a clear need for standardized treatment protocols. Most of the studies we reviewed were conspicuously vague regarding the nature of the interventions provided. Few, if any provided enough information to allow another clinician to implement the treatment or intervention in his or her clinical practice. Without standardized treatment protocols, the process of evaluating what works and what does not is virtually impossible. There is a clear need to develop standardized outcome measures that are ecologically valid. Most all of the studies reviewed here used different outcome measures. Those measures that are standardized are of questionable ecological validity and those that are self-report are of questionable utility. Perhaps the most expedient approach to standardizing outcome measurement is to use measures of everyday functioning such as academic performance or other countable measures of independent functioning around the home. It is also important to assess not only if a treatment produces a significant change in functioning but also to assess the extent to which the change persists and generalizes to other aspects of daily life. There is also a need to identify variables that may affect outcome and that are also treatable. For example, the severity of the injury and the number of lesion sites at the time of injury may predict outcome but very little can be done about these issues post-injury. However, the family environment also affects outcome and it is possible to change the family situation so as to facilitate recovery. Therefore, it is important to identify more of these treatable variables and also to evaluate ways to manipulate them to enhance recovery. These results indicate that the family support structure can facilitate recovery. This relationship should be studied further because ultimately, it is the family that carries the burden of extended treatment. However, another variable that is perhaps equally as important but has not been systematically evaluated is the relationship between the therapist and the client. This therapeutic alliance has been show to affect outcome in a number of studies of conventional psychotherapy (Gelso and Samstag, 2008) and it is likely that it also affects recovery in CRT. Although these types of relationships may be difficult to quantify, the ESs they control may be substantial regardless of how they were measured. These types of studies may therefore, in the long-term, lead to the most efficacious treatment strategies.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

A Meta-Analytic Assessment of Recent Pediatric Cognitive Rehabilitation …

125

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES Anderson, A, Catroppa, C., Morse, S., Flora Haritou, F. and Rosenfeld, J. (2000). Recovery of Intellectual Ability followingTraumatic Brain Injury in Childhood: Impact of Injury Severity and Age at Injury, Pediatric Neurosurgery, 32, 282–290. Braga, L.W., Da Paz, A.C, Ylvisaker, M. (2005). Direct clinician-delivered versus indirect family supported rehabilitation of children with traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlledtrial. Brain Injury, 19, 819–831. Butler, R.W., Copeland, D. R. and Fairclough, D.L. (2008). A multicenter, randomized clinical trial of a cognitive remediation program for childhood survivors of a pediatric malignancy.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 367–378. Butler, R.W., Copeland, D.R. (2002). Attentional processes and their remediation in children treated for cancer: a literature review andthe development of a therapeutic approach. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8,115–124. Cicerone, K.D., Dahlberg, C., Kalmar, K., et al. (2000). Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: recommendations for clinical practice. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 81,1596–1615. Cicerone, K.D., Dahlberg, C., Malec, J.F., et al. (2005). Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: updated review of the literature from 1998 through 2002. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86, 1681–1692. Feeney, T. J., and Ylvisaker, M. (2003). Context-sensitive behavioral supports for young children with TBI. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 18(1), 33-51. Gelso, C.J. and Samstag, L.W. (2008). A Tripartite Model of the Therapeutic Relationship. Handbook of Counseling Psychology (4th ed.). (pp. 267-280). Hagberg-Van‘t Hooft, I. (2005). Cognitive Rehabilitation of Children with Traumatic Brain Injuries.Stockholm, Sweeden; Karolinska University Press. Kennedy, M.R.T., Coelho, C., Turkstra, L., et al. (2008). Intervention for executive functions after traumatic brain injury: a systematic review, meta-analysis and clinical recommendations.Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 18, 257–299. Laatsch, L., Harrington D, Hotz, G., et al. (2007). An evidence-based review of cognitive and behavioral rehabilitation treatment studies in children with acquired brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 22, 248–256. Limond, J., and Leeke, R. (2005). Practitioner review: cognitive rehabilitation for children with acquired brain injury. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46, 339–352. McCauley, S. R., Pedroza, C., Chapman, S.B. et al. (2010). Event-based prospective memory performance during subacute recovery following moderate to severe traumatic brain injury in children: Effects of monetary incentives. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 1-7. Nedabaum, C., Anderson, V, and Catropa, C. (2007) Executive Function Outcomes Following Traumatic Brain Injury in Young Children: A Five Year Follow-Up, Developmental Neuropsychology, 32(2), 703–728. Ponsford, J., Willmott, C., Rothwell, A., ( 2001). Impact of early intervention on outcome after mild traumatic brain injury in children. Pediatrics 108,1297–1303.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

126

Rick Parente, Rekha Tiwari and Anju Vaidya

Prasade, M. R., Ewing-Cobbs, L., Swanka, P. R. and Kramerb, L., et al. (2002) Predictors of Outcome following Traumatic Brain Injury in Young Children, Pediatric Neurosurgery, 36:64–74. Rohling, M.L., Faust, M.E., Beverly, B., et al. (2009). Effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation following acquired brain injury: a meta-analytic re-examination of Cicerone et al.‘s (2000, 2005)systematic reviews. Neuropsychology, 23:20–39. Slomine, B.S., Gerring, J.P., Grados, M.A., et al. (2002). Performance on measures of executive function following pediatric traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 16, 759–772. Slomine, B.S., McCarthy, M.L., Ding, R., et al. (2006). Health care utilization and needs after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Pediatrics, 117, 663–674. Sohlberg , M.M. , Mateer, C.A. (1986). Effectiveness of an attention training program. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 19,117–130. Sohlberg, M.M. and Mateer, C.A. (1989). Introduction to cognitive rehabilitation: theory and practice. New York: Guilford Press. Van Heughten, C. M., Hendriksen, J., Rasquin, S, & Dijcks, B (2006). Brain Injury, 20(9), 895–903 Van‘t Hooft, I. , Andersson, K., Bergman, B., et al. (2005). Beneficial effect from a cognitive training program on children with acquired brain injuries demonstrated in a controlled study. Brain Injury, 19, 511–518. Wade, S.L., Michaud, L., Brown, T.M. (2006). Putting the pieces together: preliminary efficacy of a family problem-solving intervention for children with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 21, 57–67. Wade, S.L., Walz, N.C., Carey, J.C., et al. (2008). Preliminary efficacy of a Web-based family problem-solving treatment program for adolescents with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 23, 369–377. Wilson, B.A., Emslie, H.C., Quirk, K., et al. (2001). Reducing everyday memory and planning problems by means of a paging system: a randomized control crossover study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 70,477–482.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 11

OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY AND EARLY INTERVENTION Autumn L. Latham* and Bethany J. Luke

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, US

Occupational therapy is a broad field which attempts to make it possible for individuals facing physical, cognitive, or psychosocial challenges to engage in meaningful activities and meet the demands and responsibilities of everyday life to support health, wellness, and participation across the lifespan. Though the scope of practice of occupational therapy is vast, the goals of all interventions focus on a similar outcome; for each individual to live life to its most fulfilling extent possible. In this chapter, we will be discussing the aspects of occupational therapy (OT) in relation to various affective evaluation and intervention processes, specifically for the pediatric population of birth to 5 years of age. Some of the key areas of focus for occupational therapy assessment and intervention are daily routines, activities of daily living (i.e. feeding, dressing, bathing, sleeping, and play), family centered care, psychosocial components (i.e. attachment, social support systems, peer interaction, and mental health), self regulation, and motor development. Such occupational therapy services that attend to the aforementioned can be termed as early intervention. Early intervention is a multidisciplinary approach to aid in the development of children from birth to 5 years of age through services that focus on child health and well-being, the promotion of developmental milestones, the reduction of the effects of developmental delays on daily life activities, remediation of existing or emerging disabilities, prevention of functional decline, and the encouragement of adaptive parenting and general family dynamics. Children receiving such services have been identified as having an established risk, a developmental delay, or to be at a risk from biological and/or environmental factors. *

Autumn Lynn Latham is a graduate student completing her master's degree in Occupational Therapy from the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque, New Mexico. She completed her undergraduate bachelor‘s degree in business administration with an emphasis in marketing at Easter New Mexico University in Portales, New Mexico. This is her second chapter in a book, and her research topic for her master's project is "Hand Impairments and Activity Limitations in Four Chronic Hand Diseases" and her further research interests include neurology and wound care.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

128

Autumn L. Latham and Bethany J. Luke

Specialized and individualized interventions, such as those from occupational therapy, will assist in closing the gap between the level of functioning between atypical children and those of their typically developing chronological age peers, as well as aid in the prevention of developing further disabilities.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES: PHYSICAL, SENSORY, AND COGNITIVE PROGRESSION OF THE FIRST TWO YEARS During the first 2 years of a child‘s life, a plethora of changes occur physically, cognitively, and psychosocially which act as a foundation for the rest of one‘s life. In fact, there have been books dedicated in their entirety to the first two years of life that go in to great detail of changes typically seen, down to a weekly basis. After the first two years, the amount of changes occurring within a short period of time slows, yet is typically still monumental. We are going to broadly touch on some typical changes that are seen in the first two years of life, and where occupational therapy fits in to offer services that promote the greatest level of function possible during cases of atypical development so that the individual may live their life to the fullest. Within in the first 2 years, infant growth patterns are indicative of development through growing taller, gaining weight, and increasing head circumference. There are average percentiles that have been established that can be used as reference over time for how a child is developing against the norm. However, typically developing children may develop consistently faster or shorter, larger or smaller than others, therefore these averages are merely references and not always necessarily diagnostic. Changes in sleep patterns, caused by both nature and nurture, are also normal over the first two years of life, with a gradual decrease from about 17 hours a day to 13, with less REM sleep and less night waking (Berger, 2003). Occupational therapists may aid parents in the implementation of consistent sleep routines for the infant, including creating an environment that is conducive to restful sleep for the infant so that they may be successful in their job of growth and development. For most infants all the senses are functional at birth, with vision being the least and hearing the most mature (Berger, 2003). The use of all the senses for an infant supports their early social interactions, hence if one or more of the sensory systems are compromised, an occupational therapist can help determine compensatory strategies to be put in place that will promote success, independence, and quality of life. In terms of motor skills, only reflexes are apparent at birth – including those for survival (i.e. breathing and sucking), which provide a foundation for skills needed later in life, and show the level of brain maturation (Berger, 2003). Reflexes are certain involuntary motor responses expected to be evoked by application of certain stimuli. If certain reflexes are not evident, or are apparent for too long (i.e. should have dissipated by a certain age, typically), a concern of atypical development may be suggested, and the need for occupational therapy intervention is likely. The development of gross motor skills – which involve movement of the body in its entirety – varies in terms of norms across cultures and genetics. For instance, in our culture it is typical to see a child go from rolling over to sitting up at approximately 6 months of age,

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Occupational Therapy and Early Intervention

129

from standing to walking at about 1 year of age, and climbing to running by age 2 (Berger, 2003). Again, this is just a point of reference, and certain situations must be taken in to account when making diagnostic judgments. The development of fine motor skills – those involving hand and finger manipulation – are more complex, mature over time with experience, and thus are more difficult for children to master. However, with accrued practice children learn how to control their hands and fingers in order to aim, grab, and manipulate almost anything within reach. If difficulty with object manipulation is present, whether unilateral (one handed) or bilateral (use of both hands), occupational therapists may intervene to work on such skills needed further in life. As first discussed by Piaget, young infants can be seen as active learners who are seeking to make sense of their observations and experiences which seem so complex in their early stage of cognitive development. From birth, and all the way through development, it is the job of the caregiver to provide an atmosphere that provides an appropriate level of stimulation advantageous to the development of the child‘s brain and cognition. Parent and caregiver education, as well as the establishment and execution of how to provide the best environment for their child‘s needs, is yet another area where occupational therapists can provide services. These experiences of new images, smells, sounds, sensations of the body may be overwhelming and bombard the senses of any young child and especially of those that are developing atypically or have sensory regulation issues. The ability to organize and understand what is going on in the world around you, including the information coming in from all of your sensory systems, is something that typically developing people are able to do with ease and, for the most part, overall comfort. However, there are children that have difficulty receiving information from various stimuli at any given time, as well as organizing it in their mind and body such that it makes sense and is ―comfortable‖. In fact, for some of these children the input they are receiving from various stimuli may actually register as painful within their sensory systems. Such cases benefit from an area of occupational therapy termed sensory integration, developed by a revolutionary occupational therapist and psychologist by the name A. Jean Ayres. Sensory integration focuses on retraining the senses so that the child becomes increasingly proficient at shifting attention to what he or she perceives as meaningful and tuning out that which is irrelevant to current needs and interests. This results in the increase in the child‘s ability to organize play behavior for greater lengths of time and to gain emotional regulation control (Parham and Mailloux, 2010). Some babies that are born pre-term or children that have been identified to be at risk receive occupational therapy services that incorporate sensory integration techniques to aide in the maturation of their delicate sensory systems. In the cases that there is atypical speech and language development and/or oral-motor (i.e. feeding, swallowing, sensory) issues, it is likely that a speech language pathologist will work closely with the occupational therapist to create a plan to improve oral skills of the child such that they are able to thrive. Emotional development is a process that begins in infancy at birth and continues across the lifespan. At birth, contentment and distress are the present emotions, which are soon joined at around 4 months of age by anger, provoked by the frustration of failed efforts (Berger, 2003). Fear of specific objects or occurrences (i.e. strangers or separation) does not appear typically till the end of the first year, even though reflexive fear is present at birth. During the second year, more discriminatory emotions are seen, such as fear, joy, anger, and distress, due to an increase in social awareness. This leads to the expression of more emotions

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

130

Autumn L. Latham and Bethany J. Luke

that are social in nature, such as jealousy and shame, by toddlers (Berger, 2003). Also, the role of temperament, or personality, begins to play a larger role in the child‘s interaction as they age. Occupational therapists take all of these factors in to consideration, and work on facilitating the child‘s development based on their particular needs and style alongside the parents or caregivers. Furthermore, although the significance of early psychosocial development may still be debated by some experts, it is clearly seen by practitioners that the need for dedicated caregivers, who are available and receptive for play, and are committed to supporting each aspect of early development is a want and necessity for all infants and developing children. Occupational therapists see this need and aim to provide services to the child, caregiver and family that promote a positive and nurturing developmental environment and experience.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY IN THE NEONATAL INTENSIVE CARE UNIT Occupational therapy services start as early as birth. From the uterus to outside the womb, there is a significant amount of developmental changes and growth occurring, but unfortunately, some babies have unexpected circumstances causing them to be in the neonatal intensive care unit. Typically pre-term babies, whom may or may not present with disease and disorders, are placed in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) within the hospital at birth. This is an extremely important time in the development of these children because they are so volatile. Early intervention is significant for the developmental process of pre-term babies in areas such as sensory self-regulation, attachment and relationships, and neural and motor development. These areas are all related in the sense that without one of these aspects, infant mental health is compromised. For infants, especially those in the NICU, stressful stimuli results in physiological and psychosocial responses that are harmful to the development of a child. A stressful environment or stressful stimuli is based on the sensory developmental sequence in infants. Touch is the first present sensory system, making tactile stimulus the key to development and self regulation in infants. Random touch, fast approaches or light stroking is stimulus overload to an infant. Next, the vestibular sense (positioning in space) is developed, so a static surface is recommended. The olfactory senses (oral and nasal) are then developed, making noxious odors and potent tastes result in a stressful response. Next is the auditory sense, and the medical setting makes this a difficult stimuli to control. Monitors, machines, alarms, incubator doors, loud talking, overhead pages and other babies are all sounds that make it a stressful environment for a pre-term infant. Last to develop is the visual sense in infants, causing bright lights and interactions to be possible stressful stimuli. Occupational therapists take all of the sensory systems into careful consideration in order to create a productive therapeutic environment conducive to development of these fragile infants. In stressful environments or in the presence of stressful stimuli, the nervous system responds in negative ways. The sympathetic nervous system can increase blood pressure or result in a glucose imbalance due to a decrease in cortisol that can result in impaired brain function and development. When babies become stressed it is less apparent because they

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Occupational Therapy and Early Intervention

131

exhibit little to no facial expressions in response. However, a few signs to watch for are finger splaying or decreased intake of nutrients (eating). The development and growth of the baby and the brain are then impaired when fewer nutrients are received. Floppy or limp muscle tone, arching or out of midline posturing, and flailing are also motor cues of stress in infants. Pre-term babies often have immature subsystems that are unorganized and easily stressed by their environments, and do not have neurobehavioral organization to support the interaction with the environment. The role of the occupational therapist in the NICU is to support developmental care to promote stable, well organized infants that can conserve their energy for growth and development. The occupations of an infant are sleeping, eating, maintaining physiologic stability, bonding and growing, which all aid in the development of the brain. Occupational therapists are established in the NICU to maintain healthy mental function and promote physical development by reducing the environmental stressors, encouraging parent-infant relationships, supporting touch (i.e. Kangaroo Care) and promoting self-regulation. Occupational therapists teach nesting or swaddling, self-regulation procedures (i.e. nonnutritive sucking), skin to skin handling and promote sleep cycles with environmental adjustments.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PSYCHOSOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS OF INFANT MENTAL HEALTH A healthy level of mental stability and nurturing relationships should start at birth and continue as an interactive process through the lifespan. This progression involves trust, attachment, awareness of one‘s own needs, adaptation on the part of others to those needs, and reciprocal gratification. There are many factors regarding the nurturance of an atypically developing child that must be kept in consideration. Such considerations include how the child is being responded to, how to promote their rest, comfort and wellness, and how to foster cognitive, motor, social-emotional, and language development in a healthy manner that promotes independence. According to Cara and Macrae (2005), occupational therapists play an important role for children in the developmental period when learning who they are and how to function successfully in the world is their main priority. For some children, attachment and interaction is not facilitated properly to the child, causing psychosocial behaviors to develop as early as infancy. Occupational therapy‘s role is to establish those relationships and build bonds between the child and caregiver as early as possible to avoid later psychosocial performance barriers. Educating the caregivers is a key essential to this early intervention so they understand the importance of and continuous impact of such treatment. As the child grows, socialization is a large part of occupational therapy intervention in children as mental health is affected by environment and social interactions. If occupational therapy can intervene early, the psychosocial outcome of a child in need of services will be much better than those whom services came to late or not at all. The establishment of a positive interactional relationship between a child and his or her caregivers is an underlying factor of successful development starting at birth. With the need for positive relationships in mind, a critical factor in development for disabled or developmentally delayed children is to facilitate them to experience various stimuli that result

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

132

Autumn L. Latham and Bethany J. Luke

in rewarding shared interaction. Thus, it is often the role of the occupational therapist to aid in the facilitation of such experiences by educating parents on proper touch and developmentally appropriate interactions based on the individualized needs of that child. With this knowledge, parents and caregivers will be able to better interact with their child in a more fulfilling way, for both parties, while facilitating the growth and development of the child. Another role of the occupational therapist would be to enable healthy parent-child attachment patterns needed for a successful relationship between the two. Yet, because strong healthy attachment patterns may be hard to establish within a family that is experiencing stress – such as that experienced by a family of a pre-term baby or an atypically developing child – sustained parental/caregiver involvement in the therapeutic process is essential in order to foster thriving progress of the child.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

EARLY INTERVENTION: HOME AND SCHOOL BASED SERVICES Much of the research on general early childhood development supplies us with inherent support for the need of early intervention programs for infants and toddlers with severe developmental delays, disabilities, or intensive neuromuscular involvement. Occupational therapy services are requested for individuals who qualify under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendment (IDEA) of 1997 and IDEIA of 2004 under Part C. Part C under IDEIA ―stipulates that early intervention services are designed to meet the developmental needs of an infant or toddler with a developmental delay or disability (or diagnosed physical or mental condition with high probability of resulting in developmental delay)‖ (Campbell, Vander Linden & Palisano, 2006). For infants and toddlers, there is a gap of time between receiving services in the hospital setting to receiving services in a schoolbased setting. Part C enables these children in need to have such services rendered in their neutral home environment or at an early childhood facility (i.e. a Head Start, daycare, or babysitter). The state ensures professionals maintain their qualifications in order to continue carrying out services to those children in need, as well as being competent in the content and skills in order to serve these children with disabilities. Occupational therapists work with other professions as part of a transdisciplinary team of professionals to ensure the best care is given to these children. Part C of IDEIA for early intervention has a system that is consistent with the needs of the children. The components of this system are team collaboration, evaluation and assessment, the IFSP (Individualized family service plan), neutral environments for services, and the transition (Campbell, Vander Linden and Palisano, 2006). The evaluations and assessments are chosen and administered with the collaboration of the team and the family. A family interview is the first step in the evaluation and assessment component in order to learn about the family and the expectations for the child. An individualized family service plan (IFSP) is developed to meet unique needs of the child and family. This IFSP indicates where and how frequent the services will be, the provider of the services, how long the services will be provide and funding. Within the IFSP, goals are set to have outcomes that work towards family-centered care and recognize the occupational performances of the child. According to Part C, services should be given in a natural or familiar environment and also use family and community involvement; therefore, the occupational therapist should give

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Occupational Therapy and Early Intervention

133

the family options of environments they feel would be the best fit for their child. Since a familiar environment, such as home, is an important component in therapy for some children, occupational therapists must be creative and flexible in multiple environments as well as resourceful by recognizing opportunities for learning when the moments present themselves. Depending on the needs of the child, the environment can also vary. If the child has acute medical issues, a hospital setting may be more conducive, where as a child in need of structure may benefit from a school-based program. According to Houtrow, Kim and Newacheck (2008), from birth to age 5, 11.2% of children are medically fragile with special health care needs such as medical equipment and more than one specialist involved. Lastly is the transition component of the early intervention services under Part C. This encompasses the transition from home-based services in Part C to pre-school under Part B. Any transition for a child with disabilities is stressful because of the changes in routine, providers and environment. An occupational therapists role in transitions is the understanding of ―how different contexts may influence occupational performance‖ of a child, and prepare the families and the children for the transition by giving support, informing of the new routines, working with the caregivers on the specific needs of the child and even making trips to the new environment to establish familiarity (Case-Smith and O‘Brien, 2010). According to the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework (OTPF) (2008), ―school‖ is considered an area of occupation. As children transition from home to the school-based setting, life occupations adjust to the new occupation of being a student. This includes a new environment, new caregivers/service providers, different structure, different routine, multiple social interactions, and a change in mental and physical expectations. Occupational therapy‘s role in this transition is to prepare the child and the family for the change, and assist in the development of individualized education program (IEP). Within this program, a collaborative team of professionals work together upholding the IEP requirements for the child ensuring effective services are provided to support the child in achieving goals put in place for this particular environment. Each child has their own unique IEP so therapists and teachers alike must be flexible and creative in working with each child to meet the child‘s needs.

OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY INTERVENTION METHODS An intervention is a method in which it requires the skills of a professional in the company of a patient/client in order to support, promote, and facilitate participation and engagement in an occupation. Under certain circumstances some children may benefit from interventions that incorporate the use of adaptive equipment, splinting and other assistive devices. However, for the purpose of the broad overview of this chapter we will not be going in detailed description, only aim to create awareness of the availability and existence of such services. For instance, the use of adapted seating to promote good postural alignment for fine motor play at a table top, or the use of certain hand splints to support range of motion in a child with spastic cerebral palsy are strategies an OT may use to promote function and independence. The OTPF (2008) also mentions ―play‖ as an occupation for individuals. The occupation of play is perhaps the most important component in the development of children. It encompasses socialization, sensory and motor skills as it is unlimited in creativity, variations

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

134

Autumn L. Latham and Bethany J. Luke

and exploration. It is an occupation that most children engage in naturally and therapists can use it to their advantage during treatment. Play can bring to a therapist‘s attention different developmental milestones met, as well as point out performance barriers. Play should incorporate a child‘s natural environment along with common or familiar toys. Occupational therapists then can teach caregivers and family to use the environment and materials in creative ways to encourage natural learning opportunities. Play should promote fun and interaction, but to an occupational therapist, it is an intervention and learning opportunity. Play is often a bilateral upper extremity motor occupation. Occupational therapists often look at gross and fine motor skills, including grip and pinch strengths and range of motion in upper extremities. Occupational therapists may look at motor patterns, the functionality in certain tasks, and spontaneity of activities. When a delay or barrier is observed, a therapist will start to look at possible causes of such deficits and create age appropriate activities to incorporate into a routine to encourage improvement. Though play to a toddler may look different to play with an infant, it endorses similar positive developmental results. Play is also a useful tool in determining sensory processing. Sensory processing is typically associated with touch, proprioception and audio/visual sensory stimuli. Occupational therapists find ways to determine which stimuli is causing the performance barriers by exposing the child to different sensations and observing their responses. If a negative response is observed, a more conducive environment can be created for the child. Sensory processing can also be linked to physical and social perspectives. As mentioned in previous sections of the paper, relationships with the caregiver and child and the child‘s natural environment can be experiences causing detriment to the performance of an infant or child. The role of the occupational therapist is to model play activities and interactions that are favorable to the child‘s individual needs. Modifications can also be made to the environment to support more productive development. Relationships between caregiver/parent and child are imperative as good mental health facilitates stable relationships for the child and supports healthy development in the child. Occupational therapists see it a necessity to work with caregivers in establishing routines with their child as well as supporting their child if changes occur within that routine.

COMMON ASSESSMENTS USED IN PEDIATRIC OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY There are many assessment tools that are used in the area of pediatric occupational therapy in multiple settings (i.e. schools, clinics, hospitals, and homes) by qualified professionals for detection of occupational performance issues affecting the development of a child. Such tools may identify issues in various domains, such as fine and gross motor development, problem solving, communication, sensory regulation, cognitive impairments, and other such atypical developmental patterns. Below are listed a few common assessments used by occupational therapists in the pediatric realm and early intervention.  Ages and Stages Questionnaires are administered to parents and are designed to screen children from birth to 5 years of age in communication, gross motor, fine

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Occupational Therapy and Early Intervention













Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.



135

motor, problem solving, and personal social development (Bricker and Squires, 1999) Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) a norm referenced measure designed to identify and monitor infants with gross motor delays from birth to 18 months of age (Piper and Darrah, 1994). The Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development – Third Edition (BSID-III) is a standardized, norm-referenced assessment tool that measures the cognitive, language, motor, social-emotional, and adaptive behavior in infants and toddlers from 1 to 42 months of age (Bayley, 2005). This tool allows for diagnostic assessment at an earlier age to guide in the direction of needed intervention. Infant/Toddler Sensory Profile is a caregiver questionnaire designed to measure the behavioral responses to various everyday sensory experiences in children from birth to 3 years of age (Dunn, 2002). Knox Preschool Play Scale (Revised) is a naturalistic observation tool used to assess play behaviors in children from birth to 6 years of age, which measures the four parameters of space management, material management, pretense-symbolic, and participation (Knox, 2008 in Parham and Fazio, 2008). Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (2nd Edition) (PDMS-2) is a norm-referenced and criterion-referenced measure of gross and fine motor skills used for children from birth through 5 years of age (Folio and Fewell, 2000) Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory (PEDI) is a standardized, criterionreferenced assessment of key functional capabilities and performance by observation of self-care, mobility, and social function in children ages birth to 7 years of age (Haley, et. al., 1992). Sensory Processing Measure (SPM) was developed to allow assessment of sensory processing, praxis, and social participation in the home, classroom, and other school environments and to compare an individual child‘s performance with normative samples of other school-aged children. This questionnaire is administered to a parent or caregiver (home form) (Parham and Ecker, 2007) and school teacher and/or other school personnel (school form) (Miller-Kuhaneck, Henry, and Glennon, 2007).

These assessment tools are just a glimpse into the vast array of the available pediatric evaluations, and can all be used during the initial evaluation process to establish a baseline, and then again at a later time to determine progress or decline. In order for the proper tool to be chosen an individual must be trained and competent with knowledge in the area that they are evaluating.

SUMMARY Occupational therapists have a toolbox full of creativity and measures that accommodate all ages in treating individuals as a whole person. Because occupational therapy is such a vast and ever changing field, which continues to grow rapidly across the spectrum of health and education, we merely gave a broad and brief overview of occupational therapy and its place in early intervention services. This chapter was intended to articulate the importance of

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

136

Autumn L. Latham and Bethany J. Luke

occupational therapy in early intervention services almost immediately after detection of potential risk in order to facilitate and promote health and participation, for children ages birth to 5 years, in occupations appropriate for development and growth. We also wanted to communicate the magnitude that child-parent/caregiver relationships had on children and their progress. Parents need to assume their fair share of responsibility in implementing procedures in the home environment also. The importance of occupational therapy in early intervention is found in the encouragement of independence and the enablement of growth into occupational beings that can function to the best of one‘s ability.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES Bayley, N. (2005). Bayley scales of infant and toddler development (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation. Berger, K.S. (2003). The developing person through childhood and adolescence. (6th ed.) New York: Worth Publishers. Berk, L.E. (Ed.). (2008). Infants and children sixth edition. United States: Pearson Education, Inc. Bricker, D., & Squires, J. (1999). Ages and stages questionnaires: A parent-completed, childmonitoring system (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Brookes. Campbell, S.K., Vander Linden, D.W., & Palisano, R.J. (Ed.). (2006). Physical therapy for children third edition. St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier. Cara, E., & Macrae, A. (Ed.). (2005). Psychosocial occupational therapy: a clinical practice second edition. Canada: Delmar Cengage Learning. Case-Smith, J., & O'Brien, J.C. (Ed.). (2010). Occupational therapy for children sixth edition. Maryland Heights, MO: Mosby Elsevier. Connor, F.P., Williamson, G.G., & Siepp, J.M. (1978), Program guide for infants and toddlers with neuromotor and other developmental disabilities. New York: Teachers College Press. Dunn, W. (2002). Infant/Toddler Sensory Profile: User‟s manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Folio, M.R., & Fewell, R.R. (2000). Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Haley, S.M., Coster, W.J., Ludlow, L.H., Haltiwanger, M.A., & Andrellos, P.J. (1992). Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Houtrow, A.J., Kim, S.E., & Newacheck, P.W. (2008). Health care utilization, access and expenditures for infants and young children with special health care needs. Infants and Young Children, 21(2), 149-159. American Occupational Therapy Association. (2008). Occupational therapy practice framework: Domain and process (2nd ed.). American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 62(6), 625-683. Knox, S. (2008). Development and current use of the Knox Preschool Play Scale. In L.D. Parham and L.S. Fazio (Eds.). Play in occupational therapy for children. (pp. 55-70). St. Louis: Mosby.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Occupational Therapy and Early Intervention

137

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Miller-Kuhaneck, H., Henry, D.A., & Glennon, T.J. (2007). Sensory Processing Measure (Main Classroom and School Environment Forms). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services. Parham, L.D. & Ecker, C. (2007). Sensory Processing Measure (Home Form). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services. Parham, L.D. & Mailloux, Z. (2010). Sensory integration. In J. Case-Smith and J.C. O‘Brien (Eds.), Occupational therapy for children (pp. 325-372). St. Louis: Mosby Piper, M.C. and Darrah, J. (1994). Alberta infant motor scale. W.B. Saunders.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 12

A CHILDREN CENTERED PRINCIPAL Charles R. Waggoner* Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, US

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION Thankfully, very few principals suffer from misopedia to the extent that comedian W.C. Fields did as he made a career out of such humorous statements as ―I love children. Yes, if properly cooked.‖ There may be occasions, however, when principals display a misopedic attitude when dealing with certain children. Being a public school principal has always been a very difficult place to be in the educational power structure, and with the pressures of NCLB and these incendiary financial times in which schools find themselves, the pressures on the principal have exponentially accelerated. Authorities on the role of the principal in school leadership agree as to the complex nature of the position. Grubb and Flessa (2006) have noted, The job of the school principal has become increasingly complex. He or she is responsible for hiring and perhaps firing teachers, coordinating bus schedules, mollifying angry parents, disciplining children, overseeing the cafeteria, supervising special education and other categorical programs, and responding to all the stuff that walks in the door. (p. 137)

Fully acknowledging the responsibilities of the principal, it may be said that through a lack of legal understanding or perhaps insensitivity to those with exceptionalities, principals on occasion do a disservice to those they stand in loco parentis for. Matthews and Crow (2010) note that the ―principal as advocate‖ is one of the major roles of a building principal. Race, ethnicity, immigration, language, special education, poverty and homelessness are some of the issues that reflect the diversity of schools and confront the principal in all corners of the nation. *

Dr. Charles Waggoner is currently Associate Professor of Educational Administration at Eastern New Mexico University in Portales, New Mexico where he trains educational leaders and principals.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

140

Charles R. Waggoner

The National Center on Family Homelessness counted 1.5 million homeless kids across the country in 2009. The same study found that one out of 50 American children is homeless in any given year. The Association for Supervision and Curriculum (ASCD) states that one million homeless children and youth were enrolled in U.S. schools in 2009, with an estimate that half a million more went uncounted because they weren‘t enrolled in schools. The Institute for Children and Poverty estimates that 1.35 million children are likely to experience homelessness over the course of a year. This number represents two percent of all children in the United States, and ten percent of all poor children in the United States. Children represent a disproportionate share of the poor in the nation and while not always the case, homeless children are typically poor. Children represent about twenty-five percent of the total population, but represent thirty-five percent of the total poor. The U.S. Bureau of Census reported that nineteen percent of all children lived in poverty in 2008. The Heritage Foundation has stated that there are at least 6 million children served by Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the nation, which represents twelve percent of all students attending public schools. Half of all special education students are learning disabled with an estimated eighty to ninety percent having reading problems. Because homeless children are often mobile and are forced to change schools more often than their peers, it could be expected that these students would experience reading difficulties. Clearly, there is ample opportunity for the principal leader to assume a role as a principal advocate for all children. Leadership is about serving others. All of the children coming to the school house door, whether they are homeless, handicapped, or mired in abject poverty must be treated and educated just as the children of a school board member would be. The principal should be an advocate for all children, no matter the nature of their diversity. The role of principal as a student advocate has come more to the forefront as school populations are becoming more diversified and as accountability trends and demands have intensified. The emphasis of the current century is educating all children, no matter in what circumstances the children may find themselves. The contested term social justice may not have a specific place in this chapter; however, I think that the concept of social justice is implicit in the understanding of the principal‘s role as advocate for all children. The three components of social justice as identified by Dantley and Tillman (2006) are first, that social justice does not ignore the rights of any individual student. Secondly, social justice demands that the principal be change-oriented in that the adverse condition in which the child may find themselves be changed. And thirdly, this advocacy on the part of the principal is deliberate and conscious. To quote Matthews and Crow (2010): A principal as advocate means that you are actively involved in eliminating oppression and marginalization that prevent all students from learning and from participating actively. (p. 107)

There are several groups of students in our public schools that create issues for the principal in determining proper placement, or whether or not the student should even be allowed to attend the school. This chapter will focus on a child that may possess several of these attributes that call for the principal to become an advocate.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

A Children Centered Principal

141

WALKS IN THE DOOR With a million and one-half homeless students in this nation I think that it is important for aspiring principals to be aware of the problem. I asked my graduate students in school law class, all of whom are practicing teachers, to assume that they are the principal of the building in which the following scenario ―walks in the door‖ one Monday morning.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

―An older gentleman, saying that he is the young boy‘s grandpa, brings the child to your office on Monday morning wanting to enroll the child in your elementary building. The grandpa explains to you that the boy was dropped ―into his lap‖ over the weekend and is the product of a divorce and abusive home environment. The child‘s mother resides in Juarez, Mexico, and has returned home. Grandpa says that the boy is seven years old and should be in the first grade, he thinks. Grandpa has no paperwork on the boy from any previous schooling and grandpa does not know anything about immunizations.‖

The student‘s response to the scenario was to be done in two parts. First, the students assuming the role of the principal were to determine to the best of their ability what they are going to do with this child now. ―Now‖ is the operative word that causes panic. The second part of the assignment was for the graduate student to go to their building principal and ask the practicing building principal what would happen under the exact circumstances of the scenario. Principals are called upon to make numerous decisions during the course of a school day, many of which need to be made in a timely manner which does not give the administrator very much time for reflection. Many of the decisions are routine and policy driven and can be handled without a jaw-dropping, head-scratching dilemma. Then there occasionally comes along a situation that has not been encountered before or often enough for anyone to remember how to exactly handle the situation. Having a knowledgeable secretary is important as Graduate Student T suggests, however, there are a plethora of reasons why that the principal needs a fundamental grasp of school law and federal statutes. The following responses were given by the graduate students and their principals. There are some consistencies to be noted in the responses to the scenario, by both the students and the principals. As always with folks in all walks of life, opinions on exactly how to handle the situation vary. Unfortunately, there are a few audacious answers bordering on foolhardy. Graduate Student A – We provide the proper paperwork that the grandpa should fill out. Grandpa must show verification that he actually is the student‘s legal guardian. This would be accomplished by a ‗power of attorney‘ record. I do not think that I would register the student until the school has verification of this. The fact that the student is from Mexico is really a concern. Student‘s Principal Response – In talking to my principal he explained that Homeland Security has very strict policies regarding the registration of a student into a public school. The guardian must have a valid original birth certificate for the student. The guardian must show valid verification of legal guardianship. Up-to-date shot records must be provided for the student before registration can be attained. Finally, any other school records such as disciplinary, grades, holds, suspensions, etc., must be provided for the student. Graduate Student B – Before I register the child, I need the grandpa to fill out the enrollment forms. Proof of address must be provided. I understand that grandpa has no

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

142

Charles R. Waggoner

paperwork, but a shot record is an absolute must. The school nurse may need to be contacted. I also would like to see some ID from the grandpa and would have my attendance secretary check to see that the phone number was legitimate for the grandpa before he leaves. While grandpa is working on the paperwork, I would have a casual conversation with the child, if he speaks English, to try and get some background information. If the child does not speak any English I get a bilingual teacher. Does he know how old he is? Can he tell me about the last school that he attended? Can he tell me where he lived and with whom? As far as I know, I would need to admit the child dependent upon the legitimacy of grandpa‘s address. I would assign him to a first grade teacher and ask the teacher to make detailed observations about his ability compared to grade peers. Student‘s Principal Response – I was under the impression that I legally had to enroll the child. My principal set me straight. She says that no paperwork, absolutely no enrollment. I need to find out from the grandfather what school the child formally attended and where. Grandfather must fill out a request for records. Our secretary can call and verify that the child was enrolled at the school and they can mail or fax the records. The child cannot be enrolled without the records from the previous school, vaccination records, and proof of guardianship by the grandpa. Graduate Student C – First, I would make sure that introductions make the grandpa and the child feel comfortable. I would seek to gain as much information as possible through casual conversation. How old are you? What school did you come to us from and what grade were you in? After making sure to get as much information as possible, I would make sure and have all the personal information from the grandfather as needed in order to contact him as soon as I had more information from the previous school. I do not think that I would enroll the student without any paperwork to prove identity or proof of guardianship. I would make sure that the grandfather knew that I would begin researching the student‘s last school and then move forward from there, so that the child could begin to receive an education in a timely manner. Student‘s Principal Response – After obtaining all of the preliminary information from the grandpa, the child would not be allowed to enroll without confirmation of guardianship and obtaining some information from the previous school. Getting paperwork from the previous school in Juarez may be a problem and it can only be obtained by the legal guardian. We have no way to obtain it without grandpa going through the guardianship process or having mother return to the state. The principal also noted that because they were such a small school district (under 200 student K-12) that the principal is allowed more opportunities to make these types of contacts herself and not have to rely on secretaries as heavily as she would have to in a larger district or school. The principal further noted that this type of situation occurs very frequently and can typically be resolved with the student being allowed to enroll within the week. Graduate Student D - As the principal, I would welcome the child and grandpa to the school. I would then give them a tour of the school spending some time in a first grade classroom. At the completion of the tour, I would explain to the grandpa that the school district policy states that the necessary paperwork is needed prior to admitting the child as a student in the school. I would provide him with a packet and explain the contents thereof. The information would include the need for immunization records, a request for records from the previous school, emergency contact number, a birth certificate, and proof of address within the district.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A Children Centered Principal

143

To conclude, I would assure the family that, upon receipt of the information requested in the packet, the child would be admitted as a student and placed in the appropriate classroom. I would then thank the family for the time spent with them and tell them that I looked forward to welcoming the child as a student in the school (in the future). Student‘s Principal Response – My principal confirmed that I was correct in the approach that I took in this situation. His response was that a school cannot accept a new student and place him in a classroom without records from the previous school. At issue would be to ascertain whether the child had received special services through an IEP. The failure to follow an IEP or provide special services would place the district out of compliance. The issue of legal guardianship must be verified through appropriate documentation. The guardian would also need to provide a birth certificate for the child. The principal‘s concluding statement to me was that any legitimate guardian would be happy to comply with a request for information contained in the packet out of a desire for a safe environment and proper placement for the child. The principal also expressed concern whether or not Homeland Security should be notified. Graduate Student E – When faced with this situation I would have the grandpa fill out all of the paperwork that he was able to complete. I would then attempt to make contact with the student‘s previous school. Regardless of my success with obtaining prior school records, I feel obligated to inform the grandpa that the proper paperwork, including a birth certificate, immunization records, and proof of address would be required before the student would be able to enter a classroom. I would not allow the student to enroll without all the required documentation. My reasoning would include the amount of liability that is placed on the school given the lack of documentation. Student‘s Principal Response – My principal gave a similar response. She said she would not enroll any student without his/her birth certificate and immunization records. Her reasoning was simply that we have a policy; therefore, we will follow what it says. She also said that she would direct further questions that the grandpa might have to the administration at the central office. Graduate Student F – I would not enroll the student because the grandfather does not have the necessary paperwork. I would take down the grandfather‘s name, address and telephone number and provide him with all of our school‘s forms and necessary paperwork. I would inform him that we will not enroll the child without all of the required information being completed. Student‘s Principal Response – The student will not be allowed to attend class without the proper paperwork in place. Students from Mexico have been enrolled in the district many times, but the proper paperwork was always in place prior to registration. Graduate Student G – As a principal, there is nothing that I can do with the child today. Without shot records a child is not allowed to enter school. I will get grandpa‘s name and phone number, the name of the child and the school that he last attended. I also need proof of residency such as a copy of an electric bill. Grandpa must also provide power of attorney documentation. In the meantime, we will contact the child‘s former school to attain the paperwork needed so that the child can register for school. Student‘s Principal Response – My principal told me this is what we need to register the child; a birth certificate, immunization records, and complete records from the previous school. Grandpa must provide guardianship papers so that he can sign to obtain the records.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

144

Charles R. Waggoner

We also need to take grandpa‘s name and phone number to check up on whether or not we are looking at an illegal situation. Graduate Student H - This is obviously a ―red flag‖ situation. The first thing to do is try to ensure the safety, health and wellbeing of the child. This means buying some time by keeping both the grandpa and the child at school while you do some quick research and get some more details. The most important information is to accurately identify the child and his health status, and to determine if he resides within the school district. The child will not be allowed to enroll into the school without all valid documentation in place. I would have established the following checklist for a situation such as this:

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

(1) Be friendly and helpful. Get another member of the staff, counselor or nurse involved, both as a witness and as an observer to the situation to pick up something that I might miss. Find out if grandpa drove to the school and send someone to record the license plate of his car. (2) Ask the gentleman for some form of identification. Have the gentleman fill out the basic paperwork that is necessary to enroll a student in school. His reaction to providing the necessary information may tip you off on what your next step should be. If he does not cooperate, or wants to leave quickly, the next step would be to call the police. (3) If grandpa cooperates and I get some key information, I would call the phone number that he gives and make sure that he resides within the school district. I would check the names with child protective services, the local police and social services. Student‘s Principal Response – My principal agreed with my approach but added that he would ask the grandpa to wait while the child is taken to another office for preliminary testing for class placement. He explained that this would buy some time to get details about the child without the grandpa present. A private discussion with the child, through an interpreter if necessary, may provide some important details. If the nurse could view the child, the nurse could assess the appearance of the child as to the child‘s physical condition. At this time a picture could be taken of the child. Graduate Student I – This scenario really made me think. My first thought was that the child would be placed in a class no matter what. I thought that a child could not be turned away from a public school. My second thought was that if this child did not have any paperwork or health records, could this child really be the man‘s grandson and where were this child‘s parents? Student‘s Principal Response – After talking with my principal I became more aware of what the principal and the front office do when a situation like this happens. The child cannot be admitted until several forms are completed. A request for records form must be filled out by the legal guardian. If the grandpa has nothing to prove legal guardianship then it is the responsibility of the grandpa to procure the necessary paperwork. Before the student is admitted we must have in hand the student‘s birth certificate; social security card; complete immunization record verified by a physician; proof of residency; photo identification of the adult registering the student; most recent report card of the student; and documentation of any educational program that the student has participated in. The school will not admit any student with only partially completed packets.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A Children Centered Principal

145

Graduate Student J – As a principal I would probably go ahead and send the child to the first grade classroom. Meanwhile, I would ask the grandpa about any and all specifics, including paperwork for previous schools attended, birth certificate, shot record, and guardianship information. I would continue to monitor the student in the classroom until all the paperwork was completed, giving the grandpa a few days to gather the material. Student‘s Principal Response – After talking to my principal, his first thought was that he could not enroll the student without all of the proper paperwork completed. Then after further thought, he said you could make a mock schedule for the student and send him to class, however, he said that he would really ―grill‖ the granddad about the issue of guardianship. Graduate Student K – Without shot records, birth certificate and maybe guardian and/or custody papers a student cannot be enrolled in public school. Does Mexico even require immunizations? Student‘s Principal Response – My principal said basically the same thing. Students cannot be enrolled on the day that they ―show up‖ unless they have paperwork in place. If there is a previous school and the individual could provide the name, number, city and state, then we could try to obtain those documents necessary to enroll the child by contacting them by phone and then have the information faxed to us. Until we obtain the documentation the child cannot be enrolled. Graduate Student L – I am just speculating, but I would ask the child or grandpa about the child‘s age and then place that child in the grade level in which his age level matched the criteria. I would get as much information as I could from the grandfather and then try to confirm the information during the school day. I would check on the child periodically throughout the day and ask his teacher how the child is doing. Student‘s Principal Response – I discussed this scenario with my principal and she told me that until the school had in their possession a copy of the child‘s birth certificate and updated shot record, the child will not be allowed to attend school. Not even for one second. Graduate Student M – I think that I would admit the child to the first grade. Student‘s Principal Response – A birth certificate and shot record are necessary before the child can be enrolled. The necessary paperwork would be provided to the grandfather to fill out. If he does not have legal guardianship of the child then we would need to find out who does and contact that individual. Regardless of who has guardianship, we would call the police department, child protective services, and any other agency that could give us the answers that we need. We would do this to verify that the child had not been abducted or kidnapped. With respect to the child being a first-grader, it might be hard to obtain any school history or shot record from Mexico, as obviously the child has been through some abnormal living conditions. If we could not get a birth certificate or shot record, we would put everything on hold until we could obtain them. Graduate Student N – I would have grandpa produce proof of residency and a picture ID, and I would make a copy of them. Next, I would have grandpa fill out the necessary paperwork and take a picture of the child. If grandpa could tell me where the child previously attended school I would immediately have the secretaries begin the process of getting the paperwork faxed to us. If I could not obtain any previous information, I would ask a first grade teacher to test the student based on ability. Then I would inform the grandpa that the child could not be registered or attend school without the necessary paperwork in place. Also, grandpa would have to present proof of guardianship.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

146

Charles R. Waggoner

Student‘s Principal Response – The child will not be registered without the proper paperwork. Graduate Student O – This actually happened to me in the fall of 2003 when I enrolled my grandchildren in ___ public schools. The children were left in my care for the summer and I could not find their parents when school started. I needed to get the kids into school. I contacted the elementary school principal and he invited my wife and me into his office along with my grandchildren. After an initial interview to determine the correct schools and ages for the kids we started the admissions process for the children. A professional staff member (counselor) was brought into the office to begin the admissions process and determine who belonged in what school. The principal gave specific authority to the counselor to move through the admissions process and instructed my wife and I of the specific documentation needed to complete this process. The kids were admitted conditionally to the various schools and grades that very day. My wife and I provided the documentations needed about two weeks after the students were enrolled. The parents of my grandchildren have retained guardian status. The children only reside with us. Student‘s Principal Response – Students are not allowed to attend class until all of the proper paperwork is provided. A birth certificate and immunization records are an absolute must and in this case I wonder if they even exist. (NOTE – The principal responding was not the principal of the building in 2003 when the graduate student‘s grandchildren were ―conditionally‖ admitted without any paperwork. Graduate Student O‘s situation did not differ substantially from that of the grandpa in the scenario. It is of interest that Graduate Student O is white, while the implication of the scenario seems to be Hispanic by implication and the child is from Mexico. Also, the principal in 2003 may have been impressed with the fact that there was a ―grandmother‖ present as well as the grandfather at the initial attempt to register the children.) Graduate Student P – I would not register the student without the proper records. I would also explain to the grandfather that the school would need the proper guardianship records, and, more importantly, shot records. I would explain that we would be happy to register the student as soon as they brought back the paperwork. Student‘s Principal Response – The principal confirmed my opinion. Graduate Student Q – I would be very hesitant to accept the grandfather at his word. Without any paperwork or proof of guardianship this could be a case of kidnap. I would ask the grandfather to obtain the necessary paperwork and when he has it all available, both he and the boy should return to the school to be registered. Student‘s Principal Response – Inform the grandpa that you need all required documentation in place before the child can be registered for school. If the grandfather‘s actions begin to raise suspicion that this situation maybe isn‘t what it appears to be, I would call the police and give the grandpa and child a tour of the building until the police arrive. Graduate Student R – In this scenario, I would try to follow the following steps to matriculate the child brought in by his grandfather. First, I would question the guardianship issue and prior school attendance. If someone other than the grandfather has legal guardianship, then that person would need to sign the educational guardianship document giving him/her the ability to make educational decisions for the child. This documentation must be signed each semester.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A Children Centered Principal

147

Next, I would request the necessary documents for registration including birth certificate, immunization records, and proof of residency. These are needed prior to the initial registration of a child in the district. If no documentation is available, I would go ahead with having the grandpa fill out the registration form and begin the process of educating the child while working with the grandfather to ensure that as many of the requested documents are provided as possible. For the first time this year, I had one student this past semester registered by a homeless parent who did not have all of the necessary documentation. When I contacted the district office, I was told that the district does not penalize the child and we will register them and let them begin classes. Our school health center will work with them toward immunization compliance. Student‘s Principal Response – My principal said that she would ask for the necessary documentation and based on what the grandpa had, take it from there. For example, she would first request immunization records. The students must be up-to-date on all immunizations. If the child is not current, he could be accepted with the stipulation that by a particular date, all immunizations would become current. Failure to do so would result in disenrollment. To verify that the grandfather resides within the school district, she would ask for proof of residency such as utility bills. The principal further stated that there is nothing that states that the school must take the child on the same day that they come in. The school can make requests and work with the family in order to meet the necessary paperwork requirements; however, ultimately we will not deny a child their educational opportunity. Graduate Student S – As the principal, after giving a brief interview to both the child and the grandpa, I would send the gentleman and child away to bring back the necessary paperwork establishing proper identity and the required admission forms. I might be inclined to give a tour of the school after the interview. I would not invite the grandpa or the child to stay past an interview and tour for the safety of my other students and staff. After they had left the building, I would notify the district about this enrollment attempt without any documentation. The situation is particularly problematical because the student is likely an illegal alien. Student‘s Principal Response – I must say that this scenario stumped my principal. He has only been principal for two-years. He told me that he would interview the gentleman and the child to establish guardianship. Health records would have to be produced. The grandpa would have to establish recent history of residence in the district. After that he would send the pair home not to return until grandpa has the necessary records. The principal, after further thought, declared that he really did not know what to do and proceeded to call the district office while I was in his office. The district office verified that the principal was not to enroll a child without health records and proof of guardianship. Graduate Student T – As a new principal there are many things to take into account such as the regulations that need to be followed to enroll a new student. The first thing I would do is to ask my secretary what the procedures are for enrolling a new out of district student. If my secretary does not know, I would call fellow principals in the district to find out what the procedures are. If no useful information could be provided, I would then call the central office and ask the HR department what needs to be done. Student‘s Principal Response – My principal gave me valuable information as to how she would take care of the situation. She said that having a knowledgeable secretary is the key to

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

148

Charles R. Waggoner

the principal‘s success. The secretary would call the previous school from where the child is coming to obtain the records. Because the child came with grandpa, records would be needed indicating who the legal guardians is. It is important to make sure the emergency contact information is up-to-date so that grandpa can take care of emergency situations. The principal also said that she would make a phone call to the previous principal and gather information such as the child‘s reason for living with grandpa so that she would have insight into handling future situations that could arise with the child, such as discipline problems.

THE HOMELESS CHILD

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The responses provided to the proposed scenario by the twenty graduate students and their principals were similar in many regards. Before a child can be enrolled in a public school there is a need for the proper ―paperwork‖ to be provided. It is accurate to say that generally the student‘s birth certificate, a social security card, immunization records, proof of residency, and documentation and educational records from the previously attended school are commonplace requirements and within the scope of state and federal laws and school district policies. While districts are free to impose other regulations concerning school enrollment, the only requirement mandated by New Mexico State Statute is proof of immunizations. Before the responses of the students and the principals are conceptualized, let us revisit the scenario that was presented to the students for consideration. ―An older gentleman, saying that he is the young boy‘s grandpa, brings the child to your office on Monday morning wanting to enroll the child in your elementary building. The grandpa explains to you that the boy was dropped ―into his lap‖ over the weekend and is the product of a divorce and abusive home environment. The child‘s mother resides in Juarez, Mexico, and has returned home. Grandpa says that the boy is seven years old and should be in the first grade, he thinks. Grandpa has no paperwork on the boy from any previous schooling and grandpa does not know anything about immunizations.

The six graduate students (B,J,L,M,O,R) that indicated that they would enroll the child on the day that grandpa came to school, all stated that the paperwork needed to be provided in due time. Two practicing principals (J,R) seemed to agree to allow the child to be enrolled immediately, but also indicated that paperwork was needed. None of the graduate students or practicing principals noted that anything in the scenario might indicate that the child was indeed ―homeless.‖ If the child is ―dropped into the lap‖ of grandpa is the child homeless? The answer is a resounding ―yes‖ according to Title VII-B of the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act as amended by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Neither any of the graduate students or their practicing building principals mentioned anything about this child perhaps needing to be considered ―homeless‖ in their analysis of the scenario. Prospective principals in training (graduate students) cannot be faulted for not knowing what they may not have been exposed to. Practicing school principals, however, should have had an understanding of the McKinneyVeto Act through their district superintendent or school board policy and recognized the situation.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A Children Centered Principal

149

The McKinney-Vento Act defines ―homeless children and youth‖ as individuals who lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence. The term includes children who are sharing the housing of other persons due to loss of housing. The child in question was ―dropped off‖ by the mother who then returned to Mexico. Even though the child was delivered unexpectedly to the grandpa, the boy has lost his fixed and regular nighttime residence with the mother in Mexico. For all purposes, the child is homeless. Some might argue that the child in the scenario was not ―homeless,‖ as he was staying with his grandpa. Whether or not to immediately enroll the child does not depend on what the principal‘s definition of ―homeless‖ might be. The child has lost his normal permanent home (likely in Juarez, Mexico) and is living in an emergency situation with his grandfather. The child was ―dropped into the lap‖ of the grandfather by the mother. This would seem to be a definition of homeless consistent with the McKinney-Vento Act. I believe that the preponderance of the evidence would suggest that the child should be allowed to immediately enter the first grade. If that placement is inappropriate grade wise, it can be corrected. It may also be true, that the status of the child may change from that of homeless at some point in the future, as grandpa may decide to file for legal guardianship of his grandson, or he may just continue to be the custodial caretaker and allow the child to live with him. The school district has the right to seek clarification of status from the grandfather periodically, such as the beginning of each semester. The Act also stipulates that the local education agency (LEA) must immediately enroll the child to the school in which enrollment is sought by the parent or guardian. The citizenship status of the child or parent, in this case the grandfather, is not of concern. Congress has made it quite clear that every LEA shall ensure that each child that is homeless has equal access to the same free, appropriate public education, including public preschool education, as provided to other children and youth. The law makes federal funds available to each state to create an office for the implementation and supervision of the policy. Funds are made available to local school districts to implement the Act, and also to gather data that is to be reported every two years to the state coordinator, who in turn reports to the secretary of health and welfare. This law was first enacted in 1987 and has been amended on several occasions, including NCLB. A 2004 law case in New York said that a homeless child could sue a school district to enforce educational services. When grandpa brings the child to school the LEA must immediately enroll the child, even if the grandfather is unable to produce the records normally required for enrollment by the district. The enrolling school after enrolling the student must then immediately contact the school last attended by the child or youth to obtain relevant academic and other records. In the scenario, the implication was that the child was from Juarez, Mexico; there it is likely that his previous school could be contacted after the grandfather did some checking with his family. Both graduate students and practitioners alike make much of the fact that the grandpa in the scenario must obtain proof of guardianship before the child may be enrolled. The thinking behind this position is reasonable. The media may overly concentrate on the problem of stereotypical kidnappings of children, making the actual number of 115 children under the age of eighteen kidnapped by someone the child does not know or someone of slight acquaintance, a very random event, there is still reason that principals should be wary of situations that do not feel right. There were 202,900 children abducted by family and 58,200 children abducted by non-family members in 2009 according to The Missing Kids Network.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

150

Charles R. Waggoner

Discounting the birth certificate and immunization records for the child, if grandpa were legitimate it should not have presented a problem to show his identification, along with his proof of residence in the school district. If grandpa‘s information checked and the principal having had a working understanding of McKinney-Vento, the child would have been admitted to school immediately. The other required ―paperwork‖ can wait. Whether or not the grandfather has legal guardianship or legal custody of this child is not germane under McKinney-Vento. The Act of Congress has taken this question off the table as an issue of immediate school enrollment. Perhaps unknown to many LEAs is the fact that whether or not the district has homeless children or whether they receive a McKinney-Vento sub grant to which they are entitled, they must designate a local liaison for homeless children and youth. The local liaison serves as one of the primary contacts between homeless children and the school personnel. The coordinator ensures that the homeless child is enrolled in school and has the opportunity to succeed academically. It is the responsibility of the local liaison to ensure in part that the homeless child and their family receive educational services for which they may be eligible, including Head Start, Even Start, and preschool programs administered by the LEA, and referrals to health, mental health, dental, and other appropriate services. It is also the responsibility of the local liaison, as appointed by the LEA, to assure that public notification of the educational rights of homeless students is disseminated to locations throughout the district. The National Coalition for the Homeless states that homeless preschoolers face special difficulty in accessing public preschool education. Less than 16% of eligible preschool aged homeless children are enrolled in preschool programs according the U.S. Department of Education statistics for 2004. According to a survey conducted by the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty in 1997, 80% of all preschools had waiting lists from less than thirty days to more than twelve months. The law makes it quite clear that a homeless child must be admitted to a preschool program even if the program has a waiting list. The LEA liaison must work with the preschool program staff to remind them how important their services are for homeless children and inform them of how waiting lists often create barriers for homeless children and their guardians or custodians who wish to enroll their children. Many preschool programs keep slots often specifically for homeless children. As we have seen from the scenario, homeless children are difficult to identify and often go unnoticed by school personnel. In order to identify homeless children, the LEA liaison can coordinate with community service agencies to begin to develop a relationship on issues such as the school enrollment process, transportation, special education services, and other student services. The child in the scenario, although residing with grandpa, is in a situation that not being in school will significantly impede his academic and social growth. The literature on highly mobile students indicates that it can take a student four to six months to recover academically after changing schools. Highly mobile students have also been found to have lower test scores and overall academic performance than peers who do not change schools.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

A Children Centered Principal

151

THE PRINCIPAL’S RESPONSE Principals have unique opportunities as the gatekeepers to their respective buildings to do the best for the students. All good principals understand that they are to be leaders rather than just managers. Standing behind the curtain of ―following policy‖ or making statements such as ―the paperwork must be completed first,‖ when the situation calls for something more is inexcusable. It is true, that the role of the building principal is figuratively like walking in the mine field of legal responsibility. The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act is not a legal trap, but simply a way to make sure that homeless children do not fall through the educational crack. As a professor it is interesting that when I present the same scenario of the grandpa and the child to the class after discussing McKinney-Vento, most principals in training immediately understand that to demand all sorts of ―paperwork‖ from the grandfather is not appropriate in this situation. Although there is always at least one student that after reading the law is adamant that homeless does not mean coming to live with cousins, aunts and uncles, or grandparents. Perhaps in certain cases the student is correct, but when a child is ―dumped‖ and the home is not the regular residence, then I believe you have a homeless situation. Being homeless is often not so obvious as a parent or guardian listing the address as a 1995 Buick when attempting to enroll the child. The statute clearly states that ―homeless‖ is defined in part as children or youth who are sharing housing due to loss of housing. When the grandpa of the scenario shows up with the child and no paperwork it would behoove the principal not to try to interpret the law, but immediately enroll the child and then let the process play out. This assumes that the principal is familiar with McKinney-Vento.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ACTION STEPS It seems elementary, but the very first thing that a principal needs to know is that the McKinney-Vento Act exists and that federal and state websites are replete with ways to understand the nuances of the law. Not much knowledge is intuitive; therefore, it is necessary that somewhere in the principal preparation program that candidates are exposed to the Act and the ways that the law can best be implemented. A principal in a school district, whether just beginning or in place for a time, should check with the superintendent to make sure that there is a school board policy in place that addresses homeless children. Policies vary and typically the school board association in each state supplies districts with sample policies on all topics related to education. I am willing to lay odds that all twenty practicing principals in the class assignment have a district with this policy. The principals just failed to recognize the situation for what it was. Board of Education policies can be found online today for many school districts. Typically, for all other districts (and even those with the policy manual online) the Board Policy Manual will consist of a binder or several that can be found in the central office. While the policies are disseminated and available, these traditional forms of providing access to policy are often times inadequate, particularly for many subsets of the constituents. This is particularly the case with folks who may be homeless or have a homeless ward ―dropped on them.‖

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Charles R. Waggoner

152

A good approach to information dissemination would be to post information concerning the McKinney-Vento Act in places where the community at large and particularly the community that comes into direct contact with the homeless can view the information. Post the information in shelters, post offices, human services offices, doctor and dentist offices, as well as the local Wal-Mart or some other location where most folks eventually end up. Another excellent idea is to place some notification in the school handbooks about services for the homeless. The Las Cruces Public Schools family and student handbooks contain a section entitled ―Child Find.‖ This section states:

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

In accordance with federal regulations, Las Cruces Public Schools assumes the responsibility for the location, identification and referral of all children requiring special education and/or 504 related services from birth through age 21, including students who are in private schools, in religiously affiliated schools, migrant children, HOMELESS CHILDREN (emphasis mine), and those who are in need of special education even though they are advancing from grade to grade.

The handbook goes on to identify the coordinator of the program, which happens to be the special education director. The telephone number is provided. The handbook also urges that the building principal be contacted for further information in assistance to finding information and policies and procedures. The Prince George‘s County Public Schools and an excellent one-page brochure is specifically targeted to information on the McKinney-Vento Act, which is disseminated throughout the community. This type of informational brochure is readily available online and many are very creative in their approach. There is little reason for a beginning principal, or any principal, to invent the proverbial wheel all over again when excellent ideas and suggestions abound. Once the principal becomes alert to the necessity of proclaiming the availability of the information to his or her public, all that is left is tailoring the presenting to a specific community. The law requires that all school districts must have in place a liaison for homeless children and youth who are properly trained on the liaison‘s duties as set forth by the Act. In smaller districts this may be the principal or the counselor. Whomever, the liaison must ensure that: 







Homeless children and youth are sensitively identified by school personnel, whether currently enrolled or not yet attending school and, if appropriate, aid such children or youth in assessing the appropriate school. Homeless children and youth have a full opportunity to succeed in the district‘s schools and that homeless families‘ children and youth receive all educational services for which they are eligible, including Head Start, Even Start, preschool and referrals for healthcare, dental care, mental health and other appropriate services. Parents and guardians of homeless children and youth are informed about the district‘s educational services and opportunities and are given meaningful chances to participate in their child‘s education. Public notice of the educational rights of homeless children and youth is disseminated at locations where homeless families and children may be served such

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

A Children Centered Principal







153

as schools, shelters, soup kitchens, public aid offices, city hall, food pantries, public libraries, court houses, police stations, and doctors‘ offices. Parents or guardians of a homeless child or youth (and any unaccompanied youth) are fully informed of all transportation services, and in accessing transportation to the school that is appropriately selected. Staff coordinate and collaborate with, among others, school personnel responsible for the provision of related services to homeless children and youth (such coordination and collaboration may include, for example, the development of training programs on rights of homeless children and youth and their families under the applicable law). Ensure that special attention is given to locating and enrolling homeless children and youth not currently in school.

After the homeless child has been immediately enrolled in school and placed in the proper classroom, disagreements may occur soon thereafter between the school and perhaps the superintendent and the school board over whether or not the child qualifies as homeless. Or perhaps, the central office and the guardian have a dispute regarding, among other things, transportation issues or the special needs of the child. As soon as such a disagreement arises, the school district liaison must follow a dispute procedure that includes these steps:  

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.



Immediately enroll the student and arrange for transportation and other services as appropriate. Attempt to discuss the issues with the all parties involved in the dispute and determine if more information can clear up the issue(s). Failing to accomplish that; Issue a letter to the guardian or youth explaining, with a degree of specificity, the district‘s position as to the homelessness-related dispute. In this letter, the district must also include referrals to free/reduced cost legal help and an outline of the dispute resolution procedure. The district must copy on such letter the applicable state coordinator for the education of homeless children and youth.

Each state has an appointed ombudsperson whose responsibility it is to advocate for the homeless child. The ombudsperson will convene a meeting to allow for a complete presentation of relevant facts by all parties involved in the dispute. The ombudsperson renders a decision within a specified timeframe and the process goes forward through the state board of education to the final determination. Being a principal leader means that the principal removes all of the barriers toward an education for each and every student in the building. Any manager can say ―no‖ and hide behind policy or paperwork, no matter how much in error the principal or the lack of policy may be. Leaders are prepared to think their way through the issues once they become aware of them. A principal leader should not assume that the central office is aware of all that they should be. A principal leader maintains involvement with the profession and is diligent in reeducating him or herself on the issues of the day. A constant craving to know more than one knows about the principalship and all that it entails is an absolute job requirement until the day the person retires. On a topic as important and timely as homeless students, I would implore that the prudent principal organize in-service for all school staff to ensure sensitivity to needs of the homeless.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

154

Charles R. Waggoner

Accepting the homeless child into the school system allows for early identification and intervention of children with possible learning disabilities and those children who are potentially gifted. All students arrive at school with potentially a host of special needs and problems that the principal as the educational leader must ensure be addressed. The programming for the homeless child must make certain that there is a coordination of community services available for homeless children. It is likely that the homeless child will not have the required supplies that are necessary for entry into school. The principal needs to make certain that supplies are available for all children who cannot afford them. These supplies should not be obviously inferior to what a family of economic means might purchase. Toy Story 3 pencils would be more appropriate than just a plain pencil, to use an example from the most popular children‘s movie of the given time. It is important not to stigmatize the homeless child. The transition of young children to first grade can be a challenge for many children, but it poses a unique set of difficulties for those children who may or may not have attended kindergarten. Sink, Edwards, and Weir (2007) point out that kindergarten teachers are exceptionally well trained in developmentally appropriate learning activities and as a result kindergarten is often more gentle and play-oriented than first grade. The first-grade classroom is typically more intimidating and much less flexible, and particularly demanding for children at risk for school failure. The principal must make absolutely certain that the school counselors and teachers are up to the challenge of attending to the cognitive, social and emotional challenges that children experience during this time. If this principal does not make this a priority, it is uncertain that anyone else will. No one in the building or district must stigmatize children in homeless situations. Our socalled ―regular students‖ need to be educated about all children that are different in some way and be taught to have empathy for others. We should not think of them as homeless children, but rather as children who are temporarily displaced due to a complex set of circumstances beyond their control and often, their understanding. These children need sensitivity, understanding, and the recognition of their rights to a free and appropriate education. We maintain high expectations for their success.

REFERENCES Association for Supervision and Curriculum. (June 2010). Creating a Welcoming Classroom for Homeless Students. Volume 52: Number 6. 1. Education For Homeless Children and Youth Programs (2004). Title VII-B of the McKinneyVento Homeless Assistance Act, as amended by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Washington, DC: United States Department of Education. Grubb, W.N. & J.J. Flessa (2009). A Job Too Big For One: Multiple Principals and Other Non-Traditional Approaches to School Leadership. Distributed Leadership According to the Evidence. Edited by K. Leithwood, B. Mascall, and T. Strauss. New York: Routledge. Hubert, C. (2009). Number of Homeless Children on the Rise. Retrieved from the Heritage Foundation at: http://www.mcclatchyde.com/2009/03/10/62622/number-of-homelesschildren-on.html.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

A Children Centered Principal

155

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Kafer, K. (2002). Retrieved from: http://www.heritage.org/Research/Reports/2002/11/ Special-Education-101. Las Cruces Public Schools Family and Student Handbook (2009-2010). Retrieved at http://lcps.k12.nm.us/Commottees/Policies/index.shtml. Matthews, L.J. & G.M. Crow (2010). The Principalship: New Roles in a Professional Learning Community. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Missing Kids Network (2010). How Many Children Are kidnapped in the U.S. Every Year? Retrieved from: http://www.missingkids/servlet/PageServLet?LanguageCountry=en_US AandPageId=2810#1. National Coalition for the Homeless (September, 2009). Education of Homeless Children and Youth. Retrieved at: http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/education.html. New Mexico Administrative Code (NMAC) at 6.12.2 (A) (B) (C) and (D). Provides the course of actions for schools in regards to school enrollment and required student immunizations. Prince George‘s County Public Schools 2010). Homeless Children and Youth Have Rights Under Federal and State Law (the McKinney Act). A brochure retrieved from: www.pgcps.org. Sink, C., Edwards, C., & Weir, S. Helping children transition from kindergarten to first grade. Retrieved at: http://fomdartoc;es.com/p/articles/mi_m0KOC/is_3_10/ai_n 19311517/ U.S. Bureau of the Census (2008). Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States. Report P60, n. 236, Table B-2, 50-55.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 13

PRESCHOOL CURRICULUM: THE ISSUES AND CONCERNS Diane Edwards* and Joanne Greata Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, US

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS In 2007-2008 more than 52% of all 3-year-olds and 80% of all 4-year-olds attended a preschool program. Approximately 25% attended state funded pre-k programs, 25% attended Head Start or special education, and about 50% attended private preschool programs (NIEER, 2004). During Fiscal Year 2010, when most state legislatures faced extreme budget deficits, 27 of 38 states with existing pre-K programs and the District of Columbia chose to increase or preserve current spending for pre-K programs. Additionally, two states, Alaska and Rhode Island, offered pre-K programs for the first time. A belief that high quality preschool programs are an investment in development and learning resulted in a record-high funding for pre-K programs of $5.3 billion (pre[k]now, 2008). The phrase, high-quality preschool programs, is synonymous with school readiness- the preparedness of children to learn what schools expect, or want them to learn (Edwards, 1999). School readiness is a cornerstone to today's education reforms, which include the push for preschool. Like it or not, when public dollars, state or federal, are spent and/or increased to support programs, the question of accountability must be addressed to stakeholders. In most recent times, teachers and schools are being held responsible for demonstrating that the public is getting what it paid for. Especially with shortfalls in budgets, accountability is not expected to go away anytime soon (Bredekamp, 2011).

*

Diane Edwards is on the faculty of Eastern New Mexico University and currently holds the rank of Assistant Professor and Joanne Greata is affiliated in the field of child development and pedagogy and teaches at Lake Sumpter Community College in Florida.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

158

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

Trends toward Accountability

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Several trends reflect the desire for accountability. The first addresses the qualifications of teachers. Research over the past two decades has shown an important indicator of quality in preschools is the qualification of the teachers. Pre-K teachers with at least a 4-year degree related to early childhood education have better learning outcomes than teachers without a 4year degree and/or specialized training (pre[k]now, 2009). As a result of this research, federally-funded programs such as Head Start have been mandated to incrementally increase qualifications of teachers as have state-funded pre-K programs. However, a 4-year degree was required for pre-K teachers in only 27 of the 50 state-funded programs and 40 of the 50 required some specialized training in pre-K (NIEER, 2009). Thus, it cannot be assumed that all preschool teachers have received specialized training or a 4-year degree that has prepared them to develop effective curriculum. A second trend is the establishment of early learning standards. Through the establishment of standards, Early Head Start, Head Start, and state-funded pre-K initiatives attempt to determine what programs and teachers should be held accountable for. Standardsbased education is not new for K-12 education, but it is for preschool. By 2005, 49 states and the District of Columbia had developed early learning standards for young children and one state was in the process of developing standards. Additionally, by 2007, 14 states had developed standards for infants and toddlers and eight states were developing infant and toddler standards (Scott-Little, C., et. al., 2007). Early learning standards for state pre-K programs reflect what specific states want children to learn before they enter kindergarten. A third and related trend is to align the preschool standards with K-3 standards. The hope is to ensure that children are receiving a foundation for K-3 work in preschool and that they will have a smooth transition from preschool into kindergarten (Bredekamp, 2011).

Standards and Curriculum Early learning standards provide a context for curriculum development. Standards-based lesson plans and assessments document teaching and learning outcomes and allow administrators to evaluate the effectiveness of curriculum and instruction. While standards are used to guide curriculum development, all pre-k curriculums should be based on what is developmentally appropriate for preschool children. The National Education Goals Panel identified five domains of school readiness: physical well-being and motor development, social and emotional development, approaches toward learning, language development, and cognitive and general knowledge (NIEER, 2004). The domains were identified over a decade ago; however, state standards for preschool learning reflect the domains and drive curriculum development.

Curriculum in Pre-K Settings Generally, curriculum could be defined as a plan that describes goals and objectives for the learners and suggests the experiences, materials, and teaching strategies to achieve those goals. According to the position taken by the National Association for the Education of

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Preschool Curriculum

159

Young Children (NAEYC) and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education on the Common Core Standards Initiative Related to Kindergarten Through Third Grade (NAECS-SDE), pre-K programs should implement curriculum that is intentional and well-planned. Furthermore, the curriculum should be challenging and engaging, as well as developmentally appropriate and culturally and linguistically responsive. Finally, the curriculum should be comprehensive and promote positive outcomes for all children. During a presentation by Sue Bredekamp, Ph.D. at the NAEYC national conference on December 9, 2005, she stated that the principles of an effective pre-K curriculum are:

Developmentally Appropriate A developmentally appropriate curriculum takes into account the predictable developmental accomplishments, understanding, abilities, and interests of children during a particular age span. Comprehensive A comprehensive pre-K curriculum addresses the whole child. This includes the child‘s language development and expansion as well as early literacy; content areas of math, science, social studies and art; the child‘s social and emotional and physical development; and it should be culturally rich and diverse (Bredekamp & Pikulski, 2005).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Integrated Organizing the curriculum around themes or expanded ideas and integrating a comprehensive curriculum, rather than addressing each content or developmental area separately, allows for the development and extension of children‘s interests and the in-depth exploration of topics, which in turn allows children to make connections and create meaning and context (Bredekamp & Pikulski, 2005). Balanced A balanced curriculum includes both pre-planned and teacher-directed or initiated large and small group activities and child-directed or initiated and teacher facilitated free choice play activities. Research demonstrates that preschools with effective curriculum provide a balanced curriculum (Bredekamp & Pikulski, 2005). Culture and Diversity A curriculum that is rich in culture and diversity supports children in establishing their self-concept or cultural identity, and self-efficacy or their belief that they are competent. This curriculum reflects a belief that children come to school with certain understandings and abilities and helps children relate any new learning to what they already know (Bredekamp, & Pikulski, 2005). On-Going Assessment Although a developmentally appropriate curriculum will reflect what children can do, understand, and accomplish, generally, at a particular age, the key word here is generally.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

160

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

Children do not develop at the same rate in all of the domains. Nor do all children develop at the same rate as their peers. Within the framework of the curriculum, teachers must continually assess individuals to ascertain where each child stands in the continuum of learning and development and what support and scaffolding is necessary to move each child along this continuum (Bredekamp, & Pikulski, 2005).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Research- and Theory-Based Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Maria Montessori, and Eric Erikson are theorists who made significant contributions to the field of early childhood by identifying predictable stages of development. Early childhood educators who use research- and theory-based practices for planning activities, preparing the learning environment, interacting with children and adults, setting individual goals, and assessing outcomes are highly effective (Copple and Bredekamp, 2006). Understanding typical development in each domain will also empower teachers to recognize when a child is not where s/he should be and to follow up with the parents to explore the need for an assessment. Children who need intervention benefit from receiving it as early as possible. Standards- and Learning Outcomes-Based Standards indicate what children should learn and when. They are often presented as developmental milestones. Lesson plans demonstrate how the standards will be taught to specific children, and how the learning outcomes will be measured. Learning outcomes, or behaviors exhibited by children, should indicate if a child is in the learning stage, practicing stage, or mastery stage. Using standards/developmental milestones as a framework for curriculum allows teachers to spiral up or down based on learning outcomes, to insure the children's individual learning needs are being met (Petty, 2010). Family Involvement Children will feel a greater sense of belonging in the preschool environment if their family is involved. To reinforce the importance of family involvement, the second area of NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (2005) focuses on principles guiding the process of building collaboration between home and child care. It suggests an open door policy, involving families in making decisions concerning their children and program policies, informing parents about research projects with the option of participating or declining, communicate openly and honestly, provide community and professional resources, and always maintain professionalism and confidentiality. Back to school nights, parent/teacher conferences, daily interactions during drop off and pick up, volunteer activities, newsletters, bulletin boards, and trainings are examples of ways to support, communicate, and encourage family involvement (Berger, 2008). Teacher Professional Development Teachers who are state certified or licensed will have professional development requirements specific to re-certification or re-licensure. Teachers who meet minimum state

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Preschool Curriculum

161

standards as stipulated by the agency that regulates child care centers will need to abide by those standards. All teachers, regardless of their level of educational attainment, benefit from ongoing professional development. It is an opportunity to reflect, learn new things, and recommit to the field of early education and learning.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Physical Well-Being and Motor Development Preschool physical well-being documentation often includes a developmental history completed by the parents, up to date immunizations, screenings for speech, language, hearing, vision and dental, and a graph of height and weight. Compensatory programs such as Head Start, which include a social service component, may also conduct a social/emotional screening at intake to determine if children would benefit from play therapy. By reviewing data in each of the developmental domains -- physical, social/emotional, cognitive, and language -- preschool programs have a starting point for individualizing the curriculum and goals for each child. Motor development encompasses fine motor (small muscles) and gross motor (large muscles). Buttoning, lacing, putting puzzles together, cutting, pasting, coloring, printing, and painting with a paint brush are examples of preschool fine motor activities (Petty, 2010). These activities are often done while sitting down and are therefore considered sedentary. The fine motor activities increase with difficulty as the children gain mastery. Example, a 3-yearold will put together a 5 piece simple wooden puzzle with push pins for handles on each of the large pieces. In contrast, a 5-year-old may put together a of 20 piece puzzle with flat pieces by focusing on borders, colors, patterns, shapes and sizes. Developing good fine motor skills as a preschooler will help the children when they go to kindergarten and are expected to learn how to print legibly, dress and undress themselves for outdoor and indoor play, pour milk, serve and feed themselves during snack and lunch, color within the lines, turn pages in a book and many other basic self help and academic skills. In the past five years, gross motor skills have gained attention as weight and health issues have become a concern. According to the Journal of Pediatrics (2005) preschool children need a full 60 minutes of moderate to strenuous exercise each day, yet 89% of a preschoolers day is spent on sedentary activities (Williams, Pfeiffer, O'Neill, Dowda, McIver, Brown, & Pate1, 2008). The combination of not enough exercise, fast foods, and super-sized portions has created a weight problem in the United States. Two-thirds of American adults are either obese or overweight according to a 2009 report by the Trust for America's Health. The impact of genetics on weight is unclear; however children of obese parents are more likely to struggle with weight than children of parents who are physically fit. One explanation for this is families often have similar diets and life style habits (AACAP, 2008). In order to meet the needs of today's preschool children daily exercise should be an essential component of the curriculum. Climbing, running, riding a trike, hopping, skipping, and jumping are examples of moderate to strenuous exercise appropriate for preschoolers. Eye-hand coordination, balance, strength, aim and accuracy will increase with age (Petty, 2010).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

162

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Social and Emotional Development The preschool environment, child to child interactions, and child to adult interactions impact all areas of development, including social and emotional. The environment can foster individual, small group or large group play. A certain number of chairs at the puzzle table, foot print cutouts at the water table, or X number of props to play with indicate how many children should participate in an activity at one time. The teacher uses the environment as part of his/her curriculum to achieve desired outcomes. Children learn important skills for interacting with others by playing with their peers. Rather than only doing what they want to do, a child playing with another child has to be willing to also do what the other child wants, which may involve a different play theme, new rules, and playing with different materials. They learn not everyone thinks or wants the same things they do and to get along they must be willing to try things that others are interested in. Free play is the time when peer interaction occurs most frequently and timely prompting and praising from the teacher is important for reinforcement of desired behavior. Teacher interaction is most often observed during large group activities, snack and lunch, and structured activities. Providing opportunities for children to practice and talk about desired social behavior such as helping, sharing, cooperating, recognizing and responding to how others are feeling is essential. (Catron, C. and Allen, J. 2008). The age of the preschool child should be reflected in the number and simplicity of the classroom rules. Appropriate rules for a 3-year-old classroom would be tied to the senses and reinforce desired behavior. Example: We use our hands for helping, our feet for walking, we have an indoor voice and an outdoor voice, our ears are for listening, and our eyes are for watching. The focus of the rules and subsequent reminders should be on what you want the child to do. When a child is running in the classroom the teacher might say, ―Are you using walking feet?‖ The rules should be posted with pictures of children demonstrating desired behavior and be reviewed frequently, especially when children just begin their preschool experience and aren't sure of what is expected. The classroom rules should also be included in the parent handbook to empower parents to reinforce them in and outside of the classroom. Parents' are their children's first teachers. Children learn their language skills, social and cultural norms, attitudes towards behavior and morals from their parents' views, values and actions. Parents have a vast impact on their child and should be included in the preschool education process. The goal of having classroom rules is to help children gain self control and learn how to successfully interact with the environment, their peers and adults. (Catron, C. and Allen, J. 2008).

Language and Literacy Development From birth, children communicate with others, through their cries. They listen and respond to the words spoken to them, until somewhere between 8 and 14 months, they utter their first word. Some babies are taught sign language, which allows them to communicate earlier through signing than they are physically able to communicate, orally. However, language is not just a means to communicate ideas to others. Researchers in the area of language socialization believe that language learning is a part of becoming a competent member of a cultural society and the process takes place through interactions that are

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preschool Curriculum

163

language-based (Budwig, 2001). ―By 2015, it is expected that children of immigrants will constitute 30 percent of the nation‘s school population,‖ therefore, significant attention should be given to the language development of second-language learners and the social environment of the classroom (Halle, Calkins, Berry, & Johnson, 2003, 11). In addition to becoming a competent member of a cultural society, many researchers agree that oral language facilitates emergent literacy (Goswami, 2002; Watson, 2002). Literacy, or the ability to read and write, is important to the child‘s cognitive development and future success in school as well as throughout life. Although literacy develops throughout our lives, this development begins early in life, rather than at the start of school. The notion that children would learn to read once they were in a formal school setting was a common belief prior to the 1920s. Child development studies that addressed the high rate of failure to read among children entering formal school led to the concept of ‗readiness‘ for reading (Coltheart, 1979). The maturation view of readiness, which alleged that children would read when they were mature enough to do so, was held for decades. Ironically, this viewpoint led to the development of reading readiness tests, which eventually led to the development of materials to remediate any deficiencies exhibited by the children rather than wait for them to mature (Nielsen & Monson, 1996). In 1966, Durkin initiated 30+ years of research by educators, anthropologists, linguists, and psychologists, when she questioned why some children entered first grade, reading, when under the maturation theory they were too young, mentally and physically (Nielsen & Monson, 1996). The resulting cumulative research indicated that the critical foundation for learning to read and write is built during the early childhood years when children develop crucial pre-reading and pre-writing skills (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 2002). The development of these pre-reading and pre-writing skills is influenced by the quantity and quality of literacy-related experiences of children during the early years (Durkin, 1966; Teale, 1986). Pre-reading and pre-writing skills are learned and do not come from innate abilities (Teale, 1984). The early signs of an interest in and the abilities related to reading and writing demonstrated by young children is known as emergent literacy (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). Emergent literacy precedes conventional reading and writing and consists of key components, which correlate with reading and academic success (Richgels, 2002; Whitehurst and Lonigan, 2002; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Teale & Sulzby, 1986). The key components of emergent literacy include:

Phonemic Awareness Children who have phonemic awareness understand, recognize, and apply the units of speech; words, syllables, and sounds (Gunn, Simmons, and Kameenui, 2000). Phonemic awareness is an element of phonological awareness or the understanding of the sound patterns in a language. Alphabetic Principle Children who understand the alphabetic principle know the letters of the alphabet and their sounds (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

164

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

Print Awareness Children with print awareness understand that the print, not the pictures, tell the story and correspond to the spoken words. In other words, what is spoken can be written down and when read, it sounds the same as the original spoken word. Additionally, they understand the direction in which the printed words move on the page, depending upon the language in which the words are written (Gunn et al., 2000).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Early Writing Development Children who exhibit early writing development may scribble, produce forms that resemble letters, write strings of letters, or use invented spelling as they endeavor to communicate through writing (Richgels, 2002); (Teale & Sulzby, 1986; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). Oral Language Children entering kindergarten who have developed their oral language skills have a vocabulary of 3000 to 5000 words and can apply the conventions of spoken language necessary for reading (Wright & Neuman, 2009). Recent years have seen an increased emphasis on supporting children‘s language and literacy development, including the availability of Federal grants and programs, research synthesis, intervention studies, and the development of literacy curriculum for young children. However, the children entering pre-K programs across the United States bring with them a variety of language and literacy backgrounds as well as a variety of emergent literacy skills. Pre-K educators are faced with determining which techniques and strategies will support the development of the key components of emergent literacy skills for all children. The principle for an effective preschool experience, to apply theory- and research-based curriculum, requires an examination of the current research. This research leads to the conclusion that only through a combination of strategies or techniques pre-K educators might achieve positive results for all children (Halle, Calkins, Berry, & Johnson, 2003). In addition to these strategies and techniques, the general quality of the early childhood classroom predicts the children‘s language and literacy development in that classroom (Dunn et al., 1994). The learning environment is discussed later in this chapter.

Cognitive Development and General Knowledge How and when do children begin to understand their world, reason, process information, and remember? Over the last 100 years or more, this question has challenged early researchers of cognitive development. For example, some believed that only when infants had learned a language could they think or create ideas. Others believed in the influence of the environment on the child‘s cognitive development and others expounded the theory of information-processing, which compared the brain to a computer. Beginning in the early 1900‘s, some researchers attempted to establish the innate ability of children through intelligence tests. In 1983, Howard Gardner disputed this thinking in his multiple intelligence theory, when he posited that intelligence could not be measured with a single number and that there were multiple ways of being smart. Although many researchers are recognized for their

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preschool Curriculum

165

work in regards to cognitive development, some have gained more influence on the early childhood field than others. For decades, Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget, was the most well-known and influential theorist regarding cognitive development and his four-stage cognitive development theory, which began at birth, formed the basis for curriculum development, teaching methods, and developmental assessment (Thomas, 1992). Piaget believed that through a balance of heredity, physical experience, and education, a child's cognitive domain developed with each stage to progressively more sophisticated and abstract levels of thought (Thomas). As a constructivist, Piaget believed that children construct their own knowledge or concepts of the world, individually (Leseman, Rollenberg, Rispens, 2001), but that when children worked or played together, cooperatively, they participated in sociocognitive conflicts, through which they jointly constructed new knowledge, which added to each individual‘s cognitive development (Verba, 1993). Although born the same year as Piaget (1896), the Russian theorist, Lev Vygotsky, did not become known, widely, in the western world until 1978. Since its introduction, his theory has gained significant influence upon the early childhood field. As a constructivist, he believed that children‘s construction of knowledge occurred under the influence of cultural and social factors within each child‘s environment (Vygotsky, 1986). The concept of the zone of proximal development, which he defined as a range of development that exists between what a child knows and can do without the support of others and what a child can do and knows with support of adults and/or more advanced peers, explained the social interaction of cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1978). Additionally, he believed that the development of thinking was closely linked to the attainment of language (Vygotsky, 1986). Building upon the early research of Piaget and Vygotsky, in 1956, Benjamin Bloom and his associates determined key skills necessary for thinking (Fisher, 2007). Thinking is the ability of humans to remember, plan, question, solve problems, imagine, form concepts, formulate decisions and judgments and finally, to put all of these thoughts into words (Fisher). Bloom identified lower and higher thinking skills or what he called the ―cognitive goals of education‖ (Fisher, p. 72). Bloom‘s taxonomy consisted of six levels of skills; knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Each consecutive level is more challenging to the child and requires the child to think in a more advanced manner. In 2001, Anderson and Krathwohl revised Bloom‘s taxonomy of the cognitive domain (Atherton, 2009). Their six levels of cognitive skills include; remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating (Anderson & Krathwohl). Despite the minor, yet significant modifications made by Anderson & Krathwohl, particularly the insertion of the top category, creating new knowledge, Bloom‘s taxonomy remains in common use (Antherton). Some psychologists and philosophers have taken the understanding of the development of thinking further (Fisher, 2007). Their research supported the theory that thinking develops through interaction with others, which means that children need to learn the skills of dialogue and collaborative thinking (Fisher). This theory echoes both Piaget and Vygotsky who believed that peer play is important in the development of cognition. Additionally, their research exposed the importance of metacognition, or the ability to think about one‘s thinking. Children need to be able to identify what they know, what they have learned, what they can or cannot do and how they can improve. Finally, metacognition includes the ability

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

166

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

to recognize, dissect, and plan a solution for problems, as well as monitor progress and evaluate the outcome of actions taken (Fisher). All of this research must be taken into consideration when answering the question posed at the beginning of this section, how and when do children begin to understand their world, reason, process information, and remember?

Putting it All Together

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

When the National Education Goals were announced by President Bush and adopted by the 50 state governors in February, 1990, the first goal stated, ―By the year 2000, all children in America will start school ready to learn‖(NEGP). Ten years later, with 40 states and the District of Columbia funding pre-kindergartens and 80% of 4-year-olds enrolled in these programs, not all children in America start school ―ready to learn.‖ This problem led some to question whether pre-kindergarten schools were ready for the children (Winter & Kelley, 2008). An examination of relative research indicated a strong relationship between the quality of the early learning environment and the level of readiness for school that children exhibited (Winter & Kelley). Numerous research projects indicated that high-quality learning environments produced positive cognitive and language outcomes for children, while lowquality learning environments seemed to have less positive children‘s outcomes. In particular, socioeconomically disadvantaged children benefit from participation in high-quality programs (Winter and Kelley). In early childhood settings, a high-quality learning environment corresponds to a high-quality curriculum. The curriculum in early childhood settings addresses not only the questions of what and how (the content and implementation), but also who, where, and why, in order to be ready to support and enhance all children‘s learning and development and to help them become ready for kindergarten.

Who Children, families, teachers, and administrators make up the ―who‖ of the curriculum. The children arrive at different levels of development, yet they are eager to learn about their world. The adults in their lives must support and extend their natural curiosity through questions, exploration, experimentation, and experiences. Highly-qualified pre-K teachers know the developmental stage and the individual abilities, skills, likes, dislikes, interests, and temperament of every child within the learning environment. As professionals, teachers are responsible for involving families in the education of their children through participation in classroom activities, educational decisions, family education opportunities, and home-child activities. Additionally, they help families advocate for their children by seeking information and advice from them and helping them set goals for their children and themselves. Together, teachers and administrators ensure that the teacher is prepared and able to take on the important task of supporting and facilitating the development of all young children in all readiness domains. What The readiness domains of physical well-being and motor development, social and emotional development, language development, and cognitive and general knowledge make up the ―what‖ of the curriculum and were discussed above.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preschool Curriculum

167

Where The classroom setting, playground, and everywhere the class ventures together are the ―where‖ of the curriculum. As the pre-K curriculum should be intentional and well-planned, so should the environment in which the curriculum is implemented. First and foremost, it must be safe, so children can thrive with a feeling of security. Beyond safety, the environment must be developmentally appropriate, meaning that it provides the materials and equipment necessary to enhance the development of all children in the setting. Depending upon the previous experience of each child, the range of developmental skills may be wide. Classrooms should be physically arranged into play/learning areas such as a block corner, dramatic play, discovery/science, library or story corner, writing, music and movement, art, small motor/manipulative, computer, and large group. Within these learning areas, the five domains of school readiness should be supported at various levels of development. In addition to typical materials found in the block corner and dramatic play area, they should contain props that extend play and offer children quality language opportunities on a variety of topics (telephone directories; menus; architectural plans; lists of services for beauty salons, service stations; signs for businesses such as grocery stores, flower shops, doctors‘ offices, etc.) (Nielsen & Monson, 1996). The library should contain storybooks with characters through whose stories children can find connections to their own lives and experiences to support social/emotional development; information books that extend or support concepts and general knowledge that is appropriate for the developmental age/stage of the children in the classroom and that lead to discussions of those concepts; alphabet books to encourage children to name letters, sounds of letters and discuss pictures of objects that begin with the letter sound; rhyming books that allow children to hear a pattern and listen for rhyming sounds; number books that encourage counting or naming numerals; shape books; same and different books; and books related to curriculum themes or topics (Wright & Neuman, 2009). The writing center should contain a variety of writing tools such as pencils, pens, paper, envelopes, magnetic letters and numbers, and letter and number stamps. Additionally, eyecatching pictures that prompt children to draw or write should be displayed. Computers with printers in the writing center or adjacent in a computer center allow children to not only write and print out their work for illustration, but research has found that computers and other digital media can introduce children to abstract concepts about math, dynamic systems, and communication competence that in the past were considered too difficult for their age (Resnick, 1998; Resnick, Martin, Berg, Borovoy, Colella, Kramer, & Silverman, 1998). Additionally, computerized activities engage children in collaborative learning, reasoning, and problem-solving that was also considered too advanced for them in the past (Yelland, 2005). The music and movement and art centers provide opportunities for motor development, small and gross, the incorporation of concepts such as above, below, high, low, smooth, rough, loud and soft, and this facilitation and support of pre-literacy and pre-math skills. In the manipulative area, numerous materials for counting, sorting, classifying, manipulating, discerning cause and effect, measuring and small motor development should be available. Objects that help children with their pre-math and small motor skills include attribute shapes, geoboards, foam shapes, building blocks, pattern blocks, unifix cubes, puzzles, alike and different objects to compare, beads for stringing, pattern cards, Legos, Lincoln Logs, bristle blocks, tinker toys, and tools for measuring (Wright & Neuman, 2009).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

168

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Materials used for classification, sorting, and counting that are familiar to the children, such as various buttons, seashells, or keys, are more likely to be used during free play (Wright & Neuman). An intentionally-planned and engaging discovery/science center provides a place for children to exam items from the world around them. Such a center should include magnifying glasses, binoculars, flashlights, mirrors, magnets, stop watches, kitchen timers, hour glasses, balance scales for weighing and comparison, a water table with containers, tubing, and objects for sink and float activities, science books related to items in the center or topics addressed in the curriculum, various items that children encounter in their daily lives, such as seed pods, leaves, insects, and flowers, various containers for collecting and sorting, such as egg cartons, plastic containers, paper bags, jars, cups and trays, and items for recording information such as writing tools, paper, graph and chart paper, tape, scissors, glue and a camera (Gelman and Brenneman, 2004; Bosse, Jacobs, & Anderson, 2009; Wright & Neuman, 2009). This area should be changed often to keep pace with the curriculum themes and topics and to keep children interested and engaged (Wright & Neuman). The entire classroom should be a print-rich environment and offer many opportunities to encounter print, both letters and numerals, as a natural part of the environment (Neuman & Roskos, 1993). When children encounter labels, functional signs, and collaborative class writing, such as thank you notes or class stories, they begin to understand that print has meaning and they attempt to write and read during their play (Wright & Neuman, 2009). The alphabet should be placed where children can see it and alphabet and number puzzles should be available (Wright & Neuman). The playground and any outside facilities are a part of the learning environment and activities for gross motor development should be planned, implemented, and facilitated. Additionally, activities found within the classroom can be brought outside. Often, moving an activity, such as the painting easel outside provides children with a different perspective.

How An effective pre-K curriculum based upon the principles discussed above (Developmentally Appropriate, Comprehensive, Integrated, Balanced, Culture and Diversity, On-going Assessment, Research- and Theory-based, Standards- and Learning Outcomes-based, and Family Involvement) is part of the answer to the ―how‖ of curriculum. The second part of ―how‖ involves the facilitation of the curriculum, which translates to how do we help children develop and learn so they are ready for kindergarten? Teachers are the planners and facilitators of the curriculum. Every part of the preschool day should be intentionally planned. This includes the facilitation of the curriculum through-out the day. Dewey (1938), Piaget (1959), and Vygotsky (1978) theorized that children learn best through involvement in experiences and new activities should build on children's previous experiences, reflect their developmental readiness, provide a context for learning, and consider their interests, knowledge and skills (Copple & Bredekamp, 2006). In high-quality early childhood classrooms, these experiences often come in the form of play. Pre-K educators should embrace play as an important vehicle through which they can support children‘s school readiness and provide large amounts of time (at least 30 – 45 minutes) for children to select activities of their choice. Through play children have opportunities to practice skills and construct knowledge in all domains. When compared with children from programs where mature play was not a priority, children who

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preschool Curriculum

169

were supported in mature play demonstrated higher mastery of literacy skills and concepts, language, social skills, and the ability to regulate physical and cognitive behaviors (Bodrova & Leong, 2003). In the past, children learned to play at a mature level by playing with older children (Bodrova and Leong). With so many children attending preschool, teachers should play with the children to facilitate their learning and the extension of their play, always allowing the children to lead the play (Nielsen & Monson, 1996). Important to note is that mature play can take place over days, and to support mature play teachers must create imaginative situations, provide multi-purpose props, and help children plan for their play, so they can sustain it (Bodrova & Leong). Throughout the day, teachers build self-esteem and support emergent literacy by engaging children in conversations and encouraging conversations between children that provide opportunities for children to discuss and share information about their families or other events important to them. Emergent writing begins through example and discussions about writing. Taking dictation from a child about a story or picture can lead to having the child begin to spell part of the dictation, using invented spelling, and later encouraging the child to become more independent as s/he gains more experience (Nielsen & Monson, 1996). Through everyday experiences adults model the use of reading and writing by taking attendance, writing down the number of children who will be eating lunch, or writing notes to help remember something later. Concepts, knowledge, and language are supported through the frequent use of new vocabulary words from math, science, and literature (Wright and Neuman, 2009). Questions should be asked, not merely to gain information or to have children recite knowledge, but to teach them to think. According to Bloom (2001), 80% to 90% of the time, teachers ask questions from the ―knowledge‖ category. This type of question does not lead to development of thinking skills. Teachers should ask open-ended questions that begin with, for example, why, how, or what if. ―You could plan or analyze many learning activities in terms of Bloom's categories. For example when telling a story, a teacher might ask the following kinds of questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

What happened in the story? Why did it happen that way? What would you have done? Which part did you like best? Can you think of a different ending? What did you think of the story? Why?‖ (Fisher, 2007, p.72).

Engaging children in concrete problem-solving activities is another part of a high-quality pre-k program that requires teacher facilitation. Through problem-solving activities, children learn to reason, analyze, evaluate, and apply math, science, and social skills. Finally, multiple research projects concluded that ―the single most important teaching strategy for children between birth and age 5 is reading aloud to children using a style that engages children as active participants‖ (Halle, T., Calkins, J., Berry, D., and Johnson, R., 2003, p. 3). Interactive book reading, either one-on-one or in small groups, has been shown to enhance literacy development in oral language (both the conventions of spoken language and vocabulary skills), print awareness, writing abilities, and children‘s enjoyment of reading

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

170

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

(Reese and Cox, 1999; Morrow, 1988; Whitehurst, Arnold et al., 1994). Children must enter kindergarten ready to learn to read, so that in subsequent years they are able to read to learn.

Why Thirty-five years ago, it was recommended that child care personnel "are in need of the 'whys' as well as the 'how tos' if they are to function independently in planning and implementing quality day care programs" (Verma & Peters, 1975, p. 53). The ―why‖ behind the curriculum is important to the success of the curriculum and reflects the intentionality of the teaching/learning process, which reflects the final principle of an effective curriculum, Teacher Professional Development. An excellent curriculum based upon the first nine principles is ineffective in preparing children for kindergarten, if the teachers are not trained to support and facilitate the curriculum and understand why it is important to implement certain practices. A study by Cassidy & Lawrence (2000) examined the ability of teachers to state why they used certain practices in the preschool classroom and the personal (experience) and/or professional (education/training) influences that supported the rationale for those practices. Thirty-three percent of the time, the teachers stated that practices were carried out to support social and emotional development, which was a positive indication. However, only six percent of the time was language development cited as being supported, 5% physical development, and 10% cognitive development. Why (either personal experience or professional training) these practices were employed was cited for only 4% of the practices and the most commonly expressed reason was personal experience rather than professional education, even among teachers who did have formal training (Cassidy and Lawrence). Indications from this and other studies are that many teachers in the early childhood field tend to not reflect upon their practices and base them on experience rather than theories learned through education (Cassidy and Lawrence; Schoonmaker and Ryan, 1996; Bell, 1991). Teachers who do not apply intentional practice, based upon research and sound theories, either due to lack of education or lack of reflection on their practice, do not demonstrate best practice and may not be ―ready‖ to prepare pre-k children for kindergarten. High-quality preschool programs address all of the questions of what, how, who, where, and why of their curriculums in order to support and enhance all preschool children‘s learning and development and to help them become ready for kindergarten.

REFERENCES AACAP. (No. 79; May 2008). Obesity in Children and Teens. Available: http://www.aacap. org/cs/root/facts_for_families/obesity_in_children_and_teens. Last accessed 5 April 2010. Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D. R. (eds.) (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman. Atherton, J S (2009) Learning and Teaching; Bloom's taxonomy [On-line] UK: Available: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/bloomtax.htm Accessed: 1 June 2010.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preschool Curriculum

171

Bell, N. (1991, September). Early childhood teachers' theories in practice: What do teachers believe? Paper presented at the Fifth Early Childhood Convention, Dunedin, New Zealand. Bloom, F.E., Nelson, C.A., & Lazerson, A. (2001). Brain, mind, and behavior. 3rd ed. New York: Berger, E. (2008). Parents as partners in education: Families and schools working together (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. Bodrova, E. & Leong, D.J. (2003). The importance of being playful. Educational Leadership, 60 (7) pp. 50-53. Bosse, S. Jacobs, G., Anderson, T.L. (November, 2009). Science in the air. Young Children. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children Bredekamp, S. & Pikulski, J.J. (December 9, 2005) Principles of an effective preschool curriculum. Presented at NAEYC by Houghton Mifflin. Bredekamp, S. (2011). Effective practices in early childhood education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education , Inc. Budwig, Nancy (2001) 'Preface to the Special Issue: Language Socialization and Children's Entry into Schooling', Early Education and Development, 12: 3, 295 — 301 Cassidy, D.J. & Lawrence, J.M. (2000). Teachers' beliefs: The "whys" behind the "how tos" in child care classrooms. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 14 (2) pp. 193204. Catron, C. & Allen, J. (2008). Early Childhood Curriculum: A creative-play model, 4th edition, Merrill Prentice Hall. Cochran-Smith, M. (1994). The making of a reader. Norwood, NJ:Ablex. Coltheart, M. (1979). When can children learn to read – And when can they be taught? In T.G.. Waller & G. E. MacKinnon (Eds.). Reading research: Advances in theory and practice, (Vol. 1). New York: Academic Press. Copple, C., & S. Bredekamp. 2006. Basics of developmentally appropriate practice: An introduction for teachers of children 3 to 6. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Durkin, D. (1966). Children who read early. New York: Teachers College Press. Edwards, D. (1999). Public factors that contribute to school readiness. ECRP, 1: 2. Available: http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v1n2/edwards.html Last accessed 22 March 2010. Fisher, R. (2007). Teaching thinking in the classroom. Education Canada, 47 (2) pp. 72-4. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligence. New York: Basic Books. Gelman, R. & Brenneman, K. (2004). Science learning pathways for young children. Early Childhood Research, 19, pp. 8 -29. Goswami, U. (2002). Early phonological development and the acquisition of literacy. In S.B. Neuman and D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research. New York: Guilford Press. Gunn, B. G., Simmons, D. C., & Kameenui, E. J. (2000). Emergent literacy: Synthesis of the research. Halle, T., Calkins, J., Berry, D., & Johnson, R. (2003). Promoting language and literacy in early childhood care and education settings. New York: Child Care and Early Education Research Connections NIEER, Issue 5, March 2004. Preschool Policy Matters. p.5 Available: http://nieer.org/ policybriefs/5.pdf. NIEER (2009) The state of preschool. Available: http://nieer.org/yearbook/.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

172

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

Leseman, P.M., Rollenberg, L., Rispens, J. (2001). Playing and working in kindergarten: Cognitive coconstruction in two educational situations. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 16. (pp. 363–384). Morrow, L. M. (1988). Young children‘s responses to one-to-one story readings in school settings. Reading Research Quarterly, 23(1), 89-107. NAEYC & NAECS-SDE (2010). Joint Statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education on the Common Core Standards Initiative Related to Kindergarten Through Third Grade. [Online]. Available: http://www.naecssde.org/policy Accessed: 28 May, 2010. NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (2005). Available: http://www.naeyc.org/position statements/ethical_conduct Accessed: 6 June, 2010. National Education Goals Panel (NEGP). Goals. [Online] Available: http://govinfo. library.unt.edu/negp/page3-3.htm Accessed: 1 June, 2010. Nielsen, D.C. & Monson, D. L. (1996). Effects of literacy environment on literacy development of kindergarten children. The Journal of Educational Research, 89 (5), pp. 259-271. Petty, K. Developmental Milestones of Young Children Quick Guide. 2010. Redleaf Press, St. Paul, MN. pre[K]now (2009). Minimum educational requirements for lead teachers in state-funded preK. Available: http:pkn_education_reform_series_final.pdf. pre[K]now (2008) The pre-k pinch: early education and the middle class. Available: http://www.pre-kpinch_Nov2008_report.pdf. Reese, E., & Cox, A. (1999). Quality of adult book reading affects children‘s emergent literacy. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 20-28. Resnick, M. (1998). Technologies for lifelong kindergarten. Educational Technology Research and Development, 46(4), 43–55. Resnick, M., Martin, F., Berg, R., Borovoy, R., Colella, V., Kramer, K., & Silverman, B. (1998). Digital manipulatives: New toys to think with. In C. Karat, A. Lund, J. Coutaz, and J. Karat (Eds.), Proceedings of the Special Interest Groupon Computer–Human Interaction (SIGCHI) Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. New York: ACM Press. Richgels, D. J. (2002). Invented spelling, phonemic awareness, and reading and writing instruction. In S.B. Neuman and D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research. New York: Guilford Press. Viner, R. M. & Cole, T.J. (May 2005). Television Viewing in Early Childhood Predicts Adult Body Mass Index . The Journal of Pediatrics. Vol. 146 (Issue 5), Pages 618-625. Scott-Little, Catherine, et al. "Early learning standards: results from a national survey to document trends in state-level policies and practices.(Survey)." Early Childhood Research and Practice 9.1 (2007). Academic OneFile. Web. 23 Apr. 2010. Schoonmaker, F., & Ryan, S. (1996). Does theory lead to practice? Teachers' constructs about teaching: Top-down perspectives. Advances in Early Education and Day Care, 8, 117151. Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preschool Curriculum

173

Teale, W. H. (1984). Reading to young children. It‘s significance for literacy development. In H. Goelman, A.A. Oberg, and F. Smith (Eds.) Awakening to literacy. (pp. 110 – 130). London: Heinemann. Teale, W. H. (1986). Home background and children‘s literacy development. In W. H. Teale & E. Sulzby (Eds.) Emergent literacy: Writing and reading (pp. 173- 206) Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Teale, W. H. & Sulzby, E. (1986). Emergent literacy: Writing and reading. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Trust for America's Health. F as in Fat 2009. Available: http://healthyamericans.org/reports/ obesity2009/. Thomas, R.M. (1992). Comparing theories of child development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Verba, M. (1993). Cooperative formats in pretend play among young children. Cognition and Instruction, 11 (3 and 4), 265–280. Verma, S., & Peters, D. L. (1975). Day care teachers practices and beliefs. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 21(1), 46-55. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1934/1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Watson, R. (2002). Literacy and oral language: implications for early literacy acquisition. In S.B. Neuman and D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research. New York: Guilford Press. Whitehurst, G. J., Arnold, D. S., Epstein, J. N., Angell, A. L., Smith, M., & Fischel, J. E. (1994). A picture book reading intervention in day care and home for children from lowincome families. Developmental Psychology, 30(5), 679-689. Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (1998). Child development and emergent literacy. Child Development, 69(3), 848-872 Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (2002). Emergent literacy: Development from prereaders to readers. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 11-29). New York: The Guilford Press. Williams, H.G., Pfeiffer, K.A., O'Neill, J.R., Dowda, M., McIver, K.L., Brown, W.H., & Pate1, R.R.. (3 April 2008). Motor skill performance and physical activity in preschool children. Obesity a Research Journal, 16. (6), 1421-1426. Available: http://www. nature.com/oby/journal/v16/n6/full/oby2008214a.html. Last accessed 5 April 2010. Winter, S.M. & Kelley, M.F. (2008) Forty years of school readiness research: What have we learned? Childhood Education, 84 (5), pp. 260-266. [Online] Available: http://proquest. umi.com.ezproxylocal.library.nova.edu/pqdweb?did=1507312911andsid=1andFmt=3and clientId=17038andRQT=309andVName=PQD Accessed : 1 June, 2010 Wright, T.S. & Neuman, S.B. (2009). Preschool curriculum: What‘s in it for children and teachers? Washington D.C.: The Albert Shanker Institute [Online] Available: www.ashankerinsti.org. Yelland, N. (2005). The future is now: A review of the literature on the use of computers in early childhood education (1994–2004). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE) Journal, 13(3), 201–232.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 14

THE ADMINISTRATION OF PRE-SCHOOL PROGRAMS Diane Edwards* and Joanne Greata

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Eastern New Mexico Univcrsity, Portales, New Mexico, US

This chapter discusses curriculum for preschool programs and its relationship to accountability, standards and learning outcomes, and provides the foundation for K-12 education. The principles of an effective Pre-K program are discussed and how they support the five domains of school readiness: physical well-being and motor development, social and emotional development, approaches toward learning, language development, and cognitive and general knowledge, identified by the National Education Goals Panel in 2004. This chapter explores the complexity of administration of preschool programs. It examines the credentials required for the position, the multiple roles of preschool directors, and the skills necessary to be effective. Examples of documentation through the lens of accreditation in the areas of personnel, children, teaching and learning, and partnerships are included. The chapter concludes with wages earned by preschool directors in 2008, future prospects for job growth, and training for administrators.

ADMINISTRATION OF PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS What is the role of the administrator in a high-quality preschool? Is it different from the best teacher in the center? To some, this second question may seem ridiculous, and yet, in the past (and in some instances, currently) directors (the typical title for preschool administrators) were chosen based upon their performance as a teacher in the classroom. Although their positions may require them to address some of the same issues, such as child outcomes or learning environment, they do so from different points of view and different levels of accountability.

*

Diane Edwards is a faculty member in the College of Education at Eastern New Mexico University in Portales, New Mexico and holds the rank of Assistant Professor. Joanne Greata is a professional in the field of child development and teaches at Lake Sumpter Community College in Florida.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

176

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

The US Department of Labor identifies the role of a preschool director as overseeing daily activities and operation, hiring and developing staff, and meeting required regulations and educational standards (2010). State child care licensing regulations identify minimum qualifications for teachers and directors based on state specific standards, and identify tasks associated with each position. Accredited preschool programs and programs that receive support or services from other agencies such as Children, Youth, and Families, may have additional qualifications and responsibilities for directors as a condition of accreditation or services making. This chapter will present the range of preschool director's responsibilities in three areas including personnel, children, families and community, and documentation of policies, procedures and outcomes.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Personnel Recruiting and working with personnel is often cited by directors as the most difficult issue with which they deal (Freeman, Hackley, & Corning, 2004). And yet, the personnel of the early childhood program should be as important as the families, children, and community from the standpoint of the director. For years, reports have emerged that an alarming number, as much as one third of American preschool children, do not have the cognitive, language, and literacy skills to be successful in kindergarten and that without these skills upon entrance to kindergarten, they may never catch up (Assel, Landry, Swank, & Gunnewig, 2006; Zill & West, 2001; Kurdek & Sinclair, 2000; La Paro & Pianta, 2000; Carnegie Task Force on Meeting the Needs of Young Children, 1994; Reynolds & Bezruczko, 1993; Boyer, 1991). These reports are of serious concern to many citizens as pre-K school readiness becomes a prominent trend in education. Current studies of child school-readiness acknowledged that qualified teachers in well-designed preschool programs have a powerful effect on child outcomes (Winter & Kelley, 2008). Directors of preschool programs are responsible for what might be called the ‗4 Rs‘ of providing qualified teachers; recruit, rejuvenate, review, and retain. Recruitment of qualified teachers is often difficult. This is particularly true in rural areas (Monk, 2007). Attempts by programs to strengthen the qualification requirements of teachers being hired into the program are often frustrated by the lack of persons meeting those qualifications who want to teach in a preschool setting. As a result, qualified teachers are often home-grown, meaning that the director hires the best persons s/he can find and provides them development opportunities after they join the staff. Head Start, for example, has been raising the qualification level of teachers, incrementally, for several years, but continues to provide for the fact that there may not be persons that meet the qualifications to fill teacher positions. In an Information Memorandum on August 19, 2008, the Office of Head Start stated, ―By October 1, 2011, each Head Start classroom in center-based programs must have a teacher who has at least … an associate, baccalaureate or advanced degree in early childhood education‖ (Head Start, 2008). Although this memorandum provided a three year warning, a subsequent paragraph states, ―a 180-day waiver may be granted to the above requirement if a Head Start agency can demonstrate it has attempted unsuccessfully to recruit a qualified candidate and the individual for whom the waiver is being requested is enrolled in a program that will award that individual a qualifying credential, certificate or degree within 180 days of being hired as a teacher‖ (Head Start).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Administration of Pre-School Programs

177

Barnett (2003) identified low wages and benefits as the single most important factor in being able to hire qualified teachers. Highly qualified teachers seek K-12 teaching positions in the public schools and, often, will leave low-paying teaching positions in preschool programs for positions in public schools, once they have gained sufficient education and training (Barnett). Recognizing this problem, the federal and some state governments are trying to help provide the early childhood field with qualified teachers through programs that provide education opportunities and modest compensation (Barnett). Directors should be knowledgeable about any programs that help increase the compensation teachers receive. Additionally, directors can examine their budgets and work toward better compensation for their staff members. The word, rejuvenate, is used as the second ‗R‘, because rejuvenation can be invigorating, revitalizing, and energizing, qualities related to motivation. Many early childhood teachers are drawn to the field because they love to work with children. Unfortunately a love of children is not sufficient to make one a qualified teacher. Conveying the need for formal education requires the ability to motivate, especially when supervising/managing those who have been in the field for years, but have no formal education and see no need for it; those who never thought of themselves as someone who should seek a degree; or those who have some formal education and do not see a need for further education. As the children come to the program at various levels of development, so do the teachers. Directors must be familiar with the personnel‘s current stages of development and training needs, strengths, weaknesses, interests, and goals, in order to create a master staff development plan that will support the program‘s philosophy, goals, and purposes (Catron and Groves, 1999). The program staff development plan must be able to support personnel at multiple levels of development and growth. This requires the director to seek various opportunities for development rather than require all staff to attend the same trainings. Motivation is essential to energize and invigorate the staff members and help them ―keep the "big picture" in mind and remember what is essential and important at times when everyday conflicts or problems seem to overshadow or undermine the real purposes of the program. The director also can help staff members to dream their best dreams…make those dreams a reality, and encourage continued growth so the programmatic vision will be dynamic and evolving over time‖ (Catron & Groves, p. 184). The director must possess leadership skills to motivate and manage personnel in the execution of policies and procedures. Rejuvenation involves exciting the personnel about the programmatic vision so they become fully committed to and share in common goals and expectations for the program (Catron and Groves). Good leaders build quality relationships with the personnel in the program and a team that is motivated to provide the best educational environment for the children in the program. Directors must have the knowledge and ability to carry out the third ‗R‘, review (assess). Regarding the personnel, this review includes assessing the quality of the educators‘ teaching and classroom management skills; the need for additional and specialized training; and the quality of the curriculum provided to insure the highest child outcomes; and in some cases the work of other members of the staff, such as cooks, bus drivers, or facility maintenance staff. Various methods may be used to review the program‘s personnel performance, such as surveys, observations, individual conferences, and annual individual personnel and curriculum evaluations. These reviews should be an on-going part of the program‘s assessment plan. Through self-evaluations conducted by staff members and discussed with

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

178

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

the director at individual conferences, the director can support the relationships being built by demonstrating a caring attitude toward the goals, successes, and needs of each person. During these individual conferences, directors can model reflective practices and teach staff members to analyze their own work (Parlakian, 2001). Teaching staff members to reflect upon and assess their work empowers them and helps them be aware of their strengths, limits, and vulnerabilities, so they can improve upon their performance (Parlakian). Additionally, staff members are empowered and relationships strengthened when they are embraced in a collaborative effort to review the curriculum and its affect on child outcomes. The final „R‟ is retain. The retention of early childhood teachers and staff is a significant issue for the early childhood field (Mims, Scott-Little, Lower, Cassidy, & Hestenes, 2008). Numerous studies have reported that the instability caused by high staff turnover rates affects children and the overall quality of the program (Howes, Phillips, & Whitebook, 1992; Helburn, 1995; Whitebook, Sakai, & Howes, 1997; Whitebook & Sakai, 2003). Three types of teacher turnover have been identified: job turnover, when a teacher leaves a program; occupation turnover, when a teacher leaves the teaching field; and position turnover, when a teacher moves to another position within the program, such as a different age group or a promotion to a supervisory position (Whitebook & Sakai, 2003). ―Approximately one-third of the nation‘s child care work force leave their jobs each year – most often, in order to earn a better living elsewhere. At such a rate of turnover, the shortage of trained and qualified workers has become a national staffing crisis‖ (Young, 2000/2001, p.1). Job and occupational turnover are reflected in the 33% of child care workers who leave their jobs, annually, but position turnover is not reflected in teacher turnover statistics and is generally considered in positive terms (Mims, et. al.). However, position turnover can also affect the quality of the program due to the stress and disruption caused as teachers learn their new jobs. Directors should consider the affect these position transitions may have on children and teachers and develop ways to make the transitions less disruptive and stressful (Mims, et. al.). Relationships also affect the retention of staff members. A significant percentage of early childhood educators are women and job satisfaction for women is related to relationships (McClelland, 1986). Directors can build upon the relationships with staff by using frequent, inexpensive instruments of approval and support such as hand-written notes of thank you, congratulations, or recognition to staff members; daily visits to classrooms to say hello and show an interest in the staff and their work; asking for staff input when solving problems; and in general demonstrating a caring and respectful attitude. Job satisfaction has been linked to how strongly a person identifies with an organization and building good relationships within the program provides a means of identification. As the director learns more about the goals and needs of the individual teachers, strategies can be created to facilitate higher levels of job satisfaction (Bloom, 1988). Directors of early childhood education programs must balance the needs and desires of families and the community with the needs and desires of the teachers and other staff in the program. Without providing attention to the program‘s personnel concerns at least equal to the attention provided to families and the community concerns, the director is neglecting the most important resource of the program.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Administration of Pre-School Programs

179

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Children, Families and Community The preschool director is usually the first point of contact. Typically it would be the director's name and phone number on ads, in the telephone directory, or on a website promoting the preschool program. Parents may call the director call to learn more about the program and if it sounds promising they may follow up with a visit to the school with their child, which could result in an application to enroll their child. The director is responsible for accurately providing information about the school's mission, philosophy, services, policies and procedures and finding out what the parent is looking for in terms of scheduling, curriculum, behavior management, parent involvement, food, tuition, etc. A pre-enrollment conference and questionnaire are effective tools for developing effective relationship with families. (Catron & Allen, 2008). Parents may need help in determining if a preschool will meet their children's needs and full program disclosure will help them make an informed decision. It is important to have a good fit between what parents want in a preschool and what the preschool offers. No one benefits when there is discord between school and family. Some preschool programs make home visits like Head Start so the child and family meet the teacher in their home environment. Other preschools may invite a child to visit the classroom for a short time while their parent remains in the office. Preschool programs that have everyone start at the same time may begin their calendar year with all children coming half days for the first week or half the children coming every other day and then all on Friday. There are many ways to help a child adjust to a program and if a child has a smooth transition, generally so do the parents and teachers (Berger, 2008). An important indicator of quality is school/family partnerships based on mutual trust and respect. Parents have important insight about their children and program staff have important insight to theories of growth and development; when those insights are shared teachers increase their understanding of the children they care for and parents can extend and reinforce learning and development at home. School and family partnerships create a secure and trusting learning environment for children, families and staff (Berger, 2008). Strategies to inform and involve parents in the preschool program include an open door policy, invitations for parents to volunteer in the classroom or have lunch with the children, an area with resources of interest to parents, regular informal and formal communication, parent bulletin board with posted lesson plans, schedules, menus, child photographs, and pictures with the names of everyone who works in their child's classroom. (Catron and Allen, 2008). Newsletters, conferences, special events, and the ability of the teachers and director to greet each parent by name and make genuine inquiries about how they are doing are indicators of the relationship between school and families. Communication should be encouraged, open, honest, frequent and two-way (Berger, 2008). Preschool programs are usually community based. As part of a community, preschools typically tap into community resources to enrich curriculum and expand services for families. An example of this is a local speech and language clinic providing annual screenings in the preschool at no cost, or the public health nurse providing an immunization clinic for the preschoolers and their siblings on site. Preschool teachers often include units on safety in their curriculum, which involve coordinating a visit from the local firefighters and or police with their respective safety vehicles, as well as books from the public library. Trips to the local grocery store, bank and post office are part of a child's experience and are often

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

180

represented in the classroom by child size props, materials and dress up. It is exciting for preschoolers to learn they are part of a family, part of a classroom and part of a community.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Documentation of Policies, Procedures and Outcomes Accreditation of preschool programs is important because it adds a layer of credibility to minimum state standards established for program licensure. Accredited preschool programs are associated with higher standards and quality measures than programs which adhere to minimum state requirements. Information developed for parents to help them select quality childcare programs often suggest parents look for nationally accredited programs. In addition to accreditation being associated with quality for parents, there may also be a financial incentive for programs to become accredited. Some states provide higher child care subsidies for accredited preschool programs and accreditation may also make programs eligible for additional funding via grants. The accreditation process is important and it requires an investment of time and resources as well as a commitment by the program, staff and families. Early childhood programs have many choices for national accreditation organizations, yet state regulatory agencies may not recognize accreditation from all of the available organizations. Thus, the accreditation process should begin with selecting an agency from a list of the national accreditation organization recognized by the state in which the early childhood program is located. A list of national accreditation organizations for early childhood programs is posted on the National Child Care Information and Technical Assistance Center hosted by the US Department of Health and Human Services website (2010). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the National Accreditation Commission for Early Care and Education Programs are 2 organizations that offer accreditation of early childhood programs. As of this writing, NAEYC is the leading choice for accreditation and NAC is growing in popularity. The following information was gleaned from reviewing accreditation standards for both agencies.       

the average upfront cost is about $1,500.00 the average time to complete the accreditation process is between 9 months to 2 years, a self-study and validation visit is required, accreditation is good from 3 to 5 years, a parent questionnaire is required Annual reports and fees are required. The renewal process should start the year before accreditation expires, it is an ongoing process.

NAEYC and NAC accreditation standards are associated with quality because they are research based, address all program areas and exceed minimum state standards. As such, the accreditation standards for both organizations provide guidance for suggested program documentation. The following 4 areas of documentation were included in NAEYC Accreditation Self Study Materials (2006) and or NAC Accreditation Manual (2009). The 4

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Administration of Pre-School Programs

181

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

areas highlight some aspects of documentation included in the accreditation process and does not represent full coverage of the process used by NAEYC or NAC. Furthermore, documentation will not be the same for all programs, even those accredited by the same national organization. Licensing standards and requirements of agencies providing services or funding to child care programs may also be reflected in the documentation process.

1. Common Documentation of Children's Records The application for enrollment will vary by program, which will be impacted by state and accreditation standards. A typical application will include a developmental history of the child from birth, contact information, a physical address, health records and information, identification of who can pick up the child regularly or in the event of an emergency, consent to provide or transport for medical treatment, and consent to take photos, conduct assessments and do other activities associated with your program. Many programs also request information about the child's likes and dislikes, typical routine for food and activities, temperament, parents' goals for their children, and anything else the parent or guardian would like to share. The child's application should be updated annually, and in this same file is often documentation the parents received a program orientation prior to enrollment, and was given a parent handbook which was reviewed during orientation. These documents are typically kept in the director's office. (NAC, NAEYC). Children's documentation generally kept in the classroom by teachers include work samples, observations, outcomes from lesson plans based on developmental domains, accommodations, photos, and anecdotal notes about their progression of growth. The teacher's file on each child may also include contact with parents, formally and informally, as well as documentation of parent teacher conferences. There is usually a separate book that houses records of injury and accidents, which the parents are directed to in the event their child is involved. Typically, whomever observes and or treats an injured child or a child who had an accident will document the event in the log, which is part of the school's records. Also in the classroom is often a daily sign in/out sheet which the parents are asked to complete. This sheet is typically used by the classroom teacher for roll call in the event of an unexpected evacuation, such as a fire drill. If a preschool participates in a food program, the daily attendance roster may also be used for a head count for am and pm meals or snacks. (NAC, NAEYC). 2. Common Documentation of Teaching Staff's Records While each state and accreditation agency has their own standards, typically the basic documentation an administrator needs to have on file for each staff member includes: an application with required consents and statements of proper conduct, health records, background check clearance, reference checks, documentation of training and transcripts, orientation, receipt of program parent and staff handbook, emergency contact information, performance reviews, professional development plan, and certification or licensure demonstrating their qualifications for the position. The files the director keeps on teaching staff is not all inclusive, typically human resources would have additional documentation specific to the staff person's eligibility for hiring, wages, rights, etc. (NAC, NAEYC). Teachers will also have documentation kept in the classroom. Themes and lesson plans consistent with the program's philosophy and schedule with accommodates to meet the needs of individual children should be on hand in the classroom. Assessments for the planned

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

182

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

activities based on developmental domains and the documented outcomes (the completed assessments) which influenced future lesson plans to provide instruction at the level appropriate for the children should also be housed with the teachers. Lesson plans with accommodations should be posted in the classroom during the week they are being taught, then kept in a folder or binder. Blank assessment tools should be kept with the respective lesson plans, and completed assessments in the respective children's file. Parents should have access to the lesson plans and assessment tools to further their understanding of their children's preschool experience and to reinforce enthusiasm for learning at home. A schedule of teaching staff should also be in the classroom, to inform parents of who is with their children and when, as well as to document staff/child ratios are being met. (NAC, NAEYC).

3. Common Documentation of Administrative Records The director is usually the person held accountable for overseeing the preschool and making sure it is true to it's mission, philosophy, policies and procedures and is abiding by all licensing and accreditation requirements. When accrediting agencies conduct validation visit, usually they observe in the classroom and then meet with the director. They are looking for evidence via documentation that everything the program indicated they were doing in the self study, included what is stated in the preschool's parent and staff handbook, is being done. The director needs to make available children's and teaching staff records, lesson plans and assessments, records of fire and other safety drills (depending on region, may include tornado, earthquake, hurricane and or additional drills), newsletters and other corresponddences to parents, documentation of special events such as back to school nights, documentation of orientation and parent/teacher conference procedures, licenses and permits, staff/child rosters and ratios including break and lunch schedules, professional development, agendas and minutes for staff meetings, agreements with health care consultants, menus for programs serving food, postings of fair employment and non-discrimination, playground inspections, health and safety measures, and environmental ratings for both indoors and outdoors. (NAC, NAEYC). 4. Documentation of Partnerships Preschool programs are in a unique position to share information with parents and therefore should have partnerships with community organizations that offer services to children and families. Pediatric dentists, physicians, eye doctors, therapists, play groups, special needs diagnosticians and family services that assist with food, housing, child care subsidy and employment are examples of agencies preschool programs may partner with. Preschool programs typically have a list of community resources which they provide to parents at the time of enrollment. The public library, the closest community college or university, public playgrounds, and contact information for agencies listed above are typically included. The community resource list, like the parent and staff handbook, should be reviewed and updated annually. (NAC, NAEYC).

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Administration of Pre-School Programs

183

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Preparation and Future of Preschool Administrators In 1999, Catron and Groves wrote of the need for better training for preschool directors to make them more efficient, effective, and professional. The ability of directors to oversee and advise personnel regarding their work with children and to balance these interpersonal skills with skills required to run a successful business has an impact on the quality of the preschool programs they administer and the ability of those programs to serve society and meet the challenges it presents (Catron & Groves). An analysis of the Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes study (1995) demonstrated that level of quality of child care centers was reflected in the educational level of the directors of the program (Mocan, Burchinal, Morris, and Helburn, 1995). Directors with higher levels of education, including college level courses, provide higher-quality preschool programs (Mims, Scott-Little, Lower, Cassidy, & Hestenes, 2008). Yet, in 2009, the National Association of Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies reported that three states and the District of Columbia required a director‘s credential to qualify for the position of director in an early education setting. Thirty-nine states had no pre-service administrative training requirements and 42 states required no on-going administrative training (National Child Care Information and Technical Assistance Center, 2007). As the early childhood field continues to search for and improve upon factors that will enhance the quality of preschool programs, the education of program administrators should be addressed as one of the important factors in that quest. The skill set and knowledge base required of preschool directors is extensive. Documentation and organization are two essential skills required to manage the abundance of record keeping. Interpersonal skills to build trust and relationships with families, staff and community members are equally as important. Knowledge of good business practices and the skills to put those practices to work, in addition to attention to details to ensure everything is done in the manner expected by funding and regulatory agencies, are also required. With qualifications in both teaching and administration, how much should a preschool director expect to earn for his or her work? According to the Department of Labor in May 2008 preschool and child care program administrators earned between $25,910 and $77,150 per year. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,290 and $54,680. Employment prospects for preschool directors look good due to an increase of children attending child care programs and States implementing or expanding public preschool programs. (USDL, 2010)

REFERENCES Assel, M. A., Landry, S. H., Swank, P.R., & Gunnewig, S. (2006). An evaluation of curriculum, setting, and mentoring on the performance of children enrolled in prekindergarten. Read Writ 20 no5 Jl 2007 pp. 463 – 494. Barnett, W.S. (2003). Low wages = low quality: Solving the real preschool teacher crisis. Preschool Policy Matters, Issue 3. The National Institute for Early Education Research. Online: Accessed: July 5, 2010. Berger, E. (2008). Parents as partners in education: Families and schools working together (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

184

Diane Edwards and Joanne Greata

Bloom, P. J. (1988). Factors influencing overall job satisfaction and organizational commitment in early childhood work environment. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 3 (2), 107 - 122. Boyer, 1991. Carnegie Task Force on Meeting the Needs of Young Children, 1994. Catron, C. E. & Groves, M.M. (1999). Teacher to director: A developmental journey. Early Childhood Education Journal, 26, (3), pp. 183-188. Early, D., Maxwell, K. L., Burchinal, M., Bender, R. H., Ebanks, C., Henry, G. T., et al. (2007). Teachers' education, classroom quality, and young children's academic skills: Results from seven studies of preschool programs. Child Development, 78(2), 558-580. Freeman, N.K., Hackley, S., & Corning, L.L. (2004). The Midlands directors' forum: Professional development, networking, and peer support. YC Young Children, 59, (2) pp. 82- 86. Head Start. (2008). Statutory degree and credentialing requirements for head start teaching staff. Information Memorandum. Log No. ACF-IM-HS-08-12 Online: http://www.acf. hhs.gov/programs/ohs/policy/pdf/im2008/ACF-IM-HS-08-12.pdf Accessed: July 5, 2010. Helburn, S.W. (Ed.). (1995). Cost, quality and child outcomes in child care centers: Technical report. Denver, CO: Center for Research in Economics and Social Policy, University of Colorado, at Denver. Howes, C. Phillips, D.A., & Whitebook, M. (1992). Teacher characteristics and effective teaching in child care: Findings from the National Child Care Staffing Study. Child and Youth Care Forum, 21, 399-414. Kurdek, L. A., & Sinclair, R. J. (2000). Psychological, family, and peer predictors of academic outcomes in first- through fifth grade children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(3), 449-457. La Paro, K. M., & Pianta, R. C. (2000). Predicting children‘s competence in the early school years: A meta-analytic review. Review of Educational Research, 70(4), 443-484. McClelland, J. (1986). Job satisfaction of child care workers: A review. Child Care Quarterly, 15(2), 82-89. Mims, S.U., Scott-Little, C., Lower, J.K., Cassidy, D.J., & Hestenes, L.L. (2008). Education level and stability as it relates to early childhood classroom quality: A survey of early childhood program directors and teachers. Journal of Research in Child Education, 23 (2), pp. 227 – 237. Mocan, H. N., Burchinal, M,. Morris, J.R.,& Helburn, S.W. (1995). Models of quality in early childhood care and education. In S. W. Helburn (Ed.), Cost, Quality, and child outcomes in child care centers: Technical report (pp. 287-295). Denver, CO: Center for Research in Economics and Social Policy, University of Colorado at Denver. Monk, D. H. (Spring 2007). Recruiting and retaining high-quality teachers in rural areas. The Future of Children, 17, (1), pp. 155 – 174. National Association of Child Care Professionals. (2009). NAC Accreditation Manual. Austin: NACCP. National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). (2006). Accreditation, Getting Started. Online: www.naeyc.org/selfstudy. National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). (2007). Reauthorization of the higher education act: Attracting, supporting, and keeping high quality early childhood educators. Online: http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/ file/policy/federal/HEA_handout.pdf Accessed: July 5, 2010.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Administration of Pre-School Programs

185

National Association of Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies. (2009). Center director required qualifications 2009 update. Online: http://www.naccrra.org/policy/state_licensing/ center_director_req.php.Accessed: June 28, 2010. National Child Care Information and Technical Assistance Center. (2007). State requirements for minimum pre-service qualifications, administrative training, and annual ongoing training hours for child care center directors in 2007. Online: http://nccic.acf.hhs.gov /pubs/cclicensingreq/cclr-directors.html Accessed: June 28, 2010. Parlakian, R. (2001). Look, listen, and learn: Reflective supervision and relationship-based work. Washington, D.C: Zero to Three. Pianta, R. C., Cox, M. J., & Snow, K. L. (Eds.). (2007). School readiness and the transition to kindergarten in the era of accountability. Baltimore: Paul Brookes. Reynolds, A. J., & Bezruczko, N. (1993). School adjustment of children at risk through fourth grade. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 39(4), 457-480. Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., La Paro, K. M., Downer, J. T., & Pianta, R. C. (2005). The contribution of classroom setting and quality of instruction to children‘s behavior in kindergarten classrooms. The Elementary School Journal, 105, 377–394. US Department of Health and Human Services, National Child Care Information and Technical Assistance Center. A list of national accreditation organizations for early childhood programs. Accessed July 2010: http://nccic.acf.hhs.gov/poptopics/ national accred.html. United States Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Handbook 2010-11 Education. Accessed July 2010: http://www.bls.gov/oco /ocos007.htm. Whitebook, M., Sakai, L., & Howes, C. (1997).MAEYC accreditation as a strategy for improving child care quality: An assessment. Final report.. Washington, DC: Center for the Child Care Workforce. Whitebook, M. & Sakai, L. (2003). Turnover begets turnover: An examination of job and occupational instability among child care center staff. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18, 273-293. Winter, S.M. & Kelley, M.F. (2008) Forty years of school readiness research: What have we learned? Childhood Education, 84 (5), pp. 260-266. [Online] Available: http://proquest. umi.com.ezproxylocal.library.nova.edu/pqdweb?did=1507312911andsid=1andFmt=3and clientId=17038andRQT=309andVName=PQD Accessed : June 1, 2010. Young, M.P. (Winter 2000/2001) Addressing the staffing crisis. Center for the Child Care Workforce. Online: http://www.ccw.org/storage/ccworkforce/documents/publications/ addressing_staffing.pdf Accessed: July 5, 2010. Zill, N., & West, J. (2001). Entering kindergarten: A portrait of American children when they begin school. U.S. Department of Education, OERI, NCES 2001-035.

The educational levels of program directors, who supervise teachers within a program, play a critical role in classroom quality.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 15

MOTOR SKILLS AND PHYSICAL PLAY Sarah J. Wall*

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, US

What is this chapter doing here? You‘re an early childhood teacher and your day is consumed with developing creative and fun learning experiences for the children within your classroom. You schedule three or four outdoor play sessions a day – plenty of free play time for the children to run and jump and be ‗crazy‘ without adult intervention (Davies, 1997). You enjoy the downtime outside which allows you to rebuild energy levels and go over plans for the classroom activities you have scheduled. Why then, are we asking you to organize some playground time to include planned/structured physical activity experiences? Parents and teachers of young children often believe that fundamental gross motor skills (FMS) such as running, throwing, catching, and hopping on one foot just happen because they‘re supposed to. We now know, however, that this is not true; that, in fact, these motor skills develop based upon appropriate practice or experience and children may not have learned these skills by the time that they come face-to-face with a ―real‖ P.E. teacher at elementary school. Improvements in brain imaging techniques have given us an understanding of critical periods in early brain development when the creation of synaptic connections (or wiring) is optimal and experience-dependant. These ‗windows of opportunity‘ differ for skills such as learning a second language or music, and represent a period in time when the brain can best develop its potential for the given skill. It is thought that the window for FMS closes around 5 years of age and while, obviously, this does not mean that a child can never learn to catch a ball, learning FMS does become harder as the brain becomes less plastic (Gabbard, 2008). Adults have the misperception that children under five years old are highly active during the day at child care, even though young children‘s outdoor play is mostly sedentary unless prompted (Brown et al., 2009; Pate et al., 2004). This sedentary behavior presents several problems.

*

Sarah Wall is currently Assistant Professor in the Health, Physical Education Department at Eastern New Mexico University in Portales, New Mexico.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

188

Sarah J. Wall

LOW LEVELS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ARE LINKED WITH OBESITY Current data appear to indicate a plateau in the number of young children who are classified as overweight or obese. However, these levels have risen dramatically since the 1970s and identifying strategies to increase physical activity levels in this age group is key to tackling this major health concern (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003). Children who are overweight and sedentary are more likely to develop type II diabetes, early signs of heart disease, and high blood pressure, yet studies show that preschoolers are engaged in sedentary activity for 80-90% of their day in child care (Brown et al., 2009; Cardon & De Bourdeaudhuij, 2008) and that levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) are lower than recommended when toddlers play by themselves on the playground (Parish, Rudisill, & St. Onge, 2007). This was supported by a recent review indicating that levels of MVPA are lower than would be hoped for in preschoolers as well (Oliver, Schofield, & Kolt, 2007). Low levels of MVPA play a strong role in the burgeoning health problems in preschool children (Trost et al., 2003). It is worrying that physical activity habits (or the lack of them) are being established during these years and track through childhood. Sedentary young children tend to become sedentary older children (CDC, 1998; Pate et al., 1996; Pate et al., 1994). Humans engage when activities are fun, but being physically active cannot be fun if the skills necessary to be successful are not in place.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

FOUNDATION FOR FUTURE LIFETIME MOTOR SKILLS It is generally accepted that FMS provide the foundation upon which to build further sport, game, and leisure movement skills (e.g., rollerblading), so being able to enjoy P.E. in high school depends on being comfortable and somewhat confident in our basic motor skills. Motor skills involving object control, such as striking, throwing, and catching, cannot be practiced without equipment, and therefore we often see lower stages of skill development for these activities than for locomotor skills such as running and jumping. Recently it was shown that proficiency in object control skills during childhood (measured at 10 years) was predictive of object control skill in adolescence (measured at 16 years) (Barnett et al., 2010). The concept of windows of opportunity discussed earlier means that learning to throw when 4 years old will likely make a child more proficient when 10 years old and again at 16 years old. Since many lifetime physical activities involve object manipulation (e.g., tennis, golf, frisbee) this experience as a young child may offer the foundation for enjoying movement in the future. Motor development specialists and theoretical models suggest that skillfulness in FMS as a young child will support the adult in maintaining a physically active lifestyle.

GIRLS VS. BOYS It is disturbing to note that by the age of 4 years girls are already less physically active than boys (Jackson et al., 2003; Pate et al., 2008) and ironic that this is the age that patterns for engagement are being formed. For many girls this pattern does not appear to change and,

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Motor Skills and Physical Play

189

in fact, unorganized physical activity declines as they transition into adolescence (Findlay et al., 2010) while dropout rates from organized sports are higher than for boys (Haywood & Getchell, 2009). It must also be noted that studies often find lower stages of object control skills for girls than boys (Barnett et al., 2010; Goodway, Robinson, & Crowe, 2010; Rudisill et al., 2003). Thankfully, the same does not appear to be true for locomotor skills girls hold their own well here, but the poor skill level of young preschool girls in, for example, overhand throwing appears to remain into adolescence.

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IS LINKED WITH COGNITION The final argument for including this chapter within an early childhood text may be the most convincing for those having to prepare young children for standardized testing. Piaget is often quoted as highlighting the connection between motor and cognitive development. Children learn by moving. In fact, motor development impacts this domain so strongly that children who exhibit delay in their motor skills often are delayed in their cognitive development also. More specifically though, physical activity has been shown to benefit academic performance in elementary children (Sibley & Etnier, 2003), and first-graders who perform poorly on assessments of gross motor skills that involve interlimb coordination also score lower on follow-up cognitive ability tests (Gabbard & Bobbio, 2010).

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS Just as play or writing have developmental sequences which as a teacher you can expect to see progress in an orderly fashion, so too do FMS. There are intra- and inter-skill sequences that unfold in a manner that is both highly predictable and highly individual. So, examples of inter-skill sequences can be: an infant sits unassisted before she stands; a child jumps from two feet before hopping on one foot; and a child throws a ball before he catches one. Skipping is a combination of stepping and hopping on alternate feet and because of this complexity is one of the last locomotor skills to be mastered. A straightforward example of an intra-skill sequence can be illustrated for throwing: a child ‗chop‘ throws a ball without moving his feet at all; some time later he steps with the ipsilateral (same side) foot as hand he used to throw; and, finally, you will see the child contralateral step thus using opposing hand and foot actions. This last stage results in mastery of fundamental throwing which means the child has the tools for learning further throwing skills that may be sport specific (e.g., pitching in baseball or passing in football). Our aim with young children is not to necessarily apply skill to activities (e.g., accurately throw and hit a specific target), but to give them the opportunity to initially have fun learning the skill. The goal for parents and early childhood teachers is for children to achieve mastery of their FMS before the window of opportunity closes at about 5 years old. Here are some examples.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Sarah J. Wall

190 Fundamental locomotor skills.       

Running – involves a flight phase Jumping – take off from two feet to land on two feet Hopping – take off and land on same foot Galloping – lead foot remains in front Sliding – sideways, leading with same foot Leaping – take off from one foot and land on other foot Skipping – step then hop on alternate feet

Fundamental object control skills.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

    

Throwing – step on contralateral foot and throw overhand Catching – use both hands Rolling – step on contralateral foot and roll ball along floor Kicking – move towards ball and kick without pausing Striking – step on contralateral foot and hit stationary ball (such as on a cone)

For more details on sequences to look for and how to use them to predict what motor behaviors to expect next, refer to motor development texts by Haywood and Getchell (2009), Payne and Isaacs (2008), Gabbard (2008), or Gallahue and Ozmun (2006). It is also important to work on balancing with young children since this will strengthen small muscle groups that are involved in developing locomotor skills and refining technique. For example, our balance is challenged when walking on soft or uneven surfaces making the skill more difficult (especially for the very young or very old). Including activities that help to practice balancing will build strength and confidence and aid in preventing injuries such as sprained ankles. Once mastered, these FMS then allow kindergartners and first-graders to link skills together to play games in P.E., be more successful in movement contexts outside of the gymnasium (e.g., playing tag on the playground), and begin to build a movement repertoire that will enhance their enjoyment of physical activity thus creating the basis for a healthy lifestyle.

HOW TO INCORPORATE AND TEACH FMS ON YOUR PLAYGROUND Mastery-Focused Climate Many early childhood programs do not require that you take a motor development class, so perhaps the idea of trying to teach the important motor skills discussed above seems a little daunting. Good news! It does not need to be a P.E. class, but you do want to plan physical play sessions that encourage the children in your classroom to ―practice‖ FMS without a lot of instruction. With some manipulation of the environment, and thanks to the children‘s inherent love of movement, this is not hard to do. A child-directed, mastery-focused climate

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Motor Skills and Physical Play

191

is developmentally appropriate and eliminates the need for you to tightly manage rotations through the motor skill toys you lay out. Toddler sessions should allow for exploration of the toys, and you will often see the children adapt and utilize them in ways you had not thought of. For example, soft hockey sticks may be turned upside down and ―ridden‖ as a hobby horse, or used as leaf blowers if the children have experience of this activity (Wall & Rudisill, 2004). Preschoolers, on the other hand, will need you to set up the motor skill toys with a more specific goal associated with them. For example, provide various targets at which to throw or kick (Rudisill and Wall, 2004). The emphasis in a mastery-focused climate is for the children to have fun playing with toys and participating in FMS; this should encourage their engagement in physical activity and lead to practice/improvement of the basic skills necessary to take part successfully in physical play. In turn, this promotes the children‘s perception of their motor ability and confidence in their motor outcomes.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Motor Skill Toys and Challenge Level Young children are far more capable physically than we often give them credit for. However, just as in the classroom, you will need to allow for differing rates of motor development when setting up your playground. Provide a variety of motor skill toys (which also relieves the need for having one of each kind for each child) that incorporate various levels of challenge (e.g., balls and throwing targets of different sizes). Regularly changing the toys and activities will hold the children‘s interest by adding a novelty factor and is easy to achieve – just by moving the targets from one fence to another in a different position on the playground works well. Lay the toys out in an inviting manner with as much space as you can allow and encourage the children to explore and play with whichever toys they like. It often takes a little time for them to grasp the concept of self-directing their play (they may wait to be told what to do once they have picked a toy up), but once they understand the environment you‘ll be happy to see how busy and engaged they will be. Typically there is not a lot of conflict between the children since there are many choices of activities, and you can help the children make their own rules for the physical play session guiding them to practice sharing, and using language to join in others‘ play. Whilst engaging in physical play, the children are therefore also able to develop their social and communication skills. Often teachers feel their role on the playground is to protect the children from getting hurt; this leads to over-controlling the play and perhaps problem-solving on a child‘s behalf. Certainly, tasks such as climbing and jumping from heights need to be supervised, but try not to do the work for the children! Encourage the children to problem-solve on their own or provide questions that they can answer to find the solution. Accidents can happen on the playground, but by being actively involved, and using developmentally appropriate equipment, you will be able to intervene before someone gets hurt too badly. It is important to always emphasize the process of achieving the motor skill (e.g., fingers towards the ball for catching) rather than the outcome (e.g., missing or hitting the target), and encourage perseverance and practice if the child is struggling. Practice doesn‘t need to mean

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Sarah J. Wall

192

perfect at this age, but hopefully the child will achieve a level of mastery that allows them to have some success and nurture their enjoyment. Young children, with experience in the mastery-focused climate, become surprisingly proficient at navigating the playground and sampling many activities. Examples of movement tasks you could plan for are:  throwing/catching/kicking – lay out lots of different balls (weight, shape, color, and size) and, depending on the age group, you can then define which skill to use by where you place the target(s). If you place them higher then the children will typically throw at them, while those placed lower will encourage rolling or kicking.  balancing – stilt cups, rope snake, stepping stones. Making their own stilt cups could be a fun indoor activity for your class. Use old baked bean cans and garden twine then paint them.  jumping – potato sacks are fun for this, and jumping over a river made from skipping ropes. If possible, incorporate jumping from differing heights once the children can take off and land on two feet.  running road – use cones or arrows to lay out the ―road‖ (around the swing set works well) and remember to put a direction into play to prevent those crashes!! Scarves, ribbons, hobby horses, and bells are all great accessories to encourage and make running fun. With a little effort it is possible to transform outdoor free play into child-directed physical play where the goal is not perfect skill achievement, but exploration of motor skill ‗toys‘.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Classroom Concepts One of the most wonderful features about working with motor skills is how easy it is to incorporate the ideas and concepts from your classroom into the physical play session. You can use color within an obstacle course and ask the children to identify colors as they work their way through the course. Or you could use a color theme on the playground to match that of your classroom curriculum. It can be just as much fun for you to buy balls and other toys of rich and interesting colors as it is for your children to play with them. Direction and other spatial concepts, such as high/low and over/under, are easy to assimilate within the setup and provide additional learning experiences for these ideas. Targets can be made using circles, squares, or triangles; pictures of animals, fish, or insects; number representations, and many other objects. There are websites that provide free downloads of educational material and clipart which you can print out. Again, you could use these items for an indoor activity – this time crayoning – then get the pictures laminated and bingo you have targets which you can tape to the wall, or velcro to an old sheet which can be hung over the fence for throwing. If you have some funding to buy beanbags they now come with numbers, alphabet, fruits, and vegetables on them; otherwise, beanbags are easy to make, so perhaps parents or grandparents would make these as a project.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Motor Skills and Physical Play

193

Teacher Modeling Finally, and possibly most importantly, if you want your children to be excited and engaged in physical activity you need to be excited and engaged in physical activity. Just as much as indoors, modeling the behavior you desire to see from the children is crucial to the success of your physical play session. Because the climate is child-directed, you and your fellow teachers are more able to engage in and model appropriate physical play. This is a large part of the climate you create – you get to play too. Young children truly love to play with adults who are significant to them (and you are), so if you run around the running road they will join you. On the other hand, if you sit/stand and be an observer, the children‘s level of physical activity will drop. You are, in effect, modeling sedentary behavior and the children will mimic you even if it is inadvertently. Your enthusiasm for movement and being outside will influence your children‘s delight or despondency at having to go on to the playground. Think about comments you make with regards to the weather or temperature as these can unconsciously affect the desire of children to be outside playing. If you are modeling a particular activity, do not worry if the children modify the task – you can allow them to be creative and explore the environment. It‘s okay if they use the equipment incorrectly, as long as they are moving and having fun.

IT’S DOABLE!

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Hopefully, this chapter has given you a few ideas of how you can introduce new motor skills to your children, while at the same time eliciting persistent skill practice and increased levels of physical activity. If we look back over the chapter, we can see the enormous benefits this relatively slight change in organization may provide:  Children who are more physically active on a regular basis are less likely to develop overweight issues;  Additional movement experiences broaden children‘s foundation for lifetime participation in movement and physical activity which has health benefits in adulthood;  The motor skill and physical activity gap between girls and boys in your class may decrease;  Improvements in attention span and comprehension of concepts could boost learning within the classroom. Play doesn‘t have to be complicated or expensive. Homemade motor skill toys work just as well as shop/catalog bought ones, and utilizing just four or five ―stations‖ will drastically increase the children‘s participation in the physical play session. Add a couple stations more if time and resources allow. As with your classroom curriculum, you may feel it necessary to monitor the children‘s motor skill progress. This can be done formally if necessary, but it is relatively simple to note your observations over time rather than use a specific assessment tool. Once you have some experience with the physical play session, you will notice when the children‘s motor behaviors change (e.g., from stepping ipsilaterally to contralaterally when

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

194

Sarah J. Wall

throwing, or starting to hop on one foot) and assessing their motor skill development can be achieved by observing this change across the semester. To support early childhood caregivers (be they teachers, parents, home care providers, etc.) the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) has published several booklets that provide further information on developmentally appropriate motor skill practices for young children. Their Active Start document (NASPE, 2009a) provides guidelines for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers including length of time and frequency requirements for physical activity for each age group. You will also find descriptions of typical movement patterns and many resources to help you develop your physical play activities. Another document offers suggestions for appropriate practices within your physical play sessions with toddlers and preschoolers. For example, it is important not to emphasize winning the race (NASPE, 2009b). Similar informational booklets are also available for teachers/parents of elementary aged children. Perhaps you‘re wondering whether you can keep up with the children during a physical play session? Taking a little time to organize your playground to provide motor skill activities for the children will also provide a bonus for you. By engaging in movement and modeling motor playfulness you will increase your own levels of physical activity which, in turn, will yield health benefits over time. Why not set a physical activity goal for yourself and measure how taking part in the physical play helps you achieve that goal? When you introduce movement opportunities in a developmentally appropriate manner both you and your children will enthusiastically engage in physical activity and learning on the playground. Young children love to play and motor skills are fun!

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition (2003). Prevention of pediatric overweight and obesity. Pediatrics, 112, 424-430. Barnett, L.M., van Beurden, E., Morgan, P. J., Brooks, L. O., and Beard, J. R. (2010). Gender differences in motor skill proficiency from childhood to adolescence: A longitudinal study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 81, 162-170. Brown, W. H., Pfeiffer, K. A., McIver, K. L., Dowda, M., Addy, C. L., and Pate, R. R. (2009). Social and environmental factors associated with preschoolers‘ nonsedentary physical activity. Child Development, 80, 45-58. Cardon, G. M. and De Bourdeaudhuij, I. M. M. (2008). Are preschool children active enough? Objectively measured physical activity levels. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79, 326-332. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Youth risk behavior surveillance: United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47, 1-89. Davies, M. (1997). The teacher‘s role in outdoors play: Preschool teacher‘s beliefs and practices. Journal of Australian Research in Early Childhood Education, 1, 10-20. Findlay, L. C., Garner, R. E., and Kohen, D. E. (2010). Patterns of children‘s participation in unorganized physical activity. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 81, 133-142.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Motor Skills and Physical Play

195

Gabbard, C. P. (2008). Lifelong motor development (5th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings. Gabbard, C. P. and Bobbio, T. (2010). Gross motor (interlimb) coordination differentiates cognitive performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 81, (supplement) A37. (AAHPERD, Indianapolis, Indiana). Gallahue, D. L. and Ozmun, J. C. (2006). Understanding Motor Development: Infants, Children, Adolescents, Adults (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Goodway, J. D., Robinson, L. E., and Crowe, H. (2010). Gender differences in fundamental motor skill development in preschoolers from two geographical regions. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 81, 17-24. Haywood, K. M. and Getchell, N. (2009). Life Span Motor Development (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Jackson, D. M., Reilly, J. J., Kelly, L. A., Montgomery, C., Grant, S., and Paton, J. Y. (2003). Objectively measured physical activity in a representative sample of 3- to 4-year-old children. Obesity Research, 11, 420-425. National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2009a). Active Start: A Statement of Physical Activity Guidelines for Children Birth to Five Years. (2nd ed). Sewickley, PA: AAHPERD Publications. National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2009b). Appropriate practices in movement programs for children ages 3 – 5. (3rd ed). Sewickley, PA: AAHPERD Publications. Oliver, M., Schofield, G. M., and Kolt, G. S. (2007). Physical activity in preschoolers: Understanding prevalence and measurement issues. Sports Medicine, 37, 1045-1070. Parish, L. E., Rudisill M. E., and St. Onge P. M. (2007). Mastery motivational climate: Influence on physical play and heart rate in African American toddlers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78, 171-178. Pate, R. R., Baranowski, T., Dowda, M., and Trost, S. G. (1996). Tracking of physical activity in young children. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 28, 92-96. Pate, R. R., Long, B. J., and Heath, G. (1994). Descriptive epidemiology of physical activity in adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6, 434-447. Pate, R. R., McIver, K., Dowda, M., Brown, W. H., and Addy, C. (2008). Directly observed physical activity levels in preschool children. Journal of School Health, 78, 438-444. Pate, R. R., Pfeiffer, K. A., Trost, S. G., Ziegler, P. and Dowda, M. (2004). Physical activity in children attending preschools. Pediatrics, 114, 1258-1263. Payne, V. G. and Isaacs, L. D. (2008). Human Motor Development (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Rudisill, M. E., and Wall, S. J. (2004). Meeting Active Start guidelines in the ADC-Moton program: Preschool. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 15(2), 25-29. Rudisill, M. E., Wall. S. J., Parish, L.E., St. Onge, P., and Goodway, J. D. (2003). Effectiveness of a preschool mastery-motivational-climate motor skill development intervention program: Gender equity issues. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25, (supplement), S113. (NASPSPA, Savannah, Georgia). Sibley, B. A. and Etnier, J. L. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science, 15, 243-256.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

196

Sarah J. Wall

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Trost, S.G., Sirard, J. R., Dowda, M., Pfeiffer, K. A., and Pate, R. R. (2003). Physical activity in overweight and nonoverweight preschool children. International Journal of Obesity, 27, 834-839. Wall, S. J., and Rudisill, M. E. (2004). Meeting Active Start guidelines in the ADCRidgecrest program: Toddlers. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 15(2), 21-24.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 16

THE JOURNEY: EARLY EDUCATION FOR ALL YOUNG CHILDREN Robin A. Wells* Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, US

INITIAL STEPS

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The Beginning Education in the United States was initially provided to young children deemed to be ―school age‖ which was from six through 18 years of age (accepted school age was eight in Texas). The accepted notion at the time was that children younger than six years of age were not able to learn the skills required of them until these identified ages. Schooling was linked to the betterment of a civilized society and therefore provided a commonality of information to all who attended. The goal was to have a society that could read, write, and obey the laws of the land. Education or programs for those who were younger than six years of age did not have beginnings until the mid-1800s when influences from Europe regarding early learning approaches found their way to America.

Early Influences Information regarding education was filtered from Western European nations, and then specific elements were chosen to be implemented in American education programs for young children. This educational information was brought to America by immigrants, advocates, and from transatlantic European travels to America. Approaches such as the provision of nursery or infant schools and kindergartens eventually found acceptance and favor across the United States. *

Robin A. Wells, Ph.D. is currently Associate Professor of Special Education at Eastern New Mexico University in the Department of Educational Studies. She is also a Speech Language Pathologist and has worked extensively in the public schools in the United States.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

198

Robin A. Wells

Infant and nursery schools were modeled after schools observed in the United Kingdom with nursery schools being established in the late 1800s to early 1900s in the United States as a part of teacher‘s colleges; or nursery schools were supported through private funding and by churches or local communities to serve children from families with low socioeconomic status. Cooperative nursery schools, which supported young mothers needing work outside the home during World War I, additionally sprung up and found favor among the working class. The nursery school movement provided early care for children who were 4-years old or younger. At these early beginnings, early care was organized around observation of the child and ongoing research of early learning, as well as providing opportunities for teacher preparation (nursery schools at teacher‘s colleges) and the needs of the community (church sponsored nursery schools, as well as bilingual schools to accommodate immigrants from Germany, cooperatives in neighborhoods, etc.) (Shortridge, 2007). Little preparation was expected from those who cared for young children outside the home, unless a nursery school was promoted to have personnel who had educational degrees. Information additionally spread to the United States from Germany in the mid-1800s regarding Friedrich Froebel‘s kindergarten model, which had its foundation from the nursery school movement. Froebel, the German kindergarten founder, had emphasized the importance of young children being in playful, nurturing environments. In Boston in 1860, and despite opposition efforts indicating that children should be in school, not a ―children‘s garden‖ (Beatty, 2005, p. 3), Elizabeth Palmer Peabody started the nation‘s first English-speaking public kindergarten following elements of Froebel‘s kindergarten model. Schooling for young children frequently experienced opposition from those who felt that placement of children in a structured setting with others would undermine the individual‘s family values and beliefs, let alone usurp the importance of the maternal influence in the upbringing and education of the child. The importance of American educators and philosophers in acknowledging that young children truly are capable of learning at an earlier age, and that learning continues over time, was inherently crucial in furthering support for early education of young children. Philosophers and educators within the United States, therefore, along with studying their counterparts in Europe, continued to observe and research young children and the unique learning styles children displayed. Theories regarding child development hold importance to those who follow specific underpinnings upon which child development philosophy is based. Lev Vygotsky‘s theory promulgates that child development is the result of the interactions between children and their social environment (Leong & Bodrova, 2001). In addition to recognizing children as active partners with people, objects, environments, and cultural aspects, Vygotsky also viewed young children ―as active partners in …. interactions, constructing knowledge, skills, and attitudes and not just mirroring with the world around them‖ (Leong & Bodrova,2001, p. 48). Vygotsky shared similar beliefs regarding learning with Maria Montessori. Although Montessori and Vygotsky were not contemporaries, they did share common constructivist views regarding young children‘s use of the environment to develop new knowledge. The views of Montessori and Vygotsky were also supported by the work of William James and G. Stanley Hall who were advocates of the kindergarten classroom for young children. James and Hall agreed with their predecessors that ―young children learn differently from older children, therefore unique environments must be set up to meet those needs‖ (Shortridge, 2007, p. 35). Hall also contended that teaching should be child-focused and that teachers must adapt to the child‘s individual needs, rather than the teacher being the director of all learning

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Journey

199

decisions (as in the Montessori model). Construction of an inviting learning environment was purported to be most important for encouraging the young child‘s independent discovery with the well-educated teacher being a facilitator of learning.

Kindergarten Private schools in the late 1800s embraced the kindergarten model and embedded the philosophy into their curriculum, however public schools were slower to acknowledge the value of this model. In 1909 in New York City, the goal of bringing kindergartens to all children was affirmed with the establishment of the National Kindergarten Association. ―By 1912, 9% of American children of kindergarten age were in public school kindergarten, up from 5% in 1900‖ (U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1914, as cited in Shortridge, 2007, p. 36). Freidrich Froebel‘s kindergarten model was adapted for use in America with children from families who were immigrants or poor. Certain features of the kindergarten model, such as play-based and child-centered curriculum, the use of educational toys, the sand table, and concepts of early intervention; and special education, clearly had European origins (New, 2005, p. 203). Other European influences noted throughout the United States are program models such as, Waldorf and Reggio Emilia.

ROADBLOCKS AND BARRIERS

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Progressive Forces With World War II women were needed to work in munitions plants and engage in other warfare related vocations, therefore, community early care programs were urgently needed to provide women entering the workforce a place for their children to be watched during work hours at this momentous time in American history. While many families left their young children with extended family members, more formalized early care settings sprang up. Individuals providing care in these settings did not typically have any type of formal early childhood education, but rather provided a safe and caring environment in which young children could stay while mothers were at work. This notion of child care or day care continues to remain in much of society‘s perception towards programs for young children even to this day. This more restrictive view of early childhood programs and the educators who work there often prevents a more comprehensive understanding of current early care and education settings and what is provided within the programs for young children. While early child or day care settings provided safe and nurturing settings for children throughout the day while mothers were at work, today‘s early care and education settings for young children focus not only on safe, caring environments, but additionally create effective learning environments for children in preparation for public school entry at five years of age. In order for this early care and education setting to be most effective, a well-educated workforce of early childhood educators was now more important than ever.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

200

Robin A. Wells

Legislation Begins

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

In the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson declared a War on Poverty and with it began the development of the Head Start Program. Begun in 1965 Head Start programs were to provide early learning opportunities to the 561,000 4-year old children initially enrolled with the goal of reducing or erasing the negative ―effects of past and future poverty‖ (Gallagher, 2000, p. 3) on learning. Advocates for this early learning program hoped that by providing educational opportunities for young children prior to reaching school, those children growing up in environments with less opportunities to experience language and literacy might realize a diminished gap when arriving at school when compared to their peers who had the benefits of families with a more adequate socioeconomic status. While initial results seemed promising, long-term realization of the positive early outcomes disappeared. Child development experts acknowledged that while early learning opportunities are essential, on-going learning and development are just that – on-going. Continued support must be provided children for their long-term educational success. Child growth and development, and learning are continuous from pregnancy through the developmental period (to age 18 years), and therefore must receive the focus of attention necessary to realize the successful learning outcomes desired. Educational efforts for all young children began in earnest in the 1960s with the creation of the Elementary and Secondary Act (ESEA) (P.L. 89-10) in 1965 which doubled the appropriations to the U.S. Office of Education. A year later in the ESEA Amendments of 1966 (P.L. 89-750), the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped was established (Gallagher, 2000). This began the progress towards early identification of children with disabilities, developmental delays, and/or those who may be at-risk for future developmental and/or learning concerns. It was not until 1986 and 1997, however, that services for young children from ages three through five years, and infants and toddlers ages birth through two respectively were initiated.

CONTINUED EFFORTS While young children aged five years were able to enter public school, children with disabilities had not been allowed full access to the same public school educational setting. P.L.94-142, The Education of All Handicapped Act, established the right of children with disabilities (ages six through 21) to a free appropriate public education (FAPE). Full funding for these services however was not attached to this act, nor has full federal funding to states been provided since initial passage of this legislation in 1975. This act prompted, however, the development of the Individual Education Plan (IEP) for each individual child who is identified with a disability. On-going reauthorizations have refined the IEP process and added essential components ensuring among other note-worthy elements the involvement of the family in the child‘s educational plan. The IEP document is to be based on a nondiscriminatory and multidisciplinary assessment which gathers team members together to listen to the interpretations of assessment results, pursue additional input and impressions from all team members that include families, and then collaboratively develop the educational plan that will support the learning needs of the individual identified with a disability. Reauthorizations have led the IEP to be implemented in the least restrictive environment

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Journey

201

alongside peers without disabilities and with access to the general education curriculum. Team members additionally specify in the IEP specific modifications and accommodations which must be provided in the classroom by the educator to meet each and every child‘s unique and individual learning style. As mentioned earlier, young children with disabilities, developmental delays, or those who may be identified as being at-risk for future learning challenges were not included in the original legislation of 1975 that initiated FAPE for individuals with disabilities. Fortunately, the 1983 Amendments to the Education of the Handicapped Act (P.L. 98-199) provided the opportunity to states to receive grant monies to plan, develop, or implement a comprehensive system of services for children with disabilities from birth to five years of age (Sec.1423) (Gallagher, 2000, p. 6). Until the passage of P.L. 99-457 (The Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1986), however, services to children with disabilities from birth through five had not been mandated. Now with the 1986 Amendment, services for young children ages birth through two years (under the Part H program now known as Part C services as indicated in the IDEA Re-authorization Act of 1997), and services for those three through five years (now known as Part B services) were initiated. Educational systems (local education agencies – LEA) and Part C programs were both mandated to conduct Child Find activities to locate and identify all children ages birth through five-years of age who would qualify for specialized services.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Increased Standards and Accountability Educational policies were questioned more thoroughly in 1983 with the publication of A Nation at Risk. Concerns regarding the nation‘s educational system, qualifications of the nation‘s educational workforce, and preparation of an educated and skilled society were in question. Continued concerns have remained regarding education since 1983, and ongoing questions regarding the quality and availability of educational opportunities for all in the United States are present to this day. Provision of quality educational programs that have highly-qualified personnel facilitating the instruction has been under scrutiny by educators as well as by those outside the educational realm. Most recently, following the lead of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, a greater emphasis on accountability of learning outcomes has been promoted in the field of education. While high stakes assessments of children in specific elementary and secondary grade levels are elicited at the end of each academic year, educators equally feel pressure along with their students for the test outcomes as a means of highlighting their instructional abilities. Educators have been placed under intense scrutiny when students have not achieved Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) standards in reading, math, and science resulting in schools being placed on remediation plans by their state education agency (SEA). The goal of NCLB was that all children would be at grade level in reading by the year 2014, and while many contend that this goal is unrealistic when including children with diverse learning abilities, which include children with disabilities, children with dual language challenges, and children from poverty, the goal remains intact while the quality of teacher preparation and/or ongoing support for educators and failing schools is not forthcoming. While ultimately no child should be discounted or left behind in learning, and no doubt the intent of the NCLB legislation was to level the playing field, what in fact has happened is that again those children who are the

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Robin A. Wells

202

most vulnerable for exclusion are singled-out as the individuals who are restricting the majority from meeting standards set by others.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Impact on Early Childhood Education The ―trickle down‖ affect on early childhood programs of schools not meeting AYP has resulted in an increased focus on academic types of activities in early care and education while discounting the best practices of child growth and development. Pre-K programs, which established classrooms for 4-year olds who live within failing AYP elementary school attendance areas receiving Title 1 funding, remind us of the original model for Head Start in addressing the needs of children who come from environments of poverty. The focus of PreK programs, however, seems to be on academic activities and working towards young children being ―academically‖ ready for kindergarten. This emphasis on academics continues to support the notion that if children begin school behind, the outcomes will continue to be poor. So the question of ―Is earlier better?‖ should be posed. If the answer to the question is ―Yes‖, then why have the outcomes continued to be less than anticipated for young children who enter the local elementary school that did not meet AYP in previous years? Are the less than successful learning outcomes of these children due to lack of ―readiness‖ or could the continued poor outcomes be due to the inherent lack of instructional and/or environmental quality of the school? The next questions to be posed might be, ―What is the quality of the early childhood program?‖ and ―What is the quality of the personnel within the early care and education programs?‖, as well as reviewing the instructional curriculum and environment within the local elementary school. In most cases, the responses might be ―less than adequate‖ on both accounts. If these answers are true, then wherein lays the remedy? Does the remedy lay in the setting of early care and education, and/or might it rest in the ongoing support and education of the young children when entering the neighborhood elementary school? Obviously there are concerns which must be investigated on multiple levels.

CURRENT PATHWAY TO THE FUTURE Personnel Preparation Personnel preparation programs for future educators have historically been developed in isolation and often without promoting a comprehensive knowledge of other contributing disciplines to the field of education. Each academic content area, and each teaching licensing area have been segregated during preparation programs without consideration for collaboration across disciplines and across areas of expertise. While the topic of blending educational programs has been discussed, most elementary, early childhood, or special education personnel preparation programs have not been blended at the higher education level to better prepare educators for the learners now entering the classroom doors. Disciplines that support education, such as art, music, physical education, library science, nutrition, assessment, speech/language, occupational therapy, physical therapy, social work, school

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Journey

203

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

counseling, and so on, are not incorporated as necessary components of educational personnel preparation programs as well. Overall knowledge and skill base of many first-year educators is minimal at best. How then might personnel preparation programs be enhanced to better prepare future educators, and how might early care and education programs as well as public schools support first-year teachers? What appears to be most needed by personnel preparation programs at Institutions of Higher Education (IHE) is the commitment to promote ―blended‖ or ―transdisciplinary‖ coursework which could culminate in first-year teachers being highly-qualified to provide instruction in the general education classroom environment which meets the needs of ALL of the students attending within the confines of the school. This endeavor would obviously need to be developed by forward thinking faculty members of IHE who model what is considered best practice. Modeling of co-teaching, transdisciplinary practices, addressing the needs of the whole child in the learning process, embedding cross-curricular lessons/activities, and promoting collaborative teaming with families and colleagues would be a necessity. Those who are newly entering the field of education (to join those in the educational trenches) would be enmeshed with this productive, educational framework, and those who are already ―in the trenches‖ may view this approach with enthusiasm as a recognized need of education, or some may be apprehensive and initially reject this new framework as another educational ―fad‖. Avoidance or rejection of this new approach to education may not only be observed in educators already in the public education field as being foreign to them, but avoidance and rejection of such approaches would no doubt be observable in faculty of IHE. Faculty who are not open to this broader, more encompassing view of personnel preparation may need to be exposed to the positive outcomes that would be experienced by future educators receiving this enhanced collaborative preparation approach in addressing the unique challenges that public education now presents.

Collaborative Processes A beginning collaboration across two specific professional organizations (the National Association for the Education of Young Children – NAEYC, and the Division for Early Childhood – the DEC which is a subdivision of the Council for Exceptional Children – CEC) has recently occurred with the publication of The Joint Position Statement on Early Childhood Inclusion that was finalized in April of 2009 (http://community.fpg.unc.edu/ resources/articles/Early_Childhood_Inclusion). In this position statement, three essential components are listed for successful inclusive practices: Access, Participation, and Supports. This collaborative effort demonstrates the importance of melding the values and beliefs of these two specific professional organizations focused on the best interests of young children and their families. This position statement hopefully marks the first of many future collaborative efforts between these two organizations on behalf of young children birth through age eight. Texts from each of these organizations have served as the basic foundations in personnel preparation coursework for early childhood (Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs) and early childhood special education (DEC Recommended Practices) individually, however, most often the texts are not a known resource to educators in the other professional organization. The information within both of these texts is invaluable and about

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

204

Robin A. Wells

which all early educators need to be aware. Authors of the Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs (3rd ed.), stress that early childhood educators must be intentional (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009) and strive to develop comprehensive programs around developmentally appropriate practice. Authors of the DEC Recommended Practices (the text which early childhood special educators follow as a best practice model for early childhood programs) state that the aim for development of their book was based on a selfexamination by the field as to what constitutes best practice (Sandall, Hemmeter, Smith, & McLean, 2005). The authors also state that ―the process [of writing the text] was driven by our conviction that there is a link between high-quality programs and positive outcomes for children and families‖ (Sandall, McLean, Smith, & Hemmeter, p. 281, as cited in Sandall et al., 2005). More similarities than differences are presented in these texts and each reinforces the values and beliefs of the other profession. Both professional textbooks acknowledge the necessity for collaboration and teaming with parents, professional colleagues, and staff on behalf of young children.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Natural Environments As noted earlier, in 1997, the re-authorization of IDEA delineated the need for supports being provided within the young child‘s natural environment (considered the home, or early care setting of parental choice) . The re-authorization also re-iterated that the Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) was to be developed as a family-centered (or family-directed) support plan (Cantu, 2002). This early intervention (Part C provision of services for infants and toddlers through age two years) with emphasis on the family supports the early childhood philosophy and belief that families are the child‘s first and primary teacher. Programs and services that encompass the needs of the family as a whole lend themselves to collaboration and teaming by family members and professionals in support of the infant/toddler with disabilities, developmental delay, or those at-risk for future learning delays. Part C programs and/or services are provided directly within the young child‘s home environment, or in the community early care and education program which has been selected by the family. Professionals support the family as well as any other early care providers in a collaborative way in implementing strategies which will enhance the infant/toddler‘s growth, development, and learning. Families are supported in increasing their knowledge and skill base in order to enhance their young child‘s strengths while lessening identified challenges. Through this team approach, families continue to feel empowered in participating in their child‘s development and future learning outcomes.

Least Restrictive Environment As children increase in age, a seamless transition into Part B services would be anticipated. While this ―seamless‖ transition is often not reported or experienced by families (and even professionals), continued efforts by both Part C (early intervention) and Part B (preschool services provided through the local education agency for three- through five-year olds) should be directed towards this type of transition. Programs and services at the preschool level are now referred to as being provided in the ―least restrictive environment

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Journey

205

(LRE)‖. The interpretation of ―least restrictive environment‖ often seems as different as the various local education agencies (LEA) making those delineations. Those LEAs that deem LRE to mean being included with same-age peers without disabilities would provide services to preschool children (3-5 year olds) in their community early care and education programs, and support those program educators and staff in implementing individualized education plan (IEP) goals through various strategies that work for each child. In this way, young children continue to be included in the more natural environment (those wherein other same-age peers without disabilities learn) which is not restrictive of typical childhood activities. Many schools however have decided to NOT allow this type of interpretation due to various reasons. Programs and services in these types of programs are only provided through a more limited interpretation of inclusion thus ending with young children (ages 3-5 with disabilities) being served in preschool programs for only children with disabilities on public school sites. While the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) includes policies that promote inclusive practice, the intent of policy is not always followed. Rather, the interpretation of the policy may fluctuate to fit the needs of each state education agency (SEA) or the local education agency (LEA) more so than interpreting inclusive practices which should be implemented in the best interest of the child. Aligning the intent of the law and/or policy with interpretations of inclusion and inclusive practices is sorely needed.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

INCLUSIVE PRACTICES FOR ALL The Conrad Hilton Foundation and the Office of Head Start embarked in 1997 in a collaborative effort towards increasing the skills and strategies of Early Intervention, Early/Head Start, and Child Care programs and professionals for inclusion of infants and toddlers with significant disabilities and their families in accessing and receiving services, resources, and technology in natural environments. This partnership between the Hilton Foundation and the Office of Head Start was led by training from a national organization named SpecialQuest. Early initiatives identified local Early Head Start programs across the nation that were to be immersed in the SpecialQuest approach toward inclusion. In the final year of funding (2010), the final ten states selected had completed work with SpecialQuest as State Leadership Teams on Inclusion for promotion of inclusive practices for young children birth-five. Not only were these state teams committed to inclusive practices for young children, but they also were committed to continuing the Quest for Inclusive Practices for ALL. The recognition of the importance of inclusive practices is not new. What may be viewed in fact as rather discouraging is that early theorists and their espoused philosophies supported the inclusion of ALL young children. As early as 1932, psychologist Lev Vygotsky wrote about the importance of including children with disabilities in all facets of their culture. Our culture would be diminished without the inclusion of all of its members, he said, and the child with disabilities would not fully develop without the experience of being fully immersed in the life of the community around him. (Phelps, 2006)

Vygotsky recognized the importance of the sense of belonging even prior to Maslow introducing his Hierarchy of Needs in the 1940-50s. Why then, the question might be posed, Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

206

Robin A. Wells

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

is it so difficult for society to include ALL especially the youngest, or the most vulnerable to feelings of, and/or the reality of, being excluded? Attitudes and fear by society of the unknown must be dissipated for the inclusion of each and every child in the nation‘s educational programs and communities. One needs only to walk into any school in the United States and read the Vision and Mission statements to know the stated purpose of the school towards the development of its students. The creation of a school‘s vision and mission towards the desired outcomes for its students does not specify the exclusion of any group; one therefore would consider the vision and mission statements to be applicable to ALL of the students therein. Statements often reflect the school‘s desire to prepare the ―whole‖ student in becoming a participating citizen of the community and world. How then are these statements in line with the Joint Position Statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children and the Division for the Exceptional Child (of the Council for Exceptional Children) in the creation of learning environments that provide Access, Participation, and Opportunities for ALL children including those with diverse abilities? There appears to be no difference, and educators above all others should be those who are committed to providing environments that create successful outcomes for all students. As William Heard Kilpatrick stated, ―Teach children, not subjects‖ (Gutek, 1986, p. 218, as cited in Shortridge, 2007, p. 38). Parents are often the most gifted in relating feelings for their child‘s need for a sense of belonging. Not only are parents desirous of their children being included alongside same-age peers without disabilities, but parents also long for the ability to have that sense of belonging and being included for their entire family. Too often exclusivity affects not only an individual child, but exclusion affects the entire family – in schools, in programs, in play groups, in churches, in activities, and in the community. As one parent (Janice Fialka) states so eloquently, I believe that if parents and professionals are to be effective in creating marvelous opportunities for our children, then both sets of partners must carve out time to get to know each other‘s dreams, hopes, fears, constraints, and perspectives. We must take off our own sets of headphones and be willing to hear each other‘s music, with special attention to and inclusion of the parent‘s music unique dance steps. To truly get to know the child, we must also get to know each other, not just as parents and professionals, but as people, too. This is hard work and takes patience, trust, and lots of getting to know each other. It is one of the most significant ways we can make a difference in the lives of our children. (Fialka, 2001, p. 27)

While much progress has been made in the fields of both early childhood and early childhood special education, work continues to be necessary in meeting the goals of developing high-quality early childhood programs for ALL, and for developing an equally highly-qualified workforce. The nation‘s children deserve the best of both, need the best of both, and must be ensured of having both – high quality programs delivered by highlyqualified personnel. Nothing less should be acceptable from a nation as great as the United States. If best practices have been identified, then the question remains: ―With resources available, and personnel in higher education and in the fields of early childhood/early childhood special education who are committed to nothing less, then when will the ability and the opportunity for creation of exceptional programs and personnel be provided?‖ This should

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

The Journey

207

be possible. When will others with the power to make this a reality realize its‘ critical and urgent necessity?

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

REFERENCES Authors. (2009). Joint position statement on early childhood inclusion. Washington, D.C.: Division for Early Childhood (DEC) and National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Retrieved from http://community.fpg.unc.edu/resources/ articles/Early_Childhood_Inclusion. Beatty, B. (2004). Past, present, and future. The American Prospect, 15(11), 3-5. Bodrova, E. (2003). Vygotsky and Montessori: One dream, two visions. Montessori Life, 15(1), 30-33. Cantu, C. (2002). Early intervention services: A family-professional partnership. Exceptional Parent Magazine, 32(12), 47-50. Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Fialka, J. (2001). The dance of partnership: Why do my feet hurt? Young Exceptional Children, 4(2), 21-27. Fore, C., Riser, S., & Boon, R. (2006). Implications of cooperative learning and educational reform for students with mild disabilities. Reading Improvement, 43(1), 3-12. Gallagher, J. J. (2000). The beginnings of federal help for young children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(1), 3-6. Leong, D. J., & Bodrova, E. (2001). Lev Vygotsky: Playing to learn. Scholastic Early Childhood Today, 15(4), 48. McLesky, J. (2004). Classic articles in special education: Articles that shaped the field, 19601996. Remedial and Special Education, 25(2) 79-87. New, R. S. (2005). Learning about early childhood education from and with Western European nations. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(3), 201-204. Phelps, P. C. (2006). Beyond differences and diagnoses: The celebration of inclusion for all children. Lewisville, NC: Kaplan Early Learning Company. Sandall, S., Hemmeter, M. L., Smith, B. J., & McLean, M. E. (2005). DEC recommended practices: A comprehensive guide for practical application. Missoula, MT: Division for Early Childhood. Shortridge, P. D. (2007). Maria Montessori and educational forces in America. Montessori Life, 19(1), 34-47. Silin, J. G. (2003). The future in question. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 19(2), 9-24. Zigler, E., & Styfco, S. J. (2000). Pioneering steps (and fumbles) in developing a federal preschool intervention. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(2), 67-70.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

In: Handbook of Early Childhood Education Editors: M. F. Shaughnessy and K. Kleyn

ISBN: 978-1-61324-154-7 © 2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 17

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND HEAD START: A SUMMARY AND REVIEW Michael F. Shaughnessy

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, US

This book has attempted to review the main realms of early childhood education. Increasingly, educators, parents, principals, and other related professionals have discussed the importance and the need for a quality early childhood experience. The various chapters in this text attest to the commitment of a number of professionals who seek to enrich the early childhood experience. Many head start facilities, as well as developmental centers, preschools and nursery schools do a robust job attempting to provide a rich, safe environment, while also stimulating the child and providing an appropriate, developmentally sound, curriculum. Some individuals emphasize a cognitive model, while others employ direct instruction, group work and still others employ behavioral techniques to reinforce children and facilitate and expedite their learning. At the same time, early childhood education attempts to identify children who may have developmental delays, speech and language problems, hearing and vision difficulties and other social and attentional deficits. For many parents, this is truly an important element in the growth and development of their child. Not all parents would recognize a problem in fine motor coordination, gross motor difficulties or an articulation or stuttering problem. Not all parents are psychologists, psychiatrists or even developmental experts, and thus are not aware of developmental milestones and the importance of reaching these milestones at the appropriate age. For many years, the Head Start movement has been a pervasively positive one in terms of providing an enriched environment for children, employing different models of instruction, perhaps using a Montessori Method, as well as computer technology. Teachers, aids, and various specialists have begun the educational endeavor with children, and the impact of their work cannot always be accurately and specifically measured or gauged. Early exposure to print materials, play materials, large books, the alphabet, letters, numbers, colors, shapes and forms are all vital to ensuring the success of children as they enter school.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

210

Michael F. Shaughnessy

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Not only is the field of early childhood education imperative, but the various supportive endeavors of other fields cannot be underestimated. The speech personnel, those working with expressive and receptive language delays and deficits, those occupational and physical therapists- these individuals all perform a vital function, relative to the growth and development of said children. The old saying ―Well begun, half done― is probably appropriate to reiterate here. If the various professionals are well trained, and committed to their profession, the children of our society will benefit and reap the benefits of their endeavors. While this is the ending of the text, it is only the beginning of an academic and productive career for children who owe much to the various professionals involved in their education, as well as to their caring parents. I suspect that the field of early childhood education, and early childhood special education will be required to do more in the future. The solid foundation of early childhood education will result in a number of children who have been adequately prepared for a life of education, learning, and a life of contribution to our society. The authors of the various chapters in this text join with me in commending and expressing their appreciation to the various individuals who give of their time, their skills, and their abilities on behalf of the children they encounter. May their contributions continue and may their efforts and endeavors be continually recognized and appreciated.

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

INDEX # 20th century, 90

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A abstract symbols, viii, 25 abuse, 77, 81, 83 academic performance, 124, 150, 189 academic settings, 39 academic success, 31, 163 academic tasks, 62, 67 access, 6, 43, 45, 52, 55, 60, 63, 64, 65, 74, 75, 80, 136, 149, 151, 182, 200 accommodations, 181, 182, 201 accountability, x, 140, 157, 158, 175, 185, 201 accounting, 112 accreditation, 175, 176, 180, 181, 182, 185 ACF, 184 acquaintance, 149 activity level, 98 adaptation, 131 adaptations, 49 ADC, 195, 196 adjustment, 185 administrators, vii, xiii, 7, 158, 166, 175, 183 adolescents, 39, 71, 85, 86, 87, 98, 100, 101, 102, 123, 126, 195 adult intervention, x, 187 adult obesity, 90 adult supervision, ix, 55 adulthood, 87, 97, 99, 102, 193 adults, 24, 26, 37, 51, 52, 80, 81, 86, 87, 90, 96, 97, 100, 108, 117, 160, 161, 162, 165, 166, 169, 193 advocacy, 140 Africa, 86 age, ix, xi, xiii, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 15, 27, 29, 30, 32, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 56, 57, 58, 62, 63, 71, 75, 76,

77, 78, 79, 80, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 92, 94, 95, 97, 99, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 120, 123, 124, 127, 128, 129, 133, 134, 135, 145, 149, 152, 159, 161, 162, 167, 169, 178, 187, 188, 192, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 206, 209 agencies, ix, 38, 71, 72, 76, 82, 150, 176, 180, 181, 182, 201, 205 aggression, ix, 55, 59, 60, 123 aggressive behavior, 66, 69 Alaska, x, 110, 157 allergy, 108 ALS, 45, 47 alters, 102 amblyopia, 107, 115 American Psychiatric Association, 59 amputation, 87 anger, 129 ankles, 190 anorexia, 104 anthropologists, 163 anxiety, 93, 95 appetite, 90, 101, 104 appropriations, 200 aptitude, 34, 35 arithmetic, 40 articulation, 2, 5, 37, 38, 209 Asia, 90 assessment, ix, 2, 5, 6, 18, 28, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 52, 56, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 80, 83, 119, 127, 132, 134, 135, 160, 165, 177, 182, 185, 193, 200, 202 assessment procedures, 40 assessment tools, 134, 135, 182 asthma, 87 atmosphere, 129 attachment, 127, 130, 131, 132 authorities, 88 authority, 26, 146

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Index

212

autism, ix, 3, 43, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69 automobiles, 89 autonomy, 104 avoidance, 203 awareness, viii, ix, 9, 18, 24, 28, 38, 58, 71, 85, 129, 131, 133, 163, 164, 169, 172

browsing, 13 budget deficit, x, 157 building blocks, 167 bullying, 95, 99 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 185 business ledgers, viii, 25 businesses, 167 buttons, 168

B

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

C background information, 12, 142 bacteria, 93, 111 bacterial infection, 112, 113 bacterium, 111 barriers, 131, 134, 150, 153 basal metabolic rate, 88 base, 11, 65, 80, 170, 183, 203, 204 batteries, 5, 6 behavior of children, 67, 113 behavioral assessment, 66, 69 behavioral problems, 30, 35, 95 behaviorists, 27 behaviors, ix, xiii, 3, 4, 37, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 68, 86, 93, 97, 98, 99, 104, 111, 131, 135, 160, 169 benefits, ix, 10, 30, 61, 85, 96, 177, 179, 193, 194, 200, 210 beverages, 89, 94, 97, 98 birth rate, 110 birth weight, 75, 91, 92, 99, 100 blends, 18, 28, 29 blindness, 77, 87, 107, 109, 112 blood, 74, 93, 95, 102, 106, 109, 111, 130 blood pressure, 102, 106, 130 blood stream, 111 body fat, 86 body fluid, 109 body image, 88 body mass index (BMI), 86, 91, 96, 97, 99, 100, 106 body weight, 86, 92 bonding, 131 bonds, 131 bone, 104 bowel, 104 brain, x, 3, 27, 102, 104, 109, 111, 113, 114, 117, 118, 120, 121, 123, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 164, 187 brain damage, 111 breakdown, 118 breast feeding, 92, 93 breast milk, 93 breastfeeding, ix, 85, 92, 93, 97, 99 breathing, 128

cabinets, 106 calcium, 104 caloric intake, 92, 93 calorie, 89, 90, 93, 98 cancer, 109, 125 candidates, 122, 151 carbohydrates, 114 cardiovascular disease, 87 caregivers, 27, 74, 78, 81, 90, 98, 130, 131, 133, 134, 194 caregiving, 72 case study, 52, 65 CDC, 74, 75, 86, 87, 100, 108, 109, 111, 188 CEC, 203 census, 29, 32, 38, 79, 83, 140, 155 central nervous system (CNS), 75, 93 cerebral palsy, 3, 43, 52, 77, 133 certificate, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 176 certification, 30, 160, 181 challenges, x, 43, 44, 51, 127, 154, 183, 201, 203, 204 cheese, 50, 104, 114 chicken, 3 chicken pox, 3 child development, 74, 115, 157, 173, 175, 198 child protective services, 144, 145 childcare, 90, 100, 180 childhood, vii, x, xi, xiii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 19, 26, 32, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 57, 58, 60, 76, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 107, 109, 112, 120, 123, 125, 132, 136, 158, 160, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 170, 171, 173, 176, 177, 178, 180, 183, 184, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 194, 199, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210 cholesterol, 93, 102 circus, 12, 13, 18 cirrhosis, 109 cities, 2 citizens, 176 citizenship, 149 city, 24, 53, 199

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index civilization, 32 classes, 10, 18, 20, 23, 147 classification, 39, 79, 118, 168 classroom, vii, x, 2, 6, 10, 14, 15, 19, 20, 41, 46, 56, 57, 58, 60, 64, 67, 68, 135, 142, 143, 145, 153, 154, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 175, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185, 187, 190, 191, 192, 193, 198, 201, 202, 203 classroom environment, 203 classroom management, 56, 177 classroom teacher, 58, 181 classroom teachers, 58 cleaning, 56 climate, 190, 191, 192, 193, 195 clothing, 113 clusters, viii, 25, 27, 28 cognition, x, 113, 114, 117, 122, 129, 165, 195 cognitive abilities, 37, 39, 40 cognitive ability, 189 cognitive deficit, 43 cognitive development, vii, 1, 39, 78, 79, 114, 129, 163, 164, 165, 170, 189 cognitive flexibility, 123 cognitive function, x, 74, 114, 117, 121, 123 cognitive impairment, 134 cognitive performance, 195 cognitive skills, 165 cognitive theory, 27 collaboration, 2, 132, 153, 160, 202, 203, 204 college students, 109 colleges, 110, 198 color, 5, 6, 22, 58, 105, 107, 161, 192 communication, viii, xiii, 5, 25, 27, 37, 38, 39, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 60, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 74, 78, 79, 81, 134, 167, 179, 191 communication competence, 167 communication skills, 38, 59, 60, 191 communication systems, 46, 53 communities, 66, 198, 206 community, 32, 72, 74, 76, 81, 85, 98, 107, 132, 150, 152, 154, 160, 176, 178, 179, 182, 183, 198, 199, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207 community service, 150, 154 community support, 81 compensation, 177 complex communication needs (CCN), viii, 43 complexity, 175, 189 compliance, 143, 147 complications, 87, 95, 109 composition, 93, 99 comprehension, 10, 11, 12, 14, 18, 28, 38, 39, 40, 47, 48, 53, 165, 193 computer, 6, 37, 75, 91, 97, 164, 167, 209

213

computer skills, 6 computer technology, 209 concussion, 3 conference, 159, 179, 182 confidentiality, 160 configuration, 20 conflict, 105, 191 congress, 77, 83, 149, 150 conjunctivitis, 3 consciousness, 121 consensus, 86 consent, 181 constituents, 151 constitution, 26 construction, 4, 16, 165 consumption, 65, 88, 89, 114 containers, 105, 168 contaminant, 102 control condition, 119, 121, 122 control group, 119, 120 controversial, 92 conversations, 169 conviction, 204 cooking, 46 cooperative learning, 207 coordination, 2, 4, 38, 39, 72, 104, 105, 153, 154, 161, 189, 195, 209 coronary heart disease, 87 correlation, 90, 94, 95, 120 cortisol, 130 cost, 87, 97, 153, 179, 180 cough, 108, 109 counseling, 203 craving, 153 creative thinking, 34 creativity, 133, 135 credentials, 175 critical period, 187 cues, 4, 28, 31, 48, 57, 59, 68, 131 cultural beliefs, 81 cultural norms, 162 culture, 74, 78, 81, 110, 128, 159, 205 cuneiform, viii, 25, 32 curricula, 83, 111 curriculum, x, xi, xiii, 4, 5, 26, 36, 38, 61, 73, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 173, 175, 177, 179, 183, 192, 193, 199, 201, 202, 209 curriculum development, 38, 158, 165 cycles, 131

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Index

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

214

D

E

daily living, 122, 127 dance, 34, 206, 207 danger, 106 deaths, 87, 108, 109, 111 decision makers, 81 decoding, 23 defects, 2, 75, 110 deficiencies, 163 deficit, 120, 121 Delta, 207 dental care, 152 dentist, 152 Department of Defense, 82 Department of Education, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 150, 154, 185, 197 Department of Health and Human Services, 77, 80, 84, 101 Department of Labor, 176, 183, 185 depression, 95 deprivation, 90 depth, 3, 6, 11, 73, 107, 159 depth perception, 107 detection, 113, 134, 136 developed countries, 113 developed nations, 86 developmental care, 131 developmental change, 130 developmental milestones, 6, 73, 127, 134, 160, 209 developmental process, 130 diabetes, 87, 95, 97, 99, 100, 188 diarrhea, 112 diet, ix, 85, 88, 90, 94, 97, 98, 99, 106, 113, 114 dietary habits, 97 dignity, 26 directors, 175, 176, 177, 178, 183, 184, 185 disability, ix, 43, 57, 60, 71, 75, 76, 78, 79, 87, 99, 132, 200 disclosure, 179 discomfort, 95 discrimination, 27, 39, 182 diseases, 87, 107 disorder, x, 43, 57, 65, 68, 78, 117 distress, 104, 129 distribution, 75 District of Columbia, x, 79, 157, 158, 166, 183 diversity, 118, 139, 140, 159 doctors, 87, 153, 167, 182 down syndrome, 43, 56, 77 drawing, 15, 80 dream, 177, 207 dynamic systems, 167

early childhood education, vii, xi, xiii, 1, 2, 6, 26, 40, 158, 171, 173, 176, 178, 199, 207, 209, 210 early identification, vii, 1, 33, 35, 36, 40, 83, 154, 200 earnings, 87 Easter, 127 echoing, 10 echolalia, 3, 63 economic status, 29, 31, 38 education, vii, x, xi, xiii, xiv, 1, 2, 6, 25, 26, 29, 31, 34, 35, 40, 43, 46, 71, 77, 79, 89, 99, 101, 129, 133, 135, 142, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 161, 162, 165, 166, 170, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 183, 184, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 207, 209, 210 education reform, x, 157 education/training, 170 educational materials, 26 educational opportunities, 200, 201 educational programs, 34, 201, 202, 206 educational services, 35, 149, 150, 152 educational system, 201 educators, viii, xi, 29, 31, 33, 35, 60, 160, 163, 164, 168, 177, 178, 184, 198, 199, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206, 209 egg, 113, 168 Egypt, viii, 25 Egyptian history, viii, 25 elementary school, 26, 38, 41, 91, 146, 187, 202 eligibility criteria, ix, 71, 76, 79 e-mail, 6 emergency, 142, 148, 149, 181 emotional disorder, 88 emotional state, 48 empathy, 154 employment, 73, 182 encouragement, 105, 127, 136 energy, xi, 89, 93, 94, 98, 114, 131, 187 energy expenditure, 89 England, 26, 108 English as a Second Language (ESL), viii, 9, 11 enrollment, 141, 142, 147, 149, 179, 181, 182 environment, vii, viii, xi, xiii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 16, 26, 34, 46, 57, 61, 64, 73, 74, 91, 97, 100, 104, 106, 111, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 141, 143, 148, 160, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 172, 177, 179, 190, 191, 193, 198, 199, 200, 202, 204, 209 environmental characteristics, 6 environmental factors, 27, 31, 127, 194 environmental quality, 202 environmental stimuli, 57

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Index environmental stress, 131 epidemic, ix, 85, 87, 89, 97, 98, 110, 113 epidemiology, 195 equipment, 58, 111, 133, 167, 188, 191, 193 equity, 195 ethnic groups, 86 ethnicity, 29, 139 Europe, xi, 90, 197, 198 evacuation, 181 everyday life, x, 127 evidence, viii, 25, 29, 32, 34, 57, 65, 86, 88, 90, 91, 93, 95, 114, 117, 123, 125, 149, 182 exclusion, 119, 121, 202, 206 execution, 129, 177 executive function, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126 Executive Order, 71 exercise, ix, 68, 85, 90, 91, 96, 97, 98, 161 expenditures, 136 experimental design, 118, 119, 121 expertise, 202 exposure, vii, xiii, 10, 12, 16, 27, 30, 47, 49, 68, 73, 89, 101, 109, 209 extinction, 60, 66

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

F facial expression, 44, 131 facilitators, 168 factories, 26 families, 18, 24, 29, 32, 65, 72, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 90, 94, 97, 98, 133, 152, 153, 160, 161, 166, 169, 170, 173, 176, 178, 179, 180, 182, 183, 198, 199, 200, 203, 204, 205 family characteristics, 73 family environment, 124 family life, 81, 82 family literacy, 30, 32 family members, 29, 72, 81, 82, 91, 149, 199, 204 family physician, 82 family support, 72, 124, 125, 204 famine, 101 fast food, 28, 96, 161 fasting, 114 fat, 86, 87, 88, 92, 93, 97, 98, 104, 114 fat intake, 88 FDA, 111 fear, 88, 91, 129, 206 fears, 206 feces, 108 federal funds, 149 federal law, ix, 71, 148 Federal Register, 77 federal regulations, 76, 152

215

feelings, 12, 44, 88, 206 fencing, 111 fetal growth, 92 fever, 3, 109, 112, 113 fiber, 114 financial, 94, 139, 180 financial resources, 94 Finland, 29, 32 first generation, 87 fish, 22, 192 fitness, 90, 96, 98, 100, 101 flexibility, 80 flight, 190 flora, 93 flowers, 168 fluid, 39, 81 food, 46, 49, 50, 65, 86, 88, 90, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 106, 153, 179, 181, 182 food intake, 92, 97 football, 189 force, 98, 104, 178 formal education, 177 formation, 88 formula, 92, 93, 101 foundations, 30, 203 France, 26 free choice, 159 fruits, 97, 114, 192 functional analysis, 56, 63, 67, 68 funding, x, 79, 132, 157, 166, 180, 181, 183, 192, 198, 200, 202, 205 funds, 80

G gallbladder, 87 gallbladder disease, 87 gastrointestinal tract, 93 general education, 80, 201, 203 general knowledge, x, 158, 166, 167, 175 genetic factors, 91 genetics, 91, 128, 161 genitals, 112 genus, 93 Georgia, 195 Germany, 26, 198 gestalt, 2 gestational age, 110 gestures, 15, 44, 59 gifted, viii, 4, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 154, 206 giftedness, viii, 33, 35, 37 glasses, 168 glucose, 87, 130

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Index

216

glucose tolerance, 87 glue, 51, 106, 168 governments, 177 governor, 79 grades, vii, viii, 1, 9, 10, 24, 30, 88, 96, 141, 146 graduate students, 2, 117, 141, 148, 149 grants, 164, 180 graph, 161, 168 Greeks, viii, 26 group activities, 159, 162 group work, xi, 209 grouping, 38, 61 growth, vii, ix, xiii, 1, 2, 4, 74, 86, 92, 93, 98, 103, 104, 105, 106, 113, 128, 130, 131, 132, 136, 150, 175, 177, 179, 181, 200, 202, 204, 209, 210 growth factor, 93 guardian, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 149, 151, 153, 181 guidance, 41, 58, 180 guidelines, 117, 194, 195, 196 guilt, 105

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

H hair, 109, 112 handwriting, 61, 62 head start, vi, vii, x, 1, 30, 72, 73, 74, 80, 82, 83, 84, 132, 150, 152, 157, 158, 161, 176, 179, 184, 200, 202, 205, 209 health, ix, x, xiii, 3, 72, 73, 85, 87, 88, 90, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 104, 107, 109, 113, 114, 115, 127, 133, 135, 136, 144, 147, 149, 150, 161, 181, 182, 188, 193, 194 Health and Human Services, 101 health care, 72, 73, 85, 94, 104, 133, 136, 182 health condition, 101 health education, 113, 115 health problems, 72, 87, 188 health risks, 88 health status, 144 hearing loss, 9 heart disease, 87, 96, 188 heart rate, 195 height, 103, 105, 106, 107, 161 hepatitis, 109, 110 hepatitis a, 109 heredity, 165 herpes, 110, 112 herpes simplex, 112 herpes zoster, 110 herpetic keratitis, 112 high blood pressure, 188 high fat, 96

high school, 30, 188 higher education, 184, 202, 206 hiring, 139, 176, 181 hispanics, 29 history, vii, viii, xiii, 25, 31, 32, 73, 74, 106, 145, 147, 161, 181, 199 hobby, 34, 191, 192 homelessness, 139, 140, 153 homes, 6, 97, 134 homework, 19, 89 homophones, 21 honesty, 81 hormone, 90, 93, 102 hormones, 92, 93 horses, 192 host, 113, 154 housing, 73, 149, 151, 182 human, 27, 34, 93, 95, 102, 106, 112, 113, 152, 181 human body, 112 human brain, 95, 113 human resources, 181 hygiene, 113, 114 hypertension, 87, 97 hypothalamus, 91 hypothesis, 55 hypothyroidism, 74

I ICC, 79 identical twins, 98 identification, vii, viii, ix, 1, 3, 16, 33, 35, 36, 37, 40, 71, 83, 144, 150, 152, 154, 178, 181, 200 identity, 50, 142, 147, 159 idiosyncratic, 67 image, 88 images, 27, 96, 129 imagination, 26 immigrants, 26, 163, 197, 198, 199 immigration, 139 immune system, 107 immunity, 107, 109, 110, 111, 115 immunization, 3, 106, 107, 110, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 150, 179 impairments, 43, 44, 49, 58 improvements, 81 in transition, 133 in utero, 101 in vitro, 102 inactivated polio vaccine, 108 incidence, 90, 91, 93, 109, 110 income, 80, 173 incubator, 130

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index independence, 104, 128, 131, 133, 136 independent living, 77 individual students, 12, 13 individuals, x, xi, 2, 10, 12, 15, 38, 39, 40, 45, 52, 67, 81, 87, 108, 109, 110, 111, 127, 132, 133, 135, 149, 160, 201, 202, 209, 210 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, ix, 71, 83, 132, 140, 205 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 83 induction, 39 industry, 32 infancy, 93, 100, 101, 129, 131 infant feeding practices, 99 infants, ix, 27, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 83, 85, 86, 87, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 108, 109, 113, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 135, 136, 158, 164, 194, 200, 204, 205 infection, 109, 110, 111, 113 infectious hepatitis, 110 inferences, 12 inflammation, 112 influenza, 111 initiation, 94 injuries, 3, 121, 126, 190 injury, ix, x, 3, 46, 55, 60, 67, 111, 117, 118, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 181 injury prevention, 111 insects, 168, 192 insertion, 165 inspections, 182 institutions, 97 instructional activities, 60, 61, 64 instructional time, ix, 55 insulin, 93 integration, 74, 129, 137 intellectual development, viii, 33, 35, 36 intellectual disabilities, 26, 67 intelligence, 35, 37, 39, 164, 171 intelligence tests, 39, 164 intensive care unit, 130 intentionality, 170 interagency coordination, 71 interpersonal skills, 183 intervention, vii, x, xiii, 2, 6, 52, 56, 57, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 72, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 96, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 154, 160, 164, 173, 187, 195, 199, 204, 207 intervention strategies, 57, 64, 96 investment, x, 157, 180 ipsilateral, 189 IQ scores, 40

217

iron, 104 isolation, 18, 202 issues, vii, ix, xiii, xiv, 3, 33, 37, 40, 64, 68, 71, 72, 73, 74, 81, 85, 88, 95, 101, 111, 124, 129, 133, 134, 139, 140, 150, 153, 161, 175, 193, 195 Italy, 26

J James, William 198 Japan, 10, 24 job satisfaction, 178, 184 joints, 87 Jordan, 92, 100 jumping, 105, 161, 191, 192 jurisdiction, 77

K kidney, 87 kidney failure, 87 kindergarten, vii, 1, 2, 26, 30, 36, 38, 95, 107, 154, 155, 158, 161, 164, 166, 168, 170, 172, 176, 183, 185, 198, 199, 202 kindergarten children, 36, 107, 172 kindergartens, 26, 166, 197, 199 Kinsey, v, xiii, 1

L labeling, 2, 12, 20, 51 lactose, 93 language acquisition, 27, 38 language development, x, 27, 46, 129, 131, 158, 159, 163, 166, 170, 175 language skills, 2, 38, 43, 47, 105, 162, 164 latinos, 29 laws, xi, 82, 197 laws and regulations, 82 LEA, 77, 149, 150, 201, 205 lead, ix, 34, 55, 59, 79, 81, 92, 94, 95, 97, 111, 124, 167, 169, 172, 190, 191, 201 leadership, 34, 139, 177 learners, 16, 21, 24, 100, 129, 158, 163, 202 learning, viii, x, xi, xiii, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 35, 39, 44, 72, 73, 80, 81, 95, 99, 107, 123, 131, 133, 134, 140, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 175, 179, 182, 187, 188, 189, 192, 193, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 209, 210 learning difficulties, 39

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Index

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

218 learning disabilities, 95, 154 learning environment, 72, 160, 164, 166, 168, 175, 179, 199, 206 learning outcomes, x, 158, 160, 175, 200, 201, 202, 204 learning process, 107, 203 learning styles, 81, 198 legislation, 30, 200, 201 leisure, 89, 188 leisure time, 89 lens, 175 leptin, 90, 93, 101 lesions, 113, 123 lesson plan, 158, 179, 181, 182 level of education, 161 lice, 112 life cycle, 112 lifestyle changes, 91 lifetime, x, 117, 188, 193 light, 20, 57, 73, 109, 118, 130 Lion, 50 literacy, viii, xiii, 9, 10, 11, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 43, 44, 53, 58, 159, 163, 164, 167, 169, 171, 172, 173, 176, 200 liver, 109 living conditions, 145 local community, 82 lockjaw, 108 locomotor, 188, 189, 190 loneliness, 88 longitudinal study, 30, 194 love, x, 52, 87, 139, 177, 190, 193, 194

M magazines, 30, 85 magnetic resonance, 95 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 95 magnets, 168 magnitude, 136 majority, viii, 9, 10, 34, 37, 122, 123, 202 malignancy, 125 malnutrition, 86 maltreatment, 78 man, 144 management, 67, 80, 107, 108, 135, 179 manipulation, 129, 188, 190 marginalization, 140 marketing, 127 Maryland, 136 mass, 72 mass media, 72

materials, 4, 6, 11, 13, 20, 26, 38, 46, 61, 73, 134, 158, 162, 163, 167, 180, 209 maternal smoking, 92, 100, 101 matrix, 40 matter, 20, 46, 52, 140, 144, 153 measles, 3, 109 measurement, vii, xiii, 113, 119, 124, 195 measurements, 122 media, 89, 149, 167 Medicaid, 72, 74 medical, xiv, 3, 38, 77, 82, 94, 98, 100, 107, 113, 130, 133, 181 medication, 112 medicine, 26, 99 memorizing, 34 memory, 10, 21, 38, 39, 93, 95, 122, 123, 125, 126 memory performance, 125 meningitis, 111 mental health, 59, 127, 130, 131, 134, 150, 152 mental retardation, 2 mentoring, 183 messages, 45, 47, 48, 51 meta-analysis, 118, 123, 125, 195 metabolic, 99, 100 metabolic pathways, 92 metacognition, 165 methodology, 120 Mexico, 1, 9, 25, 30, 33, 71, 103, 110, 127, 139, 141, 143, 145, 146, 148, 149, 155, 157, 175, 187, 197, 209 microbiota, 98, 99 Microsoft, 80 middle class, 172 Minneapolis, 41 minorities, 94 mission, 179, 182, 206 models, 27, 31, 37, 45, 47, 48, 188, 199, 209 modifications, 62, 165, 201 Moon, 49 moral code, 105 moral development, 105 morbidity, 98 motivation, 35, 57, 61, 177 motor behavior, 39, 67, 190, 193 motor skills, xiii, 4, 7, 36, 44, 105, 128, 129, 133, 134, 135, 161, 167, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194 motor task, 62 mucous membrane, 108 multidimensional, 36 mumps, 3, 109 muscle strength, 104 muscles, 108, 161

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Index musculoskeletal system, 104 music, 63, 167, 187, 202, 206

N naming, 167 National Education Goals Panel, x, 158, 172, 175 National Research Council, 79 negative relation, 96 neglect, 77, 81 nervous system, 130 nervousness, 88 Netherlands, 26 networking, 184 neuromotor, 136 neutral, 132 New England, 98, 101, 102 New Zealand, 14, 171 No Child Left Behind, 30, 83, 148, 154, 201 normal development, 104 null, 32 nursery school, vii, xi, 1, 198, 209 nurses, 107, 115 nursing, 114, 115 nurturance, viii, 2, 131 nutrients, 104, 131 nutrition, 89, 90, 96, 98, 101, 104, 114, 202

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

O obesity, ix, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 107, 114, 170, 194 obesity epidemic, ix, 85, 87, 89, 97, 98 obesity pandemic, ix, 85, 96 object permanence, 39 obsessive-compulsive disorder, 95 occupational therapy, x, 72, 127, 128, 129, 131, 134, 135, 136, 202 Oklahoma, 110 operations, 67 opportunities, viii, ix, xiii, 10, 17, 43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 55, 61, 72, 80, 81, 89, 96, 133, 134, 142, 151, 152, 162, 166, 167, 168, 169, 176, 177, 194, 198, 200, 206 oppression, 140 oral cavity, 2, 112 organ, 74 organism, 108 organize, xi, 129, 153, 187, 194 organs, 92 osteoarthritis, 87 otitis media, 67

219

ovaries, 109 overweight, ix, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 161, 188, 193, 194, 196 overweight adults, 87 ovulation, 113

P Pacific, 68 pancreas, 109 parallel, 4, 23 parental care, 90 parental influence, 99 parenting, 65, 127 parents, vii, viii, xi, xiii, xiv, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 27, 30, 31, 33, 34, 37, 41, 66, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78, 79, 85, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 104, 105, 106, 107, 114, 128, 130, 132, 134, 139, 144, 146, 160, 161, 162, 179, 180, 181, 182, 189, 192, 194, 204, 206, 209, 210 parotid, 109 participants, 58, 81, 118, 119, 121, 122, 124, 169 pathologist, 2, 5, 129 pathology, 2 pathways, 171 pedagogy, 157 pediatrician, 82, 97 peer review, 57 peer support, 184 peptide, 90 percentile, 4, 5, 6, 37, 86, 106 perceptual performance, 39 peripheral nervous system, 104 permit, 118, 119, 120 perseverance, 191 personal hygiene, 113 personal relationship, 88 personality, 130 pertussis, 108 pharynx, 112 Philadelphia, 69 phonemes, 18, 27 phosphorus, 104 photographs, 58, 179 physical activity, xi, 86, 88, 96, 97, 99, 100, 113, 114, 173, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195 physical characteristics, 6 physical education, 89, 96, 98, 202 physical exercise, 97, 113 physical fitness, 96 physical therapist, 78, 210 physical therapy, 202 physical well-being, x, 158, 161, 166, 175

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

220

Index

physicians, 107, 182 physiological, 103, 105 physiological factors, 88 pica, 68 placenta, 92, 109 plants, 199 playing, 4, 19, 56, 58, 62, 63, 64, 89, 91, 97, 162, 169, 190, 191, 193, 201 pleasure, 30, 31, 96 PLS, 38 pneumonia, 108, 111 poetry, viii, 25 police, 14, 144, 145, 146, 153, 179 policy, vii, xiii, 12, 141, 142, 143, 148, 149, 151, 153, 160, 172, 179, 184, 185, 205 policy makers, vii, xiii polio, 108 population, 29, 35, 56, 72, 78, 79, 96, 100, 109, 110, 111, 119, 127, 140, 163 population growth, 79 positive relationship, 96, 131 potato, 97, 192 poverty, 6, 29, 139, 140, 200, 201, 202 poverty line, 29 praxis, 135 predictive validity, 31 pregnancy, 91, 92, 100, 101, 114, 200 pre-K programs, x, 157, 158, 159, 164 premature death, 87 preparation, 13, 20, 31, 61, 106, 151, 198, 199, 201, 202, 203 preparedness, x, 157 preschool, x, 6, 30, 31, 34, 36, 38, 56, 62, 66, 69, 72, 97, 105, 106, 107, 113, 114, 115, 149, 150, 152, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 164, 168, 170, 171, 173, 175, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 188, 189, 194, 195, 196, 204, 207 preschool children, 106, 158, 161, 170, 173, 176, 188, 194, 195, 196, 205 preschoolers, 45, 53, 68, 88, 150, 161, 179, 188, 194, 195 preservative, 123 president, 71, 80, 166, 200 prevention, ix, 57, 59, 80, 85, 96, 98, 100, 106, 111, 113, 127 principles, x, 35, 47, 52, 56, 73, 80, 82, 83, 114, 159, 160, 168, 170, 175 prior knowledge, 31 private education, 29 private schools, 97, 152 probability, 78, 132 problem behavior, 57, 65, 66, 67, 68 problem solving, 56, 126,134, 135, 167, 169, 191

professional development, 160, 161, 181, 182 professionalism, 160 professionals, vii, viii, xi, xiii, 2, 35, 36, 38, 39, 73, 76, 82, 98, 115, 132, 133, 134, 166, 204, 205, 206, 209, 210 profit, 36 prognosis, 2 program staff, 150, 177, 179 programming, 154 project, 127, 192 pronunciation, 9 prosthetic device, 122 proteins, 93 proximodistal development, ix, 103 psychological health, 87 psychological problems, 88, 95 psychological processes, 173 psychologist, 2, 56, 62, 129, 165, 205 psychology, 25, 26, 31, 55, 100 psychosocial development, 130 psychosomatic, 36 psychotherapy, 124 public awareness, ix, 71, 72 public education, 26, 29, 31, 149, 200, 203 public health, 179 public schools, 140, 146, 177, 197, 199, 203 punishment, 59, 66, 93

Q qualifications, 132, 158, 176, 181, 183, 185, 201 quality of life, 88, 101, 128 questionnaire, 4, 38, 135, 179, 180

R race, 23, 29, 38, 194 random assignment, 119 rash, 109, 110 rating scale, 3, 56 reactions, 108 reading, viii, xiii, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 51, 52, 53, 58, 61, 95, 140, 151, 163, 164, 169, 172, 173, 201 reading difficulties, 140, 172 reading skills, 10, 11, 12, 16 reality, 177, 206, 207 reasoning, 36, 39, 40, 143, 167 recall, 51 recognition, 12, 16, 19, 20, 35, 39, 88, 154, 178, 205 recommendations, ix, 24, 80, 85, 111, 125

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index recovery, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125 rectal temperature, 113 reflective practice, 178 reflexes, 128 reform, 172, 207 regulations, 77, 147, 148, 176 regulatory agencies, 180, 183 rehabilitation, x, xiii, 117, 119, 122, 125, 126 reinforcement, 27, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 66, 68, 162 reinforcers, 63 rejection, 203 relatives, 81, 90 reliability, 5, 7, 124 REM, 128 remediation, 10, 125, 127, 201 replication, 120 requirements, ix, 30, 37, 71, 78, 79, 133, 147, 148, 160, 172, 176, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 194 researchers, 29, 30, 63, 90, 95, 96, 119, 163, 164 resistance, 61 resolution, 153 resources, 56, 73, 76, 80, 160, 179, 180, 182, 193, 194, 203, 205, 206, 207 response, 10, 11, 12, 13, 59, 61, 62, 65, 68, 113, 130, 131, 134, 141, 143 rights, 140, 150, 152, 153, 154, 181 rings, 63 risk, viii, 36, 43, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 107, 110, 111, 112, 127, 129, 136, 154, 185, 194, 200, 201, 204 risk factors, 77, 78, 97 root, 170 roots, 19 rotations, 191 routines, 57, 81, 123, 127, 128, 133, 134 rubella, 110 rules, 4, 6, 23, 162, 191 rural areas, 176, 184 Russia, 26

S sadness, 88 safety, viii, 2, 78, 90, 101, 106, 111, 144, 147, 167, 179, 182 sarcophagus chambers, viii, 25 scabies, 113 schema, 119 school enrollment, 148, 150, 155 school failure, 36, 154 school performance, 35, 44, 95 schooling, 26, 30, 141, 148

221

science, 21, 24, 26, 34, 159, 167, 168, 169, 201, 202 scope, x, 56, 115, 127, 148 SEA, 201, 205 second language, 13, 187 security, 50, 167 security guard, 50 sedentary behavior, 187, 193 sedentary lifestyle, 89, 113 seed, 168 selective attention, 122 self esteem, 88, 95 self help, 161 self-concept, 35, 159 self-contained classrooms, ix, 55 self-control, 104 self-efficacy, 159 self-esteem, 35, 88, 95, 169 self-evaluations, 177 self-injury, ix, 55, 60, 67 self-regulation, 130, 131 self-study, 180 self-worth, 44 sensations, 129, 134 senses, 104, 105, 128, 129, 130, 162 sensitivity, 4, 121, 153, 154 sensory experience, 135 sensory systems, 128, 129, 130 sequencing, 10, 39 serum, 102 service provider, 56, 64, 78, 81, 133 services, vii, ix, xiii, 1, 2, 26, 33, 34, 35, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 143, 150, 152, 153, 167, 176, 179, 181, 182, 200, 201, 204, 205, 207 sexual intercourse, 109 shame, 130 shape, 6, 28, 167, 192 shingles, 110 shortage, 178 showing, 22 siblings, 179 side effects, 59 signs, 28, 30, 45, 131, 163, 167, 168, 188 skimming, 21 skin, 113, 131 sleep habits, 106 smoking, 92, 100 snacking, 89 snaps, 22 social behavior, 162 social competence, 66 social consequences, 63

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

222

Index

social development, 36, 135 social environment, 163, 198 social interactions, 88, 128, 131, 133 social justice, 140 social network, 89, 97 social participation, 135 social security, 144, 148 social services, 144 social skills, viii, 2, 7, 57, 95, 169 social stigmatization, 88 social support, 127 social/emotional development, vii, 1, 167 socialization, vii, 1, 4, 26, 31, 131, 133, 162 socially acceptable behavior, 104 society, vii, xi, 1, 6, 7, 87, 97, 162, 163, 183, 197, 199, 201, 206, 210 socioeconomic status, 29, 30, 198, 200 sodium, 114 solution, 29, 97, 166, 191 sound educational foundation, vii, 1 South Africa, 99 South Dakota, 110 Spain, 26 spastic, 133 spatial processing, 39 special education, x, 35, 36, 41, 72, 77, 84, 139, 140, 150, 152, 157, 199, 202, 203, 206, 207, 210 specialists, 188, 209 speech, vii, 1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 14, 37, 38, 43, 44, 52, 53, 59, 67, 72, 78, 129, 161, 163, 179, 202, 209, 210 spelling, 18, 23, 95, 164, 169, 172 spending, x, 142, 157 spin, 18, 23 spinal cord, 104, 111 splinting, 133 spontaneity, 134 spreadsheets, 80 Spring, 184 stability, 131, 184 staff development, 177 staff members, 72, 177, 178 staffing, 178, 185 stakeholders, x, 157 standard deviation, 79, 120, 121 standardization, 38, 39 standardized testing, 29, 189 state, ix, x, 23, 26, 30, 32, 34, 58, 71, 72, 76, 79, 87, 107, 118, 132, 142, 145, 148, 149, 151, 153, 157, 158, 160, 166, 170, 171, 172, 176, 177, 180, 181, 185, 201, 204, 205 state legislatures, x, 157

states, ix, x, 2, 30, 34, 35, 71, 76, 78, 79, 80, 107, 108, 110, 140, 142, 147, 150, 151, 152, 157, 158, 166, 176, 180, 183, 200, 201, 205, 206 statistics, 120, 150, 178 statutes, 141 stigma, 95 stimulus, 68, 130 stomach, 104 storage, 98, 185 storytelling, 30 strategy use, 51 stress, 18, 65, 80, 87, 96, 113, 131, 132, 178, 204 stressors, 81 structure, 92, 124, 133, 139 student teacher, viii, 9, 11 style, 130, 161, 169, 201 subacute, 125 subsidy, 182 succession, 22, 61 suicide, 111 sumerians, viii, 25 supervision, ix, xiv, 2, 55, 90, 91, 98, 149, 185 supervisor, viii, 9 surgical intervention, 107 surveillance, 75, 194 survival, 128 survivors, 125 suspensions, 141 sympathetic nervous system, 130 symptoms, 36, 109, 112, 121 syndrome, 56, 110 synthesis, 66, 164, 165

T talent, 34 target, ix, 48, 60, 71, 72, 97, 189, 191, 192 target population, ix, 71 task demands, 59 task difficulty, 61, 62 tau, 32 taxonomy, 118, 165, 170 teacher preparation, 31, 198, 201 teachers, x, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 12, 24, 30, 34, 56, 58, 59, 61, 64, 98, 105, 133, 139, 141, 154, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 166, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 182, 184, 185, 187, 189, 191, 193, 194, 198, 203 teaching strategies, 11, 158 teaching/learning process, 170 team members, 200 teams, 205 techniques, xi, 6, 11, 15, 29, 129, 164, 187, 209

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Index technologies, 6, 89 technology, 6, 53, 89, 107, 205 teens, 29, 170 teeth, 104, 105 telephone, 143, 152, 167, 179 television commercial, 89 television viewing, 90 temperament, 130, 166, 181 temperature, 113, 193 test scores, vii, xiii, 24, 150 testing, 5, 6, 20, 23, 33, 37, 39, 40, 71, 95, 109, 144 tetanus, 108 textbooks, 204 therapeutic process, 132 therapist, 60, 62, 124, 128, 129, 131, 132, 134 therapy, x, xiii, 72, 117, 119, 120, 122, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 161 thoughts, viii, 25, 44, 96, 165 thyroid, 102 tissue, 92 Title V, 148, 154 tobacco, 88 toddlers, 52, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 83, 86, 90, 98, 103, 104, 130, 132, 135, 136, 158, 188, 194, 195, 200, 204, 205 torture, 15 total cholesterol, 102 toys, 4, 6, 20, 26, 56, 60, 63, 65, 68, 104, 134, 167, 172, 191, 192, 193, 199 tracks, 23 trade, 11 traditions, 81 training, xiv, 2, 36, 39, 40, 56, 57, 59, 60, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 78, 122, 123, 126, 148, 151, 153, 158, 170, 175, 177, 181, 183, 185, 205 training programs, xiv, 153 transcripts, 181 translation, 39 transmission, 80, 113 transport, 181 transportation, 89, 150, 153 traumatic brain injury (TBI), x, 117, 119, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126 treatment, x, 36, 37, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 87, 113, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 131, 134, 181 trial, 45, 119, 125 trickle down, 202 triggers, 57, 64 tuition, 179 turnover, 178, 185 tutoring, 14 type 2 diabetes, 99

223

U uniform, ix, 103 unintentional injuries, 111 united, vii, xi, 2, 10, 26, 28, 29, 30, 34, 39, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 94, 97, 100, 107, 108, 109, 110, 136, 140, 154, 155, 161, 164, 185, 194, 197, 198, 199, 201, 206 United Kingdom (UK), 90, 100, 170, 198 United States, vii, xi, 2, 10, 26, 28, 29, 30, 34, 39, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 94, 97, 100, 107, 108, 109, 110, 136, 140, 154, 155, 161, 164, 185, 194, 197, 198, 199, 201, 206 upper respiratory infection, 112 urban, 26, 100 urban settlement, 26 US Department of Health and Human Services, 180, 185 uterus, 130

V vaccinations, 107 vaccine, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 115 Valencia, 23, 24 validation, 180, 182 variables, 3, 64, 118, 120, 121, 123, 124 variations, 133 vegetables, 94, 97, 114, 192 vehicles, 179 velocity, 98 Verbal IQ, 40, 120 verbal praise, 62 veteran teachers, 11 victims, 77 video games, 89 Vietnam, 19 violence, 111 viral infection, 109 viruses, 112 vision, vii, 1, 2, 7, 83, 105, 107, 128, 161, 177, 206, 209 visions, 83, 207 visual acuity, 105 vocabulary, viii, 2, 5, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 38, 39, 40, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 106, 164, 169 vocalizations, 59, 63 Vygotsky, 160, 165, 168, 173, 198, 205, 207

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.

Index

224

W

Y yield, 194 young adults, 38, 123

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

wages, 87, 175, 177, 181, 183 waiver, 176 waking, 128 Wales, 108 walking, 50, 89, 129, 151, 162, 190 Washington, 33, 40, 41, 83, 84, 101, 110, 154, 171, 172, 173, 185, 207 waste, 12 watches, 89, 168 water, 105, 162, 168 weakness, 107 websites, 51, 151, 192 weight gain, ix, 85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 99, 100, 103 weight reduction, 96 welfare, 78, 149 well-being, 127 wellness, x, 101, 127, 131 western education, 31 Western Europe, 197, 207

white matter, 95 whooping cough, 108 windows, 187, 188 Wisconsin, 55, 123 word recognition, 13, 15, 16, 17, 20, 27 work environment, 89, 184 workers, 72, 178, 184 workforce, 199, 201, 206 working class, 198 working memory, 39 World Health Organization (WHO), 102, 109, 111 World War I, 198, 199 worldwide, 85, 97, 108, 109 worry, 104, 193 wound infection, 110 WWW, 101

Handbook of Early Childhood Education, edited by Michael F. Shaughnessy, and Kinsey Kleyn, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012.